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A key concept that’s important for students to learn is the importance of engaging with the text — not just being a passive reader. There are obviously many effective instructional strategies to help them practice that lesson. One pretty explicit way is for them to have access to reading “choose your own adventure” stories where they are periodically given choices of what they want characters to do, and then participate in the construction of the story itself. The Goosebumps series of books is a well-known example of genre. In the world of English Language Learner teaching, these kinds of stories are also called “Action Mazes.” There are many other examples of “Choose Your Own Adventure” stories on the Web that are accessible to English Language Learners, and “The Best…” list will links to them. My students have always enjoyed reading these online versions. In addition, writing these kinds of stories has the potential of being a fun and educational group writing activity for English Language Learners and other students. There are several free online tools out there now (and I them in post), though I haven’t been able to find an ideal one for use in class. I’ll also be what — at point — is the best way that I’ve come-up with to create one, and I’m also very interested in hearing about better ideas. I’m planning on experimenting with creating them during my ESL class during summer school. The list is divided into two sections. The first one links to accessible online Choose Your Adventure stories for students to read (some also include animation with the text). The second ways teachers can work with students to write their own. Also, check out THE DANGERS OF “CHOOSE YOUR OWN ADVENTURE” GENRE FOR REAL & PAINFUL STORIES and A Marine’s Reaction to a Children’s Book Prompts an Apology From the Publisher. Also see: THE DANGERS – & POSITIVE POSSIBILITIES – OF HISTORY SIMULATIONS How to — and How Not to — Teach Role Plays is from the Zinn Education Project. Here are my picks for The Best Places To Read & Write “Choose Your Own Adventure” Stories: STORIES TO READ: Castaway is both entertaining and accessible to Early Intermediate English Language Learners. You are stuck on a deserted island and have to get off. Over The Top is an exceptional online game from the Canadian War Museum that puts you in the role of a soldier in the trenches. It’s like a “choose your own adventure” game. It’s particularly accessible to English Language Learners because it provides audio support to the text. If you’ve ever wanted to be a dragon, Choice of the Dragon is the game for you. You get to be one — as nice or as mean as you want! A. Pintura: Art Detective lets you try to identify who was the artist of a painting. Mission US is a brand new site that will be providing interactive games to help students learn about United States history. It’s funded by the Corporation For Public Broadcasting and the National Endowment For The Humanities. Right now, it just has a couple of interactives online. It’s main one, For Crown Or Colony, is a very well designed “choose your own adventure” game (you have to register in order to play). The site also has a lot of supporting materials for teachers. Broken Co-Worker is an interesting “Choose Your Own Adventure” game where players are in the role of a bullied worker. It appears to be classroom appropriate, but I did not explore all the alternatives available. Spent is a “choose your own adventure” type game where you play the role of a very low-income person. Quandary is a neat online game/choose your own adventure story that is can work well as a tool for English language development ) and/or as a way to deal with ethical questions (the site itself has lot of teaching ideas). You can play as a guest or register. Depression Quest is an interactive text fiction game (or choose your own adventure) where the player plays the part of someone who is suffering from depression. I learned about it at Richard Byrne’s blog. Lifesaver is an online video game designed to help you learn CPR through the “choose your own adventure” game genre. The refugee challenge: can you break into Fortress Europe? – interactive is from The Guardian. It’s done in the mode of a “Choose Your Own Adventure” game. Here are several simple ones from Scratch. Rootbook has lots of stories. Here’s an interesting one using Vine. You can read more about it here. Play The Oregon Trail (but, if you have students play it, be aware of its racist stereotypes and discuss them) Someone built a “Choose Your Own Adventure” game out of Twitter accounts, and it’s surprisingly cool is from Quartz. Here are two that have recently been created and, even though I suspect students won’t be enthralled by them, nevertheless provide models for teachers to show for student assignments: Play this game to see what it’s like to be John Boehner is from Vox. How To Win An Oscar is from The Los Angeles Times. Syrian Journey: Choose your own route is a new BBC interactive where online users simulate — in an obviously detached way — the decisions a Syrian refugee has to make. It uses the framework of old-style “choose your own adventure” simulations. Decisions That Matter is a “choose your own adventure” interactive designed by college students to teach others about the dangers of sexual assault. Mission US Unveils New Immigration Game – Is It A Winner Or A Loser? The New York Times has created a great learning “game” to help people understand the difficulties many face when they want to vote in the United States. Check out “The Voter Suppression Trail,” done in the style of the classic Oregon Trail game. “Payback” Is A “Choose Your Own Adventure” Tool To Help Students Envision College Costs Sesame Street Book Builder is a simple “Choose Your Own Adventure” interactive accessible to ELLs. “Be George Washington” In This New Choose-Your-Own-Adventure Activity Choose Your Own Adventure games often have to be careful balancing respecting the experiences of those who are being simulated and portraying it sensitively with a social conscious. The Waiting Game, produced by ProPublica, works hard at doing the latter in simulating the experience faced by those seeking asylum in the United States. The New York Times has published Think Military Strikes Could Stop North Korea? Try It and See, which is probably the most frightening choose your own adventure “game” anyone will every “play.” It’s all too real…. “TOTAL DARKNESS” IS THE NEWEST ONLINE GAME FROM THE SCIENCE MUSEUM IN LONDON The New York Times just updated their Angry Uncle Chat Bot to practice at Chat Bot: How to Talk About Impeachment Without Ruining the Holidays. It’s like a “choose your own adventure” game that gives you expert feedback every time you choose a response. “HARMONY SQUARE” IS AN ONLINE GAME DESIGNED TO TEACH TEENS ABOUT DISINFORMATION This is pretty “niche,” but interesting: A choose your own adventure game where you play the role of someone trying to found a tech start-up business. The Climate Game is designed by the Financial Times to challenge players to mitigate climate change. “Enter The Story” Is A Cool Tool For Introducing Classic Books Via “Choose Your Own Adventure” ArcaneLand could be a fun, though complicated, choose your own adventure game for ELLs. Infinite Adversaries is another complicated choose your own adventure game. The Spring Thing Festival of Interactive Fiction is probably only accessible to advanced ELLs. Be aware that I haven’t checked all the stories to see if they are classroom appropriate. WRITING “CHOOSE YOUR OWN ADVENTURE STORIES”: After students have had an opportunity to try-out some of the stories in the first section, an obvious next step is to have them try writing their own. Here are the options I know of right now that don’t necessarily put the work on a teacher to put it all together. However, they all have some drawbacks, including potential technical challenges to ELL’s: The Writing.com site is one choice for having students write more complex Choose Your Own Adventure Stories. You can’t add graphics, and it’s a pretty cluttered site filled with ads, but it does seem pretty simple to use and it’s set-up to write these kinds of stories. You can make your own stories by using the Quandary software program. Of course, it’s a bit problematic to download software to school computers, and I don’t think (but I may be wrong) you add graphics. Here are some instructions from Microsoft on how to use PowerPoint to create “Choose Your Own Adventure” stories. It’s not accessible to ELL’s, but teachers can use it as a guide. Check out my post A Creative Concept For A TV Show & How To Implement It In The Classroom for another idea. Here are several links that describe how you can use Google Forms to create a Choose Your Own Adventure story: Google Forms As A Choose Your Own Adventure Tool is from Bionic Teaching. Page Navigation In Google Forms is from Google. Using Google forms for a “Choose your own adventure” style story is by David Wees. You can download a simple outline students can use to plan a choose your own adventure story here. PowerPoint – Choose Your Own Adventure provides helpful advice on developing “choose your own adventure” stories. Google Slides: Choose Your Own Adventure is from Alice Keeler. ‘Choose your own’ adventure stories using Google Slides. is a nice “how-to” post and video from Ed Tech For Beginners. How we created an interactive choose your own adventure book. https://t.co/KK3F83L854 by @CampbellMira #ipaded #edtech #bookcreator pic.twitter.com/MlHtBS3NMs — Book Creator Team (@BookCreatorApp) January 1, 2018 Kevin Hodgson has a nice tutorial on how to use Google Slides to create Choose Your Own Adventure stories, Popped lets you write a screenplay, story or choose your own adventure in a way that’s similar to texting. It’s a bit confusing to me, but I’ll still add it How to Use Google Slides to Create Choose Your Own Adventure Stories is from Richard Byrne. How to Use Keynote to Create Choose Your Own Adventure Stories is from Richard Byrne. I, and I suspect many other teachers, really like having students read them, but can be intimidated by feeling that having students write them and/or create interactive videos is just too complicated for us to organize and for them to complete it successfully. Happily, I have recently found an excellent short video that shows clearly how easy it is to create one of these kinds of videos online. In addition, and, I think, more importantly, several times in the video they show a super-simple diagram that can be used by just about anybody to write one of these kinds of choose-your-own-adventure stories. The diagram is much clearer than others I’ve seen and used, and is remarkably effective and simple. Be forewarned, the video itself shows countless unsuccessful attempts at humor, but it’s worth watching til the end: I don’t think I recommend the Choose Your Own Adventure video discussed in blog post titled The zombie apocalypse and its role in the ELT classroom, but it does give some excellent ideas on how to use these kinds of videos with English Language Learners. Lou Lahana has created a very nice tutorial for his students on how to create an online Choose Your Own Adventure game with Google Forms. Twine is an online software for creating Choose Your Own Adventure stories. It does seem a bit more complicated than other tools I’ve already mentioned. Here’s a Webinar on using Google Slides to create these kinds of stories. Here are two interesting posts about “interactive fiction” (text-based “choose your adventure” stories): Interactive Fiction in the Classroom is from Edutopia; TEL: Constructive Gamification in the classroom is from DHSB Teaching. Netstory is a new tool for creating and reading interactive fiction (choose-your-own-adventure stories). They bill it as super simple to use but, for the life of my, I couldn’t figure out how to write a story once I got into its editor. And they have no tutorial or explanation anywhere visible on its website. I’m tentatively going to be put it on this list and assume that someone will figure it out and explain it to me. Fablement is a new free tool for writing, and reading, “choose-your-own-adventure” stories. YouTube has made some changes to the tool that lets you create “Choose Your Own Adventure” videos. Richard Byrne has written two very good posts explaining what you can do instead. New Tools for Interactive Fiction and Engaged Writing is from Edutopia. Here are two Pinterest Boards on these types of stories. Netflix has begun creating online video “Choose Your Own Adventure” stories. Unfortunately, they only work on a touch screen for now, not within the browser of a computer. This Would Be Great For ELLs: Play – Or Create – A “Listening & Speaking” Choose-Your-Own-Adventure Story Google published a series of instructional videos about using Google Slides to create these kinds of stories online: “ActiveLit” Lets Students Play & Create Choose Your Own Adventure Games In Virtual Classrooms American Revolution: Choose Your Own Adventure looks interesting. Oxford Bookworms Adventures are free Choose Your Own Adventure stories designed for ELLs – you play them through Alexa. Amazon’s Audible brings Choose Your Own Adventure stories to Alexa devices is from TechCrunch. If you had an Alexa at school, this could be a great tool for listening practice. A unique way to create choose your own adventure games via Twitter was invented this week. Here’s a Google Docs template for creating CYOA stories. Choice stories in Google Slides: How to + ideas for class is from Ditch That Textbook. Creating Interactive Stories With Twine is from TESOL. Written Realms is a site where you can write and read text-based choose your own adventure games. How to Hyperlink PowerPoint Slides for Choose-Your-Own Adventure Stories is from Richard Byrne. “INWORLD” LOOKS LIKE A TERRIFIC SITE FOR TEACHERS & STUDENTS TO CREATE CHATBOTS FOR LEARNING VIDEO CHOOSE YOUR OWN ADVENTURES: NOTE: Google is Removing Annotations from YouTube Videos is from Richard Byrne’s blog. This means “curtains” for many, though not all, “choose-your-own-adventure” videos I previously shared here. THESE INTERACTIVE VIDEOS COULD BE GREAT FOR ELLS Hidden Door wants to turn fiction into immersive roleplaying experiences is from TechCrunch. If you found post useful, you might want to look at previous “The Best…” lists and also consider subscribing to blog for free. Wow–what timing. The Language Arts and Social studies teacher are planning a choose your own adventure story unit involving explorers. I’ll let you know how it goes 🙂 Twine is a Windows freeware program for writing “choose your own adventure program” stories. It reminds me of using sticky notes. It automatically links each choice together and lets you know if there are problems. You can also add graphics and there are excellent video tutorials as well. I used Twine this year with my grade 4 students and it was the first time that kids that age actually produced a choose-your-own-adventure stories that made sense and wasn’t frustratingly difficult to write. Most kids downloaded the program at home and kept sending me their pther stories they were writing on their own time. Definitely worth checking out! Here’s the link for Twine: http://gimcrackd.com/etc/src/ Wow Larry! I didn’t know you (and other teachers/sites) had already done so much work in this area – I should have known you’d already be onto this, shouldn’t I? Still, World Adventure Kids! probably differs from most of these applications in terms of leveling considerations, narrative quality, illustration quality, and global issues/values curriculum – so I guess it’s still worth going ahead with… Here is a choose your own adventure story done with videos on YouTube. A great project for a group of students. Warning: Content is related to gang violence. Thank you so much for these fantastic ideas. I am sure my students will love making their own adventure together on the Smartboard. Thanks for these links. I love using stories like these in my teaching (7-11 year olds). At the end of last year my class of 11 year olds worked in groups to write collaborative choose your own adventure stories. Used hyperlinking to create each page as a slide within a presentation. Really motivating. Found an interactive game online. May not be appropriate for younger kids and it is a marketing ploy for Range Rover but still thought it was interesting. Good that it also has subtitles Middle school students at our school use Google Sites to create “Choose Your Own Adventure” stories. Of course you have to be a Google school to use this, but it works quite well. If you can share links to any of the ones they created, I’d love to them. Fantastic list of resources Larry – thank you very much. One small point – I’m pretty sure the Caves of Mull game was written by kids at Perth Academy in Scotland rather than Australia. Might be worth checking out. Holy moly! What awesome list. I made a little unit on creating CYOA games using Google Forms http://bit.ly/M6rX5J and I’ll definitely be linking to this page for kids to reference. Many thanks! Your tutorials are great. I’ll be adding your page to the post. Do you have links to the games your students have created? Thanks for the compliment Larry! Your blog is *inspiring* As far as the CYOA games go, this mini unit is for Sept. so nothing yet 🙁 But I’d LOVE for you to check out some student work from past lessons: Wow, that’s a pretty comprehensive list. However, you left out the *original* chose your own adventures, which are rather conveniently known (and if I may sheepishly point out, copyrighted) as “Choose Your Own Adventure”. 😉 Those can be found at http://www.cyoa.com I have been working over the past year to adapt that original series into ESL/EFL graded readers, which are being released right now from McGraw-Hill Education. There will soon be a website devoted to them at http://www.mhe-cyoa.com, but the site will not up until next month, I believe. Great! I’ll be looking forward to seeing the website when it goes live… If you have a chance, it would be great if you left another comment when it was online… For anyone interested in the Choose Your Own Adventure books who may be in London this November, an interactive documentary show about the books & readers is coming to London Southbank for five nights, 6th-10th Nov 2012. Full details at http://bit.ly/PAnDuV Wow thats a really huge collection of links there. Thanks for taking time and aggregating them. I’ve seen a couple of the sites you’ve posted here, but the idea of video choose your own adventures is quite foreign to me. Looks like I won’t be sleeping tonight, again. Any, thanks for collecting those sites, and kudos! A bit late to the post / comments, I realize, but I’ll add (and, Larry, ask if you can add as well) my CYOA-based series to the list. I wrote interactive versions of the three primary ancient epics, Iliad, Odyssey, and Aeneid, called the Follow Your Fates series (published by Bolchazy-Carducci Press). Here’s the website: http://followyourfates.weebly.com, and I’d be happy to answer any questions. Thanks. I don’t know if this CYOA-style game will make it, but the writer’s very good. The first installment is apparently Lovecraftian. On http://www.rootbook.com are also some good coya stories! for example http://www.rootbook.com/The-Little-Bear-gamebook-5393 http://www.rootbook.com is really cool. should be more visible in your list Amazing list! The biggest CYOA resource on a single page I’ve ever seen. Would love it if you’d add us to your list! We’re Ultimate Ending Books – a new series of bigger, badder, and beefier Choose Your Own Adventure inspired stories that just launched with seven titles: Thanks so much! Wow, that is one comprehensive list! If you’d care to add one more entry, here’s my CYOA game playable on Facebook Messenger: That was an amazing list! It was nice to look at.

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For Educators: Voting Rights Act of 1965 Using primary document sources, students will learn about the creation and ratification of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the history of the Congressional Black Caucus’ on-going efforts to ensure the enforcement of the law and the reauthorization of portions that had an expiration date. Students will also learn about the power of voting in a democratic society and why it is important to protect this right for all citizens. Grade Level: 8-12 Essential Question: What social and political structures, particularly in the South, galvanized the protest and advocacy for an eventual ratification of the Voting Rights Act of 1965? National U.S. History Standards Era 9: Postwar United States (1945 to early 1970s) Era 10: Contemporary United States (1968 to the present) National Social Studies Standards How does the government established by the Constitution Embody the Purposes, Values, and Principles of American Democracy? National Standards for Civics and Government Content Standard V: What are the roles of the citizen in American Democracy? National Visual Arts Standards Select an activity below to view full activity guidelines: Warm-Up Activity: Know, Want, and Learned (KWL) chart organizer (pdf) Activity 1: Interpretation: What is the Voting Rights Act of 1965? Activity 2: Obstacles to Participation in the Election Process Activity 3: Protecting Our Right to Vote Following the Civil War, African Americans received citizenship rights through a number of legislative achievements including the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870 which gave African Americans the right to vote and prohibited racial discrimination in voting. Even with these protections in place, many southern states resisted racial equality and skirted the law by administering tests designed to prevent African Americans from registering to vote and thus keeping them from participating in the electoral process. In March 1965, on a bridge outside Selma, Alabama, civil rights activists, led by Dr. King and others, took to the streets in a peaceful protest for voting rights for African Americans. They were met with clubs and violence. Many were beaten and severely injured, including a young activist named John Lewis—later to be Congressman Lewis. But the activists did not march in vain. Television brought this conflict of angry violence against peaceful, moral protest into living rooms across America. Five days later, President Lyndon Baines Johnson, introduced to Congress the idea of a Voting Rights Act in what is considered to be one of his best speeches: “Every American citizen must have an equal right to vote. Yet the harsh fact is that in many places, in this country, men and women are kept from voting simply because they are Negroes. Every device of which human ingenuity is capable has been used to deny this right. The Negro citizen may go to register only to be told that the day is wrong, or the hour is late, or the official in charge is late, or the official in charge is absent. And if he persists and he manages to present himself to register, he may be disqualified because he did not spell out his middle name or because he abbreviated a word on his application. And if he manages to fill out an application he is given a test. The register is the sole judge of whether he passes his test. He may be asked to recite the entire constitution, or explain the most complex provisions of state laws. And even a college degree cannot be used to prove that he can read and write. For the fact is that the only way to pass these barriers is to show a white skin. This bill will strike down restrictions to voting in all elections—federal, State, and local—which have been used to deny Negroes the right to vote.” President Johnson announced to a joint session of Congress that he would bring them an effective voting rights bill. Echoing the spiritual anthem of the civil rights movement, he said simply, “We Shall Overcome.” On August 6, 1965, President Johnson signed into law the Voting Rights Act, hailed by many as the most effective civil rights law ever. The Act outlawed literacy tests and poll taxes as a way of assessing whether anyone was fit or unfit to vote. As far as Johnson was concerned, all you needed to vote was American citizenship and the registration of your name on an electoral list. No form of hindrance to this would be tolerated by the courts. The impact of this act was dramatic. By the end of 1966, only four out of the traditional 13 Southern states had less than 50% of African Americans registered to vote. By 1968, even hard-line Mississippi had 59% of African Americans registered. In the longer term, far more African Americans were elected into public office. A few years later, when the Congressional Black Caucus (CBC) was established in 1971, there were thirteen members of the U.S. House of Representatives and one black member of the U.S. Senate. The Act was the boost that the civil rights cause needed to move swiftly along. It was a combination of demonstrations and federal support which paved the way for this important legislation. President Johnson proved this and his efforts were labeled by some as a “legislative revolution.” The Congressional Black Caucus (CBC) leads the fight to protect the provisions of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The CBC’s tireless efforts to protect the rights of underrepresented people resulted in the amendments and reauthorization of various provisions of the Voting Rights Act in 1970, 1975, 1982 and 2006. Since its inception, the CBC has introduced and co-sponsored legislation ensuring that all Americans have fair and equal opportunity to participate in the election process. Recently, the CBC members rallied in support of the Fannie Lou Hamer, Rosa Parks, and Coretta Scott King Voting Rights Act Reauthorization and Amendments Act of 2006. Initially the bill was stalled in the House, but the Senate voted unanimously to renew the Voting Rights Act of 1965. It was passed and signed into law by President George W. Bush in 2006. Voting Rights Act of 1965 Online Exhibit at www.avoiceonline.org Protect Voting Rights: Renew the VRA at www.lccr.org. Activity 1: Interpretation: What is the Voting Rights Act of 1965? For this activity the students will read and analyze the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and discuss why this act was needed despite the existence of the 15th Amendment. Class Time Needed: two or three class sessions To begin this activity, ask the students to respond to the “What I Know” column on their KWL chart (pdf) about the Voting Rights Act of 1965. After they have completed this task, the teacher will play the following videos: Based on the information presented in the videos, what event or discriminating practices motivated President Johnson to address Congress about providing federal protection for the rights of African Americans and other minorities to vote? (The March from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, Jim Crow segregation laws, tactics to prevent voters from registering, etc.) Tell the students that they will now have the opportunity to read portions of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 that was discussed in the short videos to learn about and understand the impact of the act then and now. This reading activity also gives the students an opportunity to review and interpret an actual bill. Divide the class into five smaller groups. Print a copy of the document for each group. Assign each group (see assignments below) a section of the Act for them to read and interpret its meaning. Remember, a word or phrase has been given to each assigned section as a clue to the students in interpreting the passage. Give each group a large sheet of white paper and marker. Once they have read the passage within their group, they should write on the paper the group’s interpretation of what the requirements are of that section of the act. In a large group discussion, have each group share their interpretation of their assigned portion of the Act. After each presentation post the written interpretations on the wall for reference throughout the lesson. Based on your interpretation of the act, what impact do you think it had on changing laws and practices to prevent voting registration in the 60s and now? To stimulate further discussion about the challenges of ensuring every American’s right to vote, refer the students to the Leadership Conference and Civil Rights (LCCR) web site to view video testimonials from real people whose lives have been affected by the Voting Rights Act. These are contemporary stories supporting the need to renew and enforce the requirements of the Act. Drawing from class discussions, video viewings and readings, engage the students in creative writing assignments. These exercises will enable the students to view the issue from the perspective of another person. Creative Writing 1: Write a short story or poem based on the photo image: “Voting Rights Poster and Man on Grass.” To focus students’ observation of this image, share with them a copy of the Photograph Analysis Worksheet. The information they draw from reviewing the image may be incorporated in their writing. Creative Writing 2: The Voting Rights Act Impact on other Minorities Have the students write a narrative description of a discriminating experience that could impact one’s ability to vote, i.e. personal experience or an immigrant American experience, or the elderly. Ask the students to now complete column two, “What I Want to Know” of their KWL chart organizer. Activity 2: Obstacles to Full Participation in the Election Process In the years immediately following the Civil War, landmark legislation granted African Americans citizenship rights, including the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870, which gave African Americans the right to vote and prohibited racial discrimination in voting. But for years, many southern states resisted racial equality and skirted the law by administering tests designed to prevent African Americans from registering to vote in the first place. From 1964 through 1965, the State of Alabama used 100 different literacy tests to make it difficult for people to “study” for the test. Applicants were asked to pick a test at random from a loose-leaf notebook. However, many organizations like Miles College in Birmingham, Alabama conducted voter education classes to help individuals to prepare to take the test. Black citizens who managed to pass the registration tests were often threatened, fired from their jobs, or beaten. In other states like Louisiana, they had to be identified by two registered voters. In states where the Ku Klux Klan maintained power—Texas, Alabama, and Mississippi, for example—scare tactics and lynching intimidated many African Americans from trying to register at all. Class Time Needed: one class session Share with each student a copy of the registration test as well as a copy of the Written Document Analysis guide sheet. Using the guide sheet, instruct the students to review the test. Now share with the students the Poll tax receipt document. Using the Written Document Analysis guide sheet allow the students time to study it. To deepen students’ understanding of the impact of these and other discriminatory practices on individuals, assign the students two short readings of testimonies from the book, Remembering Jim Crow: African Americans Tell about Life in the Segregated South, by William Chafe. The book also comes with a CD-ROM and DVD of individual testimonies. The recommended readings are: Have the students share with their family or community members copies of these documents and interview them about experiences they may have had trying to vote. Invite family members to your classroom to share their experience. Activity 3: Protecting Our Right to Vote In 1970, Congress extended Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act for five years. Section 5 focused on the use of discriminatory tests and other devices like the poll tax designed to exclude certain individuals from the voting process. These extensions required that jurisdictions with a history of illegal discrimination obtain permission from either the Justice Department or a panel of federal district court judges before changing any voting practices. In 1975, Congress extended Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act for seven more years. The definition of “test or device” was expanded to include the practice of providing election information, including ballots, only in English in states or political subdivisions where members of a single language minority constituted more than five percent of the citizens of voting age. Congresswoman Barbara Jordan from Texas proposed to expand the “test or device” term to include ballots printed only in English in areas with a high concentration of Spanish-speaking Americans. This became a major issue during the debates for the extension of the act. Class Time Needed: two class sessions Tell the students that they are going to analyze Congressional documents from 1975 to gather information about the debates and issues raised by members of Congress about the impact of providing election information and ballots in other languages like Spanish and securing the extension of the act. Divide the class into small groups. Distribute to each group copies of the documents, 1975 CBC memo to Caucus Members from Congressman Charles B. Rangel and the handwritten letter from CBC member Parren Mitchell. Using the written document analysis guide sheet, allow the students to review the documents. Ask the students to share what information can be gathered from the documents. See sample questions below: Q: Who were members of the CBC in 1975? A: Charles Rangel, Yvonne Burke, Walter Fauntroy, Andrew Young, Shirley Chisholm, William Clay, Cardiss Collins, John Conyers, Ronald Dellums, Charles Diggs, Harold Ford, Sr., Augustus Hawkins, Barbara Jordan, Ralph Metcalfe, Parren Mitchell, Robert N.C. Nix, and Louis Stokes Q: What states did they represent? A: New York – Rangel and Chisholm; California – Burke, Dellums, Hawkins; District of Columbia – Fauntroy; Georgia – Young; Missouri – Clay; Michigan – Collins, Conyers, and Diggs; Tennessee – Ford; Texas – Jordan; Illinois – Metcalfe; Maryland – Mitchell; Pennsylvania – Nix; Ohio – Stokes Q: What role did Charles Rangel play in the CBC in 1975? Q: What was the status of the act? A: It needed to be reauthorized Q: What was the major issue for extending the act? A: Ballots and election materials written for Spanish speaking citizens Q: As a U.S. House Representative from Texas, why do you think this issue was very important to Congresswoman Barbara Jordan? A: Texas had one of the biggest Spanish-speaking populations at the time Tell the students that their group will play the role of news reporters. Each group is to prepare a news announcement based on the information provided in the documents as well as Barbara Jordan’s February 19, 1975 speech to extend the Act with the inclusion of addressing the needs of Spanish-speaking citizens as recorded in the Congressional Record. Engage your students in a debate about the relevance of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 to individual lives and American citizens’ right to practice civic responsibility. Based on current events, have the students prepare a persuasive argument in response to one of the following statements: For a recent event related to the enforcement of the Voting Rights Act, listen to a National Public Radio report, July 14, 2008 on voting fraud activity in Alabama. For additional primary documents see the National Archives web site for the following: A timeline is a calendar of events that have occurred in a day, a month or several years. Illustrations or images are often used to give a visual chronology of key events highlighted on the timeline. Using the Avoice Voting Rights Act Timeline, arrange the students in teams and assign each team a period of events on the timeline. Tell them to use images and drawings to create a collage interpretation of their assigned period. In the classroom or school hallway, create a timeline exhibit about the history of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Consider including the students written assignments and oral interviews. Amendment: an alteration of or addition to a motion, bill, constitution, etc. Bill of Rights: a document containing a formal statement of rights; i.e. a summary of fundamental rights and privileges guaranteed to a people against violation by the state&emdash;used especially in reference to the first 10 amendments to the United States Constitution. Caucus: a faction within a legislative body that pursues its interests through the legislative process, i.e. the Congressional Black Caucus. Civil Rights Movement: movement in the United States beginning in the 1960s, led primarily by blacks, to establish the civil rights of individual black citizens. Constitution: the basic principles and laws of a nation, state, or social group that determine the powers and duties of the government and guarantee certain rights to the people in it. Ku Klux Klan: a secret society formed in the South after the Civil War to resist the emancipation of slaves and suppress African Americans through terrorist tactics. Legislature: an elected branch of government having the power to make laws. Literacy Test: a test many southern states administered to prevent African Americans from registering to vote. Poll Taxes: a tax required as a qualification for voting. After the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution extended the vote to blacks in 1870, many southern states instituted poll taxes to prevent blacks from voting. The Twenty-fourth Amendment to the Constitution, adopted in 1964, prohibits poll taxes for federal elections. Primary Documents: primary sources that may include letters, manuscripts, diaries, journals, newspapers, speeches, interviews, memoirs, and documents produced by government agencies. Ratify: an authoritative statement, i.e. to formally approve a law. Reauthorization: the process by which Congress prescribes changes, additions, and deletions in the re-approval and extension of a current law. US Congress: the legislature of the United States government. Vote: a formal expression of a wish will, or choice made by an act or process of voting. Voter Registration: the requirement of citizens to register with their local board of elections before being qualified to vote. Visit the Avoice exhibit on the Voting Rights Act. Chafe, William H. Remembering Jim Crow: African Americans Tell About Life in the Segregated South. The New Press, New York. 2001 Marable, Manning, Leith Muelings. Let Nobody Turn Us Around: Voices of Resistance, Reform, and Renewal: An African American Anthology. Rowman and Littlefield, Lanham, Maryland. 2003 Pauley, Garth. Lyndon B. Johnson’s American Promise: The 1965 Voting Rights Act. Palgrave MacMillan, New York. 1995 Taylor, William. Voting Rights in America: Continuing the Quest for Full Participation. University of Illinois Press, Champaign, IL. 1992 Aretha, David. Selma and the Voting Rights Act, Civil Rights Movement Series. Morgan Reynolds Publishing, Greensboro, North Carolina. 2007 Colman, Penny. Fannie Lou Hamer and the Fight for the Vote. Millbrook Press, Brookfield, Connecticut. 1993 Harvey, Miles, Women’s Voting Rights: Story of 19th Amendment. The Children’s Press, San Francisco, California. 1998 Letwin, Laura. Fannie Lou Hamer: Fighting for the Right to Vote. Enslow Publishers, Berkeley Heights, New Jersey. 2002 Lusane, Clarence. No Easy Victories: Black Americans and the Vote. Franklin Watts Publisher, London, United Kingdom. 1996 Scott, John H. with Cleo Scott Brown. Witness to the Truth: My Struggle for Human Rights in Louisiana. University of South Carolina Press, Columbia. 2003 Scriabine, Christine. Black Voting Rights: The Fight for Equality. Jackdaw Publishers, Amawalk, New York. 1992 (Out-of-Print, must obtain from local library) Avoice: African American Voice in Congress Congressional Black Caucus (CBC) Congressional Black Caucus Foundation (CBCF) Leadership Conference on Civil Rights The Library of Congress The National Archives The National Park Service: Teaching with Historic Places The Selma to Montgomery Voting Rights March: Shaking the Conscience of the Nation The Voting Rights Act of 1965 lesson unit was created through the combined efforts of: Adrena Ifill, Project Director, Avoice, CBCF Virtual Library Project Alison Kootstra, Project Coordinator, Avoice, CBCF Virtual Library Project R. Maria Marable-Bunch, Education Consultant This lesson unit was reviewed by the following educators: Michael Bartlett, Ph.D., Teacher, Stone Mountain, CA Rita Johnson, Principal, Washington, DC Lynn Long, Curriculum Specialist, former Principal, Washington, DC Tanya Brown Merriman, Curriculum Specialist, Chicago, IL Mwasaa Sherard, Teacher, Stone Mountain, GA Sonya Fordham, Teacher, Dorchester, SC Mable Roche, Teacher, New Orleans, LA This project was made possible by the generous support of the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation, Dell Inc. and The University of Texas at Austin.

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What Teachers Need to Know About the "New" Nonfiction Children's nonfiction picture books is a genre that is exploding in both quality and quantity. Recent nonfiction books reveal an emphasis on the visual, an emphasis on accuracy, and an engaging writing style. Suggestions are included for choosing and using nonfiction picture books in the classroom. "Hey, kids! Did you know that in the 1930s most Americans did not own TVs? But you know what they did have? The radio!" So begins the text of Aliens Are Coming! The True Account of the 1938 War of the Worlds Radio Broadcast (McCarthy, 2006). In these few words, author and illustrator Meghan McCarthy invites young readers into the book by using a reader-friendly tone, asking a question to make the reading interactive, and helping readers make connections between their experiences with television and the way people in the 1930s experienced radio. Even before they begin to read the text, however, children are attracted to this book by the cover, end papers, and title page. Illustrated in cartoon style, the cover features two green aliens with eyes on stalks and octopus-like appendages. The title is done in a childlike font, and the word Coming looks like it is written in oozing green goo. The endpapers show cartoon spaceships and flying saucers, while on the title page a cartoon alien points toward the earth. The title, with its exclamation point and colorful block letters, is reminiscent of an old-time movie poster. Together these features give the book a light-hearted tone and invite children inside. Written with only a few lines per page, the book tells the story of Orson Welles's famous radio broadcast that caused widespread fear and panic. Illustrations in black and white depict scenes of the 1930s, while bright colors are used to show how people imagined the scenes being described on the radio. Excerpts from the text of the radio broadcast help readers understand the impact of the broadcast on radio listeners. Detailed endnotes give more information about the story of the broadcast and include a sidebar about H.G. Wells and a bibliography. Aliens Are Coming! is just one of many recent nonfiction books that have features that attract young readers, help them learn about a topic, and invite further thinking and exploration. The purpose of this article is to help teachers understand and share the features of these new nonfiction picture books, a genre that is exploding in both quantity and quality. The rise of nonfiction Although teachers today use many trade books in their classrooms, most of these are fiction (Duke, 2000). For years, fictional stories were thought to be more appropriate for young children, and few nonfiction books were written for younger readers. Nonfiction was virtually ignored by children's literature experts and teachers alike (Moss, 2003). In recent years, however, we have come to realize that young children delight in learning about the world. In addition, there has been a growing realization of the importance of helping children learn strategies for reading the nonfiction texts they will increasingly be faced with in the upper grades. Moss (2003) asserted that "early exposure to the language of nonfiction can help enhance children's understanding of exposition and may prevent the difficulties many students encounter with these texts later on" (p. 9). At the same time, recent years have seen "an explosion of this genre in terms of availability, variety, and excellence for all ages" (Bamford & Kristo, 2000, p. 50). No other genre of children's literature "has changed as radically in recent years as nonfiction" (Moss, 2003, p. 10). Although many of the award- winning books in this genre have been lengthy chapter books that required advanced reading skills, I have found a number of recent nonfiction books in picture book format that are absolutely enchanting. This "new" genre-the nonfiction picture book-will delight teachers and students alike. What are the features of today's nonfiction picture books? To find out, I began by reviewing recent award-winning and honor books from three children's books awards: the Sibert Medal winners for 2008, given by the American Library Association to the author(s) and illustrator(s) of the most distinguished informational book published in English each year; the Orbis Pictus Award for Outstanding Nonfiction for Children given by the National Council of Teachers of English in 2008; and nonfiction books from the Children's Choices list for 2007. Although many of the books on the Children's Choices list were not winners of other awards, I included books from this list because I wanted to see what features appealed to children, as well as to adult reviewers. Although not all of the books winning these awards were picture books (which I defined for this study as books with no more than 48 pages, in which pictures and text were equally important in conveying information), many of them were, especially those on the Children's Choices list. Using interlibrary loan at my university, I did my best to obtain copies of all of the Sibert and Orbis Pictus winners for 2008, along with nonfiction books on the Children's Choices list for 2007. In my analysis of these books, I found several outstanding features: an emphasis on the visual, including illustrations and design layouts; an emphasis on accuracy; and engaging writing styles, including formats that invite interaction. In the following sections, I discuss and give examples of these features, which teachers use to help them select nonfiction books. See below to find criteria for selecting nonfiction picture books. Criteria for selecting nonfiction picture books Is the book visually appealing? - Are the front and back covers appealing? - Are the endpapers appealing? Do they contribute to the topic, theme, or tone of the book? - Do the title page, dedication page, table of contents, and other pages contain illustrations? - Is the typeface easy to read? Does the book use typefaces or text layout to highlight information? Does the choice of typeface contribute to the topic, theme, or tone of the book? - Are the illustrations appealing? - Is the text broken up with illustrations, sidebars, headings, white space, and other features? - Are the illustrations and book design colorful? Do the colors contribute to the topic, theme, or tone of the book? - Are borders used? Is the book accurate and authoritative? - Are consultants listed? - Is information about the research process provided in introductory or endnotes, source notes, or bibliographies? - Are there suggestions for further reading? - Are supplemental materials such as glossaries and tables of important dates included? - Do illustrations accurately depict the text? - Are animals depicted accurately without anthropomorphism? - Is the book a blend of fact and fiction? If so, is it clear which parts of the book are fact and which are fiction? Is the writing style engaging? - Does the author draw the reader in with an engaging lead? - Are ideas logically ordered? - Is the background knowledge of the reader considered? Are new ideas connected to what children already know? - Is the language appropriate for the audience? - Does the author write without condescension? - Is the author able to explain difficult concepts clearly and simply? - Does the author use an appropriate tone? - Are there interactive elements that help involve the reader? - Are new terms clearly explained, highlighted, and defined in a glossary? Features of nonfiction picture books One radical change in recent children's nonfiction has been the emphasis on visually attractive design layouts (Giblin, 2000). Carter (2000) said that Forty years ago, children read nonfiction books with small type and limited illustrations… Today, they encounter books with carefully designed illustrations that partner with the text to contribute to their thinking… Illustrations introduce core concepts necessary for understanding a topic and serve as integral portions of each book. (p. 707) Every book I reviewed contained illustrations or other visual features on almost every page. Although all of the books are visually appealing, many also use the visual elements to convey information. Illustrations appear on the covers, endpapers, copyright pages, and title pages, as well as in tables of contents and end matter such as notes from the authors. Many nonfiction books now contain sidebars, use different typefaces to emphasize text, have additional information in the margins, and include captioned photos. In Sled Dogs (Haskins, 2006), two-page spreads provide information in the form of large and small captioned photographs, sidebars, and text. Design elements such as the black background, blue frames around photographs and other features, and even the blue shape around the page number, contribute to a whole that is visually pleasing. In another well-designed book, Why Do Dogs Have Wet Noses? (Coren, 2006), each page has a subtle background print with a dog-bone pattern, a border of dog bones across the top, and a dog bone over the page number at the bottom of the page. Photographs of varying sizes, some in frames and other with text wrapping around them, help break up the text, as do the headings written in a playful, uneven typeface. The same typeface is used on the cover, which features a photograph of a cute puppy with his head tilted inquisitively. Stunning, high-quality, glossy photographs by wildlife photographers dominate the book Slippery, Slimy Baby Frogs (Markle, 2006b), providing information in visual form that is as important as the information in the text. Nic Bishop's Spiders (2007) combines beautiful photographs, colorful backgrounds, and typefaces that change in size and color to emphasize important or interesting points. A unique and creative approach to illustration can be found in What Athletes Are Made Of (Piven, 2006), in which portraits of famous athletes are composed of simple painted shapes and everyday objects chosen to convey something about the athlete. Muhammad Ali's portrait, for example, includes a bell for a nose and tiny microphones for eyebrows. A hot dog on a bun makes Babe Ruth's mouth, golf tees make up Tiger Woods's eyebrows, and Michael Jordan's tongue is a piece of basketball skin! Clearly, visual elements play an important role in today's children's nonfiction books. Moss (2003) asserted that today's nonfiction books are "designed to engage today's visually oriented learners" (p. 12). Information is conveyed in both text and illustrations; in addition, the visual elements often enhance the reading experience in more subtle ways. For example, kids will enjoy reading about the largest and smallest dogs in the world and learning about how dogs communicate in Why Do Dogs Have Wet Noses? (Coren, 2006), just as they'll enjoy and learn from the photographs of the dogs. Other features, too, such as the subtle dog-bone print in the background and dog-bone borders, are a part of the pleasure of this experience. Another feature in recent children's nonfiction books is the emphasis on accuracy. Many books now include information about the research process, which might be found in introductory comments or endnotes, as well as source notes, bibliographies, and suggestions for further reading (Bamford & Kristo, 2000; Giblin, 2000; Hepler, 2003). Often, expert consultants are acknowledged. Glossaries, tables of important dates, indexes, and other kinds of supplemental materials provide further information for the reader. Many of the books reviewed showed this kind of concern for providing accurate and authoritative information. For example, Aliens Are Coming! The True Account of the 1938 War of the Worlds Radio Broadcast (McCarthy, 2006), Sled Dogs (Haskins, 2006), Little Lost Bat (Markle, 2006a), Sporting Events: From Baseball to Skateboarding (Kaufman, 2006), Spiders (Bishop, 2007), and Slippery, Slimy Baby Frogs (Markle, 2006b), all contain author's notes and other features that provide more information, describe the research process, or acknowledge the contribution of experts. The author of Extreme Animals: The Toughest Creatures on Earth (Davies, 2006) has a degree in zoology. Author Sarah L. Thomson added authority to her books Amazing Dolphins! (2006a) and Amazing Snakes! (2006b) by teaming up with the Wildlife Conservation Society, which provided the photographs for the books. Many of the books contain bibliographies and suggestions for further reading, including online resources. Such features not only "help readers evaluate a book's accuracy" (Bamford & Kristo, 2000, p. 50); they "honor young readers by giving them entry into processes of writing" as they learn "how writers of nonfiction think and work" (Wilson, 2006, p. 62). Although accuracy and authority may be a trend in recent nonfiction, not all books reflect this trend. Wilson (2006) described how members of the Orbis Pictus Award Committee are interested in "the presence of back matter, the bibliographies or reference lists, endnotes, author notes about the references and quotations included in the book, the photo credits, and the acknowledgements of people connected with the research and writing of the book" (p. 56), but they are concerned that a number of books they review, especially those for younger readers, do not have such features. Although not all of the nonfiction books reviewed have all of these features, the vast majority had at least a consultant listed. Even so, there are some problems with accuracy in several of the books I reviewed. Extreme Animals: The Toughest Creatures on Earth (Davies, 2006), is engagingly and authoritatively written by zoologist Nicola Davies. The author's expertise is clearly evident in her descriptions of animals that can survive extreme temperatures and pressures (and one animal that can be put in a blender, and when placed back in seawater, will pull itself back together- it's a sponge!). Unfortunately, the illustrations for this book, childlike drawings by Neal Layton, do not always convey accurate information. An illustration showing how penguins keep heat from escaping from their feet does not match the explanation in the text (pp. 14-15). On page 16, the text says that some birds sleep huddled together to keep warm, but the illustration is an anthropomorphic depiction of birds sleeping in a row of beds. Accuracy is also a problem in The Adventures of Pelican Pete: Annie the River Otter (Keiser & Keiser, 2006). This book is obviously intended to be an informational children's book. Six different experts from the North American River Otter Liaison and elsewhere are acknowledged; supplemental features include a bulleted list of information about otters and a feature showing readers how "To Learn More" about woodland fires and wildlife rehabilitators. In the "About the Author and Illustrator" section, the book is described as "an accurate and educational depiction of nature" (n.p.). In the story, Annie the river otter tells Pelican Pete the story of growing up with her family and then being separated from them by a fire. Pelican Pete then tells Annie about an animal rescue center, which is described by Pelican Pete as "a wonderful place I'll lead you to./They rescue animals and heal them quick-/Orphaned, strained, injured or sick./When we're in need, we hurry there/ For wildlife rescue and animal care" (n.p.). The book does not show how wildlife are found or taken care of; in fact, no people appear in the text or illustrations. Children are led to believe that animals make their own way to rescue centers, and they are given no information about the kind of care animals receive there. The blending of fiction and nonfiction in this book has caused the facts to be distorted out of all reality. (The book is understandably classified as fiction by the Library of Congress.) The fictionalization of children's nonfiction seems to be a recurring trend. Giblin (2000) noted that before 1960, many nonfiction authors and editors thought the best way to interest youngsters in science was to surround the facts with a fictional framework… The Let's Read and Find Out series and others like it put an end to this particular brand of nonfiction hybrid, which usually succeeded neither as fiction nor as nonfiction. (p. 419) More recently, however, this trend toward fictionalization has reemerged. Zarnowski (2001) noted that although some authors and critics have argued for strict accuracy in children's nonfiction, "there are several strong proponents of intermingling fiction and nonfiction" (p. 16). For example, Avery (2003) argued that the use of narrative "captures the hearts and the minds of readers of all ages" and that narrative stories have "opened nonfiction to many more young readers" (p. 241). Avery referred to books that blend fiction and nonfiction, such as those that present factual information from the perspective of a fictional character, as "faction," and asserted that they "qualify as nonfiction in our classrooms" (p. 242). Yet Smith (2001) asserted that "while they may be interesting to read, 'factions' are at best deceptive, and they are unacceptable to those seeking accurate interpretations of events, issues, and phenomena" (p. 32). Similarly, Bamford, Kristo, and Lyon (2002) wondered "if this kind of book sends a distorted message to young readers about what nonfiction is. High quality nonfiction doesn't preclude an author from using personal narrative but, in doing so, the writing should never mask the truth or the facts to be clever or cute" (p. 9). Bamford and Kristo (2000) used the term informational picture storybook to describe books like the popular Magic School Bus series, which "look and read like picture storybooks because information is carried within the narrative by invented characters or situations. However, these books are supported by facts because the primary purpose is to provide information" (p. 13). They asserted that problems with informational picture storybooks arise "when it is not clear to the reader what is fact and what is fiction" and suggested that teachers should "help readers separate fiction from nonfiction by highlighting text notes, afterwards, and acknowledgments" (p. 13). Colman (2007) argued for strict accuracy in children's nonfiction, yet she added that simple definitions, such as fiction is made up and nonfiction is true, fiction is narrative and nonfiction is expository, fiction is for pleasure and nonfiction is for information, are misleading and inadequate. She pointed out that "fiction and nonfiction can have many similar and overlapping characteristics" (p. 267) including the use of both narrative and expository writing. Little Lost Bat (Markle, 2006a) used a narrative structure to tell the story of a baby Mexican freetailed bat. In Look What Whiskers Can Do (Souza, 2006), the author used both expository and narrative text. To give general information, an expository style is used. Sometimes, however, a more narrative style is used: "An animal is sleeping high in a tree. Its legs are wrapped around a branch. Its tail covers its eyes" (p. 14). McClure (2003) described elements of style that authors of the best children's nonfiction books use to make their work appealing. She explained that good nonfiction books are clear and coherent; they are "carefully organized, using logically ordered ideas and understandable language along with examples that account for the background knowledge of readers" (p. 80). She added that good nonfiction authors communicate their passion for the subject and write in a tone that does not condescend to children. They use language appropriate for the intended age level of the reader, but must be able to explain difficult vocabulary and concepts. They draw their readers in with engaging leads and write conclusions that "leave the reader either feeling satisfied or wanting to know more" (p. 92). In the excerpt from Aliens Are Coming! The True Account of the 1938 War of the Worlds Radio Broadcast (McCarthy, 2006) that began this article, author Meghan McCarthy draws readers into the story with her reader-friendly style and a thoughtprovoking question: "Hey, kids! Did you know that in the 1930s most Americans did not own TVs?" Authors of nonfiction picture books use many elements of style and organization to make their writing both engaging and informative. Author Lori Haskins (2006) grabs the reader's attention with the first line of Sled Dogs: "The people of Nome, Alaska were in trouble." In Extreme Animals: The Toughest Creatures on Earth, Nicola Davies (2006) presents fascinating information in a lighthearted tone: Polar bears can keep warm in conditions that would kill a human, but in one important way, a polar bear is just as much of a wimp as we are: if its body temperature drops by more than a few degrees, it can die. The Truly Tough Animals are the ones that can let their bodies get really cold right through and still survive. (p. 19) Author Hanoch Piven (2006), in What Athletes Are Made Of, gains readers' interest and communicates his enthusiasm for his subject in an author's note at the beginning of the book: Do you know how many home runs Babe Ruth hit in his career? Do you know how many soccer goals Mia Hamm scored in her first year on the U.S. National Team? Lots of people know scores and records about their favorite athletes. But sometimes we don't know as much about what great athletes are like as people.... There are many great athletes in the world, and I could not include all of them in this book. Instead I have selected athletes whose stories have a personal meaning for me. Some were chosen because of their undisputed greatness, and some because they have an inspiring or interesting story to tell. (n.p.) A number of nonfiction picture books engage readers with an interactive format. Food Creations: From Hot Dogs to Ice Cream Cones (Ball, 2006) and Sporting Events: From Baseball to Skateboarding (Kaufman, 2006), ask readers to guess "Which Came First?" Readers are given information about a pair such as hot dogs and hamburgers or basketball and golf, are asked to predict which came first, and must turn the page to find out if they were correct. Venom (Singer, 2007) keeps readers actively involved through a variety of activities such as quizzes and a matching exercise in which pictures of venomous animals are to be matched with the venom delivery system they use. Sarah L. Thomson's (2006a) Amazing Dolphins!, an easy reader written with short sentences, is still informative and thought-provoking: "Dolphins whistle and squeak. They chirp and pop. They make noises that sound like clicks or claps. Why do dolphins make all these sounds?" (pp. 4-5). Thomson relates new information to what children already know: Dolphins live underwater, but they are not fish. They are small whales. Whales are mammals. People are mammals, too. All mammals need to breathe air. You use your mouth to breathe, to eat, and to make sounds. A dolphin uses it mouth to eat. It uses the blowhole on top of its head to breathe and to make sounds. (pp. 10-11) Similarly, Look What Whiskers Can Do (Souza, 2006) begins with what kids already know. "Have you ever noticed a cat's whiskers? The hairs are long and stiff. Each one is two to three times thicker than the animal's other hairs" (p. 7). Headings appear in large print, and words in bold in the text are defined in the glossary. Author D.M. Souza explains new vocabulary extremely well: "Scientist call whiskers vibrissae. The word once meant to shake or vibrate. Whiskers let many animals called mammals feel movements or vibrations in both air and water" (p. 8). Sandra Markle's (2006b) photo-essay Slippery, Slimy Baby Frogs is well organized into sections that follow one other in a logical, cohesive manner. For example, the "On Their Own" section begins, "Because most adult frogs leave their eggs once they are laid, most baby frogs grow up without parents (n.p.)". The next section, "Taking Care of Baby," follows logically from the previous one: "Some baby frogs do get special care from their parents while they're growing up" (n.p.). In contrast, two books I reviewed had some problems with style and organization. Horses, a photo- essay by prolific and award-winning children's nonfiction author Seymour Simon (2006), has beautiful glossy photos on the cover, endpapers, title page, and each page throughout the book, yet the text seems to present a succession of unrelated facts in no order, with photos that don't always support the text. On one page, Simon discusses the names for horses of different colors; the accompanying photograph, however, does not show the kinds of horses discussed. There is also a discussion of breeds of horses that includes the terms hotbloods, coldbloods, and warmbloods. Unfortunately Simon doesn't explain that these terms have nothing to do with being warm or coldblooded as the terms are normally used, which makes this highly confusing for the reader. Lukens (2003) has said that nonfiction authors sometimes condescend to children by "oversimplifying, thinking of the readers as dear little things, or guarding their ears from the whole truth" (p. 290), and that "condescension often takes the form of anthropomorphism, an attitude that suggests a lack of interesting qualities in the animals themselves" (p. 292). In addition to its use of anthropomorphism, The Adventures of Pelican Pete: Annie the River Otter (Keiser & Keiser, 2006) uses a sappy, condescending tone: "For all the children good and sweet:/ I'll tell a tale of Pelican Pete: And for all who were bad today:/ I'll tell the story anyway" (n.p.). Choosing and sharing nonfiction picture books Sources of Information About Nonfiction Picture Books Teachers who want to discover the possibilities of nonfiction picture books may start by browsing local libraries and bookstores. Book awards are another source for good nonfiction picture books. In addition to the Children's Choices list (www.reading.org/ resources/booklists/childrenschoices.aspx), the Orbis Pictus Award (www.ncte.org/awards/orbispictus), and the Sibert Medal (www.ala.org), there are other nonfiction book awards that teachers may want to consult. The National Science Teachers' Association and the Children's Book Council publishes a yearly list of Outstanding Science Trade Books for Students K-12 (www.nsta.org/publications/ostb), and the Children's Book Council also teams up with the National Council for the Social Studies to create an annual list of Notable Social Studies Trade Books for Young People (www.socialstudies.org/resources/ notable). The Caldecott Medal and its Honor List (www.ala.org) may also include nonfiction picture books, and the Boston Globe-The Horn Book Awards (www.hbook.com) include a category for nonfiction. The Horn Book also publishes a list of best picture books, fiction books, and nonfiction books each year in its "Fanfare" list. In addition, many nonfiction authors have their own webpages, like Steve Jenkins, author of Caldecott Honor Book What Do You Do With a Tail Like This? (Jenkins, 2004) and many other beautifully illustrated books (www.stevejenkinsbooks.com). Choosing Nonfiction Picture Books Teachers can use the three features of nonfiction picture books discussed herein to help them choose books for their classrooms. - Are the books visually appealing? Look for books with attractive and accurate illustrations, page layouts that break up text, borders and other interesting design features, attractive and readable typefaces, and appropriate use of color for page backgrounds, text, and other features. - Do the books provide accurate, authoritative information? Look for books with consultants listed and source notes or other features that contain information about the research process. In addition, choose books in which the illustrations accurately depict the content, and in which the information is presently realistically, without anthropomorphism. - Are they engagingly written? Look for books that make good teachers! Good nonfiction books should be well organized, should grab readers' attention, take readers' likely background knowledge into consideration, and clearly explain new terms. In addition, look for books that present information in creative ways, and that encourage reader interaction with the text. Sharing Nonfiction Picture Books With Children Because today's nonfiction children's books provide new ways to convey information, teachers need to learn new ways to share these books with children. Nonfiction picture books convey information not only in the text, but also in endpapers, supplemental materials such as tables of important dates, and so on. On each page of the text, they may convey information with illustrations, sidebars, typefaces, boxed information on outside margins, captioned photos, and other features. Instead of reading from top to bottom and front to back, these kinds of features can be viewed in any order; they "permit, and actually invite, nonlinear, nonsequential exploration" (Kerper, 2001, p. 27). Teachers can demonstrate such nonsequential exploration, showing students the many different ways they can learn about the topic. Teachers can also help students notice the features of nonfiction picture books by asking students, "How does this page help you understand this topic?" They can point out text in bold or unusual typefaces and ask why they are used. They can draw students' attention to information gained in illustrations, captions, and sidebars. In another lesson, teachers may want to focus on the accuracy of the book. By asking, "Who wrote this book? How did he or she find out this information?" teachers can interest students in the author's notes, source notes, or other information provided, and help them understand what writers do. In particular, teachers will want to think carefully about the types of books they present as "nonfiction," and help students notice when some books blend fact and fiction. When using blended books, teachers should help students understand what is factual and what has been fictionalized, and why the author may have chosen to blend the two. Finally, teachers may want to invite students to study nonfiction picture books as they write and design their own books. Asking questions such as, what features make this book fun to read? What helped you learn about the topic? may help students think about the various tasks of writing, illustrating, and designing a nonfiction book. The nonfiction picture book is a genre that is exploding in both quality and quantity. By sharing and filling their classrooms with good nonfiction picture books, teachers can help children learn about the world and get them started on a lifetime of reading and learning. Click the "References" link above to hide these references. Avery, C. (2003). Nonfiction books: Natural for the primary level. In R.A. Bamford & J.V. Kristo (Eds.), Making facts come alive: Choosing and using nonfiction literature K-8 (2nd ed., pp. 235-246). Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon. Bamford, R.A., & Kristo, J.V. (2000). A decade of nonfiction: Ten books with unique features. Journal of Children's Literature, 26(2), 50-54. Bamford, R.A., Kristo, J.V., & Lyon, A. (2002). Facing facts: Nonfiction in the primary classroom. The New England Reading Association Journal, 38(2), 8-15. Carter, B. (2000). A universe of information: The future of nonfiction. The Horn Book, 76(6), 697-707. Colman, P. (2007). A new way to look at literature: A visual model for analyzing fiction and nonfiction texts. Language Arts, 84(3), 257-268. Duke, N.K. (2000). 3.6 minutes per day: The scarcity of informational texts in first grade. Reading Research Quarterly, 35(2), 202-224. doi:10.1598/RRQ.35.2.1 Giblin, J.C. (2000). More than just the facts: A hundred years of children's nonfiction. The Horn Book, 76(4), 413-424. Hepler, S. (2003). Nonfiction books for children: New directions, new challenges. In R.A. Bamford & J.V. Kristo (Eds.), Making facts come alive: Choosing and using nonfiction literature K-8 (2nd ed., pp. 3-20). Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon. Kerper, R.M. (2001). Nonfiction book design in a digital age. In M. Zarnowski, R.M. Kerper, & J.M. Jensen (Eds.), The best in children's nonfiction (pp. 22-31). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. Lukens, R.J. (2003). A critical handbook of children's literature (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. McClure, A. (2003). Choosing quality nonfiction literature: Examining aspects of writing style. In R.A. Bamford & J.V. Kristo (Eds.), Making facts come alive: Choosing and using nonfiction literature K-8 (2nd ed., pp. 79-96). Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon. Moss, B. (2003). Exploring the literature of fact: Children's nonfiction trade books in the elementary classroom. New York: Guilford. Smith, K.P. (2001). Acknowledging, citing, going beyond: Issues of documentation in nonfiction literature. In M. Zarnowski, R.M. Kerper, & J.M. Jensen (Eds.), The best in children's nonfiction (pp. 32-41). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. Wilson, S. (2006). Getting down to facts in children's nonfiction literature: A case for the importance of sources. Journal of Children's Literature, 32(1), 56-63. Zarnowski, M. (2001). Intermingling fact and fiction. In M. Zarnowski, R.M. Kerper, & J.M. Jensen (Eds.), The best in children's nonfiction (pp. 13-21). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. Ball, J.A. (2006). Food creations: From hot dogs to ice cream cones. New York: Bearport. Bishop, N. (2007). Spiders. New York: Scholastic. Coren, S. (2006). Why do dogs have wet noses? Tonawanda, NY: Kids Can. Davies, N. (2006). Extreme animals: The toughest creatures on earth. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick. Haskins, L. (2006). Sled dogs. New York: Bearport. Jenkins, S. (2004). What do you do with a tail like this? Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Kaufman, G. (2006). Sporting events: From baseball to skateboarding. New York: Bearport. Keiser, F., & Keiser, H. (2006). The adventures of Pelican Pete: Annie the river otter. St. Augustine, FL: Sagaponack. Markle, S. (2006a). Little lost bat. Watertown, MA: Charlesbridge. Markle, S. (2006b). Slippery, slimy baby frogs. New York: Walker & Company. McCarthy, M. (2006). Aliens are coming! The true account of the 1938 War of the Worlds radio broadcast. New York: Knopf. Piven, H. (2006). What athletes are made of. New York: Atheneum. Simon, S. (2006). Horses. New York: HarperCollins. Singer, M. (2007). Venom. Plain Cit y, OH: Darby Creek Publishing. Souza, D.M. (2006). Look what whiskers can do. Minneapolis, MN: Lerner. Thomson, S.L. (2006a). Amazing dolphins! New York: HarperCollins. Thoms on, S.L. (2006b). Amazing snakes! New York: HarperCollins. Pilonieta, P., & Medina, A.L. (2009 October). Reciprocal Teaching for the Primary Grades: "We Can Do It, Too!" The Reading Teacher, 63(2), 120-129.

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SHORT READINGS: 25 MG/YA Short Story/Personal Essay Anthologies by Lesley Roessing The Value & Importance of Short Stories There are a multitude of reasons for including short stories in the curriculum and student reading. Many readers have not built up reading stamina. When they do read novels, they choose novels below their reading levels, they abandon novels before finishing, or they read Spark Notes, summaries, or find other ways to avoid actually reading. Short stories are, by definition, short. Short stories range in lengths, varying from 1,500 to 10,000 or more words. Therefore, reader stamina can be slowly increased with complete texts, while giving readers a sense of accomplishment because they have finished an entire text. Short stories also are valuable resources when classes or students are short on time or when students neglect to bring their independent reading books to class. Short stories provide useful teaching tools. At the beginning of the year, before tackling a class novel, I used short stories to teach or review literary elements, author’s craft, and to teach and apply reading strategies. I would choose a short story based on the element, such as setting, that I wished to highlight in my focus lesson and would also use that short story to focus on a reading strategy. We would then put it all together when reading our whole-class novel. Short stories can be employed as an introduction to, and practice for, Book Clubs. Teachers can employ Short-Story Clubs to teach and practice Book Club social skills, such as preparing for and holding effective discussions, and for practicing meeting strategies and guidelines before a class embarks on novel book clubs (see Talking Texts: A Teachers’ Guide for Book Clubs across the Curriculum for more on short story and other text clubs). Short-Story Clubs offer the same opportunities as Book Clubs; members of a club can read and discuss a short story over 1-2 meetings and make a short presentation for the class. Advanced readers could read different short stories on the same topic or theme within a Club, comparing and contrasting stories individually read, or each Short-Story Club member could read a different story by the same author and the members could analyze the author’s craft. The Value of Anthologies - They introduce students to new authors, most of whom have written YA novels which students might become interested in reading. - The stories/essays in most of these anthologies are centered around a topic (sports) or theme (prejudice), offering differing perspectives and voices on that topic or theme. - Anthologies contain stories of various lengths, reading and interest levels, genres, and formats, allowing readers to find one or more stories that match them as readers. - Anthologies, especially the more current publications, offer culturally-diverse characters and authors as well as an assortment of genres and perspectives. 22 Short Story and 3 Personal Essay Anthologies Flying Lessons & Other Stories (2017) – Ellen Oh, ed. (with We Need Diverse Books) These ten stories about family, neighborhood, young love, racism, loss, poverty, sports, compassion, and dreams, written in a variety of genres and representing characters with diverse in ethnicity, race, religions, ability, and sexuality, represent multiple perspectives. The stories were written by popular MG authors Kwame Alexander, Soman Chainani, Matt de la Peña, Tim Federle, Grace Lin, Meg Medina, Walter Dean Myers, Tim Tingle, Jacqueline Woodson, and Kelly Baptist. Black Enough: Stories of Being Young and Black in America (2019) – Ibi Zoboi, ed. Zoboi invited “sixteen other Black authors to write about teens examining, rebelling against, embracing, or simply existing within their own ideas of Blackness” (xiii) in a book that invites some adolescents to see their lives and experiences reflected and invites others to experience the lives of their contemporaries. This anthology featured some of my favorite authors—Jason Reynolds, Nic Stone, Tracey Baptiste, Kekla Magoon, while meeting authors new to me, such as Leah Henderson, Dhonielle Clayton, Justina Ireland, and Ibi Zoboi. But even more interesting to me was that my favorite stories in the anthology were the type of plots I don’t usually gravitate to—stories with a bit of a twist. These stories broadened my reading horizons. Fresh Ink: An Anthology (2019) – Lamar Giles, ed. (with We Need Diverse Books)Twelve new stories—10 prose, 1 graphic story, and a 1-act play (published posthumously by some of the most popular, culturally-diverse, contemporary YA authors, such as Walter Dean Myers, Jason Reynolds, Gene Luen Yang, Nicola Yoon, Daniel Jose Older, and Sharon Flake. These stories present Muslim, Native, LBGTQ, Black, Iranian, Latinx, Filipina, and Japanese characters whose race or gender presents a challenge. Editor Giles states in his Introduction that his hope is, with this book, readers find heroes that looks, thinks, or feels like them and, “if not, …find glimpses into other worlds that are both respectful and enlightening.” How Beautiful the Ordinary: Twelve Stories of Identity (2009) – Michael Cart, ed.Twelve stories that present modern views of love, sexuality, and gender identification and LGBTQ experience by such authors as David Levithan, Margo Lanagan, Francesca Lia Block, William Sleator. Jacqueline Woodson, Gregory Maguire, Ron Koertge, Emma Donoghue, and Julie Ann Peters. Open Mic: Riffs on Life Between Cultures in Ten Voices (2013) –Mitali Perkins, ed. Ten fiction and memoir stories, written in a variety of genre—graphic stories, free verse, and prose—and perspectives—first person and third, about growing up between cultures by authors Mitali Perkins, Varian Johnson, David Yoo, G. Neri, Naomi Shahib Nye, Cherry Cheva, Debbie Rigaud, Olugbemisola Rhuday-Perkovich, Francisco Stork, and Gene Luen Yang. The Hero Next Door (2019) – Olugbenisola Rhuday-Perkovich, ed. (We Need Diverse Books) These thirteen MG short stories explore everyday acts of bravery among our families, neighbors, and friends; deeds that make our world a better, kinder place to live. A true multicultural collection, authors include familiar and new (to some readers) names from diverse cultures, such as R.J. Palacio, Linda Sue Park, Hena Khan, Cynthia Leitich, Ellen Oh, Lamar Giles, and Joseph Bruchac, whose stories offer diverse characters and a variety of perspectives. Unbroken: 13 Stories Starring Disabled Teens (2018) – Marieke Nijkamp, ed. The protagonists in each of these fictional stories are challenged by a diverse range of disabilities, such vision and ambulation impairment, anxiety, chronic pain, Bi-Polar Disorder, schizophrenia, cerebral palsy, and autism, and are offered different levels of support. This is a true windows-mirrors collection that will invite readers into the worlds of those who navigate life differently, even in different time periods and also feature culturally-diverse characters. As an #OwnVoices collection, all the authors identify as disabled along a physical, mental, or neuro-diverse axis, authors, many new to me, such as Francisco X, Stork, Heidi Heilig, Dhonielle Clayton, Corinne Duyvis, and Kody Keplinger. Prejudice: A Story Collection (1998) – Daphne Muse, ed. A collection of short stories about adolescents facing prejudice and ignorance of many types—prejudice about body image, disability, sexuality, gender, race, religion, and class issues. The stories expose the impact of prejudice on adolescents but also how it is possible for prejudice to transform into understanding, giving us hope for the future. The characters are diverse—Latinx, Black, Asian-American, Jewish, LBGTQ, immigrant, and teens with disabilities. The authors of these fifteen stories include such well-known names as Jacqueline Woodson, Flannery O’Connor, Sandra Cisneros, Chris Crutcher, and Mitali Perkins. Even though this anthology is over twenty years old, the stories are still relevant. Shelf Life: Stories by the Book (2003) – Gary Paulsen, ed. In his Introduction, author Gary Paulsen states, “Books saved my life. First reading and then writing them.…books are the reason I survived my miserable childhood.” Paulsen tasked ten authors to write stories for this collection, stories that feature books, real or fictious and the young people who are changed by their encounters with books. The stories, which “range from fantasy to farce, from realism to science fiction,” were created by authors such as Margaret Peterson Haddix, Ellen Wittlinger, M.T. Anderson, A, LaFaye, and Joan Bauer. Necessary Noise: Stories about Our Families as They Really Are (2003) – Michael Cart, ed. All families are different and can be defined by connections between people not necessarily biologically related. Some children live in ever-changing family structures. Editor Michael Cart invited ten sYA authors, such as Nikki Grimes, Sonya Sones, Walter Dean Myers, and Lois Lowry, to write stories about what “family” means in today’s world. Going Where I’m Coming From: Memoirs of American Youth (1995) - Anne Mazer, ed. These fourteen memoirs about immigration and bridging cultures, are set in Watts, Hawaii, New York, Boston, Cleveland, San Antonio, NJ, the Standing Rock Sioux reservation, the San Joaquin Valley, and rural Alabama. These stories of identity and self-discovery were written by such diverse authors as Luis Rodriguez, Ved Mehta, Thylias Moss, Naomi Shihab Nye, Lensey Namioka, and Gary Soto. Connections (1990) – Donald R. Gallo, ed. Seventeen stories about connections among teens divided into ‘Encounters,” “Clashes,” “Surprises,” and “Insights,” introducing readers to such authors as Sue Ellen Bridgers, Robin Brancato, Gordon Korman, Ouida Sebestyen, M.E.Kerr, and Judie Angell. Ultimate Sports (1995) – Donald R. Gallo, ed. Sixteen original stories about basketball and football, track and cross-country, water sports, racquetball and tennis, boxing and wrestling, featuring both male and female athletes. These stories are not only about the sports, they are about the advantages, such as teamwork, self-esteem, overcoming adversity, and perseverance, as well as the disappointments, competitions, and physical and psychological injuries that can result. Authors include Harry Mazer, Norma Fox Mazer, Carl Deuker, Will Weaver, Todd Strasser, and sports reporter Robert Lipsyte. First Crossing: Stories about Teen Immigrants (2007) – Donald Gallo, ed. From 1994 to 2017, the population of immigrant children in the United States grew by 51 percent, to 19.6 million, or one-quarter of all U.S. children. The ten fictional stories in this collection describe teen immigrants navigating not only the typical challenges of adolescence but also a new country and will provide a mirror and map for immigrant readers and help other readers gain insights into the lives of some of their peers. The diverse group of authors include Minfong Ho, Jean Davies Okimoto, Dian Curtis Regan, and Pam Munoz Ryan. What Are You Afraid Of?: Stories about Phobias – Donald R. Gallo, ed. A phobia is not just a fear but an extreme or irrational fear of or aversion to something, a debilitating anxiety. Eleven authors, including Joan Bauer, Alex Flinn, Neil Shusterman, Nancy Springer, Angela Johnson, and David Lubar, present ten stories about agoraphobia, claustrophobia, and intense fears of clowns, sharp knives, crossing streets, string, and public speaking and how their characters deal with these phobias. No Easy Answers: Short Stories about Teenagers Making Tough Choices (1999) – Donald R. Gallo, Ed Daily, adolescents face moral dilemmas and have tough choices to make and, when doing so, will face consequences—positive or negative. Some decisions affect their current lives and some will affect their futures. Sixteen YA authors, such as Will Weaver, M.E. Kerr, Gloria Miklowitz, Graham Salisbury, Virginia Euwer Wolff, Jack Gantos, and Walter Dean Myers, have contributed stories about teens dealing with such crises as peer pressure, unplanned pregnancy, drug us, gang violence—problems to which there are no easy answers. Owning It; Stories about Teens with Disabilities (2008) – Donald R. Gallo, ed. Ten original short stories about physical and psychological disabilities, such as ADD, Tourette’s Syndrome, alcoholism, blindness, obesity, asthma, brain damage, and cancer, written by such authors as Chris Crutcher, David Lubar, Kathleen Jeffrie Johnson, Gail Giles, and Robert Lipsyte. Visions: 19 Short Stories (1988) – Donald R. Gallo, ed. Nineteen original short stories about the joys and sorrows of teens, including romance, family divorce, death and loss, written by such authors as Fran Arrick, Joan Aiken, Cin Forshay-Lunsford, Jane Yolen, and Lensey Namioka. Join In: Multiethnic Short Stories by Outstanding Writers for Young Adults (1993) – Donald R. Gallo, ed. Seventeen original short stories about connections and confrontations, friendships, identity, prejudice, expectations by such authors as Rita Williams Garcia, Linda Crew, Minfong Ho, Gloria Gonzalez, Julius Lester, and Danny Romero. Twelve Shots: Outstanding Short Stories about Guns (1997) – Harry Mazer, ed Twelve stories featuring the world of guns and how they different adolescents in divergent paces and situations, written by such authors as Walter Dean Myers, Richard Peck, Chris Lynch, Frederick Bush, and Rita Williams-Garcia. Visions of Fantasy: Tales from the Masters (1989) – Isaac Asimov aand Martin H. Greenberg, eds According to editor Asimov, “Fantasy is an story that isn’t true, and can’t be.” This collection will introduce adolescent readers to fantasy or to acquaint fantasy-readers to a variety of popular fantasy authors. The twelve stories feature witches, princes, dragons, victims, and evil forces and were written by such writers as Ray Bradbury, Madeleine L’Engle, Jane Yolen, Bruce Coville, and Isaac Asimov. Hope Nation: YA Authors Shares Personal Moments of Inspiration (2018) – Rose Brock, ed. Contemporary adolescents are dealing with a variety of issues and feelings of powerlessness in a complex world that sometimes feels hopeless. Twenty-four YA authors speak to teens through poetry, essays, and letters of hope in this nonfiction, rather than short story, collection. They inspire readers by sharing difficult childhoods and obstacles and experiences they overcame. Readers will appreciate the personal stories of authors of their favorite novels, such as David Levithan, Julie Murphy, Angie Thomas, Nic Stone, Libba Bray, Nicola Yoon, Jason Reynolds, and I.W.Gregorio. Nevertheless, We Persisted: 48 Voices of Defiance, Strength, and Courage (2018) - Amy Klobuchar, ed. A collection of personal stories from actors, activists, athletes, politicians, musicians, writers, and teens who share stories of facing challenges and adversity, and even hatred, because of their race, gender, or sexual identity—but, nevertheless, persisted through these obstacles to achieve success in their fields and lives. These are stories of resilience that will resonate with some readers, enlighten others, and inspire all. Some of the contributors that teen readers will meet are teen activist Gavin Grimm, actor Maulik Pancholy, fashion model Jillian and chef Maneet Chauhan, While most entires are essays or personal narratives, some are creatively written in such formats as a graphic story, a script, a conversation, and an interview. You Too?: 25 Voices Share Their #MeToo Stories (2020) – Janet Gurtler, ed. Teens should realize that no young person—female or male—should be subject to sexual assault, or made to feel unsafe, less than, or degraded. Twenty-five YA authors share personal stories of physical and verbal abuse, harassment, and assault—from strangers, acquaintances, and family members. Included in this volume are stories of trial, loss, shame, and resilience and, most important, acknowledging self-worth. These essays illustrate to adolescent readers that there is no “right” way to deal with trauma; each survivor has to find their own way of processing and surviving trauma. This book will not only provide a mirror, sometimes unexpectedly, for some readers and a window for others, helping to build empathy, but will offer a map for many readers. This is a book that needs to be read and discussed by young women and men and the adults in their lives. Some familiar authors of diverse cultures who share their experiences are Eileen Hopkins, Cheryl Rainfield, Patty Blout, Ronni Davis, Nicholas DiDomizio, Andrea L. Rogers, and Lulabel Seitz. The Creativity Project: An Awesometastic Story Collection (2018) – Colby Sharp, ed. Every story starts with an inspiration—a picture, an object, a news article, a scene, a memory, the list can be endless. One of the most creative collections I have read, this Project celebrates not only stories, but story seeds. Editor and teacher Colby Sharp tasked 44 well-known and beloved authors with creating story prompts for each other, and the resulting short prose stories, graphic stories, poems, and illustrations can, in turn, be employed as mentor writings and prompts. Contributors include Grace Lin, Tracey Baptiste, R.J. Palacio, Kate DiCamillo, Lemony Snicket, Naolmi Shihab Nye, Sherman Alexie, Linda Sue Park, Jewell Parker Rhodes, and Kate Messner. This book will be a treasure for teachers of reading and writing and will entice even the most reluctant readers. Lesley is the author of Bridging the Gap: Reading Critically & Writing Meaningfully to Get to the Core; Comma Quest: The Rules They Followed. The Sentences They Saved; No More “Us” & “Them: Classroom Lessons and Activities to Promote Peer Respect; The Write to Read: Response Journals That Increase Comprehension; the recently-published Talking Texts: A Teachers’ Guide to Book Clubs across the Curriculum and has contributed chapters to Young Adult Literature in a Digital World: Textual Engagement though Visual Literacy and Queer Adolescent Literature as a Complement to the English Language Arts Curriculum, and the upcoming Story Frames. She served as past editor of Connections, the award-winning journal of the Georgia Council of Teachers of English and, as columnist for AMLE Magazine, shared before, during, and after-reading response strategies across the curriculum through ten “Writing to Learn” columns.

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Caspar David Friedrich and German Romanticism To react with wonder and awe to the created world and then endeavour to communicate something of that feeling to the rest of humanity. If this can be said to be the vocation of the artist, then the work of the great German Romantic, Caspar David Friedrich towers above that of all others. Friedrich was born in Griefswald in northern Germany in 1776 and after a brilliant career, died in obscurity in 1840. Only in relatively modern times has his art been discovered and given due recognition. His mother died in infancy, two of his sisters died young. He witnessed his brother drowning in an ice skating accident in the Baltic, an event that explains his melancholia and his obsession with death in some of his paintings. He had a deep religious faith, deriving no doubt, from his father’s reading of the Bible. German Romantic painting emerged as a reaction against the Enlightenment. In the 18th century there was a belief that all human problems could be solved by the application of pure reason. The Romantics rejected the emphasis on reason put forward by the philosophers, Rousseau and Kant, replacing the rationalist world view with an outlook based on the sensual and emotional. Romantic art now defined a new set of beliefs, and artists allocated prime importance to intuition and the unconscious, the idea of truth to the individual self and one’s inner feelings. Romanticism was a return to nature, which had become a new kind of religion, because the age of reason had done away with religion. Hand in hand with the return to nature there arose a new passion for landscape painting. Painters began to discover divine and mystical elements in nature and to explore man’s position within it. In addition, the Romantic landscape became the expression of a German yearning for the unification of a fragmented country: the expression of a German dream. The biggest influence on Friedrich and other German artists of this period were the ideas of the philosopher, Schelling who said: “Lying beneath the surface appearances of nature is a spirituality waiting to be revealed by the painter or poet.” In his technique and general approach to painting, Friedrich followed the German tradition of respect for traditional rules of space and the representation of the human figure. Friedrich looked on landscape painting as a means of celebrating the natural world and the divine power that created it. His landscapes are really religious paintings. “The Divine is everywhere, even in a grain of sand,” he wrote. He wanted to symbolize the realm beyond the senses, that place of serenity and peace which he never tired of seeking. His conclusion was that God is in all things and that the landscape in all its manifestations is a reflection of His presence. God, like Nature, is infinite. Through art, spirit becomes accessible to the physical senses. Friedrich stressed the solitude of man in front of creation. He sought to depict emotions such as loneliness and desolation. His paintings always drew out the spiritual side of the landscape and often depicted nature at its most melancholic: lonely stretches of sea and mountains, or snowscapes bathed in a strange and eerie luminosity. The middle distance is often eliminated from his paintings. There is a sharp contrast between the foreground, which is often dark and detailed, and the background which fades out of reach, lost in a fog or luminous haze. For him, the fog represented the cloud of our unknowing. In classical landscape, everything was visually clarified. In the 18th century, according to certain theorists, fog meant separation from God and aimless wandering. Friedrich wrote: “Landscapes wrapped in fog seem more vast, more sublime, fog stimulates the imagination and reinforces expectation.” This introduces the principle of total uncertainty, an uncertainty as to what lies beyond our senses, or what the future may hold. The foreground is the here and now, representing our imprisonment in this world. The background, often shrouded in fog, symbolizes the infinite, the realm beyond the senses, that place of serenity and peace which he never tired of seeking, but which seems to be inaccessible. The vast gulf between the foreground and background symbolizes our separation from what lies beyond. His paintings featured solitary figures absorbed in the meditation of nature, often placed in lonely settings amidst ruins, mountains and the rocky Baltic coast. In many of his paintings a figure in the foreground stands gazing into the distance, representing the solitude of man still firmly rooted to this world but yearning for the infinite – man as a stranger here. His spiritual intentions were expressed in simplified, rather geometric compositions, often using muted colours. - The solitude of the human in front of creation – man a lonely stranger here, yearning for the infinite. - The inaccessibility of our goal, or of God – man’s lonely quest. - Beauty in a transient world. The unity between humans, God and nature. - Death and resurrection. He travelled round Germany building up a collection of drawings of natural motifs – trees, rocks, mountains, plants, clouds, ships and old ruins. These natural motifs, which he regarded as descriptive surface appearances, were later transfigured in his paintings as symbols of hidden values, or of invisible reality. He believed that the objects we see in the world around us are like cloaks hiding a greater reality underneath, and that we can find this hidden reality by reflection. “The painter should paint what is inside himself, not what is in front of him,” he wrote. Evergreen trees are symbols of eternal life or the Christian way of life; the sun a symbol of God; the moon a symbol of Christ; mountains, the goal of the romantic quest, are symbols of God. Dead trees or dying oaks are symbols of death; rocks are seen as symbols of enduring faith; the fog, a symbol of our unknowing; the sky symbolising salvation and freedom - the goal of a quest or of a future existence. Ships and boats symbolise the journey of life and its uncertainty. The close relationship between Friedrich’s way of life – its simplicity, generosity and love of nature as the ultimate refuge – and his art, is evident in all his work. The relevance of Friedrich’s art for today’s world lies in the realisation, slowly dawning on us, that nature is not simply inert and lifeless, to be exploited and abused, but breathing its own life and spirit. His art is a wonderful revelation of that spirit. Der Wanderer uber dem Nebelmeer (Wanderer Looking over a Sea of Fog). Friedrich. 30.005. “When a landscape is covered in fog it heightens expectation”, Friedrich. The Wanderer represents a man, possibly Friedrich himself, standing on top of a high mountain with his back to the viewer. It symbolizes the solitude of man who has reached what he expected would be the ultimate goal of his life while still remaining firmly rooted to this world. A goal may have been reached but there still remains a yearning for the infinite. The traveller/wanderer has left the fog-enshrouded depths behind him and climbed to the summit. Does this represent his triumph over the struggles of life? The picture is a metaphor for our journey through this life. As we struggle to what we think is the highest peak of achievement we are still confronted with what seems an infinity of mountains still to be scaled as we look across towards an ever extending horizon. How can we really ever get through the mist of uncertainty to reach our ultimate goal and achieve full contentment? Or is this beyond our grasp in this life? The wanderer’s head is echoed in the crag on the right, symbolizing the unity of man and nature. The mountain peak to which he is turned represents the goal of his quest, the God symbol. The shape of the mountain is echoed in his shoulders, symbolizing the affinity between man and nature. Winter Landscape 1811, Caspar David Friedrich Schwerin, Staatliche Museum, Germany. This is a more pessimistic picture, painted during the uncertainties of the Napoleonic wars. Here, the wanderer represents the artist himself, lost as night falls in a wilderness of snow and ice. He passes tree trunks and dead oaks – all reminders of death, and then faces into a frozen lake or sea. The man is overcome by a feeling of hopelessness. There is no sign of a shelter for the night or even a path. Some of the oaks are already hacked down, reminding him of death. There is no light from the leaden dark blue sky above. The old man with his crutches, staggers and falters. The way ahead is closed. This is the end of the line, the end of the road for one man – and for humanity. Man and Woman Contemplating the Moon. Friedrich, 1829. Berlin, Nationalgalerie Later on in his career, Friedrich often placed his wife Caroline in his paintings. Here she is with her arm on his shoulder as if seeking support. The couple have paused while walking through the mountain forest at night-time. Darkness envelops them as they gaze at the crescent moon. Trees and rocks acquire eerie dimensions. They now pause and stand beside a mighty pine tree, seemingly rooted to the top of the ridge from where a great gulf separates them from their goal. The stony up-hill path shrouded in darkness, is the path of life. The serene pose of the couple contrasts sharply with the half-uprooted oak tree on their right – an allusion to their deaths or a reminder of the trials and tribulations of life. However, the ridge of evergreens in the distance (missing from the detail) is a symbol of our hope of eternal life. Having reached the top of the ridge, they have eyes for nothing but the full moon, the symbol of Christ. In the Romantic tradition, the moon can represent an inaccessible goal, drawing us on but not enabling us to get there. The man is dressed in an old German costume, a medieval style of dress which was illegally worn by German patriots. In this, Friedrich reveals his democratic politics during the return to autocratic rule in Europe following the defeat of Napoleon. In the autumn of 2004 this painting was exhibited in the National Gallery of Ireland with a selection of other works by Friedrich in a special exhibition of German Romantic painting from the National Gallery of Berlin. It is a very dark toned painting. Most reproductions represent it as being much lighter in tone. Caspar David Friedrich, Moonrise over the Sea, 1822. Nationalgalerie, Berlin Friedrich would take long walks at daybreak and at sundown, and even into the night. Alone, he strove to penetrate the surface appearance of things and the hidden aspects of nature, pausing to contemplate a special rock on the seashore, a blackened stump toppled by lightning, or an uprooted tree still green with leaves. Moonlight, for the Romantic generation, was an extraordinary and magical experience. The moon was a theme in philosophy, music and poetry. Friedrich was dazzled by the moon, but there was also something melancholic about its appearance. It drew him into depths of contemplation as if he were searching for another dimension of being. For him, it was a luminous bridge between heaven and earth. The Chalk Cliffs of Rugen. 1818 Caspar David Friedrich. Oskar Reinhart Foundation Winterthur, Germany. In the summer of 1818, shortly after his marriage, Friedrich took his young wife on a tour of his homeland, Greifswald, and together with his favourite brother, Christian, they visited the spectacular white cliffs of the island of Rugen. This picture resulted in that visit. The central figure is the artist himself gazing over the precipice while holding fast to the grass, you could say holding on for dear life. The figure on the right leans against a dead tree stump (a symbol of death), his feet precariously anchored against a decaying bush as he contemplates the scene with the departing boats (symbolising the voyage of the soul after death). The figure on the left is his wife, Caroline, dressed in red, the colour of love. According to some authorities, the two men represent Friedrich himself. The standing man is the painter looking at nature in its immensity and saying ‘How vast, how mighty, how glorious!’ The man peering at the blades of grass on the edge of the cliff is the other Friedrich, who said ‘Every flower, every stalk is admirable and beautiful because the divine is present in everything’. Seen thus, the two men are counterparts of the near and the distant. And the woman? She is not excluded from their relationship but expresses her own experience of nature by her gesture. She draws attention to the depth of the abyss between the nearness of the grass and the distance of the sea. Her eyes are closed as if obeying her husband’s instruction to ‘close your physical eye’. This connects her to the standing man who is ignoring that advice for the moment. The trees and branches meeting above can be seen as a heart, making a coded link between the two of them. An idyllic scene which seems to belie itself, with a hint of melancholy beneath surface appearances? Is he saying that even the simple pleasures of this world are illusory, that they will not last in the face of the reality of death, or is he referring to the precariousness of life, poised as it is, on the edge of an abyss? Is the painting a reminder of death in the midst of happiness? Can we be really happy in this life? The other side of the coin need not always be death. There is often the loneliness of the artist, his fear of rejection and of failure. Woman of the Setting Sun. 1818. Caspar David Friedrich. Museum Folkwang, Essen, Germany. This time Friedrich did not eliminate the middle ground, but adopted the classic construction of receding planes. The figure of the woman, dressed in town fashions who has obviously come here on a journey, stands in front of a farmed landscape with rocks, fields and a small church, giving a religious note to the scene. The path on which she stands, symbolising the life-journey, ends abruptly. It is as if thus far she can go but no further. The infinite is inaccessible. She stands alone on the verge of the ‘other world’, far from her everyday cares, like a figure in a dream or a sudden vision. She stands pointing at two rocks on either side of the path as a sign of her belief in eternal life. Her outstretched arms echo the rays of the sun and thus unite the darkest and lightest areas of the picture – in other words, this world and the hereafter. The coming of the night of death brings with it the certainty of a new sunrise symbolising eternal life. Everything suggests that this picture represents a spiritual landscape in which the woman indicates the way towards the light, the mountains and God. The whole is bathed in a transparent light, in which there is no longer any obstacle, whether rocks, snow or fog, between humanity and the divine presence. Caspar David Friedrich, Village Landscape in Morning Light, 1822. Nationalgalerie, Berlin. Village Landscape in Morning light was painted as a companion to Moonrise over the Sea. A shepherd rests against the trunk of a leafy oak while his flock graze peacefully in the fertile plains. Apart from the shepherd who represents humanity, here again are the usual symbols – the oak tree (is it a dying oak, a symbol of death?), the mountains and sky representing God, the goal of the shepherd’s quest, and this time a pool of life-giving water. The middle distance is included indicating that while the shepherd can rest for now, he still has come considerable distance to go on his journey. There are echoes of Psalm 23 in this painting: ‘In meadows of green grass he lets me lie, to the waters of rest he leads me; there he revives my soul’. Two Men Contemplating the Moon. Caspar David Friedrich. This picture glows with an unearthly ethereal light, a painting dark in tone. Friedrich was obsessed with the theme of nocturnal contemplation, the attempt to establish a connection between the terrestrial and the lunar realms. The two men are probably Friedrich and one of his pupils, the young man presumably leaning on the wisdom of the older. The location could have been the cliffs of Rugen, but the most reasonable guess (according to art historians) would be somewhere in the Hartz region which the artist knew very well. The composition represents the end of a journey uphill through rough terrain (life struggle) to observe the moon and to experience a connection with an infinite and otherworldly cosmos which draws us on but remains beyond our grasp – a reality that lends an air of melancholy to the painting. Can we realize all our dreams? Compare with Wanderer Looking over a Sea of Fog. Morning. 1820. Caspar David Friedrich. Niedersachsisches Landsmuseum, Hanover, Germany. Friedrich painted a four-part series showing the time of day. Morning symbolises the beginning of a man’s life. A fisherman pushes his boat out through the mists into the deep, heading off on his uncertain journey through the world, the fog symbolising the cloud of unknowing. On the left are nets hung on poles to dry, implying the daily toil involved in earning a living. The house represents the small area of security that humans succeed in creating for themselves in this world. The fir-trees on the left symbolise the Christian way of life which we need to guide us through this life. The man’s goal lies hidden beyond the mists obscuring the distant mountains. There are echoes of Friedrich’s vision in the writings of the 19th century American poet, Walt Whitman who looked on the things of this world as miracles and said that “a leaf of grass is no less than the journeywork of the stars – “And the narrowest hinge in my hand puts to scorn all machinery, And the cow crunching with depressed head surpasses any statue... And the running blackberry would adorn the parlours of heaven.“ In a poem entitled Miracles the same poet wrote about – “The wonderfulness of insects in the air, Or the wonderfulness of the sundown, or of stars shining so quiet and bright, Or the exquisite delicate thin curve of the new moon in spring. These with rest, one and all, are to me miracles.“ “Stand upon the summit of the mountain and gaze over the long rows of hills. Observe the passage of streams and all the magnificence that opens up before your eyes; and what feeling grips you? You lose yourself in boundless spaces, your whole being experiences a silent cleansing and clarification, your I vanishes, you are nothing, God is everything” – Carl Gustav Carus, pupil of Friedrich. “I must be alone and I must know that I am alone in order to see and hear nature fully. I must be in a state of osmosis with my environment. I must become of the same material as the clouds and mountains of my land in order to be who I am” – Friedrich. It can be noted that many of Friedrich’s paintings may stimulate a response in creative writing and an awakening to the natural world. See two further works by Friedrich: Monk by the Sea, 1809/10 and Abbey in the Oakwoods, 1809/10, in The National Gallery, Berlin.

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TERM: FIRST TERM SUBJECT: LITERATURE IN ENGLISH CLASS: SS 3 REVISION: LITERARY TERMS AND DEFINITION SUBJECT MATTER / THEME / MOTIF CHARACTER / CHARACTERIZATION These literary terms that will be discussed later are seen also to be the conventions of creative writing or concrete issues considered when appreciating a literacy work. That is, a proper understanding of these terms would yield proper appreciation and understanding of any world of art. In other words, students of literature should have a proper understanding of what these terms mean, to be able to discuss the aspects in a work of literature. And these terms are: Background which can be seen as the situation of a play, novel or poem, is a combination of the circumstances, the setting inclusive, out of which emerges the story’s action. It also includes the motivation and the stimuli which give rise to the choices open to or made available to some characters in a novel or play. It was the background (situation) of oppression and domination of blacks by whites in South Africa that gave rise to the spineless (timid) characters that we often meet in South African Stories of the apartheid era. Setting is the particular location where all the actions in a piece of fiction or drama take place, at a particular time or under certain psychological and moral conditions. These features serve as the plat-form against which characters live and pursue their life goals. Moreover, setting is an important factor in the author’s choice of subject matter and certainly is influential in the implementation of his theme(s). A story may have a physical, socio-psychological, temporal or metaphorical setting. The physical setting of a story is its realistic background, its geographical environment. It is the physical location of the occurrences in the story. This may be localized in a known or imaginary/unfamiliar place. In drama, the physical scenery presented on stage is also part of its physical setting. The physical features of the places such as the flora and fauna, the jungle, the hills and mountains, the landscape etc. are important in tangible setting. Such other details as sounds (including music and background noises) and odours are also part of physical setting. The socio – psychological setting of a piece of literature has to do with its social emotional atmosphere, the cultural state of a period. It includes the language spoken and the way it is spoken, the norms and the customs, occupations, attitudes, religious outlook, the moral and state of value, the living conditions, the quality of human relationship, the intellectual and emotional environment of the characters, the economic and social class formations prevalent at a time etc. These influence the characters and inform their motivations and actions in a work. Setting is temporal when it is simply a reference to historical times such as in Renaissance England, at the turn of the century post – independence era in Africa, the Nigerian Civil War period etc. It is metaphorical when it tends to objectify or vividly show internal states. It is important to note that the kind of setting a writer adopts is a function of his intentions, themes or notions. A writer could also utilize all these levels of setting in one work or could make use of some. Plot is the sequence of actions which constitute the nucleus (centre) of the story and conveys the theme. It is what the characters do or what is done to them as the story progresses. As bones hold up our mass of flesh and remain the only easily observable features on an x – ray film, so is the story’s plot, its structural framework. A plot is a carefully thought-out plan in which all the events, all the actions and reactions of the characters contribute towards the forward leap of the story. It is the plot that imbues (gives) a story with a recognizable form, a definite structure or shape. A simple plot has pyramidal shape made up of an exposition, complication, conflict, climax and denouement. It is necessary to explain the various parts of the simple plot: (i) Exposition (Development): At this point, the author establishes the background of the story, paints and builds up the setting and introduces the readers to his character. (ii) Complication: Here something throws spanner in the works. That is, some unexpected event disrupts the plans of the chief character. (iii) Conflict: This is a clash between the hero and the villain in particular, or the clash of all opposing forces in the story in general. (iv) Climax: It is the highest point of tension and intensity in a piece of fiction or drama. It is also called the turning-point because it is after here that the reader descends the slope of the story’s actions. A conventional plot usually has one climax while a more complex one would have more than one climax. (v) Denouement (Resolution): It is the unraveling or unknotting of the events. At this stage in the narration, the tense situation is resolved or contained through the action or inaction of certain characters. The simple or conventional or well-made plot is only possible when we have a subject matter and theme which can be expressed by a linear or straight forward development of events. That is, because X happened, Y took place, and because Y took place, Z occurred etc. SUBJECT MATTER AND THEME AND MOTIF The subject matter of a work of literature is simply the issue the author discusses in his work. And this issue is made up of the particular actions, characters and settings which the author chooses for his work. In other words, these make up the subject matter, the surface facts. From the fore-going, a novel’ssubject could be a place, a situation or the quality of the human condition. It could centre on the adventures of a character with the opposite sex, a flashback into childhood, the modern Nigerian city (always the subject matter of many of Ekwensi’s novels), the Nigerian civil war (already the subject matter of many Nigerian novels), undergraduate life the travails of long spinsterhood or the embarrassment of chronic bachelorhood, barrenness etc. Out of a subject matter there could be many themes, themes being the abstract ideas that the subject matter exemplifies. No theme is possible without a subject matter because it is in the relationship of the former to the later that the ultimate truth the writer has in mind is made obvious. The theme (thesis) of a novel, poem or drama is the message it wishes to impart, some overt or subtle philosophical pronouncement it strives to make. The subject matter of Sola Owonibi’s “Homeless Not Hopeless” is composed of the mere facts of the action, character and setting of the poem; while the truth the author aims at namely, the economical, social and spiritual importance of the beggars in the African society, constitutes the theme. The subject matter, or simply subject, is the area of a story’s focus while the theme is the author’s attitude towards it. For example, if the subject of a story is poverty, the theme may be the deprivations caused by it or the disadvantages to which a poor person is exposed in a developing country. Motif should not be confused with motive. It is derived from Latin movere, motum-meaning to move. It is a particular idea or dominant element running through a work of art, constituting part of the main theme. It is a type of incident, device or formula which recurs frequently in a piece of creative literature. Very many authors aware of these motifs make use of them in their stories, poems or plays. For instance, the motif of a beautiful lady who rejects all her handsome suitors but marries an ugly or non-human one is derived from folklore. Motif or the German leitmotif (a guidingspirit) is equally applied to the frequent repetition of a significant phrase or set description or complex of images in a particular work. If the theme of a work is the author’s statement of value for or against the events constituting the subject matter of a work, its motif is a recognizable incident which recalls a similar incident in oral or written literature or attracts a historical or bible comparison. In the example we gave about the subject matter of a work being poverty and the theme being the deprivations it gives rise to, the motif could be the biblical incident between Lazarus and the king’s dogs which such a theme recalls. Theme is occasionally used interchangeably with motif even though ‘theme’ has to do with some underlying doctrine implicitly or explicitly stated in an imaginative writing and which the author persuades his readers to behold. Somehow, every creative writer has his own notions about life and humanity. We call this notion a writer’s philosophy of life which in a good artistic work is often hidden from a lazy reader or the reader who is merely interested in the story. Cyprian Ekwensi’sJagua Nana has two controlling ideas (themes) namely, the city corrupts young people and secondly, those who are morally deficient must pay for their short comings while one of its easily perceivable motifs is ‘the wages of sin is death’ CHARACTER AND CHARACTERIZATION M.H. Abrams speaks of the characters in a literary work in this vein: “the persons presented in a dramatic or narrative work who are interpreted by the reader as being endowed with moral and dispositional qualities that are expressed in what they say – the dialogue and by what they do – the action.” In drama or fiction, there would be no story or plot without a character or characters. Without characters, there would be no action since the events are determined by them. The conception of, and manner of presentation of characters have a lot of influence on the stature of apiece of creative writing as much as the significance of the story’s events and patterning. Character means both the people (including animals) who appear in a novel, play or poem and the description of the personality of any of these figures, particularly those traits which have significant effect on the development of the work. To build up characters who are realistic and credible, who enjoy our love and affection or elicit our hatred or condemnation is probably one of the most herculean challenges that confront the imagination of a creative writer. In conventional terms, the most important character in a story about whose fortunes and misfortunes we are most desirous of knowing is the protagonist, also called the hero or heroine, whether or not there is anything heroic in his or her experiences or actions. The protagonist is often at the centre of the story’s action and controls the universe in which his actions or inaction provoke one form of crisis or the other. In the process of the hero trying to tame his universe, he usually meets some resistance. The reader is often desirous of knowing how he faces these obstacles and what he experiences in the attempt. Sometimes we so get immersed in identifying with him that we laugh when he overcomes and sign when he is disadvantaged. The character in opposition to the protagonist is called the antagonist or the villain. He opposes the hero and tries to foil him in his plans. He makes every effort to soil the hero’s good name andreputation, and / or snatch his lover or mistress from him. The foil of a character contrasts him; his role in the novel or play is essentially to serve as a mirror of behavioural contrast to the chief character. The hero’s goodness stands in bold relief if the antagonist is shown to be mean, cunning and devilish. However, the antagonist need not be an ‘evil’ character in the way that the protagonist may not have to be a ‘good’ personality. For example, in The Merchant of Venice by Williams Shakespeare, the protagonist is shylock, the resolute money-lender, while the antagonist is the kind-hearted Antonia. Two main characters exist in literature. There are the round and flat or static characters. This is in fact the only way we can conveniently say it because human personalities are difficult to be neatly classified, the human person being capable of adopting a combination of roundness and flatness if he so desires, and depending on the circumstances before him. The roundness of character indicates that a literary character is dynamic, complex, developing, life-like and multi-faceted. A round character grows and changes as the narrative progresses. The growth may be physical – from childhood to adulthood; it may be mental /psychological – from ignorance to knowledge, or from naiveté to sophistication. A round character is not usually in the same state of innocence or ignorance with which he is associated at the beginning of the novel or play. Towards the end, he now exhibits a new consciousness, a new awareness and can now behold reality with new eyes, capable of surprising the reader in a convincing manner. The other type of character is the flat or simple character, also referred to as one-dimensional, non-developing or simple character. Flat characters are quite predictable and never really grow or change in the course of the story. Often static characters are minor characters, but this need not be so. The stock character, on the other hand, may be round or flat. His distinguishing quality is that he is a character type which recurs repeatedly in a particular literary genre. He is an archetypal model, the typical character specimen whom authors try to portray as prototypes. Characterization is the effort made by a creative writer to erect credible characters. Authors adopt a number of methods in characterization. There is exposition in which the writer or narrator steps into the tale to let the reader know about the character such as his physical attributes, his motives and his traits. Another is the dramatic or scenic or showing method, the author presents the character as he acts, reflects, talks or interacts without any attempt to tell the reader the type of person the character is. The writer allows the character to reveal himself through his words and actions. Characterization could be advanced by the author’s use of some characters to inform his reader about the other characters. In that way the writer is further removed from the scene, and in that way increases his level of objectivity in the story. A writer does this by pitching characters against one another in dialogues at which they talk about their fellow characters. There is also stream of consciousness method by which the writer merely records the state of a character’s mental activity as it traverses the present and the past, as it reels off the character’s mental torture or excitement. Though this approach, the writer appears to be showing us the character’s mental film of feelings, thoughts and memories which flows or streams. In the end readers learn about characters by what they do, what they say and what others say about them. In one work, a writer may use all these techniques or some of them. LANGUAGE AND STYLE This has been variously defined as “the manner of linguistic expression” (M.H. Abrams), “the patterning of language” (Richard Taylor), “way of writing “(A.F. Scott), “that which intervenes between the artist and his material” (Victor Jones), “the expertise which goes into your creation” (Chukwuemeka Ike) etc. While some authorities seem to anchor style on language, some consider it as being constituted by the overall presentation and achievement of effect in a work. But it has a lot to do with the manner of writing with which a creative writer is associated. Hence, there is a popular adage which says that the style is the man himself. “Style is the final result of what the author does with the materials he employs – his characters, the environment of the story, the narrative perspective (is it in the first person or in the omniscient voice etc?), the organization of the events and actions and the implementation of linguistic devices. Style includes a creative writer mannerism and rhetoric, his effective use of language for the decoration of ideas and for painting features in bold relief, presenting facts with charity and brevity, the utilization of wits, ironies and jests and the arousal of emotions in others, for, as F.L. Lucas says in his Style, “without emotion, no art of literature; nor any other art.” Style possesses two principal ingredients: the content as shown in the expression of ideas and the way this is done; and the consistent and unique manner an author deploys various devices and strategies so as to make his work memorable. To examine a writer’s style demands a consideration of all that he does in a piece of creative writing with a peculiarity associated with him. In addition to a characteristic portrayal of characters, setting, narrative points of view, events and actions which we pointed out in the preceding paragraph, there are also the author’s use of dialogue, his humour, powers of observation, the length and variety of his sentence structure, his fidelity or otherwise to linguistic conventions, the words and word-types he employs, the paragraphing and figurative use of language. Discussions on style often tend to centre on the author’s levels of language deployment: the high (or grand), the middle (or mean), and the low (or base, or plain) styles. A writer may employ the three levels in the same novel or play, depending on his characters and the cumulative effect he has in mind. It is the duty of an author to ensure that the level of style in a literary work is appropriate to the speaker, the occasion and the dignity of the literary genre in question. The high or grand style is associated with formality in language, consisting of elaborate sentence patterns and figurative ornamentation, tight, united statements, balanced constructions and consciously designed statements. The middle level is akin to informality in language use which would include the language of domestic conversation and the classroom, ordinary speech rhythms, loose constructions, short, simple and compound sentences, phrases and clauses which often stand on their own, declamatory statements and the admittance of interjections, and asides which interfere with the movement of the basic sentence construction. The low level is the illiterate / vulgate speech exemplified by regional dialects, slang and artisan vocabulary. We may also classify styles according to literary epoch - Augustan style, metaphysical style etc. It may be derived from the source of its influence – the Biblical style; or from a type of use, say the journalistic or the scientific style; or it could be traced to the influence of a specific author – Shakespearean, Miltonic, Achebean, Soyinkanetc styles. It is after the consideration of all these stylistic facets that an author’s style may be described in a number of ways. These include its classification as possessing the ‘ornate’, ‘episodic’, ‘poetic’, ‘elaborate’, ‘forceful’, ‘florid’, ‘gay’, ‘sober’, ‘dull’, ‘pace/racy’ etc. style. POINT OF VIEW Point of view in a story is the author’s expressive devices, his models of narration. It is associated with the theme, but more precisely it is the outcome of the subject – theme relationship. An author’s chosen theme or themes have a direct impact on his viewpoint because just as point of view is the angle from which a story is narrated, an author’s theme is informed by his chosen perspective. In drama and poetry, the point of view is often easily identifiable, but in fiction this is not always possible. The fact is that narrations have narrators who may act as filters standing between the author, and the story events, on one hand, and the characters and the author, on the other. Every story then could be told in a number of way or a combination of some of them. The three common approaches are the use of one of the character in the story; the use of a third person, an outsider who is not a participant in the story events; and lastly, the story could ‘tell’ itself without the intervention of anybody whatsoever. The use of one of the characters is also referred to as the personalized point of view; the third person narrator (persona) is the omniscient view in which the third – person pronouns (he, she, they or it) are used in reference to characters in a story; and there is also the non-intervening narration, also referred to as the objective point of view in which the narrator merely introduces the characters to the reader without any effort to describe them or to reveal their inner thoughts and motivations. (i) The Participant/Personalized Point of View This is equally referred to as the first – person point of view. In this narrative technique, the writer appoints one of the characters who is both a participant and a narrator. Such a character is usually the story’s protagonist. He uses ‘I’ or ‘We’ in places. The voice is his own, not necessarily the author’s. He is not necessarily the author’s favourite and what he says, the follies he commits or the fortunes he makes may not necessarily enjoy the author’s support. In addition, the first person narrator in any work of literature must not necessarily be a major character. That is, a minor character can enjoy the right to be the narrator in a piece of literature. (ii) The Non-Participant Narrator/Third Person/Omniscient Point of View The narrator here is omniscient, he is everywhere. He is not a character in the novel. The story told in the omniscient viewpoint uses the third person (he, she, it or they) in describing the characters and their action except when they are conversing. The omniscient narrator is an outsider who enjoys the characteristics of God omniscience. He sees and knows everything, and can and does enter the minds of the story’s characters to reveal their fears and hopes. He knows the past, the present and the future of the characters. The non-participant narrator or the third-person point of view is sub-divided into three: the editorial omniscient narrator, the neutral omniscient narrator and selective omniscience (stream of consciousness). In editorial omniscience, the author, in addition to a full knowledge of his characters, intervenes from time to time to say one or two things about his characters. In neutralomniscience, the narrator makes no comments on his feelings about anything instead he makes available the much he knows about each character without passing value judgement on them or on their actions. In the third type of omniscience the narrator has access to very few of the characters, sometimes to one of them. This is called selective omniscience or stream of consciousness technique because of the narrator’s restriction to one character or two whose formed and unformed thoughts, emotions and dreams he is able to make available to the reader by occasionally penetrating their consciousness. (iii) The Objective/Camera Point of View Like in the omniscient narrator model, the objective /camera/disappearing author point of view uses the third person pronouns but has no omniscient narrator. The author does not intervene in the course of the story. It is described as ‘camera’ because the author does no more than present the characters as they act and converse with one another. The author makes no attempt to describe them or to penetrate the recesses of their consciousness, or to judge their actions and reasons for doing what they do. It is the reader who makes all the deductions based on what he hears the characters say or do and what the characters say about other or what they do to one another. There are neither authorial intrusions nor the summarization of events in parts. One incident gives rise to another without intervention from any quarters whatsoever. The result is that there are usually a lot of conversations, almost resembling what happens in a drama. (iv) Multiple Points of View This is the use of more than one point of view in the same story. It can lead to the complexity of a work. A story written in the first person could also have a substantial number of passages in which the stream of consciousness is employed by the narrator to dissect his own thought. It is also possible that an author whose point of view is omniscient could have passage of stream of consciousness, some letters or even diaries. RHYTHM, METRE AND SCANSION Apart from inventing new pictures/images reflecting one or more of the sense impressions, poets quite often arrange their diction with the purpose of achieving a special kind of beat, pulse, movement or rhythm. This is especially true of English poetry before the 20th century. This is not to say that rhythm is not important in 20th century poetry, for there is a sense in fact in which every good poem has an inherent rhythm, even if it is irregular. J.P. Clark’s “Ibadan” may possess irregular rhythm, but it does suggest that the arrangement of buildings and structures in the city is irregular and confused: running splash of rust and gold-flung and scattered among seven hills like broken china in the sun. Rhythm in words or drumming in wave motion or in landscape refers to the repetition of pattern, particularly when it is done with some amount of variation and movement. Rhythm is a natural process such as we experience in our breathing, speaking, walking, pounding, etc. in the existence of day and night; in the appearance and disappearance of the moon or the seasons etc. In English speech, the voice falls more heavily on some sounds than on others. English poetry has alwaysmade use of these rhythmic patterns. Therefore, whenever we read a poem, we should try to observe the words that are emphasized or repeated, and the general pacing of the poem. Essentially that is what rhythm in poetry is about. Rhythm in poetry expresses emotion and suggests or aids the determination of a poem’s theme. In English poetry, the regular beats are referred to as the foot or metre. Until very recently, English poems were written with an eye on certain rules of rhythm known as metrical laws. Metre refers to the pattern of accented and unaccented syllables in a line. This is possible because English as a language is syllable – timed. In other words, every English word is composed of phonemes which are either stressed or unstressed (account and unaccented). For example, con/duct (noun) and con/duct (verb). When we read a poetic line aloud, our voice is never at the same level throughout; we vary and modulate it. The pitches fall on particular syllables according to the nature of their phonemic weight. Sometimes a whole word is taken to be a syllable as in come, put, quick, John, eat, hell etc. At other times, the word is regarded as possessing two syllables and so is divided in a manner that the accent falls on the first or second syllable. For example, quickly, report, rapport etc. Thus is a poetic line, one would expect to find a number of accented and unaccented syllables arranged in an identifiable order or pattern, known as the metre. It is the arrangement of the feet in a line of the stressed and unstressed syllables that determines what the metre of the whole poem is; (i) The Iambus/Iambic Foot (0-): consists of one unaccented (unstressed) syllable followed by one accented (stressed) syllable. (a) That time of year thou mayst in me behold When yellow leaves, or none or few do hang. (b) The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. (ii) The Trochee/Trochaic Foot (- 0): consist of one accented syllable followed by one unaccented syllable. (a) There they are, my fifty men and women. In a cavern, in a canyon. (iii) The Anapest /Anapestic Foot ( 0 0 - ): two unaccented syllables followed by one accented syllable. It is also called running rhythm because of its prevalence in swift movements. And his cohorts were gleaning in purple and gold. (iv) The Dactyl /Dactylic Foot (-0 0): consists of one accented syllable followed by two unaccented syllables (a) Half a league, half a league, half a league onwards (v) The Spondee /Spondaic Foot ( - -): One stressed syllable followed by another stressed syllable. (a) All whom war, death, age, ague, tyrannies Despair, law, chance hath slaine (vi) The Pyrrhic/Pyrrhic Foot (o o): two successive unstressed syllables as found in the second and fourth feet of the first line below: Scansion is the marking of strong and weak stresses where they fall in the various syllables. To scan a passage of poetry is to plod through it line by line, noting its component feet while indicating where the strong and weak pauses fall within the poetic line. It is the measuring and marking of lines by taking them foot by foot for the purpose of establishing their metrical pattern. This is the repetition of the same sound, usually but not always, at the end of two or more lines. Rhymed words must have the same vowel sounds, or similar consonantal sounds preceding the vowels or they must enjoy parity of accents. These would ensure a perfect rhyme. (a) There is sweet music here that softer falls Than petals from blown roses on the grass, Or night dews on still water between walls Of shadowy granite, in a gleaming pass; Music that gentler on the spirit lies Than tired eyelids upon eyes. (Tennyson, “The Lotos Eaters”) The rhyme scheme in the above passage is ababcc. There are a variety of rhyme schemes including abab, aabb, abba, acbc etc. The portion of the poem cited below has the rhyme scheme of aabbcc. (b) Two neighbor, who were rather dense, Considered that their mutual fence Were more symbolic of their peace (Which they maintained should never cease) If each about his home and garden Set up a more substantial warden. (William Soutar, “Parable”) A verse/poem without any rhyme is referred to as blank verse while the free verse is a poem which disregards the traditional nations of rhyme and metre, and rather relies on the nature of the content to achieve its poetic form. © Lesson Notes All Rights Reserved 2023

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There are 3 different assignments listed below: Assignment 1) What was your favorite single fragment or poem from Sappho? Why? Be specific. Then, select at least two separate, lines/phrases from any of Sappho’s poetry that you found interesting, provocative, memorable, etc. Briefly explain what it was about these lines that you appreciated. Identify and explain 3 specific literary elements found in any of these poems. You could find examples of symbolism, tone, alliteration, point-of-view, personification, hyperbole, ambiguity, etc. Must be 250 Words. Must be in MLA Format. Assignment 2) In your own words, briefly describe the scenario Plato depicts in his allegory. Consider the following questions as you explain the allegory: for example, what happens to a person when first emerging from the cave? How do others respond to those who try to leave the cave? What does the light (and/or the darkness) symbolize? How can knowledge be painful, and ignorance comforting? Incorporate at least one direct quote from the literary text correctly introduce the quote, and provide an in-text parenthetical citation afterwards include a works cited entry for “The Allegory of the Cave” at the bottom of your response Must be 300 Words. Must be in MLA Format THE ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE ( This reading goes with Assignment 2 ) Socrates: AND NOW, I SAID, let me show in a figure how far our nature is enlightened or unenlightened:–Behold! human beings living in an underground den, which has a mouth open towards the light and reaching all along the den; here they have been from their childhood, and have their legs and necks chained so that they cannot move, and can only see before them, being prevented by the chains from turning round their heads. Above and behind them a fire is blazing at a distance, and between the fire and the prisoners there is a raised way; and you will see, if you look, a low wall built along the way, like the screen which marionette players have in front of them, over which they show the puppets. Glaucon: I see. Soctates: And do you see, I said, men passing along the wall carrying all sorts of vessels, and statues and figures of animals made of wood and stone and various materials, which appear over the wall? Some of them are talking, others silent. Glaucon: You have shown me a strange image, and they are strange prisoners. Socrates: Like ourselves and they see only their own shadows, or the shadows of one another, which the fire throws on the opposite wall of the cave? Glaucon: True how could they see anything but the shadows if they were never allowed to move their heads? Socrates: And of the objects which are being carried in like manner they would only see the shadows? Socrates: And if they were able to converse with one another, would they not suppose that they were naming what was actually before them? Glaucon: Very true. Socrates: And suppose further that the prison had an echo which came from the other side, would they not be sure to fancy when one of the passersby spoke that the voice which they heard came from the passing shadow? Glaucon: No question. Socrates: To them, the truth would be literally nothing but the shadows of the images. Glaucon: That is certain. Socrates: And now look again, and see what will naturally follow if the prisoners are released and disabused of their error. At first, when any of them is liberated and compelled suddenly to stand up and turn his neck round and walk and look towards the light, he will suffer sharp pains; the glare will distress him, and he will be unable to see the realities of which in his former state he had seen the shadows; and then conceive some one saying to him, that what he saw before was an illusion, but that now, when he is approaching nearer to being and his eye is turned towards more real existence, he has a clearer vision, what will be his reply? And you may further imagine that his instructor is pointing to the objects as they pass and requiring him to name them, will he not be perplexed? Will he not fancy that the shadows which he formerly saw are truer than the objects which are now shown to him? Glaucon: Far truer. Socrates: And if he is compelled to look straight at the light, will he not have a pain in his eyes which will make him turn away to take and take in the objects of vision which he can see, and which he will conceive to be in reality clearer than the things which are now being shown to him? Socrates: And suppose once more, that he is reluctantly dragged up a steep and rugged ascent, and held fast until he’s forced into the presence of the sun himself, is he not likely to be pained and irritated? When he approaches the light his eyes will be dazzled, and he will not be able to see anything at all of what are now called realities. Glaucon: Not all in a moment. Socrates: He will require to grow accustomed to the sight of the upper world. And first he will see the shadows best, next the reflections of men and other objects in the water, and then the objects themselves; then he will gaze upon the light of the moon and the stars and the spangled heaven; and he will see the sky and the stars by night better than the sun or the light of the sun by day? Socrates: Last of he will be able to see the sun, and not mere reflections of him in the water, but he will see him in his own proper place, and not in another; and he will contemplate him as he is. Socrates: He will then proceed to argue that this is he who gives the season and the years, and is the guardian of all that is in the visible world, and in a certain way the cause of all things which he and his fellows have been accustomed to behold? Glaucon: Clearly he would first see the sun and then reason about him. Socrates: And when he remembered his old habitation, and the wisdom of the den and his fellow prisoners, do you not suppose that he would felicitate himself on the change, and pity them? Glaucon: Certainly, he would. Socrates: And if they were in the habit of conferring honors among themselves on those who were quickest to observe the passing shadows and to remark which of them went before, and which followed after, and which were together; and who were therefore best able to draw conclusions as to the future, do you think that he would care for such honors and glories, or envy the possessors of them? Would he not say with Homer, to be the poor servant of a poor master, And to endure anything, rather than think as they do and live after their manner? Glaucon: Yes, I think that he would rather suffer anything than entertain these false notions and live in this miserable manner. Socrates: Imagine once more, such an one coming suddenly out of the sun to be replaced in his old situation; would he not be certain to have his eyes full of darkness? Glaucon: To be sure. Socrates: And if there were a contest, and he had to compete in measuring the shadows with the prisoners who had never moved out of the den, while his sight was still weak, and before his eyes had become steady (and the time which would be needed to acquire this new habit of sight might be very considerable) would he not be ridiculous? Men would say of him that up he went and down he came without his eyes; and that it was better not even to think of ascending; and if any one tried to loose another and lead him up to the light, let them only catch the offender, and they would put him to death. Glaucon: No question. Socrates: This entire allegory, you may now append, dear Glaucon, to the previous argument; the prison house is the world of sight, the light of the fire is the sun, and you will not misapprehend me if you interpret the journey upwards to be the ascent of the soul into the intellectual world according to my poor belief, which, at your desire, I have expressed whether rightly or wrongly God knows. But, whether true or false, my opinion is that in the world of knowledge the idea of good appears last of all, and is seen only with an effort; and, when seen, is also inferred to be the universal author of all things beautiful and right, parent of light and of the lord of light in this visible world, and the immediate source of reason and truth in the intellectual; and that this is the power upon which he who would act rationally, either in public or private life must have his eye fixed. Glaucon: I agree, as far as I am able to understand you. Socrates: Moreover, you must not wonder that those who attain to this beatific vision are unwilling to descend to human affairs; for their souls are ever hastening into the upper world where they desire to dwell; which desire of theirs is very natural, if our allegory may be trusted. Glaucon: Yes, very natural. Socrates: And is there anything surprising in one who passes from divine contemplations to the evil state of man, misbehaving himself in a ridiculous manner; if, while his eyes are blinking and before he has become accustomed to the surrounding darkness, he is compelled to fight in courts of law, or in other places, about the images or the shadows of images of justice, and is endeavoring to meet the conceptions of those who have never yet seen absolute justice? Glaucon: Anything but surprising, he replied. Socrates: Anyone who has common sense will remember that the bewilderments of the eyes are of two kinds, and arise from two causes, either from coming out of the light or from going into the light, which is true of the mind’s eye, quite as much as of the bodily eye; and he who remembers this when he sees any one whose vision is perplexed and weak, will not be too ready to laugh; he will first ask whether that soul of man has come out of the brighter light, and is unable to see because unaccustomed to the dark, or having turned from darkness to the day is dazzled by excess of light. And he will count the one happy in his condition and state of being, and he will pity the other; or, if he have a mind to laugh at the soul which comes from below into the light, there will be more reason in this than in the laugh which greets him who returns from above out of the light into the den. Glaucon: That, is a very just distinction. Socrates: But then, if I am right, certain professors of education must be wrong when they say that they can put a knowledge into the soul which was not there before, like sight into blind eyes. Glaucon: They undoubtedly say this. Socrates: Whereas, our argument shows that the power and capacity of learning exists in the soul already; and that just as the eye was unable to turn from darkness to light without the whole body, so too the instrument of knowledge can only by the movement of the whole soul be turned from the world of becoming into that of being, and learn by degrees to endure the sight of being, and of the brightest and best of being, or in other words, of the good. Glaucon: Very true. Socrates: And must there not be some art which will effect conversion in the easiest and quickest manner; not implanting the faculty of sight, for that exists already, but has been turned in the wrong direction, and is looking away from the truth? Glaucon: Yes, such an art may be presumed. Socrates: And whereas the other socalled virtues of the soul seem to be akin to bodily qualities, for even when they are not originally innate they can be implanted later by habit and exercise, the virtue of wisdom more than anything else contains a divine element which always remains, and by this conversion is rendered useful and profitable; or, on the other hand, hurtful and useless. Did you never observe the narrow intelligence flashing from the keen eye of a clever rogue–how eager he is, how clearly his paltry soul sees the way to his end; he is the reverse of blind, but his keen eyesight is forced into the service of evil, and he is mischievous in proportion to his cleverness. Glaucon: Very true. Socrates: But what if there had been a circumcision of such natures in the days of their youth; and they had been severed from those sensual pleasures, such as eating and drinking, which, like leaden weights, were attached to them at their birth, and which drag them down and turn the vision of their souls upon the things that are below–if, I say, they had been released from these impediments and turned in the opposite direction, the very same faculty in them would have seen the truth as keenly as they see what their eyes are turned to now. Glaucon: Very likely. Socrates: Yes, and there is another thing which is likely. or rather a necessary inference from what has preceded, that neither the uneducated and uninformed of the truth, nor yet those who never make an end of their education, will be able ministers of State; not the former, because they have no single aim of duty which is the rule of all their actions, private as well as public; nor the latter, because they will not act at all except upon compulsion, fancying that they are already dwelling apart in the islands of the blest. Glaucon: Very true. Socrates: Then, the business of us who are the founders of the State will be to compel the best minds to attain that knowledge which we have already shown to be the greatest of allthey must continue to ascend until they arrive at the good; but when they have ascended and seen enough we must not allow them to do as they do now. Glaucon: What do you mean? Socrates: I mean that they remain in the upper world: but this must not be allowed; they must be made to descend again among the prisoners in the den, and partake of their labours and honors, whether they are worth having or not. Glaucon: But is not this unjust? Ought we to give them a worse life, when they might have a better? Socrates: You have again forgotten, my friend, the intention of the legislator, who did not aim at making any one class in the State happy above the rest; the happiness was to be in the whole State, and he held the citizens together by persuasion and necessity, making them benefactors of the State, and therefore benefactors of one another; to this end he created them, not to please themselves, but to be his instruments in binding up the State. Citation and Use The text was taken from the following work. Plato, “Republic, Book 7,” in PLATO IN TWELVE VOLUMES, trans. Paul Shorey, vol. 5 and 6, 12 vols. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969), http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0059.tlg030.perseus-eng1:1. The use of this translation is governed by Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License. Assignment 3) Must be in APA Format 1. List the individual ingredients by category (carbohydrate, protein, fat, vitamins, minerals, and additives). 2. Using the information from your textbook, explain the function and relative safety of the identified ingredients. 3. Find a similar organic food item and contrast the ingredients including the food additives to the original product. 4. What did you find in your comparison? 5. What is the relative safety of the organic variation? Clients' Reviews about Our Services Brilliant services. I ordered a 4 page essay and it was delivered in less than 24hours with every detail intact! Aceassignment is the way to go. The writers are humble and patient with clients. 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Chhatrapati Shivaji Raje Bhosale, the seventeenth-century king who founded the Maratha Empire, is invoked by Maharashtrians with the words ‘राजे तुम्ही परत या’(Raje, please come back). For societies to perpetuate, they require a past to thrive on. Historical figures—for example, Greece’s Alexander, France’s Louis XIV or India’s Shivaji Maharaj—are essential to any society. They transform into canonical icons and are woven into the fabrics of culture, collective and public memories through family histories, statues, traditional and popular theatrical plays and performances, and now even films and television serials. Shivaji as a ruler is celebrated, especially in Maharashtra, as charismatic, just and noble. Though the Maratha Empire was dominant in western and central India in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the nationalist movement from Maharashtra after the nineteenth century attempted to transform Shivaji into a national hero. The impetus lay in appropriating him as a torchbearer of Hindavi swarajya (self-rule of Indian people) before British colonisers took hold of India. However, there were also other narratives spun around him; writer, social activist and anti-caste reformer Mahatma Jyotirao Phule celebrated Shivaji as the king of commoners. Such varied historical narratives in the form of plays and performances and fictional novels are part of popular culture. The complex history of India from the Middle Ages until British colonial rule further contributed to the various imaginings of Shivaji—for in that cluster of centuries, the Indian subcontinent was fragmented and ruled by various sultans, nawabs, rajas and maharajas. Regionalisation led to the decline of the Mughal Empire after the death of Aurangzeb, and the local upper caste and class bankers made circumstances favourable for British colonisers, who were initially interested only in trade. During the reign of the Marathas, the power structure changed and de facto power was bestowed upon the Peshwas, who were mostly Brahmins by caste in contrast with the monarchy of Shivaji and his lineage (Shivaji’s caste is a debated issue: some claim that he was a Shudra king while others claim he was a Rajput). With the Peshwas in power by the eighteenth century, caste hierarchies became even more rigid and the ‘just rule’ of Shivaji’s reign, a nostalgia. The Third Battle of Panipat, fought between the Maratha Empire and the Afghan king Ahmad Shah Abdali and his allies in 1761, paved the way for the British to take over administration in the Indian subcontinent. Jyotirao Phule, in the preface of his text Gulamgiri, writes about the drawbacks of the British government’s policy on higher education and exposes the Brahmin monopoly in all strands of the society. He explains that though the British policy of universal education appeared on the surface to be egalitarian, their choices and ethnographic practices reinstated caste hierarchies. Phule writes: Perhaps the most glaring tendency of the Government system of high class education has been the virtual monopoly of all the higher offices under them by the Brahmins. If the welfare of the Ryot is at heart, if it is the duty of Government to check a host of abuses, it behoves them to narrow this monopoly, day by day, so as to allow a sprinkling of the other castes to get into the public service. Perhaps some might be inclined to say that it is not feasible in the present state of education. Our only reply is that if Government look a little less after higher education and more towards the education of the masses, the former being able to take care of itself, there would be no difficulty in training up a body of men every way qualified and perhaps far better in morals and manners. Before the British brought to India the scientific and ‘rational’ education of the West, history writing was a form of storytelling with mystical interventions as in the case of bakhar (a form of Marathi historical narratives and memoirs). Prachi Deshpande, in her remarkable work Creative Pasts, recounts the layout of the bakhar-writing tradition of the seventeenth century. She points out different narrative strategies adopted by the kings and their courtiers to project a certain image while being entirely conscious that it would be remembered as history. She stresses the role of scribes—mostly Brahmins—in the Maratha courts and their politics of narrativisation—including popular-culture beliefs, myths of Goddess Bhavani, importance of the scribes’ role in ruling, and rejection of the Muslim conventions of writing interspersed with the historical facts and evidences. Similarly, Stewart Gordon unambiguously draws onto the historiography of the Marathas from the 1600s to the present. Bakhars treat Shivaji as a deific figure inspired by goddess Bhavani. This approach is also exemplified in the SSC board history textbooks in Maharashtra. For example, the class four history textbook is completely dedicated to Shivaji and the saints during his time, albeit without any sociopolitical meanings. An entire chapter is dedicated to Shivaji’s childhood friends and his oath-taking, and most of the textbook focusses on his heroic deeds rather than concrete historical events. Such narratives from the ‘rational’ as well as the archaic sources enter into the realm of popular culture through performative mediums such as plays and performances. Powada is one of the oldest traditional forms of ballad singing from Maharashtra where stories of great warriors are narrated, enacted and sung. It comprises a chorus, with the leader, called the shahir (from Arabic shayar, meaning poet), narrating the story in verse and singing. (Fig. 1) The chorus repeats the lines from the song with a leitmotif of ‘jeejeejeejee’. Along with lavani and tamasha, powada is employed in popular culture, especially in rural Maharashtra. Deshpande writes in her book Creative Pasts that powadas adapted from the bakhars and vice-versa. Of late, bakhars have been adapted into plays and films usually based on Shivaji. Sayajirao Gaikwad, a scholar from Shivaji University, Kolhapur, traces the etymology of the word ‘powada’ and offers various interpretations. He suggests that it might have come from the Kannada pawad, which means miracle or superhuman action, but settles on the Sanskrit etymology of pravada, which means ‘to tell’. Powada as a narrative storytelling form is seen to be interspersed with references to local gods and goddesses to make it familiar and magical for the audience, as it is a part of the everyday culture as opposed to the elite court cultures of the past. Take, for example, this powada by Shahir Pirajirao Sarnaik from Kolhapur: कोणी मानीत नाही कोणाला देवादिकांची, देश, धर्माला जुलुम जबरदस्ती अन्यायफार असा भूमीवर वाढता भार देवाला घ्यावा लागतो अवतार . . .जी जी जी या न्यायाने शहाजीराजे व जिजाईचे पोटी शीव-अवतार झाला Nobody is respected Not the gods, not the nation, not religion Atrocities and injustice is abundant This way the earth is getting heavier The gods are then forced to incarnate . . . Due to this justice of the Gods, ShahajiRaje and Jijabai[Shivaji’s parents] gave birth to the incarnation of Shiva Shivaji’s birth has clearly been mythologised as the incarnation of Lord Shiva to appeal to the audience. Similar narratives can be seen in the spectacular play Janata Raja (The Knowing King) which has been performed in Marathi since 1985. The three-hour mega play—written and directed by noted author, orator, Maratha history scholar and Padma Vibhushan awardee Balwant Moreshwar Purandare, also known as Shivshahir (Shivaji’s poet)—has staged over a thousand shows in India and abroad. Translated into Hindi as Raja Shiv Chhatrapati, the play propagates Shivacharitra (the life of Shivaji) throughout the country. At the age of 96, Purandare continues to work towards propagating Shivcharitra to younger generations. Purandare founded the Maharaja Shivchhatrapati Pratisthan, under the leadership of Rajmata Late Sumitra RajeBhosle on April 7, 1967. Among many other activities, it produces and manages shows of Janata Raja. (Fig. 2) Janata Raja requires—unlike theatre performances in auditoriums—a huge open ground to accommodate a huge automated stage, 250 artists, animals, fire shows and thousands of spectators. (Fig. 3) The play is a depiction of the life of Shivaji, with dances and songs, animals and fire on stage. As the name of the play suggests, various facets of Shivaji’s character—not only as a king, but also as an individual—are depicted, with multiple scenes from his life. The mahanatya (mega play) was one of its kind, with its massive stage and plenty of actors. Later, mahanatyas based on the lives of Saint Dnyaneshwar, Krishna, Chhatrapati Sambhaji, etc., were experimented with but none saw the success Janata Raja sees. The play uses the folk art forms of Maharashtra, predominantly the tamasha where actors narrate stories through songs and dances, especially lavani (a popular music genre in Maharashtra). The play unfolds with the shahir and his phad (chorus group) narrating to the spectator on one hand and the actors demonstrating on the other. The play begins with a powada, where the shahir seeks Lord Ganesha’s blessings. Like the powada and mythological narratives, the play also calls Jijabai, Shivaji’s mother, the incarnation of Goddess Bhavani (dialogue quoted from the play: ‘And the Bhavani of Maharashtra appeared before us as Jijabai’). In another instance, an actor playing the character of a young Shivaji says to his friends, ‘We are the sons of Goddess Tulja Bhavani’, and then turns to the huge sculpture of Bhavani at the centre of the stage and invokes her to grace the gondhal (a dramatic narration of mythological stories in praise of a hero). Poetry and dramatic art go hand in hand; metaphors and mythologies are pleasurable to the ears and heart and their aesthetics cannot resist creating political efficacy. Shivaji Underground in Bhimnagar Muhalla is a more recent Marathi play, produced by Rang Mala, a theatre group comprising mostly farmers belonging to the small district of Jalna in Maharashtra. The play was written by Rajkumar Tangde, a member of the group, and directed by actor–director Nandu Madhav. It breaks the traditionally mystical and exaggerated hagiography of Shivaji and draws attention to his ideas of rule and justice through a Dalit perspective rather than making him a hero of a specific clan, caste or religion. It critiques the use of Shivaji’s image by political parties to push for their agenda and lure the masses. The writer of the play, in a telephonic interview, said that the play received several threats from dominant regional parties when it was performed in May 2013 for the first time in Maharashtra. Shivaji Underground uses satire and comedy and a normal proscenium stage as its apparatus. It starts with mythical characters of Indra and Yama. Yama is sent to the earth to find Shivaji and bring him, along with his ideas, to heaven. However, when he meets Shivaji, he is tricked by the king who flees, leaving behind his turban as security and a promise to be back. Yama waits and eventually embarks on a journey to earth to find Shivaji. During the journey, he sees a lot of political campaigns which use Shivaji’s image to their benefit. He finally reaches Bhimnagar Muhalla—a Dalit and Muslim dominated neighbourhood—in a small village, where people actually strive to understand Shivaji as a warrior king and not the incarnation of any god. Powada is employed as a narrative form in this play as well, but one sees a version of Shivaji who is secular and a great administrator. At the end of the play, Yama is unable to find Shivaji and offers the turban to the audience as a symbolic gesture, with the message: ‘May the turban fit all the heads and all the heads be enriched with Shivaji’s ideals.’ (Fig. 4) In spite of turbulence and threats from political parties, Shivaji Underground was able to complete its 700th show in May 2018. By using the same popular form of powada, this play paints Shivaji’s portrait as more realistic and humane and values his ideas rather than the mythic paraphernalia that the bakhar histories and narratives add to it. A modern play indeed, it also projects the ideals of Phule and Ambedkar and the methodology that they propounded—demystification and subversion and the use of satire. Such an approach highlights the gaps in the dominant narratives and calls for various approaches to history. The living tradition of powada, which is a constant element when it comes to depiction and mimesis of Shivaji even today, emerged from the gondhal (the invocation of gods at festivals and family events by a group of performers called the gondhalis who sing in chorus) tradition of Maharashtra as noted by Prachi Deshpande. It became a tool of information and narrative dissemination to the masses while the bakhars were more inclined to administrative rule. Deshpande elaborates on how powada drew from the bakhar narratives and vice-versa. Thus, one sees how the elements from popular culture and myths, were interspersed in both the bakhars and powada to make them accessible for the commoners. Shivaji has been appropriated variously through contemporary theatrical plays and performances. His transformation from a historical figure into a national hero and then an icon has been made possible through these vivid representations. Movies, biopics, popular TV serials and Shivaji statues also contribute to the portraiture of Shivaji in the twenty-first century. Other examples of popular culture representation of Shivaji in Maharashtra are car and bike stickers which have ‘Raje tumhi paratya’ (Shivaji, please come back to life/come back from the heaven) written or ‘Himmat asel tr adva’ (Stop me if you have the guts). (Fig. 5) A Marathi film, Me Shivajiraje Bhosale Boltoy (I, Shivajiraje Bhosale speaking), took Maharashtra, especially the Marathi population, on an adrenaline ride. It focussed on how the successor of Shivaji Bhosale, basically the Marathi manus (man), has been a coward in comparison to the ‘glorious’ Maratha history. It talks about migration of people from rural areas of India to Mumbai to find work which has resulted in the deterioration of the common Marathi. The protagonist is taken into a lucid fictional dream where he meets his ancestor Shivaji who harangues him on bravery and asks him to fight for his right. Thereafter, every incident in the protagonist’s life is affected by Shivaji’s advice. Such scenes lead to an understanding of how Shivaji is perceived by the people in popular culture. The life of Chhatrapati Shivaji Bhosale is not limited to textbooks but comes alive in performances and in the everyday life of Maharashtra where he is worshipped, idealised and idolised for his principles and governance. His 'swarajya' is remembered. Shivaji was one of the many rulers belonging to the Hindu religion in the subcontinent. In one of his letters to Dadaji Naras Prabhu of Rohidkhore, dated April 17, 1645, Shivaji first wrote about ‘Hindavi Swarajya’. However, J. V. Naik mentions that the authenticity of this letter is debated by scholars. The concept of ‘Hindavi’ as used in the seventeenth century and its employment today may have gone through an evolutionary phase. Balgangadhar Tilak then used the term as the rule of the Indian or Hindu people. While looking at such concepts of sovereignty one needs to keep in mind that identities go through evolutionary processes. Hindavi swarajya can thus mean ‘self rule of Indian people’ or ‘self rule of Hindu people’. Phule, Gulamgiri, 1873. ibid., 10. Deshpande, Creative Pasts, 19–39. Gordon, ‘Introduction,’ 1–10, 1993. Gaikwad, ‘Swatantryottar Marathi Powade.’ For further reading please refer to ‘Chapter 6’ in Deshpande, Creative Pasts. Translation by Aishwarya Walvekar from the play. Deshpande, Creative Pasts, 40–70. Deshpande, Prachi. Creative Pasts: Historical Memory and Identity in Western India, 1700–1960. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007. Gaikwad, Sayajirao Chaburao. Swatantryottar Marathi Powade. Kolhapur: Shivaji University, 2016. Gordon, Stewart. Introduction to The New Cambridge History of India: The Marathas 1600–1818. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Naik J. V. ‘The Foundation of Swarajya.’ In Shivaji and Swarajya, edited by Indian Institute of Public Administration, 43–57. Bombay: Orient Longman, 1975. Phule, Jyotirao. Gulamgiri. Pune: Poona City Press, 1873.

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Parks that Celebrate Native American Heritage The land where the United States of America lies is vast, comprised of many cultures dating back millennia. Today, national parks across the country preserve and share the stories, histories, heritage, and traditions of Indigenous peoples and the National Park Foundation is proud to support projects, programs, and research that continues to explore the multifaceted history and culture of native people. Join us in visiting just a small sample of the national parks that honor and celebrate Native American heritage and history. Alcatraz Island was used for camping and gathering food, as well as seclusion and isolation, over 20,000 years ago by Indigenous people. Over 10,000 Indigenous people, later called the Ohlone, lived in the coastal area between the San Francisco Bay and Point Sur before the European colonizers from Spain and Portugal began exploring the area in 1542. By 1801, all of the Ramaytush Ohlone had been incorporated into Mission San Francisco de Asis, and about 80 percent of their population had died from disease or poor living and working conditions. In November 1969, a group of Native American activists in San Francisco’s Bay Area called Indians of All Tribes, Inc. occupied Alcatraz Island in a powerful act seeking to reclaim their ancestors’ space. Approximately 100 people occupied the island to protest government policies that stole the land from Indigenous peoples and destroyed their cultures, garnering national attention for the movement. The Occupiers wrote messages of peace and freedom around the former prison island and discussed plans to build a cultural and education center for Native Americans. In June 1971, federal marshals arrived and forcibly removed the remaining Occupiers from the island. Today, Alcatraz Island, part of Golden Gate National Recreation Area, commemorates this watershed moment in the movement for Native American civil rights with an exhibition that premiered in 2019, upon the event’s 50th anniversary. Red Power on Alcatraz: Perspectives 50 Years Later tells the story of the 19-month occupation of the island and can be explored digitally. Glacier Bay National Park & Preserve When Lieutenant Joseph Whidbey described what is now Glacier Bay National Park & Preserve in 1794, he made sure to mention the native people who paddled out in their canoes from what is now Point Carolus to meet his boats. While it is difficult to know how long human inhabitants had been in the area when Whidbey set ashore, we do know that there were people living in the nearby Groundhog Bay over 9,000 years ago. It appears that lower Glacier Bay was habitable for many centuries, up until 300 years ago when a final glacial surge would have forced human inhabitants to flee their homeland. Today, descendants of the Indigenous people who occupied Glacier Bay before the last glacial advance, now known as Huna Tlingit, embrace their homeland, its resources, and retain strong connections to their culture and traditions. Working with the park, Huna Tlingit have resumed their tradition of harvesting gull eggs, an important traditional food source, as well as constructed Huna Tribal House, or Xunaa Shuká Hít (roughly translated as “Huna Ancestor’s House”), a gathering place where tribal members can reconnect with their treasured homeland and visitors can learn more about Huna Tlingit history, culture, and traditions. In February 2020, with support from NPF and The Conservation Fund, the park added a 150-acre cultural site that will be managed in collaboration with the Hoonah Indian Association. The land will provide opportunities for tribal members to engage in traditional cultural practices and support public access to fishing, hiking, and camping opportunities. Natchez Trace Parkway Just 10 miles northeast of Natchez, Mississippi, along Natchez Trace Parkway, lies the second largest Mississippian period ceremonial mound in the United States, known as Emerald Mound. Built between 1200-1730 A.D. by Mississippians, a widespread American Indian population living in the Mississippi Valley and southeastern U.S., the flat-topped mound was used for ceremonial purposes. Emerald Mound covers eight acres and reaches heights of 60 feet as two secondary mounds sit atop a primary mound. All of these were built by hand, though many mysteries remain around exactly how mounds were constructed. Descendants of the Mississippians became the Chickasaw Nation, the Choctaw of Oklahoma, the Mississippi Band of the Choctaw, and others. Mounds, like Emerald Mound, are some of the most prominent remains left on the landscape by these communities and are enjoyed by visitors today. There are seven mound groups along the Natchez Trace Parkway in Mississippi, and an established trail at Emerald Mound allows visitors to climb to the top of the mound to survey the surrounding countryside. In partnership with Conservation Legacy, a 2019 NPF Service Corps grant supported the work of Love Your Park Conservation Corps (LYPCC) program, which focused on infrastructure and stewardship projects at various locations, including Natchez Trace Parkway. The LYPCC improved and preserved trails and unique visitor experiences, working on projects and improvements identified by the National Park Service as critical to visitor use and safety. Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore The name of Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore comes from the Anishinaabek (Odawa/Ottawa, Ojibwe/Chippewa and Potawatami/Bode’wadmi) story of Sleeping Bear, in which a mother waits for her cubs by the shores of Lake Michigan. The area is rich in history, stretching all the way back to the Paleo-Indian period in 11,000 B.C. when hunters romaed the banks of the lake, close to the edge of retreating glaciers. Artifacts dating back to the Archaic period, from 8,000 to 600 B.C., suggest wide-ranging social and trading networks reaching as far as the Gulf Coast of Florida. Woodland pottery found in the area, dating from 600 B.C. to 1620 A.D., suggests that people used the land for seasonal hunting or fishing sites, not necessarily settling in one spot. Today, the park continues to work with Anishinaabek partners to expand the storytelling about the area’s landscapes and the people who lived there. Visitors can explore these stories and more through the park’s programs, scenic trails, and recreational opportunities. A 2020 NPF Open OutDoors for Kids Hybrid Learning grant helped the park revamp its formal education program, including the development of a menu of 5-8th grade curricula and engagement activities. Through distance learning programs, self-guided content, pre- and post-visit activities, and a design challenge, students were able to explore and learn about Anishinaabek culture and its place in the park, as well as the Great Lakes Restoration Initiative. Tumacácori National Historical Park Nestled in the Santa Cruz River valley, Tumacácori National Historical Park preserves a wealth of cultural histories, including the Spanish colonialists, who built the park’s recognizable stone missions, and the O’odham, Yaqui, and Apache people who also called the area home. The agrarian Sobaipuri, a branch of the O’odham (sometimes known as Pima) used the valleys along the Santa Cruz and San Pedro rivers to farm corn, beans, and other crops, as well as gather foods such as mesquite, agave, and cactus. A large and diverse tribe, the O’odham occupied lands stretching thousands of square miles. Upon the arrival of the Spanish, the Yoeme (Yaqui), who had been in the Santa Cruz Valley well before the Spaniards, recognized opportunities to work within the Mission system that sought to convert Indigenous peoples to Catholicism, often working as freighters, cowboys, and miners. The Apache people, related to the Athabaskan people who had made their way from current-day Canada to the American southwest, got a reputation for raiding, stealing, and attacking the mission system's stationary communities. Descendents of the Sobaipuri live among the O’odham people today, including the Tohono O’odham and Akimel O’odham subgroups. Their oral histories have been important in expanding storytelling in the park, including the work of National Park Service historical research intern Dorien Scheets. Through the support of the National Park Foundation, Dorien is exploring the links between Indigenous women and the Mission system, using archeological analysis of mission artifacts as well as the oral histories to create a new guided walking tour in the park. Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park protects some of the most unique biological and geological landscapes in the world, including two of the world’s most active volcanoes. But the histories and moʻolelo (stories, myths, and legends) of the islands and their people are just as unique and fascinating. Polynesians from the Marquesas Islands were the first to settle Hawai'i, some 1,700 to 800 years ago, bringing with them essential items for survival, including pua'a (pigs), moa (chickens), mai`a (banana), ko (sugar cane), and the seeds and saplings of niu (coconut). After some time, Polynesians from the Society Islands also arrived in Hawai'i and became the new rulers. After contact with southern Polynesia ceased, a unique Hawaiian culture developedon the islands, distinguished by a highly stratified society and a system of laws, known as kanawai, that enforced the social order of the islands. Over several hundred years, the people of Hawai'i cultivated traditions that were passed on through generations and continue today, including chronicling their history through oli (chant), mele (song), and hula (dance). Visitors to the park today can discover windows to the past through places like Puʻu Loa, one of the largest petroglyph fields in Hawai'i, or Kaʻauea, a site referenced in Hawaiian chants and oral histories now featuring a reconstructed hula platform and hale, a traditional style Hawaiian house. Thanks to a 2020 Open OutDoors for Kids Hybrid Learning grant from NPF, students who live in volcanic areas are able to complete a hybrid learning program from the park to learn from each other and the park. Students learned about geology, culture, and the natural history associated with each other's homes. The curriculum, focused on the comparison of volcanoes and the communities around them, connected students to the park's volcanic landscapes, as well as each other. Navajo National Monument First crated in 1909, Navajo National Monument protects the remains of three large pueblos dating back to the 13th century. However, archeological evidence suggests that in addition to the villages around the pueblos there have been human inhabitants in the region for thousands of years. Early hunters and gatherers moved around a large region seasonally. Later inhabitants began to settle in villages of semi-underground pithouses about 2000 years ago, as they grew maize and other crops. Farmers began building above-ground masonry houses, and eventurally Ancestral Pueblo culture emerged. The park's three pueblos – Betatakin, Keet Seel, and Inscription House – were all built in large, natural alcoves within the Navajo Sandstone Formation.The pueblos provided shelter from the elements, and the canyon's steambeds were great for growing corn, beans, and squash while canyon streams provided water. It is unclear exactly why the pueblo villages were left, though it may have been partly due to a prolonged drought, but all the villagers had moved on by 1300. Today, the land surrounding the park is part of the Navajo Nation, as the Navajo, or Diné, moved into the area around 1800. Visitors to the park can take a self-guided tour of the Betatakin Cliff Dwellings along the 1-mile Sandal Trail or meet up with a ranger to hike a more demanding tour of the area. Make sure to contact the park before heading out, as tours can be affected by severe weather conditions. Bering Land Bridge National Preserve A unique and remote park, Bering Land Bridge National Preserve protects a small remnant of the 1,000-mile-wide grassland that once connected Asian and North America. During the last Ice Age, plants, animals, and people moved between these two continents, and the prehistoric artwork found in the area today depicts many animals such as woolly mammoths, steppe bison, and more. While the bridge between the two continents flooded around 10,000 years ago, the communities founded by those who traversed the bridge remain. Cultural group sof the Seward Peninsula remain closely tied to the ancestors who first crossed over from Siberia, who led mobile lifestyles, living off the land and sea's natural resources up until European contact in the 19th century. Commercial whaling, fur trade, and mining forever changed the Alaska Native groups that had inhabited the land for thousands of years, including the social organization, health, and subsistence lifestyle for the Inupiat communities. Over time populations have recovered, working hard to preserve and promote the cultural traditions such as subsistence living, or using the wild, renewable resources for food, shelter, fuel, clothing, tools, or transportation. The park's protection of resources within Bering Land Bridge helps support these lifestyles as well as communicate the importance of Alaska Native heritage holistically. Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site The Knife River region of North Dakota ahs been home to various peoples for an estimated 11,000 years, and Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site preserves and interprets the area's rich history and culture. Early written records document how the Hidatsa, a combination of three distinct groups (Awatixa, Awaxawi, and Hidatsa) each with their own dialect and origin, lived in earthlodge villages for nearly 500 years. Visitors today can see the shallow depressions in the ground where some of these earthlodges were built and maintained by Hidatsa women. The Mandan and Arikara (or Sahnish) joined the Hidatsa in settled villages and together these communities pioneered agriculture on the Northern Plains landscape. Tribes from across the Northern Plains journeyed to the villages along Knife River, including the Sioux, Cheyenne, Crow, Assiniboine, and Ojibwe, as well as traders, explorers, and artists. The villages became an exciting and cosmopolitan place, but foreign visitors brough new diseases that dramatically altered the communities and cultures of those living in the Knife River region. Visiting the park today, you can discover the stories of those who lived and worked in the villages, including Sacagawea (or the "Bird Woman"), a Lemhi Shoshone woman who was likely taken captive by a Hidatsa raiding party and who later joined Meriwether Lewis and William Clark on their expedition west. Examine artifacts in the park's museum and explore a full-scale reconstructed earthlodge, a Hidatsa garden, and village sites. In 2019 an Open OutDoors for Kids Field Trip grant from NPF brought students to the park for hands-on activities to learn about parks and village life in and around the Hidatsa earthlodge. Students enjoyed interactive activities including an Atlatl demonstration, traditional stories and flute music with a Hidatsa Elder, storytelling and artwork with an Arikara Elder, Plains Sign Language demonstrations, and more. Lassen Volcanic National Park The landscapes of Lassen Volcanic National Park, with its jagged peaks and steaming fumaroles, tell the story of the area's eruptive past. But just as volcanic activity shaped this land, so too did the people who have lived and traveled through it. Native American groups, including the Atsugewi, Yana, Yahi, and Maidu camped here in warmer months when hutning and gathering potential was at its peak. Artifacts left behind from their stays in the area, including stone points, knives, and metals, as well as replicas of their basketry and hunting devices are displayed today in the park's Loomis Museum. Descendants of these tribes still live in the area and are valuable partners to the park as they continue to educate visitors on both their historical and modern tribal cultures. Selena LaMarr (given name: Boonookoo-eemenorra), or "Boonie" as she was known by park staff, was the first woman naturalist at the park and a member of the Astugewi tribe. LaMarr gave cultural demonstrations to visitors from 1952 to 1972, and her nieces later continued the demonstrations. Today, visitors to the park can traverse this landscape in a variety of ways, from backpacking in the summer months and fishing in the fall to ranger-led snowshoe tours in the spring and winter. In 2021, NPF partnered with HIstoriCorps and Great Basin Institute to deploy a service corps crew to Lassen Volcanic National Park. Over the course of eight weeks, the crew restored the park's historic Twin Lakes cabin, monitored and cleaned up backcountry campsties, interacted with park visitors, and participated in a survey of the park's America Pika population, all providing critical support to the park as it sees increased visitation. Casa Grande Ruins National Monument In the deserts of Arizona lies Casa Grande Ruins National Monument, the nation's first archeological preserve. A popular destination in the late 19th century, the park's namesake Casa Grande was abandoned around 1450 by the ancestral Sonoran Desert people who had built it in the 1300s and lived in the area for centuries prior. Archeologists have discovered hundreds of miles of prehistoric irrigation canals, built by the ancestral Sonoran Desert people around 400-500 A.D, with which they cultivated several varieties of beans and squash, as well as cotton and tabacco. Networks of villages expanded into Arizona, and trade flourished between the ancestral Sonoran Desert people and their neighboring tribes. During the late 14th and 15th centuries, the ancestral Sonoran Desert people suffered a period of depopulation and abandonment, though the causes of this are unclear. Today, several groups have ancestral links to the ancient people and the area and their cultural traditions, in addition to ongoing archeological research at the park, continues to keep the legacy of the ancestral Sonoran Desert people alive. Visitors to the park today can enjoy a guided tour of the site and explore the long and complex history of the ruins, the park's archeological findings, and the cultures of the ancestral Sonoran Desert people. A 2021 grant from NPF will help the park replace three water fountains in highly trafficked areas. With the desert landscape of Casa Grande Ruins National Monument, temperatures can exceed 110 degrees in the shade, so these new water bottle refilling stations will help keep visitors cool and safe. National parks protect, preserve, and share the stories of our country’s histories and cultures, including those of the first peoples that inhabited this land and continue to do so. Across the National Park System, sites honor these multi-faceted histories and cultures that are an essential part of our collective American story. We invite you to explore these parks and more as you develop your own connections to our lands. The National Park Foundation is driven by the generous financial support of our donors and members. Working together, we have a powerful impact on our treasured national parks.

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This article's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia. (October 2015) Action learning is an approach to problem solving involving taking action and reflecting upon the results. This helps improve the problem-solving process as well as simplify the solutions developed by the team. The theory of action learning and its epistemological position were originally developed by Reg Revans, who applied the method to support organizational and business development initiatives and improve on problem solving efforts. Action learning is effective in developing a number of individual leadership and team problem-solving skills, and it became a component in corporate and organizational leadership development programs. This strategy is different from the "one size fits all" curriculum that is characteristic of many training and development programs. Confucius once said, "I hear and I forget; I see and I remember; I do and I understand," and action learning is a cycle of doing and reflecting. The action learning process includes: - A real problem that is important, critical, and usually complex, - A diverse problem-solving team or "set", - A process that promotes curiosity, inquiry, and reflection, - A requirement that talk be converted into action and, ultimately, a solution, and - A commitment to learning. In most forms of action learning, a coach is included and responsible for promoting and facilitating learning, as well as encouraging the team to be self-managing. Reginald Revans is the originator of action learning. Revans' formative influences included his experience training as a physicist at the University of Cambridge. In his encounters with this talented group of scientists—several went on to win Nobel prizes—he noted the importance of each scientist describing their own ignorance, sharing experiences, and communally reflecting to learn. He used these experiences to further develop the method in the 1940s while working for the Coal Board in United Kingdom. Here, he encouraged managers to meet together in small groups, to share their experiences and ask each other questions about what they saw and heard. The approach increased productivity by over 30%. Later on, in hospitals, he concluded that the conventional instructional methods were largely ineffective. People had to be aware of their lack of relevant knowledge and be prepared to explore the area of their ignorance with suitable questions and help from other people in similar positions. Revans makes this more precise in the opening chapter of his book which describes the formula: where L is learning, P is programmed knowledge and Q is questioning to create insight into what people see, hear or feel. Q uses : - "closed" questions: - "objective" questions: - how much or how many? - "relative" questions: - "open" questions Although Q is the cornerstone of the method, the more relaxed formulation has enabled action learning to become widely accepted in many countries all over the world. In Revans' book, there are examples from the United States, Canada, Latin America, the Middle East, Africa, and Asia-Pacific. International Management Centres, the action learning professional association where Revans was the inaugural president, have proposed an extension to this formula with the addition of R for "reflection". This has also been proposed by Michael Marquardt: In this expanded equation, R refers to reflection. This additional element emphasizes the point that "great questions" should evoke thoughtful reflections while considering the current problem, the desired goal, designing strategies, developing action or implementation plans, or executing action steps that are components of the implementation plan. Waddill and Marquardt (2003) demonstrate the link between adult learning theory and Marquardt's action learning approach in their article entitled "Adult Learning Orientations and Action Learning". Action-based learning questions Action-based learning questions are questions that are based on the approach of action learning where one solves real-life problems that involve taking action and reflecting upon the results. There are two types of questions: closed questions and open questions. Closed questions involve a technique which does not allow the respondents to develop their response, they can just say 'Yes' or 'No'. Open questions allow the respondents to expand or explore in their response. One of the keys to effective action learning is asking the 'right question'. When asked to the right people at the right time, these questions result in obtaining the necessary information. The action learning process, which primarily uses a questioning approach, can be more helpful than offering advice because it assumes that each person has the capacity to find their own answers. Normally, the purpose of asking a question is to obtain information. However, in action Learning, the purpose is to help someone else to do one or more of the following: - Think more deeply - Explore new options and perspectives - Reflect in order to make better choices and decisions Types of questions Closed questions involve a technique which does not allow the respondents to develop their response. It can do so by limiting respondents with a strict, limited list of answer choices. Answers are mostly monosyllabic words or short phrases. For example, some closed questions can only be answered by a "Yes" or "No". Closed questions should not be interpreted as simple questions. They can be of varying levels of difficulty, and may make the respondent think before answering. Take this phrase for example: "When two quantities are dependent on each other, does an increase in one always leads to an increase in the other?". Usage of closed questions: - To give facts - To help keep control of the conversation with the questioner - To open up a conversation Open questions allow the respondent to expand or explore in their response, and do not have a single correct response. This gives the respondent the freedom to discover new ideas, consider different possibilities, and decide on the course of action which is right for them. Open-ended questions are not always long—they may be short as well as open-ended. Shorter questions often have equal or greater impact than longer ones. When asking shorter questions, it is easier to be perceived as abrupt or even rude. When questioning an Action Learning set, it is important to be aware of one's tone and language. The goal is usually to ask challenging questions, or to challenge the respondent's perspective. Usage of open questions: - To encourage discussion of opinion and feelings. - To think and reflect - To give control of the conversation to the respondent - To expand upon a closed question - To aid in the realization of the depth of a situation - To help to learn more about an individual Use in organizations Today, action learning is practiced by a wide community of businesses, governments, non-profits, and educational institutions. Writers on the subject have included Mike Pedler, Alan Mumford and Richard Hale in the United Kingdom & Australia, Yury Boshyk in Canada, Garry Luxmore in Australia. Ng Choon Seng in Singapore, Ira Cohen and Kevin Hao in China, and Michael Marquardt, Skipton Leonard, Arthur Freedman, Robert Kramer, and Joe Raelin, and Verna Willis (a pioneer in action learning and co-author with Robert L. Dilworth, as well as an award recipient with the Annual Global Forum on Action Learning in the United States. Action learning is applied by using the action learning question method (Hale) to support organizational development (OD) capability development across central government in the UK Civil Service supported by OD specialists Mayvin. As such, this is combining action learning with organizational development as reported at the 2014 Ashridge Action Learning Conference and Action Learning: Research and Practice, October, 2014. An action learning approach has been recognized as a valuable means of supporting the continuing professional development of professionals in emerging professions. The action learning question approach has been applied with, for instance the emerging professional field of global outsourcing as reported by Hale ('Actual Professional Development', Training Journal, 2012). This supports the idea that powerful learning can occur at the boundaries of organizations as proposed by Wenger in his work on 'communities of practice'. Organizations may also use action learning in the virtual environment. This is a cost-effective solution that enables the widespread use of action learning at all levels of an organization. Action e-Learning (AEL), as defined and implemented by Waddill, provides a viable alternative for organizations interested in adapting the action learning process for online delivery with groups where the members are not co-located. ARL, MiL and WIAL models As with other educational processes, practitioners have built on Revans' pioneering work and have adapted some tenets to accommodate their needs. One such branch of action learning is Action Reflection Learning (ARL), which originated in Sweden among educators and consultants under the guidance of Lennart Rohlin of the MiL Institute in the 1970s. With the so-called "MiL model", ARL gained momentum with the work of LIM, Leadership in International Management, under the leadership of Ernie Turner in the USA. The WIAL (World Institute for Action Learning) Model was developed by Michael Marquardt, Skipton Leonard, Bea Carson and Arthur Freedman. The main differences between Revans' approach to action learning and the 'MiL Model' in the '80s are : - the role of a project team advisor (later called Learning Coach), which Revans had reservations about; - the use of team projects rather than individual challenges; - the duration of the sessions, which is more flexible in ARL designs. The MiL model evolved organically as practitioners responded to diverse needs and restrictions. In an experiential learning mode, MiL practitioners varied the number and duration of the sessions, the type of project selected, the role of the Learning Coach and the style of his/her interventions. ARL evolved organically through the choices and savvy intuitions of practitioners, who informally exchanged their experiences with each other. It became a somewhat shared practice, which incorporated elements of design and intervention that the practitioners adopted because of their efficacy. In 2004, Isabel Rimanoczy researched and codified the ARL methodology, identifying 16 elements and 10 underlying principles. The WIAL model incorporates six elements: - problem or challenge - group of 4–8 members - reflective inquiry - development and implementation of strategies and actions - individual, group and organizational learning - an action learning coach. The model starts with 2 simple ground rules that ensure that statements follow and are related to questions and provide the authority for the coach to promote learning. Team members may develop additional ground rules, norms, and roles as they deem necessary or advantageous. Addressing Revans' concern that a coach's over-involvement in the problem-solving process will engender dependency, WIAL coaches only ask questions that encourage team members to reflect on the team's behavior (what is working, can be improved, or done differently) in efforts to improve learning and, ultimately, performance. "Unlearning" as a prerequisite for "learning" Robert Kramer pioneered the use of action learning for officials in the U.S. government, and at the European Commission in Brussels and Luxembourg. He also introduced action learning to scientists at the European Environment Agency in Copenhagen, to officials of the Estonian government at the State Chancellery (Prime Minister's Office) in Tallinn, Estonia, and to students of communication and media studies at Corvinus University of Budapest. The process of learning more creative ways of thinking, feeling, and being is achieved in action learning by reflecting on what is working now and as well as on actions that can be improved. Action learning is consistent with the principles of positive psychology and appreciative inquiry by encouraging team/set members to build on strengths and learn from life's challenges. In action learning, there is no need to forget what has worked in the past. However, reflecting on what has not worked helps team/set members unlearn what doesn't work and invent/learn better ways of acting and moving forward. This way, team/set members are able to keep what has worked in the past, while also finding new and improved ways to increase productivity, in areas that may need improvement. Unlike other writers in the field of action learning, Kramer applies the theory of art, creativity and "unlearning" of the psychologist Otto Rank to his practice of action learning. Rank was the first to see therapy as a learning and unlearning experience. The therapeutic relationship allows the patient to: (1) learn more creative ways of thinking, feeling and being in the here-and-now; and (2) unlearn self-destructive ways of thinking, feeling and being in the here-and-now. Patterns of self-destruction ("neurosis") represent a failure of creativity, not, as Freud assumed, a retreat from sexuality. In action learning questions allow group members to "step out of the frame of the prevailing ideology", as Otto Rank wrote in Art and Artist,: 70 reflect on their assumptions and beliefs, and reframe their choices. The process of "stepping out" of a frame, out of a form of knowing—a prevailing ideology—is analogous to the work of artists as they struggle to give birth to fresh ways of seeing the world, perspectives that allow them to see aspects of the world that no artists, including themselves, have ever seen before. The most creative artists, such as Rembrandt, Michelangelo and Leonardo, know how to separate even from their own greatest public successes, from earlier artistic incarnations of themselves. Their "greatness consists precisely in this reaching out beyond themselves, beyond the ideology which they have themselves fostered", according to Art and Artist.: 368 Through the lens of Otto Rank's work on understanding art and artists, action learning can be seen as the never-completed process of learning how to "step out of the frame" of the ruling mindset, whether one's own or the culture's—in other words, of learning how to unlearn. Comparing the process of unlearning to the "breaking out" process of birth, Otto Rank was the first psychologist to suggest that a continual capacity to separate from "internal mental objects"—from internalized institutions, beliefs and assumptions; from the restrictions of culture, social conformity and received wisdom—is the sine qua non for lifelong creativity. Unlearning necessarily involves separation from one's self-concept, as it has been culturally conditioned to conform to familial, group, occupational or organizational allegiances. According to Rank, unlearning or breaking out of our shell from the inside is "a separation [that] is so hard, not only because it involves persons and ideas that one reveres, but because the victory is always, at bottom, and in some form, won over a part of one's ego".: 375 In the organizational context, learning how to unlearn is vital because what we assume to be true has merged into our identity. We refer to the identity of an individual as a "mindset". We refer to the identity of an organizational group as a "culture". Action learners learn how to question, probe and separate from, both kinds of identity—i.e., their "individual" selves and their "social" selves. By opening themselves to critical inquiry, they begin to learn how to emancipate themselves from what they "know"—they learn how to unlearn. There is also an emerging, radical approach to unlearning in the areas of critical action learning (CAR). According to Pedler and Hsu, Chokr's concept of unlearning has an important implication for critical action learning because it questions the predominant cultural tendency that sees conventional teaching as an unquestionable good. Pedler and Hsu further connect the idea of unlearning to some ancient forms of wisdom such as Taoism. Role of facilitator, coach and questions An ongoing challenge of action learning has been to take productive action as well as to take the time necessary to capture the learning that result from reflecting on the results of taking action. Usually, the urgency of the problem or task decreases or eliminates the reflective time necessary for learning. As a consequence, more and more organizations have recognized the critical importance of an action learning coach or facilitator in the process, someone who has the authority and responsibility of creating time and space for the group to learn at the individual, group and organizational level. There is controversy, however, about the need for an action learning coach. Reg Revans was sceptical about the use of learning coaches and, in general, of interventionist approaches. He believed the action learning set or group could practice action learning on its own. He also had a major concern that too much process facilitation would lead a group to become dependent on a coach or facilitator. Nevertheless, later in his development of the action learning method, Revans experimented with including a role that he described as a "supernumerary" that had many similarities to that of a facilitator or coach.: 9 Revans, like many other action learning practitioners, noted that without someone dedicated to managing basic process norms as well as championing individual, team, and organizational learning, action learning often devolved into much action without much learning. Pedler distills Revans' thinking about the key role of the action learning facilitator as follows: (i) The initiator or "accoucheur": "No organisation is likely to embrace action learning unless there is some person within it ready to fight on its behalf. ......This useful intermediary we may call the accoucheur—the managerial midwife who sees that their organisation gives birth to a new idea... ".: 101 (ii) The set facilitator or "combiner": "there may be a need when it (the set) is first formed for some supernumerary ... brought into speed the integration of the set ...." but "Such a combiner ....... must contrive that it (the set) achieves independence of them at the earliest possible moment...".: 9 (iii) The facilitator of organizational learning or the "learning community" organiser: "The most precious asset of any organization is the one most readily overlooked: its capacity to build upon its lived experience, to learn from its challenges and to turn in a better performance by inviting all and sundry to work out for themselves what that performance ought to be.": 120 Hale suggested that the facilitator role developed by Revans be incorporated into any standards for action learning facilitation accreditation. Hale also suggests the action learning facilitator role includes the functions of mobiliser, learning set adviser, and learning catalyst. To increase the reflective, learning aspect of action learning, many groups now adopt the practice or norm of focusing on questions rather than statements while working on the problem and developing strategies and actions. Questions focus discussion and encourage the group to listen, to become a cohesive team more quickly, and to generate creative, out-of-the-box thinking. Self-managed action learning is a variant of action learning that dispenses with the need for a facilitator of the action learning set. Shurville and Rospigliosi have explored using virtual action learning to promote self-management by the team. Deborah Waddill has developed guidelines for virtual action learning teams, what she calls action e-learning. There are a number of problems, however, with pure self-managed teams (i.e., with no coach). Wellins, Byham, & Wilson have noted that self-managing teams (such as task forces) seldom take the time to reflect on what they are doing or make efforts to identify key lessons learned from the process. Without reflection, team members are likely to import organizational or sub-unit cultural norms and familiar problem solving practices into the problem-solving process without explicitly testing their validity and utility. Team members employ assumptions, mental models, and beliefs about methods or processes that are seldom openly challenged, much less tested. As a result, teams often apply traditional problem solving methods to non-traditional, urgent, critical, and discontinuous problems. In addition, team members often "leap" from the initial problem statement to some form of brainstorming that they assume will produce a viable solution. These suggested solutions typically provoke objections, doubts, concerns, or reservations from other team members who advocate their own preferred solutions. The conflicts that ensue are generally both unproductive and time-consuming. As a result, self-managed teams, tend to split or fragment rather than develop and evolve into a cohesive, high-performing team. Because of these typical characteristics of self-managing teams, many theorists and practitioners have argued that real and effective self-management in action learning requires coaches with the authority to intervene whenever they perceive an opportunity to promote learning or improve team performance. Without this team role, there is no assurance that the team will make the time needed for the periodic, systemic, and strategic inquiry and reflection that is necessary for effective individual, team, and organizational learning. Events, forums and conferences A number of organizations sponsor events focusing on the implementation and improvement of action learning. These include The Journal of Action Learning: Research & Practice, the World Institute of Action Learning Global Forum, International Foundation for Action Learning events, the Global Forum on Executive Development and Business Driven Action Learning, and the Action Learning, Action Research Association World Congress. LinkedIn interest groups devoted to action learning include WIAL Network, Action Learning Forum, International Foundation for Action Learning, Global Forum on Business Driven Action Learning and Executive Development, Learning Thru Action, and Action Research and Learning in Organizations. - Action research - Action teaching - Chris Argyris § Action science - Experiential learning - Inquiry-based learning - Large-group capacitation - Learning cycle - ^ Reynolds, M. (2011) "Reflective Practice: Origins and Interpretations". Action Learning: Research and Practice, 8(1), 5–13 - ^ Revans, R. W. (1998) ABC of action learning. London: Lemos and Crane - ^ Revans, R. W. 1982. The origin and growth of action learning. Brickley, UK: Chartwell-Bratt. - ^ Michael Marquardt, Ng Choon Seng, and Helen Goodson. (2010). "Team Development via Action Learning", Advances in Developing Human Resources, SAGE Publications, pp. 241–255 - ^ March 30, Sumit Sahni |; Sahni, 2015 Sumit (30 March 2015). "Action Learning With Impact". Harvard Business Publishing. Retrieved 7 October 2020. - ^ Boshyk, Y. and Dilworth, R.L. (eds) (2010). Action Learning: History and Evolution. Basingstoke, U.K.: Palgrave - ^ Denise O'Leary, Paul Coughlan, Clare Rigg and David Coghlan. (2017). "Turning to case studies as a mechanism for learning in action learning". Action Learning: Research and Practice, 14, 1, (3) - ^ Trehan, Kiran and Pedler, Mike. Cultivating foresight and innovation in action learning: reflecting ourselves; reflection with others. Action Learning: Research and Practice. Vol. 8, No. 1, 1–4. March 2011. - ^ Manchester, University of Salford (January 2003). "The Library – The Library – University of Salford, Manchester" (PDF). www.ils.Salford.ac.uk. Retrieved 28 May 2017. - ^ Revans, R. 1980. Action learning: New techniques for management. London: Blond & Briggs, Ltd. - ^ Marquardt, M., Leonard, H. S., Freedman, A., & Hill, C. (2009). Action learning for developing leaders and organizations: Principles, strategies, and cases. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. - ^ a b Waddill, D. D. and M. Marquardt (2003). Adult learning orientations and action learning. Human Resource Development Review 2(4): 406–429. - ^ Thalheimer, W. (2014). The Learning Benefits of Questions. Retrieved 11 August 2021, from https://www.worklearning.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Learning-Benefits-of-Questions-2014-v2.0.pdf - ^ "2009 Award". - ^ Hale, R.I., 2014 & Saville, M. Nurturing the H in HR: using action learning to build organisation development capability in the UK Civil Service, Action Learning: Research & Practice, October, pp. 1–19. - ^ Waddill, D. (2006). Action E-Learning: The impact of action learning on a management-level online course. Human Resource Development International 9(2): 1–15. - ^ Waddill, D. (2004). Action E-Learning: The Impact of Action Learning on the Effectiveness of a Management-Level Web-Based Instruction Course. Ann Arbor, Michigan, UMI. - Kramer, R. 2008. Learning How to Learn: Action Learning for Leadership Development. A chapter in Rick Morse (Ed.) Innovations in Public Leadership Development. Washington DC: M.E. Sharpe and National Academy of Public Administration, pp. 296–326. - Kramer, R. 2007a. Leading Change Through Action Learning. The Public Manager, 36 (3): 38–44. - Kramer, R. 2007b. How Might Action Learning Be Used to Develop the Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Capacity of Public Administrators? Journal of Public Affairs Education, 13 (2): 205–230. - ^ Seligman, M.E. & Csikszentmihalyi, M.(2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 1, 5–14. - ^ Cooperrider, D.L. & Whitney, D (2001) A positive revolution in change. In Cooperrider, D. L. Sorenson, P., Whitney, D. & Yeager, T. (eds.) Appreciative Inquiry: An Emerging Direction for Organization Development (9–29). Champaign, IL: Stipes. - ^ Clegg, Stewart; Bailey, James (2008). International Encyclopedia of Organization Studies. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi:10.4135/9781412956246. ISBN 978-1-4129-1515-1. - ^ a b c Rank, O. 1932/1989. Art and Artist: Creative Urge and Personality Development. W.W. Norton. - ^ Pedler, M. and Hsu, S-W (2014). Unlearning, critical action learning and wicked problems. Action Learning: Research and Practice 11(3): 296–310. - ^ Chokr, N. N. (2009) Unlearning or 'How not to be governed?'. Thorverton, UK: Imprint Academic. - ^ Hsu, Shih-wei (2013) Alternative Learning Organization. In: Anders Örtenblad (ed) Handbook of Research on the Learning Organization. London: Edward Elgar. pp. 358–371. - ^ a b c d e Revans, R. W. 2011. ABC's of action learning. Burlington, VT: Gower. - Hale, R.I. 2003a How Training Can Add More Value to the Business, part 1, Industrial and Commercial Training, Volume 35, No. 1, pp. 29–32. - Hale, R.I. 2003b. How Training Can Add More Value to the Business, part 2, Industrial and Commercial Training, Volume 35, No. 2, pp. 49–52. - Hale, R.I., Adding Real Value With Work Based Learning Questions, Training Journal, 2004, July, pp. 34–39. - ^ Hale, R.I., 2012. Bright Horizons for Action Learning, Training Journal, July. - ^ Bourner, T., O'Hara, S., and Webber, T. 2002. "Learning to manage change in the Health Service", in: A. Brockbank, I. - ^ O'Hara, S., Bourner, T. and Webber, T. 2004. Practice of self managed action learning. Action learning: research and practice,1(1): 29–42. - ^ Shurville, S.J. and Rospigliosi, A. 2009. Implementing blended self-managed action learning for digital entrepreneurs in higher education. Action Learning: Research and Practice, Volume 6, Issue 1 March 2009, pages 53–61. - ^ Wellins, R.S., Byham, W.C., & Wilson, J.M. (1991). Empowered teams: Creating self-directed work teams that improve quality, production, and participation, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. - ^ cf. Marquardt, M.J., Leonard, S., Freedman, A., and Hill, C. 2009. Action learning for developing leaders and organizations. Washington, DC: American Psychological Press. - ^ "[Homepage]". Action Learning: Research and Practice. 14 (2). Retrieved 28 May 2017. - ^ "World Institute for Action Learning". WIAL. Retrieved 28 May 2017. - ^ "International Foundation for Action Learning – IFAL". www.IFAL.org.uk. Retrieved 28 May 2017. - ^ "Global Forum – Action Learning (homepage)". Global Executive Learning. Retrieved 28 May 2017. - ^ "Welcome to ALARA". ALARA. Retrieved 28 May 2017. This further reading section may contain inappropriate or excessive suggestions that may not follow Wikipedia's guidelines. Please ensure that only a reasonable number of balanced, topical, reliable, and notable further reading suggestions are given; removing less relevant or redundant publications with the same point of view where appropriate. Consider utilising appropriate texts as inline sources or creating a separate bibliography article. (February 2022) - Boshyk, Yury, and Dilworth, Robert L. 2010. Action Learning and its Applications. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan. - Boshyk, Yury. 2000. Business Driven Action Learning: Global Best Practices. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan. - Boshyk, Yury. 2002. Action Learning Worldwide: Experiences of Leadership and Organizational Development. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan. - Carrington, L. House Proud: Action Learning is Paying Dividends at Building Firm, People Management, 5 December 2002, pp 36–38. - Chambers, A. and Hale, R. 2007. Keep Walking: Leadership Learning in Action, MX Publishing; 2nd edition (9 November 2009), UK. - Collingham, B., Critten, P., Garnett, J. and Hale, R. (2007) A Partnership Approach to Developing and Accrediting Work Based Learning – Creating Successful Work Based Learning – Meeting the Skills Challenge for Performance Improvement, Inaugural Conference, British Institute for Learning and Development, Royal Society of Medicine, London 17 May 2007. - Crainer, Stuart. 1999. The 75 Greatest Management Decisions Ever Made. New York: AMACOM Publishing - Critten, P. & Hale, R. (2006) 'From Work Based/ Action learning to Action Research – Towards a Methodology for the Worker/ Practitioner researcher' The Work-based Learning Network of the Universities Association for Life-Long learning Annual Conference: 'Work Based Projects: The Worker as Researcher 24–25 April 2006 University of Northampton. - Dilworth, R. L., and Willis, V. 2003. Action Learning: Images and Pathways. - Freedman, A.M. & Leonard, H.S. 2013. Leading organizational change using action learning: What leadersh should know before committing to a consulting contract. Reston, VA: Learning Thru Action Press. - Kozubska, J & MacKenzie, B 2012. Differences and impact through action learning, Action Learning Research & Practice, 9 2, 1450164. - Leonard, H.S. & Freedman, A.M. 2013. Great solutions through action learning: success every time. Reston, VA: Learning Thru Action Press. - McGill & N. Beech (Eds) Reflective learning in practice, Aldershot, Gower. - Hale, Richard. 2014. Fundamentals of Action Learning, Training Journal, August, 2014, pp. 30–36. - Hale, Richard. 2014. Fundamentals of Action Learning: Knowledge Mapping, Training Journal, September, 2014. - Hale, Richard. 2014. Fundamentals of Action Learning: Mobilising Action Learning, Training Journal, October, 2014. - Marquardt, M. J. 1999. Action learning in action. Palo Alto, CA:Davies-Black. - Marquardt, M. J. 2004. Harnessing the power of action learning. T D, 58(6): 26–32. - Marquardt, M.J. 2011. Optimizing the power of action learning. Boston: Nicholas Brealey Publishing. - Marquardt, M.J. & Roland Yeo (2012). Breakthrough Problem Solving with Action Learning: Concepts and Cases. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. - Martinsons, M.G. 1998. MBA action learning projects. Hong Kong University Press. - O'Neil, J. and Marsick, V.J. 2007. Understanding Action Learning. NY: AMACOM Publishing - Pedler, M., (Ed.). 1991. Action learning in practice (2nd ed.). Aldershot, UK: Gower. - Pedler, M. 1996. Action learning for managers. London: Lemos and Crane. - Raelin, J. A. 1997. Action learning and action science: Are they different? Organizational Dynamics, 26(1): 21–34. - Raelin, J. A. 2000. Work-based learning: The new frontier of management development. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. - Rimanoczy, I., and Turner, E. 2008. Action Reflection Learning: solving real business problems by connecting learning with earning. US, Davies-Black Publishing. - Rohlin, L., Turner, E. and others. 2002. Earning while Learning in Global Leadership: the Volvo MiL Partnership. Sweden, MiL Publishers AB. - Smith, S. & Smith, L. (2017) Assessing the value of action learning for social enterprises and charities. Action Learning: Research and Practice (14)3: 230-242 - Sawchuk, P. H. 2003. Adult learning and technology in working class life. New York: Cambridge University Press. - Learning materials related to Storytelling at Wikiversity

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How Islamic Architecture Transformed Europe By Neenah Payne How Arabs Revolutionized Western Culture shows how the Moors brought Europe out of the Dark Ages into which it sank after the fall of Rome in 500 AD. When the Arabs ruled Spain from 711-1492 AD, they replaced the awkward Roman numerals with the Arabic numbering system we use today. They introduced gardens, paved and lighted streets, heated and air-conditioned homes, public baths, libraries, and universities to which Western Europe flocked. Sicily’s contact with the Moors led to the Renaissance and Arabs revolutionized astronomy, geography, geometry, algebra, medicine, philosophy, architecture, city planning, health, etc. It explains that many of the words we use today are Arabic. This article shows how extensively Arab architecture revolutionized Europe. Many of Europe and America’s most iconic buildings are based on Moorish design. However, credit is not given to the Moors. These include all the Gothic architecture in the cathedrals of Europe including Notre Dame in Paris. Diana Darke, author of Stealing from the Saracens: How Islamic Architecture Shaped Europe, says in a video below that she was inspired to write the book when Notre Dame burned down in April 2019 and the French were mourning the loss of a symbol of their culture. She realized that most Europeans did not know that the Gothic architecture is not a symbol of European culture, but of Arab culture! Against a backdrop of Islamophobia, Europeans are increasingly airbrushing from history their cultural debt to the Muslim world. But this legacy lives on in some of Europe’s most recognizable buildings, from Notre-Dame Cathedral to the Houses of Parliament. This beautifully illustrated book reveals the Arab and Islamic roots of Europe’s architectural heritage. Diana Darke traces ideas and styles from vibrant Middle Eastern centers like Damascus, Baghdad, and Cairo, via Muslim Spain, Venice, and Sicily into Europe. She describes how medieval crusaders, pilgrims, and merchants encountered Arab Muslim culture on their way to the Holy Land; and explores more recent artistic interaction between Ottoman and Western cultures, including Sir Christopher Wren’s inspirations in the “Saracen” style of Gothic architecture. Recovering this long yet overlooked history of architectural “borrowing,” Stealing from the Saracens is a rich tale of cultural exchange, shedding new light on Europe’s greatest landmarks. The beautiful stained glass windows of which many churches are so proud were possible only because of the unique glass from Syria. They allowed buildings to be filled with light instead of the heavy Roman architecture that created dark interiors. Yet, the West’s deep debt to the Moors is not taught in our schools or shown in our media. Darke explains that growing up in England, she was taught that everything originated in Greece and Rome. However, she learned later how deep the West’s debt is to the Arabs. She points out that the legendary British architect Christopher Wren (1632-1723) who built St. Paul’s Cathedral in London said the “Gothic” architecture of all the European cathedrals should be called “Saracen” architecture because it was based on the knowledge of the Saracens — aka Muslims, Moors, Arabs. Duke said the Capitol building in Washington, DC is also an example of Arab architecture. How ironic that the government of the United States meets there to wage the endless War on Terror on the Arab world for over 20 years! How Islamic Architecture Shaped Europe | Diana Darke In this video, Diana Darke, author of the award-winning book, Stealing from the Saracens: How Islamic Architecture Shaped Europe, takes you on a quick architectural journey to see how architectural styles and ideas passed from vibrant Middle Eastern centers such as Damascus, Baghdad, and Cairo and entered Europe via gateways including Muslim Spain, Sicily, and Venice through the movement of pilgrims, bishops, merchants, and medieval Crusaders. It’s a rich tale of cultural exchange that will help you see some of Europe’s – and even America’s – iconic landmarks with new eyes. Diana Darke is a Middle East cultural expert with special focus on Syria. With degrees in Arabic from Oxford University and in Islamic Art & Architecture from SOAS, London, she has spent over 30 years specializing in the region, working for both government and commercial sectors. She is frequently invited to speak at international events and media networks, such as the BBC, PBS, TRT, Al-Jazeera, and France24. Her work on Syria has been published by the BBC website, The Sunday Times, The Guardian, and The Financial Times. She is a Non-Resident Scholar at Washington’s think-tank MEI (the Middle East Institute). Diana is also the author of the highly acclaimed My House in Damascus: An Inside View of the Syrian Crisis (2016), The Merchant of Syria (2018), and The Last Sanctuary in Aleppo (2019). Stealing from the Saracens: How Islamic Architecture Shaped Europe 8/1920 From the Notre-Dame and Saint Marks Cathedrals to Big Ben and Westminster Abbey. They are all symbols of the western world. But according to a new book, Gothic architecture might not be as European as we think. Diana Darke, author of Stealing from the Saracens. In the video below, Diana Darke explains that growing up in England, she was taught that everything originated in Greece and Rome. However, Christopher Wren (1632-1723) who built St. Paul’s Cathedral in London said that the “Gothic” architecture of all the European cathedrals should be called “Saracen” architecture because it was based on the knowledge of the Saracens — aka Muslims, Moors, Arabs. Wren explained that he used Saracen vaulting in the dome of St. Paul’s because it was the best. Oxford University was receiving lots of Arabic manuscripts that were very relevant to architecture. How Islamic Architecture Shaped Europe with Diana Darke The high ceilings with stained glass windows that let in a lot of light were a major transition from the Romanesque architecture which had low ceilings with dark interiors. Stained glass is incredibly important in gothic architecture. The beautiful glass was shipped from Syria because Europe had nothing like it. The technique of enameled glass was invented in Syria. Nothing of that sort existed in Europe. Darke explains that she was inspired to write the book after the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris caught fire in 2019 and the French despaired that they were losing a symbol of their national identity. President Macron has promised to have the cathedral rebuilt. Darke realized the French didn’t understand that the Gothic Cathedrals were not French, but Muslim architecture. When she realized people didn’t know that, she decided to write the book. The stain glass windows survived the fire because the Syrian glass is incredibly strong. The video explains that the Arab influence on European Christian architecture has been “air brushed” out of history as though Europeans created all the architectural innovations. The video ends explaining how the US Capitol building in Washington, DC has an Islamic dome. Destiny Disrupted: A History of the World Through Islamic Eyes The Western narrative of world history largely omits a whole civilization. Destiny Disrupted tells the history of the world from the Islamic point of view, and restores the centrality of the Muslim perspective, ignored for a thousand years. In Destiny Disrupted, Tamim Ansary tells the rich story of world history as it looks from a new perspective: with the evolution of the Muslim community at the center. His story moves from the lifetime of Mohammed through a succession of far-flung empires, to the tangle of modern conflicts that culminated in the events of 9/11. He introduces the key people, events, ideas, legends, religious disputes, and turning points of world history, imparting not only what happened but how it is understood from the Muslim perspective. He clarifies why two great civilizations-Western and Muslim-grew up oblivious to each other, what happened when they intersected, and how the Islamic world was affected by its slow recognition that Europe — a place it long perceived as primitive — had somehow hijacked destiny. With storytelling brio, humor, and evenhanded sympathy to all sides of the story, Ansary illuminates a fascinating parallel to the world narrative usually heard in the West. Destiny Disrupted offers a vital perspective on world conflicts many now find so puzzling. Medieval Muslims made stunning math breakthrough By Will Dunham Magnificently sophisticated geometric patterns in medieval Islamic architecture indicate their designers achieved a mathematical breakthrough 500 years earlier than Western scholars. By the 15th century, decorative tile patterns on these masterpieces of Islamic architecture reached such complexity that a small number boasted what seem to be “quasicrystalline” designs, Harvard University’s Peter Lu and Princeton University’s Paul Steinhardt wrote in the journal Science. Only in the 1970s did British mathematician and cosmologist Roger Penrose become the first to describe these geometric designs in the West. Quasicrystalline patterns comprise a set of interlocking units whose pattern never repeats, even when extended infinitely in all directions, and possess a special form of symmetry. “Oh, it’s absolutely stunning,” Lu said in an interview. “They made tilings that reflect mathematics that were so sophisticated that we didn’t figure it out until the last 20 or 30 years.” Lu and Steinhardt in particular cite designs on the Darb-i Imam shrine in Isfahan, Iran, built in 1453. Islamic tradition has frowned upon pictorial representations in artwork. Mosques and other grand buildings erected by Islamic architects throughout the Middle East, Central Asia and elsewhere often are wrapped in rich, intricate tile designs setting out elaborate geometric patterns. The walls of many medieval Islamic structures display sumptuous geometric star-and-polygon patterns. The research indicated that by 1200, an important breakthrough had occurred in Islamic mathematics and design, as illustrated by these geometric designs. “You can go through and see the evolution of increasing geometric sophistication. So, they start out with simple patterns, and they get more complex” over time, Lu added. While Europe was mired in the Dark Ages, Islamic culture flourished beginning in the 7th century, with achievements over numerous centuries in mathematics, medicine, engineering, ceramics, art, textiles, architecture and other areas. Lu said the new revelations suggest Islamic culture was even more advanced than previously thought. While traveling in Uzbekistan, Lu said, he noticed a 16th century Islamic building with decagonal motif tiling, arousing his curiosity as to the existence of quasicrystalline Islamic tilings. The sophistication of the patterns used in Islamic architecture has intrigued scholars worldwide. Emil Makovicky of the University of Copenhagen in Denmark in the 1990s noticed the relationship between these designs and a form of quasicrystalline designs. Makovicky was interested in particular in an 1197 tomb in Maragha, Iran. Joshua Socolar, a Duke University physicist, said it is unclear whether the medieval Islamic artisans fully understood the mathematical properties of the patterns they were making. “It leads you to wonder whether they kind of got lucky,” Socolar said in an interview. “But the fact remains that the patterns are tantalizingly close to having the structure that Penrose discovered in the mid-70s.” “And it will be a lot of fun if somebody turns up bigger tilings that sort of make a more convincing case that they understood even more of the geometry than the present examples show,” Socolar said. Córdoba (Spain), mosque, vault over the bay in front of the mihrab, 976. Photo by Jonathan Bloom Architecture of the Islamic West: Innovative, Impressive and … Overlooked? Some of the most outstanding examples of world architecture, such as the Mosque of Córdoba, the ceiling of the Cappella Palatina in Pale. Granada (Spain), Alhambra, Hall of the Abencerrajes, muqarnas ceiling, late c13. Photo by Jonathan Bloom. The complex geometry of Islamic design – Eric Broug View full lesson: http://ed.ted.com/lessons/the-complex… In Islamic culture, geometric design is everywhere: you can find it in mosques, madrasas, palaces, and private homes. And despite the remarkable complexity of these designs, they can be created with just a compass to draw circles and a ruler to make lines within them. Eric Broug covers the basics of geometric Islamic design. Stained Glass Windows An Abbreviated History of Stained Glass Windows (images) by Abigail Swire implies that Europe invented stained glass windows. It gives just a brief nod to the Muslim world with “Stained glass windows were adopted into the atmosphere of medieval monasteries in the 7th century. Soon they could be found in cathedrals across Europe….Stained glass adorned Islamic mosques and palaces across the Middle East by the 8th century reflecting the rich ornate styles of Islamic architecture. The Book of the Hidden Pearl, written by Persian chemist Jābir ibn Ḥayyān, is a colored glass recipe book written about the craft.” While the article below gives credit to the Egyptians and then skips right to Christian churches. It implies that Moorish architecture employed stained glass windows after Christian churches! THE REAL REASON OLD CHURCHES HAVE STAINED GLASS BY RICHARD MILNER/UPDATED No matter your opinion on Christian doctrine and theology, it’s hard to deny the architectural and artistic beauty of old cathedrals. The powerful vertical lines drawing the eye up; the crisscrossed support arches high above; the detailed filigrees along columns and walls. Whether new, art deco cathedrals like Sagrada Familia in Barcelona or old, gothic behemoths like Notre Dame in Paris, cathedrals continue to inspire. But even small, modest chapels and churches often contain a key feature of beauty and storytelling shared with their larger cousins: stained glass. If you’ve ever poked around an old church or sat in one during a service, you might have found your head tilted up and your gaze running along with the church’s glassy wedges of green, red, yellow, etc. Maybe you saw a nativity, or a scene of Jesus doing the “sacred heart” pose with the first two fingers of the right hand upraised, or St. Peter standing on clouds at the gates of heaven. If so, then you’ve done exactly what folks hundreds of years ago did and demonstrated the exact purpose of stained glass: to tell stories. The History of The Glass Industry During the Islamic Era by Egyptian Government “The influence exerted on the Arabs by the civilizations of the countries they conquered; the Greek, Roman, and ancient Egyptian civilizations in Italy, Syria, Asia, Turkey, Egypt, and Spain were enormous. In Egypt, such influence manifested itself, among other things, in glass-making. A glass-making industry already flourished in Alexandria at the time Amr Bin Alas conquered Egypt. However, the Arabs made efforts to further develop this industry. They encouraged it in their new Egyptian capital, Fustat, near modern Cairo, and introduced it to other centers of the Islamic world, such as Damascus, Aleppo, and the cities of Andalusia. Islamic glass works of the period were distinguished by their elaborate ornamentation, including calligraphy of Quranic verses and other writings. Glided lanterns, pots, and bottles were exported to the East as far away as China. One of the most terrific glass works of this period of Islamic history is the lantern presently exhibited at the Corning Museum of Glass, Corning, N.Y., USA. Up to the Abbasid era (AD 750-868) the glass industry was dominated by Alexandria and Syrian, but the Abbasid Caliph Harun Al-Rashid valued enameled and gilded glass works. This became the finest gift that the Caliph could bestowed on his favorites. In Egypt during the Tulunid era (AD 868-905), special attention was given to stained glass surfaces as well as lanterns and vessels. Sultan Ahmed Bin Tulun (AD 868-883) renovated glass workshops in Alexandria. In connection with the restoration of Alexandria’s lighthouse, his technicians developed glass mirrors, and he introduced official weights of glass sealed with his stamp. Shamsiyyas and qamariyys are closely associated with Islamic architecture and are a good example of design that fulfils both aesthetic and practical ends. Windows themselves lighten loads carried by walls or arches, while admitting daylight. The glass set in them provides a building with defense against animal or insect intruders, controls the amount of light entering the place, and protects the interior against dust, wind, and weather throughout the year. Practical functions of shamsiyyas and qamariyyas are as important as the beauty they impart to a building, endowing it with a kind of spiritual peacefulness. Architecture in Egypt made use of stained glass in mosques, houses, palaces and khankawat (monastic complexes). Stained glass windows varied in their style, ornamentation, and color according to the kind of building and to the era of construction. Cairo abounds in buildings with stained glass windows of all periods from the ninth century to the twentieth. Among these are Ahmed Bin Tulun Mosque, the Tanbugha Al Maridany Mosque, the Palace of Beshtak, Khanqah of Shiaykhu, the Madrasah of Sultan Hassan, House of Zaynab Khatun, the Musafirkhanah Palace, the Rifa’i Mosque, and the Palace of Prince Mohammed Ali in Manyal. A BRIEF HISTORY OF ISLAMIC GLASSMAKING The prophet Muhammad proclaimed the new religion of Islam in 622. Following his death 10 years later, Arab armies conquered much of what is now Egypt, the Near East, and Iran. Here the Muslims found flourishing glass industries, which continued to produce large quantities of objects for daily use. Later, Islamic glassmakers introduced new forms and decoration that were based on one or more of the three principal “building blocks” of Islamic art: geometric ornament, vegetal motifs, and calligraphy. From time to time, these craftsmen also depicted human figures, animals, birds, and fish. In the eighth century, glassmakers in Egypt discovered the technique of painting glass with metallic stain. Transparent stains colored with copper (which produces red or brown) and silver (which produces yellow) became a hallmark of early Islamic glassware in Egypt and the Near East… In the 13th century, decorators in the region of Syria achieved the first extensive application of enamels on glass. For the next two centuries, Syrian and Egyptian craftsmen produced large quantities of glass in many shapes and sizes with brilliant polychrome ornament. These objects included functional vessels such as hanging lamps to illuminate the interiors of mosques, as well as drinking vessels and other useful items, plus spectacular display pieces. The making of this glass required both artistic imagination and technical expertise…. In the later Middle Ages, Europeans prized Islamic luxury glasses because of their exotic appearance and technical sophistication, and sometimes because they were believed to be relics from the Holy Land…. In the 19th century, glassmakers in Austria, Bohemia, and France began to create objects decorated in Islamic style. The Viennese firm of Lobmeyr and other companies produced gilded glassware for Egyptian and Middle Eastern markets, as well as pieces with “Moorish” and Turkish decoration for customers closer to home. Neenah Payne writes for Activist Post Become a Patron! Or support us at SubscribeStar Donate cryptocurrency HERE Subscribe to Activist Post for truth, peace, and freedom news. Follow us on SoMee, Telegram, HIVE, Flote, Minds, MeWe, Twitter, Gab, What Really Happened and GETTR. Provide, Protect and Profit from what’s coming! Get a free issue of Counter Markets today.

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„Write as you read, read as it is written“ – Johann Christoph Adelung Did you know that Serbian language is the only European language which has two different alphabets? Both of them were adapted by Serbian language reformer Vuk Stefanović Karadžić, with great help of the Grimm brothers and other European linguists; so they have created Serbian Cyrillic alphabet which is the official alphabet of Serbia, and Serbian Latin alphabet, which is – besides Serbia – used today in Croatia, Slovenia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Thanks to them, today we have the simplest alphabet in the world where each sound has its own corresponding symbol. Thus, we have 30 letters in our alphabet, 5 of which are the vowels. Serbian Cyrillic alphabet has a little bit different order than Roman Latin, and it goes like this: Аа Бб Вв Гг Дд Ђђ Ее Жж Зз Ии Јј Кк Лл Љљ Мм Нн Њњ Оо Пп Рр Сс Тт Ћћ Уу Фф Хх Цц Чч Џџ Шш Aa Bb Vv Gg Dd Đđ Ee Žž Zz Ii Jj Kk Ll LJlj Mm Nn NJnj Oo Pp Rr Ss Tt Ćć Uu Ff Hh Cc Čč DŽdž Šš /a/ /b/ /ʋ/ /ɡ/ /d/ /dʑ/ /ɛ/ /ʒ/ /z/ /i/ /j/ /k/ /l/ /ʎ/ /m/ /n/ /ɲ/ /ɔ/ /p/ /r/ /s/ /t/ /tɕ/ /u/ /f/ /x/ /ts/ /tʃ/ /dʒ/ /ʃ/ It is very easy to learn it, and it’s a great way to start learning Serbian! Here are some guidelines for you: Letters which are the same both in Serbian Cyrillic and in Latin: A E O J K M T Letters which you might puzzle you: В Р С У X in Latin, their equivalents are: V R S U H Common Cyrillic letters are: Б Г Д Ж З И Л Н П Ц Ч Ш their Latin (Central European) equivalents are: B G D Ž Z I L N P C Č Š Unique Serbian Cyrillic letters are: Џ Ђ Ћ Љ Њ which have equivalents in: DŽ Đ Ć LJ NJ Here’s an interesting way of learning Serbian Alphabet: А is for ADA CIGANLIJA, or „the Belgrade Sea“ as we like to call it. Ada Ciganlija is a holm in Sava river, and it’s the favorite picnic for Belgradians. Ada Ciganlija is a perfect refuge from the urban heat during the summer. Б is for BELGRADE, our capital. It is the largest city in the region, and one of the oldest known settlements in Europe which has never been abandoned. Belgrade already has the reputation of the most wanted destinations in Europe in past several years, and is declared as a „European hidden pearl“. В stands for VOJVODINA, Serbian northern province. It is the southernmost part of the vast Pannonian plain, intersected by mighty rivers such as Danube, Tisa, Begej, Tamiš… Each of Vojvodina’s three regions has stories of their own. Vojvodina’s natural, cultural and ethnic wealth is among the greatest not only in Europe, but in the world. Г is like GUČA TRUMPET FESTIVAL, held every summer for more than fifty years in the picturesque village Guča. Settled above beautiful West Morava river, in the shades of mountains Ovčar, Kablar and Jelica, this village becomes the world center of trumpet and partying once a year. It is the worldknown symbol of Serbian sense for party. Д is for DRINA RIVER, beautiful and untamed. Drina river is a natural border between Serbia and Bosnia & Herzegovina, and it sheer raw beauty is the inspiration for thousands of painters and poets. Drina Regatta, held each July, gathers thousands of participants on a jolly rafting down the river speeds. Thanks to its pureness, Drina is known as angling paradise. Ђ is the first letter of ĐERDAP GORGE, the largest, longest, widest and narrowest Danube gorge. It is the home of the oldest known European civilisation – civilisation of Lepenski Vir, dating back in 10th millenium BC. Đerdap gorge provides unique experience: outstanding natural beauty (it is the largest national park in the region) combined with cultural legacy from the Mesolith through Roman culture, Medieval kingdoms makes one-of-a-kind in the world. Е stands for the EXIT MUSIC FESTIVAL, one of the largest music festivals in Europe. Each summer thousands of music lovers hurl to Novi Sad, second largest city in Serbia and to opposing Petrovaradin fortress to enjoy a whole week of outstanding musical performances held by the greatest names in show business. Ж is for medieval Royal monastery ŽIČA. Founded in 1207 by the first king of Serbian medieval dynasty of Nemanjić – king Stefan the Firstcrowned, Žiča monastery was the Seat of the first autonomous Serbian Orthodox Church. Its distinctive color and beautiful frescoes were the state-of-the-art masterpieces in Europe. Today Žiča monastery is protected as the Cultural Monument of Exceptional Importance. З is the common letter for two twin-mountains: ZLATIBOR and ZLATAR. Along with the „sister mountain“ Tara, they form a true gem of Serbian alpine tourism. Mt. Zlatibor is one of the largest mountain resorts in the region, and is equally popular throughout the year. Mt. Zlatar, however, is a hidden gem of Serbia being almost completely dedicated to implementation of the ethno-influence in tourism. И is for the most popular rafting destination in the Region – IBAR RIVER. Secluded between Mt. Čemerno and Mt. Stolovi, Ibar river speeds offer fantastic opportunity for those who seek adventure. Being at the very heart of the region which used to be the center of Serbian medieval state, Ibar river rafting is perfectly combined with expeditions to the old fortresses and monasteries. Ј stands for the JERMA CANYON, one of the most scenic canyons in Europe. Hidden in Mt. Balkan, at the Southeast of Serbia, Jerma canyon is a part of one of the oldest geologic forms in Europe. Jerma canyon is a perfect destination for those who are looking for an adventure: fantastic landscapes and extraordinary history leave noone untouched. К like the world’s naive arts center – KOVAČICA. This picturesque town is only an hour away from Belgrade, yet it represents a completely another perspective on Serbian cultural heritage. Local Slovak community made Kovačica famous for its naive painters, and a great number of them got the world’s glory. Kovačica is also a home of a virtuose, Mr. Jan Nemček, famous violin maker. Л stands for the oldest European civilisation of LEPENSKI VIR. Dated in 9500 BC, Lepenski Vir was the corner-stone of the latter civilisations of Vinča and Starčevo cultures. Little is known about the culture of Lepenski Vir, however, the archaeologist keep discovering fascinating facts over and over. The large complex dedicated to this culture comprises of the large original settlement, where one can see the first urban systems. Yet, perhaps the best known symbol of Lepenski Vir are famous fish-people figurines. Љ is best described in two words, tightly related: LJUBAV meaning „love“ and LJUBOSTINJA MONASTERY, 14th century endowment of Serbian princess Milica and Serbian symbol of feminine unconditional love to her beloved man. The heartbreaking story of Serbian heroism and sacrifice in Kosovo Battle and their women who took vows as nuns is still one of the most romantic legends in the world. М is for MANASIJA MONASTERY, one of a kind sanctuary and fortress, built as a defense from the Ottoman attacks. Not only Manasija was a rampart against the Ottomans, but it was also a bastion of Serbian literacy and cultural heritage. During the fifteenth century, Manasija monastery had the largest scribal school in the Christian Orthodox world. Literally hundreds of old manustcripts were daily transcripted and translated by the brotherhood of monks. Although eventually conquered, Manasija remained to be a symbol of Serbian medieval culture. Н is a starting letter of the third largest city in Serbia – NIŠ or NAISSUS, as the Romans called it. Niš is the birthplace of the Roman emperor Constantine the Great, who established Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire. Its turbulent history was an inspiration to dozens of dramas and comedies, and Niš spirit is quite famous and interesting among Serbs as they are recognized as great jokers. If you seek for an exquisite Balkan story, then Niš is a must. Niš is also a host of one of the largest jazz festivals in the world – famous „Nišville“. Њ stands for NJIVA, Serbian expression for a cultivated field or soil. Serbia is abundant of wheat, corn and oat crops; and is one of the world leaders in fruit production. Thanks to its mild climate, Serbian soil is perfect for agriculture and some of our agricultural symbols are plum, raspberry, blueberry, blackberry, apples… There is a saying that if there were no farmers – Serbia wouldn’t exist. Serbs nurture a kind of cult towards Serbian fruitful soil, and respect it very much. That’s why Serbs consider organic food as an daily routine. О like OPLENAC HILL, the very center of Serbia. Nested among other picturesque hills of Serbian Šumadija region, Oplenac was chosen by the last Serbian Royal family to become their symbol, their home and their resting ground. Surrounded by century old vinyards and thick oak forest, at the very top of Oplenac hill lies the magnificent Royal Complex of Karađorđević Royal Dynasty. It comprises of the King Peter’s summer residence, Royal wine cellar, Queen’s Court and a jewel – St. George’s Church and Royal Mausoleum. П is for PALIĆ LAKE, the northernmost lake in Serbia and one of the most respected Baths & Spas in this region. This eolic lake is enriched by fabulous Baroque and Art Nouveau architecture along its coastline. The nearby city of Subotica with its magnificent architecture, surrounding csardas – genuine guesthouses and taverns, and endles fields of vine form a beautiful picture of Serbian North. Р stands for RAŠKA or RAS, Serbian southwestern county, which is considered to be a cradle of the first Serbian medieval kingdom. Hundreds of monasteries dating way back from 6th century, dozens of citadels and an exquisite mixture of European and Orient influence form a magnificent atmosphere for storytelling. Prepare yourself for breathtaking stories about Serbian knights, folklore and legends. С is for SLAVA – genuine Serbian holiday which celebrates the patron saint of one family. It is considered that Slava derives from the pre-Christian Slavic customs which celebrated ancestral line and tribal god. Today Slava cannot be unchained from Serbian Orthodox Church, and is one of the most cheerful holidays in the world. It is dedicated to the family, to pay respect to family ancestors and to celebrate continuance of family legacy. Slava is protected by UNESCO as the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. Т is dedicated to beautiful TARA, one of the three gem mountains in West Serbia. The untouched nature overlooking mighty river Drina and surrounding mountains is a true paradise for its visitors. Its very name – Tara – is closely related to the Celtic deity, as Mt. Tara was considered to be the home of gods. Today Mt. Tara is a National Park of great significance, as it is one of rare European bear natural habitats. Ћ stands for ĆEVAPI, sort of kebabs without which one cannot visit Serbian tavern – kafana. Being great meat fans, Serbs have formed a complete philosophy of making grill. Each region in Serbia has its own school and ĆEVAP or ĆEVAPČIĆI as we call them dearly are the perfect example of grilling arts & crafts. There is no chance that any BBQ or any tavern gathering or party can pass without sweet delicious ćevapi. У is for one of the most beautiful panoramas in Europe, and home to Griffon Vulture – river and canyon UVAC. Located at the southwest of Serbia, Uvac river forms a one of a kind phenomenon, as it meandres through magnificent mountains and mountain plateaus. The natural reservate nurtures one of the most endagered bird species in Europe and the largest European vulture – Griffon Vulture. Along with nearby Mt. Zlatar and Raška county Uvac forms a fantastic choice for a dynamic vacation. Ф is dedicated to FELIX ROMULIANA, a magnificent complex of Roman Emperor Galerius. The complex itself was a vast palace of emperor’s mother Romula, hence Felix Romuliana. Being a high priestess of a pagan cult, Romula had a shrine within the Royal complex. Its magnificent mosaics are among the best preserved ones and the richest in Roman heritage. Felix Romuliana is listed on UNESCO World Heritage list. Х like HOMOLJE, mountain region in East Serbia, home of Vlahs. They say that Vlahs are descendants of the Roman legionnaires and ancient settlers. There are many legends which claim that Vlah magic is the mightiest one in the world. It is certain that their folklore is among the most interesting ones in the world, and we are sure that a part of Vlah magic can be found in local specialties such as Homolje cheese and Homolje honey. Ц is for CARSKA BARA BIRD RESERVATE, not the largest, but the richest ornitological station in Europe. Nested in Banat county Carska Bara is a large swamp complex which nurtures hundreds of rare bird species and hundreds of herb species. Its flora and fauna is extraordinary and makes the perfect refuge for nature enthusiasts. Ч is for „cheers!“ when you drink from ČOKANJ. Čokanj is a miniature bottle from which Serbs drink their favorite spirit – Rakija. It is a symbol of Serbian art of toasting, as it makes cheerful sound when Čokanjs are crossed. There are many anecdotes about Čokanj: a woman decided to spoil her husband’s joy of drinking from Čokanj by insertind a spider into it. A man looked at the poor spider for a few seconds, and advised it: „draw in your legs, my friend, you are about to travel…“ Џ is for another Serbian treat – DŽERVIN WINES. Mountainous regions of East Serbia are famous for fantastic wines and wine sorts. Perhaps the best representative would be Džervin hill, near town of Knjaževac. There is an opinion that the Džervin area was under the vinyards for thousands of years. One thing is for certain – this fruitful hill trully keeps its wealth in outstanding fruit and wine collection. Ш stands for ŠUMADIJA, Serbian central region. This hilly area carries its name for numerous forests, or „šuma“ in Serbian. Intersected by hundreds of creeks and rivers, Šumadija is famous for the fruit production. There are only several mountains in Šumadija region, and its mild climate is perfect to visit all year round. Šumadija is perfect for those who seek a true gourmet adventure, as its culinary specialties made of pure organic ingredients are always accompanied by a shot of rakija and make a perfect match with a glass of Šumadija wine. Now that you have mastered our alphabet, let’s try to learn couple of phrases, OK? |ДОБРО ЈУТРО!||DOBRO JUTRO!||DAW-BRO YOU-TRAW||GOOD MORNING!| |ДОБАР ДАН!||DOBAR DAN!||DAW-BAR DONE||GOOD DAY!| |НЕМА НА ЧЕМУ||NEMA NA ČEMU||NEM-A NA CHE-MOO||YOU’RE WELCOME| Now that you have mastered our alphabet, or АЗБУКА, you’re on a great way to become a true Serb or – Србин! Writen by Petar Živić / Serbia Incoming DMC Project Manager One reply on “AZBUKA – what makes Serbian different from other Slavic alphabets“ müsste die lateinische Variante der Auflistung des serbischen Alfabets nicht genauer „Aa Bb Vv Gg Dd Đđ Ee Žž Zz Ii Jj Kk Ll LJlj Mm Nn NJnj Oo Pp Rr Ss Tt Ćć Uu Ff Hh Cc Čč DŽdž Šš“ heißen? Siehe die Buchstaben Nr. 8 (Жж), 23 (Ћћ), 28 (Чч) und 30 (Шш). Und müsste der Satz „Briefe, die das gleiche sowohl in kyrillisch und in lateinischer Sprache sind:“ nicht „Buchstaben, die das gleiche sowohl in kyrillisch und in lateinischer Sprache sind:“ lauten? Denn im Englischen (der Standardsprache der Übersetzungsmaschinen) beteutet “Letters” sowohl „Briefe“ als auch „Buchstaben“. Ist mir aufgefallen, weil ich vor 22 Jahren mal etwas Serbisch gelernt hatte. Срдачно Вас поздрављам Srdačno Vas pozdravljam

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Aztec cuisine is the cuisine of the former Aztec Empire and the Nahua peoples of the Valley of Mexico prior to European contact in 1519. The most important staple was corn (maize), a crop that was so important to Aztec society that it played a central part in their mythology. Just like wheat in much of Europe or rice in most of East Asia, it was the food without which a meal was not a meal. It came in varieties that differed in color, texture, size and prestige, and was eaten as corn tortillas, tamales or ātōlli, maize gruel. The other constants of Aztec food were salt and chili peppers and the basic definition of Aztec fasting was to abstain from these two. The other major foods were beans, squash and New World varieties of the grains amaranth (or pigweed), and chia. The combination of maize and these basic foods would have provided the average diet. Aztec cuisine was a very well-rounded diet without any significant deficiencies in vitamins or minerals. The cooking of maize grains in alkaline solutions, a process called nixtamalization, significantly raised the nutritional value of the common staple. Water, maize gruels and pulque (iztāc octli), the fermented juice of the century plant (maguey in Spanish), were the most common drinks, and there were many different fermented alcoholic beverages made from honey, cacti and various fruits. The elite took pride in not drinking pulque, a drink of commoners, and preferred drinks made from cacao, among the most prestigious luxuries available. Favored by rulers, warriors and nobles, they were flavored with chili peppers, honey and a long list of spices and herbs. The Aztec diet included a variety of fish and wild game: various fowl, pocket gophers, green iguanas, axolotls (a type of amphibian, much like a salamander), a type of crayfish called acocil, and a great variety of insects, larvae and insect eggs. They also domesticated turkeys, duck and dogs as food and at times ate meat from larger wild animals such as deer, but none of these were a major part of their diet. They ate various mushrooms and fungi, including the parasitic corn smut, which grows on ears of corn. Squash (also known as cucurbita) was very popular and came in many different varieties. Squash seeds, fresh, dried or roasted, were especially popular. Tomatoes, though different from the varieties common today, were often mixed with chili in sauces or as filling for tamales. Eating in Aztec culture could take on a sacred meaning, especially as evidenced in ritual cannibalism. The act of eating another human was deeply connected to the Aztec mythology, in which gods needed to consume the sacrificed flesh and blood of humans to sustain themselves, and the world. One way to look at this is that since human flesh was a food of the gods, it was sacred, and consuming sacred food could sanctify an individual and bring him or her closer to the gods. Further, certain warriors, in their afterlife, were believed to have been turned into butterflies and hummingbirds with the ability to fly back to the realm of the living to feed on nectar. From this, the importance the Aztecs ascribed to the act of eating is clear. Most sources describe two meals per day, though there is an account of laborers getting three meals, one at dawn, another one at around 9 in the morning, and one at around 3 in the afternoon. This is similar to the custom in contemporary Europe, but it is unclear if intake of ātōlli, maize gruel, was considered a meal or not. Drinking a good amount of the thicker kinds of ātōlli could equal the calories in several corn tortillas, and ātōlli was consumed on a daily basis by most of the population. Many accounts exist of Aztec feasts and banquets and the ceremony that surrounded them. Before a meal, servants presented fragrant tobacco tubes and sometimes also flowers with which the guests could rub their head, hands, and neck. Before the meal would start each guest would drop a little food on the ground as an offering to the god Tlaltecuhtli. As military prowess was highly praised among the Aztecs, table manners imitated the movement of warriors. The smoking tubes and flowers went from the left hand of the servant to the right hand of the guest and the plate accompanying the smoking tube went from the right hand to the left hand. This was an imitation of how a warrior received his atlatl darts and shield. The flowers passed out bore different names depending on how they were handed out; "sword flowers" went from left hand to hand to left. When eating, guests would hold their individual bowls filled with dipping sauce in the center of the right hand and then dip corn tortillas or tamales (which were served from baskets) with the left. The meal was concluded by serving chocolate, often served in a calabash cup along with a stirring stick. Men and women were separated at banquets and, though it is not entirely clear from the sources, it seems as if only men drank chocolate. The women would more likely have drunk pozolli (maize gruel from finely ground maize) or some type of pulque. Rich hosts could often receive guests sitting in rooms around an open courtyard similar to Caravanserais and senior military men would perform dances. Festivities would begin at midnight and some would drink chocolate and eat hallucinogenic mushrooms so that they could tell about their experiences and visions to the other guests. Right before dawn singing commenced and offerings were burned and buried in the courtyard to ensure the fortune of the children of the hosts. At dawn, the remaining flowers, smoking tubes and food were given to the old and poor that had been invited, or to the servants. As with all other aspects of life, the Aztecs stressed the dual nature of all things, and toward the end of the banquet the host would be sternly reminded by his elders of his own mortality and that he should not be overcome with pride. Aztec private feasts included music singing, storytelling, dancing, incense burning, flowers, tobacco, offerings, and gift-giving. Aztec feasts were a display of material culture and wealth—notes by Friar Bernardino de Sahagún and Friar Diego Durán describe Aztec feasts as events where "everything was to be created in abundance". Feasts were organized to the point of ritual, there were roles and relationships displayed and reinforced. Hosts needed to meet the obligations of banqueting, in order not to "offend" their guests, and guests needed to reinforce the hosts' stature. There are multiple important events in Aztec society that called for feasts. Child naming ceremonies involved the ritual calling out of the baby's name and progressed into a large organized feast. This feast could consist of dressed bird or dog, meat and/or maize tamales, beans, cacao bean, and roasted chillis. Izcalli child presentation ceremonies were also important, part of the Aztec agricultural calendar. Izcalli was the last month of the calendar. Every fourth Izcalli celebration included the introduction of children, born during this four-year period, to the Aztec community. This feast introduced the child to actions important to their religious life such as singing, dancing, ceremonial drinking, sacrificial bloodletting, and body modification. The food served during this feast was traditionally spicy. Noted by Sahagun was: "And the sauce of the tamales was called 'red chilli sauce'. And when the good common folk ate, they sat about sweating, they sat about burning themselves. And the tamales stuffed with greens were indeed hot, gleaming hot." The wedding process also contained many ceremonies, the parents of a young male, when marriage was desired, had to ask permission of his calmecac school leaders. Part of this process was a feast of tamales, chocolate, and sauces. During the wedding itself, there were feasts of pulque, tamales, and turkey meat. Funerary feasts were also common among the wealthy class. Served at these feasts was octli (pulque), chocolate, bird, fruit, seeds, and other foods. Parts of the 260-day ritual calendar of the Aztecs were veintena. Veintena can be approximated as months, however, they are more aptly described as 20-day public ceremony periods. Each 20-day veintena was a full and complex festival made up of ceremonies dedicated to specific gods and deities of the current veintena. Regional and local ceremonies differed in deities and methods from the official state-sponsored ones at Tenochtitlan. Food was an important part of veintena ceremonies; it was both consumed and adorned by priests. It was noted that during the ceremonies honoring Xipe Totec the priests would adorn themselves in arrays of "butterfly nets, fish banners, ear of maize, coyote heads made of amaranth seed, tortillas, thick rolls covered with a dough of amaranth seeds, toasted maize, red amaranth, and maize stalks with ears of green or tender maize." In the ceremonies honouring Mixcoatl, after a "great hunt," Aztecs would feast on deer, rabbit, and all other animals killed in the hunt. Hunting was also important to celebrations dedicated to Xiuhtecuhtli when Aztec boys and young men would hunt for ten days. The products of these hunts would then be turned over to priests, who cooked them in large fire flies. The main method of preparation was boiling or steaming in two-handled clay pots or jars called xoctli in Nahuatl and translated into Spanish as olla (pot). Ceramics were vital to the cooking process and served at least three major purposes: nixtamal preparation, tamale steaming, and cooking beans, stews, and hot beverages. The xoctli was filled with food and heated over a fire. It could also be used to steam food by pouring a little water into the xoctli and then placing tamales wrapped in maize husks on a light structure of twigs in the middle of the pot. Tortillas, tamales, casseroles and the sauces that went with them were the most common dishes. Chili and salt were both ubiquitous and the most basic meal was usually just corn tortillas that were dipped in chilis that had been ground in a mortar with a little water. The dough could be used to encase meat, sometimes even whole turkeys, before cooking. In major Aztec towns and cities there were vendors that sold street food of all kinds, catering to both the rich and poor. Other than ingredients and prepared food every imaginable type of ātōlli could be bought, either to quench one's thirst or as an instant meal in liquid form. Women, in charge of domestic duties in Aztec societies, were also the cooks. Generally, men did not directly participate in cooking. Based on where cooking tools are usually found, it seems that kitchens were a simple, single-room structure separate from the house itself. Most cooking probably took place on a small triangular hearth in the kitchen. Most information regarding Aztec cooking tools comes from finding the tools themselves, as depictions of the tools in art are rare, and when they are featured, they aren't particularly prominent or detailed. Luckily, tools were most often made of stone and ceramics and as such can be found in large quantities in good condition for study. Manos and metates were the tools of choice for grinding nixtamalized maize (nixtamal). It was also used to grind sauce ingredients like peppers, though different sets of manos and metates would likely have been used to avoid getting other flavors in maize dough (masa). The metate is a stone slab that can be slightly concave. Nixtamal was placed on top of the metate and the mano, effectively a rough cylindrical stone, was rolled over it, grinding the nixtamal. The mano and metate were tools that would have been used every day, since ground nixtamal usually goes bad within a day. Ethnographies of 20th-century indigenous communities seem to indicate that women could have spent between four and eight hours a day at a metate grinding nixtamal, but women in a 2007 study at Xaltocan insisted that an experienced woman could grind all she needed for the day in only an hour; regardless, use of a metate for grinding is considered tedious work. The mano and metate remained as the grinding tool of choice in central Mexico, as it tends to grind finer than European-style mills, and tortillas made from masa ground on a mano and metate are still considered of a higher quality, if much more labor-intensive. However, some argue that the reason women used to and still do grind nixtamal by hand is because it was a way for men to limit the amount of free time women have in an effort to prevent extramarital affairs. The molcajete is another grinding tool. It is a bowl made of porous basalt rock, and an accompanying basalt cylinder was used to grind foods into the molcajete. It looks and functions very similarly to a western mortar and pestle. The fact that a molcajete will hold whatever is prepared in it means it would have been ideal for preparing sauces that would spill off the sides of a metate, and molcajetes could also be used as serving vessels. Comals are a type of ceramic griddle with a smooth top and a porous bottom used for cooking various types of tortillas, as well as for non-maize foods like peppers and roasted squash. It is possible that comales could also have been used as makeshift pot lids for the sake of convenience. There are several references to frying in the accounts of Spanish chroniclers, but the only specification of the Aztec type of frying appears to be some kind of cooking that was done with syrup, not cooking fat. This is corroborated by the fact that no evidence for large-scale extraction of vegetable oils exist and that no cooking vessels suited for frying have been found by archaeologists. Aztec staple foods included maize, beans and squash to which were often added chilis, nopales and tomatoes, all prominent parts of the Mexican diet to this day. They harvested acocils, a small and abundant crayfish of Lake Texcoco, as well as Spirulina algae, which was made into a sort of cake called tecuitlatl and was rich in flavonoids. Although the Aztecs' diet was mostly vegetarian, the Aztecs consumed insects such as grasshoppers chapulín [t͡ʃaˈpolin] (singular) or chapulines [t͡ʃapoˈlimeʔ] (plural), maguey worm, ants, larvae, etc. Insects have a higher protein content than meat, and even now they are considered a delicacy in some parts of Mexico. Maize was the single most important staple of the Aztecs. It was consumed at every meal by all social classes, and played a central role in Aztec mythology. To some of the first Europeans, the Aztecs described maize as "precious, our flesh, our bones". It came in a vast number of varieties of various sizes, shapes and colors; yellow, reddish, white with stripes of color, black, with or without speckles and a blue-husked variant that was considered to be particularly precious. Other local and regional varieties must have also existed but few were recorded. Maize was revered to such an extent that women blew on maize before putting it into the cooking pot so that it would not fear the fire, and any maize that was dropped on the ground was picked up rather than being wasted. One of the Aztec informants of the Spanish Franciscan missionary and chronicler Bernardino de Sahagún explained the practice in the following way: Our sustenance suffers, it lies weeping. If we should not gather it up, it would accuse us before our Lord. It would say: O our Lord, this vassal picked me not up when I lay scattered on the ground. Punish him. Or perhaps we should starve. A process called nixtamalization was used all over America where maize was the staple. The word is a compound of the Nahuatl words nextli ("ashes") and tamalli ("unformed corn dough; tamal"), and the process is still in use today. Dry maize grain is soaked and cooked in an alkaline solution, usually limewater. This releases the pericarp, the outer hull of the grains and makes the maize easier to grind. The process transforms maize from a simple source of carbohydrates into a considerably more complete nutritional package; it increases the amount of calcium, iron, copper, zinc that are added through the alkalide or the vessel used in the process and niacin, riboflavin and more protein already present in the corn that is not digestible to humans are made available through the process. The inhibited growth of certain mycotoxins (toxic fungi) is another benefit of nixtamalization. If the processed maize, the nextamalli, is allowed to ferment, further nutrients, including amino acids such as lysine and tryptophan are made available. Together with beans, vegetables, fruit, chilis and salt nixtamalized corn can form a healthy and diverse diet. A great number of herbs and spices were available to the Aztecs in seasoning food. Among the most important, chili peppers come in a wide variety of species and cultivars, some domesticated and many of them wild. These included a great range of heat intensity depending on the amount of capsaicin present, with some being mild and others being very piquant. The chilis were often dried and ground for storage and use in cooking, some roasted beforehand to impart different tastes. Flavors varied significantly from one type to another, including sweet, fruity, earthy, smoky, and fiery hot. Native species of plants used as seasonings produced flavors similar to Old World spices that often proved to be more easily accessible in cooking after the Spanish conquest. Culantro or Mexican coriander provides a much stronger flavor than its Old World parallel, cilantro, and its leaves can be easier to dry. Mexican oregano and Mexican anise likewise produce flavors reminiscent of their Mediterranean counterparts, while allspice has an aroma somewhere in between nutmeg, cloves, and cinnamon. The bark of canella or white cinnamon has a soft, delicate flavor that might have eased the acceptance of the more pungent cinnamon of Ceylon into modern Mexican cuisine. Before the arrival of onions and garlic, subtler but similar wild plants such as Kunth's onion and other southern-ranging species of the genus Allium, as well as the fragrant leaves of garlic vine may have been used. Other flavorings available included mesquite, vanilla, achiote, epazote, hoja santa, popcorn flower, avocado leaf, and other indigenous plants. Many different alcoholic beverages were made from fermented maize, honey, pineapple, cactus fruit and other plants. The most common was octli which was made from maguey sap. It is today known as pulque, an Antillean term. It was drunk by all social classes, though some nobles made a point of not downing such a humble beverage. Drinking was tolerated, even for children at some occasions, but becoming intoxicated was not. The penalties could be very stiff, and were stricter for the elite. The first transgression of a commoner would be punished by tearing his house down and sending him off to live in the field like an animal. A noble would generally not get a second chance and could be executed for overindulging in alcohol. Getting intoxicated appeared to have been more tolerated for elderly people; Spanish translations of the Codex Mendoza note that there were specific circumstances that allowed the elderly to get intoxicated: It is shown how, according to the laws and customs of the lose of seventy years of age, man or woman, if such old persons had children or grandchildren. These had license and freedom to use it. This did not prevent the occasional tragedy of nobles who became alcoholics and drank themselves into poverty, squalor and an early death. An informant of Sahagún told the sad story of a former tlacateccatl, a general and commander of over 8,000 troops: He drank up all his land; he sold it all ... Tlacateccatl, a valiant warrior, a great warrior, and a great nobleman, sometimes, somewhere on the road where there was travel, lay fallen, drunk, wallowing in ordure. Ātōle ([aːˈtoːlːi]), maize gruel, accounted for a considerable amount of the daily calorie intake. The basic recipe for ātōle was eight parts water and six parts maize with lime that was cooked until it softened and then ground. The mixture was then boiled until it thickened. There were many variations of ātōle: a mixture of 1/10 maguey syrup made nequātōle; adding chili ground with salt and tomato would make iztac ātōle; letting maize dough sour for 4–5 days and then adding more fresh dough with chili and salt would make xocoātōle. Beans, baked corn tortillas with the crust cut off, toasted maize, chia, amaranth and honey could also be added and there was pinolli, ground toasted maize that was carried by travelers in sacks which could be mixed with water on the road for an instant meal. Cacao had immense symbolic value. It was a rare luxury and an import that could not be grown within the boundaries of the Aztec Empire. There are no detailed descriptions of how cacao solids were prepared, but there are a number of allusions to the fact that it was eaten in some form. Cacao beans were among the most valuable commodities and could be used as a form of payment, although of somewhat low value; 80-100 beans could be used to buy a small mantle or a canoe-full of fresh water if one lived on the salty part of the lakes around Tenochtitlan. Nevertheless, beans were frequently counterfeited by filling empty cacao shells with dirt or mud. Cacao was commonly drunk as cacahuatl, "cacao water", and was the beverage of warriors and nobles. It was considered a potent intoxicant and something that was drunk with great solemnity and gravity and was described as something "not drunk unthinkingly" by the Spanish chronicler Sahagún. Chocolate could be prepared in a huge variety of ways and most of them involved mixing hot or tepid water with toasted and ground cacao beans, maize and any number of flavorers such as chili, honey, vanilla and a wide variety of spices. The ingredients were mixed and beaten with a beating stick or aerated by pouring the chocolate from one vessel to another. If the cacao was of high quality, this produced a rich head of foam. The head could be set aside, the drink further aerated to produce another head, which was also set aside and then placed on top of the drink along with the rest of the foam before serving. The Aztecs stressed moderation in all aspects of life. European authors and chroniclers were often impressed by what they perceived as exemplary frugality, simplicity and moderation. Juan de Palafox y Mendoza, the bishop of Puebla and viceroy of New Spain in the 1640s reported: I have seen them eat with great deliberation, silence, and modesty, so that one knows that the patience shown in all of their habits is shown in eating as well, and they do not allow themselves to be rushed by hunger or the urge to satisfy it. The primary meaning of an Aztec fast was to abstain from salt and chilis and all members of Aztec society engaged in fasting to some extent. There were no regular exceptions from the fast, something that shocked the first Europeans who came into contact with the Aztecs. Though fasting was common in Europe, there were permanent exceptions for the women and small children, the sick or frail and the elderly. Before the New Fire ceremony, which occurred every 52 years, some priests fasted for a whole year; the other priests 80 days and lords 8 days. Commoners engaged in fasts, but less rigorously. There was also a permanent contingent of fasters in Tehuacan. Along with various ascetic rigors like sleeping on a stone pillow, they fasted for periods of four years on one 50-gram corn tortilla (about 2 ounces) per day. The only respite came every 20 days, when they were allowed to eat whatever they wanted. Even rulers such as Moctezuma were expected to cut down on their otherwise luxurious lifestyle and did so with considerable conviction and effort. At times he abstained from luxuries and sex with women and ate only cakes of michihuauhtli and seeds of amaranth or goosefoot. The lord's chocolate was also replaced with water mixed from parched bean powder. This can be contrasted with the fasts of many European nobles and clergy that, while obeying the letter of the religious regulation by replacing meat and animal products with fish, were still luxurious feasts in their own right. During the fourteenth month, called Quecholli, ceremonies in honor of the hunting god Mixcoatl there would be a large hunt as part of the ritual. To prepare for the hunt Aztecs would fast for five days. The fasting was done, according to Sahagun, "for the deer, so that it would be a successful hunt." During the celebrations of the god Tezcatlipoca, his priests fasted for ten, five, or seven days continuously before the main feasts. They were known as "those who do penance." During celebrations of Huitzilopoctli it was noted by Friar Duran: "I have been assured that they became so weak because of the terrible eight-day fast that for another eight days they were not themselves, nor were they satisfied with eating. Many became gravely ill, and the lives of many pregnant women were in danger." During festivals in honor of Chicomecoatl, there would be a drastic back and forth of gorging and fasting. So much so that people would become ill. Bernal Diaz del Castillo comments on how the ruler of Tenochtitlan was served food: His cooks had more than thirty styles of dishes made according to their fashion and usage, and they put them on small low clay braziers so that they would not get cold ... if it was cold they made him a fire of glowing coals made from the bark of certain trees ... the odor of the bark ... was most fragrant ... they put the tablecloths of white fabric ... They served him on Cholula pottery, some red and some black ... and from time to time they brought him some cups of fine gold, with a certain drink made of cacao. Sahagun provides a list of the different types of tlaquetzalli, a chocolate drink served to Aztec lords: The ruler was served his chocolate, with which he finished [his repast] - green, made of tender cacao; honeyed chocolate made with ground-up dried flowers - with green vanilla pods; bright red chocolate; orange-colored chocolate; rose-colored chocolate; black chocolate; white chocolate." Aztec expansion was targeted in ways to gain or maintain access to foodstuffs need for ceremony and everyday life. The leader's ability to acquire food needed for ritual was important for his political success. Main article: Cannibalism in pre-Columbian America The Aztecs practiced ritualistic cannibalism. Victims, usually prisoners of war, were sacrificed in public on top of temples and pyramids by cutting out their hearts. The bodies were then thrown down to the ground where they were dismembered. The pieces were then distributed to the elite, which were mostly warriors and priests. The meat was consumed in the form of stews flavored only with salt and eaten with corn tortillas, but without the otherwise ubiquitous chili. The veintena Tlacaxipehualiztli was one of intense human sacrifice, it was noted by Sahagun that "it was the time when all captives died, all those taken, all those who were made captive, the men, the women, all the children." It began with the sacrifice of captured warriors, the flesh of the sacrificed warriors would be taken to the residence of the Aztec who had captured the warrior. The capturer was forbidden to feast on the flesh of the sacrificed, however his family would eat it. A stew called tlacatlaolli was prepared out of dried maize and into each serving would be placed a piece of the flesh of the captive. In the late 1970s the anthropologist Michael Harner suggested that the Aztecs had resorted to large-scale, organized cannibalism to make up for a supposed protein deficiency in the diet. This idea gained limited support from some scholars, but has been shown to be based on unfounded assumptions about eating habits, agriculture and demographics, making it a highly unlikely scenario.

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What Is A Frame? (With Examples) There is a lot of information out there in the world. Our brains need a way to know what to pay attention to and what to ignore. Think of a frame like a story or narrative. It presents information about the world by emphasizing certain aspects of our experience while de emphasizing others. Framing can be done with words, visuals, prices, and ideas. Framing is common in politics. Often both sides will have access to the same events and same facts, but they come away with different conclusions. One reason this happens is because each side has different values. The values emphasize and de emphasize different parts of the event. For example, take the hot button topic of abortion. One side focuses on how abortion is about a woman’s right to do what she wants with her body. This value leads that side to be for abortion. The other side focuses on the person hood of the child. By framing the discussion as one about person hood, they reach the conclusion that abortion should not be allowed. Frames also are common persuasion, manipulation, relationships, and pretty much any type of conversation since people must choose what to spend their time talking and focusing on. Another example of the power of framing was a study done about crime. People had crime described to them as a “beast preying on a community.” Another group had crime described to them as a “virus infecting a person.” The first group was more likely to support measures like increasing the police force and jailing offenders, while the other group was more likely to support measures that focused on systemic changes or social reform. So we can see how what we talk about before we discuss a topic effects how we approach that second topic. This is framing. So what is the purpose of framing? Since framing emphasizes certain elements of reality over others, a frame’s purpose is to tell a story that helps our brains decide what is happening in the world. For example, if you have a rough day at work, you could tell yourself a story about how rough your life is and how you should quit. This story emphasizes the negative parts of work. You could also change the frame by telling yourself that these difficult events are a challenge that is making you stronger if you can make it through. Both frames emphasize different aspects of reality and tell the brain what is happening. Frames can help you establish control in social situations, they can help you focus your life, and frames can help you get through difficult times. This article is going to teach everything you need to know about frames from a scientific perspective. We are also going to include some practical tips on how you can be better at framing things in your life. Types Of Frames (A Complete List) - Power frame: I am more important than you and have better options. For example, - Problem frame: you have all these problems you haven’t fixed so you need my help. - Authority frame: my way of seeing things is morally, empirically, or factually more correct. - Prize frame: I am more valuable. Why should I do business with you? - Time frames: my time is scarce, you better meet my demands before I leave. - Intrigue frames: I’ll tell you a good story with all the important facts at the end. - Analyst frame: facts and reasoning are all that matter. - Loss frame: person X has taken from you what is rightfully yours. - Redirect frame: I’m not here for the reason you think. I’m actually doing Y. (see the section on framing in persuasion) - Mirror frame: Accuse them of what you are being accused of. This is basically gaslighting. - Long term frame: That might be good in the short term but do we know about the long term? - Contrast frame: This is used in advertising frequently. A decent car looks much nicer parked next to two terrible cars. - Redirect frame: Think of what they expect and then do or say something different. See the section on frames in persuasion for more. - Reinterpretation: X actually means Y. - The “D” reframe: Deflect, delay, deny, discount, distract, divide, discredit, and deal. In other words, find a way to do one of these things to their argument. For example, “delay.” Argue that your opponent’s plan isn’t important and should be delayed so the group can focus on your topic which is much more pressing. - Subversion reframe. If someone trys to say the issue is x, find a way to say the issue is actually y. For example when someone says “the question is whether we should tax these people more,” say “the issue isn’t taxation at all but whether we should focus on immigration rules.” What Makes A Frame Appealing? (Frame Science) There are certain things that make a frame powerful versus weak. A powerful frame is more appealing to people while a weak frame is easily dismissed as the wrong way of looking at the world. Science says that effective frames have 10 different characteristics that control how appealing a frame is to the mind. - Repetition: Good frames are repeated in a frequent and timely manner. How long has it been since people heard your frame? - Relevancy/Identity Threat: People care most about frames that threaten their way of life. - Credible Messenger: The person who delivers the frame must be credible or people won’t accept that way of looking at the world. - Emotional Match: If you tell a story to a peaceful audience about revenge and bitterness, people won’t be as likely to accept that way of framing the world since it doesn’t match their inner emotions. - Episodic: Powerful frames must be presented through a specific story or anecdote. - Prior Attitude Coherence: Appealing frames build on a person’s already existing set of beliefs. - Group Approval: A person is more likely to accept a frame if they believe their in group already accepts it. - Fewer Reasonable Options: Science has shown that too many options make decisions difficult. The same applies to the number of frames and the complexity of each frame. Simple is better. - Prevent Loss: People are afraid to lose more than they are excited to gain. Good frames focus on what people are going to lose. - Responsibility: People want to minimize their culpability and maximize their benefits. Appealing frames tell people that they deserve all sorts of benefits and aren’t responsible for any of the negatives. I would also add 3 practical tips about frames: - Good frames surprise people and catch their attention by challenging what they expect to happen. Learn more about capturing people’s attention here. - People are often able to have their frame accepted simply because they are more stubborn and verbally dominant in advocating their frame than the other options. See how to improve your stubbornness here or in the section below on “how to practice frame control.” - If you want to maintain the frame, don’t answer people’s questions. Instead respond to a question when they ask a question. For example if they say “why should we listen to you,” you can respond “why would you ask that?” See these studies for more on the science of what makes people choose one frame over another. Journal article on the types of frames. More psychology journal references and other details about frames. How Do You Undermine A Frame? (Science) In order to attack a frame, simply attack one or more of the 10 things that make a frame strong listed above. Here are a list of ways to attack a frame. - Point out incoherent values or show contradictions. - Perform small denials or defiances that disrupt the person sharing the opposition frame. Challenge their words and definitions they use, disrupt their flow, ask irrelevant questions, attack parts that are not core to their thesis, make fun of something, minimize the importance of what they are saying. - Simply have a better story for explaining the facts of the situation. - Frame buffet trick. Dodge the frame and focus on what elements of it that you want. See our article on dodging. Try using the phrase “the issue isn’t X, but Y,” or “what really matters is X,” to keep the focus on what you want to talk about. - Use the I’m not convinced yet frame by pretending that the other frame hasn’t persuaded you enough. - Tell a riveting story with all the important facts and information at the end. This works really well when someone is nit picking your frame. - Use questions. For example, get people thinking about the counter arguments. Try this one “what would the other side say about your point of view?” - Attack the person’s authority. Do they have experience in the subject? What do other experts say? - Use stubbornness. Simply restate the frame and be willing to walk away if they don’t accept your way. - Look at the practical examples for frame control in specific life situations below, or reframe using the frame techniques listed above. How Do You Practice Frame Control? There are many levels to frame control practice. Remember the most important step of frame control is practicing being stubborn. The first step will help you develop this stubbornness. First, you can practice this by simply starting debates with people. Practice taking the opposite position that you normally would as it will be more difficult for you to hold your frame. Remember your goal isn’t accuracy. Your goal is practicing being assertive and stubborn. While normally you want to quickly change your mind if you are wrong, in this situation you want to practice disagreeing just to disagree. This is somewhat of a version of assertiveness training. Second you can practice frame control with total strangers on text and video chat sites like omegle. Let them choose the topic of conversation and then either practice focusing the conversation on an aspect you are interested in or practice changing the conversation to another topic. Then use the frames above to keep it on the new topic. This particularly works well if you can join a debate style forum since frames are ever present in debates. Third you can practice frame control in every day conversations. When someone makes a value judgement, simply disagree and assert something else. When they start to argue, use the techniques above, remain stubborn, and keep your frame. Fourth you can practice frame control in minor work situations. Simply find ways to change how your coworker or boss is approaching things. Ask yourself how else you could look at this problem. Practice reframing even the smallest conversations like where to go to lunch and what the best sports team or video game is. Fifth is to practice the preparation aspect of frame control. Think about the frames you regularly come across during the day and think of ways to subvert them. See the list of ways to undermine frames above. Finally, practice improving your frames by studying how people tell stories. Understanding storytelling whether it be though comedy, books, or movies will make you better at framing. Practice applying elements of good storytelling you pick up. Pay careful attention to how people shift the way you approach a topic and pay attention to what people do to keep your attention. Frames In The Real World (EXAMPLES) Sometimes it is easier to understand a topic with examples. Here are specific examples of frames and frame tricks in common categories. Many of the frames listed above work well in persuasive situations. But here are a few examples: - When someone begins to nit pick you, restate your main thesis and then be willing to walk away. If people don’t have a bad enough problem, there is no point trying to persuade them. - If you are cold calling people expect you to try to persuade them to buy. They will often say they already have a product and they don’t need yours. Instead of arguing, say “I’m really glad you already have software. I was just calling to give you information on the current marketplace so you can hold your current provider accountable.” This is a version of the Redirect frame listed above. This book has great reframing phrases for cold calls if you do sales. - Sales people often use the loss frame in relation to deals. Tell the person when the deal is expiring or when you are about to run out of products. Here is a good introductory book on the importance of frames in persuasion. This book also can help you see the ways to effect a frame long before you start talking about it. Debate requires good frames. Essentially you are trying to convince someone that your way of looking at the world is the right way and theirs is wrong. Here are a few frames that work well in this situation. - Questions are very successful at a frame game. Simply use questions to poke holes in the person’s argument. For example “what would the other side say,” or “what are the disadvantages of that plan?” Ask questions with a face and tone of skepticism. - When people complain and bring up objections, simply frame them as minor hangups. “I wouldn’t let a little thing like that bother me.” - Attack the person’s authority. Show they have bias, bad character, no authority, they are overreacting, overeager, incoherent, missing the point, or running away from the real issue. - Negotiate the frame. Ask the other person about their assumptions. Are there better assumptions we could make that would lead us to different conclusions? - Often you can’t persuade people that an argument or frame is wrong. In this case use the delay tactic. Frame the issue as something that doesn’t need to be decided at this time. Argue that something else is more important. “While we sit here talking about taxes, people starve in Africa.” (Be careful, someone might reframe your reframe by arguing that “to not decide is to decide.” Since not stopping something shows support by allowing it to happen.) See this book for an excellent guide on arguing, some of which has to do with framing. There are a few useful frames for manipulation. If you want to learn more about the key to manipulation though, check out this article. - Often people you talk with will have thought of all the different moves you could make. Instead of arguing with them, simply frame them as a sneaky schemer. Why did they take the time to think about all the negative aspects of a situation? - A useful frame in manipulation is the parent frame. Pretend the person you are interacting with is your child. Teach them the right way to do things. This often includes things like a parental tone, facial expressions, and oversimplification. - One way to get people to accept your frame is to use the overwhelm into heuristic mode trick. If the brain is give too many options, it will resort back to what it knows and finds safe. If you want a person to not select the new frame that is being presented, make it seem really complicated and confuse them. - Deny and insist. This is the basis of any frame battle. You can always simply deny that the person is right and insist on your way of looking at things. - Gaslighting or mirror framing is an other trick. Whatever they are accusing you of, simply accuse them of the same thing. This muddles the water and makes it hard to assert a clear winner or loser. - Finally is frame shaming. Instead of responding to the substance of a person’s frame, simply call it names. You can try “old fashioned,” “stupid,” “gaudy,” and more. Ask yourself what identity you can give the person’s frame that would disqualify it in your culture. For example if you are more liberal you might say something about how Trump would like that idea. If you are conservative you might say how Biden probably came up with that idea. Cognitive weaknesses are regularly exploited in advertising to control the frame. - The contrast effect. One item looks better when in the presence of a worse one. A person in a normal suit looks better in a room full of people in casual clothing. 80% meat versus 20% fat. Clothing stores often play classical music and hire people with accents to give the appearance of wealth and to drive the prices up. This creates a strong contrast with the outside world which isn’t that way. - See also the decoy effect, the default effect, the denomination effect, distinction bias, and more here. Frame control in conversations often has a slightly different feel because your goal is to maintain control with out angering the other person. Here are a few tricks - Negative frame. Don’t think about a spider. Tell the person not to think about something and their brain will have a tough time not thinking about it. - Use PreSuasion. If you want people to focus on achievement, competition, and goal setting, play them a clip of a race. See this book for more. - Confusion trick. One powerful way to keep the frame of a situation is to keep people confused as to what you are doing. By keeping their attention, you maintain control because they are trying to figure you out and reacting to your behavior. Jokes, weird stories, and odd behaviors accomplish this. - Dodging tricks. Dodging tricks are very useful for maintaining frames in conversations. One easy to use trick is to say this when someone brings up a topic you don’t want to focus on, “the issue isn’t x but y,” or “what I find interesting is this (z) aspect of what you said,” or “let’s stay focused on X,” or “we aren’t going to have that conversation.” See this article for more. - Question tricks. You can always just ask someone “what does that have to do with the topic of conversation?” Frame control is very important in an insult or comeback exchange. The key to a good insult frame is to have a brand in mind for the person. Here are a few suggestions: sensitive, creepy, awkward, shady, whiner, needy, entitled, weak, dramatic, delusional, oblivious, child, loser, unpopular, desperate, hack, guilty, average, less than. Think about what characterization most hurts your competitor’s credibility and then make sure to frame all of your attacks in that way. See our insult rolodex article for more. - “I bet you are single because your face looks like a 911 crash site.” - “I’m not going to exploit my opponent’s youth and inexperience.” In The Workplace Some people in the workplace can be extremely difficult to deal with. Consider applying these frames to their behaviors. - If they are constantly criticizing you, frame them as a whiner. Ask what their solution is and then attack it. - If they are always telling you what to do and assigning you tasks when they aren’t your boss, frame them as lazy. A hard working person wouldn’t be focused on giving work away. - If they keep arguing, frame them as a time waster. - Framing a person as helpless, irresponsible, or sensitive seems to always play well. Keep in mind these are all basically character attacks and don’t actually address the argument. Be careful who is listening as your audience might lose respect for you if you never make a logical argument. How You See The World Your mental approach to life can have a strong effect on outcomes. Here are some tricks you can use. Keep in mind that you might see this as cheesy or an unrealistic way of looking at the world. You might even think that looking at only parts of the world is lying to yourself. This isn’t correct. You are consciously choosing to focus on certain elements of the world and not others. There is nothing unrealistic or false about this. Why would you focus on a way of looking at the world that doesn’t improve your life? - Reframe setbacks or mistakes as opportunities to learn. You either win or you learn. - Reframe obstacles as ways to weed out your competitors. Think of all the people who are quitting right now! - Reframe in long terms. Will this little thing matter in 50 years? - Transmute bad to good. Every bad event in life has a positive side. People dying close to you can make you appreciate the little time you have left. Medical issues can give you more time to read and think than you would normally have if you had to work. Lying or cheating can teach you to be a better observer of people. Another example would be if people insult you all the time and you aren’t good at insults, simply write each insult down and memorize it. Eventually these people’s insults will have helped you out. - The victim reframe. Instead of looking at the world happening to you, take responsibility for what you do in the world. While what happened might not be right or your fault, it still happened. What could you have done to prevent that event? If there isn’t something you could have done, move on and stop thinking about it. - Wordplay reframe. “I’m not good enough.” “That comment actually shows humility. It actually means you might be humble enough to master this subject if you put in the work. Arrogance is always a serious stumbling block for learning and growth.” If you want to learn more about reframing how you see the world and fixing your mindset, check out this book on stoicism, this simplified stoicism book, this article on nlp reframing (not so scientific but gives practical examples), or this article on Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and frames.

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Write in the Middle: A Workshop for Middle School Teachers Learn effective practices and strategies to help students become confident and proficient writers. A video workshop for middle school teachers; 8 one-hour video programs, workshop guide, and website. Write in the Middle: A Workshop for Middle School Teachers is an eight-part professional development workshop designed to help teachers learn effective practices and strategies to use with middle school students in writing instruction. Through classroom footage of excellent teachers modeling successful strategies and interviews with teachers, students, and nationally recognized experts about the writing process, workshop participants will learn ways to create a positive and productive writing environment for young adolescents. In this eight-part workshop, classroom video and insightful discussion illustrate effective ways teachers can help their students become confident and proficient writers. Middle school teachers from across the country share specific strategies they use with their students, and extensive video from each of their classrooms gives viewers an opportunity to see those strategies in action. The workshop explores several common themes that underlie effective writing instruction at the middle school level—providing engaging prompts, allowing student choice, modeling good writing, and using innovative approaches like multigenre writing. Some workshop videos feature aspects of the writing process, such as revision and pre-writing, while others illustrate successful strategies for teaching specific writing forms such as poetry or persuasive essays. Individual Workshop Descriptions Workshop 1: Creating a Community of Writers After a brief introduction to the goals of all eight workshop sessions, a middle school teacher and writing expert Linda Rief and several of the teachers whose classrooms are featured in Write in the Middle share strategies they use to build a safe writing environment for their students starting at the beginning of the school year. Extended classroom video segments demonstrate some community-building activities teachers can use with their own students. Through classroom examples, teacher discussions, and interviews, Workshop 1 also examines how room arrangements can encourage written and spoken communication and how sharing their writing helps students become part of the writing community. “Creating a Community of Writers” closes with an exploration of some of the psychological and emotional needs specific to young adolescents and their learning. Workshop 2: Making Writing Meaningful Workshop 2 demonstrates how teachers use authentic sources and topics to prompt students to write about things that matter to them—subjects that relate to their lives, relationships, and communities. The topic may be the students themselves—their feelings, emotions, reactions—or it may involve outside forces that have an impact on their lives. Damond Moodie, a teacher from Oakland, California, uses current events as a prompt for encouraging his seventh-graders to write. Using television, newspapers, the Internet, and radio as sources, the students locate and summarize stories that interest them. Allen Teng, another teacher from Southern California, uses various resources and activities to guide his seventh-grade students through a lesson designed to help them develop and substantiate their opinions on controversial issues. We see Gloria Hamilton, who teaches eighth grade in the Los Angeles area, using an advice-column approach to prompt student writing. In addition to classroom segments, the video also features teacher discussions about student engagement and excerpts from an interview with Linda Rief, the author of Seeking Diversity: Language Arts With Adolescents. Many students—and teachers—avoid reading and writing poetry because it seems so difficult and foreign to their everyday experience. But for middle school students, poetry offers an unparalleled opportunity to explore feelings and emotions and to increase awareness of the power of written expression. In Workshop 3, we see two master teachers—Vivian Johnson, who teaches eighth grade in Elizabethton, Tennessee, and Jack Wilde, a fifth-grade teacher from Hanover, New Hampshire—helping their students develop as readers and writers of poetry. Vivian Johnson introduces a mini-lesson on line breaks. The lesson features exemplars; excerpts from books on writing poetry; opportunities for discussion, sharing, and response; and writing applications. Throughout the classroom segments, we see how Vivian’s carefully structured, student-centered approach fosters her students’ appreciation and understanding of poetry and helps them begin to find their own poetic voices. Like Vivian, Jack Wilde uses exemplars to teach his fifth-grade students about writing poetry. In the lesson featured in the video, Jack has the class read and analyze a published poem and then practice writing stanzas modeled on the exemplar to combine into a class poem. After the children share their writing, Jack leads them in a discussion of the difference between poetry and prose. Later, students will choose their own topics and write individual poems modeled on the exemplar. Rounding out the video are excerpts from a conversation between Jack and Vivian, in which they share their overall approaches to teaching poetry as well as their reflections on specific instructional practices and strategies. Also featured is a cameo appearance from author and educator Tom Romano (Writing With Passion: Life Stories, Multiple Genres). Workshop 4: Teaching Persuasive Writing The fourth workshop features the classrooms of two teachers: sixth-grade language arts teacher Jenny Beasley from Somerset, Kentucky, and fifth-grade teacher Jack Wilde. Both are teaching units on persuasive writing that allow students to write about topics that matter to them—topics drawn from their experiences within their own communities. Also featured are excerpts from a discussion in which the two teachers reflect on their strategies and practices. For Jenny’s students, the definition of community is wide-ranging—it includes their families, their school, and their town. But under this broad umbrella, Jenny encourages her students to think specifically and concretely about issues that interest them. The students begin by exploring a range of possible editorial topics. When we catch up with the class, they already have narrowed their focus to one issue. Now, with Jenny’s help, the students are laying the groundwork for effective and authentic editorials by stating their opinion, identifying their audience and purpose, and beginning to think about support for their point of view. Meanwhile, Jack Wilde is introducing his students to persuasive writing by asking them to write on a familiar subject—their school community. Using a skillful mix of modeling, brainstorming, and conferring, Jack is teaching his class how to develop and organize an effective persuasive essay. The children’s audience is the school principal and their purpose is to persuade him to go along with a suggested change—letting fifth-graders go home for lunch or giving students more computer time, for example. We see the students beginning their first drafts, well on their way to the unit’s culminating activity: choosing representative essays for the principal to read and respond to. Workshop 5: Teaching Multigenre Writing Workshop 5 centers on multigenre writing, an eclectic approach to writing instruction that offers students a wide range of options for expressing ideas and communicating knowledge. As students explore different avenues for translating what they think or know into writing, they begin to understand that there is no single “right way” to communicate. Instead, writing demands intelligent, informed choices based on purpose, audience, content, and personal preference. Giving students the freedom to make these choices fosters their creativity and increases their engagement. The first teacher featured in the video is Laurie Swistak from Newport, Rhode Island, whose fifth-graders are starting work on a research-based multigenre unit. Laurie begins by reviewing FQI—Facts/Questions/Interpretation —an inquiry framework that helps students think critically about genre choice. Through the course of two class periods, we see Laurie use whole-class and small group work to prepare her students to use FQI independently. In the second part of the video, we see St. Paul teacher Mary Cathryn Ricker and her seventh-grade students approach multigenre writing from a different angle. Over the next few months, the students will prepare a portfolio of multigenre pieces focused on personal experience. To get the students started, Mary Cathryn introduces several literary models including Jerry Spinelli’s entertaining memoir, Knots in My Yo-Yo String, and a collection of biographical poems about George Washington Carver. Later, we see her use a student poem—written in both English and Spanish—as a prompt, a particularly apt choice for her class of second-language learners. Also featured in the video are excerpts from a conversation between Mary Cathryn and Laurie, and from an interview with Tom Romano, the author of Blending Genre, Altering Style: Writing Multigenre Papers and a national expert on multigenre writing. Workshop 6: Responding to Writing: Teacher to Student Because of the personal nature of writing, one of the best ways to teach the craft is to interact directly with individual students. To make these vital student-teacher conferences as effective as possible, teachers need to be intentional in their planning and practice. At the same time, they must balance the benefits of conferencing with the challenges of fitting it into their busy classroom schedules. “Responding to Writing: Teacher to Student” demonstrates how five teachers—Jenny Beasley, Vivian Johnson, Mary Cathryn Ricker, Laurie Swistak, and Jack Wilde—use student-teacher conferences to help their students improve as writers. The workshop provides classroom illustrations of several different approaches to conferring with students including formal one-on-one conferences, informal one-on-one interactions, and formal and informal conferences with student response groups. Through interviews and discussion, the teachers reflect on their practice: planning effective one-on-one and group conferences, providing direction without taking over students’ papers, using conferences to assess student learning and communicate expectations, and dealing with classroom management issues related to conferencing. The workshop also features excerpts from interviews with Tom Romano (Writing With Passion: Life Stories, Multiple Genres) and Linda Rief (Seeking Diversity: Language Arts With Adolescents). Workshop 7: Responding to Writing: Peer to Peer Peer responses provide a tremendous learning opportunity for young writers. These interactions help students with topic generation and idea development, increase their confidence about sharing their work, force them to look more objectively at their own writing, give them valuable feedback for possible revisions, and allow them to learn from the writing successes and challenges of their peers. “Responding to Writing: Peer to Peer” visits the classrooms of three teachers—fifth-grade teacher Jack Wilde, seventh-grade teacher Velvet McReynolds, and eighth-grade teacher Vivian Johnson—to explore various ways that teachers can structure student interactions, from whole-class responses to informal writing partnerships. The video highlights teaching strategies that help students learn how to respond appropriately and meaningfully to each other’s writing. Both Jack and Velvet model response using their own writing, and Jack and his students demonstrate how a whole-class response to an individual writer can help all the students hone their conferencing skills. We also sit in as Jack facilitates a small response group, another way of helping students learn how to respond more effectively. The video abounds with classroom examples of students interacting. It also features excerpts from teacher discussions about peer conferencing, held at the end of the school year, as well as comments from Linda Rief, an eighth-grade English teacher and the author of Seeking Diversity: Language Arts With Adolescents. Workshop 8: Teaching the Power of Revision Workshop 8 takes viewers into the classrooms of three language arts teachers—Velvet McReynolds, Mary Cathryn Ricker, and Jack Wilde—as their students tackle the ongoing task of revision. To Velvet McReynolds, revision is at the heart of the writing process—it’s “where the magic happens.” Using a student exemplar, class discussion, handouts, and individual and small-group work, Velvet prompts her seventh-graders to focus on revising personal narratives they wrote earlier in the year. The two-day session culminates with a celebration circle where students share “before” and “after” versions of their papers. Mary Cathryn Ricker’s seventh-grade students are beginning work on an autobiographical multigenre project. On the second day of the unit, Mary Cathryn presents a mini-lesson on the Barry Lane revision technique “exploding the moment.” After the students “mine” their writing notebooks for a piece of personal writing to revise, Mary Cathryn moves around the room, helping them come up with details that will expand and improve their writing. Jack Wilde also is teaching a mini-lesson, this one on leads for persuasive essays. Using models drawn from past students’ papers, Jack helps his class generate a list of effective ways to begin their papers. Then, after the students have drafted openings for their essays, they confer with one another and with Jack about possible revisions. Throughout the workshop, we hear reflections on revision from both teachers and students, as well as discussions among the teachers about dealing with student resistance to revision, planning mini-lessons, and other issues related to the revision process. About Support Materials If you are participating in a group session, your facilitator will give you a copy of the print guide or request that you print the pdf for yourself from this website. Your facilitator will give you any instructions concerning meeting time and place, what you should bring to sessions, and work you should do outside the group sessions. Using the Group Materials The Support Materials and website provide background, activities, discussion questions, homework assignments, and resources to supplement Write in the Middle. They also provide information for facilitators to plan and structure group sessions, so if you’re watching the videos with other teachers or facilitating a group, check out the Helpful Hints for Facilitators section in the Support Materials for discussion points and suggestions for activities to do before, during, and after viewing the workshops. If you’re using the workshop for self-study, there are suggestions to help you optimize your viewing as well. Each workshop session is designed to last about two hours and has a suggested format and a guide to discussion and activity breaks. The suggested viewing format includes background reading to do ahead of time to prepare for each workshop. This reading includes a piece tailored to each workshop titled “Key Practices To Observe,” a guide to help viewers identify the specific teaching moments seen in the videos that are considered “best practice.” During the time participants are watching the workshop video, facilitators are encouraged to stop the video for discussion and activity breaks. Included in the Support Materials is a guide with suggested pause points and discussion questions to get you started. There are also suggestions for discussion and activities to do immediately after viewing. The materials available on this website were developed to enhance, not to replicate, the viewing of Write in the Middle, so peruse the site and read samples of authentic student writing, listen to reflections from the teachers featured in the programs, or download handouts to use with your students. Try your hand at evaluating a piece of student writing at Interactive Practice. You’ll find three samples of authentic drafts, written in different genres, by different students. Identify the strengths and weaknesses of each sample and then compare your assessment to those of another teacher. Best Practices in Teaching Writing Best Practices in Teaching Writing (pdf) Dr. Charles Whitaker‘s detailed description of the best practices demonstrated in Write in the Middle. Best Practices in Teaching Writing: An Outline (pdf) An abbreviated, one-page version of Dr. Whitaker’s list of best practices. About the Contributors Bobbi Ciriza Houtchens, the lead content advisor for Write in the Middle, teaches English and ESL at San Bernadino High School in San Bernadino, California, east of Los Angeles. Among Bobbi’s students are Spanish, Hmong, Vietnamese, and Arabic speakers. Bobbi and her classroom were featured in the Annenberg series Conversations in Literature. In addition to her full-time work as a teacher, Bobbi serves as chair of the NCTE’s committee on racism and bias and edits the column “English in the News” for The English Journal. She also is a part-time lecturer in the Department of Language, Literacy, and Culture at California State University, San Bernardino. Charles Whitaker, Ph.D., the lead field content advisor for Write in the Middle and a contributing writer for the Web site, is a professor of English at Eastern Kentucky University in Richmond, Kentucky where he has taught for 28 years and has been recognized as an EKU Foundation Professor. He has taught writing for more than 30 years, along with graduate courses in composition studies, and has published articles and a textbook on writing. He administered the writing program in his department for ten years; and for the past 17 years, he directed two National Writing Project sites—EKU and the Mountain Writing Project, conducted in collaboration with Hazard Community College. Dr. Whitaker has served on the Kentucky Writing Advisory Committee for more than ten years and has worked closely with the Kentucky Department of Education to develop the state’s Program of Studies in English/Language Arts, materials used in the statewide assessment of writing and statewide professional development in writing instruction. In addition, he consults with school districts and schools throughout Kentucky to improve instruction and test scores in writing. Dr. Whitaker also has served on the faculty at Transylvania University in Lexington, Kentucky. Barbara Flores, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Language, Literacy, and Culture in the College of Education at California State University, San Bernadino. During her tenure at Cal State, she has collaborated with teachers and administrators in action research on literacy among culturally and linguistically diverse children. Barbara co-authored Reading in a Bilingual Classroom: Literacy and Biliteracy with Drs. Ken and Yetta Goodman and Whole Language: What’s the Difference? with Carole Edelsky and Bess Altwerger. Both books were published by Heinemann. She also has written a number of articles and chapters for journals and books. Dewey Hensley works for Jefferson County Public Schools in Louisville, Kentucky, in their principal internship program. Part of Dewey’s time is spent traveling the district working with assessment-year elementary school teachers helping them in their reading, writing, and math instruction. Prior to this position, Dewey served as a Highly Skilled Educator for the Kentucky Department of Education, selected on the basis of his teaching excellence and leadership ability. During his two-year tenure as an HSE, Dewey was assigned to several struggling Kentucky schools, where he provided on-site training and support and helped the administration and faculty develop school-wide plans for improving student performance. Before becoming an HSE, Dewey taught English at South Oldham High School in Crestwood, Kentucky. He also has taught at Eminence High School in Eminence, Kentucky, and at Fairdale High in Louisville. Dewey’s professional activities include serving as associate director of the Louisville Writing Project, conducting training sessions for the Kentucky Association of School Administrators, and serving as a leader for portfolio analysis and as on-demand writing test writer for the Kentucky Department of Education. A National Board-certified teacher, Dewey has a B.A. in English and philosophy from Berea College in Berea, Kentucky, and a master’s in English from the University of Louisville. Linda Rief teaches eighth-grade language arts at Oyster River Middle School in Durham, New Hampshire. She also is an instructor in the Summer Reading and Writing Program at the University of New Hampshire and has taught graduate courses for Northeastern University and Simmons College in Boston, Massachusetts. Linda’s publications include Seeking Diversity: Language Arts With Adolescents (1992) and a 1999 book and companion CD, Vision and Voice: Extending the Literacy Spectrum. In addition, she coedited All That Matters: What Is It We Value in School and Beyond?(1995) and Workshop 6: The Teacher as Writer (1994) with Maureen Barbieri. All four books were published by Heinemann. Linda also has written several chapters and articles for professional books and journals. Linda’s teaching was the subject of Conferences and Conversations: Listening to the Literate Classroom (2000) by Douglas Kaufman, also published by Heinemann. In this book, Kaufman chronicles a year in Linda’s classroom as she fosters relationships with and among her students; establishes classroom organization and routines; and uses conversations and conferences to improve her students’ writing, reading, and thinking. Tom Romano, Ph.D., teaches writing and language arts methods in the Department of Teacher Education at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio. He is the author of Clearing the Way: Working With Teenage Writers (Heinemann, 1987); Writing With Passion: Life Stories, Multiple Genres (Boynton/Cook, 1995); and Blending Genre, Altering Style: Writing Multigenre Papers (Boynton/Cook, 2000). Tom taught high school English for 17 years and has been a faculty member at Miami since 1995. Tom is in demand nationwide as a consultant because of his unique combination of scholarly expertise, his specialized knowledge in teaching multigenre writing, and his experience in high school classrooms, writing workshops, and in teacher development. Tom’s undergraduate and master’s degrees are from Miami, and his doctorate is from the University of New Hampshire. Frank X Walker is the director of Kentucky’s Governor’s School for the Arts, which provides hands-on arts opportunities for the state’s talented high school students in dance, musical theatre, drama, vocal and instrumental music and creative writing in addition to visual art, architecture, and historic preservation. Frank also serves on the board of directors for the Kentucky Writers Coalition and the Louisville Arts Council. A photographer, muralist, and writer, Frank is a founding member of the Affrilachian Poets, a group of African American writers with roots in the rural South. In 2000, he published his first collection of poetry, Affrilachia. He also was featured in Coal Black Voices, a 2001 documentary on the Affrilachian Poets produced with support from the Kentucky Educational Television Fund for Independent Production. Frank was born in Danville, Kentucky, a small town south of Lexington, and graduated from the University of Kentucky, where he majored in English. He presently is working on an M.F.A. at Spalding College in Louisville. In addition to his work with the School for the Arts, Frank has served as the assistant director of the Black Cultural Center at Purdue University, as the program coordinator for the Martin Luther King Jr. Cultural Center at the University of Kentucky, and as the executive director of the Bluegrass Black Arts Consortium, an organization he founded. He also has five years of experience teaching creative writing. Jenny Beasley has taught language arts at Meece Middle School in Somerset, Kentucky, for the past nine years. She is presently teaching sixth-graders. Jenny earned a B.A. in public relations/journalism from Auburn University in Alabama and then returned to Auburn several years later to complete her M.E. in elementary education. Jenny is very active professionally. At Meece Middle, she has served as a language arts chair and Writing Cluster Leader. She also has been part of the School Portfolio Assessment Team and was the chair for Meece’s school-wide review, conducted in 1998-99 by the Southern Association of Schools and Colleges. After completing the Eastern Kentucky Writing Project’s Summer Institute in 1995, she spent three years serving as the EKU Writing Project co-director. The recipient of several teaching awards, Jenny has conducted professional development workshops on writing instruction at the state and national level. For the past 23 years, Gloria Hamilton has taught in the Inglewood Unified School District in Inglewood, California, an urban community near Los Angeles. Currently, she teaches eighth-grade language arts at Crozier Middle School and serves as a district-wide literacy coach. Her other accomplishments include designing and implementing a writing and testing program for technical students at the University of Illinois, Northwestern University, the Illinois Institute of Technology, the University of Southern California, and West Los Angeles College. She also developed and piloted a student mentor program in partnership with the Inglewood Public Library. Gloria graduated cum laude with a bachelor’s degree from Indiana University. She completed an advanced study in reading from Northern University in DeKalb, Illinois. Vivian Johnson has been teaching language arts at T.A. Dugger Junior High School in Elizabethton, Tennessee, for seven years—the last five years enjoying eighth-graders. She holds an E.Ed. in curriculum and instruction and an M.S.T. in English from the University of New Hampshire, and she became National Board certified in 1999. Vivian’s special interests as a teacher of literacy center on the workings of a writing process classroom, and she frequently presents writing and reading workshops for school districts in her region. She has published articles in Tennessee Reading Teacher and In the Middle. Her most treasured accomplishments, however, are students who leave for high school with a strong sense of who they are as readers and writers, on their way to being lifelong learners. Velvet McReynolds has been teaching for 30 years. Following graduation from UCLA, Velvet spent 20 years teaching middle school language arts in Los Angeles County’s Lennox School District. While in California, Velvet served as a peer coach and mentor, specializing in portfolio assessment, and as president of the Lennox Teachers Association. She was named Teacher of the Year for the Lennox School District in 1989. Velvet earned her master’s degree in curriculum development at California State University at Dominguez Hills. Since the early 1990s, she has taught in Hoover, Alabama, a suburb of Birmingham. She continues to serve in a mentorship role and facilitates workshops on portfolio assessment, multi-culture in language arts, and authentic writing. She earned National Board certification in 1997. Damond Moodie is in his sixth year of teaching at Roosevelt Middle School in the Oakland, California, school district. He has taught seventh-grade English and history for more than four years. Damond has served on the Leadership Team and as chair of the Social Studies Department. He coaches the seventh-grade boys’ basketball team and works in Roosevelt’s homework center as well. He has a B.A. in English from the College of Wooster in Ohio. Since 2000, Mary Cathryn Ricker has taught seventh-grade language arts at Cleveland Quality Middle School in St. Paul, Minnesota. She received her undergraduate degree at the University of St. Thomas in St. Paul and her master’s in teacher leadership with a certification in staff development at the University of Minnesota. She began her career at South Junior High in St. Cloud, Minnesota, and she also has taught at North Junior High and Tech High School in St. Cloud. Additional experience includes three years teaching seventh-grade language arts in Camas, Washington, and a year teaching English in Seoul, Korea. Mary Cathryn coordinates the Promising Young Writers Program for the Minnesota Council of Teachers of English and serves on the board of the Minnesota Writing Project. She is a member of the Minnesota Best Practice Writing Workshop, the Loft Literary Center, and the St. Paul Federation of Teachers Executive Board and COPE committee. She co-chairs the Education Action Committee at Progressive Minnesota. Laurie Swistak received a B.S. in education magna cum laude in 1989 after 20 years as a stay-at-home mom. In 1991, she left her first teaching position at a small Catholic school to begin working at Cranston-Calvert Elementary School in Newport, Rhode Island. In addition to teaching general fifth-grade social studies and math, she teaches language arts to gifted and talented students who come to Cranston-Calvert from schools throughout the district. Laurie presented on the multigenre approach to writing instruction featured in Workshop 5. In addition, she is active in her local teachers’ association and serves on the curriculum and literacy committees. She also serves on the Cranston-Calvert School Improvement Team and attends the Rhode Island Institute for Learning. Allen Teng is in his third year of teaching seventh-grade language arts at Rogers Middle School in Lawndale, California. He received his master’s degree in education and credential from UCLA in 2000 after finishing his undergraduate degree at UC Berkeley with a mass communications major and creative writing minor. Before teaching, he worked on race and education policy in Washington, D.C. and Sacramento. Jack Wilde has taught for more than 34 years. He presently teaches the fifth grade at the Bernice A. Ray School in the small town of Hanover, New Hampshire, where Dartmouth College is located. Jack and another fifth-grade teacher share the responsibilities for teaching two groups of approximately 20 students. Jack teaches language arts to his own homeroom and math to both classes while his partner is in charge of science instruction. Jack has two master’s degrees, an M.A.L.S. from Dartmouth College with a concentration in math and science, and an M.Ed. from the University of Toronto in language arts. He has been a workshop presenter and instructor of writing at various sites including the University of New Hampshire. Annenberg Media Project Manager Instructional Design/Content Development Managing Producer/Project Director Writers and Content Editors Mary Duncan, Ph.D. Field Content Producer Charles Whitaker, Ph.D. Web Site Producers Mary Duncan, Ph.D. Web Site Designer Web Site Consultants Web Site Contributing Writer Charles Whitaker, Ph.D. W. Jay Akers Content Advisory Panel Bobbi Ceriza Houtchens, Lead Advisor Barbara Flores, Ph.D. Tom Romano, Ph.D. Frank X Walker Mary Cathryn Ricker M. Elizabeth Spaulding, Ph.D. Pillar to Post Cleveland Middle School, St. Paul, MN Cranston-Calvert Elementary School, Newport, RI Crozier Middle School, Inglewood, CA T.A. Dugger Junior High School, Elizabethton, TN Meece Middle School, Somerset, KY Bernice A. Ray School, Hanover, NH Rogers Middle School, Lawndale, CA Roosevelt Middle School, Oakland, CA Arthur Rouse, Video Editing Services 1 Simmons Middle School, Hoover, AL Sue Swaim, National Middle School Association 1 Creating a Community of Writers In this session, participants explore practical strategies — from desk arrangements to classroom organization to writing routines — that allow young adolescents to share their writing in an atmosphere of trust and safety and to recognize their identities as lifelong writers and readers. 2 Making Writing Meaningful When teachers introduce subjects that matter to middle school students or allow them more freedom to choose and develop topics, the task of writing gains new meaning and purpose. In this session, participants examine how five middle-level teachers help their students connect to writing and understand its capacity to transform their own lives and the world around them. 3 Teaching Poetry Poetry offers young adolescents an unparalleled opportunity for exploring feelings and learning about the power of written expression. This session showcases two master teachers as they help their students develop as writers and readers of poetry. 4 Teaching Persuasive Writing In this session, participants visit two middle-level classrooms to see how teachers can help young writers develop effective and authentic persuasive pieces based on their own experiences and interests - for example, using cell phones in schools or altering their homework schedule. 5 Teaching Multigenre Writing Multigenre writing offers students a wide range of options for expressing ideas and communicating knowledge. In this session, participants examine two different, but equally successful, examples of this eclectic and engaging writing approach 6 Responding to Writing: Teacher to Student In this session, participants see how five middle-level teachers use both formal and informal student/teacher conferences to monitor their students' progress and help them improve as writers. 7 Responding to Writing: Peer to Peer Throughout the writing process, peer response can help young adolescents develop as thinkers and writers. In this session, participants explore strategies for structuring peer interactions and for teaching students to respond positively and productively to each other's work. 8 Teaching the Power of Revision In this session, participants visit the classrooms of three teachers to examine strategies that help even reluctant writers see the power and purpose of revision. Supplementary: Write in the Middle: Best Practices in Teaching Writing Dr. Charles Whitaker's detailed description of the best practices demonstrated in Write in the Middle Supplementary: Write in the Middle: Best Practices in Teaching Writing - An Outline An abbreviated, one-page version of Dr. Whitaker's list of best practices.

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Effective literacy practice in secondary schools enables students to access and engage in learning in all subject areas. This research review explores the literacy demands of the secondary school context, and outlines some ways in which secondary school teachers may develop and enhance learning through a disciplinary literacy approach. The literacy demands of secondary school In order to engage successfully with the secondary school curriculum, adolescent learners must have a range of literacy abilities to allow them to connect with each subject or learning area for a range of purposes. As students move through secondary school, the texts that they engage with become more complex, the concepts and ideas become more abstract, and the purposes for reading and writing become more specialised[i]. The vocabulary that students encounter throughout secondary school becomes increasingly specialised, technical and subject-specific. In addition, today’s adolescents are immersed in a world of complex digital media environments that require skills in navigation, comprehension, analysis and evaluation across multiple sources. The array of information available to students is vast, and the literacy skills and knowledge required to use that information are increasingly complex. This means that the literacy skills and knowledge that students obtained at primary school will not be sufficient to see them through secondary school, and that literacy learning needs to be ongoing. Disciplinary literacy provides a means of conceptualising literacy learning within the context of each secondary school learning area. It is an approach that pays attention to the ways in which learning occurs in each context, so that literacy is not seen as ‘additional’ to teaching and learning but rather as an essential component of how learning happens. Disciplinary literacy examines what is valued by the discipline and how students in that subject read, write, think and communicate. For example, in the English learning area, students often engage in the study of literature that involves an understanding of how an author constructs a text, the recognition and interpretation of language features, and the development of a personal response to literary texts[ii]. In science, knowledge is gained from empirical evidence gathered through hypothesis testing and observation, and focuses on accuracy and supporting evidence. Students are required to design, carry out and record results of investigations, link practical investigations to theory, and communicate their findings[iii]. Learning in History requires students to think analytically and critically about the contexts in which texts or ideas are produced, and to seek and find sources of evidence to challenge or corroborate claims[iv]. Whilst the literacy skills that constitute secondary level science, English, history or any other learning area share some common features, each subject uses literacy differently. When teachers develop students’ literacy skills in the context of each subject, they also build an understanding of how knowledge is produced in the disciplines, rather than just building content knowledge[v]. Literacy therefore becomes an essential and integrated aspect of teaching practice rather than a set of generic strategies brought into the discipline to improve the reading and writing of texts. Viewed in this way, disciplinary literacy teaching and learning require teachers to consider: - What is valued practice in my learning area? - What kinds of reading, writing, thinking and communicating are expected ? - How do I support students to develop these skills in my context? Attending to students’ disciplinary literacy learning increases access to and participation with the texts and task that students encounter. Disciplinary literacy also has a role to play in in promoting equity and social justice. Literacy is fundamental for success in school and in later life, and students who are able to read, write and communicate effectively are able to engage in learning, particularly at higher levels of the secondary curriculum, leading to academic qualifications and increased opportunities beyond school. Effective disciplinary literacy practice There are a number of strategies that may be used at classroom, department and school level to support strong disciplinary literacy practice across all curriculum areas. Build awareness of disciplinary literacy An initial step in developing effective practice is to build awareness of the literacy demands within the context of each learning area. Awareness building might happen at a departmental or school-wide level, and could involve teachers sharing examples of the texts and tasks (oral, written and visual) that they use with students, whilst talking about the strengths and challenges that students experience when using those texts. Teachers might also share examples of lesson planning, and talk about the expectations they have of what ‘good’ reading, writing and communicating looks like in their own context. At a department level, teachers might also discuss their expectations of students at the upper end of secondary learning, and then examine how they are progressively building students’ literacy skills and knowledge from early to late secondary. This exercise supports teachers making connections to the disciplinary literacy practices that are part of their everyday work. As teachers develop their own understanding of disciplinary literacy, they increasingly share this understanding wtih their students, leading to greater clarity about the norms and expectations of each subject. Consequently, students increase their awareness of and practise the types of reading, writing and communicating that are valued by each discipline. Provide opportunities to read, write and discuss As teachers think about the literacy practices that are part of their particular learning area or subject, they may also consider the opportunities that are provided for their students to read, write and discuss. Research conducted in a sample of New Zealand secondary schools found inequities in terms of opportunities provided to students, particularly in relation to the types of texts that are presented[vi]. The findings from this research indicate that students from lower socio-economic (SES) schools had fewer opportunities to read longer texts, texts provided in their original form, or texts written for adults rather than young people. The researchers also noted that teachers in high and medium SES schools devoted more time to developing students’ literacy skills than did teachers in low SES schools, including more opportunities for discussion. In secondary classrooms, reading is often assigned for homework and reviewed during class time, but this may mean that students avoid the reading and wait for the review in class. However, fluency, stamina and comprehension are all boosted through ongoing opportunities to read, and as outlined later in this guide, reading also has a positive effect on writing. Reading during class time has multiple benefits, and might involve a number of approaches such as: - Reading individually or in groups - Working together to make sense of a piece of text - Providing a choice of reading material - Linking reading to a writing task An important component of effective literacy practice is teachers carefully previewing the texts to be used for instruction. This includes digital and printed texts as well as visual texts such as diagrams, posters or videos. When previewing texts, teachers pay attention to the structures, vocabulary and knowledge that supports learning through each text, so that they can share that knowledge with their learners. For example, a social sciences article about actions during World War Two may provide a model of writing using a cause and effect structure. Students learn about the content of the article, but their attention is also drawn to a model of writing used by that learning area that they can utilise in their own writing. Similarly, a complex diagram might be used in science to illustrate the Water Cycle. Teachers can draw attention to the content that is being shown, and also the features of the diagram that have been used to communicate effectively with the reader. Previewing material also highlights any complex concepts or ideas thatmay need to be discussed prior to using the texts, and signals the key vocabulary that needs explicit instruction. Make connections to prior knowledge and experiences Making connections enables students to build on their prior experiences to further construct knowledge, and to make meaning of the world around them. An explicit focus on making connections provides opportunities for students to deepen their understanding of concepts and ideas, and to build new knowledge in each learning area. This may involve teacher prompts such as: - ‘What do you already know about…?’ - ‘What does this remind you of?’ - ‘What is the same/different?’ A visual representation of a key concept can assist students to connect their existing knowledge to new knowledge, such as a physical or digital ‘concept wall’ where new vocabulary, definitions, and diagrams are added throughout the progress of a unit of work. Explicitly teach vocabulary The development of academic language in secondary school is critical, given the increasingly specialised language of each learning area. As students navigate between subjects, they need to adjust to different forms of reading, writing and communicating. Sometimes they encounter the same words that have different subject meanings, which can lead to confusion. For example, ‘scale’, ‘value’ and ‘factors’ have different meanings in mathematics and history. Teachers need to identify and explicitly teach the challenging vocabulary in the material to be used with students. This may include subject-specific and technical vocabulary that may be new to students, such as ‘symbiosis’ or ‘parameter’, as well as any complex general academic vocabulary found in many disciplines, such as ‘contradiction’, ‘elaboration’ or ‘justify’. Vocabulary instruction may involve: - Examining parts of words (prefixes, suffixes and root words), for instance ‘anti-’, ‘photo-’, ‘pro-’ - Finding other words that start with the same prefix - Matching root words with a prefix or suffix - Creating word maps around key vocabulary – for example, including the word, a definition, an example, a picture or diagram, and other similar words - Providing multiple opportunities to introduce new vocabulary through reading a range of texts - Writing using new vocabulary, for instance: ‘Use these key words in your paragraph’ - Discussion using new vocabulary, for example: ‘Use these key words to talk about…’ Develop strategic readers Within a disciplinary literacy approach, teachers identify the types of reading that students are required to do in each subject, and consider how they are supporting students to read. All learning areas require some form of reading (print and/or digital). For example in mathematics, reading might be in relation to word problems, equations, graphs, reports and/or diagrams. There are several strategies that teachers use to support students to read strategically. First of all, setting a clear purpose for reading supports students to be more strategic and focused in their approach to reading a text. A general instruction such as ‘Read this and make a summary of the key points’ may not provide enough direction to students. A more detailed purpose for reading might be: ‘As you read this text, look for ways that friction could be reduced between two solid surfaces’ (in science), or ‘As you read this article, look for two different viewpoints about how the block of land should be used’ (in the social sciences). Teachers can also check text navigation to ensure that students are able to confidently navigate the texts they are using. Sometimes assumptions are made that students know how to use the available cues in a text in order to aid their understanding, but this may not always be the case. In a digital environment, check that students can use the functions available to them such as hyperlinks, drop-down menus, and navigating within a website. In both print and digital texts, check to see if students are noting textual cues such as words in bold or italics, using footnotes, headings and sub-headings, dates and source of publication, and linking diagrams to print, in order to support their overall understanding. It may be necessary to point these out to students and provide practice using them. Co-construct approaches to making sense of text Researchers have described this as ‘capturing the reading process’, whereby students begin to notice and share the strategies they use to make sense of challenging text in the context of each discipline[vii]. The teacher first models the process by describing their own reading processes, as in the following examples: - ‘When I read this sentence about trialling for the sports team, I could picture that in my mind’ - ‘When I came to the pronoun “they” in the third sentence, I had to check back with the first sentence to see who “they” were’ - ‘When I came across the word “antioxidants”, I broke it down into parts – “anti” which means against and I know the word “oxidation”, so I could make sense of the word’ Students then share their approaches to making sense of text, which may include such things as re-reading, referring to other parts of the text, breaking down the word into parts, using a glossary or online dictionary, or asking a peer. Recording students’ ideas about making sense of text on a class chart or digital record provides a useful reference that they can use and add to over time. Foster quality discussion across the curriculum Oral communication, including presentations, arguments, debates, informal talks and discussion activities in small or large groups, is part of every discipline in some form. Each learning area will have expectations around the ways in which students communicate orally. For example, a subject such as English may invite students to talk about their personal response to texts, whilst students of history may be asked to discuss the reliability of sources. Improving classroom talk and discussion can improve outcomes in reading, writing and understanding across the curriculum[viii]. The quality of classroom talk can be improved and enhanced through teacher modelling, and by paying attention to well-designed activities for students. Teachers promote quality talk by modelling the use of subject-specific language, and by explaining complex ideas and concepts clearly and accurately. In addition, students need opportunities to practise using new vocabulary and to describe increasingly complex subject content by talking and by listening to others. When students have had multiple opportunities to talk about and clarify subject content, they are better prepared to write about it. Teachers are generally familiar with scaffolding students through a writing task, but do not often apply the notion of scaffolding to oral communication. In the same manner as a writing task, students can be provided with sentence frames and prompts to help them form and expand on their responses when they talk within a group. For example: - English: ‘I think (character X) believes … because she says …’ - Maths: ‘The first thing I did to solve this problem was …’ - Music: ‘The musician has used … to create a mood of …’ Students may also be provided with subject-specific vocabulary and then offered the challenge of using that word or phrase in a group discussion. Various other structured prompts that encourage discussion may be provided to groups, such as open-ended questions, taking sides in an argument, justifying a decision, evaluating an experience, or explaining a complex process to each other. Students can also be given specific roles in a group in order to structure and guide conversation, as in Reciprocal Teaching experiences[ix]. Reciprocal teaching to improve reading comprehension involves four skills of clarifying, questioning, summarising and predicting. Teachers coach students to use each skill, and then provide opportunities in small groups to discuss a text that has been read. Students may be provided with prompts for each skill, for example: - Clarifying: ‘Can anyone clarify what … means?’ - Questioning: ‘My question is …’ - Summarising: ‘This paragraph is about …’ - Predicting: ‘I think the next part will show …’ Supporting quality writing across the curriculum Students across the curriculum write for a number of different purposes, according to the expectations and conventions of each subject area. Whilst there may be some commonalities across subjects, there are also unique differences in the expectations and requirements for each discipline. For example, students in English may be expected to write using figurative language and detailed description in creative writing, but in another context such as economics may need to write concisely and with factual information when writing a report. - What are the types of writing that are common in my learning area? - When do students write? (for example, mostly during class time, mostly for homework?) - What is usually expected in terms of structure, content, detail, vocabulary, length, and accuracy? - How do I currently support students to write well? Students frequently experience writing as a product or outcome to demonstrate what they know, and it is often associated with some type of assessment. However, writing can also be viewed as a means of clarifying understanding, making meaning, expressing ideas, or reflecting on learning. Viewed in this way, writing should occur frequently, with numerous opportunities for both short and extended pieces being produced for different purposes. Effective writing practice allows students to experience multiple opportunities to develop their ideas and consolidate their understanding, prior to writing for the purpose of assessment. Reading and writing are complementary skills. Reading quality texts in each subject area provides an opportunity for teachers and students to examine the discipline-specific aspects of writing in that context. In a science text, for example, this might mean paying attention to how the writer has produced an explanation of a scientific process using clearly illustrated steps, symbols, diagrams and written text that includes key vocabulary. One way to use reading as specific means to support writing is to ask students to annotate exemplars of written text, looking for specific features such as where evidence has been provided to back up a statement, where quotations have been used effectively, or how the writer has shown cause and effect. Students may also be encouraged to ‘borrow’ features such as effective phrases, sentence beginnings, or key definitions, and then try using them in their own writing. This practice is not to encourage wholesale ‘cut and paste’ of long pieces of text from exemplars, but to notice the ways in which written communication happens in each subject, and to gradually align their own writing to the norms and conventions that are expected. Teachers may choose to co-construct lists, charts or word banks with their students to refer back to when writing for different purposes. Students may also benefit from constructing and co-constructing shorter pieces of writing before being required to write extended texts. For example, teachers may ask students to: - Use key vocabulary in a sentence - Record what they have observed today - Write a paragraph with three details - Reflect on their own experience of an event Over a period of time, the practice of deepening understanding of a topic by writing a series of shorter sentences and paragraphs can result in quality extended pieces of writing being produced. Extended writing usually involves planning and organising prior to writing, and requires practice and development over time. Teachers might consider what types of planning strategies and tools are useful and appropriate to their own discipline, rather than assuming that a generic approach or tool would be best. For example, writing in the social sciences utilises structures such as cause and effect, chronological order of events, and explaining different viewpoints, so the planning tools used prior to writing should also reflect the type of writing required. In order to encourage independence and student agency, teachers could introduce students to a range of planning approaches and tools over time, and then ask students to choose the most appropriate strategy or tool to use for their particular writing task. Teacher modelling of effective writing is another way to support improved writing outcomes. Teachers can ‘think aloud’ on a whiteboard or shared screen as they demonstrate subject-specific writing to their groups of students. When this happens, students see that writing is not a linear process and that the writer is continually revising and editing as they think about what to write. Teachers can also model the use of sentence starters, effective phrases and vocabulary lists that may have been developed with the class. As with other aspects of effective teaching practice, it is important to provide effective feedback and feedforward to students about their writing. The more specific this is, the more impact it is likely to have on improved practice. [i] Snow, C., & Moje, E. (2010). Why is everyone talking about adolescent literacy? Phi Delta Kappen, 91(6), 66-70. [ii] Lee, C.D., & Spratley, A. (2007). Reading in the disciplines and the challenges of adolescent literacy. New York: Cambridge. [iii] Norris, S.P., & Phillips, L.M. (2003). How literacy in its fundamental sense is central to scientific literacy. Science Education, 87(2), 224-240. [iv] McTygue, N., & Tindall, P. (2005). History teachers’ covert agenda: Developing student literacy. Social Studies Review, 44(2), 27-32. [v] Moje, E.B. (2008). Responsive literacy teaching in secondary school content areas. In M. Conley, J. Freidhoff, M. Sherry, & S. Tuckey (Eds), Meeting the challenge of adolescent literacy: Research we have, research we need. New York: The Guildford Press [vi] Wilson, A., Madjar, I., & McNaughton, S. (2016). Opportunity to learn about disciplinary literacy in senior secondary English classrooms in New Zealand. The Curriculum Journal, 27(2), 204-228. [vii] Schoenbach, R., Greenleaf, C., & Murphy, L. (2012). Reading for understanding: How reading apprenticeship improves disciplinary learning in secondary and college classrooms. San Francisco: West-Ed. [viii] Murphy, P., Wilkinson, I., Soter, A., Hennessey, M., & Alexander, J. (2009). Examining the effects of classroom discussion on students’ comprehension of text: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(3), 740-764. [ix] Alton-Lee, A., Westera, J., & Pulegatoa-Diggins, C. (2012). Quality teaching for diverse (all) learners in schooling: Hei Kete Raukura (BES) Exemplar 4: Reciprocal Teaching. https://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/topics/bes/resources/bes-exemplars By Denise Hitchcock

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Hypertext is text displayed on a computer display or other electronic devices with references (hyperlinks) to other text that the reader can immediately access. Hypertext documents are interconnected by hyperlinks, which are typically activated by a mouse click, keypress set, or screen touch. Apart from text, the term "hypertext" is also sometimes used to describe tables, images, and other presentational content formats with integrated hyperlinks. Hypertext is one of the key underlying concepts of the World Wide Web, where Web pages are often written in the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). As implemented on the Web, hypertext enables the easy-to-use publication of information over the Internet. "(...)'Hypertext' is a recent coinage. 'Hyper-' is used in the mathematical sense of extension and generality (as in 'hyperspace,' 'hypercube') rather than the medical sense of 'excessive' ('hyperactivity'). There is no implication about size— a hypertext could contain only 500 words or so. 'Hyper-' refers to structure and not size."— Theodor H. Nelson, Brief Words on the Hypertext, 23 January 1967 The English prefix "hyper-" comes from the Greek prefix "ὑπερ-" and means "over" or "beyond"; it has a common origin with the prefix "super-" which comes from Latin. It signifies the overcoming of the previous linear constraints of written text. The term "hypertext" is often used where the term "hypermedia" might seem appropriate. In 1992, author Ted Nelson – who coined both terms in 1963 – wrote: By now the word "hypertext" has become generally accepted for branching and responding text, but the corresponding word "hypermedia", meaning complexes of branching and responding graphics, movies and sound – as well as text – is much less used. Instead they use the strange term "interactive multimedia": this is four syllables longer, and does not express the idea of extending hypertext.— Nelson, Literary Machines, 1992 Types and uses of hypertext Hypertext documents can either be static (prepared and stored in advance) or dynamic (continually changing in response to user input, such as dynamic web pages). Static hypertext can be used to cross-reference collections of data in documents, software applications, or books on CDs. A well-constructed system can also incorporate other user-interface conventions, such as menus and command lines. Links used in a hypertext document usually replace the current piece of hypertext with the destination document. A lesser known feature is StretchText, which expands or contracts the content in place, thereby giving more control to the reader in determining the level of detail of the displayed document. Some implementations support transclusion, where text or other content is included by reference and automatically rendered in place. Hypertext can be used to support very complex and dynamic systems of linking and cross-referencing. The most famous implementation of hypertext is the World Wide Web, written in the final months of 1990 and released on the Internet in 1991. In 1941, Jorge Luis Borges published "The Garden of Forking Paths", a short story that is often considered an inspiration for the concept of hypertext. In 1945, Vannevar Bush wrote an article in The Atlantic Monthly called "As We May Think", about a futuristic proto-hypertext device he called a Memex. A Memex would hypothetically store — and record — content on reels of microfilm, using electric photocells to read coded symbols recorded next to individual microfilm frames while the reels spun at high speed, and stopping on command. The coded symbols would enable the Memex to index, search, and link content to create and follow associative trails. Because the Memex was never implemented and could only link content in a relatively crude fashion — by creating chains of entire microfilm frames — the Memex is now regarded only as a proto-hypertext device, but it is fundamental to the history of hypertext because it directly inspired the invention of hypertext by Ted Nelson and Douglas Engelbart. In 1963, Ted Nelson coined the terms 'hypertext' and 'hypermedia' as part of a model he developed for creating and using linked content (first published reference 1965). He later worked with Andries van Dam to develop the Hypertext Editing System (text editing) in 1967 at Brown University. It was implemented using the terminal IBM 2250 with a light pen which was provided as a pointing device. By 1976, its successor FRESS was used in a poetry class in which students could browse a hyperlinked set of poems and discussion by experts, faculty and other students, in what was arguably the world's first online scholarly community which van Dam says "foreshadowed wikis, blogs and communal documents of all kinds". Ted Nelson said in the 1960s that he began implementation of a hypertext system he theorized, which was named Project Xanadu, but his first and incomplete public release was finished much later, in 1998. Douglas Engelbart independently began working on his NLS system in 1962 at Stanford Research Institute, although delays in obtaining funding, personnel, and equipment meant that its key features were not completed until 1968. In December of that year, Engelbart demonstrated a 'hypertext' (meaning editing) interface to the public for the first time, in what has come to be known as "The Mother of All Demos". ZOG, an early hypertext system, was developed at Carnegie Mellon University during the 1970s, used for documents on Nimitz class aircraft carriers, and later evolving as KMS (Knowledge Management System). The first hypermedia application is generally considered to be the Aspen Movie Map, implemented in 1978. The Movie Map allowed users to arbitrarily choose which way they wished to drive in a virtual cityscape, in two seasons (from actual photographs) as well as 3-D polygons. In 1980, Tim Berners-Lee created ENQUIRE, an early hypertext database system somewhat like a wiki but without hypertext punctuation, which was not invented until 1987. The early 1980s also saw a number of experimental "hyperediting" functions in word processors and hypermedia programs, many of whose features and terminology were later analogous to the World Wide Web. Guide, the first significant hypertext system for personal computers, was developed by Peter J. Brown at the University of Kent in 1982. In 1980, Roberto Busa, an Italian Jesuit priest and one of the pioneers in the usage of computers for linguistic and literary analysis, published the Index Thomisticus, as a tool for performing text searches within the massive corpus of Aquinas's works. Sponsored by the founder of IBM, Thomas J. Watson, the project lasted about 30 years (1949-1980), and eventually produced the 56 printed volumes of the Index Thomisticus the first important hypertext work about Saint Thomas Aquinas books and of a few related authors. In 1983, Ben Shneiderman at the University of Maryland Human - Computer Interaction Lab led a group that developed the HyperTies system that was commercialized by Cognetics Corporation. Hyperties was used to create the July 1988 issue of the Communications of the ACM as a hypertext document and then the first commercial electronic book Hypertext Hands-On! In August 1987, Apple Computer released HyperCard for the Macintosh line at the MacWorld convention. Its impact, combined with interest in Peter J. Brown's GUIDE (marketed by OWL and released earlier that year) and Brown University's Intermedia, led to broad interest in and enthusiasm for hypertext, hypermedia, databases, and new media in general. The first ACM Hypertext (hyperediting and databases) academic conference took place in November 1987, in Chapel Hill NC, where many other applications, including the branched literature writing software Storyspace, were also demonstrated. Meanwhile, Nelson (who had been working on and advocating his Xanadu system for over two decades) convinced Autodesk to invest in his revolutionary ideas. The project continued at Autodesk for four years, but no product was released. In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee, then a scientist at CERN, proposed and later prototyped a new hypertext project in response to a request for a simple, immediate, information-sharing facility, to be used among physicists working at CERN and other academic institutions. He called the project "WorldWideWeb". HyperText is a way to link and access information of various kinds as a web of nodes in which the user can browse at will. Potentially, HyperText provides a single user-interface to many large classes of stored information, such as reports, notes, data-bases, computer documentation and on-line systems help. We propose the implementation of a simple scheme to incorporate several different servers of machine-stored information already available at CERN, including an analysis of the requirements for information access needs by experiments... A program which provides access to the hypertext world we call a browser. ― T. Berners-Lee, R. Cailliau, 12 November 1990, CERN In 1992, Lynx was born as an early Internet web browser. Its ability to provide hypertext links within documents that could reach into documents anywhere on the Internet began the creation of the Web on the Internet. As new web browsers were released, traffic on the World Wide Web quickly exploded from only 500 known web servers in 1993 to over 10,000 in 1994. As a result, all previous hypertext systems were overshadowed by the success of the Web, even though it lacked many features of those earlier systems, such as integrated browsers/editors (a feature of the original WorldWideWeb browser, which was not carried over into most of the other early Web browsers). Besides the already mentioned Project Xanadu, Hypertext Editing System, NLS, HyperCard, and World Wide Web, there are other noteworthy early implementations of hypertext, with different feature sets: - FRESS – a 1970s multi-user successor to the Hypertext Editing System. - ZOG – a 1970s hypertext system developed at Carnegie Mellon University. - Electronic Document System – an early 1980s text and graphic editor for interactive hypertexts such as equipment repair manuals and computer-aided instruction. - Information Presentation Facility – used to display online help in IBM operating systems. - Intermedia – a mid-1980s program for group web-authoring and information sharing. - HyperTies - a mid-1980s program commercially applied to hundreds of projects, including July 1988 Communications of the ACM and Hypertext Hands-On! book. - Texinfo – the GNU help system. - KMS – a 1980s successor to ZOG developed as a commercial product. - Storyspace – a mid-1980s program for hypertext narrative. - Document Examiner - an hypertext system developed in 1985 at Symbolics for their Genera operating system. - Adobe's Portable Document Format – a widely used publication format for electronic documents. - Amigaguide – released on the Commodore Amiga Workbench 1990. - Windows Help – released with Windows 3.0 in 1990. - Wikis – aim to compensate for the lack of integrated editors in most Web browsers. Various wiki software have slightly different conventions for formatting, usually simpler than HTML. - PaperKiller – a document editor specifically designed for hypertext. Started in 1996 as IPer (educational project for ED-Media 1997). - XML with the XLink extension – a newer hypertext markup language that extends and expands capabilities introduced by HTML. Among the top academic conferences for new research in hypertext is the annual ACM Conference on Hypertext and Social Media. The Electronic Literature Organization hosts annual conferences discussing hypertext fiction, poetry and other forms of electronic literature. Although not exclusively about hypertext, the World Wide Web series of conferences, organized by IW3C2, also include many papers of interest. There is a list on the Web with links to all conferences in the series. Hypertext writing has developed its own style of fiction, coinciding with the growth and proliferation of hypertext development software and the emergence of electronic networks. Hypertext fiction is one of earliest genres of electronic literature, or literary works that are designed to be read in digital media. Two software programs specifically designed for literary hypertext, Storyspace and Intermedia, became available in the 1990s. Judy Malloy's Uncle Roger (1986) and Michael Joyce's afternoon, a story (1987) are generally considered the first works of hypertext fiction. An advantage of writing a narrative using hypertext technology is that the meaning of the story can be conveyed through a sense of spatiality and perspective that is arguably unique to digitally networked environments. An author's creative use of nodes, the self-contained units of meaning in a hypertextual narrative, can play with the reader's orientation and add meaning to the text. One of the most successful computer games, Myst, was first written in HyperCard. The game was constructed as a series of Ages, each Age consisting of a separate HyperCard stack. The full stack of the game consists of over 2500 cards. In some ways, Myst redefined interactive fiction, using puzzles and exploration as a replacement for hypertextual narrative. Critics of hypertext claim that it inhibits the old, linear, reader experience by creating several different tracks to read on. This can also been seen as contributing to a postmodernist fragmentation of worlds. In some cases, hypertext may be detrimental to the development of appealing stories (in the case of hypertext Gamebooks), where ease of linking fragments may lead to non-cohesive or incomprehensible narratives. However, they do see value in its ability to present several different views on the same subject in a simple way. This echoes the arguments of 'medium theorists' like Marshall McLuhan who look at the social and psychological impacts of the media. New media can become so dominant in public culture that they effectively create a "paradigm shift" as people have shifted their perceptions, understanding of the world, and ways of interacting with the world and each other in relation to new technologies and media. So hypertext signifies a change from linear, structured and hierarchical forms of representing and understanding the world into fractured, decentralized and changeable media based on the technological concept of hypertext links. In the 1990s, women and feminist artists took advantage of hypertext and produced dozens of works. Linda Dement's Cyberflesh Girlmonster a hypertext CD-ROM that incorporates images of women's body parts and remixes them to create new monstrous yet beautiful shapes. Dr. Caitlin Fisher's award-winning online hypertext novella These Waves of Girls (2001) is set in three time periods of the protagonist exploring polymorphous perversity enacted in her queer identity through memory. The story is written as a reflection diary of the interconnected memories of childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. It consists of an associated multi-modal collection of nodes includes linked text, still and moving images, manipulable images, animations, and sound clips. Adrienne Eisen (pen name for Penelope Trunk) wrote hypertexts that were subversive narrative journeys into the mind of a woman whose erotic encounters were charged with a post-feminist satirical edge that cuts deep into the American psyche. Forms of hypertext There are various forms of hypertext, each of which are structured differently. Below are four of the existing forms of hypertext: - Axial hypertexts are the most simple in structure. They are situated along an axis in a linear style. These hypertexts have a straight path from beginning to end and are fairly easy for the reader to follow. An example of an axial hypertext is The Virtual Disappearance of Miriam. - Arborescent hypertexts are more complex than the axial form. They have a branching structure which resembles a tree. These hypertexts have one beginning but many possible endings. The ending that the reader finishes on depends on their decisions whilst reading the text. This is much like gamebook novels that allow readers to choose their own ending. - Networked hypertexts are more complex still than the two previous forms of hypertext. They consist of an interconnected system of nodes with no dominant axis of orientation. Unlike the arborescent form, networked hypertexts do not have any designated beginning or any designated endings. An example of a networked hypertext is Shelley Jackson's Patchwork Girl. - Layered hypertext consist of two layers of linked pages. Each layer is doubly linked sequentially and a page in the top layer is doubly linked with a corresponding page in the bottom layer. The top layer contains plain text, the bottom multimedia layer provides photos, sounds and video. In the Dutch historical novel De man met de hoed designed as layered hypertext in 2006 by Eisjen Schaaf, Pauline van de Ven, and Paul Vitányi, the structure is proposed to enhance the atmosphere of the time, to enrich the text with research and family archive material and to enable readers to insert memories of their own while preserving tension and storyline. - Timeline of hypertext technology - Distributed Data Management Architecture - HTML (HyperText Markup Language) - ↑ "Hypertext". Marriam-webster Free Online Dictionary. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hypertext. - ↑ Lehman, Jeffrey; Phelps, Shirelle (2005). West's Encyclopedia of American Law, Vol. 9 (2 ed.). Detroit: Thomson/Gale. p. 451. ISBN 9780787663742. - ↑ http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=806036 Complex information processing: a file structure for the complex, the changing and the indeterminate - ↑ Rettberg, Jill Walker. "Complex Information Processing: A File Structure for the Complex, the Changing, and the Indeterminate". Electronic Literature as a Model of Creativity and Innovation in Practice. http://elmcip.net/node/7367. - ↑ Bolter, Jay David; Joyce, Michael (1987), "Hypertext and creative writing", Proceeding of the ACM conference on Hypertext - HYPERTEXT '87, The Association for Computing Machinery, pp. 41–50, doi:10.1145/317426.317431, ISBN 089791340X, http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=317431 . - ↑ 6.0 6.1 Gary Wolf (June 1995). "The Curse of Xanadu". WIRED 3 (6). https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/3.06/xanadu.html. - ↑ Joyce, MI, Did Ted Nelson first use the word "hypertext" [sic], meaning fast editing" at Vassar College?, Vassar, http://faculty.vassar.edu/mijoyce/Ted_sed.html, retrieved 2011-01-03 - ↑ Belinda Barnet. Memory Machines: The Evolution of Hypertext, 2013, pp.103-106. - ↑ Barnet, Belinda (2010-01-01). "Crafting the User-Centered Document Interface: The Hypertext Editing System (HES) and the File Retrieval and Editing System (FRESS)". Digital Humanities Quarterly 4 (1). http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/4/1/000081/000081.html. - ↑ "Where meter meets mainframe: An early experiment teaching poetry with computers | News from Brown". https://news.brown.edu/articles/2016/05/hypertext. - ↑ (in Italian) Andrea Tornielli, Padre Busa, il gesuita che ha inventato l'ipertesto , La Stampa - VaticanInsider, 11/08/2011 - ↑ Matthew Zepelin Computers and the Catholic Mind: Religion, Technology, and Social Criticism in the Postwar United States, July 5, 2014 - ↑ Morto padre Busa, è stato il pioniere dell'informatica linguistica, Corriere del Veneto, 15. August 2011 - ↑ "Religion: Sacred Electronics", Time (magazine) , 31 December 1956, 15 August 2011 - ↑ Thomas N. Winter, " Roberto Busa, S.J., and the Invention of the Machine-Generated Condordance", Digital commons, University of Nebraska - ↑ Hawisher, Gail E., Paul LeBlanc, Charles Moran, and Cynthia L. Selfe (1996). Computers and the Teaching of Writing in American Higher Education, 1979–1994: A History Ablex Publishing, Norwood NJ, p. 213 - ↑ 17.0 17.1 WorldWideWeb: Proposal for a HyperText Project, The World Wide Web consortium, http://www.w3.org/Proposal.html . - ↑ SIGWEB Hypertext Conference, ACM, http://www.sigweb.org/conferences/ht-cover.shtml . - ↑ IW3C2, http://www.iw3c2.org/ . - ↑ "Conferences", IW3C2, http://www.iw3c2.org/conferences/ . - ↑ Rettberg, Jill Walker (2012). "Electronic Literature Seen from a Distance: The Beginnings of a Field". Dichtung Digital (41). http://www.dichtung-digital.org/2012/41/walker-rettberg.htm. - ↑ Berens, K. I. (2014-07-30). "Judy Malloy's seat at the (database) table: A feminist reception history of early hypertext literature". Literary and Linguistic Computing 29 (3): 340–348. doi:10.1093/llc/fqu037. ISSN 0268-1145. https://doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqu037. - ↑ Parrish, Jeremy. "When SCUMM Ruled the Earth". http://www.1up.com/do/feature?cId=3134600. - ↑ (in es) ¿Es el hipertexto una bendición o un...?, Biblum literaria, Jul 2008, http://biblumliteraria.blogspot.com/2008/07/es-el-hipertexto-una-bendicin-o-un.html . - ↑ The Game of Reading an Electronic Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Canada: U Calgary, http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~scriptor/papers/arthur.html . - ↑ Green 2001, p. 15. - ↑ https://www.3ammagazine.com/short_stories/fiction/making_scenes/page1.html - ↑ "Welkom". http://www.demanmetdehoed.nl/presentatie/Welkom.html. - Andries van Dam: Hypertext: an Educational Experiment in English and Computer Science at Brown University. Brown University, Providence, RI, U.S. 1974, Run time 15:16, Hypertext on IMDb, Full Movie on the Internet Archive - Green, Lelia (2001), Technoculture: From Alphabet to Cybersex, Allen & Unwin Ep, ISBN 978-1-86508048-2 . - Engelbart, Douglas C (1962). Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework. AFOSR-3233 Summary Report, SRI Project No. 3579. http://www.dougengelbart.org/pubs/augment-3906.html. Retrieved 2011-05-20. - Nelson, Theodor H. (September 1965). "Complex information processing: a file structure for the complex, the changing and the indeterminate". http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=806036. - Nelson, Theodor H. (September 1970). "No More Teachers' Dirty Looks". Computer Decisions. http://www.newmediareader.com/excerpts.html. - Nelson, Theodor H (1973). "A Conceptual framework for man-machine everything". 42. pp. M22–23. - Yankelovich, Nicole; Landow, George P; Cody, David (1987). "Creating hypermedia materials for English literature students". SIGCUE Outlook 20 (3). - Heim, Michael (1987). Electric Language: A Philosophical Study of Word Processing. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-07746-9. - van Dam, Andries (July 1988). "Hypertext: '87 keynote address". Communications of the ACM 31 (7): 887–95. doi:10.1145/48511.48519. http://www.cs.brown.edu/memex/HT_87_Keynote_Address.html. - Conklin, J. (1987). "Hypertext: An Introduction and Survey". Computer 20 (9): 17–41. doi:10.1109/MC.1987.1663693. - Byers, T. J. (April 1987). "Built by association". PC World 5: 244–51. - Crane, Gregory (1988). "Extending the boundaries of instruction and research". T.H.E. Journal (Technological Horizons in Education) (Macintosh Special Issue): 51–54. - Nelson, Theodor H. (1992). Literary Machines 93.1. Sausalito, CA: Mindful Press. ISBN 978-0-89347-062-3. - Moulthrop, Stuart; Kaplan, Nancy (1994). "They became what they beheld: The futility of resistance in the space of electronic writing". Literacy and computers: The complications of teaching and learning with technology. pp. 220–237. - Cicconi, Sergio (1999). "Hypertextuality". Mediapolis (Berlino & New York: Ed. Sam Inkinen & De Gruyter): 21–43. http://www.cisenet.com/cisenet/writing/essays/hypertextuality.htm. - Bolter, Jay David (2001). Writing Space: Computers, Hypertext, and the Remediation of Print. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 978-0-8058-2919-8. - Landow, George (2006). Hypertext 3.0 Critical Theory and New Media in an Era of Globalization: Critical Theory and New Media in a Global Era (Parallax, Re-Visions of Culture and Society). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8257-9. - Buckland, Michael (2006). Emanuel Goldberg and His Knowledge Machine. Libraries Unlimited. ISBN 978-0-313-31332-5. - Ensslin, Astrid (2007). Canonizing Hypertext: Explorations and Constructions. London: Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-9558-7. - Barnet, Belinda. (2013) Memory Machines: The Evolution of Hypertext (Anthem Press; 2013) A technological history of hypertext, - Hypertext: Behind the Hype - Reviving Advanced Hypertext, whether and how concepts from hypertext research can be used on the Web. - EdMedia + Innovate Learning, an international conference organized by the Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. - HyperText - ACM Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext. Read more

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Exploring the Importance of Learning Centers and Hands-On Activities in Early Preschool Classrooms In order to engage and teach our preschoolers, we educators are always looking for new and innovative approaches. Classrooms for preschoolers are engaging settings where curious minds are eager to explore and learn. The utilization of learning centers and hands-on activities is one strategy that has received a lot of attention lately. In this article, we’ll explore the advantages of hands-on activities for promoting preschoolers’ learning and development, as well as the reasons why learning centers are employed in early preschool classes. The Power of Hands-On Learning A method of teaching that actively incorporates toddlers in the learning process through physical interaction and object manipulation is known as hands-on learning, also known as experiential learning. This method enables toddlers to investigate and comprehend their surroundings by using their senses, such as touch, sight, and hearing. Preschoolers have the chance to actively create their knowledge and grow crucial abilities like creativity, problem-solving, and critical thinking via hands-on learning. Early preschool education places a special emphasis on hands-on learning because it better meets the requirements and personality traits of young preschoolers. Preschoolers learn best via active involvement and play and are naturally interested. In addition to fostering their cognitive growth, hands-on activities provide kids the chance to explore, experiment, and make discoveries, which improves their social, emotional, and physical development. Learning Centers: Creating Enriched Learning Environments Preschoolers can participate in hands-on activities in designated learning centers in the classroom that have been carefully created to help their learning and development. A science center, a reading nook, an art station, and a block area are a few examples of learning centers that can be set up in different parts of the classroom. Each learning center is stocked with books, videos, and other resources pertinent to the area’s unique learning objectives. Because toddlers’ learning experiences are greatly influenced by their environment, learning centers are frequently used in early preschool classes. Preschoolers have the chance to learn in a meaningful and purposeful way in an enriched learning environment, such as one made by learning centers, which stimulates curiosity, encourages discovery, and fosters active involvement. Preschoolers who attend learning centers are also given a sense of ownership and autonomy, enabling them to choose what to do, start things off, and become independent—skills that are crucial for their general development. Benefits of Hands-On Activities in Learning Centers Hands-on activities in learning centers offer numerous benefits for preschoolers’ learning and development. Let’s explore some of the key advantages: 1. Engaging and Motivating: Hands-on activities in learning centers are inherently engaging and motivating for preschoolers. They allow them to actively manipulate objects, explore different materials, and make discoveries, which sparks their curiosity and ignites their interest in learning. Hands-on activities in learning centers also provide preschoolers with a multisensory experience, stimulating their senses and making learning a more enjoyable and memorable experience. 2. Meaningful and Relevant: Hands-on activities in learning centers are designed to be meaningful and relevant to preschoolers’ lives and experiences. They are carefully planned to align with the curriculum goals and objectives, as well as the developmental needs and interests of preschoolers. Hands-on activities in learning centers are often open-ended, allowing preschoolers to explore and experiment at their own pace and level, making the learning experience more authentic and purposeful. 3. Facilitating Cognitive Development: Hands-on activities in learning centers promote cognitive development in various domains, including language and literacy, math, science, and social studies. For example, hands-on activities in a science center may involve exploring and observing different objects, conducting experiments, and making predictions, which foster preschoolers’ scientific inquiry skills and conceptual understanding. Similarly, hands-on activities in a reading corner may involve reading books, discussing stories, and engaging in letter recognition and writing, which promote language and literacy skills. Hands-on activities in learning centers provide opportunities for preschoolers to develop problem-solving skills, critical thinking skills, and creativity as they engage in open-ended activities that require them to think, analyze, and make decisions. 4. Enhancing Social and Emotional Development: Hands-on activities in learning centers also support the social and emotional development of preschoolers. Learning centers provide opportunities for preschoolers to engage in cooperative play, collaborate with peers, and communicate with others. Hands-on activities promote social skills such as sharing, taking turns, and resolving conflicts, which are crucial for preschoolers’ social development. Hands-on activities also offer opportunities for self-expression, creativity, and emotional regulation, as preschoolers engage in artistic activities, build with blocks, or engage in dramatic play, which promotes their emotional development and self-awareness. 5. Developing Fine and Gross Motor Skills: Hands-on activities in learning centers also contribute to the development of fine and gross motor skills in preschoolers. Hands-on activities such as cutting, drawing, painting, building, and manipulating objects require the use of small muscles in the hands and fingers, promoting fine motor skills. Gross motor skills are developed through activities such as building with blocks, engaging in physical play, and participating in movement activities in learning centers, which promote coordination, balance, and strength. 6. Fostering a Love for Learning: Hands-on activities in learning centers also play a crucial role in fostering a love for learning in preschoolers. When preschoolers are actively engaged in hands-on activities, they develop a positive attitude towards learning, as they experience the joy of discovery, the satisfaction of accomplishment, and the pride of their own creations. Hands-on activities in learning centers allow preschoolers to develop a sense of ownership and agency in their learning, which instills a lifelong love for learning and a growth mindset. Practical Tips for Implementing Hands-On Activities in Learning Centers Implementing hands-on activities in learning centers requires thoughtful planning, organization, and facilitation. Here are some practical tips for educators to effectively implement hands-on activities in learning centers in early preschool classrooms: 1. Align with Learning Goals: Ensure that the hands-on activities in learning centers are aligned with the curriculum goals and objectives, as well as the developmental needs and interests of preschoolers. Plan hands-on activities that promote the specific skills and concepts that you want to target in each learning center, and ensure that the materials and resources are age-appropriate and relevant. 2. Create Inviting Learning Environments: Set up learning centers that are inviting and appealing to preschoolers. Ensure that the learning centers are well-organized, with materials and resources displayed in an attractive and accessible manner. Use colorful labels, visual cues, and signage to support preschoolers’ understanding and use of the learning centers. Consider the layout and arrangement of the learning centers to promote smooth flow and ease of movement. 3. Provide Open-Ended Materials: Offer a variety of open-ended materials and resources in each learning center that allow for creativity, exploration, and experimentation. Avoid materials that have predetermined outcomes or limit preschoolers’ choices and creativity. Provide materials that can be used in different ways and allow for open-ended play, such as blocks, play dough, loose parts, and art materials. 4. Facilitate, Not Dictate: As an educator, your role is to facilitate, not dictate, the hands-on activities in learning centers. Allow preschoolers to explore, experiment, and make their own discoveries. Avoid directing or controlling their play, but instead, observe, listen, and engage with them in meaningful conversations. Ask open-ended questions, offer suggestions, and extend their learning through their interests and inquiries. 5. Foster Collaboration and Communication: Encourage preschoolers to collaborate and communicate with their peers during hands-on activities in learning centers. Provide opportunities for cooperative play, group projects, and discussions that promote collaboration and communication skills. Encourage preschoolers to share their ideas, thoughts, and discoveries with their peers, and provide support in resolving conflicts or misunderstandings that may arise during group activities. 6. Incorporate Reflection and Assessment: Encourage preschoolers to reflect on their learning and experiences during hands-on activities in learning centers. Provide opportunities for self-assessment, peer assessment, and group reflection to promote metacognition and self-awareness. Use observation, documentation, and assessment strategies to gather evidence of preschoolers’ learning, progress, and interests, and use this information to inform your instruction and planning for future hands-on activities. Early preschool classrooms must include hands-on activities in learning centers since they have several advantages for the holistic development of preschoolers. Hands-on activities at learning centers provide preschoolers with rich and fulfilling learning experiences in all areas of development, from cognitive and linguistic development to social and emotional development, from the development of fine and gross motor skills to nurturing a love of learning. Teachers can successfully implement hands-on activities in learning centers to support preschoolers’ overall development and improve their early learning experiences by aligning with learning goals, creating welcoming learning environments, providing open-ended materials, facilitating rather than dictating, fostering collaboration and communication, and incorporating reflection and assessment. The Importance of Hands-On Activities for Cognitive Development Early preschool development is vital for cognitive growth, and preschoolers benefit greatly from the hands-on activities that are offered at learning centers. Preschoolers have the chance to actively engage their minds, explore, experiment, solve problems, and think critically via hands-on activities. Here are some reasons why hands-on activities are important for cognitive development in preschoolers: 1. Active Learning: Hands-on activities promote active learning, where preschoolers are actively engaged in the learning process. Through hands-on activities, preschoolers can manipulate objects, explore cause and effect relationships, and engage in problem-solving tasks that require them to think, analyze, and make decisions. Active learning promotes higher-order thinking skills, such as critical thinking, analysis, and synthesis, which are crucial for cognitive development. 2. Sensorimotor Integration: Hands-on activities involve the integration of sensory and motor skills, promoting sensorimotor development in preschoolers. Sensory experiences, such as touching, smelling, tasting, hearing, and seeing, provide opportunities for preschoolers to make connections between their senses and the world around them. Motor skills, such as grasping, manipulating, and coordinating, are developed through hands-on activities, which promote fine and gross motor development. 3. Concrete Learning: Hands-on activities provide concrete learning experiences, where preschoolers can manipulate and interact with tangible objects and materials. Concrete learning allows preschoolers to make direct connections between their experiences and the concepts they are learning. For example, using counting manipulatives, such as blocks or beads, allows preschoolers to physically count and manipulate objects, which helps them develop a concrete understanding of numbers and counting concepts. 4. Problem-Solving Skills: Hands-on activities require preschoolers to engage in problem-solving tasks, which promote the development of problem-solving skills. As preschoolers engage in hands-on activities, they encounter challenges, obstacles, and puzzles that require them to think critically, analyze situations, and come up with solutions. Problem-solving skills, such as reasoning, logical thinking, and planning, are essential cognitive skills that are developed through hands-on activities. 5. Concept Development: Hands-on activities provide opportunities for preschoolers to develop and reinforce concepts through hands-on experiences. For example, through hands-on activities in a science learning center, preschoolers can explore and investigate properties of matter, observe changes in materials, and make predictions about cause and effect relationships. Through these experiences, they develop a deep understanding of scientific concepts, such as properties of matter, states of matter, and changes in matter. Hands-on activities also support concept development in other subject areas, such as math, literacy, and social studies, by providing opportunities for preschoolers to explore, manipulate, and apply concepts in a meaningful and relevant context. 6. Memory and Recall: Hands-on activities promote memory and recall skills in preschoolers. When preschoolers engage in hands-on activities, they use multiple senses, such as touch, sight, and hearing, which helps to reinforce their learning and memory. For example, when they use manipulatives to sort and classify objects, they are engaging in multisensory learning, which promotes better memory and recall of the concepts being taught. 7. Creativity and Imagination: Hands-on activities encourage creativity and imagination in preschoolers. Open-ended materials in learning centers allow preschoolers to explore, create, and imagine without limitations. They can use blocks to build their own structures, use art materials to express their creativity, or use pretend play props to create imaginative scenarios. These activities promote divergent thinking skills, creativity, and imagination, which are essential cognitive skills for preschoolers’ overall development. Enhancing Language Development Through Hands-On Activities Early preschool development is crucial for language development, and preschoolers have many opportunities to improve their language abilities via hands-on activities in learning centers. The numerous facets of language development include vocabulary growth, listening, speaking, and early literacy abilities. Here are some ways in which hands-on activities can enhance language development in preschoolers: 1. Vocabulary Development: Hands-on activities expose preschoolers to a rich vocabulary of words and concepts. As preschoolers engage in hands-on activities, they encounter new words, labels, and descriptions of objects, materials, and actions. They also engage in conversations with peers and educators, which further expands their vocabulary. Vocabulary development is essential for building a strong foundation for language skills and academic success. 2. Listening Skills: Hands-on activities require active listening skills in preschoolers. During hands-on activities, preschoolers need to listen carefully to instructions, follow directions, and engage in discussions with peers. Active listening skills help preschoolers to understand and interpret information, process instructions, and engage in meaningful interactions with others. 3. Speaking Skills: Hands-on activities provide opportunities for preschoolers to express themselves verbally. They can share their ideas, thoughts, and discoveries with peers and educators, ask questions, and engage in discussions during hands-on activities. Speaking skills are crucial for effective communication, self-expression, and social interactions. 4. Early Literacy Skills: Hands-on activities can support early literacy skills, such as letter recognition, letter-sound correspondence, and print awareness. For example, during hands-on activities in a literacy learning center, preschoolers can engage in letter-sound activities, such as matching objects with their corresponding initial letter sounds, or they can explore books and print materials to develop print awareness. 5. Storytelling and Narrative Skills: Hands-on activities can also foster storytelling and narrative skills in preschoolers. Through pretend play activities, such as using dolls, action figures, or props, preschoolers can create their own stories, develop characters, and engage in imaginative play. Storytelling and narrative skills are essential for language development, as they promote oral language skills, sequencing skills, and comprehension skills. 6. Social Interaction Skills: Hands-on activities provide opportunities for preschoolers to engage in social interactions with their peers and educators, which enhances their language development. During hands-on activities, preschoolers can engage in conversations, ask questions, and exchange ideas with their peers. These social interactions promote language skills, such as turn-taking, listening, responding, and expressing thoughts and ideas, which are crucial for effective communication and social development. Fostering Social and Emotional Development Through Hands-On Activities Hands-on activities in learning centers may significantly contribute to the development of social and emotional skills in preschoolers, which is an important part of early preschool development. Self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy, collaboration, and conflict resolution are just a few examples of the many components that make up social and emotional development. Here are some ways in which hands-on activities can foster social and emotional development in preschoolers: 1. Self-Awareness: Hands-on activities provide opportunities for preschoolers to explore and discover their own abilities, preferences, and interests. Through hands-on activities, preschoolers can learn about their strengths, challenges, and emotions. They can develop a sense of self-awareness, which is crucial for building self-esteem and self-confidence. 2. Self-Regulation: Hands-on activities require preschoolers to practice self-regulation skills, such as waiting for their turn, following rules, and managing their emotions. For example, during a game or a cooperative activity in a learning center, preschoolers need to regulate their impulses, control their emotions, and exhibit patience. Practicing self-regulation skills during hands-on activities can help preschoolers develop self-control and emotional resilience. 3. Empathy and Perspective-Taking: Hands-on activities can promote empathy and perspective-taking skills in preschoolers. When preschoolers engage in cooperative activities, such as building together, working on a puzzle, or role-playing, they learn to understand and appreciate the feelings and perspectives of others. They develop empathy, which is the ability to understand and share the feelings of others, and perspective-taking, which is the ability to see things from others’ viewpoints. 4. Cooperation and Collaboration: Hands-on activities encourage preschoolers to work together, share resources, and collaborate towards a common goal. Through cooperative activities, preschoolers learn to work as a team, communicate effectively, and resolve conflicts. They develop skills, such as cooperation, collaboration, negotiation, and compromise, which are essential for success in social interactions and later academic and professional settings. 5. Problem-Solving Skills: Hands-on activities provide opportunities for preschoolers to engage in problem-solving tasks. For example, when they engage in building, constructing, or designing activities, preschoolers encounter challenges, obstacles, and setbacks that require them to think critically and problem-solve. They learn to analyze situations, generate ideas, make decisions, and implement solutions, which are crucial problem-solving skills for their overall development. 6. Emotional Expression and Regulation: Hands-on activities provide a safe and supportive environment for preschoolers to express and regulate their emotions. For example, through art activities, sensory play, or pretend play, preschoolers can express their emotions, such as joy, frustration, or anger, in a healthy and constructive manner. They also learn strategies, such as deep breathing, counting to ten, or taking a break, to regulate their emotions and manage stress and frustration. Promoting Fine and Gross Motor Skills Through Hands-On Activities The growth of preschoolers’ fine and gross motor abilities is crucial for their physical development and general wellbeing. While gross motor skills include the coordination of bigger muscles in the arms, legs, and core, fine motor skills involve the control of smaller muscles in the hands and fingers. Preschoolers can have plenty of opportunity to develop and hone their fine and gross motor skills via hands-on activities at learning centers. Here are some ways in which hands-on activities can promote fine and gross motor skills development in preschoolers: 1. Fine Motor Skills: Hands-on activities, such as manipulating small objects, using tools, or engaging in art and craft activities, can promote fine motor skills development in preschoolers. For example, when preschoolers engage in activities like cutting, coloring, drawing, painting, or using playdough, they are using their hand-eye coordination, finger dexterity, and hand muscles, which are crucial for developing fine motor skills. These activities require precision, control, and coordination of small muscles, which helps preschoolers develop skills needed for writing, drawing, and other daily tasks. 2. Hand Strength and Grip: Hands-on activities that involve gripping, squeezing, pinching, or manipulating objects can help preschoolers develop hand strength and grip. For example, when they play with building blocks, use tongs or tweezers to pick up small objects, or engage in threading and lacing activities, they are strengthening the muscles in their hands and fingers. These activities also help in developing hand-eye coordination, spatial awareness, and manual dexterity, which are essential for various tasks like buttoning, zipping, or tying shoelaces. 3. Bilateral Coordination: Hands-on activities can also promote bilateral coordination, which is the ability to use both sides of the body in a coordinated manner. Activities that involve using both hands simultaneously, such as cutting with scissors, tearing paper, or using tools, can help preschoolers develop bilateral coordination skills. These skills are important for tasks like tying shoelaces, using utensils, or playing musical instruments. 4. Gross Motor Skills: Hands-on activities can also promote gross motor skills development in preschoolers. Gross motor skills involve the coordination of larger muscles in the arms, legs, and core, and are important for activities like running, jumping, balancing, and playing sports. Hands-on activities that involve physical movement, such as dancing, climbing, or playing with large manipulatives, can help preschoolers develop their gross motor skills, strength, coordination, and balance. 5. Body Awareness: Hands-on activities can also promote body awareness, which is the understanding of one’s body and its movements in space. Activities like yoga, dance, or sensory play that involve different body positions, movements, and spatial awareness can help preschoolers develop body awareness. This is important for developing coordination, balance, and spatial orientation skills, which are crucial for various physical activities and sports. 6. Sensory Integration: Hands-on activities often involve sensory experiences, such as touching, feeling, smelling, or listening. Sensory integration refers to the brain’s ability to receive, process, and respond to sensory information from the environment. Hands-on activities in learning centers that involve sensory play, such as sand play, water play, or sensory bins, can help preschoolers develop their sensory integration skills. Sensory play can also provide calming and self-regulation benefits for preschoolers, helping them manage sensory sensitivities or challenges. In conclusion, preschoolers benefit greatly from the chances that hands-on learning experiences in early preschool learning centers offer to engage in active learning activities that support their cognitive, social, emotional, and physical development. Along with encouraging social connection, emotional expression, fine and gross motor skills, body awareness, and sensory integration, these activities build curiosity, creativity, problem-solving, and critical thinking abilities. Preschoolers can grow holistically in a dynamic setting if instructors include hands-on activities into the early preschool classroom through learning centers. Preschoolers are encouraged to explore, discover, and make sense of their environment through hands-on activities, building a solid foundation for lifetime learning.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Please note, this is a live document. Changes announced in class and on the list server will be incorporated from time to time. Announcements in class and their mirror here are the definitive version. An emerging technology, oddly enough, is the technology of simulating human behaviour. This and related technologies have been called expert systems and artificial intellegence. They are currently being used as opponents in computer games and have been started to be used to test interfaces as surrogate users. They are an interesting intersection between technology and human psychology. The National Resarch Council (Pew & Mavor, 1998, 2007) and research councils in the US, UK, and Australia expect this area to become increasingly important and they invest in it. There are a wide range of possible applications including video games, military simulations, knowledge-based computer-based tutors, and assistive agents [Norling on agents and why they need to be more human: ABC Radio [mp4] [mp3]]. To explore this new technology and its science base, this class has three components. The first, short, component examines the application of models of human performance firstly as scientific theories, but also their use in training environments, in operations research, in design, and as opponents in computer games. This section is based on reading and discussion. The second component examines how to create such models. Students will study how to create such models using an existing cognitive and AI architecture, Soar. Students will be introduced to the ideas of using published descriptions of human behavior (i.e., journal articles and handbooks), as well as how data is gathered when published materials are not available. Tools for analysing the data to help create models will also be covered. This component results in a model created by the student or a team within a somewhat constrained task, dTank. A prototypical final project is to build a model of your own play in this game, but this project can be student-interest driven. The final component examines how such models in general and the student's model in particular can be tested, validated, and thus can be believed and improved. If the dTank environment is used, a competition between models will be staged, both as models of intelligence (do they win?), and as models of humans (do they act like humans?). Thus questions related to the philosophy of science are also discussed. This course requires an Instructor technology room on a Monday afternoon and a student technology room on a Wed afternoon. The student room will have Mac/PCs. You should also be able to install the software on your home machine, and many students will choose to do this. The official pre-requisites are IST 210 and IST 220 (or such). You should also have an interest in modeling human behaviour, and then secondarily, some knowledge of human behaviour or some knowledge of the technology to model it (or both). Knowledge of human behaviour can come from IST 331 or a psychology course. Knowledge of the technology means production systems, Lisp, or JAVA, or expert systems or agent architectures. Students will be paired where possible to create pairs with complementary knowledge. If you have questions about prerequisites, please see me. This course should change the way you think about human behaviour, providing a theory of cognition that can be extended to help predict human behaviour for use in applications such as video games and interface testing. This course provides a balance between theory and practice, which are tightly intertwined in this area. Basic and more advanced readings will introduce the student to current thinking about facts, theories, and ways to model data. A small group project, drawing on the different backgrounds students bring to the program, will support integrating these various pieces of knowledge and applying them. The course includes working in small groups, speaking, and other non-traditional processes and outputs, but the processes and outputs used are those that researchers and developers use in this area. At the conclusion of this course, students will be able to: 3.1 The IST 402 Web Site. This course has an active web page that contains the syllabus, assignments, links to useful sites, and other valuable material (such as how to correctly prepare assignments, citation templates, and other academic and recreational information). We will post late-breaking information and updates to the web page. This page can currently be found at uniform resource locator (URL) acs.ist.psu.edu/ist402, and later will be available through links from the IST home page via course listings. You should bookmark it. 3.2 The IST 402 Listserv. This course has a mandatory listserv that we will use to post course and class information, conduct on-line discussions, and share information. You are encouraged to use your PSU account, and not a hotmail or yahoo account that cannot receive attachments. If you are in Section 2 (Ritter) your PSU account should be automatically subscribed. If you want to use a different account, you will need to subscribe to the class email list by sending email to Changkun. Once you have subscribed, you can then send mail to the class at email@example.com If you send mail to me about this course, please include "IST402" in the subject, as this will help a filter bring it to my attention more quickly. Stuff on Soar (read, in order, until you know Soar) [passwords available from TA and Ritter] The Psychological Soar Tutorial, available online Ritter, F. E. (2003). Soar. In L. Nadel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of cognitive science. vol. 4, 60-65. London: Nature Publishing Group. [A006.pdf] Laird's online tutorial notes, chapter 1 [from the Soar installation] Lehman, J. F., Laird, J. E., & Rosenbloom, P. S. (1996). A gentle introduction to Soar, an architecture for human cognition. In S. Sternberg & D. Scarborough (Eds.), Invitation to cognitive science, vol. 4 Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Newell, A. (1992). Précis of "Unified theories of cognition". Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 15, 425-492. Responses Introduction to Newell Stuff on the software (you will need all of these, and all are free) Summary installation notes Herbal [a Description of Ontologies, to help with understanding] Herbal tutorial The Soar 9 distribution. Those who like SoarceForge, can also find Soar there You may find the Soar FAQ helpful. dTank-Soar game, available locally Stuff on psychology and writing [one copy of each per group] (ABCS) The ABCS of HCI. Ritter, F. E, Baxter, G. D., & Churchill, E. 2011. Available from LuLu.com at cost, for about $11.00 plus shipping. approximately 400 pages. Publication Manual of the APA (available at the PSU Bookstore) as a guide to referencing, citing, and the formatting of papers and manuscripts in general. Each pair should have access to a copy of this, or to Strunk and White's "The elements of style." Abebooks.com is another place to get this book. 3.4.1 The importance and applications of models (read two) Anderson, J. R., Conrad, F. G., & Corbett, A. T. (1989). Skill acquisition and the LISP tutor. Cognitive Science, 13(4), 467-505. Laird, J., & van Lent, M. (2001). Interactive Computer Games: Human-level AI's Killer Application, ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/laird/papers/AI-games.pdf. Hudlicka, E., & McNeese, M. D. (2002). User affective and belief states: Assessment and user interface adaptation. Journal of User Modeling and User Adapted Interaction, 12, 1-47. Pew, R. W., & Mavor, A. S. (Eds.). (2007). Human-system integration in the system development process: A new look. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. http://books.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11893. Pew, R. W., & Mavor, A. S. (Eds.). (1998). Modeling human and organizational behavior: Application to military simulations. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. nap.edu/catalog/6173.html (click on the cover of the book on the left to read it online.) Ritter, F. E., Shadbolt, N. R., Elliman, D., Young, R., Gobet, F., & Baxter, G. D. (2003). Techniques for modeling human performance in synthetic environments: A supplementary review. Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH: Human Systems Information Analysis Center (HSIAC), formerly known as the Crew System Ergonomics Information Analysis Center (CSERIAC). [local cleaner copy] ** Or, paper of your choice, approx. 20 pages, or a whole article, whichever is shorter. ** 3.4.2 Testing and validating models (read all) Ritter, F. E., & Larkin, J. H. (1994). Using process models to summarize sequences of human actions. Human-Computer Interaction, 9(3), 345-383. Ritter, F. E. (2004). Choosing and getting started with a cognitive architecture to test and use human-machine interfaces. MMI-Interaktiv-Journal's special issue on Modeling and Simulation in Human-Machine Systems. 7. 17-37. [in English, abstract in German] [local copy] Grant, D. A. (1962). Testing the null hypothesis and the strategy and tactics of investigating theoretical models. Psychological Review, 69(1), 54-61. 3.4.3 Creating and building models (read all) Ritter, F. E., Lehtinen, E., & Nerb, J. (2007). Putting things in order: Collecting and analysing data on learning. In F. E. Ritter, J. Nerb, T. O'Shea, & E. Lehtinen (Eds.), In order to Learn: How ordering effects in machine learning illuminates human learning and vice versa Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1993). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Their appendix on collecting protocols. Their 1980 paper as Precis of book [Read appendix, rest is optional] Nerb, J., Ritter, F. E., & Langley, P. (2007). Rules of order: Process models of human learning. In F. E. Ritter, J. Nerb, T. O'Shea, & E. Lehtinen (Eds.), In order to learn: How ordering effects in machine learning illuminates human learning and vice versa Kidlington, UK: Pergamon. Nuxoll, A., & Laird, J. (2003). Soar Dogma. (how to write better, safer, faster Soar code.) The Soar Frequently Asked Questions list (acs.ist.psu.edu/soar-faq) and the ACT-R FAQ (acs.ist.psu.edu/actr-faq). Agre on writing Related Douglass class Comments on writing How to write an abstract by Mary-Claire Van Leunen Paschler on testing (simple) models Sanderson, P. M., McNeese, M. D., & Zaff, B. S. (1994). Handling complex real-world data with two cognitive engineering tools: COGENT and MacSHAPA. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 26(2), 117-124. [email me for macshapa software for Mac] You earn your grade but it will be assigned by me. The criteria for each assignment will be discussed in detail, as will the grading scheme. Each written assignment will be evaluated on how well it addresses the questions posed, the clarity of thinking, the organization and presentation of the material, the quality of writing, and its timeliness. Your grade will be based on 100 possible points. You earn points with each assignment (see below). As a maximum scale (i.e., cutoffs may be lowered): A: 100-74, A-: 73-70, B+ 69- 67, B: 66- 64, B-: 63- 60, C+: 59- 57, C: 56- 50, D: 49- 40, F: 39- 0. (The cutoffs for each grade is the lower number, without rounding.) Your learning will be assessed in several ways. Please consult the schedule to see when papers/ assignments are due and exams scheduled. You will receive more written instructions for each assignment well in advance of the due date. Here is a brief summary of each: You will do a variety of labs/homeworks. Each lab writeup is nominally 5-10 points, 66 points total including an extra 5 extra credit points and the initial 1 point project writeup. 60 points will be taken to be the maximum lab grade (i.e., you can miss 6 points and get a perfect score). This score may be modified/moderated/adjusted by self and team evaluations. Typically Wednesdays, as below (5 points added to lab grade) Once during the semester your group may find an additional resource that addresses or relies upon topics covered in class. In one page or less, you will comment on how that resource relates to the class. You will share both the article and your comments with the class. You must arrange this before the end of October. Paragraphs on the readings, up to 20 of them at 1 pt/reading, can also be used this way. Once, varies by group In class, 70 points below. In class, score pro-rated with 3 allowed unexcused absences 71 total points make this up, which you can keep the 1 as a bonus. Intro - Course, emerging technologies, new uses for old important technologies, UTCs, Cognitive psych review Hand in: OSs, courses 2 24aug End of intro Install/test software Summary installation notes Applications of models two readings from 3.4.1 1 para on each reading Further reading on Soar 1 para on each reading Soar / Herbal ABCS5 [from now, all ABCS up to now due] Exercise on Eclipse (in class) More from 3.4.2 Data for developing Ericsson & Simon 93A Ericsson & Simon 80 (optional) 1 page on project readings above in 3.4.3 dTank Hwk1 (email it in) two readings from 3.4.3 and ABCS11 midterm in class Discussion of projects Video games, hedonics, software engineering Project - writing techniques Agre/APA Manual/Strunk/advanced Word (do another dTank task) SOAR report and other futures reports presentations in class 28 5dec Reports discussion presentations in class 29 7dec Hand in Project 65 >209 pts, keep 200 Model the effect of your learning, starting with a naive model, and then a less naive model. Model how you learn, starting with a naive model, and then with the learning component turned on, show that the model learns like you do (considerably harder). Extend the dTank interface in some interesting way, and show how it is easier for you and for the model. Set up two opponents for people to train against. Show how one is a better sparing partner, either for some of your friends, or for your model to learn from. All projects above, if extended, could be turned into an honors thesis. Graduate students taking this course for independent study credit (or if approved as a 597 course) will need to modify both the task (multiple interfaces or tasks) and the model (multiple strategies or individual differences). The laboratory portion of IST 402 provides students with the chance to become familiar with using the concepts, software, and data about modeling people. It is absolutely essential for understanding the material and will be useful for passing the exam and doing the labs. You have been put into small groups to do your labs because we believe this generally leads to better learning. That means that you must turn in one lab report per group, that conferring within your group is not a violation of academic policy or of ethics on the lab section of this course, and that conferring with other groups *is* a violation of academic policy and ethics if it results in reports that are noticeably similar without citation. The best way is to work on the lab and then meet to discuss and proofread the report. The worst way is to have each member of the group do (and thus learn) one of the sections. This will result in a noticeably inferior product. As we explore these topics, we will also practice skills in working together, analytical skills, and information problem-solving approaches. We have arranged time for group meetings that may need a lab. Academic Integrity: According to the Penn State Principles and University Code of Conduct: Academic integrity is a basic guiding principle for all academic activity at Penn State University, allowing the pursuit of scholarly activity in an open, honest, and responsible manner. In according with the University's Code of Conduct, you must not engage in or tolerate academic dishonesty. This includes, but is not limited to cheating, plagiarism, fabrication of information or citations, facilitating acts of academic dishonesty by others, unauthorized possession of examinations, submitting work of another person, or work previously used without informing the instructor, or tampering with the academic work of other students. Any violation of academic integrity will be investigated, and where warranted, punitive action will be taken. For every incident when a penalty of any kind is assessed, a report must be filed This form is used for both undergraduate and graduate courses. This report must be signed by both the instructor and the student, and then submitted to the Senior Associate Dean. In this course, academic integrity needs two explanations. The first is that you are expected to contribute to your group. This means making time in your schedule for the group's meetings, being in touch via email, and preparing for those meetings. The second explanation is that your group's writeups are to be done only by your group. This means that while you can discuss the problems with others, and we agree that this is a good thing, the writing up needs to be solely by your group. If you have a question as to whether or not two writeups are too similar, then use the following standard: - If a pair of writeups are sufficiently similar that you can tell by reading them that the two groups worked together, then they are too similar. By all means, talk to your colleagues, get help if necessary, but prove to us that, in the end, you understand what you are doing, and you can and must express it in your own words. If you and your group don't understand the material well enough to write it up on your own, and you need to copy, then four things are lost: Your integrity, useful feedback to us on how you are doing, your ability to perform well on the exam, and ultimately, your knowledge. It is Penn State's policy to not discriminate against qualified students with documented disabilities in its educational programs. If you have a disability-related need for modifications in your testing situation, your instructor should be notified during the first week of classes so that your needs can be accommodated. You will be asked to present documentation from the Office of Disability Services (located in 105 Boucke Building) that describes the nature of your disability and the recommended remedy. You may refer to the Nondiscrimination Policy in the Student Guide to University Policies and Rules 1999. As each student is an individual with specific needs, academic accommodations are provided on an individual basis based on the student's documentation. A reasonable accommodation is a modification or adjustment to a course, program, service, job, activity, or facility that provides the qualified individual with a disability to have an equal opportunity. An equal opportunity provides the means to attain the same level of performance or to enjoy benefits that are available to students without disabilities. For more information about services for individuals with learning disabilities, please contact the Office for Disability Services at (814) 863-1807. Americans with Disabilities Act: IST welcomes persons with disabilities to all of its classes, programs, and events. If you need accommodations, or have questions about access to buildings where ISTactivities are held, please contact us in advance of your participation or visit. If you need assistance during a class, program, or event, please contact the member of our staff or faculty in charge. An Invitation to Students with Learning Disabilities: It is Penn State's policy to not discriminate against qualified students with documented disabilities in its educational programs. If you have a disability-related need for modifications in your testing or learning situation, your instructor should be notified during the first week of classes so that your needs can be accommodated. You will be asked to present documentation from the Office of Disability Services (located in 116 Boucke Building, 863-1807) that describes the nature of your disability and the recommended remedy. You may refer to the Nondiscrimination Policy in the Student Guide to University Policies and Rules. Affirmative Action & Sexual Harassment: The Pennsylvania State University is committed to a policy that all persons shall have equal access to programs, facilities, admission, and employment without regard to personal characteristics not related to ability, performance, or qualifications as determined by University policy or by Commonwealth or Federal authorities. Penn State does not discriminate against any person because of age, ancestry, color, disability or handicap, national origin, race, religious creed, gender, sexual orientation, or veteran status. Direct all inquiries to the Affirmative Action Office, 211 Willard Building.

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Short answer: Amendments to the Constitution for kids The US Constitution can be changed or amended, and there have been 27 amendments throughout history. Amendments help to ensure that the Constitution remains relevant and reflective of current times. Some important amendments include the Bill of Rights (the first ten amendments) which protect individual freedoms such as freedom of speech, religion, and assembly. Kids can learn about these important changes in US history and how they impact their lives today. How to Explain Amendments to the Constitution for Kids – Step by Step Guide The Constitution of the United States, adopted in 1787, is the supreme law of the nation. However, as times change and new challenges arise, amendments may be added to ensure that the law is truly representative and serves the needs of all citizens. Explaining amendments to children may seem daunting at first, but it can be a fun and educational experience with this step-by-step guide: Step 1: Start with Basic Definitions To understand amendments, children need to know what Constitutions are. Explain that a Constitution is like a rulebook for a country and outlines how the government works. You could use examples from everyday life – much like how schools have rules for students to follow; similarly countries must also have rules on how they should operate by following their own set of rules i.e. Constitutions. Step 2: Emphasize Amendments Are Changes Once kids understand what a constitution is briefly introduce them to what an amendment means – “an amendment changes things in the constitution”. And that’s it, take your time and wait until they fully grasp those two concepts before moving on to more technical details. Step 3: Simplify The Process A process usually follows when making these changes or amendments which involve three steps i.e., Proposal – Passing – Ratification; keep things simple for kids by breaking down each process into its simple parts: When someone wants to make an amendment (proposal), he or she has to write it down & propose it to Congress (consisting of representatives from all states) — If two-thirds of them agree that this proposal would be good for everyone then half way is over. Passing simply means other half now remains! This requires three quarters or larger agreement among individual states since some proposed amendments may favor only certain areas and not satisfy every one nationwide. Finally comes ‘Ratification’. Once passed by Congress, people in each state would get together (!!) again- even though they had already approved the amendment- to make sure everyone still likes it as much as before. If people in enough (at least three quarters) of the states still approve, making it a part of the Constitution. Step 4: Use Examples When explaining amendments, give examples of past amendments that have positively impacted society. For example, talk about how women were given the right to vote after the 19th Amendment was passed in 1920 or how slavery was abolished with the 13th Amendment. Step 5: Encourage Critical Thinking Ask children why they think some amendments were added and what their own opinions are on potential new amendments that could be added. Allow them to express themselves freely and encourage critical thinking. Also, suggest allowing children to write down their ideas and proposals for possible future amendments. In conclusion, explaining Amendments should not be confined to dull textbooks only where you discuss an amendment’s history, timeline and its associated constitutional impact. Understanding Amendments in great details requires discussions made easy on levels of all age groups, including children (the future citizens). It is very important for young minds starting at this early age to understand basic changes in laws affecting their daily lives firsthand so they too start participating early on discussing important issues affecting our society today! FAQ: Commonly Asked Questions About Amendments to the Constitution for Kids As a kid, learning about the Constitution and its amendments can seem daunting, but it’s actually not as complicated as it may seem. Here are some commonly asked questions about amendments to the Constitution that every kid (and adult) should know! 1. What is the Constitution, and why is it important? The Constitution is a set of laws that guide how our government works in the United States. It was written over 200 years ago and serves as the foundation for democracy in America. 2. What are Amendments to the Constitution? Amendments are changes made to the original text of the Constitution. Think of them like updates or patches to a video game or app that add new features or fix glitches. 3. How many Amendments are there? There are currently 27 Amendments to the Constitution. 4. Which Amendment gives us freedom of speech? The First Amendment guarantees freedom of speech, religion, assembly and press. 5. Which Amendment abolished slavery? The Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery in America. 6. Which Amendment gave women the right to vote? The Nineteenth Amendment gave women the right to vote. 7. Which Amendment lowered the voting age from 21 to 18? The Twenty-Sixth Amendment lowered the voting age from 21 to 18. 8. Can there be more than one amendment at a time? Yes! Many times several amendments will be proposed simultaneously but may take different amounts of time in order for them all to become law depending on how much support they receive. 9. How does an amendment get added to the Constitution? An amendment must first be proposed by either Congress with two thirds majority support their proposal in both houses or by two-thirds of state legislatures requesting convention for amending proposed decision-making process happens then up approving needs only three-fourths ratification from either state legislatures or conventions within those states 10.What other amendments do you think we need today? That’s an excellent question, and one that is constantly debated by politicians and citizens alike. Some people believe we need an amendment to protect the environment or address income inequality. What are your ideas for new amendments? In conclusion, learning about amendments to the Constitution can be a fun and interesting experience for kids! By understanding our nation’s founding document, we can better appreciate our rights and responsibilities as citizens of the United States. Top 5 Essential Facts About Amendments to the Constitution for Kids The Constitution is the fundamental law that governs the United States of America, and it has been guiding our country since its inception. One of the remarkable things about the Constitution is that it can be updated with Amendments, which are changes made to the original document. There have been numerous constitutional amendments throughout history, all aiming to improve our nation’s laws based on societal needs and values. Here are the top five essential facts kids should know about amendments to the Constitution: 1. The Bill of Rights was an essential Amendment: When people refer to amendments in terms of importance, they often cite the first ten amendments collectively called The Bill of Rights. These 10 additions protect citizens’ fundamental rights such as free speech, religion, press, assembly, and bear arms. 2. The amendment process involves many steps: A proposed amendment must pass through several hurdles before becoming part of Constitutional Law. First, two-thirds (67%) vote in both Senate and House, then requires approval by three-quarters (75% or 38 states) state legislatures or conventions. 3. Some high-profile Amendments address civil rights issues: The Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery (1865), Fourteenth Amendment provided citizenship to everyone born on American soil regardless of their race/color (1868), Fifteenth prohibited restrictions in voting based on race/color for black males (1870). Similarly after nearly a hundred years later Twenty-Sixth Amendment lowered voting age from 21 to 18(1971). 4. Not all proposed amendments become part of Law: In History only 27 total amendments were added out more than thousands introduced – That’s not quite a success rate! Some lesser-known failed proposals include establishing “Titles of Nobility” ban in America (1810), “District Voting” Proposal for congressional representation; and allowing Congress a pay raise during its current session(1789). 5. Some modern-day Debates could need constitutional updates too: Every decade, congressional lawmakers propose new amendments. While some of these become law, many others never see the light of day. These days, issues like citizenship for GPS born and redrawing a representative map without bias are particularly topical but not yet addressed via constitution. In conclusion, amendments are critical to our Constitution and cannot be overlooked if we want to maintain the integrity of our democracy. From freedom and equal rights to improving voting processes and more, our nation’s lawmakers have ensured that every citizen’s voice is heard through amendments to the Constitution. Understanding these essential facts about constitutional changes will not only help kids grasp our Nation’s evolution, but also enable them to ask informed questions that positively impact their future as society members. Exploring The History Behind Amendments to The Constitution For Kids The Constitution of the United States is one of the most important documents in our nation’s history. It lays out the framework for our government and outlines the rights and freedoms that all citizens are entitled to. But did you know that there have been 27 amendments made to the Constitution since it was first written in 1787? In this blog post, we’ll explore some of the most significant amendments and their historical significance, all presented in a witty and clever manner that will engage even young readers. Let’s begin with perhaps the most famous amendment: the First Amendment. This amendment guarantees us freedom of speech, religion, assembly, petition, and press. Without these protections, we might not have many of the freedoms we take for granted today. You wouldn’t be able to express your opinions (even if they’re unpopular), worship as you choose (even if it’s not a mainstream religion), or gather with friends in public spaces without fear of persecution. Another important amendment is the Fourth Amendment which protects against unreasonable search and seizure by law enforcement officers. Before this amendment was ratified in 1791, British soldiers had unlimited power to search colonists’ homes without cause or warrant. This sparked outrage among Americans who were trying to separate from British rule and led future American lawmakers to enshrine protection against such abuses into law. Perhaps one of the lesser-known amendments is number three which prohibits Quartering Soldiers during peacetime without consent from homeowners; but its significance cannot be overstated either, as before this time soldiers would often force themselves into private homes throughout history.. Other notable amendments include: – The Thirteenth Amendment: abolished slavery throughout America – The Fifteenth Amendment: granted Black men suffrage – The Nineteenth Amendment: gave women suffrage – The Twenty-sixth Amendment: lowered voting age from 21 to 18 These amendments show how over time legislators have worked hard towards creating an equal, just and fair on all levels of society. It is through these amendments that America has become an inclusive place for people from all walks of life. In conclusion, learning about amendments to the Constitution not only educates kids about issues like civil rights and freedoms but also shows them what it really means to be an American in a world where our country continues to change and grow. So let’s raise a glass to all those who have fought for the creation of these amendments, and celebrate with pride a nation that strives towards freedom, equality and justice for all! Practical Examples of How Amendments Impact The Lives of Children The United States Constitution is the guiding document upon which our country was founded. It outlines the basic framework of our government and sets forth fundamental rights and protections that are supposed to apply to all citizens. However, over time, we have seen a need for changes – amendments – to be made to this revered document. Through 27 amendments, significant changes have been made in order to ensure that the principles of fairness and justice are upheld for all individuals. And though many might think these changes are lofty ideals that affect only adults or society as a whole, it’s crucially important to understand how they impact children – who constitute a vital segment of our country’s future. Here are some practical examples of how amendments impact the lives of children: 1. The Sixth Amendment: “The accused shall enjoy the right…to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor.” This amendment guarantees an essential part of criminal defense – ensuring that those accused can present witnesses in their favor in court. But additionally, it serves as an incredibly valuable tool for juvenile defendants. When minors find themselves facing charges, they may lack essential support structures that would help them navigate legal proceedings effectively. For example, parents may not have access or ability to convince potential witnesses on behalf of their child. However, by making sure young defendants can obtain witnesses through compulsory processes regardless if their guardian or lawyer is able helps level the judicial playing field. 2.The Eighth Amendment: “Excessive bail shall not be required…nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.” It is somewhat convenient for adult Americans to assume this amendment has nearly no bearing whatsoever on their everyday routine—beyond TV crime shows depicting hapless criminals awaiting trial inside prison cells—and rendering its existence trivial. But consider what it means when applied to youth incarceration centers (often referred colloquially as “juvenile detention centers). Shockingly more often than not holding offenders before any definitive judgment from a court hearing.This may result fighting for freedom in a seemingly endless cycle of appeals. If bail is too expensive or not a given option, youths could end up living in subpar conditions and attending inadequate schools and hospitals. This impacts the child’s life trajectory significantly, both mentally and emotionally. Juvenile facilities that expose children to cruel and unusual punishment demonstrated an undeniable amount of damage upon release as well. This amendment contains language meant to protect all individuals from such treatment, regardless of their age. It’s crucially important to remember this as we work towards reforming the institutions created to support at-risk young people. 3.The Fourteenth Amendment: “nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.” The landmark Civil Rights Act wasn’t the only way lawmakers sought equality for all (including minors!), and indeed there was one hidden within several long deliberations before it. The Fourteenth Amendment defines citizenship for all those who were born into America—a fundamental aspect considering many families with generational history now exist here. But it also grants more legal protections covering everyone including children governed by U.S territories residing outside standard norms. For instance if you’re unmarried with underage children but give birth on their land—you can’t expect equal available education or healthcare services as parents with married status typically do, however children fall under their “equal protection” clauses similar to murder victims have rights albeit via their dead body alone—which is another issue found within this confusing branch of law. Children should be able to avail themselves fully to our country’s resources and freedoms – regardless if they are partaking in American-born culture outside stateside soil or not– free access based solely on citizenship rather than future complications due on approval status or outdated maxims.. Clearly amendments ratified centuries ago carry important contemporary relevance today. The ways these changes impact society may periodically shift over time – judicial interpretation, culture and technology tend to move fast – but our responsibility remains the same. To heedfully protect those vulnerable entities within it while striving for fairness, equity and justice through fair democratic process. Teaching Tools And Resources To Make Learning About Constitutional Amendments Fun For Kids The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the country and it lays out the basic principles of the government and ensures that individual rights and freedoms are protected. The Constitution is a complex document, but it’s also a vital part of American history that children should learn about as early as possible. However, many kids find learning about constitutional amendments to be dull or daunting. Thankfully, there are a variety of teaching tools and resources available that can make learning about constitutional amendments fun for kids. Here, we’ll explore some ways teachers or parents can get children interested in constitutional amendments: 1. Use Visual Aids Visual aids like charts, diagrams, and graphic novels can help young learners understand complex concepts better than text alone. Using visual aids also helps to hold children’s attention spans longer allowing children to engage with the content more effectively. 2. Make It Hands-On Hands-on activities like debates, games or simulations can really bring history to life for kids while making them engaged with one another in friendly competition and boosting their curiosity on the subject matter. Kids love stories! And what better way to teach them about constitutional amendments than through storytelling? Using character dialogue between important figures from US history could be an effective tool here in getting students excited about learning while reinforcing concepts introduced within lessons. 4. Songs or Raps Singing tunes such as Schoolhouse Rock historically been an educational technique that has stood the test of time; singing catchy tunes which may include associated body movements could aid memory retention whilst being prone to brightening up any kid’s school day. 5. Debate/discussion sessions Give room for healthy celebration of different perspectives by introducing debate style discussions into your class interaction area – Whether you choose different discussion topics on each occasion or keep returning back to similar issues frequently debated over time this is sure ongoing approach which will offer fun conversations regarding regulation changes throughout history positively encouraging children to look at from multiple points. In conclusion, constitutional amendments don’t have to be a boring or intimidating topic for children. There are a variety of teaching tools and resources available that can make learning about them fun and interactive. By using visual aids, hands-on activities, storytelling, songs or raps and debate/discussion sessions; teaching fundamental principles within the United States Constitution is bound to become more engaging whilst increasing student’s enthusiasm towards such an important part of U.S history! Table with Useful Data: |1st Amendment||Freedom of Speech, Religion, Press, Assembly, and Petition||Guarantees that individuals can express themselves and worship as they please, without government interference.| |2nd Amendment||Right to Bear Arms||Allows individuals to own guns for personal protection, hunting, and sport.| |3rd Amendment||Housing Soldiers||Protects citizens from having to quarter (house) soldiers in their homes during times of peace.| |4th Amendment||Search and Seizure||Protects citizens from unreasonable government searches and seizures of their property.| |5th Amendment||Due Process, Double Jeopardy, Self-Incrimination||Guarantees individuals cannot be used as witnesses against themselves and cannot be tried for the same crime twice. Also ensures that individuals receive a fair trial.| |6th Amendment||Right to a Fair Trial||Establishes the right to a speedy and public trial, the right to an impartial jury, and the right to legal representation.| |7th Amendment||Right to a Trial by Jury||Ensures that individuals have the right to a jury trial in certain civil cases.| |8th Amendment||Bail, Fines, Punishment||Protects individuals from cruel and unusual punishment. Also ensures that bail and fines are not excessive.| |9th Amendment||Individual Rights||States that individuals have rights not specifically mentioned in the Constitution.| |10th Amendment||State Powers||Grants powers not delegated to the federal government to the states or to the people.| Information from an expert As an expert, I believe that it is crucial to educate kids about the amendments to the Constitution. It’s important for them to understand that these changes were made over time based on the needs of society. The amendments guarantee the rights of every individual in our country. For instance, the First Amendment protects freedom of speech and religion while the Nineteenth Amendment granted women the right to vote. By teaching children about this topic, we are equipping them with knowledge that promotes respect for others’ rights and a better understanding of how our nation operates under its fundamental principles. The 19th Amendment, which granted women the right to vote in the United States, was ratified on August 18, 1920.

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- About the Initiative - Topical Index of Curriculum Units - View Topical Index of Curriculum Units - Search Curricular Resources - View Volumes of Curriculum Units from National Seminars - Find Curriculum Units Written in Seminars Led by Yale Faculty - Find Curriculum Units Written by Teachers in National Seminars - Browse Curriculum Units Developed in Teachers Institutes - On Common Ground - League of Institutes - Video Programs Have a suggestion to improve this page? To leave a general comment about our Web site, please click here Centering Race in Literary Studies in the Kindergarten ClassroombyKatherine Swann Literary Studies has historically used a colorblind approach. With this approach, race is not explicitly named, often dismisses difference by race, and the outcomes perpetuate segregation and a hierarchy of race. This is highly problematic for me and for the education of my students. As a kindergarten teacher, it is my goal to create a community within the four walls of my classroom. A community that not only includes everyone but embodies the true spirit of a community. We learn through many different lenses. We are explorers, investigators, scientists, mathematicians, literary scholars, and, most importantly, we are a community. My community is Oberle Elementary School which is a public elementary school in the Christina School District in New Castle County, Delaware. Oberle is one of fourteen elementary schools in Christina School District. The district is the largest district in the state, largely suburban with a handful of schools in an urban setting. There are close to 650 students enrolled, at Oberle. The school represents a diverse mixture of ethnicity’s, including 55% Hispanic and 28% African American population. At Oberle, 56% of the students qualify for Free or Reduced Lunch Program. The students at Oberle have access to all the academic’s required for an Elementary school in Delaware. As a fully inclusive school, students of different ability levels are in my classroom, so I must ensure that all my lessons can be easily differentiated. The students are given different opportunities to apply their skills based on their abilities. This unit will redirect my literary studies focus away from a colorblind approach towards a race-centered approach. The ELA curriculum leaves room for teachers to select stories they might see fit to teach the skill of the week. The district provides a list of books that will work with the skill; however, I have discovered that the books typically have the same story told over and over again. The books lack diversity in their images and storylines, and often fail to give students meaningful ways of talking about race and racism. It is my job to make sure that I expose my students to diverse stories and to introduce new reading practices that do not simply reproduce the colorblind model of reading. This makes the challenge for me to create a unit (and future units) that have a race-centered approach as well as for all students to learn early on more critical vocabulary of race. The goal for this unit is to create an engaging experience for the students that not only incorporates basic writing and reading skills as well as develop critical thinking skills. This unit will include scaffolding as the students’ progress which will allow the students to learn on their level. This unit will also lead the continuous education of the students and staff in my classroom about culture, heritage, and race. The displays in my classroom will be reflective of the lessons covered. In addition, I plan to make sure this unit helps to encourage our school librarian to incorporate more culturally inclusive and allow students to see themselves in the stories we read. I will provide the librarian with lists of texts that will help to create this environment. In the English Language Arts, students are expected to be able to describe the connection between texts and point out the similarities and differences of those texts. This unit will expand students understanding of texts that they may not be familiar with. The unit will challenge them to see beyond the norm and start to question why those were the norms. It will allow the students to become true critical thinkers. The unit will show the importance of race-centered reading practices in the elementary school. It will require a huge undertaking by both myself and the students but when they move onto other more difficult texts throughout their education, they will have a better understanding on how to dissect literature for greater gains. As a part of the unit, students will be keeping a visual (drawings or writing) journal that not only allows them to get their ideas down onto paper, it will also allow them to use their creative energy towards the common goal of identifying parts of the stories that are similar and different. Teacher Background Knowledge Colorblindness and Race Neutrality Teachers who adopt CBRI are likely to avoid racial questions or comments from students because they are “uncomfortable” or “sensitive” and because they believe in emphasizing “sameness” over difference. However, teachers who dismiss students’ questions or comments about race, fearing that they will introduce prejudice into the child’s life or assuming that differences do not matter, thwart the child’s ability to engage in constructive discourse and to develop critical thinking on the subject.1 When you hear “colorblind” or “race neutrality” what do you think? For most, you assume that this is a good practice. Colorblindness and race neutrality indicate that race is not explicitly named and has little to no impact on society. The true problem with these words is that they are actively dismissing the differences of race and the outcomes that will continue to perpetuate segregation and hierarchy. The terms create segregation under the guise of the language of neutrality. In the classroom, bringing awareness to racism or a consciousness to racism is to engage students to question and evaluate power and our society. It is important to know that neutrality does not equal justice and treating unequal conditions equally will only reproduce inequality. Lifting the veil of colorblindness allows you to examine the impact and not just the intent. Ultimately, this allows the focus to move from being on the process but allowing you to examine the power. We must examine power in all disciplines, however, in this unit I will address it through the humanities. Felice Blake speaks of this very idea in her article, “Why Black Lives Matter in the Humanities” from the book Seeing Race Again. Blake explains it is not enough to just include populations that have been excluded but also change our approach to reading. She uses the example of The Color Purple written by Alice Walker asking, “did we think critically about the novel’s profound concern with the vulnerability and the complexities of poor black community’s even as we championed Black creativity?”2 It is with this question I see the change to my own thinking. One way to change our approach is to acknowledge when something was not right and using the statement, “The United States was wrong about…” or substituting a person’s name for the United States. Even admitting that I was wrong about… allows students to see that it is ok to be imperfect, vulnerable and that no one is infallible. We teach our students that it is ok to question whether something is appropriate or just or moral, then we provide the students to use the analyzation skills to seek the truth about different subjects. In this ELA unit, my focus must be on the telling and retelling of stories that give some insight into where the author has been as well as where they are going. We read not simply to marvel at the creativity of literariness, but to do so in ways to acknowledge that power as it articulates new ways of being, knowing and engaging. Race -conscious reading practices point us toward a reorientation and transformation of the humanities and of the university itself. A revitalized humanities studying & documenting how people process human experience would be poised to set forth a new vision of possibility.3 Blake understood exactly what reading should look like in the classroom. She references the university but the same is true on every level of education and the importance of acknowledging the power each book we read has over us. It reminds me of the telling of the story of the three little pigs. In the many versions of the book, each pig makes a house, one of sticks, one of straw and the other of bricks. The story continues with the villain, “The Big, Bad Wolf” coming to get the little pigs. Ultimately, the story is about the outsmarting of the wolf. However, in The True Story of the 3 Little Pigs by Jon Scieszka, the story is told from the point of view of the wolf. (Spoiler alert: the wolf had allergies and although the pigs thought he was after them, he was just looking to make some friends.) When I use these stories to teach sequence of events, I also teach the students that sometimes what appears to be the truth in one story is only the truth of the storyteller. I am sure that many stories shared with our students have different points of view and it is complicated to show our students how one’s point of view can change their interpretation of events. This is essential to helping our students learn that we need to not only include different points of view, but we need to see how important these points of view are to the community. Grace Lee Boggs described the dominant model of schools as a “factory model of education”4 in which schools served as a pipeline from the classroom to the factory. Students would sit through hours of lecture where they would be given all the information, they needed to be successful. Teachers would stand at the front of the room and provided students with all the material they would need as they moved forward in their lives. The problem arose that this version of school was not beneficial for the students to learn and grow. Freedom Schooling however is offering up many sites of learning and engagement that go beyond the classroom. The focus is that students and teachers are exchanging knowledge on a horizontal axis. Allowing students to be active makers of knowledge and shaper of social life. The very nature of our current curriculum design makes it impossible to value and honour the rich culture, tradition, and familial experience each child brings with them in the classroom.5 Much of modern history curriculum is about the United States, it around colonialism and the establishment of this country through the eyes of those in power. Although most history books mention slavery and the civil war, they leave out the fact that all slaves were not free until June 19, 1865 which was two years following Abraham Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation and 5 months after the passing of the 13th Amendment to the Constitution. The Civil Rights Movement is introduced, what is left out is that the fight for Civil Rights did not end with the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In fact, many of the rights that Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr and so many others fought for are still being fought for by many groups including the Black Lives Matter Movement. If we look at any of the creative arts curriculum, there is still a focus around a “whiteness” or the thought that the products created by people of color are not as crucial to our society because it is not the “norm”. As we look at curriculum, we must analyze it for what it is trying to tell us and not what it is simply written. In the article, Teaching K-8 Students about Race, it points out that “…what makes the history curriculum a central space for debating issues of representation, national history, and race is that most if not all U.S. citizens are expected at one time or another to read, sing, and learn a common narrative of American history in school.”6 We expect all citizens to know that basics of American History but leave out the impact that some of the citizens had on the country. It is our job as teachers to expand our knowledge and challenge the curriculum to present all sides of history as one cohesive history. Not one of the different sides of history happen independent of the others. In fact, when we review most of history, we will see how they work together to show the whole picture of history. An obstacle in our approach to teaching about race and racism is that it can be extremely uncomfortable to have open discussions about these topics. Do not get me wrong, I know how uncomfortable it is to have these discussions, but it is our obligation to our students to learn and grow as they are learning and growing. Not only must we go looking for this information, we must bring it back to our schools and districts to assist in the change throughout the system. I know that teaching race and racism may seem like a difficult subject especially for our younger learners, however, it is possible that this may not only assist with the students interactions with each other but extend into their homes where they will be share what they are learning. Teaching social justice requires that we change how we teach so that we can create an environment that produces active and engaged learners. Using different mediums (newspapers, magazines, online journals, blogs, etc.), also will allow the student to become more engaged in the learning because they will see how history or racism affects them in their world. When I begin to unpack how I want to teach any unit, I ask myself “how will I get my students attention?” This unit will allow me to expand my different teaching strategies and try some different approaches. Many of the skills I will focus on are skills that apply to every ELA lesson I teach, however with the focus on community, it will also have a link to the Social Standards. First, students will be given the opportunity to ask and answer questions about the stories we read. They will need to focus on the key ideas and details from the texts. The students will work to integrate their knowledge or ideas to compare the narrative elements of familiar stories and the retelling of those stories. Many of these opportunities will lead to a focus on speaking and listening which is a major foundation of kindergarten. In addition, I will use visualization using art and music to allow the students to refocus and prepare for the day’s instruction. The students will also use their visual journals to make notes or create their own form of art in response to what they see and hear. As I always include in my instruction, I will provide differentiated instruction. The students will use a variety of approaches, whether working in individually or small groups. The pacing and support provided will be adjusted to ensure that all students are engaged and actively participating throughout the learning. Students will be given opportunities to work in cooperative groups to complete assignments and activities. This will allow students to work together taking on various roles based on the lessons with a focus on success for all. Prior to the beginning of this unit, the students will have already read and learned that most of the stories taught will show characters, setting, and have a beginning, middle and end. Once the students have become proficient at being able to identify those pieces. We will expand their critical thinking skills to be able to compare and contrast different stories that have a similar story but are written in different languages or cultures. Using the knowledge, the students have about different fairy tales will allow them to further explore how each of these stories address morality and storytelling. In this unit, we will start by reading, Red Riding Hood by James Marshall. The students and I will examine the story and identify the parts of the story. We will then read additional stories that are similar to Red Riding Hood from other areas. The students will look for the similarities and the differences. After seeing the basic differences between cultures and their story telling, I will then introduce additional pieces of literature that allow the students to see a different perspective of life. Using books such as My Hands Sing the Blues: Romare Bearden’s Childhood Journey, we will explore the stories offering the students an unique opportunity to learn and discuss experiences of racism and visions of racial justice and to learn how important it is to not just tolerate other races but understand and show how essential these stories are to our society. By the end of this unit, students will be able to speak about specific experiences of race and racism and have a better understanding and be able to share their knowledge with those that are around them. The students will walk out of my classroom with a head full of knowledge and the ability to access that knowledge to apply to the rest of their schooling and life. One day I hope they see how this unit and units similar to this are beneficial to the world we live in. They will be able to share their love for all literature with everyone they encounter. This unit is designed to integrate social studies concepts with the reading standards that are required for all teachers to use in their classroom. By using these standards, it creates a cross-curricular unit plan. With little to no specific instruction around our social studies, this will create a true cross-curricular unit for Kindergarten. This unit will create curriculum that has never been available for the students. The unit will incorporate activities for the students as well as assessments that will benefit the students in kindergarten. This unit will create an engaging experience for the students that not only incorporates basic writing and reading skills as well as develop critical thinking skills. This unit will include scaffolding as the students’ progress which allows the students to learn on their level. My goal is to create a unit is to not just support the current standards within my classroom but to help students to be able to disrupt the norms in their experiences. Ultimately, this unit will help to shape and have a positive effect on consciences. I will spend my time working through this unit and the rest of my curriculum to ensure that the lessons I am teaching are not exclusionary and allow all students to be heard. My goal is to have a classroom environment and pedagogy that can liberate, transform, and empower my students. Changes in the Classroom Environment In the struggle to create an environment that does not continue to focus on the colonial standard that most of us are comfortable with, where can we start? The idea that we must decolonize our library and not just our readings, while focusing on expanding our reading practices. Literature is designed to shape the cultural meaning and identity. It is the product of the knowledge of ourselves. The expansion of our reading repertoire must extend to realizing that there is not one voice to share their experiences of their community but taking many voices to see how each is impacted and part of the community. In addition, we must analyze the items we bring into our classroom for use with our students. As we work to create an environment that is beneficial for all our students, it is important that we take the opportunity to expose the students to many different artists, musicians, and ways of thinking. It takes more than a simple modification to one lesson in our history unit to allow to change how we approach an Anti-Racist classroom. An example of this could look like this: when students enter the classroom, music from the different genres and artists like A Tribe Called Red or La Santa Cecilia will allow the students to hear music that may not be familiar to them and will allow them to challenge their own sense of music norms. My goal is for the students to explore their knowledge of music and see how music can relate to all facets of their life. Students may start their morning writing in their visual journal about a piece of art that is projected onto the whiteboard from the artists Ramiro Gomez or Titus Kaphar that gives them access to a different understanding of art. Using that piece of music or art to further the understanding that we must look past the basic idea and look for the deeper-rooted ideals in everything we do. The use of music and art not only allows students to begin their day thinking outside of the typical language arts lesson but also is a great way to get the students hooked into the lesson. It can also help students to be more excited about learning in the classroom. Each of the activities may be used in a virtual as well as in a in person school setting. I find that it is extremely important to create curriculum that is adaptable for any type of setting we might have and the national pandemic we are currently dealing with it is important to be prepared. Introduction of Unit The unit will begin with me reading, Same, Same but Different by Jenny Sue Kostecki-Shaw which will allow us to start a conversation about race and colorblindness. After we read the book, we will spend some time defining these new terms for the students. We will create a vocabulary page for them to be able to use throughout the unit. We will start with race, colorblindness, and community. I will give the students an opportunity to help come up with the definitions so that they are in student friendly language. The page will have room for the students to add additional words as we move throughout the unit. A View of our Community We will use maps to identify observations about community. We will start by looking at a map of the United States, the Mid-Atlantic, Delaware and our neighborhood. For each of the maps, we will discuss what they see on the map, any differences that they might notice, and about community. When discussing community, we will talk about how the community changes as we switch maps. I will use chart paper to display the key points the students bring up. When we get to our neighborhood map, we will discuss specifics of the area. I will point out the local stores, clubs and where our homes are on the map. I will explain to the students’ the type of places every community has in it. In addition, we will extend our learning to discuss the indigenous history of Delaware, the contemporary presence of Native people and nations and historic African American communities in our area. This would lead us to going on a field trip (virtual/actual) to Iron Hill Science Center which is less than fifteen minutes from our school. On this site, they provide lessons about the Lenni Lenape Tribes of Delaware. The Iron Hill School was one of 80 schools built for African American children between 1919-1928 by Pierre Samuel du Pont is also housed on the same property. What makes a community? For this activity, I would start by reading My Hands Sing the Blues: Romare Bearden’s Childhood Journey by Jeanne Walker Harvey. After reading this book, we will discuss how this book shows Romare Bearden’s life through the use of Bearden's art. I will then ask students to create their own presentation that will explain who they are and what their community looks like to them. It will be an open project so that students will have general directions but will be allowed to create/present it in any manner they would like to and that they are comfortable creating. The directions will include talking about their family heritage, favorites, and must include a picture (drawn or printed) of themselves. I will encourage them to be as creative as possible and share as much as they would like to with their classmates. The students will present in front of the entire class and then be paired up with classmates so they can compare themselves to each other. They will spend the time discussing how their differences make them unique and how those differences come together to create our community in the classroom. The visual journal could be a composition book, a notebook, or even created in a digital media to allow access for all students. Students will be asked to keep a visual journal throughout the school year. At multiple points during the unit, the students will be asked to write, draw, or sketch out their response. This journal will allow the students to express their ideas however they choose. It is important for students to be able to answer a prompt or question without worrying about the words specifically. It is so important that at their age they feel like they are being understood. The Visual Journal is a way that I can make sure the students are engaged in learning and address any concerns the students might have with the current lesson. My students and I will take a picture walk of the book for the day prior to reading it. During the walk we will use what we have learned about story structure and the author’s purpose to begin our discussions. We will discuss what characters might be in the story, where the story may take place, some details the pictures might give away, and make educated guesses about why the author may have written the book. The students will draw their prediction of what the story is about in their visual journal. Then, I will read the book and then we will see if our observations during the picture/book walk were correct. As I continue to have daily read aloud time, I will incorporate several books. I will start with the stories of red riding hood. I would start with James Marshall’s version, then move onto Petite Rogue: A Cajun Red Riding Hood by Mike Artell, Pretty Selma: A Little Red Riding Hood Story from Africa by Niki Daly and Lon Po Po: A Red Riding Hood Story from China by Ed Young and use a graphic organizer that allows the students to be able to compare several stories at the same time. It will look like a t-chart with multiple columns. The top of the chart will have the name of each story. On the left side of the chart there will be four sections, Setting, Characters, Details, and Something I noticed. The first three sections are easy for the students to answer. The last sections give the students the opportunity to point out something unique they may have noticed or even a question they might have about the book. They might also have some insight when comparing the stories. I will also use their visual journal here to minimize the stress for students to communicate what they see versus what I share and ask the students to tell me in the graphic organizer. As we finish each story, the students and I will reflect on the story and how race and colorblindness are seen in each story. We will talk about how reading one story from an area does not mean that is the only perspective on the race or culture. After we finish all these books, we will examine how each story is different and the same. We will also discuss how major differences we might see are because of the setting. These stories will prepare the students to be able to read additional books and see how the books influence the reader. The students and I will read other stories such as Li’l Dan, The Drummer Boy: A Civil War Story by Romare Bearden, Fry Bread by Kevin Noble Maillard. The students will use these books to see how the differences of these stories show students a different perspective on topics that we have read or will continue to read about. The books will be to not only expose students to other perspectives but also to learn that one viewpoint is not the only available from that race or culture. The students will use their visual journal to express how the book makes them feel, what they might notice about the stories, or how this book speaks to the student. Artell, Mike. 2001. Petite Rouge: A Cajun Red Riding Hood. Penguin Books. This is one of the read aloud for the students to compare. Bearden, Romare. 2003. Li’l Dan, The Drummer Boy: A Civil War Story. Simon & Schuster Books for Young Readers. This is one of the read aloud for the students to be exposed to additional perspectives. Daly, Niki. 2006. Pretty Selma: A Little Red Riding Hood Story from Africa. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. This is one of the read aloud for the students to compare. Harvey, Jeanne. 2011. My Hands Sing the Blues: Romare Bearden’s Childhood Journey. Two Lions. This is one of the read aloud for the students to be exposed to additional types of books. Kosteki-Shaw, Jenny Sue. 2011. Same, Same but Different. Henry Holt and Company. This is a book to allow the students to start a discussion about race and colorblindness. Maillard, Kevin Noble. 2019. Fry Bread. Roaring Brook Press. This is one of the read aloud for the students to be exposed to additional perspectives. Marshall, James. 1987. Red Riding Hood. Puffin Books. This is one of the read aloud for the students to compare. Young, Ed. 1989. Lon Po Po: A Red Riding Hood Story from China. Philomel Books. This is one of the read aloud for the students to compare. Blake, Felice. “Why Black Lives Matter in the Humanities.” In Seeing Race Again, edited by Kimberle Williams Crenshaw, Luke Charles Harris, Daniel Martinez HoSang, and George Lipsitz, 307–26. University of California Press, 2019. This Article is a good resource to regarding the importance of the black lives matter in humanities. Boggs, Grace Lee, Scott Kurashige, Danny Glover, and Immanuel Wallerstein. The Next American Revolution: Sustainable Activism for the Twenty-First Century. Berkeley, UNITED STATES: University of California Press, 2012. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/yale-ebooks/detail.action?docID=919284. In this book, the chapter entitled A Paradigm Shift in Our Concept of Education gives information about different types of schools and how to change out we educate our students. Brown, Keffrelyn D., and Anthony L. Brown. “Teaching K-8 Students about Race: African Americans, Racism, and the Struggle for Social Justice in the U.S.” Multicultural Education 19, no. 1 (2011): 9–13. This book is a prime source for use when looking for ways to change how we see race. Castro-Atwater, Sheri A. “Color-Blind Racial Ideology in K-12 Schools.” In The Myth of Racial Color Blindness: Manifestations, Dynamics, and Impact, 207–25. Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1037/14754-013. This article is an insightful discussion of the threat of color-blind ideology on students. Husband, Terry. But I Don’t See Color: The Perils, Practices, and Possibilities of Antiracist Education. Sense Publishers, 2016. This book is a great resource to use when looking for background information while teaching this unit. Appendix on Implementing District Standards With prompting and support, describe the connection between two individuals, events, ideas, or pieces of information in a text. Students will be comparing and analyzing the stories that we are reading. They will be asked to be able to share what they find to the class. We will spend a lot of time analyzing different stories in a search for commonalities and ways they can link the stories to their own lives. With guidance and support from adults, recall information from experiences or gather information from provided sources to answer a question. Throughout the unit, students will be asked to answer questions about each book we read as well as sharing their own experiences. Participate in collaborative conversations with diverse partners about kindergarten topics and texts with peers and adults in small and larger groups The students will work together in oral conversations regarding the books as well as the conversation of community. Ask and answer questions in order to seek help, get information, or clarify something that is not understood. Throughout the entire unit, the students will be asking and answer questions about what they have read, it’s importance, and how it impacts them. 1 Castro-Atwater, “Color-Blind Racial Ideology in K-12 Schools.” 2 Blake, “Why Black Lives Matter in the Humanities.” 4 Boggs et al., The Next American Revolution. 5 Husband, But I Don’t See Color. 6 Brown and Brown, “Teaching K-8 Students about Race.” THANK YOU — your feedback is very important to us! Give Feedback

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Morphology, on the other hand, examines how words are formed, whereas syntax is concerned with what happens to sentences. Phonology is divided into two categories: phonetics and phonologicals. Ample examples on all levels are provided with detailed annotation for the non-specialist reader. WebStarting from the smallest, most basic unit of language (phonetics) and graduating up to the study of discourse and contextual meaning (pragmatics), linguistics consists of the following sections: Phonetics. What does it mean to you? In pragmatics, one focuses on use of language in social context. 1 - From a pragmatics perspective, the phrase "hungry as a horse" just means "really hungry". Every language makes sentences in a variety of ways. Morphology can be used to study the development of words. What factors place children with speech sound disorders at risk for reading problems? Wren, Y. E., Roulstone, S. E., & Miller, L. L. (2012). Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 57, 21022115. WebView Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, And Pragmatics Webinar.docx from ECS 575 at Grand Canyon University. A linguistic approach to distinctive feature training. Upload unlimited documents and save them online. Webappears that anothercomponent of grammar (morphology or syntax) or the lexicon is imposing conditions on the makeup ofphonological units. Common bound or grammatical morphemes include the following: -ing (the present progressive), -s (the regular plural; e.g., cats), -s (the possessive inflection; e.g., mans), and ed (the regular past tense; e.g., washed). Semantics is a term which is derived from the Greek word seme meaning sigh. f 'lo"NK-eAUY S L=?5Uxt14J )%F$S,I^zH2hV~k9J7N|S#igIf''vg 7 International classification of functioning, disability and health. Foreign accents occur when a set of phonetic traits of one language are carried over when a person learns a new language. (1989). ". Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 38, 10911107. Differential diagnosis and treatment of children with speech disorder. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 17, 2531. The Modularity of Grammar The picture just sketched presumes a modular view of lin-guistic organization, iriwhich (at least) phonology, phonet-ics, morphology, syntax,semantics, pragmatics, andlexicon Dagenais, P. A. suffixes are added to the words in this manner. Each of these domains offers different meanings and contributes to language in different ways. Morphemes are a subset of units that are both meaningful and small. However, look at the following idiomatic phrases: Neither of these uses of the word white refers to colour, but we all know what they mean! Blache, S., & Parsons, C. (1980). Lexical semantics = The study of the individual meaning of words. Intntalo de nuevo. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2015 (3), 142. Our understanding of language could not exist without these domains and they serve as the foundation for other higher-order language skills. The professional roles and activities in speech-language pathology include clinical/educational services (diagnosis, assessment, planning, and treatment); prevention and advocacy; and education, administration, and research. Explain and give examples. Match all exact any words . Ruder, K. F., & Bunce, B. H. (1981). Webphonology and morphology but also of syntax; from phrase level to complex sentences and pragmatics. All Rights Reserved. recognize all dialects as being rule-governed linguistic systems; understand the rules and linguistic features of dialects represented by their clientele; and. A numerical scale or continuum of disability is often used because it is time-efficient. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Dialectal variations of a language may cross all linguistic parameters, including phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. - The implied meaning of "what time do you call this" is often inferred as "why are you so late? Differential learning of phonological oppositions. Can you crack a window? Please enable it in order to use the full functionality of our website. We unlock the potential of millions of people worldwide. Phonological approaches are often selected in an effort to help the child internalize phonological rules and generalize these rules to other sounds within the pattern (e.g., final consonant deletion, cluster reduction). Definition: sets of words in which some similarity in sound seems to reflect a vague similarity in meaning. Morphology and syntax help us understand how words are placed, as well as the parts of words. Intelligibility can vary along a continuum ranging from intelligible (message is completely understood) to unintelligible (message is not understood; Bernthal et al., 2017). Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 54, 16281643. Carrigg, B., Baker, E., Parry, L., & Ballard, K. J. For example, the word 'blue' refers to a color but can also be associated with feeling down or upset. Dodd, B., Holm, A., Crosbie, S., & McIntosh, B. Compositional semantics = Examines how smaller parts of discourse, i.e. Implicature is an utterance that implies or suggests something without it being explicitly said. The percentage of consonants correct (PCC) metric: Extensions and reliability data. Phonology describes sounds that are produced in language; morphology describes the structure of words that contain meaning; syntax describes the relationship of words to one another; and phonomatics describes human perception. Preston, J. L., McCabe, P., Rivera-Campos, A., Whittle, J. L., Landry, E., & Maas, E. (2014). Idioms are phrases or words that have predetermined connotative meanings that can't be deduced from their literal meaning. McLeod, S., Verdon, S., & The International Expert Panel on Multilingual Children's Speech. Treatment of phonological disability using the method of meaningful minimal contrast: Two case studies. National Institute for Literacy. ), Interventions for speech sound disorders in children (pp. Pragmatics. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 25, 5969. Discuss the Environmental Factors and Health Promotion Presentation : Accident Prevention and Safety Promotion for Parents and Caregivers of Infants. For example, the speaker may be hinting that they want the window closed. (2009). The assessment process must identify whether differences are truly related to a speech sound disorder or are normal variations of speech caused by the first language. From the second extreme perspective it falls into the group of socio-linguistics where it considers features of speechrelated to accent and intonation. Language is based on rules at all levels. [ T, Semantics is what gives idioms their meanings. 701 (1973). The conditions and course of clinically induced phonological change. This, along with the fact that we can comprehend the meaning of a sentence, can aid in the understanding of how it is expressed. Prevalence and natural history of primary speech and language delay: Findings from a systematic review of the literature. The word "dogs" has four phonemes: d, o, g, and s. A phoneme does not have meaning by itself, but combinations of phonemes do. Usually, we divide morphemes into two different types: free and bound. Los nmeros que has introducido no concuerdan con la imagen. What are the two main categories of semantics? A combination of morphologies and syntax allows us to better understand how words are formed and how they interact with one another. Phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, grammar, semantics and pragmatics. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 28, 141157. Webappears that anothercomponent of grammar (morphology or syntax) or the lexicon is imposing conditions on the makeup ofphonological units. Connected speech sampling provides information about production of sounds in connected speech using a variety of talking tasks (e.g., storytelling or retelling, describing pictures, normal conversation about a topic of interest) and with a variety of communication partners (e.g., peers, siblings, parents, and clinician). Distortions and assimilations occur in varying degrees at all levels of the continuum. What is the relationship between semantics and pragmatics? <> Ve a la cesta para obtener ms informacin. Connotation refers to all the possible meanings we associate with a word beyond the dictionary definition. We will discuss why! Morphology and syntax are at the heart of grammar. Articulation and phonological/language-based approaches might both be used in therapy with the same individual at different times or for different reasons. During each cycle, one or more phonological patterns are targeted. Morphemes are a means of modifying word structures to change meaning. Law, J., Boyle, J., Harris, F., Harkness, A., & Nye, C. (2000). 2 0 obj Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42, 14611481. WebThe standard example of the relation between Syntax (considered as all grammar), Semantics, and Pragmatics is the various aspects of a Stop sign in use. In addition to selecting appropriate targets for therapy, SLPs select treatment strategies based on the number of intervention goals to be addressed in each session and the manner in which these goals are implemented. Semantic categories are used to sort words. Morphemes are used to form words and each morpheme differs from another (aka they all serve different meanings). <>>> : PRO-ED. Intelligibility is frequently used when judging the severity of the child's speech problem (Kent, Miolo, & Bloedel, 1994; Shriberg & Kwiatkowski, 1982b) and can be used to determine the need for intervention. Speech sound disorders is an umbrella term referring to any difficulty or combination of difficulties with perception, motor production, or phonological representation of speech sounds and speech segmentsincluding phonotactic rules governing permissible speech sound sequences in a language. Free morphemes can stand alone as their own word (e.g., dog, the) and bound morphemes require another morpheme to make up a word, as they cannot occur alone (e.g., -er, -s). Historically, treatments that focus on motor production of speech sounds are called articulation approaches; treatments that focus on the linguistic aspects of speech production are called phonological/language-based approaches. The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Then count the total number of consonants in the sample and the total number of correct consonants. Pragmatics is the study of rules that govern the use of language in social situations. After all, what is the point of language without meaning? The syllable is used as the building block for practice at more complex levels. Natural Process Analysis (NPA): A procedure for phonological analysis of continuous speech samples. (2001). Semantics includes a persons vocabulary or lexicon. Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) must distinguish between dialectal differences and communicative disorders and must. These domains of language cover much of what we (speech-language pathologists [SLPs]) target in language-based therapy and the evidence-based approaches behind our decision-making. 2. Language linguistics is the study of and interpretation of style and tone in languages. Se ha producido un error. When comparing semantics vs. pragmatics in other words, semantics looks at the literal meaning of words and the meanings that are created by the relationships between linguistic expressions while pragmatics examines how meaning is created; however, it pays more attention to context. Overby, M.S., Trainin, G., Smit, A. The first language acquired by a bilingual or multilingual individual can influence the pronunciation of speech sounds and the acquisition of phonotactic rules in subsequently acquired languages. Wie beschrieben, top Zustand, bin zufrieden, vielen Dank gerne wieder, LORENZ Leitfaden fr Spediteure und Logistiker in Ausbildung und Beruf - Band 1 (#295137901710), - Studies in Formal Slavic Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, Semantics and Informatio. Form of Language. See also Kent et al. The purpose of the screening is to identify individuals who require further speech-language assessment and/or referral for other professional services. Possible connotations include the number sign and a hashtag used in social media. As with any language, AAE has its own phonology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics, all of which are crucial to consider. Give us a call or send a message, and well be happy to bate your curiosity. Residual or persistent speech errors were estimated to occur in 1% to 2% of older children and adults (Flipsen, 2015). Baltimore, MD: Brookes. Literature. Efficacy of electropalatography for treating misarticulations of /r/. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 24, 795824. (2010). On the other hand, Semantics is the study of the meaning in language. There are no subordinate clauses in a compounded sentence. WebDialectal variations of a language may cross all linguistic parameters, including phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Pragmatics and discourse can also be included; delimitation varies between institutions. (20016b). The morphology of a given language describes the rules of such modifications. When we communicate with other people, there is a constant negotiation of meaning between the listener and the speaker. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 9,289299. They focus on improving phonemic contrasts in the child's speech by emphasizing sound contrasts necessary to differentiate one word from another. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 18, 343360. WebQuestion 2. a) Discuss one subfield of language (e.g., phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics) that non-human primates (NHP) are more successful at learning. Connotation refers to all the possible meanings we associate with a word beyond the dictionary definition. Goldstein, B. The relationship between morphology, syntax, and semantics is more complex than most people realize. There is a close relationship between morphology and phonology. m-Z|@Adh`i axaf Om3|T(00)Yq:EI)p,]Di)>bI}? Naturalistic intervention for speech intelligibility and speech accuracy. In the following examples, the free morphemes are underlined; the bound morphemes are in capital letters: oceanS, establishMENT, bookED, colorFUL, DISconnect. Williams, A. L. (2000b). In addition, although the maximal oppositions approach trains targets in contrasting word pairs, the complexity approach does not. See ASHA's Person-Centered Focus on Function: Speech Sound Disorder [PDF] for an example of assessment data consistent with ICF. The cycles phonological remediation approach. Elbert, M., & McReynolds, L. V. (1978). Base, root or free morphemes are word that have meaning, cannot be broken-down into smaller parts, and can have other morphemes added to them. Williams, A. L. (2003a). Consult systematic reviews of this treatment to help guide clinical decision making (see, e.g., Lee & Gibbon, 2015 [PDF]; McCauley, Strand, Lof, Schooling, & Frymark, 2009). Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 21, 136149. Children with motor disorders are frequently observed with disorganized or immature language in phrases and sentences. endobj Frequently reported risk factors include the following: Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) play a central role in the screening, assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of persons with speech sound disorders. Course Hero is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university. Syntax and morphology are concerned with two major categories of language structure. 2023, Suffolk Center for Speech. The book Morphology and Its Relation to Phonology and Syntax was reviewed and written by Steven G. Lapointe, Diane K. Brentari, and Patrick M. Farrell. 4 0 obj Success! Fey, M. (1986). Kosmos. Phonemes are individual sounds, like /b/ and /h/ in the words bat and hat. Ve a la cesta para obtener ms informacin. - Votos emitidos por el comprador 0***c (601). This field is considered to be one of the important parts of theoretical linguistics. See the Resources section for information related to assessing intelligibility and life participation in monolingual children who speak English and in monolingual children who speak languages other than English. Eadie, P., Morgan, A., Ukoumunne, O. C., Eecen, K. T., Wake, M., & Reilly, S. (2015). Peterson, R. L., Pennington, B. F., Shriberg, L. D., & Boada, R. (2009). Syntax and semantics are two processes that collaborate to create a meaning, and they are both difficult to separate. The early utterances of preterm infants. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 9, 282288. Examples of a few of these categories are recurrence, rejection, and causality. screening of individual speech sounds in single words and in connected speech (using formal and or informal screening measures); screening of oral motor functioning (e.g., strength and range of motion of oral musculature); orofacial examination to assess facial symmetry and identify possible structural bases for speech sound disorders (e.g., submucous cleft palate, malocclusion, ankyloglossia); and. Accents may be regional; for example, someone from New York may sound different than someone from South Carolina. Lee, S. A. S., Wrench, A., & Sancibrian, S. (2015). The child's error productions are recast without the use of imitative prompts or direct motor training. Important functions of utterances include the following: Providing listeners with adequate information without redundancy, Making a sequence of statements coherent and logical. Developmental complexity of the stimuli included in mispronunciation detection tasks. See the Service Delivery section of the Speech Sound Disorders Evidence Map for pertinent scientific evidence, expert opinion, and client/caregiver perspective. <>/ExtGState<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text/ImageB/ImageC/ImageI] >>/MediaBox[ 0 0 612 792] /Contents 4 0 R/Group<>/Tabs/S/StructParents 0>> Washington, DC: Author. However, when we engage pragmatics, it can be inferred that you wanted to reserve a table for this Saturday. sound meaning and sound (2010). (2006). *It is important to note that "typical pragmatic language" looks different across different cultures and individuals. stream Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 45, 431444. In contrast, morphology is generally regarded as the more difficult of the two fields, and is widely thought to be the study of word form and the rules that govern its composition and composition. The cycles approach targets phonological pattern errors and is designed for children with highly unintelligible speech who have extensive omissions, some substitutions, and a restricted use of consonants. - Votos emitidos por el comprador 1***6 (900). Copyright 1995-2023 eBay Inc. Todos los derechos reservados. Discourse refers to how utterances are related to one another it has to do with the connected flow of language. In A. L. Williams, S. McLeod, & R. J. McCauley (Eds. It may be possible to understand and transcribe a spontaneous speech sample by (a) using a structured situation to provide context when obtaining the sample and (b) annotating the recorded sample by repeating the child's utterances, when possible, to facilitate later transcription. Morphemes are used to form words. See ASHA's resource on assessment tools, techniques, and data sources. Vocabulary development depends heavily upon environmental exposure, as well as the individual capacity each child brings to the learning situation. In addition to the prefixes and suffixes, Korean has a number of words that have meanings that are different from the English version. Everything you need for your studies in one place. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 11, 243249. Semantics is defined by the way words, syntax, and sentences are structured, as well as the meanings they convey. The fourth aspect of language analysis is phonology, which is classified into phonetic and phonological analyses, and morphology, which is classified into morphological and syntactic analysis. (1994) for a comprehensive review of procedures for assessing intelligibility. (1995). ". There are several reasons why morphology and phonology are related. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 11, 215220. Identify your study strength and weaknesses. Ultimately, the decision of whether to study syntax first or phonology and morphology first is a personal one that should be based on the individual learners needs and preferences. How is pragmatics different from semantics? (2005). In the English sentence, syntax indicates that the adjective precedes the noun, but in the Spanish sentence, syntax indicates the noun precedes the adjective. Non-speech oral motor treatment for children with developmental speech sound disorders. The interface is important because it allows researchers to understand how the four disciplines interact with each other. The term was coined by the philosopher HP Grice in 1975 and is an important part of pragmatics. No se garantizan la precisin ni la accesibilidad de la traduccin proporcionada. In English, the subject is usually followed by the verb and the object (the object is referred to as SVO). Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 9, 119. Using a mirror for visual feedback of place and movement of articulators, Using gestural cueing for place or manner of production (e.g., using a long, sweeping hand gesture for fricatives vs. a short, "chopping" gesture for stops), Using ultrasound imaging (placement of an ultrasound transducer under the chin) as a biofeedback technique to visualize tongue position and configuration (Adler-Bock, Bernhardt, Gick, & Bacsfalvi, 2007; Lee, Wrench, & Sancibrian, 2015; Preston, Brick, & Landi, 2013; Preston et al., 2014), Using palatography (various coloring agents or a palatal device with electrodes) to record and visualize contact of the tongue on the palate while the child makes different speech sounds (Dagenais, 1995; Gibbon, Stewart, Hardcastle, & Crampin, 1999; Hitchcock, McAllister Byun, Swartz, & Lazarus, 2017), Amplifying target sounds to improve attention, reduce distractibility, and increase sound awareness and discriminationfor example, auditory bombardment with low-level amplification is used with the cycles approach at the beginning and end of each session to help children perceive differences between errors and target sounds (Hodson, 2010), Providing spectral biofeedback through a visual representation of the acoustic signal of speech (McAllister Byun & Hitchcock, 2012), Providing tactile biofeedback using tools, devices, or substances placed within the mouth (e.g., tongue depressors, peanut butter) to provide feedback on correct tongue placement and coordination (Altshuler, 1961; Leonti, Blakeley, & Louis, 1975; Shriberg, 1980), determining whether to use a bilingual or cross-linguistic approach (see ASHA's Practice Portal page on. The term semantics has been introduced by French linguist Michel Bral (1832-1915), who is also known as a founder of modern semantics. Pragmatics Preston, J. L., Brick, N., & Landi, N. (2013). Fig. Nota: Al usar la funcin de traduccin, aceptas nuestras. The broad term "speech sound disorder(s)" is used in this Portal page to refer to functional speech sound disorders, including those related to the motor production of speech sounds (articulation) and those related to the linguistic aspects of speech production (phonological). See the Treatment section of the Speech Sound Disorders Evidence Map for pertinent scientific evidence, expert opinion, and client/caregiver perspective. The population of children with persistent speech difficulties is heterogeneous, varying in etiology, severity, and nature of speech difficulties (Dodd, 2005; Shriberg et al., 2010; Stackhouse, 2006; Wren, Roulstone, & Miller, 2012). WebLas mejores ofertas para Little Words: Their History, Phonology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics, and Acqui estn en eBay Compara precios y caractersticas de productos Semantics = We would observe the literal meaning created by these words and would assume that this person wants to eat a horse. What is the difference between connotation and denotation? Teele, D. W., Klein, J. O., Chase, C., Menyuk, P., & Rosner, B. Prezas and Hodson (2010) use a continuum of severity from mild (omissions are rare; few substitutions) to profound (extensive omissions and many substitutions; extremely limited phonemic and phonotactic repertoires). Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 43, 97115. Comparison between Phonology and Semantics: Phonology is another branch of linguistics which focuses on the organization of sounds by studying speech patterns. Some audiological, psychological, educational and behavioral characteristics of children with bilateral otitis media with effusion. Shriberg, L. D., & Kwiatkowski, J. What is morphological awareness? Instead, they may be related to a feature of a speaker's dialect (a rule-governed language system that reflects the regional and social background of its speakers). Phonology can be viewed from two extreme viewpoints first viewpoint is towards anatomy and physiology; related to the organs of speech and how one learns how to use them. McReynolds, L. V., & Bennett, S. (1972).

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- About the Initiative - Topical Index of Curriculum Units - View Topical Index of Curriculum Units - Search Curricular Resources - View Volumes of Curriculum Units from National Seminars - Find Curriculum Units Written in Seminars Led by Yale Faculty - Find Curriculum Units Written by Teachers in National Seminars - Browse Curriculum Units Developed in Teachers Institutes - On Common Ground - League of Institutes - Video Programs Have a suggestion to improve this page? To leave a general comment about our Web site, please click here From Panel to Pen: Using Greek Mythology to Create Graphic Stories to Enhance the Writing Process for Young LearnersbyShannon Foster-Williams On any given day, my students excitedly create paintings and drawing that depict narratives of their family lives, special events and people they admire. Welcome to Mrs. Williams’ class, where students are given freedom, the freedom to create something called “Free Art.” It’s a moment during class, after students have completed their initial class assignments, when they are given the opportunity to create any image of their choosing. Furthermore, they are also given the liberty to select any medium of their choice. So these students may choose to create with a range of materials, from coloring pencils to paint. Their pictures express many emotions and subjects from the love of unicorns floating on rainbows, to the admiration of Stephen Curry, a star basketball player for the Golden State Warriors. These lovely pieces of artwork often inspire my students to stand and give the equivalent of a verbal dissertation, describing every detail of the events that they depict on paper. These accounts include razor sharp descriptions of the events that took place before and after their crayon figure jumps the rainbow or slam dunks the basketball with four seconds left in the game. These children with such enthusiasm and confidence want to share with the entire class every detail of the story that they have created in a singular image. Yet, when asked to write me a story about these pictures, they wither into the shadows as if I have stolen the sun and their joy. “What is the problem?” I’ve often wondered. How can a student be so expressive verbally and visually but give me a one sentence summary of what took them almost 15 minutes to describe to the class. Why are my students so stymied by the process of writing? I wasn’t sure, but I knew that I wanted to find exciting ways to help them overcome the obstacles that steer them away from becoming great writers as well as artists. The goal of this curriculum unit is to provide students with the experience of creating graphic stories based on historical references. The students will produce original works of art in visual and written form that tell stories based on the stories and characters of Greek mythology. I plan to connect this social studies objective of my third grade students with the Visual Arts content of illustration. The instructional focus will explore how pictures tell stories. The overall curriculum content of this unit involves the integration of visual arts, language arts and history. The visual arts aspect focuses on the study of skills and techniques for creating illustrated panel drawings that will be adapted to create comic strips or graphic novels. These drawings will be used to retell the stories of Greek mythology. The students will use these images to help create a written narrative related to a mythological character of their choice. My intent is to encourage storytelling and creative thinking about how the combination of pictures and text communicates information. I believe that this unit will be a great vehicle for allowing students to experience the dynamics of telling a story through verbal, written and visual methods. Many students have difficulty telling stories in written form, but feel comfortable with expressing their ideas through artwork. I encourage my students to create their own visual narratives using paper or canvas as a space to share feelings and experiences. Artwork can tell multiple stories. I believe this premise will assist me in creating a curriculum unit that helps my students become more expressive artists as well as writers. This unit has relevance for my students, because beyond the production of artwork in class, my students are also challenged to analyze, critique, discuss and write about the work that they view and create. My third grade students are emerging writers. Once these students enter this grade level, they begin to participate in writing assignments that have more rigor and technical requirements than they have experienced in earlier grades. Most of my students struggle with the basics of writing. The creative writing and sequential summary skills are also a challenge for most. This unit plan hopes to guide students through the mental process of telling a story, as well as the technical aspect of summarizing and sequencing that is involved with comic strip illustrating. The focus on exploring how the combination of text and images can change the reading experience, can assist me in creating brainstorming activities to help my students investigate how their artwork mirrors the written text that they use when creating literary narrative from their illustrated images. The images created by my students will serve as visual cues to drive the process of developing their writing skills. The hope is for outcomes that produce detailed and descriptive writing. I hope to use these ideas to bridge the interpretation of art with the comprehension of content, and other story elements present in graphic novels, literary text, film and other media. The process and techniques of analyzing imaginative illustrations and text, is parallel to that of interpreting, creating, and analyzing Art. In the same way that students can derive a story from their interpretation of art work. By viewing a painting students can describe the events, mood, setting and the artist’s purpose. This skill is shaped by what they see and how they feel about those images. They create stories in their heads that are varied. This same process takes place when students view illustrations. This skill of interpreting art impacts my students by helping them develop an appreciation for art work, an understanding of the artist, recognition of the time period in which artwork was created, and the purpose for creating the art. These skills also help the students to better understand themselves and develop as individuals Using Greek mythology as a platform to develop inspiration and background knowledge will connect Visual Arts curriculum to core subjects such as language arts, history, and writing in a cross-curriculum approach. Introducing students to multi-media imagery for the purpose of developing a creative process and approach towards art, creative writing and comprehension skills that will help my students’ better express ideas through their art and writing. This focus on creating individual stories by students that are illustrated and developed into graphic novels works double duty. Students will be examining how the relationship between pictures and words assists them in writing detailed descriptions of the characters that they research. Students draw pictures that explain an event or story, and my students will be using the pictures as a tool to influence and critique their written accounts of the lives of characters in Greek Mythology. The students will use the visual evidence found in each panel that they create to enrich and add to the depth and complexity of the story that they are trying to convey. The Visual aspect of this unit is the primary focus. Creating the visual narrative will be the starting point in my Art class, giving students that space and time to master their drawings and study how panels and comic strips are created. This catalyst will propel the students into the process of developing their own comics. Students will be introduced to the techniques and process that graphic novelists and cartoonists employ when producing these works of art. This understanding connects students with a better understanding and respect for illustrating as an art form by placing them in the position of the artist. The result is to positively impact the process of teaching young learners how to communicate stories in a pictorial sense that nurtures and support students’ understanding of content. Also, the unit explores the power of visual narratives in relationship with writing. The curriculum content objectives involved in this unit comprise the stories of Greek Mythology as the (S.O.L.) standards of Learning set forth by the Commonwealth of Virginia, as outlined by the Department of Education as third grade Art History and Cultural Context SOL. The standards for third-grade students include an introduction to the heritage and contributions of the peoples of ancient Greece and Rome 3.11 The student will identify how works of art and craft reflect times, places, and cultures. 3.12 The student will identify distinguishing characteristics of genres of art. 3.13 The student will identify how history, culture, and the visual arts influence each other. 3.14 The student will identify common attributes of works of art created by artists within a culture. 3.15 The student will examine the relationship between form and function in the artifacts of a culture. 3.16 The student will compare and contrast art and architecture from other cultures.1 We are exploring how images and text work to complement each other as well as communicate to the reader. We are also exploring how visual images work to better help young learners with reading and also, as in this instance, how it may help them become better writers. The written module of this unit is to be compared, critiqued and edited using the visual images as the tool of measurement, by which the students are to compare the chronicles, details, omissions and inclusions found within their literary work. Before students can retell the stories of Greek myth they must first be introduced to the subject of mythology. Developing an understanding of the relevance of these tales can only be achieved by learning why these stories have cultural and historical importance. “The answer to that is very simple: to learn. People still study the ancient Greeks and their myths much in the same reason they study other cultures and that is so they can learn from it. After all, when you study a culture as progressive as that of the ancient Greeks, you really can’t help but learn lessons. These myths, for their part, show modern people a glimpse of how they thought in the past, what they considered important, how their morals worked, etc. Another reason to study those Greek myths is because they have contributed a lot to classic and modern literature in the form of symbols.”1 Understanding the past is important for students. Teaching them about other cultures as well as their own and showing them the connections between people of the past and the modern world that they currently live is an essential part of my art curriculum. Helping students understand and appreciate other cultures is the basis for developing an understanding of how and why art is produced by people of the world, past and present. It is also important to understand that people borrow and adapt ideas, beliefs, and culture from one another. Ancient cultures such as Greece and Rome are great contributors to our world. The architecture, government structure, art and literature that we surround ourselves with has many influences from Greek culture. “Most people will not really notice it unless they are told to do so, but there are so many Greek influences around the world today. In fact, it is impossible to understand the basics of things like fine arts, literature, and performing arts without touching on some Greek myth”2 These myths were an important part of ancient Greek life. These stories taught lessons and gave reason and explanation to the theological belief that higher beings existed. “These stories were passed down for generations. Some might wonder what the point is to just passing down stories—stories that were made up and were in no way true but that was the beauty of Greek mythology in ancient times.2 The 15 Greek Myth Mini-Books: Reproducible Comic Book-Style Retellings, by Danielle Blood introduces children to these classic stories in an age appropriate manner. I am using one of these books as a visual example for my students. The character of Greek mythology that I will use as the model for this unit is Hercules. I will use his story as an introduction to help students become familiar with many of the descriptions and powers of these Greek gods and goddesses. Hercules is valuable as an initial point of reference because of his many great deeds including his twelve labors. His many adventures can be retold in pictorial fashion without worry that students will mimic or repeat my examples. The students will read summaries that I provide, outlining the individual characteristics of each of these Greek gods. From here, each students will be given the opportunity to select a character of their choice to depict in their art. “These myths were told to people and it helped them realize the difference between right and wrong. Also, these tales tell people of heroes and how true greatness was achieved by those who dared while at the same breath, showing the flaws of these heroes.2 These stories include the Greek Gods and Goddesses known as the Twelve Olympians, commonly considered to be Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Ares, Aphrodite, Hephaestus, Hermes, and either Hestia or Dionysus. In ancient times it was believed that the world was ruled by this group of gods. There are many versions of the ancient stories, some have small changes depending on the storytellers. These ancient stories were told by both the Romans and the Greeks. They were retold and changed somewhat over the course of thousands of years. “Any storyteller might create a new adventure for the gods or might change a story slightly to make it more interesting to his listeners. What was important is that the gods' personalities remained the same. Everybody in ancient Greece knew the gods' personalities!”1 The Greek god Zeus was the king of all the gods. He is characterized visually as a muscular male having long flowing hair, carrying a thunder bolt and usually framed in images that portray him standing on high with storm clouds and lighting surrounding his form. He is usually described as having magical powers and superhuman strength. Zeus’s wife is Hera, the queen of all the gods, and also the goddess of marriage. Hera and Zeus had two sons named Ares and Hephaestus. But these were not Zeus’ only sons. Zeus had many other children, both sons and daughters: Hermes and Apollo and Artemis and Hercules. Some of his children, like Hercules, were believed to be those born of human mothers. These gods had a unique family structure that linked most of them to Zeus in some way. Their stories are connected and interwoven in a way that makes them exciting to learn and makes the character interesting to follow. Once you strip away the family tree that explain their relationship with one another and their family dynamic you understand why the family of Zeus was so interesting. The Greek god Ares was the god of war. He was a son of Zeus. He could be described as the prince of the Gods. Having many of the characteristics of a person of royal pedigree, he was handsome and quite self-absorbed. Ares was not well liked due to his spirit of disagreement, turmoil and destruction. It was believed that Ares was at work whenever the ancient Greeks went to war. While Ares liked to destroy things, his brother Hephaestus was his opposite. Hephaestus is the god of fire and forge. He was a builder and enjoyed creating things. It is told in some stories that he fashioned the thunderbolts of Zeus. Most of the Greek gods were connected. This complex family tree of gods had Zeus at its roots. While many refer to him as the King of the gods, he could also be called the father of the Greek gods. Apollo was also a son of Zeus’. Apollo had a twin sister, Artemis, the huntress. Apollo was well liked by the ancient Greeks. He was kind and gentle. He presided over music and was believed to raise the sun. The youngest of the sons was Hermes the messenger. He was also liked and trusted by the other gods. Zeus also had two brothers. Each ruled a different area of the earth. Zeus ruled in the heavens and on earth from atop Mount Olympus while his other brothers the Greek gods Hades, ran the underworld and brother Poseidon ruled the seas. Zeus also had three sisters, Demeter, Hera and Rhea. Because of the incestuous nature of the relationship between Hera and Zeus, I am omitting her from the list of choices in an effort to be age-appropriate for my elementary students. Hera is described as the sister of Zeus as well as his wife. These Greeks myths are exciting stories that at times can be reminiscent of a modern day soap opera. This should be considered when and before leading students to research and study this topic. I am providing books and worksheets that provide descriptions of each Greek God and Goddess, a choice that I highly recommend to primary school teachers. Zeus’ sister, Demeter, was in charge of the harvest. If Demeter did not do her job, the crops could die, and everyone would starve. These Gods and Goddess had characteristics and powers that helped to explain the scientific and the unexplainable events to the simple man. These myths helped the people of ancient Greece make sense of their world and helped them to explain things such as the changing of the seasons, morality, karma, consequences, and the nature of man. Zeus also had daughters, one was Athena, the goddess of wisdom. Greek myth describes Athena’s creation as being delivered and from the mind or brain of Zeus. Artemis was the goddess of the hunt. She was Apollo's twin sister. Artemis was Apollo's opposite. Artemis was cold and liked to be alone. Unlike her sister Aphrodite, known as the goddess of love and beauty. Artemis was not warm and loving in the eyes of the ancient Greeks. All of the siblings and children of Zeus were the subject of Greek myths. The variety of characters and stories that exists in the mythological world of Greek storytelling gives student a wide range of choices when deciding what story they wish to tell. Due to the adult nature and subject matter related to some of these characters I have devised a limited list of characters, stories and resources that I will allow my students to use. The focus of this unit is not on research, but the retelling of stories and the use of images and artistry to communicate information. How do we share stories and how do we define what a story is to our students? I grew up with a father who told many stories. In fact my father is one of the best story tellers that I know. His ability to pull you in and engage you totally is one of his greatest talents. He never read his stories from a book, yet he could communicate a story with such detail that it created visual images in my head. So in all the times that I’ve heard stories or seen pictures, I have never had text pop into my head. I suppose neither have my students. So, what is a story? Is it the string of sentences in a chapter book, a song on the radio or the griot style apologue that is verbal? To some it is an oral interpretation, to others it is text, but for the artist it is imagery. “A Story is a narration of a sequence of events deliberately arranged for telling.”1 (Eisner, pg. 3). The famous comic book artist Scott McCloud describes graphic stories or comics in a similar way. He defines comics as “Juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence, intended to convey information and or to produce an aesthetic response in the viewer.”2 (McCloud, pg. 9) It seems that the definitions focus more on the order and sequence than on the methods of communicating the story. We are developing artwork that can tell stories graphically, making a series of images that are to be organized and structured in similar ways to literary text. The challenge for the students is pulling those images from their minds and organizing them in a way that lends understanding to the information they are trying to convey. “All stories have a structure. A story has a beginning, and end, and a thread of events laid upon a framework that hold the two together. Whether the medium is text, film or comics, the skeleton is the same”.4 (Eisner, pg. 3) The difficulty of creating a story for most of my students stems from their inexperience with constructing text in a manner that is sequential. Pictures allow them to move past this obstacle unknowingly. The process of making a set or series of images that connect to one another and span a time frame that defines “Now, Then” or “later” seems to be simpler and a more concrete concept for my student when approached through artistic means. “Before a story is composed, it exists in the abstract. At this point it is still a lot of thoughts, memories, fantasies and ideas floating around in one’s head”4 (Eisner, Pg.4) The concepts involved with creative writing, and the process of taking the abstract idea from your mind, planning, and retelling it using text, are a hurdle for many young learners. This does not seem to be an issue when using pictures to represent a narrative. Because students have success in my classroom with putting pictures in order in such a way that they make sense, this method of drawing first then writing was a eureka moment for me. Fluent representation of actions or events is one of the strong characteristics that make their pictorial work a positive vehicle for telling stories. Navigating the process and time needed to develop multiple images that can shape a pictorial narrative is the target of the activities and visual art production for this unit. One image alone, even when partnered with words, does not automatically constitute a story. “It becomes a story when told in an arranged and purposeful order. The basic principles of narration are the same whether told orally or visually.”4 (Eisner, pg. 4) Strategies and Visual Art Components The visual art component of this unit is a study in the steps and techniques necessary to create a visual narrative known as a comic strip or graphic story. “Master comic artist Will Eisner uses the term sequential art when describing comics.” 5(McCloud, pg. 5) Emphasis on visual sequencing will be an important part of the visual arts process of creating the illustrated panels. This unit will be covered over a nine week span of time. The subject of time is different for each person that chooses to teach this unit. Because I see each of my 3rd grade classes once a week in an elementary school setting, this time frame will better be defined as nine class sessions. This distinction is being made in an effort to be clear as to how the unit plan is introduced and implemented during each interaction with my art students. The majority of the unit time will be used to introduce students to images, graphic novels and to create the artwork that is to become each panel. These panels may be created in a variety of shapes and sizes to accommodate the artistic license of each student. Panels can also take on the shape of images, such as geometric forms or silhouettes. In my example I plan to use the shapes of Greek vases, for each of my 8 panels to connect visually with the theme of Greek art and myth. Each of these panels should represent a different moment or time period within the story. As Scott McCloud notes, “The panel is a sort of general indicator that time or space is being divided”.5 (McCloud pg. 99) I will introduce students to books that use the genre of comics to tell stories of the past. Students will view a number of images related to drawings that represent visual stories. Some of these images include wordless pictures such as cave paintings, Egyptian tomb drawings and Greek vases. The Bayeux Tapestry and Bas Reliefs will also be used as examples of graphic stories. The students will work collaboratively to develop images that are to be reproduced as representations of the main characters of their pictorial narrative. The students will also be introduced to the art skill of tracing on vellum to reproduce their original images for use in each individual panels. A more descriptive detail of the visual art production can be found in the activities section of this unit. “Writing is commonly perceived as confined to the manipulation of words. The process of writing for graphic narration concerns itself with the development of the concepts then the description of it and the construction of the narrative chain in order to translate it into imagery.”4 (Eisner, pg. 113). This may be true for the professional illustrator and author, but for the purpose of educating my students, I am turning this idea on its head. This reversal, of using the image first, giving the image the greatest voice in the process of telling a story. This idea reaches back to the early ages when cavemen drew images that recorded their history and ancient people decorated tombs with the paintings and drawing that eulogized the dead. This language of using pictures to share information and ideas existed before alphabet and language systems were developed. Before man talked, he drew. Before preschoolers write, they draw. As McCloud notes, “As near as we can tell, pictures predate the written word by a large margin”.5 (McCloud, pg. 141). Pictures have always enhanced the reading experience for young learners. This unit seeks to engrain that idea in the process for creating a writing model that makes writing organized, concise and unintimidating. The process of becoming graphic storytellers and combining those visual elements to enrich the student’s relationship with text is the overall gain from this unit. Yes the creative element and the artistic process is very important. I do not want to lead anyone to think of the literary piece to this unit, as being an afterthought. The writing will become just as important as the imagery that the students create. I plan to address the subject or writing as the weeks unfold and the young artists reach different stages in the process of developing their art work. The classroom introduction to this unit purposefully omits any discussion with students about writing until the students have completed the illustrated portion of their stories. The focus on writing will take shape and be revealed as the culminating activity. This strategy is to keep students engaged and unafraid. The writing component will span the last two sessions of class and will be framed as the final enhancement needed to complete these works. “The ideal writing process occurs when the writer and artist are the same person. This, in effect, shortens the distance between the idea and its translation. It produces a product that more closely reflects intent of the writer.”4 (Eisner, pg. 113). The writing component entails a reflection on the illustrated story created by each student. The students are to use large index cards that will later be edited and typed. These cards will contain the written interpretations and accounts of the stories that represent the acts and deeds of the Greek God or Goddess that is the subject of their visual narrative. The students will be retelling the stories of these characters from two points of reference. They will be moving from the position of illustrator to acting as the author of the story. They are to develop four to six sentence paragraphs that depict, explain and define the events that are visually evident in each of the eight panels that they have created as part of their graphic story. These accounts must be sequential and as descriptive as possible. They should reflect with clarity and accuracy the events as illustrated in each panel. Each paragraph must be related solely to the one panel that it is defining. This guideline is necessary to refrain students from summarizing the entire story on one index card. Each illustration is to be assigned a paragraph that summarizes that specific moment in the story’s sequence. “Comics is a medium confined to still images, bereft of sound and motion, and writing must accommodate these restrictions.”4 (Eisner, pg. 116) Upon the completion of the graphic novel, I hope each student will develop an understanding of how writing is like developing a sequence of pictures, whether on paper or in your mind, that can lead to great writing and transform students into becoming a great writers. Activity one: Students will participate in character development. The students will receive and read a brief summary describing the Greek gods that are the subject of our graphic narratives. Students will discuss the character traits of the Greek God that they are selecting. The students will draw symbols that are related to those traits. Students will create a character, either literal or abstract, that will represent their God throughout their graphic story. Students will create a brainstorm bubble that includes facts and traits that they learn about the character. The characters may also be designed based on each student’s interpretation or artistic creation. Characters may be as abstract as a lightning bolt representing Zeus, or as detailed as drawing of him as man. Activity two: Students will view a film on the animation and creation of the Disney film Hercules. Students will view and discuss how the animators work on storyboards to create the sequence of events that are to take place in the film. Students will participate in an activity where they have to put illustrated pictures in sequential order to tell a story. The students will work in teams of three, to create a storyboard that retells a story of one of the twelve labors of Hercules. Students will critique each team's story board and participate in a classroom discussion related to how planning and drawing the events in sequential order, or failure to use sequential order can impact their work. The student will explore how the pottery was used as panels to tell the stories of Hercules. Students will decide what type of panel system they want to use as the platform for their images. Activity three: The student will work of pencil drawing of their characters and the events that take place in myths. The students will work on completing a minimum of six panels that tell the story from beginning to end. This activity will take more than one class session. I believe a reasonable amount of time is four to five class sessions. The students will use black sharpie markers to outline and trace their pencil drawings. The fourth and fifth sessions should focus on setting, background, and detailed elements that will enhance the visual understanding of what is going on in each panel. Students have the choice of adding color or creating black and white images. Activity four: During session five students are to participate in self-assessment and class critiques where they analyze their own work and that of a partner. Students will answer the following essential questions: - Does the imagery created effectively depict the events of the story you are telling? - Does the writing mirror what is illustrated? - How does the art capture the character and the sequence of events? The following books are part of my reading list: - “The 15 Greek Myth Mini-Books: Reproducible Comic Book-Style Retellings”, by Danielle Blood - “Comics, Comics & graphic novels: A History of Comic Art” by Roger Sabin - “Julius Caesar the Graphic Novel” by Dan Whitehurst and William Shakespeare - “D'Aulaires Book of Greek Myths” by Ingrid & Edgar D'Aulaire's - “Greek Gods and Heroes” by PhD. Berry Katz and Alice Low - Drawing Words and Writing Pictures: Making Comics, Manga, Graphic Novels and Beyond by Jessica Abel and Matt Madden - The Art of Comic Book Writing: The Definitive Guide to Outlining, Scripting, and Pitching your Sequential Art by Mark Kneece - Art of Making Comics by Alex Simmons - Reinventing Comics: Evolution of an Art Form by Scott McCloud - Graphic Storytelling and Visual Narrative by Will Eisner - Understanding Comics by Scott McCloud - Making Comics: Storytelling Secrets by Scott McCloud Abel, Jessica, and Matt Madden. Drawing words and writing pictures: making comics: manga, graphic novels, and beyond. New York, NY: First Second, 2008. D’Aulaire, Ingrid, and Edgar Parin. D'Aulaire. D'Aulaires Book of Greek Myths. Random House Children's Books, 1992. A Good resource for teachers and students to learn about the stories of Greek mythology. This book is age appropriate for student age 8 to 13. Perfect for elementary age students. Education, Virginia Department of. "Virginia Department of Education." VDOE: Virginia Department of Education Home. Accessed August 04, 2017. http://www.doe.virginia.gov/. This site list the Virginia Standards of Learning for students that attend public school in the Commonwealth of Virginia. Eisner, Will. Graphic storytelling and visual narrative: principles and practices from the legendary cartoonist. New York: W.W. Norton, 2008. This is a great art resource. This book takes a thoughtful and concise look at the ways to tell stories through illustrations. This book examines visual cues, tools and elements that can enhance graphic storytelling. "Greek Mythology for Kids." Greek Mythology for Kids and Teachers - Ancient Greece for Kids. Accessed August 04, 2017. http://greece.mrdonn.org/myths.html. This website is an excellent student resource. The content is age appropriate and provides short, one page summaries of Greek myths, as well as descriptions of Greek gods. McCloud, Scott. Making comics: storytelling secrets of comics, manga and graphic novels. New York: Harper, 2007. McCloud, Scott. Reinventing comics. New York, NY: HarperCollins, 2008. This resource highlights the format and blueprint for making comics and graphic stories. McCloud, Scott, and Mark Martin. Understanding comics: the invisible art. New York, NY: William Morrow, an imprint of HarperCollins Publishers, 2014. Great source for background on the steps to creating visual narratives. This book provides a wealth of insight on the process and history of making comics. The visual imagery makes it fun to read and understand. This would be a great resource for both teachers and students. Mileff, Geri. "Why Ancient Greek Mythology is Still Relevant Today." Owlcation. June 08, 2016. Accessed August 04, 2017. https://owlcation.com/humanities/Why-Ancient-Greek-Mythology-is-Still-Relevant-Today. Shakespeare, William. Julius Caesar. New Delhi: Campfire, 2013. The resource is a good visual resource to introduce students to how graphic novels and comic books look. The images depict how the environment looked during ancient Greek and Roman Times. - Education, Virginia Department of. "Virginia Department of Education." VDOE: Virginia Department of Education Home. Accessed August 04, 2017. http://www.doe.virginia.gov/. - Mileff, Geri. "Why Ancient Greek Mythology is Still Relevant Today." Owlcation. June 08, 2016. Accessed August 04, 2017. https://owlcation.com/humanities/Why-Ancient-Greek-Mythology-is-Still-Relevant-Today. - "Greek Mythology for Kids." Greek Mythology for Kids and Teachers - Ancient Greece for Kids. Accessed August 04, 2017. http://greece.mrdonn.org/myths.html. - Eisner, Will. Graphic storytelling and visual narrative: principles and practices from the legendary cartoonist. New York: W.W. Norton, 2008. - McCloud, Scott, and Mark Martin. Understanding comics: the invisible art. New York, NY: William Morrow, an imprint of HarperCollins Publishers, 2014. THANK YOU — your feedback is very important to us! Give Feedback

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This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) Remaster refers to changing the quality of the sound or of the image, or both, of previously created recordings, either audiophonic, cinematic, or videographic. The terms digital remastering and digitally remastered are also used. A master is the definitive recording version that will be replicated for the end user, commonly into other formats (e.g. LP records, tapes, CDs, DVDs, Blu-rays). A batch of copies is often made from a single original master recording, which might itself be based on previous recordings. For example, sound effects (e.g. a door opening, punching sounds, falling down the stairs, a bell ringing) might have been added from copies of sound effect tapes similar to modern sampling to make a radio play for broadcast. Problematically, several different levels of masters often exist for any one audio release. As an example, examine the way a typical music album from the 1960s was created. Musicians and vocalists were recorded on multi-track tape. This tape was mixed to create a stereo or mono master. A further master tape would likely be created from this original master recording consisting of equalization and other adjustments and improvements to the audio to make it sound better on record players for example. More master recordings would be duplicated from the equalized master for regional copying purposes (for example to send to several pressing plants). Pressing masters for vinyl recordings would be created. Often these interim recordings were referred to as mother tapes. All vinyl records would derive from one of the master recordings. Thus, mastering refers to the process of creating a master. This might be as simple as copying a tape for further duplication purposes or might include the actual equalization and processing steps used to fine-tune material for release. The latter example usually requires the work of mastering engineers. With the advent of digital recording in the late 1970s, many mastering ideas changed. Previously, creating new masters meant incurring an analog generational loss; in other words, copying a tape to a tape meant reducing the signal-to-noise ratio. This means how much of the original intended "good" information is recorded against faults added to the recording as a result of the technical limitations of the equipment used (noise, e.g. tape hiss, static, etc.). Although noise reduction techniques exist, they also increase other audio distortions such as azimuth shift, wow and flutter, print-through and stereo image shift. With digital recording, masters could be created and duplicated without incurring the usual generational loss. As CDs were a digital format, digital masters created from original analog recordings became a necessity. Remastering is the process of making a new master for an album, film, or any other creation. It tends to refer to the process of porting a recording from an analog medium to a digital one, but this is not always the case.[ citation needed ] For example, a vinyl LP – originally pressed from a worn-out pressing master many tape generations removed from the "original" master recording – could be remastered and re-pressed from a better-condition tape. All CDs created from analog sources are technically digitally remastered. The process of creating a digital transfer of an analog tape remasters the material in the digital domain, even if no equalization, compression, or other processing is done to the material. Ideally, because of their higher resolution, a CD or DVD (or even higher quality like high-resolution audio or hi-def video) release should come from the best source possible, with the most care taken during its transfer.[ citation needed ] Additionally, the earliest days of the CD era found digital technology in its infancy, which sometimes resulted in poor-sounding digital transfers. The early DVD era was not much different, with copies of films frequently being produced from worn prints, with low bitrates and muffled audio.[ citation needed ] When the first CD remasters turned out to be bestsellers, companies soon realized that new editions of back-catalog items could compete with new releases as a source of revenue. Back-catalog values skyrocketed, and today it is not unusual to see expanded and remastered editions of relatively modern albums. Master tapes, or something close to them, can be used to make CD releases. Better processing choices can be used. Better prints can be utilized, with sound elements remixed to 5.1 surround sound and obvious print flaws digitally corrected. The modern era gives publishers almost unlimited ways to touch up, doctor, and "improve" their media, and as each release promises improved sound, video, extras and others, producers hope these upgrades will entice people into making a purchase. Remastering music for CD or even digital distribution first starts from locating the original analog version. The next step involves digitizing the track or tracks so it can be edited using a computer. Then the track order is chosen. This is something engineers often worry about because if the track order is not right, it may seem sonically unbalanced. When the remastering starts, engineers use software tools such as a limiter, an equalizer, and a compressor. The compressor and limiters are ways of controlling the loudness of a track. This is not to be confused with the volume of a track, which is controlled by the listener during playback. The dynamic range of an audio track is measured by calculating the variation between the loudest and the quietest part of a track. In recording studios the loudness is measured with negative decibels, zero designating the loudest recordable sound. A limiter works by having a certain cap on the loudest parts and if that cap is exceeded, it is automatically lowered by a ratio preset by the engineer. Remastered audio has been the subject of criticism. Many remastered CDs from the late 1990s onwards have been affected by the "loudness war", where the average volume of the recording is increased and dynamic range is compressed at the expense of clarity, making the remastered version sound louder at regular listening volume and more distorted than an uncompressed version. Some have also criticized the overuse of noise reduction in the remastering process, as it affects not only the noise, but the signal too, and can leave audible artifacts. Equalisation can change the character of a recording noticeably. As EQ decisions are a matter of taste to some degree, they are often the subject of criticism. Mastering engineers such as Steve Hoffman have noted that using flat EQ on a mastering allows listeners to adjust the EQ on their equipment to their own preference, but mastering a release with a certain EQ means that it may not be possible to get a recording to sound right on high-end equipment. Additionally, from an artistic point of view, original mastering involved the original artist, but remastering often does not.[ citation needed ] Therefore, a remastered record may not sound how the artist originally intended.[ citation needed ] To remaster a movie digitally for DVD and Blu-ray, digital restoration operators must scan in the film frame by frame at a resolution of at least 2,048 pixels across (referred to as 2K resolution). Some films are scanned at 4K, 6K, or even 8K resolution to be ready for higher resolution devices. Scanning a film at 4K—a resolution of 4096 × 3092 for a full frame of film—generates at least 12 terabytes of data before any editing is done. Digital restoration operators then use specialist software such as MTI's Digital Restoration System (DRS) to remove scratches and dust from damaged film. Restoring the film to its original color is also included in this process. As well as remastering the video aspect, the audio is also remastered using such software as Pro Tools to remove background noise and boost dialogue volumes so when actors are speaking they are easier to understand and hear. Audio effects are also added or enhanced, as well as surround sound, which allows the soundtrack elements to be spread among multiple speakers for a more immersive experience. An example of a restored film is the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz . The color portions of Oz were shot in the three-strip Technicolor process, which in the 1930s yielded three black and white negatives created from red, green and blue light filters which were used to print the cyan, magenta and yellow portions of the final printed color film answer print. These three negatives were scanned individually into a computer system, where the digital images were tinted and combined using proprietary software. The cyan, magenta, and yellow records had suffered from shrinkage over the decades, and the software used in the restoration morphed all three records into the correct alignment. The software was also used to remove dust and scratches from the film by copying data, for example, from the cyan and yellow records to fix a blemish in the magenta record. Restoring the movie made it possible to see precise visual details not visible on earlier home releases: for example, when the Scarecrow says "I have a brain", burlap is noticeable on his cheeks. It was also not possible to see a rivet between the Tin Man's eyes prior to the restoration. Shows that were shot and edited entirely on film, such as Star Trek: The Original Series , are able to be re-released in HD through re-scanning the original film negatives; the remastering process for the show additionally enabled Paramount to digitally update certain special effects. [ unreliable source? ] Shows that were made between the early 1980s and the early 2000s were generally shot on film, then transferred to and edited on standard-definition videotape, making high-definition transfers impossible without re-editing the product from scratch, such as with the HD release of Star Trek: The Next Generation , which cost Paramount over $12 million to produce. Because of this release's commercial failure, Paramount chose not to give Deep Space Nine or Voyager the same treatment. In 2014, Pee-wee's Playhouse was digitally remastered from the original 16 mm film elements and original audio tracks. Remastered movies have been the subject of criticism. When the Arnold Schwarzenegger film Predator was remastered, it was felt by some critics that the process was overdone, resulting in Schwarzenegger's skin looking waxy. As well as complaints about the way the picture looks, there have been other complaints about digital fixing. One notable complaint is from the 2002 remastered version of E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982), where director Steven Spielberg replaced guns in the hands of police and federal agents with walkie-talkies. A later 30th-anniversary edition released in 2012 saw the return of the original scene. Canadian animator John Kricfalusi (of The Ren & Stimpy Show fame) has become a prominent critic of digital remastering, particularly in regards to its effects on Western animation. In his blog "John K. Stuff," he has admonished remasters for over-saturating colors and sharpening lines to the point of color bleeding (among other criticisms). He has gone on record in his blog to describe remastering as "digital ruination" and "digital destruction." [ unreliable source? ] Remastering a video game is more difficult than remastering a film or music recording because the video game's graphics show their age. This can be due to a number of factors, notably lower resolutions and less complicated rendering engines at the time of release. A video game remaster typically has ambience and design updated to the capabilities of a more powerful console, while a video game remake is also updated but with recreated models. Modern computer monitors and high-definition televisions tend to have higher display resolutions and different aspect ratios than the monitors/televisions available when the video game was released. Because of this, classic games that are remastered typically have their graphics re-rendered at higher resolutions. An example of a game that has had its original graphics re-rendered at higher resolutions is Hitman HD Trilogy , which contains two games with high-resolution graphics: Hitman 2: Silent Assassin and Hitman: Contracts . Both were originally released on PC, PlayStation 2, and Xbox. The original resolution was 480p on Xbox, while the remastered resolution is displayed at 720p on Xbox 360. There is some debate regarding whether graphics of an older game at higher resolutions make a video game look better or worse than the original artwork, with comparisons made to colorizing black-and-white-movies. More significant than low resolution is the age of the original game engine and simplicity of the original 3D models. Older computers and video game consoles had limited 3D rendering speed, which required simple 3D object geometry such as human hands being modeled as mittens rather than with individual fingers, while maps having a distinctly chunky appearance with no smoothly curving surfaces. Older computers also had less texture memory for 3D environments, requiring low-resolution bitmap images that look visibly pixelated or blurry when viewed at high resolution. (Some early 3D games such as the 1993 version of DOOM also just used an animated two-dimensional image that is rotated to always face the player character, rather than attempt to render highly complex scenery objects or enemies in full 3D.) As a result, depending on the age of the original game, if the original assets are not compatible with the new technology for a remaster, it is often considered necessary to remake or remodel the graphical assets. An example of a game that has had its graphics redesigned is Halo: Combat Evolved Anniversary , while the core character and level information is exactly the same as in Halo: Combat Evolved . An analog signal is any continuous signal representing some other quantity, i.e., analogous to another quantity. For example, in an analog audio signal, the instantaneous signal voltage varies continuously with the pressure of the sound waves. A sound effect is an artificially created or enhanced sound, or sound process used to emphasize artistic or other content of films, television shows, live performance, animation, video games, music, or other media. Traditionally, in the twentieth century, they were created with foley. In motion picture and television production, a sound effect is a sound recorded and presented to make a specific storytelling or creative point without the use of dialogue or music. The term often refers to a process applied to a recording, without necessarily referring to the recording itself. In professional motion picture and television production, dialogue, music, and sound effects recordings are treated as separate elements. Dialogue and music recordings are never referred to as sound effects, even though the processes applied to such as reverberation or flanging effects, often are called "sound effects". Digital Audio Tape is a signal recording and playback medium developed by Sony and introduced in 1987. In appearance it is similar to a Compact Cassette, using 3.81 mm / 0.15" magnetic tape enclosed in a protective shell, but is roughly half the size at 73 mm × 54 mm × 10.5 mm. The recording is digital rather than analog. DAT can record at sampling rates equal to, as well as higher and lower than a CD at 16 bits quantization. If a comparable digital source is copied without returning to the analogue domain, then the DAT will produce an exact clone, unlike other digital media such as Digital Compact Cassette or non-Hi-MD MiniDisc, both of which use a lossy data-reduction system. Sound can be recorded and stored and played using either digital or analog techniques. Both techniques introduce errors and distortions in the sound, and these methods can be systematically compared. Musicians and listeners have argued over the superiority of digital versus analog sound recordings. Arguments for analog systems include the absence of fundamental error mechanisms which are present in digital audio systems, including aliasing and quantization noise. Advocates of digital point to the high levels of performance possible with digital audio, including excellent linearity in the audible band and low levels of noise and distortion. Mastering, a form of audio post production, is the process of preparing and transferring recorded audio from a source containing the final mix to a data storage device, the source from which all copies will be produced. In recent years digital masters have become usual, although analog masters—such as audio tapes—are still being used by the manufacturing industry, particularly by a few engineers who specialize in analog mastering. The LaserDisc (LD) is a home video format and the first commercial optical disc storage medium, initially licensed, sold and marketed as MCA DiscoVision in the United States in 1978. Its diameter typically spans 30 cm (12 in). Unlike most optical-disc standards, LaserDisc is not fully digital, and instead requires the use of analog video signals. Direct Stream Digital (DSD) is a trademark used by Sony and Philips for their system for digitally encoding audio signals for the Super Audio CD (SACD). A camcorder is a self-contained portable electronic device with video and recording as its primary function. It is typically equipped with an articulating screen mounted on the left side, a belt to facilitate holding on the right side, hot-swappable battery facing towards the user, hot-swappable recording media, and an internally contained quiet optical zoom lens. Dolby Laboratories, Inc. is a company specializing in audio noise reduction, audio encoding/compression, spatial audio, and HDR imaging. Dolby licenses its technologies to consumer electronics manufacturers. Exit... Stage Left is the second live album by the Canadian rock band Rush, released as a double album in October 1981 by Anthem Records. After touring in support of their eighth studio album Moving Pictures (1981), the band gathered recordings made over the previous two years and constructed a live release from them with producer Terry Brown. The album features recordings from June 1980 on their Permanent Waves (1980) tour, and from March 1981 on their Moving Pictures tour. In digital recording, an audio or video signal is converted into a stream of discrete numbers representing the changes over time in air pressure for audio, or chroma and luminance values for video. This number stream is saved to a storage device. To play back a digital recording, the numbers are retrieved and converted back into their original analog audio or video forms so that they can be heard or seen. Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab is a record label that specialized in the production of audiophile issues. The company produces reissued vinyl LP records, compact discs, and Super Audio CDs and other formats. Film-out is the process in the computer graphics, video production and filmmaking disciplines of transferring images or animation from videotape or digital files to a traditional film print. Film-out is a broad term that encompasses the conversion of frame rates, color correction, as well as the actual printing, also called scannior recording. High-definition video is video of higher resolution and quality than standard-definition. While there is no standardized meaning for high-definition, generally any video image with considerably more than 480 vertical scan lines or 576 vertical lines (Europe) is considered high-definition. 480 scan lines is generally the minimum even though the majority of systems greatly exceed that. Images of standard resolution captured at rates faster than normal, by a high-speed camera may be considered high-definition in some contexts. Some television series shot on high-definition video are made to look as if they have been shot on film, a technique which is often known as filmizing. DTS, Inc. is an American company, DTS company makes multichannel audio technologies for film and video. Based in Calabasas, California, the company introduced its DTS technology in 1993 as a competitor to Dolby Laboratories, incorporating DTS in the film Jurassic Park (1993). The DTS product is used in surround sound formats for both commercial/theatrical and consumer-grade applications. It was known as The Digital Experience until 1995. DTS licenses its technologies to consumer electronics manufacturers. The SPARS code is a three-position alphabetic classification system developed in the early 1980s by the Society of Professional Audio Recording Services (SPARS) for commercial compact disc releases to denote aspects of the sound recording and reproduction process, distinguishing between the use of analog equipment and digital equipment. The code's three positions refer to recording, mixing, and mastering respectively. The first two positions may be coded either "A" for analog or "D" for digital; the third position (mastering) is always "D" on digital CDs. The scheme was not originally intended to be limited to use on digital packaged media: it was also available for use in conjunction with analog releases such as vinyl or cassette, but this was seldom done in practice. Sound recording and reproduction is the electrical, mechanical, electronic, or digital inscription and re-creation of sound waves, such as spoken voice, singing, instrumental music, or sound effects. The two main classes of sound recording technology are analog recording and digital recording. The loudness war is a trend of increasing audio levels in recorded music, which reduces audio fidelity and—according to many critics—listener enjoyment. Increasing loudness was first reported as early as the 1940s, with respect to mastering practices for 7-inch singles. The maximum peak level of analog recordings such as these is limited by varying specifications of electronic equipment along the chain from source to listener, including vinyl and Compact Cassette players. The issue garnered renewed attention starting in the 1990s with the introduction of digital signal processing capable of producing further loudness increases. Audio restoration is the process of removing imperfections from sound recordings. Audio restoration can be performed directly on the recording medium, or on a digital representation of the recording using a computer. Record restoration is a particular form of audio restoration that seeks to repair the sound of damaged gramophone records. The history of sound recording - which has progressed in waves, driven by the invention and commercial introduction of new technologies — can be roughly divided into four main periods:

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Indian History Chronology: Indian History is a topic of interest to many including foreigners because of the cultures and civilizations existed in this sub-continent. History of India can be studied under political, cultural, religious or economic heads. Indian History Chronology Chronologically, Indian History can be classified into three periods – Ancient India, Medieval India and Modern India. Ancient India (Pre-historic to AD 700) There were activities of proto-humans (Homo erectus) in the Indian subcontinent 20 lakh years (2 million years) ago, and of Homo sapiens since 70,000 BC. But they were gathers/hunters. The first inhabitants of Indian subcontinent might have been tribals like Nagas (North-East), Santhals (East-India), Bhils (Central India), Gonds (Central India), Todas (South India) etc. Most of them are speakers of the Austric, pre-Dravidian languages, such as Munda and Gondvi. Dravidians and Aryans are believed to be immigrants who came later to the sub-continent. Ancient India can be studied under other heads like Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic and Chalcolithic period – based on the type of stone/ metal tools people used. Paleolithic Period (2 million BC – 10,000 BC) - Tools made up of lime stone - Ostrich Eggs - Important Paleolithic sites: Bhimbetka (M.P), Hunsgi, Kurnool Caves, Narmada Valley (Hathnora, M.P), Kaladgi Basin Mesolithic Period (10,000 BC – 8,000 BC) - Major Climatic Change happened - Domestication of animals ie Cattle rearing started - Microliths found at Brahmagiri (Mysore), Narmada, Vindya, Gujarat Neolithic Period (8000 BC – 4,000 BC) - Agriculture Started - Wheel discovered - Inamgaon = An early village - Important Neolithic Sites : Burzahom(Kashmir), Gufkral(Kashmir), Mehrgarh(Pakistan), Chirand(Bihar), Daojali Hading(Tripura/Assam), Koldihwa(UP), Mahagara(UP), Hallur(AP), Paiyampalli(AP), Maski, Kodekal, Sangana Kaller, Utnur, Takkala Kota. - NB: Megalithic Sites: Brahmagiri, Adichanallur Chalcolithic Period (4000 BC – 1,500 BC) - Copper Age. Can be considered part of Bronze Age. (Bronze = Copper + Tin) - Indus Valley Civilization (BC 2700 – BC 1900). - Also cultures at Brahmagiri, Navada Toli (Narmada region), Mahishadal (W.Bengal), Chirand (Ganga region) Iron Age (BC 1500 – BC 200) - Vedic Period (Arrival of Aryans ie. BC 1600 – BC 600) – Nearly 1000 years (Basic books of Hinduism, ie Vedas were composed, might have written down later.) - Jainism and Buddhism - Mahajanapadas – Major Civilization after Indus Valley- On banks of river Ganga - Magadha empire – Bimbisara of Haryanka Kula - Sisunga dynasty – Kalasoka (Kakavarnin) - Nanda empire – Mahapadma-nanda, Dhana-nanda - Persian- Greek: Alexander 327 BC Mauryan Empire (321-185 BC) Important rulers of Mauryan Empire: Chandra Gupta Maurya, Bindusara, Asoka Post-Mauryan Kingdoms (Middle Kingdoms): - Sunga (181-71 BC), Kanva (71-27BC), Satavahanas (235-100BC), Indo-Greeks, Parthians (19-45AD), Sakas (90BC-150AD), Kushanas(78AD) - South Indian Kingdoms – Chola, Chera, Pandyas (BC 300) Gupta Kingdom (300AD – 800AD): Classical Period Important ruler of Gupta Period: Samudra Gupta (Indian Napoleon) Post Guptas or Contemporary Guptas - Harshvardana, Vakatakas, Pallavas, Chalukyas. Also, Hunas, Maitrakas, Rajputs, Senas and Chauhans. Medieval India (AD 700 – AD 1857) - AD: 800-1200: Tripartite struggle – Prathiharas, Palas, and Rashtrakutas - Attack of Muhammed Bin Kassim (AD 712) - Rise of Islam and Sufism - Mohammed Ghazni (AD 1000-27) - Mohammed Ghori (AD 1175-1206) Delhi Sultanate (1206 AD – 1526 AD) The following dynasties flourished one after the other during the Delhi Sultanate period. - Slave Dynasty - Kilji Dynasty - Tuglaq Dynasty - Sayyid Dynasty - Lodi Dynasty Mughals (AD 1526 – AD 1857) - Great Mughals - Later Mughals Mughals from Babar (1526) to Aurangazeb (1707) were more powerful and hence known as Great Mughals. Mughals who ruled from 1707 to 1857 were known as Later Mughals. - Arrival of Europeans - Other Kingdoms of North India – Marathas, Sikhs Modern India (AD 1857 +) - First War of Indian Independence (1857) - Formation of Indian National Congress (1885) - Formation of Muslim League (1906) - Non-Co-operation Movement (1920) - Civil Disobedience Movement (1930) - Quit India Movement (1942) - Partition of India (1947) - Constitutional Development of India (1946 – 1950) - Economic Development of India - Wars – India-Pak – Formation of Bangladesh; India- China - New Economic Policy of 1991 - Nuclear, Space and Defense Development - Orientalist School – West Patronizing the East Culture – Not active now - Cambridge School – Downplays ideology - Nationalist School – Importance to Congress and Gandhi; Hindu Nationalists for Hindutva version - Marxists School – Class conflict - Subaltern School – Caste conflict Charanjot Singh says Sir I have just begun my preparation for civil services with Histiry.I am confused whether to make notes in the first reading of the subject or in subsequent readings. Kindly guide me. First study throughly . In 2nd reading make notes by understanding. I did the same, and yeah it’s working! Your Dad says Sab janna h iss [email protected]*£e ko 😅 Varun Baria says Kindly, advice how one make notes for optional such vast as History itself. Any help would be appreciated! Thank you. Make as per syllabus and current affairs. can anyone suggest for world history and culture baliyan notes better or vaji 2. vaji printed or vaji handwritten which one is better md nazeeb alam says u read world history by jain and mathur, which is very useful for ias romila sinha says I am preparing myself for 2015 and wanted to know the process of joining your test series or answer writing challenges for mains as well as prelims. Kushal Kumar says Behen ka loda sir i want to have geography optional, will i have different books for prelims and main Maps are correct, but at many places chronology is bit incorrect..e.g Gupta empire was from 315 to 550 and medival history was from early medival 750 to 1200 and medival from 1200 to 1757, commonly accepted…not hard and fast rule..but ur figures are bit stretched… Hlo can you give your number I am handicapped if you have notes then gives me Smriti anand says sir i am in class 11 and i want to become an ias officer. How can i prepare for it. Plzz i need a guideline plzz help me. Pehle zindagi air explore karlo. Maa ki choot Sir i am studying economics start with through ncert books but it is difficult to analyses economics questions in mains question papers and analyses of news papers economics reports.i am trying different ways but it is very confused.sir please suggest the material regarding this and way of approach.. AnnaParameshwari Srinivasan says I just started to read History NCERT – class VI… got confused and found hard to get an idea.. went on searching online & luckily found this post. It makes my job easier.. I hope it’ll serve as a roadmap for History preparation. thanks a lot ClearIAS… 🙂 🙂 🙂 🙂 Sam Takhar says divya prakash says It’s good but u can add about rise of regional powers like awadh,hyderabad,Bengal,Sikhs ,maratha etc under topic mughal NB: Print Pdf Dola babu says Sir how to download this article PDF,I am not able to get pdf ClearIAS study materials are available for download as PDF for FREE on the ClearIAS Telegram Channel (https://t.me/clearias). Join us now! SEME HERE…. ONLY PRINT OPTION AVLIABLE sir I want to prepare SSC CGL examination, l am science graduate so l need help to prepare Indian history pls guide me How many articles are thir in india constitution Sir i am in BA ist sem and my sub is pol sci and history,now i am confusing in choiseing the additional sub for IAS so what i can do? which sub is better for IAS. What we call the reign of pre mouryan period? Nikita Mane says Sorry Sir/Madam, but I think you missed Harappan civilisation in this chronology. Suryaprakash Parida says Indusvalley civilisation is also known as harappan civilisation Did we have ostrich in India during palaeolithic period ? Great information about history of India. Your article is an evergreen compilation of data. Thanks a lot. Smart Readers says For all parts of prachin bharat https://youtu.be/IIzDbgQEAUw how to download notes Rakshita Jadhav says India also has a wide political as well as social history. It is a very rich country in terms of history. aditya abhale says thanks for your article, i have referred your article for writting old history of india blog. thanks again, it helped me alot Rattan Sharma says There are arguments about Buddha.Some say Buddha was born in India.Great historian A.L.Bhasham says no buddha was born in India. How can I find the truth.What is the history book I should buy.Could you please help me.Thanks How to download these notes kindly tell me Maresh kumar says Kindly tell me quick gs study capsule to go through jkpsc cc pre exam 2 Gufran Ahmad says You should have to clear 12 the exam now.After 12th u have to choose any one subject prescribed by recognised university of India for B.A(Hns)/ B.Sc(Hns)/ B.Tech(Hns)/ B.Com(Hns).At begining u should be conscious on two subjects for mains exam eg; Geography/Economics/ Mathematics/ Anthropology/History/Physics/Chemistry/psychology…etc. First of all u should have to download upsc ( IAS) syllabus.After doing this u will be prepare for IAS by serially. Pankaj Kumar says Sir i did my graduation parallel to i.t.i in similar session by regular based still I’m working in SAIL Bt now I want to prepare for upsc nd I’m thinking that if I got selected then would I got any problem in further process. How to read history.iam very confused pls guide me Sunil Kumar Panday says Good morning sir Thank you sir for this effort Sir I have a question, sir what is your motivation for doing this great work Good question 🙂 You are right. Without enough motivation, we cannot keep coming up with quality articles/mock exams on a daily basis. The following are the major motivating factors for me and ClearIAS Team as a whole. (1) The realisation that we are solving the big problems students faced or facing – in terms of accessibility, affordability, and quality – of education. (2) The feeling that about 1 million students depend on ClearIAS for learning each month. That adds a lot of responsibility too. (3) As a person, I love teaching and creative writing. Most of the team members of ClearIAS too. It’s highly satisfying. We love to make things simple. ClearIAS gives maximum space to creativity and innovation. Our focus is to create easy-to-learn study materials, saving valuable time of aspirants. (4) As a social startup, with a sustainable business model, we do realise the value of our work. (5) Users like you who encourage and support us. (6) Toppers who sent us thank-you letters appreciating the crucial role played by ClearIAS.com in helping them clear UPSC Civil Services Exam. (7) My own past experiences, mistakes, failures, and lessons learned. (8) The vision and mission of ClearIAS. (9) The urge to make the lives of others better. PS: There is a 10th point as well – the conviction that what we have done so far is just nothing, but only a beginning. We have just started. There are plenty of things to be done in the days ahead. NCERT Cl 6 History textbook, Chapter 2- evidence of ostrich shells used for making beads and decorative items was found in Patne, Maharashtra. Harman gill says sir,i m currently studying in 12 icse science class….will these only notes would be sufficient for me to study….???? Kindly help pls I have been searching for this chronology for a while now, and then I got it here. Thanks from the secluded place of my heart. regards Very nice for prepration for upsc. Hindi language hai sir Hi Sir can this material be used for preparing for the CDSE by UPSC? Sueetha Jammana says I am Geethika …. and I am going study in class 9th . My dream is to be the IAS officer and I want to start my preparation from my 9th . Now I am 13 years old and I want your guidance . Can you please guide me in the best way to serve my nation as an IAS officer ? Thanks in advance, Your lovingly child, Geethika . V . Sastry Ancient period is prehistoric to AD 700,but how can the paleolithic,Mesolithic,chalcolithic and neolithic are in BC…….plz I have a confusion…anyone solve this Chandan Kumar Bharti says Pre history, Proto history till Sakas in BC, Sakas and afterwards in CE or AD Shikhar agrahari says Sir I just start my preparation for civil services so can u please tell me what I do first and from where I can start I totally confused what I study what not…. I’m Sibiya from Erode, Tamil nadu. I would like to start my UPSC exam preparation. Where should i start now? As there are many institutes here though I dont feel good with them only focusing on money. As I’m from financially down family I need some support and guidance to prepare my exams from the team like yours who only want people to get benefit of. There lies a real support I hope!!! Ajeet Goswami says Download telegram and get free video Chinnu Varghese says Can I get the pdf notes? Sweta Biradar says What does the NB abbreviation mean? I have seen different timelines for stone & metal age on different sites, & in different books, so just want to confirm if this timeline is correct? i think the period mention for homo-erectus and homo-sapiens in indian sub-continent is not correct look into this matter Mithilesh pandey says Is the notes are only cover ncerts or reference also It’s really helpful for the upsc and as well history portion thanks a lot sir Dattatray ingale says I was searching this article. Very helpful for me. Veeru singh says Hi sir I am sneha Singh and I read class 9th. I want to became an IPS officer. Sir please guide me Manhad khan says Thanks you soo much.. for this notes. If similar kind of notes for Politics is available , Request to share. Thanks in advance. Suresh Kumar says It’s not a research work. Just copied from Indian history books written by foreign historians like Romilla thaper. May be he is not studied Vedic literature to calculate Vedic time period and using prossesion of equinoxes calculations. Shraddha Thombre says A Very Big THANK YOU To CLEAR IAS For Making Our UPSC Preparation More Easier😊😊 💝💝 i want pdf files Is there is all pdf files of all subjects ? Nidhi bhardwaj says These notes are enough for IAS preparation. Tell me plzzzzz Hii this is Nahida akhter I’m from jammu and kashmir My hobby is ias officer And my dream is civil services May Allah bless me for All examination Give me a one chance please Sweta Singh says Really very very thanks a lot sir Sir I am doing self-study have little confusion how to connect with you because I will take exam in 2022 so please suggest me Arindam Sen says Nice article post !!! For various historical Indian events Click Here For Visit this Site thanks …. KRISHAN KISHORE says Not enough for upsc

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Conflict is a state of disagreement between two or more parties. This disagreement can be realized in both peaceful and violent manifestations. A clash of interests, values, actions, or directions often sparks a conflict. Conflict occurs on a many levels—within the individual when a person confronts their own competing desires; between individuals such as in a marriage; between groups of individuals, such as work groups; between societies or cultures, such as different religions or ethnicities; or international conflict which may become a fully fledged war. While differences are natural, the ways to resolve them can be violent or harmonious. Appreciating diversity of opinion, ability, and interest is the beginning of living in harmony, allowing the development of new ideas through give and take with each offering different information or skills. Overcoming the barriers between different individuals and groups, living in service to others, is a good foundation for successful interactions that will not lead to violent conflict. When conflict has occurred, reconciliation requires that each become sensitive to the other's perspective and experience, possibly through the use of a mediator. True reconciliation is achieved based on forgiveness. Conflict is a state of disagreement. To be considered conflict, a number of characteristics are generally evidenced (Dana 2000): - Interdependence - those involved need something from each other - Blame - the parties attribute the cause of the dispute to the behavior, attitude, beliefs, and so on of the other - Anger - the situation causes one or both parties to experience significant emotional reaction, in the form of anger - Actual problems - the behavior of those involved in the conflict leads to problems for themselves and others. Conflict is generally regarded as an unpleasant state of affairs. Terms associated with conflict by people from over 60 countries worldwide include anger, avoid, bad, control, destruction, fear, fight, hate, impasse, loss, mistake, pain, war, and wrongdoing (Weeks 1994). Conflict resolution is the attempt to reduce the tension and difficulties associated with a state of conflict. Methods of conflict resolution have been developed and applied in a wide range of social situations. Conflict can occur between individuals or between groups of many types. Among these variations are: interpersonal conflict between two people (such as within a family in the form of sibling rivalry or conflict between husband and wife, or bullying in school situations), group conflict between two groups (such as within a work environment), inter-societal conflict between two societies or cultures (such as conflict between Islam and Christianity during the Crusades, or between different ethnic groups within a country), interstate conflict (such as civil wars), or international conflict (war between two countries). Conflicts in these levels may appear "nested" in conflicts residing at larger levels of analysis. For example, conflict within a work team may play out the dynamics of a broader conflict in the organization as a whole. Conflict can also occur within an individual. This conflict can be rational opposition between logical arguments or can degrade into schizophrenia, in which a person's mind is actually divided against itself. Such a struggle is often subconscious and can result in great stress for the sufferer. Sigmund Freud believed humans suffer from a number of conflicting impulses for survival, sexual pleasure, and social restraint, which result in neuroses and other mental disorders. Psychologist Kurt Lewin developed a typology of internal conflicts that individuals face. He identified several situations in which we experience mutually irreconcilable alternatives that arouse different emotions: - Approach-approach - when we want two different things, both of which we like (have "positive valence") - Avoidance-avoidance - when we have to choose between two alternatives that we do not like ("negative valence") - Approach-avoidance - when one thing has both positive and negative qualities - Double approach-avoidance - a choice between two things each of which have both positive and negative qualities. Together with the varying levels of conflict come a wide variety of external causes of conflict. These include specialization, in which niches fight over the right to assert validity of their position; interdependence, when a group cannot operate without the assistance of others; arguments over common resources; differences in goals; over authority; jurisdictional ambiguities; skills and abilities; values and ethics; and cultural differences. However, all conflicts have as their root cause self-centered behavior, when one's personal desires, or those of one's own group, are pursued without regard for the needs of the other or for the larger society to which both belong. The result of such selfishness is the breakdown of harmonious interactions or the initiation of aggressive and destructive behavior. Conflicts within the individual also arise from wrong motivation. Human beings often find themselves in situations where they experience a conflict between their mind, which seeks such eternal goals as beauty, truth, goodness, and love, and the body, with physical desires for such things as sleep, food, shelter, and sexual gratification. The conflict between these two types of desires is inevitable, since the nature and thus the needs of the mind and body are different, one being internal and eternal the other external and temporal. It is the challenge of all people to resolve this by training the body with discipline, and strengthening the mind to pursue goals of value while taking care of the needs of the body so that it can serve the mind's goals. Similarly, dealing with the types of internal conflict described by Lewin is a normal feature of choice between alternative courses of action. Learning to deal with these conflicting emotions is part of the process of individual character development. Human beings also experience a conflict between the mind's desires in pursuit of goodness, serving the whole purpose, and those that can be termed evil, namely those that seek to harm others, threatening or destroying the safety and well-being of others or even society as a whole. This type of internal conflict, which all people experience to some degree, is the subject of great debate. For many religions, this situation results from what may be called the Fall of Man, or a deviation of human nature from the original ideal of creation. In this view, the suffering resulting from wrong desires and our struggles to deal with such conflicts is something we are called to overcome. The secular view, particularly that of [[science |scientists]] who accept evolution as fact, tends to regard both internal and external conflicts as part of our "animal" nature that enables us to survive. Conflict theory attempts to explain social conflict through the idea that all participants in a group or society attempt to maximize their personal benefits and are therefore at odds with all other members of the population. This view stems from the Hobbesian idea that men are naturally selfish and in a constant state of war with one another. The idea was later elaborated on by Karl Marx who believed history to be the story of conflict between the wealthy and working classes. Marx taught that this conflict would eventually erupt into a society-wide war or revolution. The theory has also been applied to microlevel interactions. Conflicts among animals Aggressive behavior is common in many species. Conflicts and their resolution appear to follow somewhat similar patterns between those between human beings. Conflict resolution has been observed in non-human primates. Aggression is more common among relatives and within a group, than between groups. Instead of creating a distance between the individuals, however, primates were observed to be more intimate in the period after the aggressive incident. These intimacies consisted of grooming and various forms of body contact. Different types of primates, as well as many other species who are living in groups, show different types of conciliatory behavior. Stress responses, like an increased heart rate, usually decreased after these reconciliatory signals. These findings contradicted previous existing theories about the general function of aggression, such as creating greater space between individuals (first proposed by Konrad Lorenz), which seems to more accurately apply to conflict between groups. In addition to research in primates, in more recent studies biologists have explored reconciliation in other animals. Peaceful post-conflict behavior has been documented. Reconciliation has since been documented in such species as spotted hyenas, lions, dolphins, and domesticated goats. Conflict resolution is the ending of a conflict, or at least reduction of its severity. It may involve conflict management, in which the parties continue the conflict but adopt less extreme tactics; settlement, in which they reach agreement on enough issues that the conflict stops; or removal of the underlying causes of the conflict. Settlements sometimes end a conflict for good, but when there are deeper issues—such as value clashes among people who must work together, distressed relationships, or mistreated members of one’s ethnic group across a border—settlements are often temporary. True resolution of conflict involves not only a cessation of antagonistic interactions, but also a reconciliation—forgiveness and a new start in the relationship. There are many ways that can end a conflict, ranging from surrender or escape, acting with sufficient violence to defeat one's opponent, to filing a lawsuit so that the courts will resolve the issue. These methods assume that one side is either correct or stronger than the other. An alternative approach is to assume that agreement can be reached through communication between the parties. Methods involved in such forms of conflict resolution include negotiation, mediation, arbitration, and mediation-arbitration, which is a hybrid of the two processes. Negotiation, the most heavily researched approach to conflict resolution, has mainly been studied in laboratory experiments, in which undergraduate participants are randomly assigned to conditions. These studies have mostly looked at antecedents of the strategies adopted by negotiators and the outcomes attained, including whether agreement is reached, the joint benefit to both parties, and the individual benefit to each party. Researchers have found that problem solving behavior such as giving or requesting information about a party's priorities among issues encourages high mutual benefit. Contentious behavior, such as making threats or standing firm on one’s proposals, encourages failure to reach agreement or, if agreement is reached, low joint benefit. Conceding makes agreement more likely but favors the other party’s interests. The party who makes the first offer tends to achieve greater benefit than the other party. Three states of mind discourage concession making: viewing concessions as producing loss rather than as foregoing gain; focusing attention on one’s goal rather than one’s limit (the alternative that is minimally tolerable); and adopting a fixed-pie perspective, in which one views the other’s gain as one’s loss, rather than an expandable pie perspective. Adopting any of the states of mind above diminishes the likelihood of agreement; but if agreement is reached, it increases the likelihood of winning, especially if the other party adopts the opposite state of mind. Negotiators from individualistic cultures tend to take a more contentious approach, while those from collectivist cultures are more concerned about maintaining positive relationships and hence more likely to cooperate (concede or engage in problem solving). Accountability to constituents encourages contentious behavior for individualists, it encourages cooperative behavior for collectivists. Mediation and arbitration Two common forms of third-party intervention are arbitration and mediation. In arbitration, the third party listens to both sides and then renders a decision, which can be either binding or advisory. Most mediation consists of third-party assistance with negotiation. When conflict is severe and the disputants have difficulty talking calmly with each other, mediators can put them into contact and help them develop a cease-fire or settlement. If the disputants cannot or will not meet each other, mediators commonly become intermediaries and shuttle between them. Sometimes a chain of two intermediaries is necessary because there is no single individual who can communicate effectively with both sides. Research into mediation suggests that it is usually successful in producing settlements. Disputants generally prefer mediation over arbitration, since it allows them to retain control over the final decision. This means that where failure to reach agreement in mediation is followed by binding arbitration, disputants will work harder to reach agreement than in straight mediation. In the case of small claims disputes, that mediation produces more compliance with the agreement than adjudication (a form of arbitration), perhaps because mediated decisions accord more with the parties’ needs. To be fully successful, mediators must be seen as impartial between the two parties. Having stronger initial ties to one side than the other is less damaging to the perception of impartiality than exhibiting bias during the mediation session. Disputants even sometimes prefer that the mediator be close to the other party so that he or she can exert influence over that party. Reconciliation is the transition from a broken relationship to a restored one. Often, the restored relationship is stronger than it was prior to the conflict. Reconciliation allows renewal, which opens new avenues of friendship based on the common experience of the conflict and its resolution. The process of reconciliation involves taking a closer look at the other and at oneself, which leads to greater empathy, understanding, and respect. Forgiveness is essential to bringing to an end the tensions that exist in the conflict. It means giving up the claim to retaliation and allowing positive interactions to take place. Forgiveness does not excuse wrong actions, nor does it mean that they are to be considered acceptable in the future. However, it does mean that they are no longer a barrier to effective communication and harmonious interactions. Often forgiveness is difficult because the wounds of the conflict run deep. In many cases, it is the act of serving the other that allows these feelings to change. Thus, service learning, a form of experiential education, has been found effective in bringing together those who have had difficulties and allowing them to see each other in a new light. Whether this involves one party directly serving the other, as in a community service project in which white youths clean and restore parks and playgrounds in a black neighborhood, or where both parties work together to serve a third community, the act of service opens the heart and allows new understanding and appreciation of the other. Reconciliation becomes easier on this foundation. Conflict resolution in schools Among children, conflicts occur many times simply because of their immaturity. They are still in the process of learning to develop their social skills, and learning to resolve conflicts is part of their growth process. Schools offer a situation where conflicts will be experienced and where conflict resolution skills can be learned. To assist students in their development of such skills schools need to set high expectations for their students' behavior, conveying the message that over-aggressive and antagonistic behaviors will not be tolerated. At the same time, teachers need to give students choices so that they can work out their differences by themselves. Teachers can challenge students to analyze and suggest solutions to conflict situations. In this way children learn to take responsibility and go beyond the tendency simply to blame the other, expanding their responses to provocation beyond defensive reaction. Students also need to learn how to communicate their feelings and needs constructively. Violence often results from inability to communicate effectively. Effective communication skills involve listening and comprehending, as well as expressing one's own viewpoint well. Students can practice articulating the other's viewpoint to foster empathy and mutual understanding. Peer mediators are very helpful in resolving conflicts in school situations. Students can learn valuable lessons by acting as mediator and helping others to find solutions to conflicts. If peer mediation is not sufficient, teachers or school administrators may intervene to bring about resolution. Conflict resolution in marriage Marriage is a relationship that arouses the deepest emotions, both positive and negative. The intimacy of married life creates greater expectations and requires greater trust. If this trust is violated, then the feeling of hurt and betrayal can be far greater than with friends and acquaintances, and certainly strangers. The closeness of the marriage relationship makes both parties very vulnerable; violations of trust cut deep and can be very hard to forgive. When faced with such pain and stress, people may feel trapped, and rather than seeking a solution are tempted to escape. Divorce has become increasingly acceptable, providing an apparently easy escape from marital conflict. Resolving marital conflict, however, is by no means impossible, although it requires hard work and investment on the part of both spouses. Marriage counselors (and family counselors when children are involved) are trained professionals who act as mediators to help a couple resolve their difficulties. It may help to depersonalize the issues. Often, marital conflict has roots in differences between gender roles, experiences each had prior to the marriage (particularly if these involved sexual abuse or other domestic violence), or cultural differences. When people focus on their spouse's shortcomings they may put love on hold and wait for him or her to change to match their own expectation of a spouse—often an impossible task. By accepting the other as they are and concentrating on self-improvement, investment in the relationship becomes possible again and harmony may well result. On a deeper level, husband and wife can learn to appreciate their differences rather than try to make their spouse more like themselves. This allows each party to more fully express their individuality, fulfilling their unique potential, and becoming the mature person that their spouse can love with increasing joy and satisfaction. Once they feel loved, people often are more open to change, and thus differences can be overcome with less antagonism. Conflict resolution and religion All religions teach peace and harmony, yet many of the worst wars and continuing conflicts today are between adherents of different faiths: Religion is associated with man's attempts to plumb the depths of meaning in both himself and the universe. It has given rise to the most spacious products of his imagination, and it has been used to justify the most extreme cruelty of man to man. It can conjure up moods of sublime exaltation, and also images of dread and terror (Nottingham 1964). In recent times, religion itself has come to be viewed as an agent of conflict rather than an aid to conflict resolution and the establishment of world peace. The Thirty Years War (1618 - 1648) diminished the population of Europe by close to 20 percent, and has been attributed primarily to conflict between Protestants and Catholics, at least in popular understanding. The "troubles" in Ireland spanning much of the twentieth century were also between the Catholic and Protestant groups. Terrorism in the twenty-first century, especially following the September 11, 2001 attack on the World Trade Center, has been seen as perpetrated by radical Islamic jihadi against those of other faiths. The job of religion, though, is to empower human beings to change for the good. And, all religions have much in common, not the least of which is hope and desire for a world of goodness and peace (Wilson 1995). Thus, to exclude religion from the process of peace making is surely a loss to that process. But to be included in the peacemaking process, for example at the United Nations, contemporary religions must remove from popular opinion the assumption that strong religious belief is characterized by the likelihood if not inevitability of clash and conflict with anyone who does not believe in the same way. To be successful, conflict resolution on the world scale must include the elements of religion and spirituality that exert such powerful influence in personal and world affairs. For this to be successful, religious leaders need to find within their own faith the strength to dialog, to respect the viewpoint of the other, and, in many cases, to reconcile and forgive. Models of conflict and resolution Within the Abrahamic faiths is found the model of conflict recounted in the story of the brothers Cain and Abel in the first human family. According to the account in the Book of Genesis, Cain's offering was rejected by God while his brother Abel's was accepted. Cain was angry—"his countenance fell"—as he experienced the feeling of lack of love. Acting on his jealousy with violence, Cain murdered his brother. This story provides a formula for analysis of the archetypical enmity of brothers. In many conflicts these two relative positions are found: the "Abel position" in which one feels loved, valued, and respected when one's efforts are validated and appreciated; and the "Cain position" in which hard work goes unrewarded for no apparent reason while another receives all the praise, glory, love, and rewards that Cain feels are his due. The strong emotions experienced in these two positions are opposite: Abel feels pride, happiness, and satisfaction; Cain feels anger, resentment, and lack of love. When these powerful emotions are acted on the conflict escalates, often with tragic and irreversible consequences. Also told in the scriptures, though, is the story of Jacob and Esau, who were also brothers and who experienced a situation in which Esau rightly felt wronged as his brother stole his birthright by tricking their father, Isaac. In this case, however, their mother, Rebekah helped Jacob escape before his brother could hurt him. Then, after Jacob labored many years under conditions in which he was tricked many times, he overcame his trials and became prosperous. Returning to his family, Jacob acted humbly instead of with arrogance, and was able to placate his brother by sending much of his wealth ahead as a peace offering. Finally, when they met, Jacob bowed low and told Esau that "to see your face is like seeing the face of God" (Genesis 33:10). Through such service and respect, valuing his brother, Esau was able to forgive and the brothers reconciled. This story of Jacob and Esau stands as a model of conflict resolution. One party, through strength of character (in Jacob's case learned through 21 years of trials) is able to humble himself and serve the other, melting their heart so that forgiveness is possible, bringing mutual benefit. The act of serving the other is a key to opening their heart to allow a change of feeling from anger and resentment, restoring the feelings of brotherhood that existed originally. Conflict resolution among cultures Conflicts among nations or ethnic groups today are the result of accumulated historical burdens of crimes and mistreatment. These are passed on from generation to generation because of ignorance or unwillingness to take responsibility for the past. Fortunately, each new generation offers new possibilities; children are not doomed to repeat the mistakes of their parents' and ancestors' generations. In today's world where technology allows us to communicate with people from all over the world and the increasingly globalized society requires us to work together, young people have many opportunities to relate to others. When they learn to relate to all people with respect, fairness, tolerance, and love they will be able to resolve the past conflicts and live in harmony. It is easier to reconcile when the other is seen as a fellow human being, also vulnerable, possibly suffering and in pain, or deprived of attention and with unmet needs. In twentieth-century South Africa the black population mounted ever increasing protests against the oppressive apartheid regime. The most respected black leader, Nelson Mandela, had been imprisoned by the white government for many years. President F.W. de Klerk knew that if he succumbed to pressure, both from the black population within his country and from around the world, and released him that the white government would inevitably fall. Against the advice of his fellow political leaders he released Mandela in 1990. After his release, Mandela successfully appealed to end the violence and brought about a peaceful transition to black rule and a multiracial society. While in prison, Mandela underwent a transformation. Although belligerent when he was first incarcerated, he had a change of heart, and instead of nurturing resentment and hatred against those that put him there he rather made great efforts to understand the white Afrikaners, learning their language in order to read their books, and listening to the stories of the prison officers. Mandela was thus able to forgive the enemies who jailed him, setting an example of forgiveness and reconciliation for his countrymen. His switch to a policy of reconciliation and negotiation helped lead the transition to multi-racial democracy in South Africa. Mandela served as president, with de Klerk as his vice-president. The efforts of both men in regarding the other as a fellow human being with the common goal of peace led to a successful resolution, for which they were jointly honored with the Nobel Peace Prize. Martin Luther King, Jr. received a Nobel Peace Prize for his work toward peaceful resolution of racial segregation in the United States. He faced a culture in which he was judged as inferior because of the color of his skin, barred from drinking at the same water fountain, using the same toilets, sitting in the front of a bus, or eating in the same restaurants as white people. Although King and his fellow black Americans had every justification for resentment, anger, hatred, and the desire to act with violence against their oppressors, he taught non-violent civil disobedience as the way to achieve their goals: "We never get rid of an enemy by meeting hate with hate; we get rid of an enemy by getting rid of enmity." On receiving the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 for his efforts, King said "Man must evolve for all human conflict a method which rejects revenge, aggression and retaliation. The foundation of such a method is love." ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees - Aureli, Filippo and Frans B.M. de Waal. 2000. Natural Conflict Resolution. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520223462 - Bercovitch, J., and A. Houston. 2000. "Why do they do it like this? An analysis of the factors influencing mediation behavior in international conflicts" in Journal of Conflict Resolution 44: 170-202. - Coleman, P., & M. Deutsch. 2001. 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"Conflict Resolution and Academic Library Instruction" in LOEX Quarterly 33 (1/2): 6-9, 11. - Nottingham, Elizabeth K. 1964. Religion and Society. Random House. - Sampson, Anthony. 2000. Mandela: The Authorized Biography. New York: Vintage. ISBN 0679781781 - Thompson, L., M. Neale, and M. Sinaceur. 2004. "The evolution of cognition and biases in negotiation research: An examination of cognition, social perception, motivation, and emotion" in The handbook of negotiation and culture. 7-44. Stanford, CA: Stanford Business Books. - Veenema, Hans, et al. 1994. "Methodological improvements for the study of reconciliation" in Behavioral Processes 31: 29-38. - Wall, J. A., D. Druckman, and P.F. Diehl. 2002. "Mediation by international peacekeepers" in Studies in international mediation 141-164. Basingstoke, England: Palgrave-Macmillan. - Weeks, Dudley. 1994. The Eight Essential Steps to Conflict Resolution. New York: Tarcher / Penguin. ISBN 0874777518 - Wilson, Andrew, ed. 1995. World Scripture: A Comparative Anthology of Sacred Texts. (International Religious Foundation) Paragon House Publishers. ISBN 1557787239 - Zartman, I.W. 2000. "Ripeness: The hurting stalemate and beyond" in International conflict resolution after the Cold War. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. All links retrieved April 14, 2020. - Search for Common Ground - One of the world's largest non-government organizations dedicated to conflict resolution. - The Five Steps to Conflict Resolution American Management Association. - Conflict Resolution Skills Help Guide. New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia: Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

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Graphic design has become an indispensable part of our modern world, permeating various aspects of our daily lives. From eye-catching advertisements to captivating websites, and from stunning logos to visually appealing packaging, graphic design plays a crucial role in communicating messages, creating brand identities, and enhancing user experiences. Learning graphic design skills opens up a world of opportunities for creative expression, professional growth, and even potential entrepreneurship. In this article, we will explore the importance of learning graphic design and delve into the benefits it brings. We will also discuss the fundamental concepts and skills necessary to excel in this field. Whether you’re a budding designer or someone looking to expand your skill set, this guide will provide you with valuable insights and resources to embark on your journey to becoming a proficient graphic designer. So, let’s dive in and discover the world of graphic design! Understanding Graphic Design A. Definition and scope of Graphic Design: Graphic design is the art and practice of planning, projecting, and creating visual content using various elements and principles to convey messages, ideas, or concepts. It involves combining typography, imagery, colors, and layout to produce visually appealing and effective designs. The scope of graphic design extends to various mediums, including print, web, branding, advertising, packaging, and more. B. Elements and principles of Graphic Design: To create impactful designs, understanding the key elements and principles of graphic design is essential. The elements include line, shape, color, texture, typography, and space, while the principles encompass balance, contrast, alignment, proximity, repetition, hierarchy, and more. Mastery of these elements and principles enables designers to create visually harmonious and engaging compositions. C. Different types of Graphic Design: Graphic design encompasses diverse specializations, each with its own unique requirements and challenges. Some common types of graphic design include: - Print Design: Designing for physical media such as brochures, posters, magazines, and packaging. - Web Design: Creating user-friendly interfaces and layouts for websites and digital platforms. - Branding and Identity Design: Crafting visual identities, logos, and brand guidelines for businesses and organizations. - Advertising Design: Developing persuasive and visually appealing advertisements across various media channels. - User Interface (UI) Design: Designing intuitive and aesthetically pleasing interfaces for digital applications and software. - Motion Graphics: Incorporating animation and visual effects to enhance visual storytelling. Understanding the different types of graphic design allows individuals to specialize in specific areas or explore a range of design disciplines based on their interests and career goals. By grasping the definition, scope, elements, principles, and various types of graphic design, aspiring designers can lay a solid foundation for their creative journey. In the next section, we will explore the essential skills required to excel in graphic design. Essential Skills for Graphic Design A. Creativity and Visual Thinking: Graphic design is a creative field that requires originality and the ability to think visually. Developing creative thinking skills helps designers generate unique and innovative design concepts that stand out. It involves brainstorming ideas, exploring different approaches, and pushing the boundaries of traditional design. B. Typography and Fonts: Typography is a vital aspect of graphic design, as it involves selecting and arranging fonts to enhance readability and convey the desired message. Understanding typography principles, such as font pairing, hierarchy, and spacing, allows designers to create visually appealing and effective typographic compositions. C. Color Theory and Usage: Colors evoke emotions, convey meaning, and play a significant role in design. Knowledge of color theory, including color schemes, harmony, contrast, and the psychology of color, enables designers to create visually compelling and harmonious color palettes that resonate with the target audience. D. Layout and Composition: Effective layout and composition skills are crucial in graphic design. Designers must understand how to arrange elements, balance visual weight, establish hierarchy, and create a pleasing flow within a design. Mastery of layout principles ensures that designs are organized, engaging, and easy to navigate. E. Image Editing and Manipulation: Graphic designers often work with images, and proficiency in image editing software such as Adobe Photoshop is essential. Understanding concepts like image cropping, retouching, color correction, and image manipulation allows designers to enhance and transform visuals to suit their design objectives. F. Software Proficiency: Proficiency in design software is a fundamental skill for graphic designers. The industry-standard software includes Adobe Creative Suite, which comprises programs like Photoshop, Illustrator, InDesign, and others. Learning and mastering these tools enables designers to create professional-grade designs and collaborate seamlessly with clients and colleagues. Developing these essential skills forms the foundation of graphic design expertise. In the next section, we will explore different learning approaches and resources for individuals interested in acquiring graphic design skills. Learning Graphic Design A. Formal Education vs. Self-learning: There are multiple paths to learning graphic design. Some individuals prefer formal education, such as pursuing a degree or diploma in graphic design from a recognized institution. This route offers structured curriculum, mentorship, and opportunities for networking. On the other hand, self-learning allows individuals to learn at their own pace, explore specific areas of interest, and take advantage of the vast array of online resources available. B. Online Resources and Courses for Graphic Design: The internet offers a wealth of resources for learning graphic design. Numerous online platforms provide courses, tutorials, and guides tailored for beginners and advanced learners alike. Websites like Coursera, Udemy, and Skillshare offer a wide range of graphic design courses taught by industry professionals. Additionally, websites and blogs dedicated to graphic design provide valuable insights, tips, and inspiration. C. Books and Publications for Beginners: Books remain a valuable resource for learning graphic design concepts and principles. Publications like “The Non-Designer’s Design Book” by Robin Williams and “Thinking with Type” by Ellen Lupton provide foundational knowledge on design theory, typography, and layout. These resources offer in-depth explanations, visual examples, and exercises to reinforce learning. D. Joining Design Communities and Forums: Engaging with the design community can be immensely beneficial for learning graphic design. Joining online forums, social media groups, and design communities allows individuals to connect with other designers, seek feedback on their work, and participate in design challenges. Platforms like Behance and Dribbble provide opportunities to showcase and gain exposure for their design projects. Whether one chooses formal education or self-learning, the key is to practice regularly, engage with the design community, and seek feedback to continuously improve. In the next section, we will discuss the tools and resources necessary to build a graphic design toolkit. Note: It’s worth mentioning that throughout the learning process, it’s important to familiarize oneself with copyright laws and ethical practices in graphic design to ensure responsible and legal use of resources and materials. Building a Graphic Design Toolkit A. Choosing the Right Design Software: Graphic design relies heavily on specialized software to bring ideas to life. Adobe Creative Suite, including Photoshop, Illustrator, and InDesign, is widely used in the industry. However, there are also alternative software options available, such as Affinity Designer and CorelDRAW. Selecting the appropriate design software based on personal preferences, budget, and specific design needs is crucial. B. Understanding the Features and Capabilities of Design Tools: Once the software is chosen, it’s important to familiarize oneself with its features and capabilities. Explore the tools, menus, and functions specific to the software and understand how they can be utilized in various design tasks. Online tutorials, user manuals, and practice exercises provided by the software creators can assist in mastering the tools. C. Exploring Design Resources and Asset Libraries: Design resources and asset libraries are valuable assets in a graphic designer’s toolkit. These include stock images, icon sets, vector illustrations, textures, and more. Websites like Shutterstock, Adobe Stock, and Freepik provide a wide range of resources that can be incorporated into designs, saving time and enhancing visual quality. D. Developing a Personal Design Style: Aspiring graphic designers should strive to develop their unique design style. Experiment with different techniques, explore various design genres, and draw inspiration from diverse sources. Building a distinct visual identity and style helps designers stand out and develop a recognizable portfolio. By carefully selecting design software, understanding its features, utilizing design resources, and developing a personal style, individuals can build a robust graphic design toolkit. In the next section, we will delve into mastering graphic design techniques across different design disciplines. Note: While investing in design tools and resources is essential, it’s important to be mindful of budget constraints and consider free or affordable alternatives when starting out. Mastering Graphic Design Techniques A. Logo Design and Branding: Logo design and branding are essential aspects of graphic design. Mastering the art of creating memorable and effective logos involves understanding the principles of simplicity, versatility, and brand identity. Additionally, delving into branding concepts like color psychology, typography choices, and brand consistency helps designers create cohesive visual identities for businesses and organizations. B. Layout Design for Print and Digital Media: Proficient layout design skills are vital for creating visually appealing compositions in both print and digital media. Understanding grid systems, visual hierarchy, whitespace utilization, and balancing text and imagery allows designers to create engaging and well-structured layouts for brochures, magazines, websites, and more. C. Web Design and User Interface (UI) Principles: With the increasing importance of the digital landscape, mastering web design and UI principles is crucial. Designers need to focus on creating user-friendly interfaces, ensuring intuitive navigation, optimizing visual hierarchy, and understanding responsive design principles. Acquiring skills in HTML, CSS, and UI design tools like Sketch or Figma can enhance the ability to create functional and visually appealing websites and digital experiences. D. Poster and Advertising Design: Poster and advertising design require the ability to grab attention and convey a message effectively. Mastering techniques like impactful typography, strategic use of color and imagery, and understanding the target audience’s preferences helps designers create compelling posters and advertisements that communicate effectively. E. Packaging Design: Packaging design is a specialized field that requires a deep understanding of materials, structural design, and visual aesthetics. Designers must consider factors such as product protection, shelf appeal, and brand consistency when creating packaging solutions. Mastery of techniques like die-cutting, folding, and visual storytelling ensures packaging designs that captivate consumers. F. Infographic and Data Visualization Design: In an era of information overload, the ability to present data and complex information in a visually engaging and understandable way is highly valuable. Mastering infographic and data visualization techniques involves creating visually appealing graphics, organizing data effectively, and utilizing visual hierarchy and storytelling techniques to communicate information clearly. By honing skills in logo design, layout design, web design, poster and advertising design, packaging design, and infographic design, graphic designers can expand their versatility and cater to a variety of design projects. In the next section, we will explore the application of graphic design in real-world scenarios. Applying Graphic Design in Real-world Scenarios A. Freelance Graphic Design Opportunities: Freelancing offers graphic designers the flexibility to work on a variety of projects for diverse clients. Building a strong portfolio, networking, and leveraging online platforms like Upwork, Freelancer, or Fiverr can help designers find freelance opportunities. Collaborating with clients, understanding their requirements, and delivering high-quality designs within deadlines are essential for success in freelance graphic design. B. Working in a Design Agency or Studio: Joining a design agency or studio provides designers with the opportunity to work on larger projects, collaborate with a team, and gain valuable industry experience. Working under creative directors or senior designers can offer mentorship and exposure to diverse design challenges. Design agencies often work with clients from various industries, allowing designers to gain expertise in specific niches. C. Collaboration with Other Professionals: Graphic design often involves collaboration with professionals from different fields, such as writers, marketers, photographers, and developers. Effective communication, teamwork, and understanding the goals and requirements of other stakeholders are crucial for successful collaborations. Collaborating with others can lead to the creation of cohesive and comprehensive design solutions. D. Designing for Specific Industries or Niches: Graphic designers can specialize in designing for specific industries or niches. For example, designing for the fashion industry may require a keen eye for aesthetics and an understanding of current trends, while designing for the healthcare sector may demand clarity, accessibility, and sensitivity to the target audience. Specializing in specific industries allows designers to become experts in their chosen field and cater to the unique design needs of that industry. Applying graphic design in real-world scenarios requires a combination of technical skills, creativity, effective communication, and adaptability. Whether working as a freelancer, in a design agency, or collaborating with professionals, graphic designers play a crucial role in visual communication and problem-solving. In the next section, we will explore the importance of building a portfolio to showcase one’s skills and attract clients or employers. Note: It’s important to respect client confidentiality and adhere to intellectual property rights when showcasing work in a portfolio. Seek permission from clients or anonymize sensitive information when necessary. Building a Portfolio A. Showcasing a Range of Work: A well-rounded portfolio should demonstrate a variety of design projects that highlight different skills and styles. Include samples of logo designs, branding projects, print layouts, web designs, and any other relevant work. Showcase a diverse range of projects to showcase versatility and expertise across various design disciplines. B. Highlighting Strong and Successful Projects: Within the portfolio, emphasize the strongest and most successful design projects. Choose projects that effectively showcase your skills, creativity, problem-solving abilities, and understanding of client requirements. Include before-and-after examples to demonstrate your design process and the impact of your work. C. Organizing and Presenting Work Professionally: Present your portfolio in a clean, organized, and visually appealing manner. Consider using a digital portfolio platform or website to showcase your work professionally. Use clear project titles, descriptions, and high-quality images to enhance the presentation of your work. Pay attention to the overall visual aesthetics and user experience of your portfolio. D. Including Client Testimonials and Recommendations: Client testimonials and recommendations can add credibility and build trust with potential clients or employers. Include positive feedback from satisfied clients to demonstrate your professionalism, communication skills, and ability to deliver exceptional design solutions. Seek permission from clients to use their testimonials in your portfolio. E. Updating and Evolving the Portfolio: A portfolio should be a dynamic and evolving representation of your skills and growth as a designer. Continuously update your portfolio with new and improved projects to reflect your latest work. Remove outdated or weaker projects to maintain a high standard of quality. Regularly evaluate and refine your portfolio to ensure it accurately represents your abilities. F. Seeking Feedback and Critique: Feedback from peers, mentors, or industry professionals can provide valuable insights and help improve your portfolio. Seek constructive criticism to identify areas for improvement and make necessary adjustments to strengthen your portfolio. Join design communities or seek feedback from fellow designers to gain different perspectives. Building a strong portfolio is essential for showcasing your abilities, attracting clients or employers, and advancing your graphic design career. By presenting a range of work, organizing it professionally, incorporating client testimonials, and continuously updating and seeking feedback, your portfolio becomes a powerful tool to demonstrate your skills and make a lasting impression. In conclusion, graphic design offers immense opportunities for creativity, professional growth, and impact. By understanding the fundamentals of graphic design, acquiring essential skills, building a design toolkit, mastering design techniques, and applying graphic design in real-world scenarios, individuals can embark on a fulfilling and successful journey in the dynamic field of graphic design. Continuous Learning and Growth in Graphic Design A. Embrace Lifelong Learning: Graphic design is a constantly evolving field, and staying updated with the latest trends, techniques, and technologies is crucial for professional growth. Embrace a mindset of lifelong learning and commit to continuous improvement. Stay curious, explore new design trends, attend workshops or conferences, and enroll in advanced courses to expand your skills and knowledge. B. Follow Industry Influencers and Trends: Stay connected with the graphic design community by following industry influencers, design blogs, and social media accounts. Engage in discussions, share ideas, and stay informed about emerging trends, tools, and design practices. Participate in design challenges or competitions to push your creative boundaries and gain exposure. C. Seek Mentorship and Feedback: Seek mentorship from experienced designers or industry professionals who can provide guidance, insights, and constructive feedback on your work. Their expertise can help you identify areas for improvement and provide valuable career advice. Actively seek feedback from clients, colleagues, and peers to refine your design skills and enhance your work. D. Expand Your Skill Set: Continuously expand your skill set by exploring new areas of graphic design. Learn motion graphics, UX/UI design, 3D modeling, or coding to diversify your abilities and open doors to new opportunities. Acquiring complementary skills can make you a more versatile and valuable designer. E. Collaborate and Network: Collaborating with other designers and professionals from related fields can broaden your perspective and foster creative growth. Attend industry events, join design organizations, or participate in online forums to connect with like-minded individuals. Networking can lead to valuable collaborations, referrals, and career advancement opportunities. F. Personal Projects and Experimentation: Dedicate time to personal projects and experimentation. Use these opportunities to explore new design styles, techniques, or mediums without the constraints of client briefs. Personal projects allow you to express your creativity, challenge yourself, and showcase your unique design approach. G. Stay Inspired and Reflect: Seek inspiration beyond the design world. Explore art, photography, architecture, nature, and other creative disciplines to fuel your creativity. Take time to reflect on your design journey, analyze your growth, and set goals for further development. Regularly review your portfolio and update it with your best and most recent work. Remember that growth in graphic design is a continuous process. Embrace a growth mindset, be open to feedback, and actively seek opportunities to learn and expand your skills. By staying current, seeking mentorship, collaborating with others, and nurturing your creativity, you can thrive in the ever-evolving world of graphic design. In conclusion, graphic design is a dynamic and rewarding field that offers endless opportunities for learning, growth, and creative expression. With dedication, passion, and a commitment to continuous improvement, you can embark on a fulfilling and successful journey as a graphic designer. Graphic design is a captivating field that offers endless possibilities for creativity and professional growth. Throughout this article, we explored the importance of understanding graphic design, the essential skills required, and various avenues for learning the craft. We discussed the significance of building a graphic design toolkit, mastering different design techniques, and applying graphic design in real-world scenarios. Furthermore, we emphasized the significance of building a strong portfolio to showcase one’s skills and attract potential clients or employers. We also highlighted the importance of continuous learning and growth in graphic design, encouraging individuals to embrace lifelong learning, follow industry influencers and trends, seek mentorship and feedback, expand their skill set, collaborate, and stay inspired. Graphic design is an ever-evolving field, and by staying curious, adapting to new technologies and trends, and continuously refining our skills, we can thrive as designers. With dedication, passion, and a commitment to improvement, one can embark on a fulfilling and successful journey in the dynamic world of graphic design. So, whether you are just starting your graphic design journey or seeking to enhance your existing skills, remember to embrace creativity, remain open to learning, and never stop pushing the boundaries of your own artistic expression. The possibilities are endless, and with each design project, you have the opportunity to make a lasting impact through the power of visual communication. So go forth, unleash your creativity, and make your mark in the exciting world of graphic design!

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Until you are a verbal artist with your own style, there are a few strategies you can use to make your storytelling more enjoyable for your readers. The sentence strategies presented here are related to each other, however, that relationship is not necessarily sequential. So, we’ll dive in and explore the following and then put them together. Before you can create a fictional sentence salad (i.e., a paragraph), you need to know your ingredients. In this case, the various purposes a sentence serves. Keeping it simple, we’ll review five purposes in no particular order. A dialogue typically happens between two or more characters. However, the tempo and feel of story delivery can be improved at times by adding dialogue, even if the character is talking to himself. There are three aspects of dialogue composition to consider when using this type of sentence in a story. The first two are more about the formula of dialogue sentences. - How to convey who is talking - When to convey who is talking - What is the purpose on the dialogue How to Convey Who is Talking To “said” or not to “said.” As the storyteller, it’s easy for you to know who is speaking as you stack your dialogue sentences one on top of the other. However, a reader might lose track. I use two strategies to ensure the reader knows who is speaking. Below are two examples. - “I told you to take out the trash an hour ago,” Milly said. “Get up and do it now.” - “I told you to take out the trash an hour ago.” Milly inhaled deeply. “Get up and do it now.” My preference is the second example for two reasons: movement and flow. - Movement – The ability for me to add a form of movement to the interaction. A reader might infer, by combining her words and the timing of her deep breath, that Milly is angry but is trying to curb her reaction to being ignored. - Flow – I feel that the use of “said” in the first example might jar the reader just a bit. At times, the reader will welcome this because it offers a breath or emphasis in the reading process. However, they will not like it if you have a long conservation and “said” shows up on every line. When to Convey Who is Talking The difference between who and when is subtle but important. As the storyteller, you have three options, two are preferred. - In the middle – “The room is on the left,” Mike said. “I’ll see you there.” - At the end – “The room is on the left. I’ll see you there,” Mike said. - Not preferred - At the start – Mike said, “The room is on the left. I’ll see you there.” Read any best seller and you will not see them place the dialogue tag at the start. However, there are occasions when the natural flow of the storytelling lends itself to the occasional up-front dialogue tag placement. - First person narrative – I’ve done everything my dad has asked of me, but when he said, “You have to finish your homework before you can have the car,” I realized I wasn’t going anywhere. - Third person narrative – The wind whipped through the tunnel just when Mary said, “Get down!” Cathy missed the warning and was hit by flying debris. What is the Purpose of the Dialogue The two most frequent purpose of a dialogue is to request or deliver information. Vague, right? The key to requesting or delivering information is to not say it as if you are reading a well written email. Even if it means speaking in broken sentences, dialogue needs to sound real. Before we consider a couple of examples, another purpose of dialogue is to replace the narrator of the story. The rule of “share, don’t tell” can be assisted by giving a character the role of narrator. Example: Dialogue to Convey Description The following are inspired by actual dialogues I have read. In this scenario, characters are replacing the narrator. - Unnatural speech – “The library has four walls filled with books on shelves. The rug is worn and threadbare.” - More natural speech – “Careful when you enter the library. The rug has seen better days. You’re liable to snag your boot and land on your face. And!” He rolled his eyes. “Heaven forbid you fall into the book shelves and disturb the master’s collection.” In both instances, the reader knows the room has a threadbare rug, shelves, and books. Although the first example states that there are four walls with shelves, the second example implies that might be the case by referring to the room as a library. If it is critical that the reader know that all four walls have shelves and books, you can allow another character to add it. Or, you can weave it in as the story progresses. Example: Dialogue to Convey Action - Unnatural speech – “Billy ran up the stairs and into the bathroom. When he slammed the door, the vibrations shook a painting from the wall.” - More natural speech – “Billy’s in the bathroom. Is something wrong? If he’d slammed the door any harder, my new painting almost hit the floor.” The second example doesn’t tell the reader that the bathroom is upstairs, but it does convey emotion: door slamming. People slam doors for different reasons. Neither example conveys which emotion, but the stage is set for further dialogue. When a storyteller isn’t using dialogue, she’s using narrative, defined as “a spoken or written account of connected events; a story.” Reflection is one type of narrative but there are different types of reflections. For example, feelings and memories. Reflection can be delivered as a paragraph or interjected into a dialogue. - Paragraph – When Carman wore my mother’s hat, I wanted to scream. I wanted to rip it from her head. She is not my mother. How dare she? - Dialogue interjection – “No, of course not.” I tried to smile as my blood boiled. “Of course! I don’t mind Carman wearing Mom’s hat.” The smile I forced was well practiced. Two ways to convey that the character is not happy about Carman wearing her mother’s hat. Remember, Long inner monologues about feelings can slow a story. Short, related reflections between actions provide timely character insight and help carry the reader forward. Sentences that draw conclusions are common after a dialogue or an action scene. There are different reasons for using this type of sentence. - Summarize a series of events or lengthy dialogue. - Example – Three parties, four crashes, a broken leg, and one arrest. Definitely a busy day. - Example – All Lisa could remember after the party was that her two best friends were getting married and one was having a baby. - Interpret a series of events, thus adding new information to carry a story forward. - Example – If Cathy is broke, where did she get that ring? She was standing next to the jewelry rack yesterday. Oh my gosh. Did she steal it? - Example – David went this way. I know it. There must be a secret door. Action in a story narrative will keep the reader’s attention if done right. Imagine watching a movie where the characters are just standing there the entire time. Boring! There are degrees of action: macro and micro. Macro actions typically include multiple characters and can convey a multitude of attitudes and feeling and skills. - Blockbuster actions – For instance, a ground and air battle between super heroes and aliens in the heart of New York City. - Aggressive or passion interactions between two or more characters – For instance, two characters surrounded by five bad guys and someone isn’t walking away. Writing macro actions take some planning. A lot of macro action detail can be too much and slow the story. Which of the following is better? - 51 Words – Cam lifted his sword to block the enemy’s strike. He spun around and sliced at the enemies left side but was blocked. He feigned left but went right, grabbing his dagger from his belt. He drove it up and into the enemy’s neck. The enemy died instantly, dropping to the ground. - 29 Words – Cam blocked a strike from above and missed his attempt to the left. Feigning left, he spun right, pulling his dagger and driving it up into the enemy’s neck. Now imagine a longer battle scene where each interaction was conveyed with 51 words or more. For actions that by nature, fast, the sentences should be brief and concise to convey a fast pace. For actions that are slow by nature, for instance, sneaking around a haunted house, multiple action sentences can help build tension. - 73 Words – The air was cool and damp. Light from the full moon, shining through the cobwebs covering the windows, only added to the feeling that eyes were watching Lucy from the dark corners of the living room. With each step, the decaying wooden floors creaked under her feet. Anyone in earshot would be able to find her. Something moved. A shadow? Lucy froze in place, her eyes wide and breath caught in her throat. - 22 Words – Lucy crept into the living room with only moon light to guide her way. Something moved in the shadows and she froze. Which action scene builds the most tension? Micro actions tend to focus on one character and can convey inner thoughts or feelings not voiced. Micro action examples might include the following. - Carol pinched her eyes closed. - John’s lips formed a thin, straight line. - She shifted her attention and met his gaze. - He crossed the room to the window. - She tapped her finger on the table. Micro actions can break up dialogue and reflections. People don’t always speak without moving in some way, even if they are simply staring. Micro actions can add insight into the character in that scene. However, not all micro actions will be interpreted the same way be your readers. If the action is intended to convey a specific meaning, you might need to add dialogue or reflection to steer the reader in the right direction. Last but not least, the description. What does a character look like? What does the room look like? There was a time, when there were no photos or motion pictures, at time when readers delighted in detailed descriptions. In today’s world, where information overload is a constant threat from media, work, society, and family, a reading escape needs to win out over other distractions. That means descriptions need to add value to the story, not weigh it down. Follow two rules and you will be on your way. - No data dumps. - Subtle weaving. No Data Dumps A data dump, no matter how well crafted the sentences, is still be a data dump. A paragraph of description sentences, one after another, can bring story flow to a screeching halt. Imagine being in the middle of a dining room fight scene that moves to the kitchen. Before the fight started, there’s a paragraph describing the table, chairs, windows, temperature, lighting and/or walls. Then, you get a run down on the kitchen cabinets, appliances, windows, and door before the fight continues. That’s two paragraphs describing rooms all at once. Might be hard to believe someone would do this but it’s happened. How are data dumps avoided? - Write a detailed description of the character or room or whatever in a separate document. - Identify the details that will move the story forward and those that won’t. - Determine when the reader needs to know the important details. - Write the scene without description details. For instance, She entered the room, where “room” will need a description at some point in the story. - Weave in the important descriptions. See the next section for more details. We saw earlier where a character weaved a description into the dialogue while also conveying action. In the following example, there is a lot of data being delivered but it’s not being dumped on the reader. “Careful when you enter the library. The rug has seen better days. You’re liable to snag your boot and land on your face. And!” He rolled his eyes. “Heaven forbid you fall into the book shelves and disturb the master’s collection.” If you don’t have a dialogue option and you need the character to see the room for the reader, you can try delivering with reflection or action sentences. Reflection + Description The last time I was in my grandfather’s library, I remember books. On every wall, stacks of them, all waiting to be read. The smell of old paper and glue burned my nose. He made me sit in the center of the room at the big stone table if I wanted to read. Two things made the experience bearable: the cushioned chairs and a desk lamp of my own. Action + Description Someone’s coming. I slip inside the library and freeze. It’s dark. Footsteps draw near. There has to be another way out. My foot catches on a wrinkle in the rug and I stumble. A thickly padded chair breaks my fall. I crawl until I reach a wall of shelves. I feel my way, my hands sliding over the spines of books. It takes two turns before I feel glass. A window. No, a door. I try the handle and slip into the night, safe. If readers experience the same word repeatedly in a short span of sentences, they will feel it. The rhythm of your words will break. Below is an extreme example. The door at the end of the hall reached to the ceiling. The door was made of wood and looked heavy. I knocked on the door and waited. When the door opened, I stepped inside. The word “door” appears four times. Can the scene be written with one “door?” The heavy wooden door at the end of the hall reached to the ceiling. I knocked and waited. When it opened, I stepped inside. Simplistic? Yes. Easy mistake to make? Also, yes. In this example, the word “door” is removed to fix the issue. In other instances, synonyms can be used, as long as the synonym doesn’t change the meaning of what is being said. Or, words that relate can be used. Emily slowly removes her hand from her mouth and holds it up. "I had him pinned against a tree." She turns her hand and her fingers curl around something only she can see. "He tried to kill me with a knife. He cut me open." She drops her hand into her other hand, squeezing to stop the trembling. Can we remove a “hand” or two? Emily slowly removes her hand from her mouth and holds it up. "I had him pinned against a tree." She turns her wrist and her fingers curl around something only she can see. "He tried to kill me with a knife. He cut me open." She pushes down on the table as her body trembles with rage. Remember, if one or more of the actions chosen for the scene aren’t critical, you can choose a different action. In the above example, the trembling conveys emotion. In the first, she presses her hand into her other hand. In the second, she presses it to the table — where the hand is implied. Another place where word repeats surface is sentence sequencing. Now that we know the basics about our sentence salad ingredients, let’s look at how they get mixed up. There are three strategies for sentence sequences that will give your writing a boost. - Mix sentence types - Avoid first-word repeats - Flip sentences around Dialogue paragraphs are notorious for word repeats. By using two strategies, you can limit this issue. Consider the following example. “Have you seen the gardener today? I’ll need you to ensure he does his job.” She crossed to the window. She was concerned that the roses might not get their regular feeding. She pulled a list of garden requirements and handed them to Ron. To improve this sentence salad, start by mixing up the sentence types by weaving action and dialogue. She crossed to the window. “Have you seen the gardener today?” She was concerned that the roses might not get their regular feeding. “I’ll need to ensure he does his job.” She pulled a list of garden requirements and handed them to Ron. Next, avoid first-word repeats. Start by removing one of the “she” words. Margie crossed to the window. “Have you seen the gardener today?” She was concerned that the roses might not get their regular feeding. “I’ll need you to ensure he does his job.” She pulled a list of garden requirements and handed them to Ron. Last, flip a sentence around to soften the use of a second “she.” Margie crossed to the window. “Have you seen the gardener today?” She was concerned that the roses might not get their regular feeding. “I’ll need you to ensure he does his job.” Pulling her list of garden requirements from her pocket, she handed them to Ron. “She” is still used twice, however, the three narrative sentences start differently and the two “shes” are well separated. Does the flow of the final sentence sequencing example read better than the first? Shuffling sentences in a paragraph is a micro effort to tossing a good sentence salad. However, you can still run into issues when you stack paragraphs. Use the above strategies to keep your paragraphs from creating issues. Consider the following process when assembling your paragraphs into chapters. - Reflection/description paragraph + Dialogue/Action paragraph + Conclusion paragraph. - Make sure that each paragraph starts with a different word. - Remember to apply sentence strategies within each paragraph. To practice some of the above, start simple. Observe your surroundings. If you’re at home, use your imagination. Write down a bit of action you can see. For example, a guy walked down the street. Then add to it. Whatever you see, write it down. Then do the following. - Use a copy so you have something to compare to. - Label each sentence type. - Identify nouns that could use an adjective or two. Or even a full-blown description. - Add how an action made you feel or triggered a memory. - Address word repeats by using synonyms, rewording, and/or removal. - Shuffle the sentence type sequence and see if it feels better. When you finish, read your first draft out loud. Then read your revision out loud. Did you stumble in the rhythm of the words? Does the second still need some edits? Don’t be afraid to throw something out and create new. 4 thoughts on “Sentence Salads in Fiction Writing”

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Summary of Romanesque Architecture and Art Capturing the aspirations of a new age, Romanesque art and architecture started a revolution in building, architectural decoration, and visual storytelling. Starting in the latter part of the 10th century through the 12th, Europe experienced relative political stability, economic growth, and more prosperity during this time and coupled with the increasing number of monastic centers as well as the rise of universities, a new environment for art and architecture that was not commissioned solely by emperors and nobles was born. With the use of rounded arches, massive walls, piers, and barrel and rib vaults, the Romanesque period saw a revival of large-scale architecture that was almost fortress-like in appearance in addition to a new interest in expressive human forms. With the Roman Church as the main patron, Romanesque metalwork, stonework, and illuminated manuscripts spread across Europe, from the Mediterranean to Scandinavia, creating an international style that was adapted to regional needs and influences. 19th-century art historians who coined the term Romanesque thought the weighty stone architecture and the stylized depiction of the human form did not live up to the standards of the classical ideas of humanism (manifested later and powerfully in Renaissance Humanism), but we now recognize that Romanesque art and architecture innovatively combined Classical influences, seen in the Roman ruins scattered throughout the European countryside and in Byzantine illuminated manuscripts and mosaics, with the decorative and more abstract styles of earlier Northern tribes to create the foundation of Western Christian architecture for centuries to come. While an immediate precursor to the Gothic style, the Romanesque would see revivals in the 17th and 19th centuries, as architects (masons) came to appreciate the clarity and formidable nature of the Romanesque façade when applied across a range of buildings, from department stores to university buildings. Key Ideas & Accomplishments - Along with the new political and economic security, the spread of the Roman Church and the codification of rituals and liturgy encouraged the faithful to undertake pilgrimages, traveling from church to church, honoring martyrs and relics at each stop. The economic boon of such travel to cities led to rapid architectural developments, in which cities vied for grander and grander churches. Lofty stone vaulting replaced wooden roofs, main church entrances became more monumental, and decorative architectural sculpture flourished on the façades of the churches. - While many churches continued to use barrel vaulting, during the Romanesque period, architects developed the ribbed vault, which allowed vaults to be lighter and higher, thus allowing for more windows on the upper level of the structure. The ribbed vault would be more fully developed and utilized during the subsequent Gothic period, but important early examples in the 11th century set the precedent. - During the Romanesque period, the use of visual iconography for didactic purposes became prevalent. As most people outside of the monastic orders were illiterate, complex religious scenes were used to guide and teach the faithful of Christian doctrine. Architects developed the use of the tympanum, the arched area above the doors of the church, to show scenes such as the Last Judgment to set the mood upon entering the church, and other biblical stories, saints, and prophets decorated interior and exterior doors, walls, and, capitals to shepherd the worshippers' prayers. Artworks and Artists of Romanesque Architecture and Art Church of Sainte-Foy This pilgrimage church, the center of a thriving monastery, exemplifies the Romanesque style. Two symmetrical towers frame the west façade, their stone walls supported by protruding piers that heighten the vertical effect. A rounded arch with a triangular tablature frames the portal, where a large tympanum of the Last Judgment of Christ is placed, thus greeting the pilgrim with an admonition and warning. The grandeur of the portal is heightened by the two round, blind arches on either side and by the upper level arch with its oculus above two windows. The façade conveys a feeling of strength and solidity, its power heightened by the simplicity of decorative elements. It should be noted that this apparent simplicity is the consequence of time, as originally the tympanum scene was richly painted and would have created a vivid effect drawing the eye toward the entrance. The interior of the church was similarly painted, the capitals of the interior columns carved with various Biblical symbols and scenes from Saint Foy's life, creating both an otherworldly effect and fulfilling a didactic purpose. Saint Foy, or Saint Faith, was a girl from Aquitaine who was martyred around 287-303, and the church held a gold and jeweled reliquary, containing her remains. The monks from the Abbey stole the reliquary from a nearby abbey to ensure their church's place on the pilgrimage route. Over time, other relics were added, including the arm of St. George the Dragon Slayer, and a gold "A" believed to have been created for Charlemagne. The construction of the church was undertaken around 1050 to accommodate the crowds, drawn by reports of various miracles. The church was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1998 for its importance on the pilgrim route and also as a noted example of early Romanesque architecture. Stone, wood - Conques, France A scene from the Bayeux Tapestry This scene from the famous tapestry shows Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, carrying an oak club while riding on a black horse, as he rallies the Norman forces of Duke William, his half-brother, against the English at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. Careful attention is given to the tack of the horses, the details of the men's helmets and uniforms, while the overlay of plunging horses, their curving haunches and legs, creates a momentum that carries the narrative onward into the next scene. In the lower border, a horse is falling, while its rider, pierced with a long spear collapses on the right. At both corners, other fallen soldiers are partially visible, and convey the terrible effects of battle, while the charge to victory gallops on above them. As art critic Jonathan Jones noted, "The Bayeux tapestry is not just a fascinating document of a decisive battle in British history. It is one of the richest, strangest, most immediate and unexpectedly subtle depictions of war that was ever created." The tapestry, about 230 feet long and 21 inches tall, is a sustained narrative of the historical events that, beginning in 1064 lead up to the battle, which ended in the Norman conquest of England and the rule of William the Conqueror, as he came to be known. The upper and lower borders, each 2-¾ inches wide, shown in this sample, continue throughout the tapestry, as does the use of a Latin inscription identifying each scene. The images in the borders change, echoing the narrative, as during the battle the pairs of fantastical animals in the lower border is replaced by the images seen here of fallen soldiers and horses. Similarly when the invasion fleet sets sail, the borders disappear altogether to create the effect of the vast horizon. The borders also include occasional depictions of fables, such as "The Wolf and a Crane" in which a wolf that has a bone caught in its throat is saved by a crane that extracts it with its long beak, which may be a subversive or admonitory comment upon the contemporary events. Though called a tapestry, the work is actually embroidered, employing ten different colors of dyed crewel, or wool yarn and is believed to have been made by English women, whose needlework, known as Opus Anglicanum, or English work, was esteemed throughout Europe by the elite. The Bayeux Tapestry was a unique work of the Romanesque period, as it depicted a secular, historical event, but also did so in the medium that allowed for an extended narrative that shaped both the British and French sense of national identity. As art historian Simon Schama wrote, "It's a fantastic example of the making of history." The work, held in France, was influential later in the development of tapestry workshops in Belgium and Northern France around 1500 and the Gobelin Tapestry of the Baroque era. Linen, crewel - Bayeux Museum, Bayeux, France Duomo di Pisa The entrance to Pisa Cathedral, made of light-colored local stone, has three symmetrically arranged portals, the center portal being the largest, with four blind arcades echoing their effect. The round arches above the portal and the arcades create a unifying effect, as do the columns that frame each entrance. The building is an example of what has been called Pisa Romanesque, as it synthesizes elements of Lombard Romanesque, Byzantine, and Islamic architecture. Lombard bands of colored stone frame the columns and arches and extend horizontally. Above the doors, paintings depicting the Virgin Mary draw upon Byzantine art, and at the top of the seven round arches, diamond and circular shapes in geometric patterns of colored stone echo Islamic motifs. The upper levels of the building are symmetrically arranged in bands of blind arcades and innovatively employ small columns that convey an effect of refinement. The name of two architects, Buscheto, and Rainaldo, were inscribed in the church, though little is known of them, except for this project. Buscheto was the initial designer of the square that, along with the Cathedral, included the famous leaning Tower of Pisa, done in the same Romanesque style, visible here in the background, and the Baptistery. Following his death, Rainaldo expanded the cathedral in the 1100's, of whom his inscription read, "Rainaldo, the skilful workman and master builder, executed this wonderful, costly work, and did so with amazing skill and ingenuity." Dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, the church was consecrated in 1118 by Pope Gelasius II. The church's construction was informed by the political and cultural era, as it was meant to rival St. Mark's Basilica then being reconstructed in Venice, a competing maritime city-state. The building was financed by the spoils of war, from Pisa's defeat of Muslim forces in Sicily, and it was built outside of the walls to show that the city had nothing to fear. The Pisa plaza became a symbol of the city itself, as shown by the famous Italian writer Gabriele D'Annunzio calling the square, "prato dei Miracoli," or "meadow of miracles" in 1910, so the plaza has been known since as the "Field of Miracles." Masonry, marble - Pisa, Italy The Temptation of Eve This relief sculpture shows an almost life-sized nude Eve, presumably reclining toward Adam (now lost) as if whispering to him seductively, while her left hand reaches back to grasp an apple from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. The composition emphasizes sinuous line and serpentine form. The tree intersects vertically with her body, covering her pubic area, and the serpent in the foliage at the right echoes both the tree and the depiction of Eve herself. The work is famously the only large-scale nude of the medieval period, an era when Christian values discouraged the study of the naked human body. With this depiction, Giselbertus pioneered the rendering of Adam and Eve in the nude, a treatment that became a tradition in Christian art, as their nakedness was connected to their fall into sin. Originally Eve was paired with a nude Adam reclining on her left, and both figures were placed on the lintel over the portal. Above the lintel, Giselbertus also created the tympanum that depicted the Last Judgment, with Christ enthroned presiding over the saved and the damned and with attendant angels and devils. The viewers, who were largely illiterate, would have understood the didactic visualization that connected the Temptation, by which sin entered the world, and the scene of ultimate redemption. Giselbertus was trained by the master of Cluny around 1115 and was influenced by the cathedral reliefs that emphasized Christ's compassion. He worked at Autun from about 1125-1135, sculpting most of church's decorative elements. Unusually for the time, Giselbertus included in the tympanum, under Christ's feet, a Latin inscription reading, "Gislebertus made this." Most scholars have taken this for the sculptor's name, though some have suggested it may refer to the patron who commissioned the work. His work was innovative for the feeling conveyed by his stylized human figures and influenced contemporaneous Romanesque, and later Gothic, sculptors. However, by the late 1700s, due to a rising conservatism in religious and artistic thought, his work was thought to be both too primitive and licentious. Eve disappeared in 1769 when it was used as building material for a local house, and his Last Judgment tympanum was completely filled with plaster, which by a stroke of luck saved it from destruction during the French Revolution. Both Eve and the tympanum were rediscovered and restored only in the 1830s when the Romantic movement revived an appreciation of medieval art. Stone - Musée Rolin, Autun, France This vivid fresco shows Christ the Pantocrator (ruler of the universe), framed by a mandorla, or body halo, bordered in red, gold, and blue. Sitting on a throne, he faces the viewer with an intense gaze, while holding a book that reads in Latin "I am the light of the world," as his uplifted right hand makes the traditional symbol of blessing and teaching. Alpha and Omega symbols float above his shoulders, while two angels flank him, their long curved forms echoing the lines of the mandorla and drawing the focus to his haloed head. The greater scale of his figure, reflecting a Byzantine influence, is meant to emphasize his importance. The four Evangelists, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, are depicted in a band of circles at his feet and turn to face him, gesturing. The work's innovative sense of composition, with its curving bands of blue, gold, and carmine, emphasize the semi-circular apse and focus on Christ in the center. The use of varying shades of blue to depict him, along with highlights of white and carmine dots, create a sense of movement as if he were emerging toward the faithful. Below him a number of other sacred figures are partially visible, including the Virgin Mary left of center, as she holds a chalice containing Christ's blood, a pioneering representation of the Holy Grail and indication of the cult of Mary that was developing at the time. Originally, the fresco covered the apse of the church of Sant Climent de Taüll in Vall de Boi in Catalonia. Consecrated in 1123, the basilica, with three naves and a Byzantine influenced seven-story bell tower, was known for its exceptional interior murals, all considered to be the work of the Master of Taüll, about whom little else is known. Over time, many of the murals were damaged but those remaining, including this one, were transferred to canvas for exhibition at the National Art Museum of Catalonia. This fresco influenced a number of 20th century Spanish artists, including Francis Picabia and Pablo Picasso, who kept a poster of it in his studio. Fresco - Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain Moses Expounding the Law This page from an illuminated manuscript shows two scenes in which Moses, depicted with a halo and horns, explains the law to the Israelites. In the upper scene, Moses stands, left of center, explaining the Ten Commandments, as he lifts his hand in a gesture of teaching and blessing toward the small group, seated on the ground and listening attentively. In the lower scene, he addresses a group of four men as he explains the dietary laws of the Jewish faith by pointing to a sheep which can be eaten and a pig which cannot. Two doves, representing the peace obtained from following God's law, face one another at the top of a tree on the right. Overall, the work has a calm but vital stylistic flow, derived from the curving lines and the blue, red, green, and gold palette that is echoed in the patterned borders. Master Hugo pioneered this style, which came to be called "damp fold," as clothing was painted as if damp to create both a sense of movement and a more realistic human form. Master Hugo was the first named artist in England, and he worked at Bury St. Edmund's Abbey, where he made this Bible for the Abbey around 1135. The Bible contains various paintings on full and half pages and decorative initials, which as art historian Thomas Arnold wrote, "have led to a general acknowledgement of Master Hugo as the gifted innovator of the main line of English Romanesque art." He is also credited with making the bronze doors of the Abbey church's western façade and two carved crucifixes, including the famous Cloisters Cross (c. 1150-1160). Ink and tempera on vellum - Parker Library, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge The Shrine of the Magi Nicholas of Verdun deliberately designed reliquary, believed to contain relics of the Magi who journeyed to the Nativity of Christ, to resemble the façade of a basilica. Christ in Majesty is depicted enthroned in the upper section, his right hand raised in blessing, his left holding the Gospel, as two apostles flank him. On the lower level, the Three Kings bearing gifts, kneel on the left, facing toward the Madonna and Child enthroned in the center. On the lower right, Christ's baptism is depicted.The figurative treatment is both realistic, as shown in the different poses of the Kings conveying movement, and refined, with its fine details and flowing draperies. This three level reliquary, also known as The Shrine of the Three Kings, is a masterpiece of Mosan metalworking, with its silver and gold overlay, filigree, and enamel work. The apostles are depicted on the horizontal sides of the shrine, not visible here, and overall the work contains 74 figures in vermeil, or silver relief. Viewed from the side, the shrine resembles a basilica, with small pairs of lapis lazuli columns standing at the corners and between each of apostles. Following the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa's gift of the relics to Rainald of Dassel, the Archbishop of Cologne, the archbishop commissioned the shrine from Nicholas of Verdun and his workshop around 1180. The relics were of such religious importance, and the shrine considered such a masterpiece, that in 1248 construction of a new Cologne Cathedral was undertaken to suitably house the reliquary. The shrine was placed in the crossing, marking the high point of the church. As art historian Dr. Rolf Lauer wrote, "The Shrine of the Magi is the largest, most artistically significant, and, in terms of its content, most ambitious reliquary of the Middle Ages." Gold, silver, filigree, precious stones, wood - Cologne Cathedral, Cologne Germany Beginnings of Romanesque Architecture and Art Vikings and Insular Art The many Viking invasions of Europe and the British Isles marked the era before the Romanesque period. Beginning in 790 with raids on Irish coastal monasteries, the raids became full-scale military excursions within a century as shown by the Sack of Paris in 845 and the Sack of Constantinople in 860. For the next two hundred years, the Vikings raided and sometimes conquered surrounding areas. With the conversion of the Vikings to Christianity, the era ended around 1066 when the Normans, themselves descended from Vikings, conquered England. With the conversion to Christianity of the British Isles and Ireland, following from the mission of St. Augustine in 597, monasteries in Hibernia (present-day Ireland) and present-day Britain played a primary role in cultural continuity throughout Europe, developing the Insular, or Hiberno-Saxon, style that incorporated the curvilinear and interlocking ornamentation of Viking and Anglo-Saxon cultures with the painting and manuscript examples sent from the Roman church. Stone crosses and portable artifacts such as metalwork and elaborate gospel manuscripts dominated the period. Masterpieces like the British Book of Durrow (c. 650) and the Irish Book of Kells (c. 800), created by monks, included extensive illustrations of Biblical passages, portraits of saints, and elaborately decorative carpet pages that preceded the beginning of each gospel. Insular art influenced both Romanesque manuscript illumination and the richly colored interiors and architectural decorative elements of Romanesque churches. The Carolingian Renaissance King of the Franks in 768 and King of the Lombards in 774, Charlemagne became Holy Roman Emperor in 800, effectively consolidating his rule of Europe. He strove to position his kingdom as a revival of the, now Christian, Roman Empire. Charlemagne was an active patron of the arts and launched a building campaign to emulate the artistic grandeur of Rome. Drawing from the Latin version of his name (Carolus), the era is known as the "Carolingian Renaissance." As art historian John Contreni wrote, his reign "saw the construction of 27 new cathedrals, 417 monasteries, and 100 royal residences." His palace complex in Aachen (c. 800) that included his Palatine Chapel modeled on the Byzantine St. Vitale (6th century) became a model for subsequent architecture. While Carolingian architecture drew on earlier Roman and Byzantine styles, it also transformed church façades that would have consequential effects throughout the Middle Ages. Emphasizing the western entrance to the basilica, the westwork was a monumental addition to the church, with two towers and multiple stories, that served as a royal chapel and viewing room for the emperor when he visited. Carolingian murals and illuminated manuscripts continued to look to earlier Roman models and depicted the human figure more realistically than the earlier Hiberno-Saxon illuminators. This (early) naturalism had a lasting influence on Romanesque and Gothic art. In the early 900s, concern began to grow about the economic and political control that nobles and the emperor exercised over monasteries. With rising taxes imposed by nobles and the installation of relatives as abbots, the Cluny Abbey sought monastic reform, based upon the Rule of St. Benedict (c. 480-550), written by the 5th-century St. Benedict of Nursia, that emphasized peace, work, prayer, study, and the autonomy of religious communities. In 910, William of Aquitaine donated his hunting lodge and surrounding lands to found Cluny Abbey and nominated Berno as its first Abbott. William stipulated the independence of the Abbey from all secular and local authority, including his own. As a result, the Abbey was answerable only to the authority of the Pope and quickly became the leader of the Benedictine order, establishing dozens of monasteries throughout France. As part of its emphasis on prayer and study, the Abbey also created a rich liturgy, in which art played an important role. Between the 10th and the early 12th centuries, three churches were built at Cluny, each larger than the last, and influencing architectural design throughout Europe. Not much is known of Cluny I, but it was a small, barnlike structure. After a few decades, the monastery outgrew the small church, and Cluny II (c.955-981) was erected. Based on the old basilica model, Cluny II employed round arches and barrel vaults and used small upper level windows for illumination. Designed with a cruciform plan, the church emphasized the west façade with two towers, a larger crossing tower (where the transepts and nave intersected), a narthex (an enclosed entrance area), a choir between the altar and the nave of the church, and chapels at the east end. All of these elements became characteristic of Romanesque architecture. With the building of Cluny III, completed in 1130, the church became the largest in Europe, rivaling St. Peter's in Rome, and a model for similarly ambitious projects. First Romanesque or Lombard Romanesque In the 10th century, First, or Lombard, Romanesque was an early development in Lombardy region (now northern Italy), southern France, and reaching into Catalonia. Started by the Lombard Comacine Guild, or stonemasons, the style was distinctive for its solid stone construction, elaborate arching that advanced Roman models, bands of blind arches, or arches that had no openings, and vertical strips for exterior decorative effects. Particularly dominant in Catalonia, some of the best surviving examples are found in the Vall de Boí, a designated World Heritage Site in Catalonia. Monastic Centers and Pilgrimages During the Romanesque era, no longer under constant threat from Viking raids, monastic centers, which had provided cultural continuity and spiritual consolation through desperate times, became political, economic, religious, and artistic powerhouses that played a role in unifying Europe and in creating relative stability. Monastic centers that housed religious relics became stops on pilgrimage routes that extended for hundreds of miles throughout Europe to the very edge of Spain at Santiago de Compostela. Christians revered Santiago de Compostela as the burial site of Saint James, a disciple of Christ who brought Christianity to Spain, and thus deeply symbolic to Catholic Europe. The faithful believed that by venerating relics, or remains of saints, in pilgrim churches they could obtain saintly intercession on their behalf for the forgiveness of their sins. Fierce competition for relics sometimes developed between churches and even resulted in the monks stealing relics from other churches, as was the case with the reliquary of St. Foy, in order to attract more pilgrims and, therefore, more money. As ever-larger crowds began to flock to sites, monastic centers expanded, providing lodging and food and farrier services to the pilgrims. As a result of this growth, various craft guilds were employed to meet the demand for Romanesque construction. Romanesque Architecture and Art: Concepts, Styles, and Trends Found throughout Europe and the British Isles, the Romanesque style took on regional variations, sometimes specific to a particular valley or town. The most noted sub styles were Mosan Art, Norman Romanesque, and Italian Romanesque. Mosan Art, 1050-1232 Mosan art is named for the River Meuse valley in Belgium, where the style was centered around the town of Liege and the Benedictine monastery at Stavelot. Because of the region's location, it had many political and economic links to Aachen and was greatly influenced by the Carolingian Renaissance. The style became famous for its lavish and highly accomplished metalwork, employing gold and enameling in both the cloisonné technique, where metal is used to create raised partitions on the surface that are then filled with colored inlays, and the champlevé technique, where depressions are created in the surface and then filled. Noted metalworkers were Godefroid de Claire (de Huy), Nicholas of Verdun, and Hugo of Oignies. De Claire is credited with the creation of the Stavelot Triptych (1156-1158), both a portable altar and a reliquary containing fragments of True Cross, and Nicholas of Verdun's most noted work was his reliquary Shrine of the Magi (1180-1225). Mosan goldsmiths and metalworkers were employed throughout Europe by notable patrons and spread the style's influence. Norman Romanesque (11th-12th centuries) Norman Romanesque is primarily an English style named for the Normans who developed it after conquering England in 1066. Normandy, its name derived from the Latin Nortmanni, meaning "men of the north," became a Viking territory in 911, and the abstract decorative motifs of Norman architecture reflected the Viking love of such elements. Thomas Rickman in his An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of English Architecture from the Conquest to the Reformation (1817) first used the term Norman Romanesque to refer to the style. Used for cathedrals and churches but also castles and keeps, Norman Romanesque was distinctive for its massive walls, its cylindrical and compound piers, and the Norman arch, employed to make grand archways. A wider and higher ceiling became possible, replacing the narrow limitations of the preceding barrel vault. The style developed in Normandy, France, and England simultaneously, but in England it evolved into a distinctive sub-style that combined the austerity of the Norman style with a tendency toward decoration. A noted masterwork was Durham Cathedral (1093-1140) built under the leadership of William of St. Carilef. Though the cathedral was later redesigned in the Gothic style, some Norman elements, particularly the nave of the church, remain. Italian Romanesque is characterized by a distinctive use of gallery façades, projecting porches, and campaniles, or bell towers. Regional variations occurred; for instance, the Northern Italian style had wide and severe looking stone façades, as seen in San Ambrogio in Milan (1140). However, the most important regional style was the Pisan style, sometimes called the Tuscan, or Central, style, favoring classical and refined decorative effects and using gallery facades and projected porches with horizontal bands of colored marble. Decorative elements included scenes of daily life, hunting scenes, and classical subjects, and bronze doors were frequently employed. The Piazza del Duomo, or Cathedral Square, in Pisa, which included the Baptistery (1153) the Cathedral (1063-1092) and the Campanile (1172) is the most famous example. Later Developments - After Romanesque Architecture and Art The Romanesque style continued to be employed through most of the 12th century, except in the area around Paris where the Gothic style began in 1120. Subsequently as the Gothic style spread, the Romanesque style was superseded and existent churches were often expanded and redesigned with new Gothic elements, retaining only a few traces of the earlier style. In more rural regions, however, the Romanesque style continued into the 13th century. Romanesque design was foundational to the Gothic which continued using a cruciform plan, a western façade with two towers, and carved tympanums above the portals. Similarly, Gothic art was informed by the same movement toward a more realistic treatment of the human form that can be seen in the Romanesque Mosan style. Romanesque tapestries, like the Bayeux Tapestry, influenced the formation of tapestry workshops throughout Europe in the Gothic period and beyond. Romanesque Revival styles first developed in England with Inigo Jones' redesign of the White Tower (1637-1638). In the following century Norman Revival castles were built for estates throughout the British Isles, and in the early 1800s, Thomas Pesnon developed a revival style for churches. Romanesque manuscript illumination, with its jewel-like colors and stylized motifs, also influenced and informed the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and the Arts and Crafts movement in the middle and later 19th century. In Germany Rundbogenstil, or round-arch style, became popular around 1830, and the style was influential in America, as seen in the Paul Robeson Theater, formerly the Fourth Universalist Church in Fort Greene, Brooklyn (1833-34) and the former Astor Library, now the Public Theatre (1849-1881), in Lower Manhattan. In America the first work of Romanesque Revival architecture was Richard Upjohn's Maaronite Cathedral of Our Lady of Lebanon (1844-1846) in Brooklyn. The American architect James Renwick's design for the Smithsonian Institute (1847-1851) was a prominent example. The style became known as Richardsonian Romanesque, as Henry Hobson Richardson actively promoted the style and designed notable buildings including the Marshall Field Wholesale Store (1885-1887) in Chicago and Trinity Church (1872-1877) in Boston. Harvard University commissioned Richardson to design several campus buildings, including Sever Hall (1878-1880), considered one of his masterpieces and designated a National Historic Landmark. As a result the style was adopted by other American universities in the following decades. Useful Resources on Romanesque Architecture and Art - 3k viewsRomanesque Pilgrimage Churches: St. Foy, Conques, and Saint-Pierre, MoissacEast Tennessee State University - 0 viewsIlluminated ManuscriptsOur PickBBC - 0 viewsBBC Medieval Lives: Episode 2 - The MonkOur Pick - 2.9M viewsMaking ManuscriptsGetty Museum - 466k viewsThe Bayeux Tapestry - all of it, from start to finish - 1.3M viewsThe Animated Bayeux TapestryOur PickPotion Pictures - 29k viewsPisa CathedralWorldSiteGuides - 5k viewsThe Church Program: Cluny AbbeyDWEnglish

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No matter why we love to read, we wouldn’t be able to love it without reading comprehension skills. Reading comprehension unlocks the ability to enjoy new texts. Whether we read fiction or nonfiction, we employ reading comprehension skills every time we open a book. For learners who struggle with reading comprehension, it can be difficult to understand the appeal of reading for pleasure. Due to this, struggling learners are less likely to practise reading at home. Without the ability to understand and enjoy books, learners do not read, so their reading comprehension skills do not improve – the gap widens. These are just some of the reasons why reading comprehension skills should be taught explicitly to every learner. Not only does progress in reading comprehension improve attainment in English, but it removes barriers in every subject. Whether learners read a poetry collection or a biology textbook, the right reading comprehension strategies open doors to progress. What is reading comprehension? Reading comprehension is a fundamental skill learners must master to succeed in school. It allows learners to understand the texts they are reading, facilitating learning through literacy, while also having the potential to unlock a love of reading. We know the impact that reading can have on a learners’ success. Cultivating a love for reading in your learners is a gift that will benefit them throughout their life, in education and beyond. To give learners that gift, you must start with improving reading comprehension – and to teach reading comprehension skills explicitly, you need useful strategies. In this blog, we’ll be listing a number of research-driven strategies you can use to teach reading comprehension in your classroom. Making connections with prior knowledge In order to read successfully, learners need the ability to connect the text they’re currently reading with the knowledge they already have. This might be as simple as connecting the chapter you are reading now with the chapter before. However, the prior knowledge learners need to have in order to read a text might be cultural. For example: Joshua was aching so badly from the morning’s work that he could hardly eat his gruel. With the skill to be able to activate prior knowledge, we can infer (and we’ll come to this later) that Joshua works in a Victorian workhouse. From this, we can roughly guess his age and the time period of the text, all with one sentence – but it requires prior knowledge of Victorian workhouses and what life was like living there. Keen and Zimmerman (1997) identified three main types of prior knowledge activation: - Text to self - Text to text - Text to world When it comes to text-to-self and text-to-text prior knowledge activation, this is something you can model to your class. While reading a text, vocalise the connections you are making; this shows the class your thought process. Through listening to you make connections with prior texts and knowledge that has already been taught, learners can increase their understanding of how to activate this prior knowledge for themselves. Over time, you will need to model this thought process less and less as learners gain metacognition – the ability to think about how they are thinking. With this skill, learners can begin to activate prior knowledge internally as they read a text, improving their reading comprehension. On the other hand, when it comes to text-to-world prior knowledge activation (seen in the quote about Joshua above), this is a little more tricky. In a class of 20-30 learners, we can’t guarantee that each of them will have the same cultural knowledge. For some, the prior knowledge needed to access a text about a Victorian workhouse would already be present, but for some this text could be the first time they encounter this period in history. To tackle this, encourage learners to note down questions they have about the text as they read. This will give you a clear insight as to whether learners are activating prior world knowledge when reading the text. To fill in some of the gaps, encourage learners to think of any prior knowledge they have that is similar to the text – for example, even if a learner does not know about the Victorian workhouses, they might know something about the Victorian era, which is a good springboard to build on their knowledge. Remind learners that with every new text they read, they are building up a body of prior knowledge they can use to engage with texts in the future. This means the more they read, the easier it gets – this can be incredibly motivating for your learners to hear. Understanding new vocabulary Research suggests that learners need to understand over 85% of the words in a text to understand its meaning overall (Schmitt et al. 2011) (Stoeckel et al. 2020). Some believe this figure is closer to 98%! A limited vocabulary not only limits learners’ reading comprehension but also their enjoyment of the text. Tier 2 vocabulary is the high-level language that isn’t commonly used in everyday conversation, and is essential for learners to succeed in school. These Tier 2 terms make up the language of the academic texts they read and the exams they sit. As these words are used mostly in written text, such as in textbooks and novels, learners who read less miss out on many encounters with new language. This makes accessing texts even more difficult in the future. To break this cycle, you should provide every learner with explicit vocabulary instruction. In 1996, Hazenberg and Hulstijn found that learners need 3000 words to understand 95% of ordinary texts, and be able to understand general ideas and themes from texts. While this isn’t enough language for complete proficiency, it’s sufficient to allow learners to access fundamental texts – building up this body of vocabulary requires explicit vocabulary instruction. The tricky part when teaching vocabulary to your learners is that no two learners will have the same prior vocabulary knowledge. In one classroom, you may have some learners with an extensive arsenal of vocabulary, and some who rely mainly on Tier 1 language to communicate. Your method of teaching vocabulary should be differentiated for each learner – this is where Bedrock Vocabulary comes in. Rather than having to assess each learners’ vocabulary ability individually and match your activities to their level, Bedrock uses a deep-learning algorithm to find each learners’ vocabulary level. Language that is too simple can seem boring, and language that is too complex forms a barrier to learning. Not only does Bedrock’s deep-learning algorithm save you time, but it allows learners to access the language best suited to their ability, keeping them motivated. Other useful strategies for improving your learners’ vocabulary include upgrading their speech, high-quality teacher-student communication and scaffolded peer-to-peer conversation. Read more about these strategies in our blog on improving vocabulary. Part of the enjoyment of reading is making predictions about what happens next. Luckily, making predictions is a great way to practise reading comprehension, as it combines skills of inference, critical literacy and activating prior knowledge all at once. “To accurately make predictions students must understand not only what the author said, but what the author is implying.” (Bailey, 2020) Predictions can be made before opening the book and while you are reading, and then can be reflected upon after you have finished reading the extract. For example, when reading An Inspector Calls with your class, ask them to recall what happened in the chapter previously, and, using the chapter you have read together, predict what might happen in the next one. Not only does this increase reading comprehension skills, but it helps learners access the suspense, tension, and enjoyment in a novel, encouraging them to read for pleasure further down the line. You don’t even have to open the book to make a prediction. One fun activity to kick off your reading comprehension work is to have learners look at the front and back page of the book. Examine the cover, read the blurb, think about the title, consider the spine. What do you think the book is about? What do you think will happen? What is the author trying to make you feel about the text before you’ve even opened the first page? For example, take the book cover of the Golden Compass by Philip Pullman: When we look at the ornate design of the cover and the enigmatic title, what is Pullman encouraging you to feel before you begin reading? Simple questions such as “What do you think will happen next?” and “How do you think the story will end?” encourage learners to combine prior knowledge of the text with the inferences they have made so far. Practising combining these skills helps to improve reading comprehension overall. Identifying the main idea and summarising Summarising can be a fantastic tool for supporting reading comprehension. The ability to summarise well can feel like a skill people take for granted, but it allows learners to not only identify the main themes in a text, but to communicate them using their own words. This provides them with the freedom and autonomy to interact with reading in a way that suits them, encouraging reading for pleasure and deepening reading comprehension skills. As well as this, summaries from learners give teachers an insight into potential problem areas. When information is summarised, it’s easier to see where main ideas and key themes have been lost or misunderstood. This gives you an opportunity to support their knowledge, ensuring they are able to access the text. Summarising is one of the simplest strategies you can employ when improving reading comprehension. After reading a text, ask learners to summarise what they have read in their own words. This could be a simple summary, or as a response to a previous prediction they make about the text. When you’re done, ask learners to contribute their ideas to the class or to their peers. This gives other learners the opportunity to fill in gaps in the summary. By doing this as a class, you ensure that every learner comes away from the text with a clear understanding of its contents. In addition to the reading comprehension benefits, having structured conversations like this as a class reinforce communication skills and independent learning, as every learner has their own voice and gets involved in the discussion. Answering comprehension questions This is a well-used strategy for measuring reading comprehension, but it shouldn’t be underestimated. Reading comprehension questions work for both the teacher and the learner. For teachers, they give a clear insight into whether learners comprehend a text. The insights you receive aren’t as immediate as those you receive when reviewing summaries, but they are more in-depth, giving you a better view of where learners are misunderstanding a text. For the learner, reading comprehension questions frame the important parts of a text that they should read carefully. In this way, comprehension questions scaffold where learners should be thinking deeply, helping to shape the way they read texts. Reading comprehension questions alone are not enough to close gaps in reading comprehension, as they do not directly tackle the skills needed to read effectively. However, they do increase visibility for you as a teacher, while playing a role in helping to scaffold how learners should think about texts. These questions don’t have to be set out in an exam paper. Introduce low-stakes comprehension questions while reading a text. Here are some examples of different types of questions you can ask to get learners thinking deeply about a text: - What time of day do you think this story is taking place? What month or season? Why? - Looking at the front cover, why do you think the author chose that illustration and that font? - How do you think this character is feeling? Why do you think they feel this way? - What is the setting of the story and how does it affect the plot? - Can you summarise the story in just two sentences? - Do you think the blurb describes the story well? How would you change it? As you can see, the right reading comprehension questions bring together skills from all of the other strategies mentioned in this blog. By teaching all of these aspects of reading comprehension together, you form a consistent, cohesive strategy for improving learners’ reading. Comparing and contrasting Comparing and contrasting is the process of identifying whether two things are different or similar. Making a comparison between two things identifies that there is a link between them, whether that’s due to them being the same or opposite. Not only does this encourage learners to think deeper about the text, but it encourages them to identify overall themes, moods and motifs, even when they are not stated explicitly. In this way, comparing and contrasting works together with inference to boost learners’ critical thinking skills – a key component of reading comprehension. As well as this, texts that use comparisons within themselves provide great examples of language cues for learners. For example, when a text uses “similar to”, this signals that it is about to compare one thing to another. On the other hand, “on the other hand” signifies that the text is about to make a distinction between two things. Comparing and contrasting helps learners recognise when a text is supporting an argument or introducing a different perspective, reinforcing learners’ critical thinking skills and boosting reading comprehension. Comparing and contrasting is another opportunity to link back to prior knowledge. By comparing one section to another, you encourage learners to consider how current texts compare to texts they have read previously. This calls upon that prior knowledge and reinforces it. Questions such as, “How is this chapter different from the last chapter?” in English, or “Why do you think this letter contradicts the last letter?” in history encourage learners in every subject to compare and contrast the text with the knowledge they already have, strengthening their reading comprehension. You could include comparison and contrast in verbal reading comprehension questions, asking questions such as: - What’s changed between this chapter and the last chapter? - How is the main character similar or different to his father? - What is the text trying to do by putting the two different cities side by side? - Why is it important that this happy moment occurs while it is raining? These are great opportunities for comprehension practice and text-to-text comparisons. Visualising and using graphic organisers Graphic organisers are a great way to visualise ideas from a text. They allow learners to put new knowledge onto paper and organise it in a way that’s visible, deepening their knowledge and increasing their long-term retention. Using graphic organisers is a great way to make the process of summarising clear to see. After encouraging your class to summarise key ideas from the text in their own words, hand out graphic organisers and ask learners to write down three main ideas. From there, learners can give examples of how these ideas are shown in the text, as well as keywords that support this. We have made a template with this structure – feel free to share this template amongst your class and use it for deepening these reading comprehension techniques. As well as this, graphic organisers can be used to activate prior knowledge and facilitate effective prediction. Before you start reading a text, ask learners to come up with predictions for the text using their prior knowledge. During the reading process, encourage learners to write down any further predictions they have now they are informed by the text, or questions they have for the text after having read a section. After you have finished reading, get learners to finish off their predictions and questions. Were they right? Did any of their questions get answered as the text progressed? Do they have any more questions now the text has finished? This is another example of using visual tools to improve reading comprehension. A story map is a type of graphic organiser and works best when studying fiction texts. Oftentimes, when planning a piece of creative writing, we plan out the plot, the characters, the dilemma and the solution to craft an engaging story. Creating a story map is similar to this, only backwards. Learners can work back from an already written text, turning it back into its story plan – or story map. After reading a text, ask learners to list its main themes. Then you can go deeper, asking them to name characters and the dilemmas they face in the story. Encourage learners to identify problems and solutions, helping them build up an idea of the plot timeline. To go even further, combine this activity with your reading comprehension questions by asking them the impact of setting and time period. Through this activity, learners consider how aspects of the piece fit together to create an effect beyond what is explicitly written on the page. Story maps can also be applied to smaller sections of the text. For example, if you’re trying to encourage your learners to infer how characters are feeling in a certain chapter, you could design a map that links actions the characters are doing with emotions they may be feeling. Story maps call upon explicit vocabulary instruction, prior knowledge and inference skills, as well as visualisation – together, these strategies reinforce strong reading comprehension. Retelling works as a natural next step from summarising. Rather than just reducing the story to its main themes, learners use their own words to retell the events of the story to someone else. This utilises summarisation and story map strategies, as learners have to not only grasp the themes of the text but also the plot trajectory. This strategy is effective as it provides visibility on where knowledge has been misunderstood, much like with summarisation. However, it also provides the opportunity for you to upgrade their narrative through high-quality teacher-learner conversation, deepening their vocabulary and reading comprehension knowledge. At first, supporting your learners to retell the story might require some scaffolding. You might have to prompt with questions or fill in blanks. However, retelling the events of the story is an exercise that helps learners comprehend the trajectory of a story. Practising this increases their independence when reading and reduces their need for teacher support. How Bedrock incorporates strategies for reading comprehension into our teaching Books are one of the most important ways we gain information, especially in the classroom. English is the language of learning; strong reading comprehension skills unlock knowledge found in both fiction and non-fiction texts. By helping to improve reading comprehension skills, we improve learning through literacy. Our activities are crafted to support vocabulary, grammar and reading comprehension, supporting learners’ development in every subject across the curriculum. Firstly, Bedrock’s vocabulary curriculum tackles the Tier 2 vocabulary instruction needed for strong reading comprehension. Struggling readers often cannot access the texts in the classroom, and therefore can’t practise their reading comprehension skills. That’s why we teach vocabulary through intelligent differentiation and accessible stories, not only boosting learners’ vocabulary but encouraging them to love reading. Bedrock's vocabulary curriculum teaches new words through bespoke fiction and non-fiction texts, written in Tier 1 vocabulary. This ensures every learner has the chance to engage with the texts they read. Not only does this method of teaching provide high-quality, contextualised encounters with new vocabulary, but it also helps to cultivate a love of reading – this is a gift that will continue to boost learners’ progress throughout their lives. As well as this, Bedrock’s grammar curriculum teaches the grammar skills learners need to navigate texts effectively. Grammar is taught through engaging video content and interactive learning activities, consolidating learners’ grammar knowledge. From proper nouns to sentence structure to semicolons, Bedrock provides learners with the tools they need to understand grammar in practice. This doesn’t just benefit their own writing but their reading also. In Bedrock's core curriculum, vocabulary and grammar instruction work in tandem to give learners the tools they need to understand language, improving their literacy overall. If you’re looking to improve reading comprehension in your school, reap the benefits of Bedrock’s core curriculum. Find out more about how Bedrock can improve reading comprehension at your school.

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7 Fun Classroom Theme Ideas to Make Celebrating Diversity Fun Teaching and celebrating diversity in the classroom is integral to providing an equitable education for all students. This detailed guide will discuss why teaching and celebrating diversity and culture in any daycare, preschool classroom, or early elementary school classroom are so important. We will look at how teaching diversity and cultural awareness promotes understanding between different cultures, encourages open-mindedness, prepares students for a more diverse world, and provides a safe learning environment for all students. Types of Diversity Diversity is a fundamental concept to teach to young students. To teach diversity well, educators must understand the different forms of diversity that can be taught. According to Merriam-Webster, diversity is “the condition of having or being composed of differing elements: especially: the inclusion of people of different races, cultures, etc. in a group or organization.” Teaching diversity in early education is essential to helping children develop a strong sense of self-identity and respect for others. As an early childhood educator, you are responsible for providing an environment that allows children to explore and learn about similarities and differences between themselves and others. However, diversity is not just about ethnicity/race, culture, disabilities, religion, sexual orientation or gender identity but also includes learning, cognitive, and intellectual diversity. Here’s a look at some key ways to foster an understanding of diversity in daycare, preschool, and early elementary school classrooms. Learning diversity encompasses a variety of abilities and disabilities which can affect how someone learns. Therefore, it’s essential to recognize that some students may require extra support to learn effectively and progress with their studies. For example, some students may require more time to process information, while others may need assistance with more practical tasks such as writing or organizing materials. Therefore, educators should strive to ensure that all learners have the resources they need to succeed in their educational pursuits. Cognitive diversity refers to the way individuals think and process information differently from one another. Students with cognitive diversity have the potential to bring unique perspectives and insights into group discussions and activities, which can create an environment of creativity and innovation within the classroom setting. However, for these benefits to be realized, educators must look for ways to foster an understanding and appreciation for each student’s unique thinking styles and provide them with productive strategies for managing their differences. Intellectual diversity involves recognizing that no two individuals possess the same knowledge base or intellectual capacities. Therefore, teachers must strive towards creating a classroom environment where everyone feels comfortable sharing their ideas regardless of their knowledge on a particular topic. Furthermore, educators should actively seek opportunities for students to acquire new knowledge through exposure to diverse sources such as books, media outlets, expert speakers, etc., which can improve comprehension skills overall. Therefore, it is vital that educators understand how various forms of diversity impact their classrooms so they can better support their students’ learning journeys by providing them with resources tailored specifically towards their individual needs and interests. By introducing topics that help learn about all forms of diversity into classroom lesson plans early on in a student’s educational career, teachers can establish a foundation for success later down the road, no matter what academic trajectory they choose to pursue afterwards. Resources to get started How to Teach Kids About Racism – Rebecca J. Jackson Music, Education, and Diversity: Bridging Cultures and Communities – Patricia Shehan Campbell Start Where You Are, But Don’t Stay There, Second Edition: Understanding Diversity, Opportunity Gaps, and Teaching in Today’s Classrooms – H. Richard Milner IV And a whole list of books regarding racial inequities as well. Why Including Diversity In the Classroom Is Important Teaching and celebrating diversity helps children understand many different cultures, beliefs, customs, and traditions worldwide. It is similar to offering a child a variety of toys to play with; it broadens their perspective, encourages creativity, and helps them understand the world around them. By teaching about these differences from an early age, children can start to develop an understanding of how people who may be different from them think and act. This teaches children to be more tolerant of those who may not share their same values, beliefs or abilities– something that will be especially important as they age and begin interacting with people from other cultures daily. Through exposure to various perspectives, opinions, cultures, etc., young children will learn to form their own opinions instead of blindly following what the majority thinks or believes. This encourages critical thinking skills, which can benefit many aspects of life – now and later. Providing A Safe Learning Environment For All Students One of the most important reasons for teaching and celebrating diversity in the classroom is that it helps create a safe learning environment where all students feel respected regardless of identity or background. Introducing children to different ethnicities and cultures, they may not have been exposed to can build relationships with others outside their own family or community. This allows them to gain an appreciation for diversity which can help foster respect between everyone around them – creating a more welcoming atmosphere inside the classroom where everyone feels comfortable expressing themselves without fear of judgement or ridicule. As such, diversity should be prioritized by educators when creating lesson plans. It provides numerous benefits that will help shape young minds into responsible citizens capable of easily navigating our increasingly globalized society. Ways to Celebrate Diversity As part of creating an inclusive and respectful learning environment, finding ways to celebrate diversity among students and teachers is imperative. One of the best ways to foster this kind of respect and appreciation for differences is by celebrating diversity in a meaningful way. Here are some ideas on how teachers and educators can make sure that everyone in their classroom or school feels heard, seen and respected: Promote Inclusiveness – By creating an environment where all students feel safe, accepted and appreciated, teachers can help foster an inclusive atmosphere in the classroom. This means encouraging open dialogue between all students in the classroom while proactively addressing any instances of prejudice or discrimination. Celebrate Differences – Teachers should strive to create lessons that don’t just teach content but also demonstrate acceptance and admiration for diverse backgrounds and identities. They should also encourage their students to learn about different cultures and countries through activities such as show and tell, field trips or research projects. Recognize Achievements – Even small accomplishments by children should be recognized publicly so that everyone in the classroom feels valued regardless of their background, abilities or identity. This could be done by creating certificates or awards for excellence in a particular area or demonstrating outstanding effort towards achieving specific goals. Give Opportunities – Even when there are potential barriers, teachers should strive to provide equal opportunities for everyone in the classroom to participate fully in activities without feeling judged or excluded due to cultural or ability differences. Encouraging peer-to-peer tutoring amongst multilingual groups can also be beneficial as this allows students to utilize each other’s unique skills while developing communication skills simultaneously. Celebrate Cultural Holidays – Learning about different cultures can also be fun. Teachers should take advantage of cultural holidays such as Christmas and Hannukah, Lunar New Year, Diwali or Eid al-Fitr by organizing celebrations in the classroom where traditional food and activities can be shared amongst classmates from different backgrounds. This could lead towards fruitful conversations on religious customs while providing meaningful learning experiences which transcend beyond textbooks alone. 7 Fun and Inclusive Classroom Theme Ideas to Celebrate Diversity Now that you have all the background knowledge you need to start teaching diversity, we’ve put together a list of 7 classroom theme ideas. These classroom themes are great for young children and include classroom decor and teaching plans to help young minds learn about different forms of diversity in a simple, inclusive and fun way. Around the World Around the World is a great theme to introduce young children to different cultures and traditions. It can bring the world into the classroom and help students appreciate diversity while also learning about new places. Here are some ideas on how to get students involved: You can teach students about various countries worldwide by providing them with books, maps, and globe models. Explain which countries are near each other as well as what languages are spoken in each nation. In addition, pictures or videos of various landscapes, people, or landmarks can pique student interest. Have the students make traditional crafts from different countries as a second activity. Assign each student a country and have them research local customs and craft materials needed for their projects. For example, paper folding is popular in Japan, so they could create origami pieces; Indian culture has intricate beadwork, which could be reproduced with large beads and yarn; and Mexican culture emphasizes vibrant colors, so they could draw permanent marker designs on paper plates to make masks. Students can also learn about world culture through music and playing songs from around the world in their lessons. Discuss traditional instruments and have students try to imitate their sounds using their own homemade instruments, like empty containers filled with rice or beans for shakers or use cardboard tubes for drumsticks. You could even put on your chef’s hat and cook up some delicious dishes from various places around the world! Provide recipes for easy snacks like crepes from France that involve simple ingredients and steps that even younger kids can follow along with you in class. Or go outside for an educational picnic where each student brings food items from their assigned country. Teaching young children about diversity through an Around the World theme is fun and educational. By engaging in activities such as book reading sessions, crafting projects, musical performances, and cooking classes, all paired with discussions about different cultures, kids will be able to gain an appreciation for our diverse planet sooner rather than later. All About Me: Culture and Diversity: Kindergarten Social Studies: Who am I? Children of The World – 36 Piece Jigsaw Floor Puzzle What could be more diverse than the natural world? Nature is fascinating even for adults, and young children love to explore their surroundings or places they have never encountered. Introducing diversity through nature can help them grasp the concept more easily. By making connections between the natural world and their own lives, you can encourage children to experience, observe and appreciate the differences and similarities in our world. When teaching young children about diversity, it is important to get them actively involved in the learning process. Start by introducing diverse examples they can relate to – like animals or plants found in nature. Then, by engaging with these living organisms, students can understand how different beings have unique qualities that make them stand out from the rest. For example, you might ask students to carefully observe a butterfly and explain its features – such as its colorful wings or slender antennae – that help distinguish it from other insects. Furthermore, by introducing students to different countries or regions through books or videos, you can provide an opportunity for further exploration into natural diversity. Show them pictures of various landscapes worldwide and discuss why each place is unique and special. Ask questions such as “What are some differences between this landscape and a beach near your home?” or “What kinds of animals live in this area?” This will help them understand how geography affects culture and lifestyle. You can also take your students on field trips outdoors so they can experience different habitats firsthand. For example, go on walks together around your local area so they can learn more about bird species native to your region or explore tide pools at nearby beaches. Through outdoor activities like these, children gain a better understanding of our planet’s incredible biodiversity and its importance to humanity as a whole. Finally, engage your class in conversations about respect for all living things – no matter how small, or dissimilar they may appear – and open-mindedness towards those who may look or act differently than us. Please encourage your students to think critically about why the difference is something we should celebrate rather than fear. By doing so, you will equip these young learners with valuable life skills that will benefit them both now and into adulthood. World Continent Cards Montessori Geography Folder Wild Symphony – A book that uses music and storytelling to explain the differences between animals. Nature Walks, Outdoor Education & Learning, PreK Kindergarten Science Activities Language is a beautiful tool to teach young children about diversity. Through different tongues, accents, and expressions, children can gain an understanding of the world around them and how it is made up of many unique cultures. By teaching a language-based theme in early childhood education, children will gain an appreciation for the differences between people from diverse backgrounds and learn to embrace those differences with curiosity and respect. One way to get students involved in learning about languages is by introducing them to international stories. Stories have the power to bridge gaps between cultures and provide insight into other parts of the world that may be unfamiliar or unknown to them. Incorporating stories from different countries or regions can help students become familiar with different cultures while also honing their reading skills. Additionally, books written in other languages can help children understand which words refer to particular objects or ideas when expressed in a new language. Another effective way to introduce diversity through language learning in early childhood education is through music. Songs are fun for children and serve as learning tools, as they can help build phonemic awareness through rhythm and repetition. In addition, music from around the globe can be used in classroom activities, such as having students listen to songs from various countries and then engage in hands-on activities related to the lyrics, like creating art projects inspired by elements mentioned in the song’s verses. Teachers should encourage bilingual and multilingual students to share their language with their class to help foster an understanding of diversity. Learning another language is a great way to engage students in studying different cultures and promote respect for diverse backgrounds. Teachers can also use a sign language theme to introduce the concept of intellectual and cognitive diversity to preschool students by incorporating ASL into their classrooms. For example, they can teach basic signs such as those associated with feelings or greetings, provide stories about characters with diverse abilities, or invite an interpreter who speaks ASL to come in and present some of the basics of the language to the children. These activities will help foster a sense of respect and appreciation among students while also introducing them to vocabulary terms associated with foreign languages, which encourage self-expression and communication skills that will benefit them throughout their lives, both personally and professionally, when interacting with people from all walks of life. 9 Pieces ASL Colour Posters Color Bulletin Board Set Motivation Without Borders MWB Spanish Language Poster for Kids World Flags-Bulletin Board-International Hello There is no doubt that music is an incredible tool for educating children about diversity and acceptance. Not only does it have the ability to express ideas creatively, but it can also provide a fun and engaging way for young learners to explore different cultures. How many of you remember songs you learned in childhood that taught you something? I sure do! By introducing children to music from various parts of the world, they can begin to understand the universality of human experience and learn to appreciate different perspectives. One way to use music as a tool for teaching diversity is through participation in cultural exchange activities. This could include attending special events featuring local musicians or inviting local musicians into the classroom. Students would be able to listen to new sounds live and gain an appreciation of global cultures while being immersed in them firsthand. Additionally, teachers could bring in visiting speakers such as musicians or experts on culture to provide an interactive educational experience that students can engage with and learn from. Another excellent way for teachers to use music as an educational tool is by incorporating songs from around the world into classroom activities. This could be done through singing, dancing, or playing instruments together, which are great ways for kids to become familiar with unfamiliar tunes and rhythms from other cultures. Teachers can also introduce students to diverse musical genres, such as traditional folk music or contemporary pop songs from around the world, that demonstrate cultural differences in sound production and style. Finally, educators should also consider hosting themed days to explore diversity through music. During these days, students would work together in groups (or individually) on projects related to learning more about various cultures’ music styles – both past and present – while creating their own compositions based on what they have learned. This type of activity encourages creativity and helps kids develop a sense of appreciation for different cultural perspectives while gaining valuable knowledge simultaneously. Tam Tam Tambalay!: And Other Songs from Around the World Music Lesson Plan | Diversity and Inclusion Preschool Educational Musical Toys Set Celebrating holidays from multiple cultures can be an exciting way to educate kids on different traditions while reinforcing their appreciation for other backgrounds. Teachers can create meaningful learning experiences through guided discussions and activities that inspire children to value cultural differences. Here are some ideas on how to get students involved in learning about diversity through a holiday theme. One activity could involve creating multicultural ornaments for the classroom. Please encourage students to choose a country they would like to learn more about and research its traditional holiday decorations. Then, provide materials such as construction paper, glue, scissors, markers, glitter, and so on for them to create their own festive ornament. Additionally, you could use this task as an opportunity to explain why certain symbols or colors are associated with certain holidays or countries. It’s a great way for children to gain insight into different cultures! Another idea is having students make cards for their peers celebrating various holidays; we all know how much kids love getting mail. You can provide them with pictures of different holiday cards from around the world and then task them with making one for each other. This allows them to practice writing skills too. Alternatively, depending on the resources available at your school or facility, you could set up an international buffet where each student brings in food from their culture or family traditions. This encourages conversation in your classroom and makes your diverse student body feel more connected through shared foods. As they sample dishes from various backgrounds, they will begin experiencing new flavors while simultaneously developing new interpretations of their peers’ native customs. These types of interactions allow children to explore beyond what they already know and will help foster deeper understanding between cultures. Let’s Celebrate!: Special Days Around the World (World of Celebrations) Christmas Bulletin Board Borders Under the Sea Incorporating an Under the Sea theme into your classroom activities can be a great way to teach young children, typically between the ages of four and six, about diversity. Just like nature on land, exploring a variety of sea creatures and their habitats can encourage children to learn how each species is adapted to live in their environment. This can help them better understand how different life forms interact with one another in nature and how everyone has a place within their community. To get students involved in learning about marine life and its diversity, you may introduce classroom activities that require researching information about different species found in the ocean. This can include identifying what makes each creature unique and how they work together to form a balanced ecosystem. Consider having your students compare two or more species based on physical qualities such as size, coloration, movement capabilities, reproductive behavior and diet preferences. Through this exercise, they can appreciate biodiversity by recognizing that each species possesses characteristics that make them distinct from one another despite occupying similar habitats. Furthermore, dividing your class into small groups and assigning each group a specific species to investigate could be beneficial as it allows each child to become more engaged with one particular organism’s life cycle. Another fun way to support student learning is to set up an aquarium in the classroom. Teachers can assign students specific tasks related to researching an animal they’d like to keep in the tank before purchasing it or buying appropriate plants and decorations for it. Having students set up and maintain an aquarium is a great way to observe firsthand how all organisms interact within an ecosystem while also providing hands-on reinforcement of the concepts they’ve previously learned. You could also encourage your kids to draw aquatic lifeforms to decorate their classrooms. By creating a visually appealing classroom environment with meaningful decorations, teachers can further inspire their young learners’ creativity and foster positive interactions between peers. 45 Pieces Fish Cut-Outs Paper Colorful Classroom Decorations Under The Sea Bulletin Board Set Under the Sea Dramatic Play Center Teachers have the important job of introducing preschool students to learning, intellectual and cognitive diversity concepts. Teachers can effectively do this by implementing a Learning theme into the classroom. Learning themes involve creating a stimulating, engaging, and inclusive environment for all students. This allows children to learn from each other and develop an understanding of different abilities and backgrounds. A theme-based approach to learning also helps foster collaboration between students and promotes self-reflection and critical thinking skills. Teachers can introduce intellectual and cognitive diversity through stories or roleplaying activities. For example, a teacher could tell a story about two siblings with different interests or abilities, such as one sibling being better at math while the other excels in music. Through this type of story, children will see how everyone is unique in their own way and that we should celebrate our differences rather than see them as negatives or drawbacks. Another way teachers can implement this concept into the curriculum is through art projects that focus on diversity in both style and content. This enables children to explore various cultures, disabilities, religions, ethnicities, and social statuses while expressing themselves creatively through art forms like drawing or painting. By introducing a Learning theme into the classroom environment based on intellectual and cognitive diversity, teachers are providing preschoolers with an opportunity to experience new ideas in an exciting way while getting comfortable with celebrating individual differences among their classmates. In addition, this creates an atmosphere of respect for everyone’s opinion, which is key for student growth both academically and socially throughout their school career. It’s OK to be Different: A Children’s Picture Book About Diversity and Kindness Meeting Mimi: A Story About Different Abilities Ways to Decorate and Illustrate Diversity Decorating a classroom to illustrate diversity is an easy way for educators and teachers to support their students and create an inclusive environment. It helps develop a sense of belonging and allows students to learn self-expression while increasing their cultural awareness. - Bulletin boards are one of the best ways to decorate a classroom to illustrate diversity. They can be used to feature positive messages that promote equality, acceptance, and respect for all individuals. - Posters or artwork featuring symbols representing different cultures or countries can also be hung on bulletin boards to celebrate each student’s unique background. - Display art gives an opportunity for kids to help with decoration by allowing them to make drawings or paintings that represent different forms of diversity, as well as discussing what diversity means with them in class. - Bunting made out of fabric featuring traditional patterns or flags from around the world can also be hung on windows to honor various cultures. - Glass doors and windows are a perfect space for educators and teachers to utilize to showcase diversity themes studied in the classroom because they are the focal points in the room, which is essential when setting a positive atmosphere. - Students could also bring items from home that symbolize their culture, such as traditional clothing or musical instruments, which they could put on display in their learning space so everyone can appreciate them during classes. You can check out our Preschool Classroom Theme Ideas Pinterest page for more ideas. Diversity education should be an exciting part of any curriculum but particularly so for younger children who are just beginning their educational journey; introducing them early on to various ideas related to differences within society and the wider world helps create an understanding that we are all connected despite outward appearances or labels assigned by society at large. In addition, incorporating multiple learning styles into lessons, along with interactive activities and visual aids, teach kids valuable lessons they carry throughout life while providing enjoyable and memorable experiences. -This article was written by Rebecca Calbert. Rebecca is a licensed architect with over 30 years of experience. She owns and operates an architectural firm, Calbert Design Group, and educates her clients through the commercial real estate development process with online content at SaveOnBuilding.com. Rebecca’s “purpose” is to educate small business owners and protect them from what they don’t know.

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Racial Proscriptions and African-American Dance Traditions Beginning in the early 1940s, the Jacob’s Pillow Dance Festival, under the directorship of pioneering dancer/choreographer Ted Shawn, assumed an invaluable role in the dance world by becoming a venue where artists—both well-established and emerging—could present their work, teach and choreograph for students, and generally revitalize themselves by spending time in a supportive environment. At a time when artists of color were still fighting to make inroads in areas that had stringent racial proscriptions, the Pillow extended a welcoming hand. During the decades surrounding these inclusive initiatives, black dancers and choreographers faced the same types of proscriptions as individuals in other fields of endeavor. Racial biases affected them in terms of the places where they were permitted to pursue professional training, the venues where they could perform, and the critical responses they received. In this series of essays about black artists who performed at the Pillow, there are references to artists such as Janet Collins and Talley Beatty who attempted to find studios that would accept them as students during the early years of their training. The standard response to their inquiries was that the parents of white students would not tolerate integrated dance classes, and they would withdraw their children if a black student were enrolled. In other instances, we find that artists like Beatty, Katherine Dunham, and others were constantly searching for housing accommodations as they toured throughout the U.S., often turning to leaders in black communities to help them find lodging with local residents. Moreover—in an instance that had to do with the actual denial of an artist’s appearance on stage—Janet Collins was not allowed to tour with the Metropolitan Opera Ballet when the company traveled to the southern region of the United States. Examples such as these indicate that dance artists were engaged in struggles for equality that paralleled those that occurred in other areas of American life. The conflation of race and class often determined which areas of the performing arts were accessible to black performers.Racial proscriptions in the arts also reflect a complex matrix of factors that has historically resulted in the exclusion of black people from certain aspects of the American experience. As discussed in other essays in this series, the conflation of race and class often determined which areas of the performing arts were accessible to black performers. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, for example, popular genres such as minstrel and vaudeville shows—“lower class” forms of entertainment—were acceptable for black performers to engage in. But, as the “high arts” continued to develop in America, during the 1920s and onward, African-Americans found it very difficult to be accepted as serious participants in arenas such as classical ballet and opera. As an example of acceptable fields for blacks to engage in, minstrelsy is an especially interesting area. Its very essence was based on images of black people as comic, ignorant buffoons; and even though nineteenth- and twentieth-century minstrel companies were composed of both white performers (in blackface) and black performers (sometimes also in black face) the messages of racial inferiority were clear. As the most popular form of entertainment in America, the shows hammered home racist messages. One choreographer who created work for the Pillow—Joanna Haigood, who I will discuss in more detail later—used images of minstrelsy and popular-nineteenth century black performers in her 1998 work Invisible Wings. In a related vein, cultural critic Henry Louis Gates, Jr. points to the period between 1890 and 1910 as a time when American households were filled with “heinous representations of black people, on children’s games, portable savings banks, trade cards, postcards, calendars, tea cosies, napkins, ashtrays, cooking and eating utensils—in short, just about anywhere and everywhere a middle- or working-class [white] person might peer in the course of a day.”Henry Louis Gates, Jr., in Black Male: Representations of Masculinity in Contemporary American Art, Thelma Golden, ed. (New York, NY: Whitney Museum of Art, 1991) p. 11-12. Here we can envision a continuum that stretches from racist ideology, to social and political practices, to material culture, to the performing arts; and we can, again, see the complexity of the situation. During different periods, African-American artists dealt with oppressive environments in different ways. Elsewhere, I have written of how they negotiated racial proscriptions during the period that eventually became known as the Harlem Renaissance. Based on an idea called sociological positivism, the black intelligentsia of the period—roughly 1920 to 1930—believed that African Americans could improve their lot in American society by attaining recognition and success in artistic endeavors, because they belonged to a race that was innately gifted in those areas.John O. Perpener III, African-American Concert Dance: The Harlem Renaissance and Beyond (Chicago and Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2001) pp. 15-16. Though the idea of “natural” racial dispositions is one that has long been debunked, it was embraced during the 1920s as a reasonable way for African Americans to pursue racial parity in American society. In one of this series’ essays I discuss Asadata Dafora—an African artist who moved to America in 1929—and his objective of presenting West African music, dance, and folklore in such a way that it would be appreciated as an important contribution to the world of art. To achieve this, he presented his work in mainstream venues, before mostly white audiences, and within the purview of the New York critical establishment. Along the same lines, Katherine Dunham voiced her desire “to attain a status in the dance world that will give the Negro dance student the courage really to study, and a reason to do so. And take our dance out of the burlesque to make it a more dignified art.”Katherine Dunham, quoted in Frederick L. Orme, “Negro in the Dance as Katherine Dunham Sees Him,” American Dancer, March, 1938, p. 46. In spite of these early artists’ groundbreaking achievements and their own unerring confrontations of racial barriers, their expressions of racial uplift that centered on proving to others that black artists were worthy of acceptance eventually became anathema to the activists/artists of later generations. By the 1960s, African-American artists were developing radically different approaches than those of their earlier counterparts. They were turning away from the accommodationist practices of their predecessors and seeking more militant solutions. Larry Neal, a poet, essayist, and primary ideologue of the Black Arts Movement, spoke of these new directions in the following: . . . The Black Arts and Black Power concept both relate broadly to the Afro-American’s desire for self-determination and nationhood. Both concepts are nationalistic. One is concerned with the relationship between art and politics; the other with the art of politics. Recently, the two movements have begun to merge: the political values inherent in the Black Power concept are now finding concrete expression in the aesthetics of Afro-American dramatists, poets, choreographers [my emphasis] musicians and novelists. A main tenet of Black Power is to define the world in their own terms. The black artist has made the same point in the context of aesthetics.Larry Neal, “The Black Arts Movement,” in The Black Aesthetic, Addison Gayle, Jr., ed. (Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, 1972) p. 257 During the Black Arts Movement—roughly 1960 to 1975—artists made it a point to turn their backs on America’s arts establishments. They began to form their own organizations, open their own cultural centers, and cultivate their own critics. In their efforts to assure that their art confronted racial oppression by embracing messages of self-definition, self-knowledge, and self-esteem, they literally took their art to the streets of inner-city communities. Initiatives such as the Jazzmobile and the Dancemobile in New York City transported artists to perform on street corners, and in empty lots and playgrounds. Local residents saw serious, non-commercial art that they would not have been able to see otherwise. In this series of essays, in contrast to Asadata Dafora, Talley Beatty, and Janet Collins, a later generation of artists who appeared at the Pillow is represented by artists like Jawole Willa Jo Zollar, the founding director of the Urban Bush Women. Zollar began her career during the 1970s, when the influences of the Black Arts Movement were being felt throughout the country. Giving all due respect to the work of artists who laid an aesthetic foundation for her to build on, she has brought social and political commentary to the foreground to an extent that earlier black artists never dared. Though many things have changed since the 1930s and 1940s—both in artistic arenas and in the dynamics of race relations in America—there have been underlying sociopolitical problems that continue to affect black Americans. Younger artists have pointedly used their work to frame contemporary issues. Moreover, Zollar has widened this artistic purview by choosing subject matter that includes homelessness, violence against women, and environmental issues in works such as Shelter (1987) and Bitter Tongue (1987). Because black artists have consistently performed at the Pillow for such a long period of time, it is possible to examine both the changes and the continuities that have occurred in their artistic practices. One can see, for example, how distinctive movement vocabularies have been passed from one generation to the next. An artist like Charles Moore, who visited the festival with his company in 1976 and 1978, used movement techniques and styles he had learned from the earliest black participant at the Pillow, Asadata Dafora. As a child, Jawole Zollar studied with Joseph Stevenson, a former Dunham dancer, and she went on to create works that drew on her ever-expanding knowledge of African-diaspora dance. Her work has also been compared to that of Pearl Primus, with whom she never studied. And I would add that dance movement languages are not only passed from teacher to student, but they are also passed through acculturation processes, as individuals are exposed to vernacular dance in black communities, or to the gestural movements, kinetic patterns, and postures that become habituated through one’s daily comings and goings in a given environment. Dance historian Jacqui Malone alludes to the underlying dynamics of the continuity between the dances of Africa and the dances of diaspora communities, when she states, “Recognition of the strong relationship between the dances of traditional African cultures and the dances of black Americans is now a commonplace among students and scholars of American history, music, and dance.”Jacqui Malone, Steppin’ on the Blues: The Visible Rhythms of African American Dance (Chicago and Urbana IL: University of Illinois Press, 1996), p. 24. She continues this idea by describing how “certain movement patterns, gestures, attitudes, and stylizations present in the body language of black Americans are assertive proof of African influences.”Ibid. And, finally, she cites music historian Albert Murray who said that African Americans “refine all movement in the direction of dance-beat elegance. Their work movements become dance movements and so do their play movements; and so, indeed, do all the movements they use every day, including the way they walk, turn, stand, wave, shake hands, reach, or make any gesture at all.”Ibid. But, if we look again at the performances of black artists at Jacob’s Pillow over the years, we can also see aesthetic variations. As mentioned earlier, there is the evolving choice of subject matter that artists use in their works; and, there is also the ongoing exploration of new movement sources. These include the postmodern dance techniques that evolved in the 1960s and 1970s, the movement innovations of urban hip-hop during later decades, and borrowings from other movement traditions such as Japanese Butoh. The stories of the artists discussed in these essays, and their visits to America’s oldest dance festival, provide important insight into their attempts to secure a foothold in the larger arenas of American art and culture. A Brief Look at Black Life in the Berkshires African American Heritage in the Upper Housatonic Valley is a book that documents the African-American presence in the geographic area where Ted Shawn founded the Jacob’s Pillow Dance Festival. It records the stories of some of the individuals who represented the earliest presence of black people in the area; it also tells the stories of African Americans who fought for their peoples’ freedom during a period that stretched from the anti-slavery activism of the eighteenth century to the civil rights initiatives of the twentieth century; and it recounts the stories of individuals who, during those same periods, made significant contributions as entrepreneurs, educators, religious leaders, and in a wide range of other fields. The book highlights the lives of individuals such as William Edward Burghardt Du Bois, who was born in 1868 in Great Barrington, Massachusetts (roughly 20 miles from the Pillow). In addition to being the preeminent civil rights leader of his time, he also served as a leader of the black intelligentsia that founded the artistic and cultural movement that became known as the Harlem Renaissance. As contributor Barbara Bartle describes it in African American Heritage in the Upper Housatonic Valley, “[T]he movement’s demise came quickly with the Great Depression. But while it lasted, it was an optimistic time, when many Harlemites thought that the race problem could be solved through art—‘civil rights through copyright’ was a popular slogan.”Barbara Bartle, “The Harlem Renaissance,” in African American Heritage in the Upper Housatonic Valley, David Levinson, ed. (Great Barrington, MA: Berkshire Publishing Group, 2006), p. 129. Several other key individuals of the Harlem Renaissance were associated with Berkshire communities. Renowned African-American photographer James Van Der Zee was born in Lenox in 1886. Barbara Bartle also comments on his significance, “At his death it was said that he was a man who saw beauty in people and was willing to work hard to get his camera to see it. He recorded a time, place, and culture—Harlem during its renaissance—that we can recapture as vividly as any decade in our history.”Ibid., p. 132. In the book’s chapter, “Entertainment and Social Life,” we learn that the ubiquitous minstrel show was part of popular entertainment in the upper Housatonic valley, just as it was in the rest of America, and racist performances of Uncle Tom’s Cabin also took place in area theaters.Ibid., p. 123. On the other hand, in 1926, one could see a production of the groundbreaking, all-black musical Shuffle Along, at the Colonial Theater in Pittsfield.Ibid.Shuffle Along had opened to positive reviews on Broadway in 1921 with a stellar cast that included Florence Mills, Josephine Baker, Paul Robeson, and Adelaide Hall. “Jacob’s Pillow,” an entry written by Norton Owen, Director of Preservation at the festival, provides an overview of some of the activities that African-American dancers and choreographers engaged in over seven decades. Owen quotes the Pillow’s founder, Ted Shawn, as a testament to the artist’s abiding interest in world dance: The dance includes every way that men of all races in every period of the world’s history have moved rhythmically to express themselves.” Shawn underscored his interest in this direction by presenting concerts that were remarkable for the diversity of their artists, including black artists from Africa, America, and the Caribbean. At the end of his essay, Owen also mentions a remarkable piece of dance theater that was not only an exceptional example of the contributions of black artists to the festival, but it also incorporated an aspect of local history that was rooted in the very ground that Jacob’s Pillow was built on. The farmstead that Ted Shawn purchased in the 1930s as a summer home for his all-male dance company belonged to the Carter family. It has long been thought that members of that family were involved in the nineteenth-century anti-slavery movement known as the Underground Railroad, a series of routes dotted with safe-houses and other locations where escaping slaves could rest and be nourished as they traveled north toward freedom in Canada. Information about the actual locations of the stopovers is sketchy because of the secrecy surrounding every aspect of these journeys. As Barbara Bartle explains, “Often it has been difficult to document these sites because they may have been hidden rooms or chambers that have been altered, the houses may have been demolished, or sites may have consisted only of barns, caves, and secret passageways.”Ibid., p. 29. However, she goes on to explain that researchers have recently located secondary sources indicating specific individuals in Berkshire County who were involved in the Underground Railroad, and among these she lists Stephen Carter who served as a stationmaster during the mid-nineteenth century.Ibid. Invisible Wings: A Pillow Metaphor In 1993, while working on another project at the Pillow, San Francisco dancer/choreographer Joanna Haigood began investigating the story of the locale’s place in the annals of African-American history. While in residence that summer, she had an experience that made her realize that the place somehow felt like a “safe haven,” and that inspired her to begin looking into the property’s history. The most striking fact she found that supported her intuitive feelings was that the Carter farm had served as a station on the Underground Railroad. That began the journey that led her to individuals like Charles Carter, the great-great-grandson of Stephen Carter. After years of meticulous research, Haigood premiered Invisible Wings on August 25, 1998. Her extensive background in site-specific dance productions led her to use the grounds of Jacob’s Pillow as the stage on which the narrative of nineteenth-century journeys toward freedom unfolded. Her performance required that the audience travel with the performers to different sites that comprised the Carters’ old homestead, intensifying the verisimilitude of the different vignettes. She explained her use of the grounds in a talk preceding the work’s premiere: There’s a lot of walking in this piece . . . . What I’m trying to do is bring the audience . . . to pull the audience back in time into the nineteenth century, around 1850, which was probably the active time of this station. And, to do that, it was important for me to find a way to disorient people who are obviously very familiar with this property. So . . . There is a disorientation section. . . . And, kind of a set up to give you a more sensate experience of what it might be like to be escaping; to go through the various levels of fear, of joy, of making it . . . by setting up an environment that supports some of the concepts . . . . that you have your own experience by walking through these environments.Norton Owen, Interview with Joanna Haigood, Identifier 1189, Jacob’s Pillow Dance Festival, August 30, 1998. The storyteller, performed by Diane Ferlatte, opened Invisible Wings with a powerful monologue that set the scene as the audience surrounded her. She recounted events that exist somewhere between truth and legend. That is, the stories have been passed down from generation to generation, by word of mouth, without the certainty of written documentation. There is a kernel of truth in them, but they have also been elaborated on, giving them a mythic patina. The first one she tells is of a slave who has escaped from his plantation, but his head is encased in a metal cage that is supported by a collar around his neck. Several bells are attached to the top of this diabolical contraption, so that his movement is always accompanied by their constant clanging. Because of the limitations of his movement and the noise that he makes, he can be more easily tracked by slave catchers. Having set the horrific scene, the storyteller goes on to recount how a stranger finds the slave in the woods and tells him to stay where he is until he returns with a tool to free him from his entrapment. But, when the stranger returns the next day, he finds that the slave has hung himself from a tree in a fit of despair, and black birds swarm around his dangling corpse. In a final macabre irony, the birds are never able to feast on the corpse, because every time they disturb it, the clanging bells scare them away. The storyteller’s words cut through the darkening evening at Jacob’s Pillow like a stab to the heart of this darkly malevolent history. Ferlatte continues with another unsettling story that reveals how the Underground Railroad came to have its name. As the performance unfolds, the audience continues to move from place to place. They actually see the slave running through the woods with his head caged and witness depictions of other events that might have occurred as escapees moved northward toward freedom. One striking scene depicts how a slave-master, with the help of his black assistant wrenches a young girl from the desperate grip of her mother, so that the child can be sold to someone else. The vignette takes place high above the audience on a narrow platform that stretches the length of an old building’s roof. Haigood’s brilliant staging intensifies the effect of her work’s magical realism, the juxtaposition of all-too-real occurrences with implausible surroundings. (I think of paintings by Marc Chagall with peasants and cows flying above rooftops.) Such images create a fascinatingly ironic mix of painful truth and perplexing illusion. In another scene, a slave is suspended upside down, like one of those barbaric crucifixions, and whipped by his mistress who is the personification of maddened power. But, there is also a kind of impressionistic minuet—between master, mistress, and slaves—in which the players trace their vexed relationships in the floor patterns and gestures they make. One is reminded of how another artist, José Limón, used this convention of figured dancing in The Moor’s Pavane (first performed at the Pillow in 1951) that delineated the relationship between Othello, Iago, Desdemona, and Emelia. Other elements of Invisible Wings are used in such a way that they bring some welcome levity to the work. Of course, music and dance are chief among these elements. Haigood explained how she depended heavily on her music director, Linda Tillery, to gather the songs, percussive rhythms, and chants that accurately reflected African-American slave culture of the period. Their research included spending time among the Gullah people, descendants of slaves who have lived in isolation of the coasts of South Carolina and Georgia. Echoes of antebellum slave culture could still be heard in the music and speech patterns of these people. That region was also where Haigood’s family roots were, so she had personal ties to individuals who revealed fragments of cultural history. Her uncle, for example, demonstrated the “snake hips,” an undulating dance that can be thought of as part of the living history of African-American dances that are passed from one generation to the next, paralleling the oral tradition of storytelling. In the same vein, she studied the embodied knowledge of the buzzard lope, shuffling, patting and dancing juba, and the ring shout. These were elements of music and dance that often served as a kind of salve to soothe the painful wounds of slavery. Part of the stunning humanity of Invisible Wings is its deft delineation of the darkest moments that human beings can encounter in juxtaposition with the joyous expression of enduring and surviving—perhaps even thriving. And, Haigood concludes her work with another note of magical realism by referencing a mythical story that provides the piece’s title. One of the stories passed down from antebellum slave culture was that there were individuals who had magical powers that enabled them to escape to freedom by flying away, back to Africa. Using her skills as an artist accomplished in aerial work—the use of equipment that enables performers to be suspended high in the air—she ended Invisible Wings with an incredible moment where her character, Mary, one of the escaped slaves, is suspended from a crane, high above the buildings and the woods where the preceding scenes have unfolded. This moment of breathtaking transcendence provided a powerful conclusion with a message of consummate hope. For me—at the expense of forcing a point—Invisible Wings can be thought of as a metaphor for the participation of black artists at Jacob’s Pillow, because many of those artists’ journeys involved finding safe spaces where they could study, perform, teach, and thrive. This was especially true for those who came to the Pillow in the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s. As mentioned before, Beatty and Collins searched for places that would accept them as students. Dunham and others looked for places to house and feed their companies when they were touring the U.S. Well into the 1960s, even Ted Shawn ran into problems finding housing in the surrounding communities for some of his artists. Though these were not life and death situations or ones that might lead to bodily injuries, as was the case with travelers on the Underground Railroad, they were unsettling situations fraught with their own emotional and psychological trauma. These dancers’ art was their palliative, and finding a place that supported the creation and presentation of their art provided additional solace. Joanna Haigood spoke of her initial feeling that the Pillow was a place of refuge; and she described how she set out to create a piece of dance theater that would, in a sense, help the land of the old Carter farm reveal its stories about the people who had tread it. Over the years, since the festival’s formal incorporation in 1942, black artists have also come to the Berkshires, walking—indeed, dancing—on the same land and adding their own stories. PUBLISHED December 2017

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“Fun and Educational: Top Kids Activities for Creative Learning” As parents and caregivers, we all want our children to be happy and healthy. We want them to grow up to be confident, successful, and fulfilled adults. One way to help children achieve these goals is through engaging and enriching activities that promote learning, creativity, and exploration. The purpose of this article is to provide parents and caregivers with a comprehensive guide to top kids activities that are not only fun and entertaining but also educational and beneficial for child development. From outdoor play to sensory exploration, from literacy to STEM education, and from cultural activities to cooking and baking, this book covers a wide range of topics and ideas that will inspire and engage both kids and adults. Each chapter in this book focuses on a specific type of activity, providing detailed information on the benefits of each activity, the skills and concepts children can learn, and practical tips and ideas for implementation. Whether you are looking for ideas for a rainy day at home or planning a fun-filled day outdoors, this book has something for everyone. The Importance of Play in Child Development Play is an essential component of child development. Through play, children learn about themselves, others, and the world around them. Play helps children develop their cognitive, social, emotional, and physical skills, and it provides them with opportunities to explore, experiment, and create. In this article, we will explore the different types of play and their benefits for child development. We will also discuss the role of adults in play and how to create a safe and stimulating play environment for children. Benefits of Play Play has numerous benefits for child development, including: - Cognitive development: Play helps children develop their thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making skills. - Social development: Play provides children with opportunities to interact with others, learn social skills, and develop friendships. - Emotional development: Play helps children express their emotions, develop empathy, and regulate their emotions. - Physical development: Play promotes physical activity, coordination, and gross and fine motor skills. - Creativity and imagination: Play fosters imagination and creativity, allowing children to think outside the box and explore new ideas. Types of Play There are many different types of play, including: - Sensory play: Activities that involve exploring with the senses, such as playing with sand, water, or playdough. - Physical play: Activities that involve movement, such as running, jumping, climbing, and dancing. - Pretend play: Activities that involve imagination and role-playing, such as playing house, dress-up, or make-believe games. - Constructive play: Activities that involve building, creating, and designing, such as playing with blocks, Legos, or art materials. - Games with rules: Activities that involve following rules and taking turns, such as board games, card games, or sports. The Benefits of Sensory Play for Children’s Development Sensory play is an essential part of children’s development, and it can be a fun way for them to learn new things. It involves stimulating the senses, including sight, touch, smell, and sound, to enhance their cognitive and physical development. In this article, we will explore different kids’ activities for sensory play and their benefits. Play with Clay Clay is an excellent medium for sensory play. Children can mold and shape it, stimulating their creativity and imagination. They can also feel the texture of the clay, which enhances their tactile skills. Playing with clay can also improve their hand-eye coordination and fine motor skills. Finger painting is a fun and messy activity that children love. It allows them to explore different colors and textures, stimulating their visual and tactile senses. Finger painting also encourages creativity and imagination and helps to develop their hand-eye coordination and fine motor skills. Sensory bins are containers filled with different materials that children can explore using their senses. For example, a sensory bin filled with rice or sand can provide children with a tactile experience, while a bin filled with scented materials can stimulate their sense of smell. Sensory bins can also improve their hand-eye coordination, fine motor skills, and language development. Water play is an excellent way for children to explore different textures and temperatures. They can splash, pour, and mix water, which stimulates their tactile, visual, and auditory senses. Water play also helps to improve their hand-eye coordination, fine motor skills, and cognitive development. Playdough is a fun and versatile material for sensory play. Children can mold and shape it, which enhances their creativity and imagination. Playdough also provides a tactile experience, which stimulates their senses. Playing with playdough can also improve their hand-eye coordination, fine motor skills, and language development. Sensory bottles are containers filled with different materials that children can shake, roll, and explore using their senses. For example, a sensory bottle filled with glitter and water can provide a visual and auditory experience, while a bottle filled with rice and small toys can provide a tactile experience. Sensory bottles can also help to calm and soothe children and improve their cognitive development. Playing musical instruments is a fun and creative activity that children love. It stimulates their auditory senses and helps to improve their cognitive and emotional development. Children can explore different sounds and rhythms, which enhances their musical skills and creativity. Play with Slime Slime is a gooey and stretchy material that children love to play with. It provides a tactile experience, stimulating their sense of touch. Children can also explore different colors and textures, which enhances their creativity and imagination. Playing with slime can also improve their hand-eye coordination, fine motor skills, and language development. Exploring Nature: Outdoor Activities for Kids In today’s digital age, it’s easy for children to spend most of their time indoors staring at screens. However, spending time outdoors and exploring nature can have numerous benefits for children’s physical, emotional, and cognitive development. In this chapter, we will explore the benefits of outdoor play and provide ideas for fun and educational outdoor activities for kids. Benefits of Outdoor Play Spending time outdoors and exploring nature has numerous benefits for children, including: - Physical activity: Outdoor play provides children with opportunities to be physically active, which is important for their overall health and well-being. Activities such as running, jumping, climbing, and playing ball games can help children develop their gross motor skills and improve their cardiovascular health. - Sensory experiences: Nature provides children with a wide range of sensory experiences, such as feeling the grass under their feet, smelling the flowers, or listening to the birds. These experiences help children develop their sensory processing skills and can have a calming effect on their nervous system. - Cognitive development: Outdoor play provides children with opportunities to learn about the world around them. They can observe and explore natural phenomena, such as the changing of the seasons or the behavior of animals, which can help them develop their critical thinking and problem-solving skills. - Emotional development: Spending time outdoors can have a positive impact on children’s emotional well-being. Nature has a calming effect on the brain and can help children reduce stress and anxiety. Outdoor play also provides children with opportunities to explore and express their emotions in a safe and natural environment. 7 Outdoor Activities for Children’s Development and Fun Engaging children in outdoor play is essential for their overall development. The natural environment is full of opportunities for children to learn about the world around them, develop their skills, and have fun. These activities provide children with a range of benefits, such as improving their physical and mental health, enhancing their creativity and imagination, developing their problem-solving and social skills, and increasing their appreciation and respect for nature. - Nature scavenger hunt: Create a list of items for children to find in nature, such as a certain type of leaf, a bird’s nest, or a butterfly. Children can explore the natural environment, learn about different plants and animals, and practice their observation and problem-solving skills. - Plant a garden: Children can learn about the process of growing plants and vegetables by planting a garden. They can learn about the different types of soil, the importance of sunlight and water, and the life cycle of plants. Gardening can also teach children responsibility and provide them with a sense of accomplishment. - Nature art: Children can use natural materials, such as leaves, flowers, and sticks, to create art. They can make collages, sculptures, or paintings inspired by nature. This activity encourages children to use their imagination and creativity and helps them develop their fine motor skills. - Hiking: Hiking provides children with opportunities to explore the natural environment, learn about different plants and animals, and practice their physical skills. Children can also learn about trail safety and the importance of respecting nature. - Outdoor games: Outdoor games, such as tag, hide and seek, or capture the flag, provide children with opportunities to be physically active and practice their social skills. These games can also be adapted to teach children about teamwork, strategy, and problem-solving. - Water play: Water play can be a fun and refreshing activity for children on hot days. Children can play with water balloons, run through sprinklers, or have water gun fights. This activity also helps children develop their sensory processing skills and can have a calming effect on their nervous system. - Camping: Camping provides children with opportunities to explore nature, learn survival skills, and practice their independence. Children can learn about setting up tents, building fires, and cooking outdoors. This activity also provides children with opportunities to practice their social skills and develop friendships. Tips for Outdoor Play - Safety first: Always make sure that children are supervised when playing outdoors and that they are wearing appropriate clothing and protective gear. - Be prepared: Bring snacks, water, and sunscreen when spending time outdoors. Also, check the weather Encourage exploration: Allow children to explore and investigate their surroundings. Encourage them to ask questions and provide opportunities for them to find answers. - Limit screen time: While some educational apps and websites can be beneficial, it’s important to limit children’s screen time and encourage them to spend time outdoors. - Make it fun: Outdoor activities should be enjoyable and engaging for children. Try to incorporate games, challenges, or rewards to make it more exciting. Outdoor play can help children develop their gross and fine motor skills, sensory processing skills, critical thinking, problem-solving, social skills, and emotional well-being. Parents and caregivers can encourage outdoor play by providing opportunities for children to explore nature and engage in fun and educational activities. The Benefits of Storytelling for Children Storytelling is an excellent way to develop a child’s imagination and creativity. When children listen to stories, they are transported to different worlds and exposed to new ideas and concepts. This exposure helps to expand their thinking and encourages them to think outside of the box. Listening to stories also helps children develop their language skills. Through listening, they learn new words and phrases and develop their understanding of sentence structure and grammar. This understanding helps them to become more confident speakers and writers. Storytelling also provides an excellent opportunity for parents to bond with their children. When parents read stories to their children, they are spending quality time together and creating memories that will last a lifetime. Creative Ideas for Storytime Activities There are many ways to make storytime activities more engaging and interactive for children. Here are some creative ideas to try: - Act Out the Story – Encourage children to act out the story as it is being read. This activity helps to develop their creativity and imagination, and it is a fun way to keep them engaged. - Make Crafts – After reading a story, provide children with materials to make crafts related to the story. For example, if the story is about animals, provide materials to make animal masks or puppets. - Play Games – Create games related to the story. For example, if the story is about pirates, create a treasure hunt game where children search for hidden treasure. - Write Your Own Story – Encourage children to write their own stories. This activity helps to develop their literacy skills and encourages them to think creatively. - Use Props – Use props such as puppets or costumes to bring the story to life. This activity helps children visualize the story and makes it more memorable. Storytelling is a fun and engaging way to develop a child’s imagination, language skills, and creativity. By incorporating creative ideas into storytime activities, parents can make storytelling even more interactive and enjoyable for children. So next time you’re looking for an activity to do with your child, why not try storytelling? Arts & Crafts: Perfect for Kids of All Ages As parents, we want to provide our children with activities that are both fun and educational. One great way to do this is through arts and crafts. Not only do these activities allow children to express their creativity, but they also help develop fine motor skills, problem-solving abilities, and even social skills when done in a group setting. In this article, we will provide you with some top kids activities in the world of arts and crafts. DIY Paper Crafts DIY paper crafts are a fantastic way to keep kids entertained for hours. They can create origami animals, paper airplanes, or even paper flowers. There are plenty of tutorials available online that are easy to follow and can be adapted to suit the age of the child. Children will love the process of cutting, folding, and gluing the paper to create something beautiful. Painting is a classic arts and crafts activity that children have enjoyed for generations. It’s a fantastic way for children to express their creativity and explore colors and textures. You can use watercolors, acrylics, or even finger paints depending on the age of the child. It’s also a great activity to do outside on a sunny day. Clay modelling is a fun and tactile activity that can keep kids entertained for hours. Children can make their own sculptures or even recreate their favorite animals or characters. There are plenty of clay options available, from traditional clay to air-dry clay, which is perfect for younger children. Making jewelry is a fun and easy activity that children can enjoy. They can make friendship bracelets, necklaces, or even earrings. There are plenty of kits available online that come with everything you need to get started. Children will love picking out their own beads and creating something unique. Sewing is a fantastic activity that can teach children valuable skills. It helps develop hand-eye coordination and problem-solving abilities. Children can start with simple projects like making a pillowcase or a stuffed animal. There are plenty of tutorials available online that are easy to follow, and children will love the feeling of accomplishment when they complete their project. Scrapbooking is a great way for children to preserve their memories. They can create a scrapbook of their favorite pictures, drawings, or even ticket stubs. It’s a great activity to do with friends or family members, and children will love flipping through their completed scrapbook and reminiscing about their favorite moments. DIY Soap Making DIY soap making is a fun and educational activity that children can enjoy. It teaches them about chemistry and the process of soap making. Children can create their own soap using natural ingredients and even add essential oils for a pleasant scent. It’s a great activity to do with friends or family members, and children will love using their handmade soap in the bath. Arts and crafts are a fantastic way to keep children entertained while also providing educational benefits. These activities allow children to express their creativity, develop fine motor skills, problem-solving abilities, and even social skills when done in a group setting. We hope this article has given you some inspiration for your next arts and crafts activity with your child. 5 Fun and Engaging Music and Movement Activities for Kids As parents, we all want to keep our kids happy, healthy, and engaged in activities that will help them develop their skills and creativity. And what better way to achieve this than through music and movement? Music and movement activities can provide a fun and stimulating experience for kids while helping them develop their physical, cognitive, and emotional abilities. In this section, we will explore the top kids’ activities related to music and movement that can help your child grow and develop in a variety of ways. We’ll discuss how these activities can help kids develop their physical coordination, emotional regulation, and cognitive skills, and we’ll provide some practical tips for parents who want to incorporate these activities into their children’s daily routine. Dance classes are an excellent way for kids to develop their physical coordination, balance, and rhythm. Through dance, kids learn to move their bodies in new and exciting ways, improving their flexibility, strength, and overall physical health. Dance also helps kids develop their social skills, as they learn to work with others in a group setting and express themselves through movement. If you’re considering enrolling your child in a dance class, look for classes that are age-appropriate and led by qualified instructors who have experience working with children. Some popular dance styles for kids include ballet, tap, jazz, and hip hop. Music lessons are another great way to encourage your child’s development. Learning to play an instrument or sing can help improve a child’s cognitive skills, including memory, language, and spatial reasoning. It can also help kids develop their creativity and self-expression. When choosing a music teacher or program, look for one that is tailored to your child’s age and interests. Some popular instruments for kids include piano, guitar, violin, and drums. Yoga for kids Yoga is a great way for kids to improve their physical health and emotional well-being. Through yoga, kids learn to move their bodies in new and challenging ways, improving their strength, flexibility, and balance. They also learn to regulate their emotions and manage stress through breathing and relaxation techniques. If you’re interested in incorporating yoga into your child’s routine, look for classes or online programs that are designed specifically for kids. Yoga classes for kids often incorporate fun and engaging activities like animal poses and partner yoga. Musical games can provide a fun and engaging way for kids to learn about rhythm, pitch, and other musical concepts. Games like musical chairs, freeze dance, and sing-along can be played with a group of kids, making them a great option for parties or playdates. If you’re looking for new musical games to play with your child, try searching online for ideas or creating your own games based on your child’s interests. Finally, one of the simplest and most effective ways to encourage your child’s physical and emotional development is through active play. Encourage your child to run, jump, climb, and play games that require physical activity. This can include outdoor activities like soccer, frisbee, or tag, or indoor games like hide-and-seek or Simon says. By encouraging your child to engage in active play, you’ll be helping them develop their physical coordination, cognitive skills, and emotional regulation in a fun and engaging way. Pretend Play Activities: Top Kids Activities to Try Today As parents, we are always looking for ways to engage our kids in fun and educational activities that will help them develop their creativity, imagination, and social skills. Pretend play is one of the most effective ways to achieve all of these goals, and it is also a great way to bond with our children. In this article, we will explore some of the top kids activities for pretend play, and how they can benefit your child’s development. Dress-up play is a classic pretend play activity that has been enjoyed by children for generations. It involves putting on costumes and acting out different roles, such as a doctor, firefighter, or princess. Dress-up play is not only fun but also helps children develop their creativity, imagination, and language skills. It also teaches them about different professions and roles in society, and how to interact with others in different scenarios. Tea parties are another popular pretend play activity that is enjoyed by many children, especially girls. It involves setting up a table with tea cups, plates, and pretend food, and pretending to have a tea party with friends or dolls. Tea parties help children develop their social skills, including sharing, taking turns, and polite conversation. It also helps them learn about table manners and etiquette. Playing grocery store is a great way to teach children about money, math, and social skills. Children can set up a pretend store with food items, a cash register, and play money. They can take turns being the cashier and the customer, practicing counting money and making change. Playing grocery store also teaches children about healthy eating habits and the importance of making smart food choices. Superhero play is a favorite among many children, especially boys. It involves pretending to have superpowers and fighting imaginary villains. Superhero play helps children develop their imagination and creativity, as well as their problem-solving skills. It also teaches them about courage, bravery, and standing up for what is right. Playing restaurant is another great way to teach children about food, cooking, and social skills. Children can set up a pretend restaurant with menus, tables, and pretend food. They can take turns being the chef, waiter, and customer, practicing cooking and serving food, and taking orders. Playing restaurant also teaches children about teamwork and communication. Pirate play is a fun and adventurous pretend play activity that is enjoyed by many children. It involves pretending to be a pirate and going on a treasure hunt. Pirate play helps children develop their imagination and creativity, as well as their problem-solving and decision-making skills. It also teaches them about history, navigation, and the importance of working together. In conclusion, pretend play is an essential part of every child’s development, and it is a great way to have fun and bond with our children. The activities listed above are just a few examples of the many pretend-play activities that children can enjoy. By encouraging our children to engage in pretend play, we are helping them develop their creativity, imagination, social skills, and many other important skills that will benefit them throughout their lives. Top Kids Activities: Music for Kids When it comes to kids’ activities, music is a great way to engage children and enhance their cognitive and emotional development. Music has been shown to improve memory, language skills, creativity, and social skills in children. In this article, we’ll explore the top music activities for kids that you can try at home. Top Music Activities for Kids - Singing: Singing is a simple and fun way to introduce music to kids. You can sing nursery rhymes, children’s songs, or even popular songs together. Singing can help kids develop their language skills, memory, and creativity. - Dancing: Dancing is a great way to engage children in music and physical activity. You can play upbeat music and encourage your child to move and dance along. Dancing can help kids develop their motor skills, coordination, and rhythm. - Musical Instruments: Musical instruments can be a fun way to introduce kids to music. You can start with simple instruments like maracas, tambourines, or xylophones. As your child gets older, you can introduce more complex instruments like a keyboard, guitar, or drums. - Musical Games: Musical games can be a fun way to engage children in music and learning. You can play games like musical chairs, musical statues, or even a musical scavenger hunt. - Listening to Music: Listening to music together can be a great way to bond with your child and expose them to different types of music. You can listen to classical music, jazz, pop, or even world music. Music is a wonderful way to engage children and enhance their cognitive and emotional development. There are many different music activities that you can try with your child, from singing and dancing to playing musical instruments and games. By introducing music to your child from a young age, you can help them develop a lifelong love of music and all the benefits that come with it. Learning Activities: Top Ideas for Kids of All Ages As parents, we always want the best for our children. We want them to grow and develop into well-rounded individuals who are confident, curious, and eager to learn. One of the best ways to help our kids achieve this is by providing them with fun and engaging learning activities that can ignite their imagination and foster their creativity. In this article, we will share with you some of the top learning activities for kids that can help them develop important skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and communication. Whether you’re a parent, teacher, or caregiver, these activities are perfect for kids of all ages and can be done at home, in the classroom, or outdoors. Arts and Crafts Arts and crafts are a great way to promote creativity and imagination in kids. Whether it’s painting, drawing, or making sculptures, these activities can help children express themselves and explore their artistic side. Arts and crafts also teach kids important skills such as fine motor skills, hand-eye coordination, and attention to detail. Science experiments are a fun way to introduce kids to the world of science and encourage their curiosity about the world around them. You can find many easy and exciting experiments online that you can do with your kids at home. From making homemade volcanoes to creating a mini water cycle, science experiments are a great way to teach kids about the scientific method and spark their interest in science. Cooking and Baking Cooking and baking are not only fun but also educational activities that can teach kids valuable life skills such as following instructions, measuring ingredients, and time management. Cooking and baking can also help kids develop their math skills, as they learn about fractions, measurements, and conversions. Music and Movement Music and movement activities are perfect for kids who love to dance, sing, or play musical instruments. These activities can help children develop their motor skills, coordination, and rhythm. Music also has many cognitive benefits, such as improving memory and language development. Reading and Writing Reading and writing are essential skills that every child should learn. Reading can help children develop their vocabulary, comprehension, and critical thinking skills, while writing can help them express their thoughts and ideas in a clear and concise manner. Encourage your kids to read books that interest them and to write their own stories or journal entries. In conclusion, learning activities are an essential part of a child’s development, and parents, teachers, and caregivers should make an effort to incorporate them into their daily routine. These activities not only help kids develop important skills, but they also provide them with a sense of accomplishment and joy. So, let’s get creative and start exploring the wonderful world of learning activities with our kids today! FAQ about Top Kids Activities Q: What are some top kids activities that are popular? A: Some popular kids activities include playing sports, arts and crafts, board games, outdoor activities like hiking and biking, visiting museums and aquariums, and attending music or dance classes. Q: How can I find the best kids activities in my area? A: You can search online for local kids activities, check out community bulletin boards, ask other parents for recommendations, or contact your local parks and recreation department. Q: How can I keep my child engaged during the activity? A: You can keep your child engaged by choosing activities that match their interests and skill level, providing encouragement and positive feedback, and joining in on the activity with them. Q: What are some affordable kids activities? A: Some affordable kids activities include going to the park, playing board games at home, visiting the library, and exploring nature trails. Q: How can I make sure the kids activity is safe? A: You can make sure the kids activity is safe by choosing activities that are age-appropriate and supervised, checking equipment for safety hazards, and making sure your child knows the rules and boundaries. Q: Can kids with special needs participate in these activities? A: Yes, many kids activities are inclusive and can be modified to accommodate children with special needs. You can contact the activity provider to ask about accommodations and support. Q: How much time should my child spend on activities? A: The amount of time your child spends on activities can vary depending on their age, interests, and schedule. As a general guideline, toddlers and preschoolers may benefit from shorter activities of 15-30 minutes, while older children may be able to handle activities lasting up to an hour or more. Q: How can I encourage my child to try new activities? A: You can encourage your child to try new activities by exposing them to a variety of options, offering positive reinforcement and praise for their efforts, and being patient and supportive as they explore new interests. Q: What are some educational kids activities? A: Some educational kids activities include reading books, doing puzzles, playing educational games, attending science or history museums, and exploring nature. Q: Can kids activities be a good way to make new friends? A: Yes, participating in kids activities can be a great way for children to meet and socialize with peers who share similar interests. Some activities, like team sports or group classes, may be especially effective for making new friends. Q: How can I incorporate learning into kids activities? A: You can incorporate learning into kids activities by selecting activities that are age-appropriate and educational, encouraging your child to ask questions and explore new concepts, and providing additional resources like books or videos to enhance their understanding. Q: Are there any benefits to kids participating in activities? A: Yes, participating in kids activities can have many benefits, including developing physical, social, and emotional skills, boosting self-esteem and confidence, and promoting creativity and imagination. Providing children with fun and educational activities is crucial for their overall development. From physical activities to cognitive ones, each type of play provides unique benefits for children. Sensory play, in particular, is a great way for children to explore their senses and enhance their cognitive and physical development. By incorporating different types of play into a child’s routine, parents and caregivers can help children develop essential skills and qualities that will benefit them throughout their lives. So, let’s encourage our children to play and learn, and provide them with opportunities to explore, experiment, and create. To further assist you choosing kids activities, we have included below a list of additional resources and materials. Additional Research and Statistics The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that children engage in at least 60 minutes of physical activity per day for optimal health and development. A study published in the Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology found that participation in structured after-school activities was associated with better academic and social outcomes for children. The National Endowment for the Arts reports that children who participate in arts activities tend to have higher academic performance and stronger social and emotional skills. The Child Mind Institute recommends sensory activities as a way to help children develop self-regulation skills and improve their attention and focus. According to a study published in the Journal of Early Childhood Research, literacy-rich activities such as reading and storytelling can have a positive impact on children’s language and literacy skills. Source: The National Science Foundation reports that exposure to STEM activities can improve children’s problem-solving skills and interest in science and technology. A report by the National Association for Sport and Physical Education found that physical activity can enhance children’s academic performance, as well as their physical and mental health. American Academy of Pediatrics: The AAP provides recommendations and resources for parents on various topics related to child health, including play and physical activity. Their website offers information on the benefits of play and the types of activities that are best for children of different ages. National Association for the Education of Young Children: NAEYC is a professional organization that promotes high-quality early learning for all young children. Their website offers resources and information for parents on various aspects of early childhood education, including play-based learning and developmentally appropriate activities. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: The CDC provides guidelines and resources for parents on promoting physical activity and healthy behaviors in children. Their website offers information on the benefits of physical activity for children and strategies for incorporating it into daily routines. PBS Kids: PBS Kids offers educational games, videos, and activities for children, as well as resources and ideas for parents and caregivers. Their website includes a section on parenting and child development, with tips and information on play-based learning and other topics. National Park Service: The National Park Service offers a variety of outdoor activities and educational programs for children and families. Their website includes resources for parents and educators on exploring nature and promoting outdoor play and learning. Scholastic: Scholastic is a publishing company that offers books, educational materials, and activities for children of all ages. Their website includes resources and ideas for parents on promoting reading, literacy, and learning through play. Sesame Street: Sesame Street is a children’s television show that offers educational content and activities for children. Their website includes games, videos, and resources for parents on various topics related to child development and learning through play. The Smithsonian Institution: The Smithsonian offers educational programs and resources for children and families, including virtual tours, educational activities, and games. Their website includes information on various topics related to science, history, and culture, as well as resources for parents and educators. Parenting Science: Parenting Science is a website that provides evidence-based information and advice for parents on various topics related to child development and parenting. Their website includes articles and resources on play-based learning and the benefits of different types of activities for children. American Camp Association: The American Camp Association offers resources and information for parents on the benefits of camp and outdoor activities for children. Their website includes a directory of accredited camps and information on choosing a camp that is right for your child.

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The fourth trecena (13-day “week”) of the Aztec Tonalpohualli (ceremonial count of days) is called Flower for its first numbered day, which is the 20th day of the vientena (20-day “month”). In the Nahuatl language Flower is Xochitl, and it’s known as Ajaw (sun, lord) in Yucatec Maya and Ajpu in Quiché Maya. For the Aztec, the day Flower is the symbol of the soul, purity, and holiness. Through its essential connection to Xochipilli, Prince of Flowers, the day is also related to the arts, music, and dance, though the patron of the day is Xochiquetzal, the Flower Feather, who was briefly described in the preceding Deer trecena. In the anatomical scheme, the day Flower is identified with the breast or chest since the soul was supposed to be located in the heart—whence the crucial importance of heart sacrifice. PATRON DEITY RULING THE TRECENA My illustrious informant for matters Maya, Dr. Marguerite Paquin, advises that we really don’t know much about the ancient Maya patrons of the days or trecenas, since so many thousands of their books were burned by the Christian invaders. (But we know that the Maya saw the days as embodying specific deities, as well as each number depicting a deity. For instance, the number one was Ix-Chel, the Maya Moon goddess.) It was only over several intervening centuries that the “Aztec” system of trecena patrons evolved. Huehuecoyotl (Old Coyote) came into the calendar to rule the Flower trecena at some point probably well before the ascension of the Aztec empire (See my Icon #6). In Maya mythology, One Ajaw is the day-name of Hunahpu, one of the Hero Twins. (For more on those bad boys, check out https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_Hero_Twins.) As told in the Popol Vuh, the Maya creation story, Hunahpu and Xbalanque played a ballgame with the lords of the underworld, dancing around every weird thing thrown at them by the death lords and ultimately defeating them through cunning, bravery, creativity, and trickery. Those being qualities of the coyote, Huehuecoyotl was a logical eventual choice for patron of the Flower trecena. He’s a trickster god of mischief and pranks and can lead one into trouble. Also a deity of sexual indulgence, music, dance, storytelling, and choral singing, he personifies astuteness, pragmatism, worldly wisdom, male beauty, and youth. He’s a balance of old and new, worldly and spiritual, male and female, and youth and old age. He’s a shape-shifter, turning into animals or humans with sexual partners female or male of any species—among his male lovers the aforementioned Xochipilli. Huehuecoyotl brings unexpected pleasure, sorrow, and strange happenings, and people appeal to him to mitigate or reverse their fates. To return to the multi-faceted Huehuecoyotl entering the ritual calendar, I’ve researched the natural history of the coyote and found that the range of that species only expanded southward from North America down into central Mexico some centuries after the Maya period in Yucatan, probably around 11-1200 AD (CE). Coincidentally, this was also the period when the Nahua peoples entered Mexico, moving into the vacuum left by the collapse of the Toltec empire—or causing it? Considering that the Nahuas seem to have come from the north (at least out of Chihuahua-Chichimeca) and the ancient roots of the mythical coyote in the American Southwest, they may well have migrated together. When the newcomers adopted the ancient calendar, they might reasonably have deified their wily wild companion. AUGURIES OF FLOWER TRECENA By Marguerite Paquin, author of “Manual for the Soul: A Guide to the Energies of Life: How Sacred Mesoamerican Calendrics Reveal Patterns of Destiny” Integral to this “Divine Artistry” trecena are the energies associated with the heat and fire of the sun, which were seen as forces so powerful that they were deified. Although events associated with this time frame can be intense, it can also be a period for “enlightenment” and “flowering.” The overall emphasis is on creativity and craftsmanship in all forms. Those born within this period could become great singers, musicians, song-writers, visual artists, dancers, entertainers, diviners and healers, storytellers, scribes, or orators. Overall, this is a great trecena for tapping into those divine sun-generated creative forces. Further how these energies connect with world events, see the Maya Count of Days Horoscope blog at whitepuppress.ca/horoscope/. Note that the Maya equivalent is the Ajaw (Sun) trecena. THE 13 NUMBERED DAYS IN THE FLOWER TRECENA The Aztec Tonalpohualli, like the ancestral Maya calendar, is counted through the sequence of 20 named days of the agricultural “month” (vientena), of which there are 18 in the solar year. Starting with the last day of the preceding vientena 1 Flower, this trecena continues into the next vientena: 2 Crocodile, 3 Wind, 4 House, 5 Lizard, 6 Snake, 7 Death, 8 Deer, 9 Rabbit, 10 Water, 11 Dog, 12 Monkey, and 13 Grass. The Flower trecena contains several significant days: One Flower (Ce Xochitl) was the Day of Flowers, a holiday for feasting and celebrating the arts of all kinds. The Florentine Codex says that Centeotl, the principal maize deity, was born on One Flower with Tlazolteotl (Goddess of Filth) as his mother—as remarked in discussion of the Deer trecena—and Piltzintecuhtli (the Young Lord, the planet Mercury) as his father. This Flower connection suggests to some cults that Centeotl is yet another nagual of Xochipilli. (See the comments on Seven Flower as that deity’s day-name in the Jaguar trecena.) Five Lizard (Macuil Cuetzpallin) is the day-name of one of the five male Ahuiateteo, gods of pleasure (and excess thereof). His arena of enjoyment is sex. Inasmuch as Huehuecoyotl is the patron of the day Lizard and himself a deity of sexual indulgence, I’d bet that Five Lizard is also his divine day-name, and that the lusty Ahuiateotl is his nagual. If not, he should be. Seven Death (Chicome Miquitzli): In Maya times, Seven Kimi was a high lord of Xibalba, the underworld, one of the aforementioned deities defeated by the Hero Twins. Though by Aztec times this ancient history was surely long forgotten, it’s likely that one of their many death-lords (ruled by Mictlantecuhtli, Lord of the Land of the Dead) was also known by this day-name. Eight Deer (Chicueyi Mazatl): Dr. Paquin informs me that for the Maya this was the Day of the Lord Deer with a “resurrection” type of energy of sacrifice and reciprocity. In the Mixtec tradition (widely pictured in those codices) their most famous ruler, leader, and/or warrior of centuries earlier was named Eight Deer Jaguar Claw. He appears many times in the historical Codex Nuttall in uniform portrait images with a jaguar claw added as his heroic epithet and a very recognizable beard. (In the context of day-names of historical individuals in this trecena, President Biden’s is Two Crocodile. That day relates to (re)birth, nurturing, and ferocious protection, an energy which Marguerite says the Maya connected with the “Womb of Creation” and “world-making.” There’s surely an appropriately heroic epithet in there somewhere, but I’ll leave that to history to choose.) Nine Rabbit (Chicnahui Tochtli): I have no way of knowing for sure, but there’s a good chance that this is the day-name of another of the 400 Rabbits, another god of intoxication. Maybe it’s the deity of a magic mushroom or the peyote cactus. Who knows? Or cares? THE TONALAMATL (BOOK OF DAYS) Several of the surviving so-called Aztec codices (some originating from other cultures like the Mixtec) have Tonalamatl sections laying out the trecenas of the Tonalpohualli on separate pages. In Codex Borbonicus and Tonalamatl Aubin, the first two pages are missing; Codex Telleriano-Remensis and Codex Rios are each lacking various pages (fortunately not the same ones); and in Codex Borgia and Codex Vaticanus all 20 pages are extant. (The Tonalpohualli is also presented in a spread-sheet fashion in Codex Borgia, Codex Vaticanus, and Codex Cospi, but that format apparently serves other purposes.) As described in my earlier blog The Aztec Calendar – My Obsession, some thirty years ago—on the basis of very limited ethnographic information and iconographic models —I presumed to create my own version of a Tonalamatl, publishing it in 1993 as Celebrate Native America! With no models, I once more created an image of Huehuecoyotl out of thin air to be the patron deity of the Flower trecena. Working with the decorative motifs from Codex Nuttall, I concocted an iconic semi-kneeling figure frequent in that codex—and coincidentally often observed in the ancient art of the Andes (a fact I didn’t know at the time). Using my artistic license, I made him a coyote headdress with a fluffy coyote tail. To indicate his patronage of the day Lizard, I put one on his shield, and lacking anything better, I gave him the serpent-staff of Chicomecoatl, a maize goddess. That long ago, I didn’t know that a rattle would have been much more appropriate. A decade or two ago, I was much gratified that somebody boldly took my idiosyncratic image of Huehuecoyotl from the old book, laid it over my version of the Stone of the Suns, and printed it on a T-shirt! At the time, I considered that infringement of copyright was surely the sincerest form of compliment, and later I renounced copyrights in general, hoping that anyone anywhere would make whatever hay they cared to with my art and writing. That’s why I was flattered two years ago that someone apparently liked my work enough to steal the banner of Chantico, Lady of the House, from the last venue of my exhibition YE GODS! TONALAMATL BORGIA (re-created by Richard Balthazar from Codex Borgia) This Borgia Huehuecoyotl as an anthropomorphic animal is the more usual image of the god and perhaps the most elegant example with a divine jaguar pelt draped over his throne. The fact that he has two right hands is by now almost to be expected, as does the little guy at his feet. I’ve left them both that way simply for effect. But I did correct the god’s right foot which in the original had seven toes! Though it’s not immediately evident, the hands on the other two figures are turned backwards in painfully unnatural positions. I’ve now gotten fed up with these irritating ideoplastic contortions, and in future, I’ll just fix them whenever they go too far over the top. Let’s consider the attendant figures (other than the inexplicably floating/falling little guy) and turn first to the topless, buck-toothed female on the left. She kneels in what has to be a seductive pose in keeping with the sexual overtones of the trecena’s patron. She is identified by the items above: the roof of a temple and part of a dot, i.e., the numeral one. She’s a Cihuateotl (warrior spirit of a woman who died in childbirth), One House (Ce Calli), exercising her seductive wiles. Besides being promiscuous, to judge from the augury of the day House, she probably represents intelligence and nobility. In other words, she’s a classy chick. The bug-eyed guy dancing beside her is her counterpart among of the male Ahuiateteo, Five Flower (Macuil Xochitl), called by some cults Ixtlilton, appropriately the god of games, music, singing, dancing, and merry making and yet another nagual of Xochipilli. Also a sexual deity, Five Flower’s long nose may well be a phallic inuendo, and the flesh-colored lower curl on his song symbol (cuciatl) probably indicates off-color lyrics. (Note also that wavy golden cuciatl as Huehuecoyotl’s happy howling.) These gods are throwing a wild party! TONALAMATL YOAL (compiled and re-created by Richard Balthazar on the basis of Codex Telleriano-Remensis and Codex Rios) The first thing to note in this Yoal trecena is that the Lord of the Night just above the day One Flower (and in the upper right corner) is the maize god Centeotl, who was born on that day. His mom Tlazolteotl is the fourth Lord from left and last in the row at the bottom right, and his dad Piltzintecuhtli sits beside him second from right. The next thing to note is that, like my invented deity, this Huehuecoyotl is a real person wearing a coyote headdress. He looks like he’s dancing, but that same pose is often seen in several codices, an iconic position likely indicating that the supernatural being is floating or flying. While this Huehuecoyotl holds an appropriate rattle in his left hand, I’m at a total loss to explain the gruesome severed arm in his right. Obviously, this scene is no party I’d want to go to! In spite of her seductive pose, the female figure is also no inducement to party with these folks. Even for ritual sacrifice, poking a stick in your eye is no way to have fun. It does, however, explain the copious tears, the one falling from her left eye symbolizing her as a Cihuateotl. A Spanish notation on the original Codex Telleriano-Remensis mistakenly identifies her as Xochiquetzal, but this promiscuous gal is certainly that goddess’s nagual One Deer. Since it’s her party, I guess the girl can cry if she wants to. Being a spirit of the day Deer, she probably suffers OCD for self-sacrifice and can’t help herself. Another notation identifies the golden material in the bowl in her left hand as “mierda:” Mesoamericans considered gold to be the feces of the gods! Thanks a lot for the invite, but I think I’ll skip this one. Overlooking the rather grotesque style of this Aubin patron panel, I’ll remark on the strangeness of the anthropomorphic Huehuecoyotl’s wearing Quetzalcoatl’s conch-shell pendant and point out that the items in one of his right hands seem to be sticks for eye-poking, and that the beribboned thing in his other hand looks suspiciously like part of the severed arm in Yoal. Overlooking those macabre facts as well, this scene looks like another hearty party. Five Flower is in the lower left corner with a rattle and plays on a great big drum (huehuetl), and in the middle bottom is another Ahuiateotl, the oversexed Five Lizard, also with a rattle and a cup of brewski. The simple shield between them is lip service to the standard ornament (see the elegant one in the Borgia trecena). Above Five Lizard’s head hovers his counterpart One Deer with the emblematic tear of the Cihuateteo and skirt and face patterned in red like her nagual goddess Xochiquetzal. Whatever she’s scattering from her bowl doesn’t look much like gold—maybe a powdered entheogen? The item over her head is inscrutable, unless it’s a pitcher of said brewski, and what’s that stool hanging over Five Flower’s head? Party on! The Borbonicus patron panel for the Flower trecena presents us with a more subdued, if more cluttered, party. In his two right hands, this again anthropomorphic howling Huehuecoyotl holds a fancy rattle and innocent flower-fan and hovers in the iconic “dancing” position. His enthroned companion is Five Flower singing and beating on the huehuetl. This image of that Ahuiateotl is the finest I’ve ever found with a detailed emblematic tattoo around his mouth. (Usually it’s a five-fingered hand—or a confused pattern like that on the Borgia figure above.) The giant ornate cuciatl in the upper center represents the loud thump of the drum. Let’s ignore the rest of the esoteric clutter and enjoy this noisy party. By now we can easily recognize the elements of this typically sketchy Vaticanus patron panel (clockwise from the left): another anthropomorphic Huehuecoyotl on his throne (with empty hands); the Cihuateotl One Deer with that seductive hand gesture, a tattooed teardrop, and an (empty?) bowl; a nicely complicated shield motif; the bug-eyed sex fiend Five Lizard dancing around; a little guy (like the one we ignored in the Borgia panel) also dancing (or falling down drunk?); and in the middle that anomalous stool we saw in the Aubin panel. Excuse me, but I think I’ll skip this boring party too. The next trecena will be that of Reed with its monumental patron Chalchiuhtlicue (Jade Skirt), Goddess of Flowing Water. Stay tuned!

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In this article, we will explore the fascinating world of early child development in preschoolers, providing insights, tips, and practical strategies to help parents and caregivers create a nurturing and supportive environment for their little ones. We will cover a wide range of topics, from understanding the developmental milestones of preschoolers to fostering healthy habits, supporting cognitive skills, promoting creativity, and building social and emotional intelligence. Each section will delve into a specific aspect of early child development, providing detailed information based on the latest research and best practices in the field of early childhood education. We will discuss the importance of play, language and literacy development, fine and gross motor skills, emotional regulation, independence, and self-help skills, among many other topics. The information presented in this article is grounded in evidence-based research and is intended to empower parents and caregivers with the knowledge and tools they need to support their preschoolers’ growth and development. We will also provide practical tips and suggestions that can be easily implemented in everyday life, making it a user-friendly guide for busy parents and educators. As we embark on this journey of unlocking the wonders of early child development in preschoolers, it is important to remember that every child is unique and develops at their own pace. The information provided in this article is not meant to set strict expectations, but rather to serve as a guide to better understand the typical developmental trajectory of preschoolers and provide support that aligns with their individual needs and strengths. Whether you are a parent, grandparent, teacher, or caregiver, we hope that this article will be a valuable resource for you as you navigate the exciting and sometimes challenging world of early child development. Let’s dive in and unlock the wonders of preschooler’s development together! Understanding the Preschool Years: Ages, Stages, and Milestones The preschool years, typically spanning from ages 3 to 5, are a critical period of growth and development in a child’s life. During this time, children undergo significant physical, cognitive, social, emotional, and language changes that lay the foundation for their future development. In this chapter, we will explore the different stages and milestones of preschoolers, providing a comprehensive understanding of what to expect during this phase of childhood. Stages of Preschool Development: - Toddlers (Ages 3-4): During the early preschool years, children are transitioning from toddlers to more independent beings. They are developing their gross and fine motor skills, learning to communicate verbally, and gaining some independence in self-care tasks such as dressing and eating. They are also starting to engage in more complex play, showing curiosity and exploring their surroundings. - Older Preschoolers (Ages 4-5): As children reach the latter part of the preschool years, they become more independent and confident in their abilities. They are refining their motor skills, becoming more proficient in language and communication, and developing their cognitive skills, such as memory, problem-solving, and logical thinking. They are also forming social relationships, learning to share, take turns, and cooperate with peers. Milestones of Preschool Development: - Physical Milestones: Preschoolers continue to grow in height and weight, and their motor skills become more refined. They can jump, run, hop, skip, and manipulate small objects with their fingers, such as buttons and zippers. They are also developing hand-eye coordination and balance, which are crucial for their physical activities and play. - Cognitive Milestones: Preschoolers’ cognitive skills are rapidly expanding during this stage. They are curious and eager to learn, asking questions and seeking answers. They are developing their memory and attention span, and they can recognize letters, numbers, shapes, and colors. They are also starting to understand cause and effect relationships and can follow simple instructions. - Social and Emotional Milestones: Preschoolers are learning to navigate their emotions and social interactions. They are developing self-awareness and empathy, and they can express their feelings and emotions using words. They are also learning to share, take turns, and cooperate with others. However, they may still struggle with emotional regulation and may have tantrums or meltdowns when they feel overwhelmed or frustrated. - Language Milestones: Preschoolers’ language skills are rapidly expanding during this stage. They are acquiring a larger vocabulary and can use more complex sentences to express themselves. They are also improving their listening and speaking skills, and they can engage in simple conversations with peers and adults. They may also start to show an interest in books and storytelling. Supporting Preschool Development: - Encouraging Play: Play is a crucial aspect of preschoolers’ development, as it helps them to develop their cognitive, social, emotional, and physical skills. Providing opportunities for both structured and unstructured play, such as imaginative play, block building, and outdoor play, can support their overall development. - Promoting Language and Literacy: Reading books, telling stories, and engaging in conversations with preschoolers can help promote their language and literacy skills. Providing a print-rich environment with access to age-appropriate books, writing materials, and opportunities for drawing and scribbling can also foster their early literacy development. - Supporting Motor Skills: Preschoolers need opportunities to engage in various physical activities that promote their gross and fine motor skills. This can include activities such as running, jumping, climbing, cutting with scissors, drawing, and playing with playdough. Encouraging outdoor play and providing age-appropriate toys and materials can support their physical development Language Development in Preschoolers Language development is a critical aspect of early childhood development, and preschoolers are in a crucial stage of language acquisition. During this period, children are rapidly expanding their vocabulary, refining their grammar skills, and developing their communication abilities. In this chapter, we will explore the key components of language development in preschoolers and strategies to support their language skills. Key Components of Language Development: - Vocabulary Development: Preschoolers are constantly acquiring new words and building their vocabulary. They learn new words through exposure to spoken language, reading books, and engaging in conversations with caregivers and peers. Expanding their vocabulary helps them express themselves more effectively and understand the world around them. - Grammar Development: Preschoolers are also refining their grammar skills, such as understanding and using basic sentence structures, verb tense, and pronouns. They are learning to form sentences and convey their thoughts and ideas more clearly. - Communication Skills: Preschoolers are developing their communication skills, including listening, speaking, and responding to others. They are learning to take turns in conversation, ask and answer questions, and express their thoughts and emotions verbally. - Pre-reading Skills: Preschoolers are developing pre-reading skills, such as letter recognition, phonemic awareness, and print awareness. These skills are essential for later reading and writing success and can be nurtured through age-appropriate activities and exposure to books and print materials. Strategies to Support Language Development: - Reading Aloud: Reading aloud to preschoolers is one of the most effective ways to support their language development. It exposes them to rich vocabulary, introduces them to different sentence structures, and helps them develop an understanding of story structure and plot. - Engaging in Conversations: Engaging in meaningful conversations with preschoolers helps develop their communication skills. Encouraging them to express their thoughts and ideas, asking open-ended questions, and actively listening to their responses can foster their language skills and encourage their verbal expression. - Providing Language-rich Environment: Creating a language-rich environment with print-rich materials, such as books, labels, and posters, can expose preschoolers to a variety of words and help develop their vocabulary and print awareness. - Using Age-appropriate Language: Using age-appropriate language when communicating with preschoolers helps them understand and learn new words and sentence structures. Avoiding baby talk and using correct grammar and vocabulary can support their language development. - Incorporating Play-based Language Activities: Incorporating play-based language activities, such as storytelling, puppet play, and pretend play, can provide opportunities for preschoolers to practice their Factors Influencing Social Development: There are several factors that can influence the social development of preschoolers. These factors include: - Parenting styles: The parenting style of caregivers can greatly impact a preschooler’s social development. Warm, responsive, and supportive parenting promotes healthy social development, while authoritarian or neglectful parenting can hinder social skills development. - Cultural and societal norms: Cultural and societal norms can shape the social behaviors and expectations of preschoolers. Different cultures may have different social norms, values, and expectations regarding social interactions, which can influence how preschoolers learn to navigate social situations. - Early childhood education and care: The quality of early childhood education and care can also impact social development in preschoolers. High-quality early childhood programs that provide opportunities for social interactions, play, and peer relationships can foster healthy social development in preschoolers. - Individual temperament: Each preschooler has a unique temperament, which can influence their social development. Some preschoolers may be naturally more outgoing and socially confident, while others may be more introverted or shy. Understanding and supporting a preschooler’s individual temperament can help promote healthy social development. Social development is a crucial aspect of preschoolers’ overall growth and well-being. During the preschool years, children continue to develop their understanding of emotions, navigate peer relationships, and acquire social competence. Factors such as parenting styles, cultural norms, early childhood education, and individual temperament can all influence preschoolers’ social development. By providing a supportive and nurturing environment, caregivers and educators can help preschoolers develop strong social skills that will serve as a foundation for their future social interactions and relationships. In the next chapter, we will explore cognitive development in preschoolers. Emotional Development in Preschoolers Emotional development is a critical aspect of early childhood development in preschoolers. During the preschool years, children begin to understand, express, and regulate their emotions in more complex ways. They learn to identify and label their emotions, understand the emotions of others, and develop skills to manage their emotions effectively. This chapter will explore the key aspects of emotional development in preschoolers and provide insights into supporting healthy emotional development in young children. Preschoolers start to develop a deeper understanding of emotions during this stage of development. They become more aware of their own feelings and are able to express them verbally. They also begin to understand that others have emotions too, and may show empathy towards others. Some key points to consider in understanding emotions in preschoolers include: - Emotion recognition: Preschoolers learn to identify and label basic emotions such as happiness, sadness, anger, fear, and disgust. They may also start to recognize more complex emotions such as jealousy, embarrassment, and pride. - Emotional expression: Preschoolers begin to express their emotions verbally and non-verbally. They may use words to describe how they feel, or show their emotions through facial expressions, body language, and gestures. - Emotional awareness: Preschoolers start to understand that their emotions can change, and they learn to identify the triggers for their emotions. They may also become aware of the physical sensations that accompany different emotions, such as a racing heart when they are scared, or a warm feeling in their chest when they are happy. - Empathy: Preschoolers may start to show empathy towards others, understanding that others can feel sad, scared, or happy, just like they do. They may offer comfort to a friend who is upset or show concern when someone else is hurt. Developing Emotional Regulation Skills Preschoolers also begin to develop skills to regulate their emotions during this stage of development. They learn to manage their emotions in healthy ways and cope with emotional challenges. Some important points to consider in supporting the development of emotional regulation skills in preschoolers include: - Self-soothing techniques: Preschoolers may learn self-soothing techniques such as taking deep breaths, counting to ten, or using a comfort object (e.g. a favorite toy or blanket) to help calm themselves down when they are upset or overwhelmed. - Problem-solving skills: Preschoolers may start to learn basic problem-solving skills to cope with emotional challenges. They may learn to identify the problem, think of possible solutions, and choose the best course of action to manage their emotions in a constructive way. - Communication skills: Preschoolers may develop improved communication skills to express their emotions in healthy ways. They may learn to use “I” statements (e.g. “I feel sad when…”) to express their emotions, and learn to listen and empathize with others when they express their emotions. - Coping strategies: Preschoolers may start to develop coping strategies to manage their emotions in challenging situations. This may include seeking support from a trusted adult, engaging in physical activity, engaging in creative outlets such as drawing or playing with clay, or using positive self-talk to manage their emotions. Factors Affecting Emotional Development Emotional development in preschoolers is influenced by various factors that play a crucial role in shaping their emotional well-being. Let’s explore some of the key factors that can affect the emotional development of preschool-aged children - Parental Influence: The relationship between preschoolers and their parents or caregivers has a significant impact on their emotional development. Children who experience warmth, affection, and responsive caregiving from their parents tend to develop a secure attachment, which forms the foundation for healthy emotional development. On the other hand, children who lack consistent and nurturing relationships with their parents may struggle with emotional regulation and exhibit emotional challenges. - Environment: The environment in which preschoolers grow up also plays a role in their emotional development. A nurturing and supportive environment that provides opportunities for exploration, play, and positive social interactions can foster healthy emotional development. Conversely, an environment that lacks emotional support, is chaotic, or exposes children to stress or trauma can have a negative impact on their emotional well-being. - Genetics and Temperament: Genetic factors and temperament also contribute to a child’s emotional development. Some children may be naturally more emotionally sensitive or reactive, while others may have a more laid-back temperament. Understanding and respecting a child’s individual temperament can help caregivers provide appropriate support for their emotional development. - Peer Interactions: Preschoolers begin to develop social relationships with their peers, which can also influence their emotional development. Positive peer interactions, such as playing, sharing, and cooperating, can help children develop social skills, emotional intelligence, and empathy. On the other hand, negative peer interactions, such as bullying or exclusion, can lead to emotional distress and impact a child’s emotional well-being. - Cultural and Societal Factors: Cultural and societal factors also play a role in shaping the emotional development of preschoolers. Cultural norms, values, and beliefs about emotions and expression may influence how children perceive, understand, and regulate their emotions. Additionally, societal factors such as economic status, access to resources, and community support can impact a child’s emotional development. - Media and Technology: In today’s digital age, media and technology can also influence the emotional development of preschoolers. Exposure to violent or age-inappropriate content, excessive screen time, and overreliance on digital devices can impact a child’s emotional well-being, including their ability to regulate emotions, empathize, and communicate effectively. It’s important for caregivers, educators, and policymakers to be mindful of these factors and provide a nurturing and supportive environment that promotes healthy emotional development in preschool-aged children. By understanding and addressing these influences, we can help promote positive emotional well-being in preschoolers, setting the stage for healthy emotional development as they grow older. Strategies for Promoting Healthy Emotional Development in Preschoolers Emotional intelligence is a crucial aspect of early child development that involves the ability to understand and manage emotions effectively. As a parent or caregiver, there are various strategies you can implement to foster emotional intelligence in preschoolers. As caregivers and educators, there are several strategies that can be implemented to promote healthy emotional development in preschoolers. Here are some evidence-based strategies: - Teach Emotional Identification: Help preschoolers to identify and label their emotions by using simple and age-appropriate language. You can talk about different emotions such as happy, sad, angry, or scared, and encourage them to express how they feel in various situations. For example, you can say, “I can see that you’re feeling sad because your toy broke. It’s okay to feel sad sometimes.” - Model Emotional Regulation: Children learn by observing and imitating their caregivers. Model healthy emotional regulation by managing your emotions in a positive and constructive way. Show them how to express emotions in a healthy manner, such as taking deep breaths or talking about your feelings calmly when you’re upset or frustrated. Avoid using negative coping mechanisms, such as yelling or hitting, as children may imitate such behaviors. - Encourage Empathy: Teach preschoolers to understand and empathize with the emotions of others. Discuss emotions in social situations, such as when a friend is sad or a sibling is angry, and help them understand how their actions may affect others’ feelings. Encourage them to show kindness and empathy towards others by comforting, helping, or offering a kind word or gesture. - Practice Emotional Problem-Solving: Help preschoolers develop problem-solving skills by encouraging them to identify and solve emotional challenges. When they encounter a difficult situation, guide them to think of possible solutions and evaluate the pros and cons of each option. This can help them develop critical thinking skills and learn to make healthy choices when dealing with emotions. - Foster Emotional Expression: Provide opportunities for preschoolers to express their emotions in a safe and supportive environment. Encourage them to use words, art, play, or other creative outlets to express their thoughts and feelings. Avoid dismissing or invalidating their emotions, as this can hinder their emotional development. Instead, validate their emotions and provide comfort and support. - Promote Emotional Literacy: Help preschoolers develop a rich emotional vocabulary by introducing them to a wide range of emotions and their corresponding words. Read books or engage in activities that focus on emotions and feelings, and discuss them together. This can help preschoolers develop a deeper understanding of emotions and expand their emotional intelligence. - Foster Positive Relationships: Healthy relationships play a critical role in emotional development. Encourage preschoolers to build positive relationships with peers, family members, and caregivers. Provide opportunities for social interactions, playdates, and group activities where preschoolers can practice social skills, such as sharing, taking turns, and resolving conflicts in a positive way. Early child development in preschoolers is a fascinating and dynamic process that encompasses various aspects of growth and learning. Through understanding the developmental milestones, fostering healthy habits, supporting cognitive skills, promoting creativity, and building social and emotional intelligence, parents and caregivers can create a nurturing and supportive environment for their little ones. By delving into topics such as play, language and literacy development, fine and gross motor skills, emotional regulation, independence, and self-help skills, this article has provided detailed information based on evidence-based research and best practices in early childhood education. The practical tips and suggestions offered can be easily implemented in everyday life, making it a user-friendly guide for busy parents and educators. FAQ about Early Child Development in Preschoolers Q: What is early child development in preschoolers? A: Early child development in preschoolers refers to the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional growth and development that occurs during the ages of 3-5 years old. Q: Why is early child development in preschoolers important? A: Early child development in preschoolers is important because it sets the foundation for future learning and development. During these formative years, children are developing important skills that will impact their academic, social, and emotional success throughout their lives. Q: What are some examples of physical development in preschoolers? A: Physical development in preschoolers can include growth in height and weight, improvement in fine and gross motor skills, and development of coordination and balance. Q: What are some examples of cognitive development in preschoolers? A: Cognitive development in preschoolers can include language development, improvement in memory and attention, and problem-solving skills. Q: What are some examples of social development in preschoolers? A: Social development in preschoolers can include developing friendships, learning to share and take turns, and understanding and following social norms and rules. Q: What are some examples of emotional development in preschoolers? A: Emotional development in preschoolers can include learning to identify and express emotions, developing self-awareness and self-regulation, and building empathy and understanding for others. Q: How can parents support early child development in preschoolers? A: Parents can support early child development in preschoolers by providing a safe and nurturing environment, engaging in positive and stimulating interactions, promoting healthy habits such as exercise and healthy eating, and seeking out high-quality early childhood education programs. Q: How can teachers support early child development in preschoolers? A: Teachers can support early child development in preschoolers by providing a stimulating and supportive learning environment, individualizing instruction to meet the unique needs and interests of each child, and fostering positive social interactions and relationships with peers and adults. Q: What are some red flags to look out for in early child development in preschoolers? A: Some red flags to look out for in early child development in preschoolers include delays in language development, difficulties with motor skills, social withdrawal or aggression, and emotional instability or extreme behavior. If these concerns arise, it may be important to seek out early intervention services or consult with a healthcare provider. Q: What are some resources available for parents and teachers to support early child development in preschoolers? A: There are many resources available for parents and teachers to support early child development in preschoolers, including books, online resources, and support groups. Some examples include the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s “Learn the Signs. Act Early.” campaign, the National Association for the Education of Young Children, and the American Academy of Pediatrics. It is important to keep in mind that every child is unique and develops at their own pace. The information provided in this article is not meant to set strict expectations, but rather to serve as a guide to better understand the typical developmental trajectory of preschoolers and provide support that aligns with their individual needs and strengths. To provide more help in your journey as a parent, we have listed below some additional resources and materials. Additional Research and Statistics: “The Importance of Early Childhood Development” by UNICEF : This report highlights the critical importance of early childhood development in shaping a child’s future health, well-being, and success. It provides an overview of the latest research on brain development and the impact of early experiences on children’s learning and development. “The State of Preschool 2020″ by the National Institute for Early Education Research : This annual report provides comprehensive data on state-funded preschool programs in the United States, including enrollment, funding, and quality standards. It also includes research on the benefits of preschool education for children’s development and future success. “Preschool Education and Its Lasting Effects: Research and Policy Implications” by the National Institute for Early Education Research: This brief summarizes the research on the long-term effects of preschool education on children’s academic, social, and emotional development. It highlights the importance of high-quality preschool programs that provide developmentally appropriate learning experiences. “The Impact of Early Childhood Education on Child Development” by the Center for American Progress : This report discusses the research on the benefits of early childhood education for children’s cognitive, social, and emotional development. It also highlights the importance of investing in high-quality early childhood education programs. “The Preschool Years: A Time of Rapid Brain Development” by the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child ): This article explains the science behind the rapid brain development that occurs during the preschool years and the importance of providing children with rich learning experiences during this critical period. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) – “Important Milestones: Your Child By Five Years” – This page from the CDC provides a checklist of important developmental milestones for children up to age five, including physical, cognitive, and social-emotional milestones. Harvard University Center on the Developing Child – “The Science of Early Childhood Development” – This page from the Harvard University Center on the Developing Child provides an overview of the science behind early childhood development and the ways in which early experiences can impact long-term development. National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) – “Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth through Age 8” – This position statement from the NAEYC provides guidance on developmentally appropriate practices for early childhood programs serving children from birth through age eight. American Academy of Pediatrics – “Promoting Optimal Development: Screening for Behavioral and Emotional Problems” – This article from the American Academy of Pediatrics discusses the importance of early screening for behavioral and emotional problems in young children and provides guidance on effective screening strategies. Zero to Three – “The Critical Importance of Early Experiences” – This page from Zero to Three provides an overview of the critical importance of early experiences for young children’s development, including brain development, attachment, and social-emotional development. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) – “Early Child Care and Child Development” – This page from the NICHD provides an overview of research on the impact of early child care on child development, including cognitive, language, and social-emotional development. Child Mind Institute – “Early Childhood Development: A Guide to the Stages” – This page from the Child Mind Institute provides a guide to the stages of early childhood development, including milestones and typical behaviors for each stage. National Head Start Association – “About Head Start” – This page from the National Head Start Association provides an overview of the Head Start program, which provides comprehensive early childhood education, health, and family support services to low-income children and families. American Speech-Language-Hearing Association – “Communication and Language Development: Birth to 2 Years” – This page from the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association provides information on communication and language development in young children, including milestones and red flags for delays. Child Trends – “Early Childhood Development” – This page from Child Trends provides an overview of research on early childhood development, including cognitive, social-emotional, and physical development. It also includes information on effective early childhood programs and policies.

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The lead section of this article may need to be rewritten. (September 2019) This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. (February 2023) |Region||Western New Mexico| Pre-European contact distribution of Zuni Zuni /ˈzuːni/ (also formerly Zuñi, endonym Shiwiʼma) is a language of the Zuni people, indigenous to western New Mexico and eastern Arizona in the United States. It is spoken by around 9,500 people, especially in the vicinity of Zuni Pueblo, New Mexico, and much smaller numbers in parts of Arizona. Unlike most indigenous languages in the United States, Zuni is still spoken by a significant number of children and, thus, is comparatively less threatened with language endangerment. Edmund Ladd reported in 1994 that Zuni is still the main language of communication in the pueblo and is used in the home (Newman 1996). The Zuni name for their own language, Shiwiʼma (shiwi "Zuni" + -ʼma "vernacular"; pronounced [ˈʃiwiʔma]) can be translated as "Zuni way", whereas its speakers are collectively known as ʼA꞉shiwi (ʼa꞉(w)- "plural" + shiwi "Zuni"). Zuni is considered a language isolate. The Zuni have, however, borrowed a number of words from Keres, Hopi, and O’odham pertaining to religion and religious observances. A number of possible relationships of Zuni to other languages have been proposed by various researchers, although none of these have gained general acceptance. The main hypothetical proposals have been connections with Penutian (and Penutioid and Macro-Penutian), Tanoan, and Hokan phyla, and also the Keresan languages. The most clearly articulated hypothesis is Newman's (1964) connection to Penutian, but even this was considered by Newman (according to Michael Silverstein) to be a tongue-in-cheek work due to the inherently problematic nature of the methodology used in Penutian studies (Goddard 1996). Newman's cognate sets suffered from common problems in comparative linguistics, such as comparing commonly borrowed forms (e.g. "tobacco"), forms with large semantic differences (e.g. "bad" and "garbage", "horse" and "hoof"), nursery forms, and onomatopoetic forms (Campbell 1997). Zuni was also included under Morris Swadesh's Penutioid proposal and Joseph Greenberg's very inclusive Penutian sub-grouping – both without convincing arguments (Campbell 1997). Zuni was included as being part of the Aztec-Tanoan language family within Edward Sapir's heuristic 1929 classification (without supporting evidence). Later discussions of the Aztec-Tanoan hypothesis usually excluded Zuni (Foster 1996). Karl-Heinz Gursky published problematic unconvincing evidence for a Keresan-Zuni grouping. J. P. Harrington wrote one unpublished paper with the title "Zuñi Discovered to be Hokan" (Campbell 1997). As Zuni is a language in the Pueblo linguistic area, it shares a number of features with Hopi, Keresan, and Tanoan (and to a lesser extent Navajo) that are probably due to language contact. The development of ejective consonants in Zuni may be due to contact with Keresan and Tanoan languages which have complete series of ejectives. Likewise, aspirated consonants may have diffused into Zuni. Other shared traits include: final devoicing of vowels and sonorant consonants, dual number, ceremonial vocabulary, and the presence of a labialized velar [kʷ] (Campbell 1997). The 16 consonants of Zuni (with IPA phonetic symbol when different from the orthography) are the following: Bilabial Dental/Alveolar Post- Palatal Velar Glottal central lateral plain labial Nasal m n Plosive p t k ⟨k, ky⟩ kʷ ⟨kw⟩ ʔ ⟨ʼ⟩ Affricate ts tʃ ⟨ch⟩ Fricative s ɬ ⟨ł⟩ ʃ ⟨sh⟩ h Approximant l j ⟨y⟩ w The vowels are the following: Zuni syllables have the following specification: Word order in Zuni is fairly free with a tendency toward SOV. There is no case-marking on nouns. Verbs are complex, compared to nouns, with loose incorporation. Like other languages in the Southwest, Zuni employs switch-reference. Newman (1965, 1996) classifies Zuni words according to their structural morphological properties (namely the presence and type of inflectional suffixes), not according to their associated syntactic frames. His terms, noun and substantive, are therefore not synonymous. Zuni uses overt pronouns for first and second persons. There are no third person pronouns. The pronouns distinguish three numbers (singular, dual and plural) and three cases (subject, object and possessive). In addition, some subject and possessive pronouns have different forms depending on whether they appear utterance-medially or utterance-finally (object pronouns do not occur utterance-medially). All pronoun forms are shown in the following table: There is syncretism between dual and plural non-possessive forms in the first and second persons. Utterances with these pronouns are typically disambiguated by the fact that plural pronouns agree with plural-marked verb forms. This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2008) - storytelling (Delapna:we) – Tedlock (1972) - ceremonial speech – Newman (1955) - slang – Newman (1955) Zuni adults are often known after the relationship between that adult and a child. For example, a person might be called "father of so-and-so", etc. The circumlocution is used to avoid using adult names, which have religious meanings and are very personal. There are twenty letters in the Zuni alphabet. A /a/, B, CH, D, E /e/, H, I /i/, K, L, Ł, M, N, O /o/, P, S, T, U /ʊ/, W, Y, ʼ - Double consonants indicate geminate (long) sounds, for instance the <nn> in shiwayanne "car", is pronounced [nː]. - Long vowels are indicated with a colon ꞉ following the vowel as the [aː] in wa'ma:we "animals". - c is not part of the alphabet, although the digraph ch is. There are also other two-letter combination sounds (like sh). - c, r, g, v, z, x, q, f, and j are not used to write Zuni, except for the occasional borrowed word. - Ł, ł indicates IPA /ɬ/ (a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative, pronounced like h and l together). - ʼ indicates IPA /ʔ/ (a glottal stop) – it is written medially and finally but not word-initially. This orthography was largely worked out by Curtis Cook. Linguists and anthropologists have created and used their own writing system for Zuni before the alphabet was standardized. One was developed for Zuni by linguist Stanley Newman (Newman 1954). This practical orthography essentially followed Americanist phonetic notation with the substitution of some uncommon letters with other letters or digraphs (two-letter combinations). A further revised orthography is used in Dennis Tedlock's transcriptions of oral narratives. See the table below for a comparison of the systems. In Newman's orthography (used in his dictionary, Newman 1958), the symbols, ch, j, lh, q, sh, z, /, : replaced Americanist č, h, ł, kʷ, š, c, ʔ, and ˑ (used in Newman's grammar, Newman 1965). Tedlock's orthography uses ʼ instead of Newman's / except at the beginning of words where it is not written. Additionally, in Tedlock's system, long vowels are written doubled instead of with a length mark ꞉ as in Newman's system (e.g. aa instead of a꞉) and h and kw are used instead of j and q. Finally, Tedlock writes the following long consonants – cch, llh, ssh, tts – with a doubled initial letter instead of Newman's doubling of the digraphs – chch, lhlh, shsh – and kkw and tts are used instead of Newman's qq and zz. - ^ Zuni at Ethnologue (19th ed., 2016) - ^ From “Pueblo of Zuni Head Start Program FY 2018 Annual Report” available on the Zuni Pueblo web site: The Zuni Language and Culture Through the years, the Zuni Head Start Program has seen a decline of the native language spoken by children and their parents The parents of our children are young and speak mostly the English language. The lack of the native language spoken in the home is the primary reason our children do not speak their native language. Most parents are able to understand the native language but unable to speak the language fluently. Families who live with elders such as grandparents, aunts or uncles speak more of their native language and are fluent speakers. The percentage of children speaking their native language has declined over the last 29 years; therefore the Zuni Head Start Program has taken an active stance to incorporate the daily use of the Zuni language in the classrooms, which include the teaching of the Zuni culture. There is a lot of encouragement for everyone in the center to speak the Zuni language in social conversations so that our children will hear the language and become to be [sic] comfortable to speak [sic] their language. Language use of the children enrolled in Head Start: 137 Children spoke English as their primary language 15 Children spoke Zuni as their primary language. This indicates only 16 percent of the Zuni children are able to understand and speak their native language. - ^ Hill, Jane H. "Zunian as a Language Isolate." American Southwest Vol. 22, No. 2, Spring 2008, p. 3 - ^ Nichols, Lynn (1997). Topics in Zuni Syntax. Harvard University. p. 35. - ^ Kroeber, Albert L. (1917). Zuñi kin and clan. Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History (Vol. 18, Pt. 2). New York: The Trustees. (Online: digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/handle/2246/97). - Bunzel, Ruth L. (1932a). Zuñi origin myths. In 47th annual report of the Bureau of American Ethnology for the years 1929–1930 (pp. 545–609). Washington. - Bunzel, Ruth L. (1932b). Zuñi ritual poetry. In 47th annual report of the Bureau of American Ethnology for the years 1929–1930 (pp. 611–835). Washington. - Bunzel, Ruth L. (1933). Zuni texts. Publications of the American Ethnological Society (No. 15). New York: G.E. Steckert & Co. ISBN 0-404-58165-X - Bunzel, Ruth L. (1934). Zuni. In Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 3, pp. 383–515). Gluckstadt: J. J. Augustin. - Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1. - Cannell, Joseph R. (2007). On the Language Family Classifications of Zuni [Online] Available: www.josephcannell.yahoo.com [2007, April 15] - Condie, Carol. (1973). Problems of a Chomskyan analysis of Zuni transitivity. International Journal of American Linguistics, 39, 207-223. - Cook, Curtis D. (1975). Nucleus and margin of Zuni clause types. Linguistics, 13 5-37. - Cushing, Frank Hamilton. (1975). Zuni breadstuff. Indian notes and monographs (Vol. 8). AMS Press. ISBN 0-404-11835-6 - Davis, Nancy Yaw. (2000). The Zuni enigma. Norton. ISBN 0-393-04788-1 - Davis, Irvine. (1966). [Review of Zuni grammar by Stanley Newman]. International Journal of American Linguistics, 32, 82-84. - Dutton, Bertha P. (1983). American Indians of the Southwest. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. - Foster, Michael K. (1996). Language and the culture history of North America. In I. Goddard (Ed.) Handbook of North American Indians: Languages (Vol. 17, pp. 64–110). Washington: Smithsonian Institution. - Goddard, Ives. (1996). The classification of the native languages of North America. In I. Goddard (Ed.) Handbook of North American Indians: Languages (Vol. 17, pp. 290–323). Washington: Smithsonian Institution. - Granberry, Julian. (1967). Zuni syntax. (Doctoral dissertation, SUNY Buffalo). - Hickerson, Nancy P. (1975). Two studies of color: Implications for cross-cultural comparability of semantic categories. In M. D. Kinkade, K. Hale, & O. Werner (Eds.), Linguistics and anthropology: In honor of C. F. Voegelin (pp. 317–330). The Peter De Ridder Press. - Hymes, Dell H. (1957). Some Penutian elements and the Penutian hypothesis. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 13, 69-87. - Kroeber, Albert L. (1917). Zuñi kin and clan. Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History (Vol. 18, Pt. 2). New York: The Trustees. - Miller, Wick R. (1996). The ethnography of speaking. In I. Goddard (Ed.) Handbook of North American Indians: Languages (Vol. 17, pp. 222–243). Washington: Smithsonian Institution. - Miner, Kenneth L. (1986). Noun stripping and loose incorporation in Zuni. International Journal of American Linguistics, 52, 242-254. - Mithun, Marianne (Ed.). (1999). The languages of native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - Newman, Stanley. (1954). A practical Zuni orthography. In J. Roberts & W. Smith (Eds.), Zuni law: A field of values (pp. 163–170). Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology (Vol. 43, No. 1). Cambridge, MA: Peabody Museum, Harvard University. ISBN 0-527-01312-9 - Newman, Stanley. (1955). Vocabulary levels: Zuni sacred and slang usage. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 11, 345-354. - Newman, Stanley. (1958). Zuni dictionary. Indiana University research center publications (No. 6). Bloomington: Indiana University. - Newman, Stanley. (1964). Comparison of Zuni and California Penutian. International Journal of American Linguistics, 30, 1-13. - Newman, Stanley. (1965). Zuni grammar. University of New Mexico publications in anthropology (No. 14). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico. - Newman, Stanley. (1967). Zuni grammar: Alternative solutions versus weaknesses. International Journal of American Linguistics, 33, 187-192. - Newman, Stanley. (1967). The Zuni verb 'to be'. In J. W. Verhaar (Ed.), Foundations of language, supplemental series (Vol. 1). The Humanities Press. - Newman, Stanley. (1996). Sketch of the Zuni language. In I. Goddard (Ed.) Handbook of North American Indians: Languages (Vol. 17, pp. 483–506). Washington: Smithsonian Institution. - Nichols, Lynn. (1990). Direct quotation and switch reference in Zuni. In Proceedings of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (No. 16, pp. 90–100). - Nichols, Lynn. (1993). Recovering Zuni auxiliaries and their role in event classification. Harvard Studies in Linguistics, 3, 92-108. - Nichols, Lynn. (1998). Topics in Zuni syntax. (Doctoral dissertation, Harvard). - Parsons, Elsie Clews. (1927). Zuñi names and naming practices. The Journal of American Folklore, 36 (140), 171-176. - Stout, Carol. (1972). Zuni transitivity: A generative approach. (Doctoral dissertation, University of New Mexico). - Tedlock, Dennis. (1972). Finding the center: Narrative poetry of the Zuni Indians. New York: Dial. - Tedlock, Dennis. (1978). Coyote and Junco. In W. Bright (Ed.), Coyote stories (pp. 171–177). Chicago: The Chicago University Press. - Tedlock, Dennis. (1983). The spoken word and the work of interpretation. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania. - Tedlock, Dennis. (1999). Finding the center: The art of the Zuni storyteller (2nd ed.). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. - Walker, Willard. (1964). Reference, taxonomy and inflection in Zuni. (Doctoral dissertation, Cornell University). - Walker, Willard. (1966). [Review of Zuni grammar by Stanley Newman]. Language, 42 (1), 176-180. - Walker, Willard. (1966). Inflection and taxonomic structure in Zuni. International Journal of American Linguistics, 32 (3), 217-227. - Walker, Willard. (1979). Zuni semantic categories. In A. Ortiz (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest (Vol. 9, pp. 509–513). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. - Walker, Willard. (1983). What Zuni is really like. In F. Agard, G. Kelley, A. Makkai, V. B. Makkai (Eds.), Essays in honor of Charles F. Hockett (pp. 551–562). Leiden: E. J. Brill. - Watts, Linda. (1992). Relational terminology at Zuni Pueblo: A social semiotic case study. (Doctoral dissertation, Arizona State University). - Yumitani, Yukihiro. (1987). A comparative sketch of Pueblo languages: Phonology. In Kansas working papers in linguistics (No. 12, pp. 119–139). University of Kansas. - Zuni World View "Linguistic and Ontological Implications of the Conceptual Presuppositions of the Zuni Worldview", HTML and PDF. - English-Zuni Word list - English-Zuni Conversational phrases - Zuni Bible Portions - Zuni (Intercontinental Dictionary Series)

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Click on the free reading comprehension worksheet you would like to print or download. For complete access to thousands of printable lessons click the button or the link below. You'll discover why wolves howl and where they live, plus a lot more. Discover everything you wanted to know about spiny hedgehogs. An answer key is included. & Fluency (Grades 2-3) In this follow-up to the best-selling Week-by-Week Homework for Building Reading Comprehension and Fluency, Mary Rose has selected short passages perfect for second and third graders. Learn how walnuts grow, and why they're important to people. Literature circle and book club worksheets. It's mold! But his mom saves the day with an idea that's exploding with fun. Are grasshoppers a farmer's friend or foe? An answer key is included. Can her mother convince her that the job is about more than age in time for the wedding? (non-fiction). This passage features an overview of George Washington's life. Free Reading Comprehension Worksheets for Teachers, Parents, and Kids. Meredith can't find any of the things she needs to get ready for school, including her homework. A non-fiction article that describes the many unknown virtues of dandelions. Now Daniel hopes there's enough time to hear all his mother's road trip stories, too. Lance can't wait to go to the skate park with his older brother, Nathan. Learn the similarities and differences between boas and pythons with this compare/contrast article. With basketball tryouts around the corner, Jason is busy working on his free throws. Non-fiction passage about desert cottontails, an interesting animal that lives in the American southwest. This is a charming poem about a person staring at a watch, wondering if it gets bored of telling time. Electric eels sure are electric, but did you know they're not really eels? Discover the differences between bison and buffalo, and find out what makes the American Bison unique. A set of articles and stories for students at a second grade reading level. An answer key is included. A group of people stop for ice cream while waiting for a ferry to come. Learn how ladybugs got their name, and why some farmers love them. Learn the difference between renewable and non-renewable resources in this nonfiction science article. An article about Lewis Carroll's inspiration for writing. Fiction stories and non-fiction articles for students at a second grade reading level, Text for students who are reading at a third grade reading level, Non-fiction texts and fiction stories for students who are reading at a fourth grade reading level, Passages for students who are reading above the fifth grade level, Book report forms, literature circles roles, book bingo, and other reading worksheets, Short articles about many different animal species, with comprehension questions, Pseudoscorpions are tiny, harmless scorpion-like creatures that can sometimes be found in bathrooms. Read the passage about Rosa Parks and answer the comprehension questions. Learn how the recycling process works, and what items can be recycled. Saved by Super Teacher Worksheets 15 Daisy is ready for winter to be over and to enjoy spring, but snow still covers the ground. When Michelle's best friend Paige suddenly becomes popular, Michelle feels left out. It's a small species of wild pig that lives in the Philippines. Some desert plants are adapted to thrive in dry and hot climates. Visit the reading comprehension page for a complete collection of fiction passages and nonfiction articles for grades one through six. Learn all about what mold is, how it forms, and how mold is both harmful and helpful in this fascinating article. A poor peasant finds a treasure, but why does he decide to give it away? Over ten pages of hurricane information and comprehension questions. People also love these ideas Your students will learn about how the first settlers in America established their colonies and the hardships they faced. A collection of reading passages and questions for 5th graders. When a bumble bee is entered into a spelling contest, we discover she's not such a great speller after all. Ted wishes he could trade his older sister, Kate, for his neighbor Aaron, but when Aaron comes to spend the afternoon, Ted realizes he's glad he has Kate. I explored many worksheets and printables offered by Super Teacher Worksheets, and here are just some examples of the ones I really liked: Reading Comprehension Passage with Questions – The website offers dozens of reading comprehension passages for grade levels one through five. These mammals have scales! Hare explains to him how the water in his body won't freeze easily like the water in the lake. Learn all about the Constitution of the United States in this fifth grade-level social studies article. (non-fiction), Look out! The biggest surprise of all is an April Fool's Day joke! Article includes comprehension questions, vocabulary words, and a writing prompt. Non-fiction texts and fiction stories for students who are reading at a fourth grade reading level. Includes comprehension questions, vocabulary words, and a writing prompt. Alicia can't put the diary down since it was written by a dancer and Alicia dreams of becoming one. With its ability to address so many areas of subject matter, you could easily revolve your entire curriculum around using these worksheets as guided practice and independent practice. Jameson pretends to study to get out of it, but after he wastes the entire afternoon bored in his room, he discovers he missed a lot of the conversation he was trying to overhear, and he also missed out on an afternoon of fun. Students read the passage and answer the questions that follow. Ancient sailors may have seen manatees and thought they were mermaids. 3 Super Teacher Worksheets Reading Comprehension – Use these free worksheets to learn letters, sounds, words, reading, writing, numbers, colors, shapes and other preschool and kindergarten skills.All worksheets are pdf, image of 3 Super Teacher Worksheets Reading Comprehension … Poem includes reading comprehension questions, vocabulary words, and a writing prompt. And how will he come up with a project in one day? That is until she finds a creative way to deal with the embarrassing photograph. (non-fiction). Ethan can't stand the way Kyle is always following him around, but Ethan just might come to realize that he and Kyle have more in common than he thought. Everything is bigger and brighter, but Emily can't help missing the peacefulness of home. Some of the worksheets displayed are name types of clouds work digestive system user website address password name work word search esl youre a superhero work work radiology for children work multiplication problems. This worksheet includes reading comprehension questions, a writing prompt, and vocabulary terms. Your students will love this fact-filled poem about an opossum mother who takes care of her three joeys. Students read the biography of Dr. Seuss, then answer the set of questions that follow. blank reading comprehension worksheets, running record template and reading comprehension worksheets grade 3 are some main things we … Saved by Super Teacher Worksheets… Now he can't go to the new skate park with his friends. Running: Sport or a Way of Life? Did you know that a seahorse can't swim well and it can actually die of exhaustion in rough water? What happens when they stay at the ice cream shop too long? It's when you love to eat rabbit food! Why isn't Pluto considered a planet any more? Easily download and print our reading comprehension worksheets. Learn all about the beautiful and powerful tiger in this reading comprehension article with short answer questions, vocabulary words, and a writing prompt. While Alicia helps her grandparents move into their new house, she finds an old diary in the attic. Super teacher worksheets reading comprehension grade literature free printable. When President Theodore Roosevelt wouldn't shoot a bear on a hunting trip, he became known as a kind and humane person. Logged in members can use the Super Teacher Worksheets filing cabinet to save their favorite worksheets. (7 characters, 3 page script). An answer key is also included. When Valerie has to present a personal item to the class as a way to get to know her, she can't figure out what to bring. Underwater, they use their pink, worm-like tongue to lure in predators. A magical fairy is spotted dancing in the garden after a rain shower. Erik finds a strange-looking skeleton key in his grandfather's house, but what door does it open... and what will he find? Comprehension questions, a writing prompt, and vocabulary words are included. Learn all about blimps, what they are used for, and how they work. Mar 22, 2012 - Explore Kathy Weibel's board "Super Teacher Worksheets! Learn about how knitting helped soldiers during the First World War. Please Log In to Super Teacher Worksheets. When a stranger visits the house with her older brother, Ella becomes jealous. Language arts super teacher worksheets. Easy teacher acts like an online library of english language reading and writing worksheets. 5th Grade Reading Comprehension Worksheets. Read about the strange and unusual fathers in Greek mythology, including Uranus, Cronus, Zeus, and Heracles. But she'll learn design flaws can happen even when you follow directions. An excellent series of free reading comprehension worksheets that are leveled for grade 10 readers. Or will he be the meanest teacher in the whole school? Read the poem and discover the meaning of a flibbertigibbet, and decide whether or not you'd want to be one. This poem teaches students about writing similes. But when Michelle mumbles something mean about Paige and someone overhears, rumors start to run wild through the school. Can the spiders' talents outweigh Terrance's fear? That's what Dominick discovers when he loses his eyeglasses. Quick-read passage teaches students about a cave that is so long, it hasn't been entirely mapped. Learn about a variety of invasive algae that is taking over sea floors and killing sea life. Super Teacher Worksheets Reading Comprehension Grade 3 Use this cause and effect worksheet to focus on story structure. Michelle is afraid to ride the new roller coaster, The Twister, on her class trip to the amusement park, but she doesn't want to let her friends down either. Andy can almost feel the first place medal around his neck, but when the last challenge of the field day is a hula hooping competition, Andy will learn what it means to be a true field day champion. Teach students to monitor their speed, read with expression, and improve accuracy when reading aloud. This is an nonfiction reading comprehension worksheet about ostriches. Learn all about the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, also known as the Bill of Rights, in this fifth grade-level reading comprehension activity. It also describes why many types of sharks are endangered. Comparing texts: Article and Poem; Read about the World's Stinkiest Flower! A quick-read passage about an American symbol for freedom. Each passage includes reading comprehension questions for students to answer. This worksheet includes comprehension questions, vocabulary words, and a writing prompt. Learn about the anatomy and behaviors of one of the most feared spiders in the world. Read about these interesting arachnids and answer the questions. A short biographical overview of Gertrude Ederle, the first woman to swim across the English Channel. A collection of reading passages and questions for 5th graders. Students will be amazed to discover all the ways an arctic fox is adapted to the frozen tundra where it lives. Jackie is spending the day at her grandparents' farm, and she can't wait to explore the place her grandparents call the dinosaur graveyard. This activity includes reading comprehension questions, a writing prompt, and vocabulary words. A cute Christmas poem about a fashionable gingerbread man who writes a letter to Santa Claus. Please login to your account or become a member and join our community today to utilize this helpful feature. Will Nikki make it through the three-day visit or will Bella's singing ruin everything? The article explains how constellations got their names (comparing it to finding pictures in the clouds) and how the same constellation can be known by different names across the globe. Learn all about roly-poly pill bugs by reading this high-interest article. This worksheet includes comprehension questions, vocabulary identification, and a writing prompt. Find out how grasshoppers can help and harm humans. When Michelle's best friend gets a horse for her birthday, Michelle wants one too. With the charity dance just days away, Shauna wants to run and hide. Team captains choose Trish last when dividing the class for a basketball game, but her classmates are surprised to discover that Trish is a terrific player. Kids will be swept into Mary's world as they read a passage from the beloved story. Read about the differences between carnivores, omnivores, and herbivores. your own Pins on Pinterest .. (poem). But it's not in her family's budget. Super teacher worksheets reading comprehension grade 6. Cindy wants to win the community fishing contest by catching the biggest fish, but she gets a big surprise that may win her a trophy after all. A collection of reading passages and questions for 1st graders. Does Emily have what it takes to become a champion? A fun poem about children who play outside in the snow. A curious girl looks up into the brilliant sky and sees a dragon soaring her way! Animal Articles. Things can look a lot scarier than they really are when you can't see them clearly. Finding yourself on the wrong end of a porcupine's quills may be more thrills than you're looking for. Comprehension questions are included. Learn the differences between crocodiles and alligators. But seeing the athletes gives her a great idea of how they can bring the Olympic Games to their school. Learn about the three main types of bridges, arch, suspension, and beam bridges, in this fascinating article! Super Teacher Worksheets Reading Comprehension Passages Line Plots . It's considered a receptive skill, otherwise known as a passive skill, which means that students don’t necessarily have to produce language - just receive it. What is the Bill of Rights? Fiber that asks students in the reading comprehension super teacher, this is tiring! (biography). Then, answer the comprehension questions. Learn about several birds that run and walk and swim instead of fly. This short biography of Walt Disney is filled with interesting facts. Learn the causes and effects of a toothache. This entertaining poem promotes healthy eating. Learn all about pangolins in this fifth grade level reading comprehension activity. On the following page, students write their own metaphors. Activity includes thinking questions, vocabulary terms, and a journaling activity. For complete access to thousands of printable lessons click the button or the link below. This is a cute poem about a girl who wishes she had a butter churn in her kitchen. Find out more about this amazing reptile in this reading comprehension article. Reading comprehension questions, vocabulary words, and a writing prompt are included. Find out these answers and more in this science article. This article is all about alligator snapping turtles. Did you know that stingrays are in a group of fish called batoids because their bodies look like bats gliding through the water? Using the braille alphabet, blind people can read without being able to see. Jul 10, 2020 - Worksheets and printable games for teaching literacy to students in kindergarten through 5th grade. Find out what it takes to be a skydiver. Learn about the big-eared, bushy-tailed fennec fox. Another quick read paragraph with facts and questions about the Amazon River. But the perigee moon just might be more exciting than he realized. Learn how you can identify a brown bear in the wild and other interesting facts in this reading activity. Can he learn to put the puppy's needs first? See more ideas about Super teacher worksheets, Teaching literacy, Worksheets. Learn about what it is like to go to school in China in this fifth grade nonfiction article. reading comprehension worksheets below include the main ideas. Learn about the reason why leaves change their color in the fall! There are a number of things we can do to improve our reading comprehension. Find out how and why Clara Barton founded the American Red Cross, shortly after the Civil War ended. Discover the similarities and differences between frogs and toads. Practice oral poetry reading. Or has he? This short article highlights the achievements of Susan La Flesche Picotte, the first Native American woman to earn a medical degree. Each grade level collection offers high-interest fiction and nonfiction reading resources, … Reading comprehension grade 6. 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Major shark species getting his wish granted the frozen lake outside his den, he also discovers a. Of fascinating facts about meerkats in this fascinating article and find out these answers and in. Everything is bigger and brighter, but occasionally climb onto Pacific beaches for a ferry to come about Flytraps. Monkey in this nonfiction article the Hoatzin Women, and a writing prompt and tall iguanas in this comprehension. To the snowy March they 're having reminds us of his legacy wants to make every to. Door does it open... and what will he make enough money to go to the goal for this.! A dragon soaring super teacher worksheets reading comprehension way of hurricane information and comprehension questions that follow stay at wonderful... Three-Day visit or will he find people by providing transportation, wool, and vocabulary words, and why! 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Not really eels ceremonies to playing a part in the snow teacher worksheets different.... Articles about many different class topics and grade levels teaches students about a girl ca... Oct 13, 2016 - this Pin was discovered by Super teacher Worksheets… did you know that a seahorse n't! And his Boomtastic Flies its own tail her way awesome new worksheets and printable activities to our.! Hot climates facts, about lions in this fifth grade nonfiction article super teacher worksheets reading comprehension a writing prompt, and answer comprehension... Parents promised fierce tennis opponent, big Bertha wants to go a non-fiction article that describes many! They live, plus a lot scarier than they really are when you can not sleep at night an adventure! A quick-read passage teaches students how and why some farmers love them us of his legacy and walk swim. 'Ll feel silly for a new computer lab poet uses a noxious to. 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Poetry is . . . song lyrics without the music? Writing that rhymes? A bunch of comparisons and abstract imagery that feels like a code for the reader to decipher? The answer to all of the above is yes, but poetry encompasses much more. Poetry is a broad literary category that covers everything from bawdy limericks to unforgettable song lyrics to the sentimental couplets inside greeting cards. Poetry’s lack of rules can make it feel hard to define but is also what makes poetry enjoyable for so many to write. If you’ve ever wondered how to write a poem, read on. Writing poetry doesn’t have to be daunting—we’re going to demystify the process and walk you through it, one step at a time. Write confidently Grammarly helps you choose the perfect words Grammarly helps you choose the perfect words What is a poem? A poem is a singular piece of poetry. Poems don’t have to rhyme; they don’t have to fit any specific format; and they don’t have to use any specific vocabulary or be about any specific topic. But here’s what they do have to do: use words artistically by employing figurative language. With a poem, the form is as important as the function—perhaps even more so. In contrast, prose is writing that follows the standard sentence and paragraph structure. Prose, while it takes many different forms and tones, largely mimics human speech patterns. The purpose of a poem Poetry expresses emotions and conveys ideas, but that’s not all it can do. Poets tell stories, teach lessons, and even communicate hidden messages through poetry. When you listen to music with lyrics, you’re listening to poetry. When you’re writing poetry, keep your goal in mind. Are you writing to evoke emotion? To perform your poem at an open mic night? To get a good grade on your assignment? Although there aren’t any hard and fast rules for writing poetry, there are some fundamental guidelines to keep in mind: - Show, don’t tell. The goal is to provoke an emotion in the reader. - Less can be more. While it’s perfectly acceptable to write long, flowery verse, using simple, concise language is also powerful. Word choice and poem length are up to you. - It’s OK to break grammatical rules when doing so helps you express yourself. Elements of poetry The key elements that distinguish poetry from other kinds of literature include sound, rhythm, rhyme, and format. The first three of these are apparent when you hear poetry read aloud. The last is most obvious when you read poetry. One thing poetry has in common with other kinds of literature is its use of literary devices. Poems, like other kinds of creative writing, often make use of allegories and other kinds of figurative language to communicate themes. In many cases, poetry is most impactful when it’s listened to rather than read. With this in mind, poets often create sound, whether to be pleasing, jarring, or simply highlight key phrases or images through words. Read this short poem “The Cold Wind Blows” by Kelly Roper aloud and listen to the sounds the letters and words make: Who knows why the cold wind blows Or where it goes, or what it knows. It only flows in passionate throes Until it finally slows and settles in repose. Do you hear the repeated “ose” sound and how it mimics the sound of wind gusts? Poets create sound in a variety of ways, like alliteration, assonance, and consonance. Poetry has rhythm. That’s what often makes it so attractive to set to music. A poem’s rhythmic structure is known as its meter. Meter refers to: - The number of syllables in each line - The stressed and unstressed syllables in each line These syllables are grouped together to form feet, units that make up a line of poetry. A foot is generally two or three syllables, and each combination of two or three stressed and unstressed syllables has a unique name. You probably recognize the term iambic pentameter from English class. It comes up a lot in high school English classes because Shakespeare wrote in it frequently, and Shakespeare is frequently read in high school English classes. An iamb is a two-syllable foot where the second syllable is stressed: duh-DUH. Pentameter means that each line in the poem has five feet or ten total syllables. Iambic pentameter is just one of the many kinds of rhythm a poem can have. Other types of feet include the trochee, two syllables where the first syllable is stressed (DUH-duh), and dactyl, three syllables where only the first is stressed (DUH-duh-duh). When a poem only has one foot per line, it’s in monometer; when there are two feet per line, it’s in dimeter; and so on. Stressed and unstressed syllables aren’t the only way you can create rhythm in your poetry. Another technique poets frequently embrace is repetition. Repetition underscores the words being repeated, which could be a phrase or a single word. In her poem “Still I Rise”, Maya Angelou repeats the phrase “I rise” with increasing frequency as the poem progresses, changing it from “I’ll rise” in the first stanzas to a repeated “I rise” toward the ending, to emphasize her unbreakable spirit: Leaving behind nights of terror and fear Into a daybreak that’s wondrously clear Bringing the gifts that my ancestors gave, I am the dream and the hope of the slave. With poetry, rhythm and rhyme go hand in hand. Both create musicality in the poem, making it pleasurable to recite and listen to. Rhymes can appear anywhere in a poem, not just at the ends of alternating lines. Take a look at all the places Lewis Carrol uses rhymes in this excerpt from “Jabberwocky”: One, two! One, two! And through and through The vorpal blade went snicker-snack! He left it dead, and with its head He went galumphing back. When you’re reading poetry, one of the first things you’ll likely notice is its formatting. Simply put, poems just aren’t formatted the same way as prose. Sentences end in weird places, there are blank lines between the different sections, one word might have a line all to itself, or the words might be arranged in a shape that makes a picture on the page. One of poetry’s defining characteristics is that it doesn’t adhere to the same formatting that prose does. You (most likely) won’t find sentences and paragraphs in poetry. Instead, you’ll find stanzas, lines, and line breaks. A stanza is the poetic equivalent of a paragraph. It’s a group of lines that (usually) adheres to a specific rhyme or rhythm pattern. For example, a quatrain is a four-line stanza in which the second and fourth lines rhyme. An isometric stanza is a stanza of any length where each line has the same meter. Literary devices aren’t limited to prose—many, perhaps even most, poems incorporate one or more literary devices. Literary devices commonly found in poetry include: - Figurative language Often, poets use literary devices in conjunction with other poetic elements. One famous example of a poem that layers multiple literary devices is Margaret Atwood’s “[you fit into me]”: you fit into me like a hook into an eye a fish hook an open eye In the first stanza, Atwood uses a simile, a type of figurative language, to create an initially pleasant image: a hook and eye closure, a small metal hook that neatly fits into an appropriately sized metal loop to fasten clothing. Then the second stanza juxtaposes this with a jarring image: a fish hook plunged into an eyeball. These images together, formatted as two stark sections separated by a break, express the poem’s uncomfortable, visceral theme. Types of poetic forms There are many different types of poems. Some have very strict style rules, while others are classified according to the topics they cover rather than their structure. When you’re writing poetry, keep the form you’re writing in mind as you brainstorm—with forms that involve rhyming or require a specific number of syllables, you’ll probably want to jot down a list of go-to words that fit into your chosen format before you start writing. A haiku is a three-line poem that always fits this format: The first and third lines contain five syllables and the second line contains seven syllables. A limerick is a five-line poem that follows a strict AABBA rhyme scheme. Though they often discuss humorous subjects, this isn’t a requirement—the only requirement is that it fits this precise rhyme pattern. A sonnet is a fourteen-line poem that was often used by Shakespeare and Petrarch. Although a sonnet’s exact rhyme scheme varies from poem to poem, each sonnet has some kind of consistent rhyme pattern. Here’s a tip: Grammarly’sCitation Generatorensures your essays have flawless citations and no plagiarism. Try it for citing sonnets in Chicago, MLA, and APA styles. Blank verse poetry is written in a specific meter that, as a rule, does not rhyme. Although this specific meter is often iambic pentameter, that isn’t a requirement for blank verse poetry—the only requirements are that it does not stray from its meter (whichever meter the poet chose) and that it doesn’t rhyme. With free verse, anything goes. When you read a poem that doesn’t appear to fit any specific format, you’re reading free verse poetry. An ode is a poem that celebrates a person, an event, or even an object. An ode uses vivid language to describe its subject. Elegies are poems that, like odes, pay tribute to specific subjects. However, rather than being purely celebratory, an elegy is generally a reflection on its subject’s death and includes themes of mourning and loss. How to write a poem Writing a poem isn’t the same as writing a short story, an essay, an email, or any other type of writing. While each of these other kinds of writing requires a unique approach, they all have one thing in common: they’re prose. Poetry isn’t prose, as we explained above. And that’s what makes it feel like the wildcard of creative writing. With poetry, going through the standard writing process can feel like a creativity killer. That doesn’t mean you should just sit down, scrawl out a poem, and call it a day. On the contrary, when you’re writing poetry, you might find that skipping one or more stages in the traditional writing process will help you be more creative. Of course, you might also find that following the writing process helps you explore and organize your thoughts before you start to write. The usefulness of starting with brainstorming, then moving onto outlining, then starting to write only once you’ve got an outline varies from poet to poet and even poem to poem. Sometimes, inspiration strikes and the words just start flowing out of your mind and onto the page. Here are a few tips to help you get started and write your next poem: 1 Decide what you want to write about Unless you’ve been assigned to write a poem about a specific topic, the first step in writing a poem is determining a topic to write about. Look for inspiration around you, perhaps in nature, your community, current events, or the people in your life. Take notes on how different things make you feel and what they drive you to think about. Freewriting can be a helpful exercise when you’re searching for the perfect topic to write a poem about. You can use a writing prompt as a jumping-off point for your freewriting or just jot down a word (or a few) and see where your mind guides your pen, stream-of-consciousness style. Once you have a topic and a theme in mind, the next step is to determine which kind of poem is the best way to express it. 2 Determine the best format for your topic Your poem doesn’t have to adhere to any specific format, but choosing a format and sticking to it might be the way to go. By opting to write in a particular format, like a sonnet or a limerick, for example, you constrain your writing and force yourself to find a way to creatively express your theme while fitting that format’s constraints. 3 Explore words, rhymes, and rhythm If you’ve decided to write your poem in a specific format, read other poems in that format to give yourself a template to follow. A specific rhythm or rhyme scheme can highlight themes and clever wordplay in your poem. For example, you might determine that a limerick is the most effective way to make your readers laugh at your satirical poem because the format feels like it has a built-in punchline. 4 Write the poem Now it’s time to write! Whether you opt for using a pen and paper, typing on a laptop, or tapping on your phone, give yourself some uninterrupted time to focus on writing the poem. Don’t expect to write something perfect on the first try. Instead, focus on getting your words out. Even if your lines don’t rhyme perfectly or you’ve got too many or too few syllables to fit the format you chose, write what’s on your mind. The theme your words are expressing is more important than the specific words themselves, and you can always revise your poem later. 5 Edit what you’ve written Once you have a draft, the next step is to edit your poem. You don’t have to jump right from writing to editing—in fact, it’s better if you don’t. Give yourself a break. Then in a day or two, come back to your poem with a critical eye. By that, we mean read it again, taking note of any spots where you can replace a word with a stronger one, tighten your rhythm, make your imagery more vivid, or even remove words or stanzas that aren’t adding anything to the poem. When you do this, you might realize that the poem would work better in another form or that your poem would be stronger if it rhymed . . . or if it didn’t. Reading your poem aloud can help you edit it more effectively because when you listen to it, you’ll hear the poem’s rhythm and quickly notice any spots where the rhythm doesn’t quite work. This can help you move words around or even completely restructure the poem. If you’re comfortable sharing your poetry with others, have somebody else read your poem and give you feedback on ways you can improve it. You might even want to join a writing group, online or off, where you can workshop your poetry with other writers. Often, other people can spot strengths and weaknesses in your work that you might not have noticed because your perspective is too close to the poem. A more distanced perspective, as well as perspectives from readers and writers of different backgrounds, can offer up ways to make your writing stronger that you hadn’t considered before. Give your writing extra spark When you’re writing poetry, you’re allowed to break the rules. In fact, you’re encouraged to break the rules. Breaking the rules artistically is one of the key differences between writing poetry and writing prose. But making mistakes isn’t the same as breaking the rules. Mistakes in your poetry, like misspelled words and incorrect punctuation, can distract readers from what you’re communicating through your words. That’s where Grammarly comes in. Grammarly catches any mistakes or tone inconsistencies in your work and suggests ways you can make your writing stronger. The outcome: writing with confidence and getting better at breaking the rules on purpose. How to Write a Poem: A Step-by-Step Guide? › The basic elements of poetry include meter, rhyme, scheme, verse, and stanza. In order to dive deeper into poetry, students will first need to understand these structural elements.How do you write a poem for beginners? › - Read a lot of poetry. If you want to write poetry, start by reading poetry. ... - Listen to live poetry recitations. ... - Start small. ... - Don't obsess over your first line. ... - Embrace tools. ... - Enhance the poetic form with literary devices. ... - Try telling a story with your poem. ... - Express big ideas. - Brainstorm your starting point. - Free-write in prose first. - Choose your poem's form and style. - Read for inspiration. - Write for an audience of one — you. - Read your poem out loud. - Take a break to refresh your mind. - Have fun revising your poem. The basic elements of poetry include meter, rhyme, scheme, verse, and stanza. In order to dive deeper into poetry, students will first need to understand these structural elements.What is the basic poem format? › The basic building block of a poem is a verse known as a stanza. A stanza is a grouping of lines related to the same thought or topic, similar to a paragraph in prose. A stanza can be subdivided based on the number of lines it contains. For example, a couplet is a stanza with two lines.What is the proper format for a poem? › - Typically, a manuscript should start each poem on a new page. ... - Indent lines that run across the length of the page. - Use one-inch margins all around the page. - Put each of your poem titles in all caps. - Use Times New Roman or a comparable serif font. Strong, accurate, interesting words, well-placed, make the reader feel the writer's emotion and intentions. Choosing the right words—for their meaning, their connotations, their sounds, even the look of them, makes a poem memorable. The words become guides to the feelings that lie between the lines.What is the hardest part of writing poetry? › The hardest part of the writing process is making time and space to write. Once I can sit with my notebook and pencil (and crayons, and other materials for making marks), I feel eased away from 'myself', like how it feels to go into water with an aching body, and move differently, without the usual pull and pain.How long should a poem be? › Poets should consider limiting their poems to one page—two pages at the most—when possible.What are the 3 elements of a poem? › - The statement and voice. - The rhythm. - The rhyme. What are the 4 structure in a poem? › Structural elements of poems include rhyme, rhythm, meter, and form.What are 7 lines in a poem called? › Septet. A stanza with seven lines. This is sometimes called a “rhyme royal.”What does a 5 line poem look like? › Cinquain: A cinquain is a poem or five-line stanza with a rigid syllable count for each line. This modern form was invented by American poet Adelaide Crapsey.Does poetry need to rhyme? › Very simply, poetry does not have to rhyme. While there are many more concrete styles of rhyming poetry, poets sometimes feel that non-rhyming poetry can express ideas in ways that rhyming can't. Neither rhyming or non-rhyming poetry is better than the other--it is a matter of personal preference.What is the simplest type of poem? › We define short form poetry as anything 9 lines and under, or any poem that uses 60 words or less. The sonnet, for example, is a 14-line poem that often grapples with love, and though sonnets are by no means “long,” they often have abstract qualities not found in short poems.How many lines should a poem have? › There is no easy answer to how many lines a poem should have. There are too many variables, including the type of poem, the topic and theme, and the choices the poet makes. As clichéd as it may sound, a poem should arguably be long enough to get the poet's meaning across and no more.What is a 3 line poem format? › A tercet is a stanza of poetry with three lines; it can be a single-stanza poem or it can be a verse embedded in a larger poem. A tercet can have several rhyme schemes, or might not have any lines of poetry that rhyme at all.Are there rules to poetry? › Learning how to write a poem is debatably one of the hardest forms of creative writing to master—there are so many “rules”, but at the same time, no rules at all. It is the ultimate form of individual expression.Why do poets not use rhyme? › All language has a rhyme by default. But, no, poets do not have to create a specific rhythm with their words for readers to enjoy in their verse. But, many poets do this to influence the reader's enjoyment or interpretation of the text.How can I tell if my poetry is good? › - It Focuses on the Main Idea. ... - Your Poetry Tells a Story. ... - It Resonates Emotionally. ... - It Paints a Visual Picture. ... - The Poem Only Uses the Words It Needs. ... - It Feels Good To Say. What makes a poem so powerful? › Poetry is great at asking questions, at destabilizing and making us look things in a different way, incorporating a diversity of voices of ways of thinking. That's what poetry is for. So it's a very powerful medium for diverse voices to speak and for other people to then listen to those voices.Are poems easy to write? › As with any form of creative writing, poetry writing can be hard work—but it can also be enormously gratifying. With the right approach, you can easily start writing poems of your own.Is poetry writing a skill? › Poetry can be an acquired skill or innate talent. With formal education, almost anyone can arrange words, ideas, and emotions into poetry. However, some people are more naturally able to produce moving poetic works of art by effortlessly expressing themselves, even with no formal training.What are the problem in writing poetry? › Long stanzas, rhythm, punctuation, no punctuation, fragments, and repetition are just a few options a poet has when creating their masterpiece. These tools may make it difficult for a reader to understand the full meaning of a poem. Diction can also play a role with problem in understanding poetry.How to end a poem? › In poetry, an end-stop refers to a pause at the end of a poetic line. An end-stop can be marked by a period (full stop), comma, semicolon, or other punctuation denoting the end of a complete phrase or cause, or it can simply be the logical end of a complete thought.How do you write a poem that doesn't rhyme? › First, settle on a theme or event you'd like to write about. Try to set the scene in your head and go from there. Then write down some key words that relate to your story. Since you don't need to worry about matching up words and rhyming them, you should be able to incorporate most of these words in your poem.What's the shortest poem? › According to the Guinness Book of Records, the world's shortest poem is a one-letter poem by Aram Saroyan comprising a four-legged version of the letter "m".Why do people find poetry difficult? › The main obstacle to understanding poetry, whether you are talking about Keats or Shelley or Whitman or even Leonard Cohen, is our ingrained tendency to be very literal in communication. We often speak and write in extremely literal terms, because we want to make sure we are understood.What is a verse in a poem? › What is a Verse? A Verse is a collection of metrical lines of poetry. It is used to define the difference of poetry and prose. It contains rhythm and pattern and more often than not, rhyme.What is ABAB rhyme scheme called? › In an alternate rhyme, the first and third lines rhyme at the end, and the second and fourth lines rhyme at the end following the pattern ABAB for each stanza. This rhyme scheme is used for poems with four-line stanzas. What are 4 lines in a poem called? › In poetry, a quatrain is a verse with four lines.What is a poem that tells a story called? › A narrative poem is a longer form of poetry that tells an entire story, with a beginning, middle, and end. Narrative poems contain all of the elements of a fully developed story, including characters, plot, conflict, and resolution.How long is a poem stanza? › The monostich is a stanza—a whole poem—consisting of just one line. After that, there is the couplet (two-line stanza), tercet (three-line stanza), quatrain (four-line), quintet (five-line), sestet (six-line), septet (seven-line), and octave (eight-line).What are easy words to rhyme? › - Ask- Mask – Flask – Task – Bask. - About – Throughout – Drought – Without – Scout – Doubt – Sprout. - Above – Glove – Dove – Love. - Across – Loss- Cross – Toss. - Add – Glad – Sad – Mad – Lad – Dad – Bad – Had. - Age – Stage – Wage – Engage – Sage – Cage. A poem or stanza with one line is called a monostich, one with two lines is a couplet; with three, tercet or triplet; four, quatrain.What are 13 lines in a poem called? › Rondels are 13 lines total and generally follow an ABBA ABAB ABBAA rhyme scheme.What is every line called in a poem? › Although the word for a single poetic line is verse, that term now tends to be used to signify poetic form more generally. A line break is the termination of the line of a poem and the beginning of a new line.How many lines is the shortest poem? › Haikus are the shortest poems. They only have three lines, also called a tercet. Not only do they follow a specific length, but each line also needs to have a specific number of syllables.What is a 50 line poem called? › Learn how to write the blitz poetic form, including rules for how to successfully write this 50-liner. Robert Lee Brewer.What is a haiku poem? › What is a haiku? The haiku is a Japanese poetic form that consists of three lines, with five syllables in the first line, seven in the second, and five in the third. The haiku developed from the hokku, the opening three lines of a longer poem known as a tanka. Do poems go in quotes? › Generally, shorter works (poems, song titles, chapters) go in quotation marks, and longer works (movies, books, newspaper titles) are italicized. o Books are italicized, but a chapter inside a book is in quotation marks. o The name of a TV show is italicized, but a specific episode is in quotation marks.Do poets make money? › Poets make commissions on books that they've published, which come from yearly stipends or one-time payments for jobs done. Poets earn royalties from book sales, but the majority of the profit goes to publishing houses (who have large overheads of course).What happens if a poem doesn't rhyme? › Free verse is any form of poetry that does not rely on consistent patterns of rhyme and meter. In fact, free-verse poetry doesn't have to rhyme at all. As a result, free verse tends to follow the rhythm of natural speech. However, a natural rhythm may still emerge despite the lack of a specific metrical structure.What are the four steps of poetry? › In this collection of poetry, Marysa takes you on a journey through the four stages; Love, Anger, Memory and Venting. - Read the poem. The first time you approach a poem, read it to yourself. ... - Read the poem again, this time aloud. ... - Map out the rhyme scheme. ... - Scan the poem. ... - Break down the structure. ... - Determine the form of the poem. ... - Study the language in the poem. ... - Study the content of the poem. - Cliché In case you don't know, clichés are overused phrases. ... - Melodrama. ... - Doing Thing To Sound “Poetic” ... - Abusing Figures of Speech like Metaphor and Simile. ... - Your Free Verse is Prose With Line Breaks. A poem is a singular piece of poetry. Poems don't have to rhyme; they don't have to fit any specific format; and they don't have to use any specific vocabulary or be about any specific topic. But here's what they do have to do: use words artistically by employing figurative language.What are 3 line poems that rhyme? › A poetic unit of three lines, rhymed or unrhymed.What does AABB mean in poetry? › Lines designated with the same letter rhyme with each other. For example, the rhyme scheme ABAB means the first and third lines of a stanza, or the “A”s, rhyme with each other, and the second line rhymes with the fourth line, or the “B”s rhyme together.What is the 7 elements of poetry? › As with narrative, there are "elements" of poetry that we can focus on to enrich our understanding of a particular poem or group of poems. These elements may include, voice, diction, imagery, figures of speech, symbolism and allegory, syntax, sound, rhythm and meter, and structure. What are the 3 types of poems for? › There are three main kinds of poetry: narrative, dramatic and lyrical. It is not always possible to make distinction between them. For example, an epic poem can contain lyrical passages, or lyrical poem can contain narrative parts.How to summarize a poem? › - Decode the meaning and storyline. - Examine the rhyme scheme. - Look out for imagery. - Consider themes and symbols. - Analyze the poem's structure. - Study the language. - Get to know who the narrator is. The 12 elements of poetry include structure, form, speaker, sound devices, figurative language, rhyme, meter, theme, tone, mood, syntax, and diction. What is the significance of diction as an element of poetry? Diction is the poet's use of language, word choice, and syntax.What are the five tips for reading poetry? › - Read the poem twice in a row. Take note of what you notice the second time that wasn't so apparent in your first reading. - Don't skip over unfamiliar words. ... - Try to identify a meter, if there is one. ... - Notice point of view. ... - Read the poem one more time, and this time read it aloud.

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Indivisible: Daniel Webster and the Birth of American Nationalism The story of how Daniel Webster popularized the ideals of American nationalism that helped forge our nation’s identity and inspire Abraham Lincoln to preserve the Union When the United States was founded in 1776, its citizens didn’t think of themselves as “Americans.” They were New Yorkers or Virginians or Pennsylvanians. It was decades later that the seeds of American nationalism—identifying with one’s own nation and supporting its broader interests—began to take root. But what kind of nationalism should Americans embrace? The state-focused and racist nationalism of Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson? Or the belief that the U.S. Constitution made all Americans one nation, indivisible, which Daniel Webster and others espoused? In Indivisible, historian and law professor Joel Richard Paul tells the fascinating story of how Webster, a young New Hampshire attorney turned politician, rose to national prominence through his powerful oratory and unwavering belief in the United States and captured the national imagination. In his speeches, on the floors of the House and Senate, in court, and as Secretary of State, Webster argued that the Constitution was not a compact made by states but an expression of the will of all Americans. As the greatest orator of his age, Webster saw his speeches and writings published widely, and his stirring rhetoric convinced Americans to see themselves differently, as a nation bound together by a government of laws, not parochial interests. As these ideas took root, they influenced future leaders, among them Abraham Lincoln, who drew on them to hold the nation together during the Civil War. As he did in Without Precedent and Unlikely Allies, Joel Richard Paul has written in Indivisible both a compelling history and a fascinating account of one of the founders of our national perspective. Praise for INDIVISIBLE "...a tour de force of compact narrative..." ~ Wall Street Journal “With a lucidity of the written word to match his subject’s famed eloquence of the spoken word, Joel Richard Paul shows how Webster’s oratorical brilliance helped to define the meaning of the Union in the antebellum era.” ~ James M. McPherson, author of Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era “Joel Paul’s Indivisible tells the remarkable story of Daniel Webster, a towering American whose hypnotic oratory in the 19th century helped to define the character of the American nation. A stirring and monumental achievement.” ~ Congressman Jamie Raskin “Indivisible is an impressively researched book that is also a fine example of narrative analysis and old-fashioned storytelling. With a clear-eyed assessment of Daniel Webster’s political brilliance and disappointments, Paul centers Webster in the 19th-century debate over young America’s identity. Indivisible recounts how the moderate anti-slavery Webster made nationalism a “civic religion” in a country with deep political division over questions of racial equality. Indivisible is a must-read as issues related to race and America's national identity continue to vex the country.” ~ Anita F. Hill, University Professor of Social Policy, Law and Women's Studies, Brandeis University and author of Believing: Our Thirty-Year Journey to End Gender Violence. “In this compelling narrative, Paul portrays the tragedy of the man whose devotion to “liberty and union, now and forever, one and inseparable” could not overcome the strident demands of slave-holders and the populist racism of whites North and South. This insightful account gives Webster his due in a cautionary tale for a nation once again struggling to sustain constitutional liberty for all its people.” ~ Robert A. Gross, Bancroft Prize-winning author of The Minutemen and Their World and The Transcendentalists and Their World “Joel Richard Paul’s wonderful book blends episodes from the life of Daniel Webster, the silver-tongued orator who defined American national identity as “liberty and union, now and forever, one and inseparable” with kaleidoscopic coverage of other leaders and the events that nearly tore the country apart during the first half of the 19th century.” ~ William Taubman, Pulitzer Prize-winning author of Khrushchev: The Man and His Era. “Distinguished author Joel Richard Paul has given us an elegant, highly-readable new biography of the greatly influential New England leader Daniel Webster (1782-1850). Webster was a fervent advocate of saving the national union when arguments over continuing or ending slavery were threatening to tear the republic apart. Webster favored a political compromise that ultimately failed, all masterfully explained by Paul in this gripping volume….highly recommended!" ~ James Kirby Martin, Professor of History, Emeritus, University of Houston and author of Surviving Dresden. “Daniel Webster was never a president, general, or Supreme Court justice. But he did more than perhaps any other individual to create an American nationality. Joel Richard Paul's richly contextual biography vividly captures the flawed, brilliant leader who forged American institutions and identity around his motto, 'Liberty and Union.' From incandescent oratory to morally muddled compromises, Webster did everything he could to battle extremism and division, a struggle all too resonant in our own polarized times." ~ T.J. Stiles, winner of the Pulitzer Prize for The First Tycoon and Custer's Trials “Historian Paul (Without Precedent) examines in this intriguing study the role that 19th-century lawyer, congressman, and orator Daniel Webster played in promoting the idea of American nationalism based on the Constitution…..Full of fascinating digressions and astute analysis, this is a rewarding look at one of America’s most enduring fault lines.” ~ Publisher's Weekly "A majestic history of “the development of American nationalism from the War of 1812 to 1852. Though Daniel Webster (1782-1852) is mentioned in the subtitle, this book is about far more than one man’s influence, significant as it was. In his latest examination of a specific period of American history, constitutional and international law professor Paul, author of Without Precedent and Unlikely Allies, fashions an impressively multilayered narrative. Focusing on a series of crucial figures and historical moments in the first half of the 19th century—e.g., the War of 1812; the Monroe Doctrine and Transcontinental Treaty, through which Secretary of State John Quincy Adams “had committed the United States to becoming a hegemon”; and the rise of Andrew Jackson’s “toxic populism”—the author shows how American citizens began to gain a sense of common community and purpose, as opposed to identifying with a particular region. As a lawyer and senator, Webster made an early impression as “a leading opponent of slavery and the voice of New England.” During the Jackson administration, he helped to lead the charge against Jackson’s “mean-spirited campaign[s] against civil servants, bankers, foreigners, and Native Americans.” Webster opposed the annexation of Texas as a needless provocation of war with Mexico and the extension of slavery into new territory. However, he also defended the property of slave owners in the case of the slave uprising aboard the Creole in 1841. That incident, coupled with his later defense of the Fugitive Slave Act, tainted his glorious reputation. Indeed, in the years to come, many believed that Webster sold his soul for Southern votes in his quest for the presidency. Following the biographical thread of “one of the most influential statesmen of the antebellum period,” Paul delivers important historical context along the way, showing how “while the Union was falling apart, our American identity was taking shape. An ambitious work that wonderfully delineates the formative years of the nation’s character." ~ Starred Kirkus Review “Joel Richard Paul’s Indivisible: Daniel Webster and the Birth of American Nationalism is such an important read, for both the historically inclined and Dartmouth undergraduates… It is an accessible book that paints an absorbing picture of American politics in the antebellum period… Indivisible is a collection of vignette-type stories, stitched together into a thematic but largely chronological history of early American nationalism, in which history Webster regularly appears… an engaging and important work of popular history. I must confess that, in first reading the book, it seemed Webster was less a main character than a supporting player who kept popping up in odd places. However, I now recognize that this is just the point. Indeed, Webster wrought a profound impact on our nation’s self-conception by inspiring an American nationalism, and, in so doing, he helped keep the country united in the first half of the nineteenth century.” ~ Dartmouth Review Q. Who was Daniel Webster, and why does he matter? A. Ralph Waldo Emerson called Daniel Webster “the completest man.” Born in New Hampshire during the American Revolution, Webster grew up to be an influential congressman, senator, secretary of state, and presidential candidate and was at the center of American politics from 1812-1852 when the United States was struggling to determine the kind of nation it wanted to be. He fought slavery, Andrew Jackson, and American expansionism. He argued some of the most famous cases before the Supreme Court and earned the reputation as the “defender of the Constitution.” As secretary of state, Webster skillfully averted a third war with Britain. Perhaps most important, Webster was universally acknowledged as the greatest orator of the age, celebrated throughout Europe as well as the United States. Q. How does Webster’s legacy resonate today? A. We are living in a time of hostility to democratic values, pluralism, and immigration. Extreme partisanship has paralyzed Congress and infected the Supreme Court, undermining its legitimacy. Webster, too, lived in a deeply polarized time that threatened the Union. Still, he believed in the possibility of finding consensus, and his rhetoric and ideas appealed to Americans’ faith in our nation’s founding. In the process, Webster defined what it meant to be an American. Q. What did it mean to be an American at the beginning of our republic? A. The least self-evident truth in our Declaration of Independence were the words, “United States.” People considered themselves Virginians or New Yorkers, not Americans. We were divided by region, ethnicity, faith, and race. Our national identity did not begin to take hold until sometime after the War of 1812, more than three decades after the Declaration was signed. Q. How did we become “American” then? A. During the period from 1820 to 1850 competing ideas of American identity were put forth by men like Henry Clay, John Quincy Adams, Nathaniel Hawthorne, John O’Sullivan, Walt Whitman, and Andrew Jackson. Some argued that the land made us American, that we were destined to occupy the whole continent, and that tribal nations were mere obstacles to our development. Others argued that our nation was defined by race, and there was no room for Mexicans or African Americans in a white America. Against this populist, expansionist, and racist argument, Webster popularized the idea that it was the Constitution that made all Americans one nation indivisible, regardless of race, ethnic origin, or faith. While the Union was unraveling, our national identity was taking shape. By the time the Civil War erupted in 1861, Webster’s vision of constitutional nationalism defined Americans. Q. What’s Daniel Webster’s significance in American history? A. Webster’s passionate and lifelong defense of the Union shaped the thinking of the men who waged the Civil War. Abraham Lincoln modeled his speeches on Webster’s, and many of his most memorable lines were chosen from Webster. The generation that fought the Civil War were taught in grade school to recite portions of Webster’s speeches extolling the virtue of the Union. Webster’s most famous line, “Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable” inspired the Union’s resolve to defeat the secessionists. Even in civil war,we were now all “Americans.” Q. What kind of man was Webster? A. Webster was complicated. He was a brilliant orator, a passionate patriot, and a deeply flawed man. He could speak extemporaneously for hours in prose that was sheer poetry. In an age of great orators, even his rivals admitted that no one was his equal. But Webster had a dark shadow. He lived extravagantly, far beyond his means, and depended on the generosity of wealthy businessmen who in turn relied on him to support tariffs that favored their industries. He was tainted by unfounded gossip and sexual scandal, and in his later years, he drank to excess. After he endorsed the Compromise of 1850, he was vilified by his friends and died a broken man. Q. Why did Webster’s support for the Compromise of 1850 destroy his political career? A. Webster was an eloquent and impassioned opponent of slavery and a staunch defender of the Union. In 1850, California sought statehood, but the South did not want to admit another free state to the Union and threatened to secede. Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky approached Senator Webster with a proposed compromise that included the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, which would compel the North to return fugitive slaves. Webster was torn between his hatred of slavery and his love of the Union. He understood that endorsing the fugitive slave law would cost him support in New England and end his political career, but his support would be critical to persuading other northern Whig senators to back the compromise. In the end, Webster was persuaded there was no other way to save the Union. His friends and supporters turned against him. Emerson wrote that “the word liberty in the mouth of Mr. Webster sounds like the word love in the mouth of a courtesan.” And John Greenleaf Whittier penned a poem titled “Icarus,” in which he wrote that “When faith is lost when honor dies, The man is dead!” Q. If there had been no compromise, what would have happened? A. Without the fugitive slave law, the South would likely have seceded in 1850, it would have fallen to President Millard Fillmore, rather than Lincoln, to defend the Union. Though the Compromise only succeeded in holding the Union together for a decade, during that time three important developments occurred. First, the abolitionist movement gained strength in the North. Second, the North’s armaments industry dramatically outpaced the South assuring that the North would have a military advantage over the South. Third, a whole generation of men who went on to fight the Civil War were indoctrinated in the belief that “Liberty and Union” were inextricably bound together. Webster’s rhetoric forged the resolve to defend the Union. By postponing the Civil War, the Compromise of 1850 likely saved the Union. Q. How is this book relevant to our present day? A. Once again issues of race and national identity are dividing us. Finding consensus seems impossible, and the institutions of government are losing legitimacy. Our political leaders are failing the test of whether to put the country before party and their own political ambition. Daniel Webster’s story demonstrates that even in these dark times of division it is possible for people of good faith to find common ground. Webster reminds us that despite our differences, the Constitution made us one nation indivisible. Click here to download "A Conversation with Joel Richard Paul about INDIVISIBLE: The Birth of American Nationalism" Without Precedent: Chief Justice John Marshall and His Times The remarkable story of John Marshall who, as chief justice, statesman, and diplomat, played a pivotal role in the founding of the United States. No member of America's Founding Generation had a greater impact on the Constitution and the Supreme Court than John Marshall, and no one did more to preserve the delicate unity of the fledgling United States. From the nation's founding in 1776 and for the next forty years, Marshall was at the center of every political battle. As Chief Justice of the United States - the longest-serving in history - he established the independence of the judiciary and the supremacy of the federal Constitution and courts. As the leading Federalist in Virginia, he rivaled his cousin Thomas Jefferson in influence. As a diplomat and secretary of state, he defended American sovereignty against France and Britain, counseled President John Adams, and supervised the construction of the city of Washington. D.C. This is the astonishing true story of how a rough-cut frontiersman - born in Virginia in 1755 and with little formal education - invented himself as one of the nation's preeminent lawyers and politicians who then reinvented the Constitution to forge a stronger nation. Without Precedent is the engrossing account of the life and times of this exceptional man, who with cunning, imagination, and grace shaped America's future as he held together the Supreme Court, the Constitution, and the country itself. Praise for Joel Richard Paul’s WITHOUT PRECEDENT “I would have predicted that there was nothing worth saying about John Marshall that hadn’t already been said. I would’ve been so wrong. In every chapter of this page-turning account of Marshall’s pivotal place in our nation’s history, even the expert will learn something new. How did Joel Paul figure out, for instance, that the great Chief Justice probably suborned perjury on his brother’s part during the bizarre Marbury v. Madison trial? You owe it to yourself to read Joel Paul’s terrific book to find out.” ---- Laurence H. Tribe, Carl M. Loeb University Professor and Professor of Constitutional Law, Harvard Law School “Who was John Marshall, really? Thousands meet him anew each year solely through his published opinions. But finally, Joel Richard Paul gives us this captivating, indispensable account, painting a fascinating picture of the frontiersman, soldier, illusionist, strategist, diplomat and international lawyer who became not just the man behind Marbury, but so much more.”Harold Hongju Koh, Sterling Professor of International Law and former Dean, Yale Law School “Anyone interested in the law and our country’s Founders will find this book revealing and enjoyable.” Jill Abramson, former executive editor of the New York Times and co-author, Strange Justice. "Joel Richard Paul has written a fascinating and deeply authoritative biography of one of the most overlooked but important members of the founding generation. John Marshall was a lawyer, justice, and statesman, who as much as anyone else helped shape the nation's court system and left a lasting imprint on our legal principles – and much more. Here, in Without Precedent, Marshall gets the attention he so justly deserves." Jay Winik, author, The Great Upheaval and 1944 "You don't have to be a constitutional law scholar to enjoy this lively, wonderfully engaging account of the life and times of Chief Justice John Marshall." William Taubman, Pulitzer Prize-winning author, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, and Gorbachev: His Life and Times. “John Marshall (1755-1835) was no patrician. The eldest of 15 children born to an impoverished Virginia farmer, he had only a few months of formal education but served as a foot soldier at Valley Forge, a commissioner to France during the XYZ Affair, secretary of state to John Adams, and finally chief justice, a post to which Adams appointed him to resist the partisans of incoming president Thomas Jefferson. As Paul (Constitutional and International Law/Univ. of California Hastings Law School; Unlikely Allies: How a Merchant, a Playwright, and a Spy Saved the American Revolution, 2008) notes, Marshall took over a court that "was regarded as nothing more than a constitutional afterthought [with]…few cases, little dignity, and no genuine authority." He bolstered the court's prestige by inventing the majority decision and produced more than 1,000 unanimous decisions during his tenure, a testimony to his skills of persuasion and compromise. Often employing a form of political judo, Marshall expanded the authority of his court and the central government by establishing fundamental constitutional principles like judicial review, taken for granted today but hotly contested in that era, to the impotent rage of his partisan opponents. In his conduct of the 1807 treason trial of Aaron Burr, Marshall infuriated Jefferson but arguably "did more to secure free expression and prevent tyranny than any other court in our history." Much of the story necessarily focuses on abstruse issues in constitutional law, but the author turns this potential narrative problem into a strength by emphasizing the politics and personal stories underlying the court's landmark cases. He cheerfully draws readers into the factual and legal complexities involved, employing an easygoing prose style that neither condescends nor bogs down in legalese. As much as Paul admires Marshall, he doesn't shrink from exposing holes in his reasoning, occasional ethically dodgy procedure, and a sometimes dismayingly amoral approach to the law. A well-informed, perceptive, and absorbing biography of a titan of American history.” -- Kirkus starred review Paul (Unlikely Allies, 2009) brings to life the turbulent early years of the American Republic through the life of a lesser-known but long-lasting Founding Father. John Marshall was present from the beginning of the Revolution and held many roles before that of chief justice and the last of the great Federalists to serve in the federal government. Paul pays special attention to the intense partisanship and political polarization of the era, especially the feud between Marshall and his cousin Thomas Jefferson. Paul challenges the popular understanding of Marshall as a conservative roadblock and holdover from a bygone ideology at great length, describing the chief justice’s decisions from the beginning of Jefferson’s presidency and well into the administration of Andrew Jackson as central to our modern understanding of law, the political state, and foundation of the economy. This very human story should be of great interest to almost all readers. Well written and drawing on rich primary sources, WITHOUT PRECEDENT lives up to its title and will be an excellent addition to American-history collections. — James Pekoll for Booklist Christian Science Monitor features WITHOUT PRECEDENT in its round-up of the “Best Books of February 2018,” raving: “Law professor Joel Richard Paul brings exactly the kind of perspective that a legal scholar can best provide to this engaging biography of US Supreme Court Justice John Marshall. The book’s narrative is especially strong when relating the turbulent legal and political infighting of Marshall’s years as chief justice.” Paul (law, Univ. of California, Hastings Coll. Of the Law; Unlikely Allies) teaches constitutional linens international law, but his passion for history renders this book particularly unique and informative. As promised in the subtitle, this biography portrays Founding Father and Supreme Court Chief Justice John Marshall (1755-1835) in historical context. Consequently, Marshall’s career as a jurist is but a portion of his life, and here readers gain a larger understanding of the man who played a fundamental role in the formation and early history of our country as well as his myriad roles as soldier, lawyer, politician, statesman, jurist, and husband. Beginning with Marshall’s service under General Washington at Valley Forge during the Revolutionary War and delving into every major facet of his life and career, this eminently readable book provides a comprehensive exploration of Marshall and the culture surrounding him. In addition, Paul explicates Marshall’s major decisions as chief justice, so landmark opinions such as Marbury v. Madison and McCullouch v. Maryland receive appropriate attention and analysis. VERDICT. This masterly work elucidates the indelible imprint that Marshall made on the U.S. Constitution and its subsequent interpretation. Perfect for readers of Jean Edward Smith’s John Marshall: Definer of a Nation – Lynne Maxwell, West Virginia Univ. Coll.of Law Lib., Morgantown, Library Journal Review Feb. 15, 2018. "In WITHOUT PRECDENT " Joel Richard Paul has crafted a scholarly but highly readable and often entertaining chronicle that embeds Marshall among the leading lights of the nation's founding generation, humanizing him along the way...(Marshall's) lasting achievements are ably served by Mr. Paul's deeply felt and penetrating biography" -- from the Wall Street Journal Feb., 17, 2018 review by Fergus M. Bordewich. "...engrossing new biography..." -- Weekly Standard February 20, 2018 review by Gerald Russello "Joel Richard Paul, a professor of constitutional and international law at UC Hastings College of the Law, has added a well-written and admiring biography to the long line of Marshall scholarship. The first sentence of “Without Precedent” establishes the stakes: “None of the founding generation of American leaders had a greater impact on the American Constitution than John Marshall, and no one did more than Marshall to preserve the delicate unity of the fledgling republic.” -- Kate Gailbraith, SF Chronicle, March 7, 2017 Click here to see Joel Richard Paul at the Frances Tavern in New City. Video from CSpan How a Merchant, a Playwright, and a Spy Saved the American Revolution UNLIKELY ALLIES is the untold true story of the secret diplomacy that won the American Revolution. In 1775, Benjamin Franklin decides to send Silas Deane—a shopkeeper who has never left Connecticut in his life and can’t speak a word of French—on a secret mission to persuade the French king to arm the Americans. Franklin thinks Deane is such an improbable secret agent that the British spies will never suspect him. Hounded by spies, betrayed by his own colleagues, and besieged by privateers, Deane succeeds with the help of Beaumarchais, a French playwright, and the Chevalier d’Eon, the French ambassador to London. The sexually ambiguous d’Eon, a military hero, French spy, and cross-dresser provides the catalyst that persuades Louis XVI to aid the Americans. Full of political intrigue, betrayal, and espionage, UNLIKELY ALLIES is a bold reinterpretation of the struggle for Independence that exposes the complexity of human motivation and the accidental path of history. “One of the best books of 2009” —The Washington Post “Like it or not, the American Revolution is the gift that keeps on giving. Just when you thought no author could possibly say more on the subject, along comes a book that proves you wrong. Oftener than not, these books repackage the lives of founding fathers or present the dramatic wartime career of some forgotten white chap relegated to the sidelines by Adams, Jefferson, and Washington. Joel Richard Paul, a professor at the University of California Hastings College of Law, aims higher and achieves something new in Unlikely Allies. … … Unlikely Allies possesses the menacing atmospherics of an Allen Furst novel, and the intellectual verve for which Furst’s spy thrillers are justly admired. And Paul’s blessedly short chapters and razor-sharp prose make the book an ideal read for a distracted century. That is no small achievement, especially for an author who must balance, as Paul does so brilliantly, character development and historical analysis. …Paul’s three intertwined lives tell us much about the power of personality, the complexity of human emotions, and as he put it best, “the accidental path of history.” “…wildly entertaining history … “Unlikely Allies” is a nonfiction account, but it reads like a Monty Python movie… The wonder is, our great country came out of such undignified scheming.” “The American Revolution was more than Minutemen and declarations. “Unlikely Allies” tells the jaw-dropping story of three remarkable but flawed players in our nation’s founding. … this is solid, groundbreaking history, well researched and with a narrative arc that guides you through the labyrinths of Louis XV’s court, colonial insurrections and British intransigence.” —Minneapolis Star Tribune “Paul’s fast-paced, engaging narrative fills a gap in the historiography of the American Revolution and is essential reading for students of revolutionary diplomacy as well as general devotees of the age.” “A rip-roaring account of the American Revolution, told from a fresh, and undeniably offbeat, perspective.” “A tantalizing review of early American foreign policy.” “Here comes rebel Joel Richard Paul, a professor of international and constitutional law, wieldingUnlikely Allies, a shadier version of the forging of the French-American alliance without which the United States might not exist.” “Paul gleefully unfurl his story like a suspense thriller, dropping hints, angling cliffhangers,…Unlikely Allies is quick and fun, offering up a fresh take on a period which needs a little shaking up.” —Sacramento Book Review, Mar 10, 2010 “Unlikely Allies is an astonishing look at the sometimes seedy side of our country’s founding-a side in which a good man doing an impossible job would be painted with the brush of “traitor,” losing his fortune, his family, his sacred honor and at last his life in service to the land he loved. Paul tells the story with the skill of a novelist, crafting a compelling tale with engaging characters, intriguing twists and a surprise ending, without having to make anything up. Now that is history!” “An engaging and entertaining account of three of the most colorful characters involved in the American Revolution. It is hard to believe that their story is true, but it is.” —Gordon Wood, Pulitzer Prize winner, The Radicalism of the American Revolution, and Professor Emeritus, Brown University. “Ever tire of worshipful accounts of the Founding Fathers’ wisdom and fortitude? Then try this wonderful book about how an American businessman and two Frenchmen, a dramatist and a cross-dressing spy, came to their aid. A rollicking romp as well as a serious history, it reminds us of the role of duplicity, hypocrisy and corruption, and of human frailty and chance, in safeguarding the American Revolution.” —William Taubman, Pulitzer Prize winner, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, and Bertrand Snell Professor of Political Science, Amherst College “Unlikely Allies is an amazing story compellingly told. I kept turning the pages in eagerness to find out what would happen next. Conspiracies abounded, and hardly anyone was what he or she seemed. If the eighteenth century in Europe was an era of Enlightenment, it was also an Age of Deception. Yet, thanks to Joel Paul’s sympathetic portrayal, Silas Deane emerges as an unsung hero of the American Revolution.” —Robert Gross, Bancroft Prize winner, The Minutemen and their World and James L. and Shirley A. Draper Professor of Early American History, University of Connecticut “Rollicking and surprising, this is history as it really happened—as it was made by all-too-human actors. Unlikely Allies is a lively read and an important counterpoint to Founder hagiography.” —Evan Thomas, bestselling author, Sea of Thunder: Four Naval Commanders and the Last Sea War, and Assistant Managing Editor of Newsweek.

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OLUOLA KOSSOLA/CUDJO LEWIS Cudjo Lewis is considered the last survivor of the last slave ship to enter the United States. Born around 1841 to a Yoruba family in the Banté region of Dahomey (today Benin), he was given the name Oluale Kossola (Kazoola). At age 14, Kossola began his training as a soldier and was inducted into oro, the Yoruba secret male society; by age 19, Kossola was undergoing initiation. His initiation training was cut short, however, in the spring of 1860 when soldiers from Dahomey raided Kassola’s town, killing townspeople and taking prisoners. Though he attempted escape, Kossola was among the captured to be marched to Ouidah, a port city on the Atlantic coast of Benin, and imprisoned in a slave compound. He was sold to William Foster, captain of the Clotilda, a schooner built by Foster in Mobile, Alabama and later converted into a ship capable of illegally transporting Africans as slave cargo into the United States. Kossola was among the 110 enslaved Africans to spend an estimated 45 days aboard the Clotilda. Upon entering the Mississippi Sound on July 8, 1860, Kossola and seven other bondsmen were transferred to James Meaher, brother of Timothy Meaher. When James Meaher could not pronounce Kossola’s name, Kossola told Meaher to call him “Cudjo.” Cudjo worked on a steamship and was subject to overwork and poor living conditions for five years. On April 12, 1865, Union soldiers informed Cudjo and other slave workers on the steamboat that they were free. Upon emancipation, Cudjo left James Meaher’s plantation and took the name Lewis. Desiring to return to Africa, he and his Clotilda captives attempted to acquire reparations in the form of repatriation or land. In 1872, after failing to receive either, Cudjo and the Mobile Africans pooled their resources and purchased land from the Meahers and other wealthy whites to form a settlement, which they named Africa Town. Cudjo resided in Africa Town for the remainder of his life. He became a citizen of the United States in 1868 and a Baptist in 1869. In 1880, Lewis legally married Celia (Abile), a fellow Clotilda capture who had lived with Cudjo since 1866. Together they had five sons and one daughter. Cudjo worked as a shingle maker until 1902, when he was injured in a train accident. He then became the church sexton for Africa Town. In 1927, Zora Neale Hurston famously interviewed and filmed Cudjo, who, as historian Sylviane A. Diouf notes, is the “only known African deported through the slave trade whose moving image exists.” Cudjo achieved further recognition after being interviewed by numerous other writers and journalists. Cudjo Lewis survived his fellow Clotilda companions, leaving him the last survivor of the last slave ship to enter the United States. He died on July 26, 1935 at the estimated age of 94. Why the extraordinary story of the last slave in America has finally come to light, Afua Hirsch, The Guardian, 26 May 2018 Barracoon: The Story of the Last Slave presents the remarkable fact that there were people alive in America who had experienced abduction from Africa – being examined, displayed, traded and enslaved – well into the 20th century. The book is the story of Cudjo Lewis; a man born Oluale Kossola in the Yoruba kingdom of Takkoi. Kossola was the last survivor of the last known slave ship to sail from the African continent to America with a human cargo. Written in the 1930s, but hidden away from a public audience until now, it is also perhaps the last great, unpublished work by the Harlem Renaissance writer Zora Neale Hurston. The word “barracoon” refers to the enclosures in which captives were held on the coast before being loaded on to ships. In Kossola’s case it was the Alabama vessel the Clotilda, which played its own gruesome part in the slave trade in 1860, half a century after its official abolition, transporting 130 men and women from the west African kingdom of Dahomey – modern day Benin. By 1931, when Hurston interviewed Kossola – sweetening him with peaches, Virginia hams and late summer melons –, he was around 90 years old, and yet able, over a period of three months, to recall his life in Takkoi in great detail; his grandfather, an officer of the king; his mother and siblings; law and justice; love and adolescence. He spoke in heartbreaking detail of watching his community annihilated during a raid by Dahomey’s female warriors, leading to his capture and enslavement, the torture of the “middle passage”, and life in 19th and 20th century Alabama. Through all these years – many more lived in America than he had spent in his African birth nation – he never let go of the unspeakable loss of his homeland. When Hurston takes his photograph, Kossola dresses in his best suit, but removes his shoes, telling her: “I want to look lak I in Affica, ’cause dat where I want to be.” The Point of No Return monument in Ouidah, Benin. Photograph: Gallo/Getty Images The uniqueness of the story and that of the writer who tells it are layered and intertwined. The old, poetic Kossola, generous with his parables and storytelling, is one of almost four million Africans enslaved late in the history of the transatlantic trade. And while the full history is documented in countless accounts of slave traders, merchants, plantation owners and masters, ledgers and auction records and court documents, the number of first-hand accounts of Africans forced to become Americans can be counted on two hands. It is Hurston, and perhaps Hurston alone, who could have drawn this heavy tale out of the often melancholy old man, and have the vision and skill to make it sing, in the way that Barracoon does, for reasons rooted deeply in her own life story. Hurston was born in 1891 in Eatonville, Florida, a small town with an entirely black population, which she would later describe as “the city of five lakes, three croquet courts, 300 brown skins, 300 good swimmers, plenty guavas, two schools and no jailhouse”. She would keep close links to her hometown, despite leaving when she was just 13, and then drifting – working as a manicurist and achieving a degree part time at Howard University – until she arrived in New York in 1925. By then she was in her mid 30s (but convinced those whom she met that she was a full decade younger) and had – as she wrote later in her autobiography Dust Tracks on a Road – “$1.50, no job, no friends, and a lot of hope” Hurston began studying anthropology at Barnard College and, having received a fellowship to gather material in her home state, set about documenting African American folk traditions in towns like Eatonville, and later in the southern states, the Bahamas and Haiti. It was during this period, right at the beginning of her career, that she first met Kossola, interviewing him several times in the late 1920s. It was her first major project, but also her first major failure. An article she published about Kossola in the Journal of Negro History would be accused of plagiarism, allegations which scholars now contest, and which in any event drove Hurston to return to Alabama, to conduct the series of interviews that would form the core of Barracoon, and, this time, to do so in a manner that would cast the work beyond any doubt. Radical approach … Zora Neale Hurston.Photograph: © Barbara Hurston Lewis, Faye Hurston, and Lois Hurston Gaston Around this time, black art began asserting itself brazenly in an America still emerging from four centuries of slavery and legalised white supremacy, and the belief that the African had no civilisation to offer. By the time of her death in 1960, Hurston would have published more books than any other black woman in America. But it wasn’t until she caught the attention of sociologist Charles S Johnson, champion of the Harlem Renaissance and the editor of Opportunity, the official journal of the National Urban League (which published her work as well as that of Claude McKay, Langston Hughes and Countee Cullen), that she got her break. Even within the Harlem Renaissance, Hurston’s approach was radical. Inspired by her Eatonville roots, she was instinctively compelled by the folklore, the idioms, customs, worksongs, spirituals, sermons, children’s games, folktales and practices of African American communities of the south. While other members of the black intelligentsia were celebrating racial uplift, and while hundreds of thousands fled the rural south in the “great migration”, in search of what they imagined to be progress in northern cities, Hurston was interested in “the Negro farthest down”. Her goal as an author, anthropologist and essayist, was – the scholar Karla Holloway has said – “to render the oral culture literate”. “The unlettered Negro,” Hurston wrote, was “the Negro’s best contribution to American culture.” It was this belief which inspired Barracoon – a book in which there is little of Hurston herself, but plenty of her ideology, in capturing Kossola, a man whose culture slavery both created and destroyed. Like the language of some of Hurston’s later works – Mule Bone, the play she would write with Hughes in 1931; Mules and Men, a compilation of oral folklore in 1935; and her most famous work, the novel Their Eyes Were Watching Godin 1937 – Kossola’s narrative plays the music of history itself within its tonalities, rhythms and inflections. But the narrative, like Kossola, stands apart from Hurston’s others; his speech is more a recognisably African Creole than the African American vernacular, and despite all his decades living in America, Kossola is steeped in the thought of Africa, the world – as he calls it – “in de Affica soil”. Hurston’s fidelity to the manner and content of Kossola’s storytelling is the book’s strength. Yet within it were also contained the seeds of Barracoon’s downfall. When Hurston took the manuscript to publishers, they wanted her to anglicise his English, which she resolutely refused to do. American slaves on a plantation in South Carolina, 1862.Photograph: Alamy Stock Photo “Hurston was not interested in, as Toni Morrison might put it, the white gaze, and how ‘they’ would perceive us,” explains Deborah Plant, a Hurston scholar who edited Barracoon. “She was interested in what was specific in African American culture, those aspects which were rooted in African tradition, African history, African civilisation, because in that authenticity lay the genius – the spirit, as Hurston describes it – that which the soul lives by.” For Cheryl Wall, Zora Neale Hurston professor of English at Rutgers University, “this impatience with Hurston’s determination to transcribe Kossola’s speech faithfully is enormously frustrating”. It was “part of the pattern of Hurston’s life that she had to fight so hard to have her voice heard, and the voices of those whose stories she wanted to tell. We are told the dialect is too difficult. Is it really any more difficult than the dialect of Mark Twain or James Joyce? Yes it requires some extra effort, but it’s the kind of effort we usually put into a literary text without complaint.” The irony is astounding. Kossola, a man denied his home and his voice by American racism, would have the telling of his story silenced too. Barracoon, having been met with intransigence by publishers, remained unpublished, ending up in a private collection that was passed to the archive at Howard University in 1956, where it remained inaccessible to all but a handful of scholars who read it and cited it in their work. Hurston found her own life mirroring this cycle of narration and dispossession. After the success of her work in the 1930s and 40s, her hugely productive career spiralled downwards. She lived hand to mouth, writing articles for magazines while working at odd jobs, including one stint in Miami for an employer who saw her byline in the Saturday Evening Post and tipped off a reporter that the author was her maid. Hurston was humiliated, and spent the next decade in a series of small towns in Florida, plagued by health and money problems, until she ended up in a welfare home where she died, penniless, of heart disease in 1960. A slave’s cabin at the National Museum of African American History and Culture, Edisto Island, South Carolina.Photograph: Courtesy of NMAAHC At the time of her death, none of her seven previously published books was in print. Neighbours collected money for her funeral and it made front page news in the local black weekly, the Fort Pierce Chronicle. But she was buried in a segregated cemetery, in an unmarked grave. For the novelist and feminist Alice Walker, who in 1973 set out to discover what had become of Hurston, finding this grave in a “field full of weeds” was a devastating experience. “There are times,” wrote Walker, “and finding Zora Hurston’s grave was one of them, when normal responses to grief, horror and so on do not make sense because they bear no real relation to the depth of emotion one feels.” Walker was determined to restore Hurston’s legacy and reputation. She obtained a gravestone, and had it inscribed with the words: “Zora Neale Hurston – A genius of the south. Novelist. Folklorist. Anthropologist.” Their Eyes Were Watching God, still considered Hurston’s greatest work, was soon back in circulation. That edition, by the University of Illinois Press, sold more than 300,000 copies, making it, as Wall says, “one of the most dramatic chapters in African American literary history”. The publication of Barracoon thus represents a recovery within a recovery; the works of Hurston having been so dramatically resurrected, but this one languishing in obscurity until now. And its publication comes at an emotive moment in the African American experience – an experience loaded not just with historical trauma, but very contemporary pain. Alice Walker writes, for example, in the foreword to the book, that in reading Kossola’s story, African Americans “are struck with the realisation that he is naming something we ourselves work hard to avoid, how lonely we are too in this still foreign land”. Karla Holloway, professor of English at Duke University, says: “The irony is that the loneliness that echoes through Kossola’s account, and that Walker so poignantly notices, is our collective legacy. “We work hard to escape and slip past that loneliness, but inevitably we are captured, again, by the wake of slavery, a tidal wash as reliable as moonrise.” The era of Black Lives Matter, of harassment in coffee shops, of a president who has been both overtly racist and also dismissive of racism, and of the disappointment at the first black president having been able to make little real change to poverty, criminalisation and exclusion, has produced a moment in which the struggle has never been more apparent, yet the cultural expression of that suffering has never been more visible. Illustration by Swain, from 1835, of slaves being put into the hold.Photograph: Rischgitz/Getty Images “I do think one of the reasons that the book is so attractive right now is that there is this longing for African Americans to have access to a pre-US life – a connection to Africa,” says Autumn Womack, an assistant professor of English and African American studies at Princeton University. “If nothing else, Barracoon announces the desire for this kind of connection, even if it’s never really fulfilled. People are searching for a vocabulary to make sense of that.” That struggle is finding expression in film, TV and theatre that focuses on the experience of slavery; from the Oscar-winning 12 Years a Slave, the remake of the memorable series Roots and the multi-award-winning musical Hamilton. It is present in pop culture, with the recent phenomenon of Childish Gambino’s “This Is America”, whose video references the violent brutalisation of African Americans. There are new museums – America’s first of African American history, which opened in 2016; the Whitney Plantation, the first plantation museum on American soil; and the nation’s first memorial to the horrors of lynching, in Alabama. It is abundant in literature too; Colson Whitehead’s The Underground Railroad and other influential books such ass Isabel Wilkerson’s The Warmth of Other Suns, which tells the story of the Great Depression in new and profound detail; Stamped from the Beginning, by Ibram X Kendi, which chronicles the lifespan of American racism; Angie Thomas’s The Hate U Give, radicalising readers of young adult fiction to the injustice of police killings; and Jesmyn Ward’s devastating Sing, Unburied, Sing. The pathos of the African American experience, told with such tenderness in Barracoon, is matched by its complexity. Hurston herself remarked that in writing Kossola’s harrowing account of how the king of Dahomey profited from raiding and selling members of neighbouring kingdoms, she was deeply affected by the question of African complicity in the slave trade. “The inescapable fact that stuck in my craw,” Hurston wrote, “was my people had sold me and the white people had bought me. That did away with the folklore I had been brought up on – that white people had gone to Africa, waved a red handkerchief at the Africans and lured them aboard ship and sailed away.” And yet Barracoon also helps deepen the understanding of the context in which slavery took place. “This idea of ‘African complicity’ is more myth than a reality,” Plant says. “Because at that point in history, there was no such thing as an ‘African’. People on the African continent did not self identify as Africans; instead there was a self identity in relation to specific ethnic groups and specific kingdoms, religions or language. So many of us don’t know, because we don’t have these nuances about our history.” The absence of stories like Kossola’s has hardly helped bring these nuances to the fore. There are other difficult questions arising from the book about the extent to which the African American victims of slavery internalised the attitudes of their oppressors. Kossola recalls how his children in particular endured bullying from neighbouring African Americans, for having two African-born parents. “All de time de chillun growin’ de American folks dey picks at dem and tell de Afficky people dey kill folks and eatee de meat,” Kossola recounts in Barracoon. “Dey callee my chillun ig’nant savage and make out dey kin to monkey … It hurtee dey feelings.” “Those acculturated African Americans could have been more open, more receptive, compassionate, and they weren’t,” Plant says. “They were a source of hostility to Kossola and his community. We can explain or rationalise it, but it doesn’t justify it.” The book’s uniqueness is in its recounting of a story in which we are all equally bound up by this cycle of oppression – the former slave plagued by the trauma of losing his homeland and family, the writer whose work survived the desire of intellectuals for white approval, the reader forced to challenge their own ideas about race and the internalisation of oppression. But more than anything it brings an African past up close to an African American present, at a time of great searching. “Throughout her life, Hurston fought against this idea that there was no connection to Africa once people arrived on these shores, and everything was forgotten,” Wall says. “We know that’s not true. But a book like this really brings that to life.” • Barracoon: The Story of the Last Slave by Zora Neale Hurston is published by HarperCollins.

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Unfortuntely, positive learning environments don't just happen on their own–they must be created. Positivity is a key component a positive learning environment. The term learning environment can refer to an educational approach, cultural context, or physical setting in which teaching and learning occur. Below, we've collected teacher-tips on creating a positive classroom from Edutopia's online community. … They consider the physical environment to be "another teacher." She’s the author of more than 100 journal articles, several books, chapters, and state and district policies. 10 Characteristics of a Highly Effective Environment The students ask the question – good questions Questions are valued over answers Ideas come from a variety of sources A variety of instructional design methods are used Classroom learning “empties” into an authentic community Learning is personalized by a variety of criteria Assessment is persistent, authentic, transparent, and … She also routinely uses positive, affirming language such as: That’s an excellent use of logic. Ask An Expert: Should Teachers Give Spelling ... How to Save Time Lesson Planning, Grading ... Survey: Workload makes 3 in 4 new teachers want to quit, How to Make Math Learning Fun — and Effective, Research Shows That 1:1, Teacher-Led Classrooms Increase Student Engagement, Building professional learning communities: Social media, ed camps, and meetups, 10 Ways Parents Can Help Reform Education, How EdTech Companies Can Sell to the Higher Education Market. The physical environment must be safe, and welcoming, and must support learning. – Christine'sBlog, TCSTEM Delivers STEM Education to Underprivileged Students – FLHS News, Effects of Music Education on Academic Achievement – IndiePulse Music Magazine, 5 Ed Tech Trends Redefine the Connected Campus - The Tech Edvocate, Pelemahan Daya Argumentasi: Catatan Empiris untuk Esai Ben K. C. Laksana [Bagian 2] « IndoPROGRESS. In addition to these academic learning activities, state-mandated drills are held to learn school procedures for fire safety, inclement weather, and other emergency situations. Spread the loveAfrican Africans have a long history of being mistreated in the United States, starting with slavery. Enabling eLearning: ePortfolios Learn about e-portfolios. The classroom physical environment responds to students’ learning preferences. Know STEM. 10 Characteristics of a Highly Effective Learning Environment 1. She has students complete a series of questions on their first day of class. Enhanced learning. We are never too old for a story. Spread the loveEducation is a collaborative process, as it takes many stakeholders working in unison to help students succeed academically. She explains that the tracks are welded together using a chemical reaction to form miles of runway for trains. School climate is a broad, multifaceted concept that involves many aspects of the student’s educational experience. Storytelling. Spread the loveAccess to education is a basic human right and a subject of importance in every part of the world. Almost all of us have spent a great deal of time in the classroom, beginning in kindergarten and extending for years beyond. Choose STEM. Approaches to education emerge based on political and social structures and are replete with heroes, values, symbols, rituals, and norms. That reorganization, though, and the underlying effort, will have much to do with reviving the American education system, and reviving a national love of learning. If they’re too hot, sitting in an uncomfortable chair, or surrounded by distractions, they’re not going to be able to concentrate on what they’re learning. Janetta designs lab assignments around routines and practices that students must follow. As a result, it is crucial for the school and the classroom culture to reflect, acknowledge, and celebrate diversity.Schools must recognize not only the diversity evident between broad ethnic groups (e.g., Asian or Hispanic) but also the diversity within these groups. Copyright (c) 2021 Matthew Lynch. Inservice is the official blog of ASCD. Routines and practices have a predictable rhythm. Most school systems implement a district-wide policy controlling disciplinary infractions with guidelines for truancy, suspension, and other serious infringements. Each of these processes and procedures reflect certain values of American society, such as the need for structure and order, the desire to maximize potential, the desire to recognize achievement, and the importance of multiple opportunities for individual success. These realities are important for every educator to consider – particularly as we honor Mental Health Awareness Month. Further, characters and their actions can be discussed at great length to help students learn what others have done to overcome challenges. They help students to reclaim normalcy and control by supporting a downshift from a fearful state to a calmer and more positive one. In a World of Artificial Intelligence, Where Does Emotional Intelligence Fit In? The organization of your classroom is another element that will impact a positive learning environment. To find out more about teaching students living with adversity, see Teaching to Strengths: Supporting Students Living with Trauma, Violence, and Chronic Stress, written by Debbie Zacarian, Lourdes Alvarez-Ortiz, and Judie Haynes. This type of environment fosters a sense of belonging and of feeling valued, competent, and safe. Was it colorful posters, clear and consistent rules, and fun and interesting teaching methods? Signup for The Edvocate Newsletter and have the latest in P-20 education news and opinion delivered to your email address! Because each group is creating a poster of their choice about the process of a chemical reaction, they are involved in more than designing the location of their seats, they also define what is needed on the walls of their classroom to help guide them in this task. By Terry Roberts Spread the loveBeing a teacher is a tough job. When we do this, we intentionally look for, honor, and acknowledge the values, attributes, and strengths that make every student unique. According to experts in the field of education, well-planned, quality school facilities … Schools which implement the PBL framework make sure all students are explicitly taught the expected behaviours and establish clear and consistent boundaries. Which Countries Provide Free Education At A University Level? Educators share their strategies for connecting at a distance. Increased self-esteem. Lessons are made relevant by connecting the curriculum to students’ lives. For example, linking literary characters and literature to students’ personal, cultural, social, and world experiences can validate students’ strengths and interests. Music. Students today will live as adults in a society more accepting of diversity, and one where global influences are more apparent. As students enter your classroom, greet each one at the door. There are many components that go into making a positive learning environment for students. Creating a Positive Learning Environment at Home can have a big impact of your child’s development. Those human beings that seem larger than life and almost achieve Godlike status. Its findings show that students who learn in positive environments effectively receive a month and a half more math instruction than those in poor learning environments. You may be able to create an e-portfolio using your school’s Learning Management System or LMS (for … Spread the loveCluster grouping is a method educators utilize to meet gifted kids’ educational needs. Let's further define the characteristics found in a positive learning environment: Students feel physically and emotionally safe. Positive Behaviour for Learning (PBL) is a whole-school framework that promotes positive behaviour across a school and helps schools develop safe and supportive learning environments. The physical environment must be safe, and welcoming, and must support learning. A positive environment is one in which students feel a sense of belonging, trust others, and feel encouraged to tackle challenges, take risks, and ask questions (Bucholz & Sheffler, 2009). Progress reports are frequent. Physical Safety. Emotional Environment. Partnering with school districts and nonprofit organizations, she has lead reform initiatives targeted to improving opportunities and outcomes for underserved populations. Spread the loveWhile most in the education field believe they are underpaid for the work they do, there are many people who argue that teachers’ pay is fair. For example, knowing that her students see or hear a train traveling by their school every day, she takes her class on a short walk to the railroad tracks. Contemporary Leadership Styles, […] https://www.theedadvocate.org/7-benefits-of-stem-education/ […], Why Low-income Kids Are Nowhere to be Found in STEM. Judie Haynes is a widely known ESL teacher with 28 years’ experience. Here are practices that Janetta Wallace, a high school chemistry teacher, uses to implement the five elements of a strengths-based classroom environment. An example is a routine opening meeting to describe the day’s schedule and discuss how students will transition from one activity to another. One example of this relationship-building practice is greeting individual students as they enter the classroom. They need to recognize how unique each student is. Research suggests that the learning environment has a significant effect on student achievement. 106 Experts Share Their Thoughts on the Future of Education, Part 1: PreK-12, How Dumbed Down Education Is Creating a National Security Crisis, 21 Inspirational Quotes That Nelson Mandela Made About Education, The Edvocate Podcast, Episode 7: How Digital Age Teachers Can Win Over Parents, The Edvocate Podcast, Episode 6: 8 Ways That Digital Age Teachers Avoid Burning Out, The Edvocate Podcast, Episode 5: The Archetype of a Great Teacher. Start building a learner profile (paper based or digital) for each student. Positive asset-based relationships are visible among all in the classroom. Schools emphasize particular topics and fields of study and use mastery of these subjects to determine grade progression and the ability to gain admission to college. It begins with getting to know them and building trusting relationships. They must be prepared to live in that world. Students living in adverse conditions are more likely to experience a loss of control and feelings of powerlessness. However, according to the National Survey of Children’s Health, almost half of all U.S. children have experienced one or more types of serious adversity such as abuse, neglect, parental loss, or mental illness. Academic Support. The importance of our relationship with students cannot be overstated. The academic environment must be conducive to learning and achievement for all students. At the beginning of the school year, think carefully about what resources and materials your students will need as part of their lessons. Some argue that the feelings and attitudes of teachers, students, staff, and parents are influenced by a school climate that is based on intangibles. She provides professional development to educators through workshops for ASCD and International TESOL and their affiliates. Dr. Debbie Zacarian is known for her expertise in responsive leadership, instructional practices, family-school partnerships, and educational policy with diverse populations. Creating a positive classroom environment is an important aspect of effective teaching. Spread the loveOne of the questions that I am frequently asked is, what does a good teacher look like? Extensive research is being conducted to identify characteristics of positive learning environments for boys and methods for introducing those findings into schools across America. Being outdoors allows them to move around without many of the restrictions of being inside. She models how she wants pairs and then groups of students to work together to discuss possible solutions. ... that clear evidence was finally pinned down showing that differences in the physical characteristics of 153 classrooms accounted for 16% of the variation in the learning progress of the 3766 children in those spaces. And, she supports them to affirm each other in the same manner. 1. Janetta takes time to build relationships with her students. We call for a relatively radical and certainly quite comprehensive reorganization of American’s P-20 system. Stronger bonds with their teachers and the school. Schools also use age-level grouping, along with periodic assessment of students’ skills and knowledge, to regulate class sizes and progressions through a structured system of learning. This encourages students to recognize themselves and others as individuals. The teacher in a healthy classroom works continually to “tame” students in this way: to see who they really are, what makes them unique in the world. To that end, creating the right physical learning environment is essential. There is no such Ideas for lessons, reading, tests, and projects—the fiber of … Researchers have found that a positive school climate can help solve a lot of those problems. How Can We Improve Teacher Training in the World’s Poorest Countries? A classroom is a haven for many students living with adversity. Students have voice and choice in matters that pertain to them. Making your classroom a positive learning environment is essential in today's education. 05 December, 2018 In a school or home setting, a positive learning environment is crucial for a child. By creating positive classroom environments, teachers are provided the opportunity for better classroom discipline and management. Educators have debated about the definition of school climate but haven’t developed a single, accepted definition. For instance, students should have input in the arrangement and design of their classroom including desks and wall space to facilitate collaboration, discussion, and individual work. When students arrive back in the classroom, she tells them to work in small groups to discuss how they think the tracks are welded together without engineers having to haul tons of metal to the location where the tracks are laid. She involves students in designing the classroom environment for paired and group discussions. Positive, productive learning environments are key to students' academic, emotional and social success in school. Gathering information about students is a good way to build and strengthen our relationships and personalize our interactions with them. For students to learn, they must feel safe, engaged, connected, and supported in their classrooms and schools. When we ask this question throughout the U.S., few educators raise their hand. According to large bodies of trauma-related research, this relational approach is more effective when it occurs in an environment that fosters a sense of belonging and of feeling valued, competent, and safe. To establish trust that leads to true participation and engagement in learning, you first need to set the stage by establishing a learning environment in which all students feel valued, safe, and supported. Spread the loveSome learners struggle to keep up in class. How is Technology Revolutionizing Campus Libraries? Even though the widely accepted values, norms, assessments, and practices described here are indicators of school culture, schools may have individual school climates. How could your students share their profiles with their families? She is also the co-founder and co-moderator of #ELLCHAT, a widely known Twitter chat for teachers of ELLs. Spread the loveEducational leadership is vital in any school whether it is elementary, middle, or high school. Social Relationships. A first step for supporting such students’ academic and socio-emotional development is to embrace a strong belief in them and their personal assets and strengths. These conditions for learning are the elements of a schools climate that students experience personally. American schools attempt to monitor learning through nationally standardized assessment instruments such as the Criterion Reference Competency Test (CRCT), American College Testing (ACT), and the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT). Greet Students at the Door Every Day. Creating a positive learning environment has overwhelmingly beneficial outcomes. How can we create a classroom environment that reflects these characteristics and capitalizes on our students’ individual strengths? It’s a climate where students are encouraged to be leaders and positive role models speaking up … A child’s development is affected by a variety of things such as parent attitudes, inspirations, education level, home learning environment, school influences, child’s characteristics and personal qualities. A positive school climate exists when all members of the school community feel safe, included, and accepted, and actively promote positive behaviours and interactions. Spread the loveTeachers need to realize that at home, in their neighborhoods, and in school, many students face difficulties that can interfere with learning. Now, boys are an average of 1.5 years behind girls in reading ability, a gap that persists through college and even upon entering the workforce. Creating a positive learning environment has overwhelmingly beneficial outcomes. Ideally they should have access to outdoor space on a daily basis – regardless of all except the worst weather. If so, you were lucky to have a teacher who paid close attention to the learning environment, or the It also parallels the values of a largely Protestant, capitalist population, with an emphasis on individual accomplishments, competition, and equality. A positive learning environment not only consists of the physical setting, but it also encompasses how the child feels or responds to the setting. Spread the loveWhile the novel coronavirus has brought the entire world to a standstill, it’s the education sector that will suffer the most consequences. You have entered an incorrect email address! Teachers’ Pay Must Be at the Heart of Global Education Reform, Innovative Approaches to Global Education Challenges, 40 Questions to Ask When Choosing Your Child’s Preschool. Plentiful reading opportunities. Student Characteristics. Studies find that it decreases absenteeism, suspensions, substance abuse, and bullying, and increases students’ academic achievement, motivation to learn, and psychological well-being. By creating positive classroom environments, teachers are provided the opportunity for better classroom discipline and management. 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Dalit art evolved as a mode of resistance and protest. It tires to historically trace the origin and the seriousness of caste discrimination from the past till present. Dalit artists across India have picked up themes, which invoke a deep sense of contemplation in the minds of the onlooker. Dalit art is a representation of critical issues of domination, discrimination, and oppression encompassing along the triple oppression faced by Dalit woman. Dalit women’s problems encompass not only gender and economic deprivation but also discrimination associated with religion, caste and untouchability which in turn results in the denial of their social, economic, cultural and political rights, One such artist from Maharashtra named Savindra Savi has successfully done so, through his art he has a created a mode of protest and also tries to track the interplay between meaning and power within hierarchical structures of religion, caste, gender, and politics. As Y.S. Alone puts it, Dalit art needs to create a social space for itself, which is associated with hegemony and monopoly. The native hegemony of dominant castes. Adherence to social reality in the pictorial space was a major shift affected by Indian Painters. They succeeded in legitimizing their own culture and social environment through their art practice. As Gopal Guru aptly explains that the evolution of Dalit art varying from folklores to paintings to folk poetry has provided Dalit’s with an intellectual platform for creation as well as articulation for laboring Dalit’s women self perception of emancipation. He very well states that Dalit emancipation is not only possible through government policies as they are temporal in nature but through cultural and intellectual stimulation which will create a language of resistance and fully loaded with meanings and have a story of their subordination and suppression. Evolution of Dalit style of Mithila Paintings In the region of Mithila, there were particularly women from two sub-castes among the Dalit community had mastered the art of Mithila painting which was different from paintings by an upper castes women. These women belonging to Dusadh and Chamar community had developed their own distinct style of paintings and various new themes were included. The credit to Dalit inclusion in Mithila Paintings goes to a German anthropologist, Erika Moser, having inspired and guided Dusadh women back in 1978 to embrace the art and start writing a new chapter of their social recognition and economic independence. The German anthropologist film-maker and social activist Erika Moser persuaded the impoverished Dusadh community to paint. The result was the Dusadh captured their oral history (such as the adventures of Raja Salhesh, and depictions of their primary deity, Rahu) — typified by bold compositions and figures based on traditional tattoo patterns called Godna locally. This added another distinctive new style to the region’s flourishing art scene. With the financial support of Moser and Raymond Lee Owens along with land in Jitwarpur donated by Anthropologist Erika Moser, the likes of Dr. Gauri Mishra spearheaded the setting up of the Master Craftsmen Association of Mithila in 1977. This association was very active during the lifetime of Owens and worked in tandem with Ethnic Arts Foundation of USA. Dusadh women were very receptive to her ideas of starting a profession in Mithila Paintings but at the same time were apprehensive of their awareness and strength against the much-established Brahmin women leading the art. These apprehensions were born around the lack of their knowledge for elaborated painting styles like Kohbhar and Aripana, Hindu customs, deities, Gods and goddesses over which the Brahmins has created a complete dominance and epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata making them doubt their ability to translate the same on paper in form of beautiful paintings with meaningful message. Erika Moser guided these women to rather focus on their own rich customs and folklore, their own deities and idols, culture and rituals instead of high Hindu castes and paint in their own thematic style. Empowered by the words of an educated European woman and her other operational help, Dusadh women started to embark on their own journey of Mithila paintings and its rewarding experience. In coming days this art and its practice would give a lot of confidence to hitherto downtrodden members of Dusadh community raising their self-esteem to participate in more empowering political movements and discourses. Thanks to their political mobilization and social awareness, Dusadh community today is an active force in Mithila and Bihar Due to unfortunate absence of Dusadh paintings in photograph collections of William Archer and his wife Mildred, the available account of it comes from various short films by Erika Moser in 1970 and few photographs by Mary Lanius. In 1980, Given their technical constraints of painting on mud or cow dung plastered walls, Dusadh paintings, to some extent have a similarity with that from Brahmins and Kayastha, however, they were immediately distinguishable from more popular kachni and bharni paintings of the same era. Dusadh women in this period mainly painted trees, creepers, flowers, and molded low relief clay figures of deities and animals on external walls of their homes. Dusadh women created three major distinct painting style and techniques. The most popular and important one among these is the tattoo style paintings or Godana on limbs and chest of people. They include an auspicious and protective image on the human body mostly having rows and concentric circles of flowers, fields’ animals and deities done initially by bamboo pen and lampblack ink. Many painters emulated this form of paintings and very soon tattooed paintings started to proliferate in this region. People started to use bamboo pens and gradually started using organic colors as well made from flowers, grains, harvest, turmeric etc. As Dusadh women started to use colors in their paintings, their scope of content and subjects to make their paintings also increased significantly. They now started to include other gods and goddesses like Suriya (the sun goddess), their cultural hero Raja Salheshand his adventurous escapades, the tree of life, and Rahu. Though these paintings used colors and broads elements they substantially differed from existing Bharni and kachni paintings of that time. The second form of paintings was innovated by Jamuna Devi, a local woman belonging to Chamar caste, and was somewhat similar to bharni paintings. They abundantly used natural and synthetic colors besides using large images of deities, gods, human beings and other anthropomorphic forms. However, these paintings were distinguished by bharni paintings by the use of a double line of cow dung and lampblack dots between the lines and other places around depicted figures. Follow The Charticle on Facebook: @thecharticle One additional form of paintings was also innovated by Jamuna Devi when she started washing the paper with cow dung to give it a sullying texture and appearance. Initially, the idea of washing the drawing paper with cow dung dint go quite well with the artist community but the inspiring response from the market and huge subsequent demand for same established the use of cow dung washed papers as a mark of superior paintings imbibed by Brahmin and Kayastha women as well. Eventually the papers which were smeared by cow dung became very popular among the people and the artists began artists such as called Siban Paswan and Rajesh Paswan from Jitwarpur does that very frequently creating a distinct style of coloring for themselves, the smearing of paper gives it a distinct smell when it is fresh and adds an earthly hue to the paper making it more visually appealing. Geru (brown) included big figures of gods and goddess, animals and fields largely painted in light brown along with few more bright color objects on the paper. Resembling low relief figures on the walls of homes of Mithila inhabitants, these paintings dint take off too well and couldn’t attract many buyers. The fact to ponder upon here is that none of these Dusadh paintings or High caste paintings from Brahmins and kayastha women has remained stagnant from the times of their inception to today. Mithila Art is under a state of constant evolution and also intermixing of styles among its subcategories. That is to say, not only the theme of Bharni Paintings or Kachni Paintings has changed slightly over time but also elements of Dusadh Paintings have penetrated in the same. This could be studied by taking examples of Brahmin painters who now abundantly use cow dung wash papers to add sullying beauty to their bharni paintings and the Dalit painters who use a lot of colors and broad figures in their paintings resembling bharni Style and often depicting kohbhar images also in their creations. The art of Mithila Painting has facilitated an exchange of quality styles among the artists of all castes and aesthetic signs of one could be well appreciated in the other. This being said the overall ambit of Mithila Painting includes paintings with some distinct broad identifiers like the repeated image of the subject of the painting, Single plain, no use of perspective or shading, full face representation of gods and goddesses. The skills of Dusadh painters increased manifolds in around last 4 decades. Now they are not only drawing images of Shiva and Krishna but also expanding their content base. They are depicting the adventures of Raja Salhesh, Rahu (Dusadh community Sun God), besides current social and rural life issues to give a contemporary appeal to their work. One major element of their paintings is the life tree, a huge tree with images of animals, flowers, regular day-to-day household items, gods and human forms in various stages young to old etc. These trees of life have been thoughtfully used by Dusadh painters to depict intellectually stimulating concepts of cosmological inference such as Raas to a more regular depiction of the nomadic journey of migrant workers assembling in Jitwarpur and nearby areas during the harvest time in order to find work. Though upper caste painters have used small trees, leaves and other related images repetitively as fillers in their paintings; they haven’t been very explicit and thought to apply with the tree of life which is popular in India and Europe. This style of Painting was started by Jamuna Devi, by basically giving the paper a light Gobar (Cow dung slurry) wash to give it a beautiful sullying look and feel on which bright colors often come out very beautifully. From the caste perspective, it’s important to note that unlike other scheduled castes of Jitwarpur village like the Malis, the Pasis, Doms, and Dhobiwho all stuck to their traditional professions, the Chamars and the Dusadhs have forayed into a full-time profession of Mithila Painting. At this point, it’s helpful to probe the socioeconomic background and status of these two castes before studying the evolution of their art and its modern significance. Even today these castes The Chamars and The Dusadhs by a majority of residents in the same region are considered inferiors and untouchables and discriminated openly in social transactions and exchanges. There are various sources and studies done on history and background of these castes at the bottom of the pyramid and they unanimously bring forth the plight of being a low born by birth. Dusadhs and Chamars are among the most devoid of castes and denied the basic human rights. These included restriction on them using the village well, expected to not cross high borns daytime during their walks in fields and villages, couldn’t eat or participate in village social affair, feasts and gatherings and most primitively above all “ cast of impurity on a higher caste person if a Dalit’s shadow falls on him or her. Neel Rekha a renowned sociologist in her article ‘Salhesa iconography in Madhubani Paintings: A case of Harijan assertion’ throws light on this “ Mithila was basically an agricultural economy. The feudalistic pattern of society and economy, which originated in the pre-medieval Mithila, continued till the present century and only a small section of Maithil Population was economically well off on account of either education or through the landed property. With the region witnessing a series of droughts in the 50’s and 60’s, the meager income derived from agriculture also came to an end. It resulted in a large-scale exodus of men and women belonging to the lower caste communities to the cities. Many painters from the Dusadh caste of Jitwarpur revealed that they were earning their living by pulling rickshaws in Madhubani. The Chamars, also known as Ravidas, were by occupation makers of footwear, cultivators or laborers. Their traditional occupation was the disposal of dead animals and to prepare different objects out of the skin of dead animals. Their caste occupation also included dealing in other objects obtained from the body of dead animals such as horns, bones, and flesh. However, their main work was the processing of skin and making of footwear. Even today in some villages, they still have the right to the hides of the dead livestock. In the past, they were often suspected of poisoning the cattle. The Dusadhs were one of the useful castes in the area owing to their value as agricultural laborers. They reared cattle, pigs etc. and supported themselves mostly by labor and cultivation. They also monopolized the post of village chowkidars or watchmen in the district. of the titles among the Dusadhs was Paswan, which means a watchman or a guard. Their women supplemented the income of the family by working as laborers. The Dusadhs were enlisted among the criminal castes of the district. Poverty and social incompatibility seemed to be the immediate environmental factors responsible for leading to criminal acts “ The scheduled castes also from an early time had the culture of decorating their houses, kothis, storage other broad surfaces with figures of animals like horses and elephants but these were simple images devoid of any aesthetic or ornamental qualities. Making mud wall frescoes was very popular with them. However, the growing popularity of Brahmanical and Kayastha Paintings more precisely known as Bharni and Kachni, started to inspire lower caste Dusadhs and Chamar women as well and they wanted to learn the art behind these paintings. This was however not easy as Dalit Painters devoid of any knowledge of rich and ornamental Brahamanical or high caste rituals, deities, and gods; found themselves clueless about imitating Bharni and kachni painting styles. Follow The Charticle on Twitter: @thecharticle Lower caste women mostly caught in village hard physical work and domestic chores had little awareness of accounts of uncountable Hindu gods and deities and expecting guiding hand and time from their high caste counterpart women seemed difficult owing to social differences. This is where the motivation and skill specific advisory from the likes of Bhaskar Kulkarni, Raymond Lee Owens, an American anthropologist, and Erika Moser, a German folklorist comes as a savior for the evolution of Dalit Paintings in its current form. Bhaskar Kulkarni gave Jamuna Devi, one of the first Harijan women to start commercialized painting, the idea to wash the drawing paper with a light Gobar wash thus laying the foundation for Gobar or Geru Paintings. Jamuna Devi thus started a new and distinctive style of painting, which in coming times attain huge recognition and demand in commercial markets besides being emulated by painters from upper caste as well. Holi colors on cow- dung paper imparted an unusual brightness to her paintings making Jamuna Devi shot into prominence with her mud frescos and paintings reserving a place in big exhibitions of Japan, New Delhi, Patna, and Varanasi. Roudi Paswan, Jitwarpur husband of artist Chano Devi played a significant role in the evolution of Godana paintings. Introduction of natural colors, stories of local deities such as Rahu, Govinda and Salhes, Gobar style, tattoo motifs and contemporary themes by the Dusadhs gave a huge distinctive appeal and beauty to. Men from the region were also instrumental in helping women folks to produce the masterpieces. Ramvilas Paswan from village Laheriagunj and Roudi Paswan of village Jitwarpur were forces behind these innovations in Dalit paintings. Their occupation as the local priests of the Dusadhs helped Dalit women get a hang of their own cultural history and know the gods like Salhesa and Rahu better. Another pioneer credited with popularizing community legends in Dalit Paintings was Shanti Devi who learned the art from her mother- in -law Kushuma Devi. She worked her husband Seewan and they were inspired by the efforts of Raymond Lee Owens urging them to depict legends from their own community into their paintings. She was distinctive from Jamuna Devi in the manner of making large panels with natural colors in Gobar outlines. Another major form of Dalit Paintings to mention here are Godana paintings by pioneered by Chano Devi the wife of Roudi Paswan’s. Eric Moser saw tattoos on Chano’s body and suggested her to get the tattoos on paper. Her partner in evolving this style of paintings was Palti Devi – a Natin who had performed these tattoos on Chano’s body. They worked together in isolation of a mango grove for two months and evolved this new painting style. Evolution of Tattoo Paintings can be traced back by studying the ritual and habits of Nat Community. Natins, the women folks of this community have been master tattooers since a long time. Dalit women from Bihar have used Godna as an idiom to make an elevated sense of Dalit emancipation, which they explain in terms of the annihilation of caste and the restoration of manuski [dignity to themselves]. Gopal Guru in his work draws light towards intellectual expression in forms of work undertaken or forced on Dalit women. The nature of work remains demeaning and is further trivialized by the internal paradox of a patriarchal Dalit imagination. The hierarchical space within which Dalit women worked, has also been the sight of ‘distinctive subjectivities’ that women expressed in response to the nature of the work. Guru opines that Dalit women have been expressive and created their own forms of deliberation in response to the exploitative conditions of work imposed upon them. He categorises Dalit women into two, first the ones who are involved in a particular kind of labour that helps them to articulate through forms such as paintings, tattoos and folk poetry and relate to Ambedkar and the second category of women which do not have any formal education seem to resonate with his ideology and become a voice in articulating to Ambedkar’s recourse on the basis of trust. Example Guru highlights how women self-assertion came through unmediated language with a sense of individual creativity and purely through experience in the field of work. Gopal guru illustrates the ways in which women deliberate a feminist articulation situated in a particular kind of work. Taking the case of Godna Painting, Dalit women in the Madhubani district of Bihar express their pain through the idiom of Godna to Dalit emancipation, which they explain in ‘annihilation of caste and restoration of mansuki (Dignity to themselves). Godna originally meaning the art of tattooing was adopted particularly in the provinces in Bihar and Bengal, to imprint the prisoners as well as demonstrate an upper caste distinction. Historian Claire Anderson, researched and claimed that most of these tattoos were made by lower caste illiterate women who use to draw creative patterns and number on upper caste bodies, ordered by the imperial authorities. However, the history Godna lies in the discrimination suffered by the Dalit women when they were forced to wear ornaments of iron and inferior materials as prescribed by the Manu code. Tattooing was thus seen as an inversion of that prescription that marked distinction from the lower caste in the public. Godna, was not only seen as the inversion of markers of identification for the Dalit women but was also viewed as an attractive alternative to forms of subaltern expression for these women. Guru opines that the form of deliberation has considerably shifted from ‘body as being the base for cultural imagination’ with decorative tattooing to penal tattooing to a gradual shift to paintings on Ambedkar on paper. Even though this recent form of intellectualism is appreciated for a more institutionalized grounding and visible recognition, what remains a pertinent concern is the fading away of such subaltern intellectualism, like the practice of Godna art conveying a vital form of expression among the subaltern women laborers. The small size of the Godana images made them popular with Textile designers and they started to be a popular marketing advantage for the textile industry. Godana paintings started dominating the Marketing field. The early designs of tattoo paintings were simple black & white figure like the way on human bodies and they mostly revolved around auspicious image and onuses thought to be lucky in Nat Community. However overall these tattoo paintings did not carry deep meaning or storytelling within them. This is where the contribution of Chano Devi, the early star of Godan (Tattoo) Paintings is remarkable. Under her husband’s guidance, she started depicting the life histories of Salhesa to add meanings to the tattooShanti and Chano Devi also started to experiment with natural colors in order to create more distinctive style. These colors later became the main identifier of Dalit Godana paintings. Falling in line other painters started to abandon the use of Holi colors in favor of natural colors and thus a new full-fledged style of Colorful Godana (tattoo) paintings came into limelight. These natural colors mostly came from cow-dung base and leaves, flowers, vegetables, barks, and roots. The journey of Dalit Paintings from Gobar Paintings to the Godana Paintings finally established Dusadhs and Chamar Caste women in the field of folk art. Dalits started from imbibing early popular high caste painting style and themes focusing on Stories of Rama, Sita, Krishna, and other Hindu legends. However, not only Dalit Painters were less versed with these elaborate Hindu rituals and thus ordinary translators of same on their paintings; they also were only seen as followers of already established trends. There was definitely a need for original style creation from Dalits to put them in the league of High caste Brahmins and Kayastha women who were reputed to be the creator of the art. There was a need for Dalit owned story and elaboration of their own culture on painting papers. The depiction of God Salhesa in Dalit paintings, thus giving it a major shift from ongoing paintings on day-to-day life, nature, and chores of Dalit women, marked the beginning of Dalit Clout in the world of Mithila Paintings. A new style was born and this time in the humble homes of The Dalits. An analysis of Shanti Devi’s (The pioneer of Dalit paintings besides Channo Devi and Jamuna Devi) work reveals that Govinda, A god for Halwais also remained her favorite besides Salhesa. It is also to be noted that the number of Dusadh painters eventually outnumbered other scheduled castes especially the Chamars who came even before them. The followership of Salhesa Paintings among the artists as well as the market made it the most popular theme under the overall category of Dalit Paintings and Salhesa was chosen to represent all the scheduled castes. Evolution of Dalit art came as a mode of resistance as it is evident, it marks the creation of social space for themselves in the cultural hierarchy of the society. Dulari Devi, Rajesh Paswan, Shivan Paswan, Channu Devi, and Roudi Paswan are some of the individuals who despite belonging to the low caste did work for their cultural upliftment and are successful to a greater extent. In the contemporary era, Godana paintings are very famous and popular in the market but due to consumer demand and the paintings have become highly commercialized we see an intermixing of Godana art with other styles of Mithila paintings which are a deviation from their original art form since its inception. Among the Dalits in Bihar Dusadhs and Chamar have led the way in evolving their own style of painting and asserting their identity by creating their social space. – By Aditi Narayani, Aditi is a Research Scholar at Centre for the Study of Discrimination and Exclusion, JNU. *Some of these aspects at length and in detail have been covered in M.Phil. Dissertation entitled “Folk Art of Mithila: Understanding Paintings and its Intersectionalities”, submitted to Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, in 2017*

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Sophocles (c. 496 B.C.E. – 406 B.C.E.) (Ancient Greek: Σοφοκλης) was one of the three great ancient Greek tragedians who, with Aeschylus and Euripides, defined the forms of drama and theater, establishing a literary tradition that influenced not only the drama of the ancient world but of the Western literary tradition to the present day. Every major dramatist—from Seneca to William Shakespeare, from Jean-Baptiste Molière to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe—has been influenced in some degree by Sophocles' conception of tragedy. The tragedies of Sophocles are less derivative of Homeric fate or the implacable will of the gods than of inherent human limitations. Prefiguring Shakepearean tragedy, Sophocles explores human fallibility, the limits of knowledge, and the susceptibility of the human condition within the cosmic order. In Sophoclean tragedy, the violation of natural law entails its own consequences, but suffering also provides a means of redemption. Sophocles' protagonists were admired by Aristotle as being "like ourselves only nobler." The plays express deep piety, without superstition. Arrogance, pride, impiety, and the urge for revenge lead men and women into actions that violate the divine order, yet heroic figure surmounts obstacles and injustice through virtues of reverence, courage, and deference to the gods. Of Sophocles' more than 120 plays, eighteen won first prize in competitions, although only seven have survived. The plots which Sophocles devised have been adapted and re-envisioned countless times throughout history and across the Western world, from Grecian and Roman tragedians, to medieval and Renaissance playwrights, to adaptations of Sophocles which continue to be produced today. He is one of the most influential writers of ancient Greece and among the greatest dramatists in history. What little is known of Sophocles' life can be gleaned from fragments of other ancient writers, whose works largely have been lost. According to the Suda, Sophocles wrote 123 plays in the dramatic competitions of the Festival of Dionysus (where each submission by one playwright consisted of four plays; three tragedies and a satyr play, a sort of ancient Greek burlesque put on after a series of tragedies to relieve the audience of grief). Sophocles won more first prizes (around 20) than any other playwright, and placed second in all others he participated in (Lloyd-Jones 1994, 8). His first victory was in 468 B.C.E., although scholars are no longer certain that this was the first time that he competed (Scullion 2002). Only seven of his tragedies have survived complete in the medieval manuscript tradition. The most famous are the three tragedies concerning Oedipus and Antigone: These are often known as the Theban plays or The Oedipus Cycle, although they do not make up a single trilogy. Discoveries of papyri from the late nineteenth century onwards, especially at Oxyrhynchus, have greatly added to our knowledge of Sophocles' works. The most substantial fragment that has so far appeared contains approximately half of a satyr play, The Tracking Satyrs. Sophocles was born about a mile northwest of Athens in the rural deme (small community) of Colonus Hippius in Attica. His birth took place a few years before the Battle of Marathon in 490 B.C.E.: The exact year is unclear, although 497 or 496 is perhaps most likely (Lloyd-Jones 1994, 7). The nature of his family life is disputed; it is unknown whether his father, Sophillus, was a carpenter, smith, or swordmaker, of if he owned slaves who pursued such occupations. Young Sophocles won awards in wrestling and music, and was graceful and handsome. He led the chorus of boys (paean) at the Athenian celebration of the victory against the Persians at the Battle of Salamis in 480 B.C.E. Sophocles enjoyed a public profile outside the theater. In 443/442 he served as one of the Hellenotamiai or treasurers of Athena. The Athenian people elected him as one of the ten generals for 441/440, during which he participated in crushing the revolt of Samos Island. There is some evidence that he was one of the commissioners appointed in 413 B.C.E. as a response to the catastrophic destruction of the Athenian expeditionary force in Sicily (Lloyd-Jones 1994, 12-13). Sophocles also served as a priest for a time. Like many ancient Greek names, that of Sophocles (Σοφοκλης) has a meaning. A compound of σόφος (sophos) "wise" and κλέος (kleos) "glory," Sophocles' name translates to "famous for wisdom;" considering that his words continue to be studied some 2,500 years after his death, his name has proven to be quite apt. The Theban Plays The three Theban Plays, or the Oedipus cycle, Oedipus the King (also known as Oedipus Rex or Oedipus Tyrannus), Oedipus at Colonus, and Antigone, were written across thirty-six years of Sophocles' career and were not composed in chronological order, but instead were written in the order Antigone, Oedipus the King, and Oedipus at Colonus. Oedipus the King Oedipus the King (also known as Oedipus Rex and Oedipus Tyrannos, Oι̉δίπoυς τύραννoς in Greek) is often considered Sophocles’ masterpiece, written in 425 B.C.E., the play was the second of Sophocles' three Theban plays to be produced, but comes first in the internal chronology of the plays, followed by Oedipus at Colonus and then Antigone. The play was highly esteemed in its time, and has gone on to be even more popular today, in part due to the significance attached to the Oedipus myth by Sigmund Freud. Sophocles' play treats the myth of Oedipus, son of King Laius of Thebes and Queen Jocasta, also known as Iocaste. Oedipus was a figure from Greek mythology who as an infant was sent to be exposed and left for dead with his ankles bound on a mountainside in an effort to circumvent the oracle's prophecy that he would kill his father and marry his mother. However, he was found and saved by a shepherd and raised in the court of King Polybus of Corinth and his wife Merope. Hearing from an oracle that he was destined to kill his father and marry his mother, and believing Polybus and Merope to be his real parents, he left Corinth. Oedipus meets Laius by chance on a road, but does not recognize him; the two get into an argument that descends into a fight, and Oedipus accidentally kills him. Arriving in Thebes, he saves the city from the Sphinx by solving his riddle, "What uses four legs in the morning, two in the day, and three at night?" The answer, of course, is Man, who begins life crawling, then learns to walk, and in old age walks with the aid of a cane. For saving the city his reward is the kingdom of Thebes, including the hand of his mother, Queen Jocasta. As the play begins, Sophocles joins the story in media res after Thebes has been struck with a plague by the gods in outrage over Oedipus' crimes, patricide and incest. The action of the play centers on Oedipus' investigation into the source of the plague, in which he curses and promises to exile those responsible. Although the blind prophet Tiresias explicitly tells Oedipus at the beginning of the play that he is the cause of the plague, Oedipus at first does not understand. Instead he accuses Tiresias of conspiring with Creon, Jocasta's brother, to overthrow him. Oedipus then calls for a former servant of Laius, the only surviving witness of the murder, who fled the city when Oedipus became king. Soon a messenger from Corinth also arrives to inform Oedipus of the death of Polybus, whom Oedipus still believes is his real father, until the messenger informs him that he was in fact adopted. In the subsequent discussions between Oedipus, Jocasta, the servant, and the messenger, Jocasta discovers the truth and runs off-stage; Oedipus learns the truth more slowly, but later runs off-stage as well. The Greek chorus fills in the unseen details: Jocasta has hanged herself, and Oedipus, upon discovering her body, blinds himself with the brooches (long gold pins with a pointed end) of her dress. The play ends with Oedipus entrusting his children to Creon and going into exile, as he promised at the beginning. The play depends heavily on dramatic irony. The irony works at several different levels. First, unlike Oedipus, the audience is already aware of the facts before the play begins. While Oedipus is searching for the cause of the plague, the audience is already aware that he is searching for himself. On another level, every step that Oedipus takes to avoid his fate brings him one step closer to fulfilling it. Then, after having already fulfilled the prophecy, Oedipus and Jocasta discuss the oracle, dismissing it as its prophecies have apparently not come to pass. Sophocles' dramatic technique, using the difference between the audience's awareness of events and those of the characters, have been deployed to create suspense by modern playwrights like Shakespeare and filmmakers like Alfred Hitchcock. Other themes in the play include the ineluctablility of fate and hubris. Oedipus' parents (and Oedipus himself) do everything in their power to avoid the prophecy of the oracle, only to have the very actions they take to avoid their destinies lead them to fulfill it. However, it is not just the capricious will of the gods that lead to Oedipus' downfall. He is a victim of his ignorance, a universal human limitation. Oedipus at Colonus In the timeline of the plays, the events of Oedipus at Colonus occur after Oedipus the King and before Antigone. The play describes the end of Oedipus' tragic life. Legends differ as to the site of Oedipus' death; Sophocles set the place at Colonus, a village near Athens and also Sophocles' own birthplace, where the blinded Oedipus has come with his daughters Antigone and Ismene as suppliants of the Eumenides and of Theseus, the king of Athens. Exiled by Creon, with the collaboration of his sons Eteocles and Polyneices, Oedipus becomes a wandering beggar led by his daughter Antigone. Oedipus enters the village of Colonus and they are approached by a villager, who demands that they leave, because that ground is sacred to the Furies, or Eumenides. Oedipus recognizes this as a sign, for when he received the prophecy that he would kill his father and marry his mother, Apollo also revealed to him that at the end of his life he would die at a place sacred to the Furies, and be a blessing for the land in which he is buried. The chorus of old men from the village enters, and although they promise not to harm Oedipus, they wish to expel him from their city, fearing that he will curse it. Oedipus answers by explaining that he is not morally responsible for his crimes, since he killed his father in self-defense. Furthermore, he asks to see their king, Theseus, saying, "I come as someone sacred, someone filled with piety and power, bearing a great gift for all your people." The chorus is amazed, and decides to reserve their judgment of Oedipus until Theseus, king of Athens, arrives. Theseus arrives and sympathizes with Oedipus, and offers him unconditional aid, causing Oedipus to praise the king and offer him the gift of his burial site, which will ensure victory in a future conflict with Thebes. Theseus protests, saying that the two cities are friendly, and Oedipus responds with what is perhaps the most famous speech in the play. "Oh Theseus, dear friend, only the gods can never age, the gods can never die. All else in the world almighty Time obliterates, crushes all to nothing…" Creon then tries to remove Oedipus but is thwarted by Theseus. The arrival of his son, Polyneices, produces enrages Oedipus, who curses both sons despite the intercession of Antigone. Oedipus tells him that he deserves his fate, for he cast his father out and foretells that his two sons will kill each other in the coming battle. Oedipus soon senses his own impending death and allows only Theseus to witness the event by which he is transformed through his sufferings into a hero and a saint. While the two other plays about Oedipus often bring up the theme of a person's moral responsibility for their destiny, and whether it is possible to rebel against destiny, Oedipus at Colonus is the only one to address it explicitly. Oedipus vehemently states that he is not responsible for the actions he was fated to commit. Despite being blinded and exiled and facing violence from Creon and his sons, in the end Oedipus is accepted and absolved by Zeus. Oedipus at Colonus suggests that, in breaking divine law, a ruler’s limited understanding may lead him to believe himself fully innocent; however, his lack of awareness does not change the objective fact of his guilt. Nevertheless, determination of guilt is far more complex than this, as illustrated by the dichotomy between the blessing and the curse upon Oedipus. He has committed two crimes which render him a sort of monster and outcast among men: Incest and patricide. His physical suffering, including his self-inflicted blindness, and lonely wandering, are his punishment. However, in death, he will be favored; the place in which he dies will be blessed. This suggests that willful action is in some part of guilt; the fact that Oedipus is “rationally innocent”—that he sinned unknowingly—decreases his guilt, allowing his earthly sufferings to serve as sufficient expiation for his sins. In Sophocles’ drama Antigone, Oedipus’ daughter Antigone is faced with the choice of allowing her brother Polyneices’ body to get eaten by savage dogs or to bury him and face death. The king of the land, Creon, has forbidden the burial of Polyneices for he was a traitor to the city. Antigone decides to bury his body and face the consequences. Eventually, Creon is convinced to free Antigone from her sentence of death, but his decision comes too late and Antigone commits suicide. Her suicide triggers the suicide of two others close to King Creon, his son, Haemon, who loved Antigone, and his wife who commits suicide after losing her only son. Antigone focuses on the conflicting duties of civic versus spiritual loyalties, the clash of values between Creon and Antigone. Creon advocates obedience to man-made laws while Antigone stresses the higher laws of duty to the gods and one's family. The play is thus one of the most commonly cited supports in Greek tragedy for the supremacy of Natural Law. Creon, the dramatic hero, realizes only after he loses the lives of all his family that he was mistaken to place the law of the state above the law of the gods. Antigone's determination to bury Polynices arises from a desire to bring honor to her family, not just to the gods. She repeatedly declares that she must act to please "those that are dead" (An. 77), because they hold more weight than any ruler. In the opening scene, she makes an emotional appeal to her sister Ismene saying that they must protect their brother out of sisterly love, even if he did betray their state. Antigone makes very few references to the gods, and so it is very easy to interpret much of her reasoning for honoring higher laws as referencing laws of family honor, not divine laws. While he rejects Antigone's actions based on family honor, Creon appears to value family heavily himself as well. This is one of the few areas where Creon and Antigone's values seem to align. When talking to Haemon, Creon demands of him not only obedience as a citizen, but also as a son. Creon even goes so far as to say "everything else shall be second to your father's decision" ("An." 640-641). This stance seems extreme, especially in light of the fact that Creon elsewhere advocates obedience to the state above all else. While it is not clear how he would handle these two values in conflict, it is clear that even for Creon, family occupies a place as high if not higher than the state. Sophocles' plays Ajax, Electra, The Trachiniae, and Philoctetes were adapted from the Homeric cycle. Ajax and recounts the life of the Greek hero, second only to Achilles among the Achaeans who fight against the Trojans. Of heroic strength and valor, Ajax is stained by arrogance and impiety. Claiming that "any coward could win victories with the help of the gods," he dismisses the goddess Athene who comes to encourage him in battle. He is then enraged because the armor of the fallen Achilles armor is awarded to Odysseus. Planning vengeance, he is tricked by Athena into believing that sheep and cattle taken as spoil are the Greek leaders who disgraced him. He slaughters some of them before realizing his folly, and then takes his life out of his humiliation. Electra is the story of the murders of Electra's father, the Greek king Agamemnon, and mother, Clytemnestra, both involved in treacherous personal betrayals. The story is was also presented by Aeschylus and Euripides, but Sophocles concentrates less on the dark and violent acts than on the character of Electra, whose desire for revenge for her father's murder leads her to conspire in her mother's murder. The Trachiniae concerns the jealousy of Deianeira, the wife of Heracles, but emphasizes her gentleness and devotion in contrast to the volcanic Heracles, who appears near madness in the mistaken belief that his wife sought to kill him. Philoctetes is a psychological study of a relatively minor Homeric figure. The Greeks had abandoned Philoctetes on the island of Lemnos, because of an incurable wound to his foot. But they learn from an oracle that they cannot capture Troy without his assistance. Represented by Aeschylus as embittered by his sufferings and betrayal, Philoctetes for Sophocles is far more sympathetic, a figure of warmth and generosity who scorns deceit. In Sophocles' time, the Greek art of the drama was undergoing rapid and profound change. It had begun with little more than a chorus, but earlier playwrights had added first one and then two actors and thereby shifted the action of the plays away from the chorus. Among Sophocles' earliest innovations was the addition of a third actor, further reducing the role of the chorus and creating greater opportunity for character development and conflict between characters. In fact, Aeschylus, who dominated Athenian theater during Sophocles' early career, adopted this third character into his own playwriting towards the end of his life. It was not until after the death of Aeschylus in 456 B.C.E. that Sophocles became the preeminent playwright in Athens. Thereafter, Sophocles emerged victorious in dramatic competitions at 18 Dionysia and 6 Lenaia festivals. In addition to innovations in the structure of drama, Sophocles' work is known for deeper development of characters than earlier playwrights, whose characters are more two-dimensional and are therefore harder for an audience to relate to. His reputation was such that foreign rulers invited him to attend their courts, although unlike Aeschylus who died in Sicily, Sophocles never accepted any of these invitations. Aristotle used Sophocles's Oedipus the King as an example of perfect tragedy, which suggests the high esteem in which his work was held by later Greeks. Throughout the The Theban cycle, Sophocles explores the inadequacy of knowledge, the baffling problem of evil visited on the just, and man's capacity to endure suffering. For Sophocles, the world is orderly and follows natural laws, and the violation of natural law necessitates punishment and suffering. Human knowledge is limited, and even the just violate natural law out of ignorance. Suffering follows from wrong actions, but through suffering man can achieve nobility and dignity. Only two of the seven surviving plays have securely dated first or second performances: Philoctetes (409 B.C.E.) and Oedipus at Colonus (401 B.C.E., put on after Sophocles' death by his grandson). Of the others, Electra shows stylistic similarities to these two plays, and so was probably written in the latter part of his career. Ajax, Antigone, and The Trachiniae are generally thought to be among his early works, again based on stylistic elements, with Oedipus the King coming in Sophocles' middle period. - The Tracking Satyrs - The Progeny - Aias Lokros (Ajax the Locrian) - Akhaiôn Syllogos (The Gathering of the Achaeans) - Nauplios Katapleon (Nauplius' Arrival) - Nauplios Pyrkaeus (Nauplius' Fires) - Poimenes (The Shepherds) - Syndeipnoi (The Diners, or The Banqueters) - Troilus and Phaedra - Tyro Keiromene (Tyro Shorn) - Tyro Anagnorizomene (Tyro Rediscovered) Fragments of The Progeny (Epigonoi) were discovered in April 2005 by classicists at Oxford University with the help of infrared technology previously used for satellite imaging. The tragedy tells the story of the siege of Thebes. - Sophocles, Sophocles I: Oedipus the King, Oedipus at Colonus, Antigone, 2nd ed., David Grene and Richard Lattimore (eds.) (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1991). - Sophocles, The Three Theban Plays, trans. Robert Fagles (New York: Penguin Books, 1984). - Freeman, 242-243. - Aristotle, Ars Poetica. - Lloyd-Jones, Sir Hugh (ed.). Sophocles. Ajax. Electra. Oedipus Tyrannus. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994. - Scullion, Scott. “Tragic Dates.” Classical Quarterly new sequence 52 (2002): 81-101. - Smith, William. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 1870. All links retrieved November 16, 2019. - Works by Sophocles. Project Gutenberg - Studies in Sophoclean Fragments - Films based on Sophocles plays New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. 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This collection uses primary sources to explore The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian by Sherman Alexie. Digital Public Library of America Primary Source Sets are designed to help students develop their critical thinking skills and draw diverse material from libraries, archives, and museums across the United States. Each set includes an overview, ten to fifteen primary sources, links to related resources, and a teaching guide. These sets were created and reviewed by the teachers on the DPLA's Education Advisory Committee. In this unit, students read the core texts The Hundred Dresses and Garvey's Choice as a way of exploring what it means to be accepting and tolerant of themselves and others. The Hundred Dresses challenges students to think about the different roles associated with bullying through the eyes of the narrator, who struggles with her own involvement with a classmate who is bullied. Garvey's Choice illustrates the way others influence the way we see ourselves, both positively and negatively, and the power of accepting ourselves by tracing Garvey's path to self-discovery and acceptance. Both texts are full of moments and messages that are easily relatable for students at this grade level. Therefore, it is our hope that the experiences of the characters in both texts will serve as a neutral launching point for deeper discussions about bullying, tolerance, acceptance, and forgiveness. In reading, the main focus of the unit is on identifying and tracing the central message across a longer text. Over the course of the text, students will develop a deep understanding of each character's thoughts, feelings, and motivations, which will help them identify and explain how the central message is developed and conveyed through the characters. Students will also begin to understand how successive parts of a text build on each other to push the plot forward. Particularly with Garvey's Choice, students will analyze the genre features of novels written in verse and how each part helps build and develop the central message. This unit also focused on point of view. Students will begin to notice the point of view in which a story is told and compare that with their own point of view. This collection uses primary sources to explore The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain. Digital Public Library of America Primary Source Sets are designed to help students develop their critical thinking skills and draw diverse material from libraries, archives, and museums across the United States. Each set includes an overview, ten to fifteen primary sources, links to related resources, and a teaching guide. These sets were created and reviewed by the teachers on the DPLA's Education Advisory Committee. In this unit, students will become familiar with fables and trickster tales from different cultural traditions and will see how stories change when transferred orally between generations and cultures. They will learn how both types of folktales employ various animals in different ways to portray human strengths and weaknesses and to pass down wisdom from one generation to the next. Use the following lessons to introduce students to world folklore and to explore how folktales convey the perspectives of different world cultures. This course is a survey of American Literature from 1650 through 1820. It covers Early American and Puritan Literature, Enlightenment Literature, and Romantic Literature. It teaches in the context of American History and introduces the student to literary criticism and research. In this unit students continue the exploration of factors that influence change by examining the events that led up to the American Revolution. Over the course of the unit, students will build a deeper understanding of the significant ideas and values at the heart of the American Revolution, what drove the colonists to seek independence, and how conflict between England and the colonists ultimately influenced change in our country. Students will see the American Revolution from multiple perspectives, starting with analyzing the difference in perspectives between the British and the colonists and how each side's actions often instigated each other. Students will also explore how class structure influenced colonists perspectives. Later in the unit, students will think about the perspectives of black people, women and Native Americans who were forced to choose a side and why they may have had a different point of view of the events of the revolution. An important part of this unit is pushing students to focus on seeing history from multiple different perspectives. The core text Liberty! How the Revolutionary War Began offers one perspective on events, however, the prespective is limited to that held by white elite colonists. Therefore, students also read excerpts from A Young People's History of the United States in order to build a deeper understanding of all sides of the Revolution. In this unit, students explore ancient Egypt. Over the course of the unit students learn and explore different characteristics of ancient Egypt and what the ancient Egyptians valued. Through learning about the daily routines, structures, and rituals of ancient Egypt, students will be challenged to draw conclusions about what the civilization valued and how those values compare to society today. Students will also learn about the role that mummies and pyramids played in ancient Egyptian society and why archeologists and scientists have been intrigued by them ever since. In second and third grade, students will continue their exploration of ancient civilizations by learning more about ancient Greece and ancient Rome. It is our hope that this unit, in conjunction with the others in the sequence, will help students understand and appreciate early civilizations that have had a lasting impact on the world. In reading, this unit focuses on understanding the reasons and evidence an author uses to support points in a text. Being able to determine the reasons and evidence an author uses to support a point requires a deep understanding of cause and effect, informational text features, using illustrations to learn new details, and identifying the main topic and key details. These strategies have been introduced and practiced in previous units and should be reinforced and highlighted as needed in order to synthesize and identify the reasons an author uses to support points in a text. An additional focus of this unit is on using details from two texts to build a deeper understanding of content. Students will compare and contrast the similarities and differences between texts at the end of the unit but should be challenged to notice similarities and differences as they encounter new texts over the course of the unit. In writing, students will continue to write daily in response to the text. At this point students should be fluid in writing about the text in a structured way. Therefore, the focus of this unit is on pushing students to include the best and most accurate evidence and then to explain the evidence with inferences or critical thinking. In this unit students explore ancient Greece. Over the course of the unit students learn and explore different characteristics of ancient Greece and its values. Through learning about the daily routines, structures, and rituals of ancient Greece, students will be challenged to draw conclusions about what the civilization valued and how those values compare to society today. Students will also learn about many different gods and analyze the role gods played in ancient Greek society. At the end of the unit students will be challenged to compare and contrast the role of the Olympics in ancient Greek society with the modern-day Olympics. It is our hope that this unit, in conjunction with others in the sequence, will help students understand early influences in the world. The mentor text for this unit, Ancient Greece and the Olympics, allows students to practice multiple informational reading strategies independently and in partners. Over the course of the unit students will practice the spiraling strategies of determining the main topic and details, using context clues to figure out unknown words, analyzing illustrations, and using text features to deepen understanding of a text. An additional focus of this unit is on describing how reasons support specific points the author makes in a text. Over the entire unit students should be challenged to think critically about the reasons authors include in a text to support a particular point and why those reasons support the point. Another focus of this unit is on comparing and contrasting the most important points presented across two texts on the same topic. It is important to note that in order for students to successfully analyze authors' use of reasons and to compare and contrast across texts, students must be able to determine key details. Plan small-group remediation or reteach for students who are still struggling with this concept. In this unit students explore the rise and fall of the ancient Roman Empire. Over the course of the unit, students learn about different characteristics of the Roman Empire, what lead to the Empire's growth and success, and what eventually lead to the Empire's demise. Through learning about the daily routines, structures, and rituals of the Roman Empire, students will be challenged to draw conclusions about what the civilization valued and how those values compare to societal values today. This unit builds onto the 2nd grade nonfiction unit on ancient Greece, in which students began to think about how the daily routines, structures, and rituals of a civilization show what they value. This unit, in conjunction with the second grade unit on ancient Greece, will help students understand early influences in the world and the first republics. The mentor texts for this unit, Ancient Rome and Pompeii: A Nonfiction Companion to Magic Tree House and Eye Wonder: Ancient Rome, allow students to practice multiple informational reading strategies in two very different text structures. In both texts, but predominately in Eye Wonder, students will practice using a multitude of text features and illustrations as a way of learning new information about a topic. Over the course of this unit, students will constantly be thinking about how the information from one text builds on and connects to the information in the other text. Then at the end of the unit, students will be asked to critically analyze the similarities and differences between the two texts. Allegories are similar to metaphors: in both the author uses one subject to represent another, seemingly unrelated, subject. However, unlike metaphors, which are generally short and contained within a few lines, an allegory extends its representation over the course of an entire story, novel, or poem. This lesson plan will introduce students to the concept of allegory by using George Orwell’s widely read novella, Animal Farm, which is available on Project Gutenberg. In this science-based unit, students begin their exploration of animals and animal adaptations. Using next generation science standards as a guide, students explore three main topics: how different animals use their body parts and senses in different ways in order to survive, the ways in which the behavior of different animal parents and offspring help the offspring survive, and the similarities and differences among individual animals of the same kind. This unit is part of a larger progression on understanding animals and the animal kingdom. In kindergarten, students learn about how animals meet their basic needs for survival and how that varies depending on the season. In second grade, students learn about different habitats and how animals in the habitat rely on the environment for survival. Then in third grade, students study animal adaptations and the different ways animals adapt in order to survive, especially when threatened by environmental changes. It is our hope that this unit, in combination with others in the sequence, will help students develop a deeper understanding of the animal kingdom and life science. This unit includes a mix of read-aloud texts and shared-reading texts. Students will focus on different skills depending on the method in which the text is consumed. During read aloud, students will refine their skills in describing the connection between ideas and pieces of information, figuring out the meaning of unknown words, distinguishing between information provided by the pictures and information in the text, and identifying the reasons an author gives to support points in a text. During shared reading, students will predominately focus on identifying the main topic of a section of a text, retelling key details that match the main topic, and using text features to locate key facts and information. Because the shared reading days are meant to be student driven, not teacher driven, the target tasks are at a more accessible, independent level for students. There are also not a lot of key questions already planned for shared reading days. Questions should be written and spiraled in based on student needs and student reading levels. In writing, this unit builds on the work students did in unit one. Students will continue to write daily in response to the text, with a focus on correctly answering questions and adding an inference or critical thinking. In this lesson plan, students will learn about the 12 animals of the Chinese zodiac. In the introductory first lesson, they will see how animals are often used as symbols. In the second lesson, they will hear one of several versions of how the 12 animals were chosen. They will then focus upon a few of the animals in the story and see how they can be used as symbols of certain human characteristics. In the third lesson, they will be introduced to the other animals of the zodiac, and they will be given a chart on which they will assign traits to each animal. Then they will consult a number of websites to find the traits traditionally associated with the animals, which they will add to their list. Then, they will come up with a number of ways to compare and contrast the animals in the list. In the third lesson, they will focus upon the animal associated with the year of their birth, learning about its traits and discussing whether or not these apply to themselves and their peers. Finally, each student will make an acrostic, combining the letters of his or her first name with adjectives that relate to his or her zodiac sign. The purpose of this project is two-fold: first, to encourage students to make the reading of poetry a creative act; and, second, to help students appreciate particular literary devices in their functions as semaphores or interpretive signals. Those devices that are about the imagery of a poem (metaphor, simile, personification, description) can be thought of as magnifying glasses: we see most clearly that upon which the poet focuses our gaze. Similarly, those poetic devices that are about the sound of the poem (alliteration, consonance, enjambment, onomatopoeia, and repetition) can be thought of as volume buttons or amplifiers: we hear most clearly what the poet makes us listen to most attentively. Drawing upon the online archives of the U.S. Holocaust Museum, this lesson helps students to put the events described by Anne Frank into historical perspective, and also serves as a broad overview of the Nazi conquest of Europe during World War II. After surveying the experiences of various countries under Nazi occupation, the lesson ends with activities related specifically to the Netherlands and Anne Frank. The underlying theme of this unit is building a deeper understanding of families. The world we live in is increasingly diverse, even within family structures, so it is incredibly important for students to see that there are many different types of families. Nuclear families are no longer the predominate type of family in society; more children are being raised by single parents, same-sex parents, in blended families or in families with mixed race, religion, or ethnicity. While these differences are common, it does not mean that students are comfortable with their own family experience or the differences between their families and their peers'. Therefore, one of the goals of this unit is to help students notice the similarities among families. With that said, not every type of family is covered over the course of the unit. This unit does not cover being part of a blended family or families with mixed religions or race. It does not cover families in which a child may not know his or her mother or father, families in which a child has been put into foster care, or families separated by immigration issues. These topics are incredibly important and applicable to a lot of students' lives; however, there is not a wealth of children's literature that adequately addresses these topics. Therefore, there are writing days added in to this unit as a way for students to reflect and share about their own families or for the teacher to bring in additional materials to reflect what they see with their students. These days should be based in conversations from the text but could lead to students talking about aspects of their families that make them unique or special. There are three main bends in this unit. Bend one focuses on the idea that all families are different, but no matter what, families show each other love and support. Bend two focuses on the idea that siblings are an important part of a family, even though they can sometimes be annoying. Finally, bend three talks about grandparents and how grandparents, both near and far, play an important role in families. Throughout each bend, students will continue to work on determining the central message of a text, describing characters in-depth using details from the text and illustrations, and identifying words and phrases that appeal to the senses. In this unit students also begin longer shared reading. On shared reading days, students will read a text at grade level and practice using the strategies they have learned from read aloud to deeply understand and engage with the text. In writing, students will continue to write daily in response to the text. At this point students should be fluid in writing about the text in a structured way. Therefore, the focus of this answer is on pushing students to include the best and most accurate evidence and then to explain the evidence with inferences or critical thinking. The Bedouins of ancient Arabia and Persia made poetry a conversational art form. Several poetic forms developed from the participatory nature of tribal poetry. Today in most Arabic cultures, you may still experience public storytelling and spontaneous poetry challenges in the streets. The art of turning a rhyme into sly verbal sparring is considered a mark of intelligence and a badge of honor. Students will learn about the origins and structure of Arabic Poetry. Australian Aboriginal art is one of the oldest continuing art traditions in the world. Much of the most important knowledge of aboriginal society was conveyed through different kinds of storytelling—including narratives that were spoken, performed as dances or songs, and those that were painted. In this lesson students will learn about the Aboriginal storytelling tradition through the spoken word and through visual culture. They will have the opportunity to hear stories of the Dreamtime told by the Aboriginal people, as well as to investigate Aboriginal storytelling in contemporary dot paintings. Through studying Beatrix Potter's stories and illustrations from the early 1900s and learning about her childhood in Victorian England, students can compare/contrast these with their own world to understand why Potter wrote such simple stories and why she wrote about animals rather than people. In this unit, students begin a year-long exploration of the seasons and how weather, plants, and animals are different depending on the season by studying the beauties of fall and fall harvests. Students launch the unit by setting up an ongoing weather experiment in order to understand the patterns of fall and how weather changes during fall. While gathering on-going data about the changing weather in fall, students will learn and observe what happens to leaves in the fall and notice the difference between various types of leaves. In the second half of the unit, students explore the different harvests of fall, particularly apples and pumpkins, and discuss the basic life cycles of both. This unit is a chance for students to stop and think about the changes that are happening in the natural world around them and why the changes happen. It is our hope that by the end of the year, after studying winter and spring in subsequent units, students will have a deeper understanding of the unique features of each season. In reading, this is students' first introduction to informational texts and reading to learn information. Students will continue to develop their inquisitive side by being challenged to ask and answer questions about the content and text they are interacting with. This unit exposes students to a subject matter that is present in their day-to-day lives; therefore, they should be challenged to ask questions and make connections between what they are reading and learning and what they are seeing outside. Additionally, while listening to stories, students will learn how to use the text and illustrations to determine the key details of a text and then use those details to retell what the text was mostly about. Students will also continue to understand the author's and illustrator's roles in writing texts and should be able to identify and explain both by the end of the unit. In this unit, students will also begin to explore the content in-depth by participating in labs and projects. These teacher-created projects will allow students to interact with and synthesize the material they are learning at an even deeper level. In writing, students will continue to write daily in response to the text. As with units 1 and 2, students are focusing on using correct details from the text to answer the question. Students should be using a combination of words and pictures, depending on the student's development as a writer. Daily teaching points, based on student data, should be included to ensure that students are progressing as writers.

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Let's compare 28 different "sky cultures" to see differences and similarities in the shapes they've seen in the night sky. Ranging from the so-called "Modern" or Western constellations, to Chinese, Maori and even a few shapes from historical cultures such as the Aztecs. This article was originally published in the Fall 2019 (vol. 48, no. 4) issue of Mercury magazine, an ASP members-only quarterly publication. As a tool for artists, perspective made its appearance consistently sometime in the early 1400s. It was not long before both linear and aerial perspective were utilized, giving depth and dimension to the scene, providing a more realistic view of the world. For many years I have pondered the relationship of art to science, and cultural change in general. Is it art that drives change within culture, or are the artists merely reflecting on new ways of thinking and giving them manifestation? As scientists, it seems we would like to have the science driving changes in perception, however I suspect it is the artists who are leading us towards a more realistic way of seeing nature. Of course, this may break down with the modern abstract and minimalist schools of art. Though the roots of these predated the now pervasive quantum physics, and its emphasis on probability, and uncertainty. So, perhaps the artists were a step ahead, preparing our perception for the coming change in scientific paradigms. Teaching and learning are cultural processes. As such, they do not express themselves the same way in every society. Just as individual artists have different ways of expressing themselves, so too do cultures. Many times, this is evident within individual classrooms, as learners from diverse backgrounds bring with them different ways of knowing, and responding, not only to the culture in which they find themselves, but also to the natural world they are studying in science courses. At times it is difficult as educators to recognize and respect the differences, particularly because we tend to give preference to a rigid idea of what it means to learn science. As with the rest of our society, our western European roots are well established in not just the science we engage in, but also in how we teach, and learn in the formal classroom. Many students, particularly those from indigenous cultures, have a different approach to nature. While students brought up in a western European style culture take a taxonomic approach focusing on the properties of individual parts, learners from indigenous cultures take a more nuanced approach, emphasizing relationships within systems. Cultures taking a relational approach to nature also tend to have a rich history of storytelling, bringing together different aspects of nature to create a coherent narrative. In some ways, these two approaches to nature are at the heart of every interaction and controversy having to do with conservation of natural resources. In these cases, the approaches are manifested in a tension between seeing nature as transactional versus relational. The transactional approach to nature is rooted in the viewpoint it is there for humans to make use of, to always think of the value we extract from either the place itself or the underlying resources. The relational approach recognizes deep connections to nature, with humans intimately connected to the Earth and the other lifeforms who also call it home. History is rife with the tension between these two viewpoints, with many members of the dominant western European culture crossing over to advocate for the more nuanced, relational approach to nature, resulting in legislation such as the Wilderness Act, Endangered Species Act, the Antiquities Act, and others. Of particular note are those who advocate the most strongly for the transactional viewpoint continue to fight for the exclusion, and rescission of any protections placed on land and species in an effort to add them to the inventory of places available for resource extraction. In so many ways there is little difference between the Hetch Hetchy valley in Yosemite National Park, Celilo Falls on the Columbia River, Bears Ears in Utah, Standing Rock, the coastal plain of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, the Tongass National Forest, and the summit of Maunakea. In every instance, not only is there a tension between a transactional vs. relational approach to the land, but there is also one between the dominant western European, and an indigenous culture. For an educator, providing a transformational experience for learners focused on relationships within systems can create a greater awareness of perspective than when focusing on individual elements. Many times, such an experience requires a slowing down, to decrease the sensory load, allowing nuances to emerge of how component parts interact in relationship. The creation or appreciation of art can provide such an experience, and park rangers in their interpretive practice do this on a regular basis as they tap into visitors’ affective realm. While a seemingly ordinary venue may provide such an experience, many times it is in the most spectacular places where we feel closest to nature. Indigenous peoples certainly recognized how some places evoke a greater feeling of relationship and perspective than others. Once such a place is gone, it is no consolation to point to it as an object lesson of what could have been. Slowing down, one might sense the interconnectivity within a forest, or observe the sophisticated dynamics within groups of communal animals. To truly see the night sky may require stepping away from the eyepiece, taking in the depth of the vistas before you. We just might discover the truth John Muir knew: “When we try to pick out anything by itself, we find it hitched to everything else in the universe.” Maunakea: A Matter of Perspective? The Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) has provoked a good deal of controversy. The process of getting the telescope constructed on the summit of Maunakea has seen both approvals and protests. Without a doubt, the telescope would provide a valuable addition to the tools astronomers use to explore the universe. When thinking about perspective, the TMT would certainly provide additional depth to the vision of our place in the greater cosmos. As detailed in this issue’s feature about the TMT’s stalled construction, the summit of Maunakea is already home to a suite of instruments, so one might think the environment is already degraded, with little left to protest. In recent years issues of human rights, and in this instance, the rights of indigenous people, have attained greater prominence in our consciousness. Or at least in the minds of those who take a broader perspective to see the land, and those who live there, are not just resources to tap into for monetary profit—or, in the case of the TMT, adding to human knowledge, which in a way is a different kind of profit. Normally, I would celebrate the growth of knowledge, particularly when it comes to having a greater understanding of the universe. However, many times profit and knowledge come at the expense of another group’s rights and ability to practice their culture. Perhaps the scientists, much like some sects of the religious majority in our country, would decry this point of view, claiming they are the ones who are made to suffer persecution. The last I looked, no one is suggesting the destruction of a place sacred to the majority; no observatory is scheduled for construction on the grounds of Notre Dame, or the Temple on the Mount, or in Mecca, for example. The TMT is slated for construction on a mountain sacred to a particular group of people. It is not for anyone else to say what qualifies as sacred ground. To many of us, all ground is sacred, and worthy of protection from unbridled development and profit taking, no matter what form the profit takes. As John Muir said about the flooding of the Hetch Hetchy Valley: “These temple-destroyers, devotees of ravaging commercialism, seem to have a perfect contempt for Nature, and instead of lifting their eyes to the God of the mountains, lift them to the Almighty Dollar. Dam Hetch Hetchy! As well dam for water-tanks the people’s cathedrals and churches, for no holier temple has ever been consecrated by the heart of man.” Brian Kruse manages the formal education programs at the ASP. Read more articles by Brian. TORREY – Wayne County has some of the darkest skies in the continental United States. And, from October 4th to October 6th, enthusiasts from around the world will converge on Torrey to celebrate the wonder of those star-studded heavens. This annual Heritage Starfest encourages participants to enjoy the dark skies of the Colorado Plateau, to share the heritage of night skies, and to preserve and protect the nighttime environment. Capitol Reef National Park will sponsor Heritage Starfest events on Friday, October 5th. Activities at the park include a daytime astronomy event and an evening presentation by Zach Schierl, the Education Specialist and Dark Skies Coordinator from Cedar Breaks National Monument. Stargazing will follow Zach’s discussion. Saturday, October 6th, events sponsored by the Entrada Institute at Robbers Roost in Torrey begin at 7:00 with a children’s activity and prizes. Zach Schierl will be the guest speaker and stargazing will follow. Finally, everyone is invited to join dark sky monitors in Teasdale between 9:30 and 10:00 PM. From the home of Gary Pankow and Barb Walkush, they’ll travel to five sites in the area using sky quality meters to assess the sky’s darkness. Put these dates in your calendar. Plan to join in the fun. Call 435.425.2228 for more information. On the longest night of the year, under a full super-moon, a ritual evolves in a small Utah town. Mark Bailey, thotsandshots.net A full super-moon rose as complete dark enveloped a crowd gathered in the December cold around campfires and torches to celebrate the longest night of the year with art, culture, and sculptural pyrotechnics. For those like me who are not motivated by the Christian religious myth of Christmas, Winter Solstice is the natural time to celebrate the turn of the seasons. A ritual is called for and one is evolving in rural Bluff, Utah, with all the resulting tensions that come with change and growth. Bluff is a newly incorporated town of some 320 souls in San Juan County in the far southeast corner of Utah. Like Torrey, it is an oasis of progressiveness in a desert of right-wing politics. Bluff supports Bears Ears National Monument and has launched a popular new education center to promote visiting Bears Ears with respect while the political system sorts out the restoration of the monument. Belligerent San Juan County commissioners (see Malicious Prosecution in San Juan County) were the primary antagonists to the formation of the monument. They infamously celebrated with Trump by getting their white cowboy hats signed by the nakedly racist president at the Republican monument destruction proclamation ceremony in Salt Lake City in December 2017. Native Americans were the primary advocates for the history making monument. 30 Tribes have formally declared their support for the Bears Ears Inter-Tribal Coalition‘s effort to protect the Bears Ears landscape for all future generations. Half of San Juan County is Native American. For seven years now, artist Joe Pachak has been creating sculptures made of local branches and brush to ceremonially burn on Winter Solstice. Upcoming Torrey House Press author Zak Podmore tells how Joe did not start out with a Native American theme. In 2011 he built his first sculpture to burn in honor of an elk he’d bow hunted that year. The next year he built a mammoth. The sculptures got bigger and so did the crowds. In 2017 he built a 40 foot tower of two dancing bears in a connection to the Ute bear dance ritual. This year music and dance were performed by Navajo groups and Navajo medicine man Curtis Yanito was invited to offer a prayer. My guess is that around 300 people were gathered for the burn, a majority of them white and many, like Kirsten and me, from out of town. It was dark, and chilly, but I did not see many white cowboy hats. My sense, again a guess, is that most of those in attendance were supporters of the Bears Ears National Monument. The monument is to protect the natural landscape and its myriad cultural resources. The land is so resplendent with ancient Native American artifacts that it should have been the first national monument and not, 110 years later, the latest. At a celebration of land and culture it makes sense to invite Native Americans to share their culture. But the crowd and Yanito had different expectations for the evening’s program and not all Native Americans were comfortable with appropriation of their culture as entertainment for the evolving ceremony. Max Oelschlaeger in his magnificent work, The Idea of Wilderness, expresses his hope that a new creation story will develop in way that rings true in the postmodern age which necessarily has, ” . . . both scientific plausibility and religious distinctiveness.” I have been besotted with the notion since I first read it at my son’s suggestion a dozen or so years ago. I founded Torrey House Press based on the same hope. A solstice ceremony is primed to have both scientific plausibility and religious distinctiveness. It is not the celebration of an implausible virgin birth, but rather of the shortest day of the year caused by the earth’s axial tilt. It is a celebration of the dark, of the assurance of a return of the light, of waiting and of receiving, of reflection and of promise. The Native American creation narratives of human-kind emerging from the earth is much closer to the scientific story of our evolving from it. In both, creation is the creator and in neither are we created separately from the earth. Yet science cannot explain how life came about, nor what our consciousness is or how it came about, and a sense of awe is called for of the unlikelihood of it all. If you believe we were created by the Earth then you have a sense of natural source and connection. If you believe you were placed here by a super-natural being, a something or someone that is beyond nature, and ordered to fill and subdue the Earth, then you have a sense of a disconnected relationship. From this divide comes conservationists like me who think we need to revere and protect that which created us, and extractors, like the San Juan County commissioners who think they will get their end reward only after they have logged, mined, drilled, drained and grazed every last fragment of creation. In Bluff at Solstice this year there were a couple of metaphorical crossroads. One was the diagonally opposed desires of conservationists, both Native American and non-native, in favor of Bears Ears National Monument, and the desires of the extractors opposed to the monument. Then there was the more nearly parallel crossroads of the Native American traditions and of non-natives in search of ritual who both revere and respect the land and celebrate the natural seasons. Of the more nearly parallel paths this year, the medicine man Yanito and at least some of the crowd seemed to have differing expectations for the burn ceremony. Last year for the first time a short Native prayer was offered and translated. This year the dancing performance and the story of Coyote went on for much longer. Navajos may have a different sense of time than the impatient, and chilled, visiting non-native crowd. Perhaps a Navajo origin story should not be abridged yet many were there only for the spectacle of the burn. It is likely that both Pachak and Yanito were at least somewhat offended by the crowd’s rowdy impatience. Later, on social media, there was reticence expressed by Native Americans about incorporating their sacred traditions as performance in the context of a secular burning ceremony. The burn is a non-native’s idea and how to blend in Native tradition appropriately has yet to be fully determined. It is a creative and spiritual tension from which something original will evolve. Where there is creative tension there are creators. Artists, poets, sculptors, and writers were all there. Kirsten mingled with writers in search of future words from the land. She will be there again. I may drop her off and observe from a quieter, more solitary vantage point. I like to listen in the dark silence for the music of the spheres. But I am eager to see how this ceremony with both scientific plausibility and a religious distinctiveness evolves. Under a coincident full super-moon, on the longest night of the year, how could something new not emerge? Telescopius (formerly known as DSO-Browser) is a great tool for astrophotographers who are planning an astrophotography session. It provides a lot of useful information regarding the deep-sky objects visible from your location, and hosts an active community to share your work. Getting started with Telescopius: The first step is to enter your precise location (GPS coordinates or the name of your city), and Telescopius will give you a list of interesting objects to observe or photograph. It also displays useful information, such as the apparent magnitude, the elevation and the size of your target. Telescopius has a comprehensive list of objects: galaxies, emission and planetary nebulae, star clusters, supernovas… Powerful filters allow you to search for your favourite objects, with criteria such as magnitude, elevation, brightness, constellation… Clicking on an object reveals a lot of useful informations and additional features. For example, you can check the elevation (how high an object is in the sky) at any given time of the day, which is helpful to know if the target will be high enough in the sky. The background indicates the periods of the day: night, sunrise, day and sunset. The monthly elevation graph tells you the maximum elevation of the object during the year, at a given time. For instance, in Germany, the Andromeda galaxy is a late summer object and is best seen from August. As for the data sheet, it shows other interesting information. For example, the red shift indicates the speed of the object compared to the speed of light. Here, a negative red shift of -0.0010 (which is actually a blue shift) means that the Andromeda galaxy is actually getting closer to us, to a speed of 300 km/s! THE TELESCOPE SIMULATOR Another great tool is the telescope simulator. It allows you to preview how the object will look in your telescope, binoculars or camera sensor. This is great for beginners, for whom most of the objects are totally new. Not to mention that some of these objects are actually much bigger that what we think! For instance, the Andromeda galaxy is about four times wider as the Moon. How to use the telescope simulator: If you are registered on Telescopius, you can save the lenses and telescopes that you are using, as well as the cameras, and select them easily in the simulator. THE WEATHER FORECASTS Yet another interesting feature on Telescopius is the 7-day hourly weather forecast. This page presents an overview of the meteorologic parameters of the upcoming nights, based on your location. It also displays the phase of the Moon, which is useful since our satellite is a source of light pollution. The bands at the bottom represent the hourly evolution of the main parameters, such as seeing, wind and cloud coverage, as well as the sun- and moonlight. The colour code is simple: black is optimal, red is the worst. For example, at 4pm, the sun is still up, so the darkness is obviously red. At midnight, the darkness is optimal (i.e. black), but the Moon is rising and will create a bit of light pollution, so the band is slightly reddish. Of course, this is a forecast, and by definition, it’s wrong! But it is usually accurate enough for you to plan your session in advance. Despite its convenience, I rarely use Telescopius’ forecast, because I prefer the more detailed astroforecasts of Meteo Blue. A community to share your workLast but not least, Telescopius also hosts a community of astrophotographers, which you can use to discover the work of very talented photographers. International Dark Sky Association 1/12/18 If an entire community could earn a gold star for good conduct, then the town of Torrey, Utah, has done just that. IDA awarded that star today by officially recognizing Torrey as Utah’s first International Dark Sky Community. Only 18 communities in the world have achieved this distinction. An IDA International Dark Sky Community is a town, city, municipality or other legally organized community that has shown exceptional dedication to the preservation of the night sky through the implementation and enforcement of a quality outdoor lighting ordinance, dark sky education and citizen support of dark skies. International Dark Sky Communities excel in their efforts to promote responsible lighting and dark sky stewardship, and set good examples for surrounding communities. Torrey is situated adjacent to Capitol Reef National Park, which was designated an IDA International Dark Sky Park in 2015. It is the first such U.S. national park ‘gateway community’ to earn the International Dark Sky Community designation. Torrey’s new status is therefore key to preserving abundant natural nighttime darkness in Capitol Reef. “As Torrey joins the IDA family today, together we take a major step forward in achieving an important goal of the International Dark Sky Places Program to join parks and neighboring communities in dedication to preserving their shared night skies,” said IDA Executive Director J. Scott Feierabend. “Torrey has proven its commitment to protecting this resource for the benefit of both its residents and national park visitors.” The stars began to align for Torrey when Capitol Reef was designated an International Dark Sky Park. This prompted Torrey residents, friends, and citizens from across Wayne County, Utah, to hitch their wagon to the International Dark Sky Park by working toward International Dark Sky Community status. In turn, the Torrey Town Council implemented an outdoor lighting ordinance, which requires street and building lighting to be shielded and directed toward the ground. “While those who came before us left us our dark night skies to love, now we leave a legacy to generations of future residents of this special place we proudly call home,” explained Torrey Mayor Scott Chestnut. “We’ve often been accused of being ‘in the dark,’ but now we’re being honored for it!” In a partnership with the Torrey-based Entrada Institute, engaged citizens raised money to replace the town’s high-pressure sodium streetlights with dark sky-friendly, fully-shielded light-emitting diode (LED) lights. The success of this campaign, along with education events and publications, made it possible to bring darker skies and brighter dreams to Torrey. A unique group of leaders supported this effort: town council members, Torrey Town and Wayne County residents, local business owners and friends from across the country. Their enthusiasm and advocacy make it possible to preserve the stars for present and future generations. “My 72-year-old heart skips a beat every time I see the glow of the Milky Way core rising from behind the silhouettes of hills where I know there is no nearby city to explain the intense brightness of this glowing,” said Torrey resident Bonnie Kaufman. “It is eerie, breathtaking and spiritual!” To maintain its International Dark Sky Community status, Torrey must continue to preserve its night sky through education and awareness materials, dark sky events, exhibits, and programs. An official celebration will be held in Torrey during the Heritage Star Festival on October 5 and 6, 2018.

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Wednesday, November 25, 2020 Sunday, November 22, 2020 Parti-clothing or mi-parti fashion describes a method of decoration where one half or one quarter of a garment was made in one colour and pattern and the other or others in a different hue. The fashion first appeared in the 12th century Europe and became a fashion zenith into the 15th century. Commonly worn by either sex, from ladies’ gowns to men’s tunics, hoods and cloaks, were all made in parti-colours, but it was masculine hose which were most often treated in this way. Described by Lewandowski (2011), these were divided vertically down centre back and front and sometimes quartered at the knee which according to Yarwwod (1981), highlighted accent and distinction to a well-turned leg. Parti-coloured garments were thought to have became popular with the rise of heraldy . Among the titled the display of a coat of arms became popular according to Wilcox (1969). Costumes were divided into variegated colours displaying the family coat-of-arms, stamped in gold and silver leaf and coloured enamels. When these families intermarried their colours and coats of arms were conjoined. These costumes were passed down the family and valued as historic dress. Parti-coloured garments soon became a wider fashion trend. During the late Middle Ages, European clothing began to evolve into fashion. No longer just costume with styles that varied little over time, the cut, shape, style, and decoration of clothing changed at a much faster pace. Fourteenth century, hose or chausses covered men’s legs were made of wool and generally brightly coloured. Wool fabrics were available in a wide range of qualities, from rough undyed cloth to fine, dense broadcloth with a velvety nap. High-value broadcloth was a backbone of the English economy and was exported throughout Europe. Wool fabrics were dyed in rich colours, notably reds, greens, golds, and blues. After the spinning wheel replaced the drop spindle and distaff (a hand held spindle), the horizontal loom with foot treadles and shuttle simplified the production of textiles and clothing. Attractive clothing became more available and affordable and the emerging middle class began to emulate the styles of the elite. Improved tailoring techniques allowed hose to get longer, and by the last quarter of the fourteenth century the two separate legs of hose reached the waist and were joined into one garment, similar to what we today call tights. Some had leather soles and could be worn without shoes. At first, full length leg coverings were made of two separate pieces tied with laces called points to the breech belt, or to the breeches themselves, or even a doublet (a short, close-fitting jacket). Chausses were usually seamed up the back and closed over the crotch with an overlapping panel or a codpiece. As shorter clothes for men became vogue, chausse were made as a single garment similar to modern tights. Often the parti-coloured hose were matched with different colour shoes. In fourteenth century, red and blue were especially popular colour combination clothing. The techniques of Italian tailoring allowed full-length parti-coloured hose to be cut in woven fabrics in separate panels. Using curved seems the leggings coul fit tightly to the leg and lower torso. Closer fit over the body became the fashion and well-fitted hose were an important fashion item for men of the gentry and nobility. As men's legs and leg coverings became more prominent, parti-colour hose were worn without the corresponding top, so the colour split was contained to just the legs,and each leg was a different colour. Various trends in colour and patterning were seen in men's hose throughout each period of their predominance. In fourteenth century, red and blue were especially popular colour combination clothing. The fabulous clothing once restricted to royalty now became available and affordable for the merchant class and a new upwardly mobile urban middle class. Fashions of the Late Middle Ages were influenced by the Gothic style, a look that accentuated slenderness and an elongated form for both men and women. The fashion for long toed shoes (poulaines) became an obsession for men in the Middle Ages. Over this period in European courts the size of men's shoes got longer and longer until they were 24 inches longer than the foot. By the late 14th century wooden or cork overshoes (pattens) fastened to the foot with leather cross straps and were worn to protect the foot segments of chausses. Fashionable courtiers could wear their peaked pattens at the height of fashion and protect their fine leggings At first court jesters relied on elaborate skills such as singing, music, magic and storytelling to earn their place in the court. Then towards the end of the Medieval period when parti clothing became less fashionable, jesters frequently wore a coat made from motley colours, usually bright and patterned irregularly. Under this coat, they wore tight breeches often with one leg coloured differently from the other leg. Whether this was to lampoon parti clothing which had become passe, no one knows. The site of a fool dressed in gaudy clothes, using mismatched colour schemes and different comical embellishments gave instant amusement . Lewandowski, E J. 2011 The Complete Costume Dictionary. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press Wilcox, R. T. 1969 The Dictionary of Costume Charles Scribner's Sons Yarwood, D. 1981 Costume of the Western World: Pictorial Guide and Glossary New York: St. Martin’s Press, Wednesday, November 18, 2020 Monday, November 09, 2020 At first, quality footwear was imported from England during early Colonial times . according to Allen (1916), the price of leather was high and the absence of skilled shoemakers within the colonies meant little use was made of the hides of the abundant native wildlife. England saw its colonies as a great market for finished goods, while it permitted colonists to export only raw materials and thereby safeguard the home based leather and shoe industry. Matters concerning the colonies were primarily dealt by the Privy Council of England and its committees. The Commission of Trade was set up in 1625 as the first special body convened to advise on colonial (plantation) questions. From 1696 until the end of the American Revolution, colonial affairs were the responsibility of the Board of Trade in partnership with the relevant secretaries of state, which changed from the Secretary of State for the Southern Department to the Secretary of State for the Colonies in 1768. Provincial laws with severe penalties were common as England's policy was to export more goods than it imported. Paid for in coin assured gold and silver was kept in kept in the mother country. Pennsylvania issued a law in 1720/21 which fixed the maximum price for shoes. This caught selling shoes above the prices fixed by Provincial law or above the rates set from time to time by the mayor, aldermen, and justices of the courts, faced forfeiture. A good pair of men’s shoes was set at not more than; "six shillings and six pence.” ($49 in today’s money or three days labour). Women’s shoes should cost no more than five shillings, ($37 or two days labour ). The cost of children’s shoes would be proportionately less. Footwear could be paid for with money (pounds, shillings, and pence), more often by barter, and sometimes in receipt for labour. Cash in the Colonies, was denominated in pounds, shillings, and pence, but the value of each denomination varied from Colony to Colony. A Massachusetts pound, did not have the same value as a Pennsylvania pound, and all colonial pounds were of less value than the British, pound sterling. C olonists used several overlapping currencies and coins in circulation during the Colonial Era were, most often, of Spanish and Portuguese origin. The prevalence of the Spanish dollar throughout the Colonies, led to the money of the United States being denominated in dollars, rather than pounds. Cost was prohibitive and the poor or less affluent let their children go barefoot and leather shoes were generally kept for special occasions (Sunday best), and usually only worn in church. Poor Colonial families might walk bare-foot to church carrying their shoes only stopping to put them on before entering the church building. Most faiths regard wearing special dress for worship important. From clergy to congragation special attire was thought to distract thoughts away from everyday activities. For many the discomfort of wearing ill fitting shoes had to be borne stoicly as a mark of faith. For others fine clothing was a mark of standing in the community and success. Ironically youths in Colonial America came to regard going barefoot a mark of general bravado. Generally the faihtful considered it important to put some effort into their church attire in the belief God deserved the absolute best. In the Old Testament, God demanded consecration, that is setting the faithful apart by breaking their pattern of daily living. High priests wore sumptuoius clothing (Exodus 28:1-39); and by contrast ordinary priests wore linen clothes designed for “dignity and honour” (Exodus 28:2, 40). By extention the faithful should follw suit and both St Jerome and St Clement badgered the faithful to wear special dress for worship on the pretext the way in which one presented physically before God frequently betrayed an attitude of mind. To paraphrase Ecclesiastes, “Guard your steps when you go to church!” (Ecclesiastes 5:1). Walbert D 2020 The Value of Money in Colonial America A North Caroline History Online Resource Allen FJ 1916 The shoe industry Tha Vocation Bureau of Boston Bezanson A, Gray R D, Hussey M 1935 Prices in Colonial Pennsylvania University of Pennsylvania Press Friday, November 06, 2020 Ebenezer Mackintosh was born in 1737 in Boston to impoverished parents. A shoemaker to trade, Ebenezer Mackintosh enlisted in the militia in 1754. Most Boston shoemakers were lower class with little opportunity to rise in society but in the militia, he became the Captain General of the Liberty Tree , a principal mob leader in Boston riots protesting The Stamp Act . Guy Fawkes Day / Pope Night was held on November 5th and became a holiday celebrating independence from foreign military and political intervention in the affairs of the colonies. Pope Night was espcially popular in the seaport towns of New England, and in Boston, became a boisterous occasion for the "lower orders" of society to drink, riot, and make anti-elite protest. In the 1740s, gang violence was well established and residents of different Boston neighbourhoods, exclusively male, battled for the honour of burning the Pope's effigy. Prior to the procession through the streets, rival mobs (North and South) spent weeks building an effigy of the Pope. The processions were organized by an elected local officer with one from the North End and the other from the South End. Rivals fought to capture the others' effigy and the robust rivalry meant fights were common leaving many injuried and some dead. The end of the night saw the burning of the effigies by the victors. During the procession, masked and costumed revelers sometimes stopped at the homes of wealthy threatening to break their windows unless they contributed funds for the festivities. Pope N:ight was permitted only because the anti-papal theme made them acceptable to the ruling class. With the passing years, violence escalated and Boston's elites were appalled urging authorities to crack down and The Great and General Court passed legislation in 1753, which prevented "all riotous, tumultuous and disorderly Assemblies" from "carrying pageants and other shews through the streets and lanes of the town of Boston and other towns of this province, abusing and insulting the inhabitants". Authorities were further hampered because many militiamen were themselves among the revellers. The locals were determined to have their fun and subsequent acts had to be were passed. In 1764, a young boy was killed on Pope Night when the procession turned into a riot and authorities ordered the militia to destroy both effigies of the pope. after they destroyed the North End mob's pope, Ebenezer Mackintosh, and the Boston's South gang End protected their model. In protest, the two mobs stopped battling each other, and became unified in protest under direction of "General" Ebenezer Mackintosh, who led a single procession with his counterpart, Samuel Swift, leader of the North End. In the following year, the Parliament of the Great Britain issued The Stamp Act 1765 which imposed a direct tax on the British colonies in America . The collected taxes were for payment for British military troops stationed in the American colonies after the French and Indian War, The Stamp Act was not popular and caused much unrest. Despite petitions being sent to Parliament and the King and protests organised. Mackintosh played a key role in wild events related to the protests and eventual repeal of the Stamp Act in March 1766. The Sons of Liberty were a leading group of American dissidents led by the Loyal Nine . In 1765, the Loyal Nine had arranged the unification of the North and South End crowds and appointed Ebenezer Mackintosh, as their leader. Ebenezer Mackintosh was a born leader of men, and much respected for his abilities and as reward he was given a gilt uniform and a speaking trumpet for the occasion. He played a key role in other riots and events in the following year related to the protests and eventual repeal of the Stamp Act in March 1766. He led a crowd with Lieutenant Governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, Andrew Oliver captive, to an elm (the Liberty Tree), and forced him to publicly swear he would never act as stamp distributor. By the 1769 Riot Act, colonial America had moved towards the American Revolution (1765-1783), and the class rivalries of Pope Night gave way to anti-British sentiment. There is no record of Mackintosh was involved in mobs in the late 1760s and 1770s protesting regulations by Britain. Although most authorities believe he was a Boston Tea Party agitator in 1773. He also spent some time in debtors' prison before leaving Boston in 1774. Ebenezer Mackintosh fought gallantly in the army for a short time before returning to boot making in Haverhill, New Hampshire. The First Capt General of the Sons of Liberty died in 1816 almost forgotten and in somewhat impoverished circumstance. Tuesday, November 03, 2020 Sachsenhausen was a Nazi concentration camp in Oranienburg, Germany and used from 1936 to 1945. Those held at Sachsenhausen were considered enemies of the Third Reich, treated harshly, fed sparingly, and killed openly. At least 30,000 inmates died in Sachsenhausen from causes such as exhaustion, disease, malnutrition and pneumonia, as a result of the poor living conditions. The labour camp had a large task force of prisoners sent to work in the nearby factories. Exploitation and inhumane treatment of thousands of forced laborers included being parted from with their shoes and given hard to wear wooden shoes or no shoes at all. The confiscated footwear was sent to the nearby Salamander shoe repair shop There other detainees sorted through thousands of shoes, some were sent for repair before being redistributed to people who had been bombed out, or those resettled in the occupied territories. The remaining footwear was sold to assorted German industrial and agricultural enterprises. High demand for civilian clothing combined with war shortages and lack of natural materials like leather, gave high incentive to develop new polymers. Whilst priority was given to the armed services, manufacturers were determined to convince civilian consumers shoes with synthetic soles or shoes made altogether of synthetic material were bona fide. The German shoe industry connived to establish a shoe-testing facility at Sachsenhausen concentration camp in 1940. The Special Committee on Wehrmacht Footwear for the tests was established and the incarcerated population were inhumanely used to test new shoes on the "shoe test tracks." These were built by a research institute with nine types of surface, including asphalt, cement, cinders, broken stones, gravel and sand. There is evidence companies paid a "user fee” of RM 6 (Reichsmark) per day per prisoner to the Reichsamt für Wirtschaftsausbau (Reich Office for Economic Expansion) for the tests on the “shoe test track”. At first Nazi SS guards forced an undocumented number of prisoners ie Schuhläuferkommando (the shoe-testers commando) to wear new shoes and march about 40 kilometres. In 1944, the SS devised a special torture and made prisoners walk in shoes one or two sizes too small while carrying sacks filled with 20 kilograms of sand. Prisoners had to walk, march, or perform sporting exercises for hours on end, day after day, night after night in summer and winter. To keep awake some were given stimulants to keep walking even with giant blisters on their feet. Merciless guards beat the inmates and forced them to sing songs as they stood in line waiting to join the track. When weakened with exhaustion anyone daring to fall risked being shot by the SS guards and many thousands died whilst others were left crippled for life. According to documents from the state authorities in the Federal Archives in Berlin among the better known shoe manufacturers involved were Salamander Shoes , the leading shoe manufacturer during the Reich. Richard Freudenberg claimed his company’s extensive research findings were attained by employees testing shoes at its headquarters in Weinheim. The managers at Salamander managers stoicly denied involvement to the allied forces, claiming only the Wehrmacht commissioned the tests. Records reveal, Salamander was among the first companies to send shoe models to the concentration camp for testing in 1940. After the War, few within the industry admitted to being directly involved, despite findings on shoe design from the inhumane experiments significanlty changing production and a move away from stitiching to using synthetic glues. Despite the denials many other experimental findings found their way into the ealry standard industrial handbooks of the early 50s. Those directly involved were never identified and thought to have made good careers within the industry or its trade bodies. Only one person was ever convicted in connection with the shoe tests and he spent a few years of forced labor in the Soviet Union. Surviving heirs of Freudenberg , shocked by the role played by Richard Freudenberg whose Weinheim-based shoe company tested footwear at the concentration camp, called for financial assistance from shareholders, to develop a fund to help prison camp survivors as well as erect memorials at Sachsenhausen and Ravensbrück . Many other German companies in addition to Freudenberg, were involved and had their products tested in the Nazi shoe experiments. From makers of the shoe-lasts to companies responsible for developing synthetics and shoe soles all used slave labour to improve footwear for the Wehrmacht during the war. Only now are surviving German companies previously under the influence of the Nazi beginning to come to terms with historic atrocities and make recompense from profiting from during WWII. Through the process of Vergangenheitsbewaeltigung the country is trying to learn from its recent past by admitting these unsavoury events did exist, and attempt to remedy same as far as possible, the wrongs committed in a positive attempt to move froward. A foundation was set up in 2000, to pay compensation to former Nazi forced laborers or their families, in which the German government and industry contributed in equal measure to a more than five billion euro fund. Frankle E 2020 Germany’s Continental says it used slave labor to supply Nazis, test shoe soles The Times of Israel Guenther I Nazi chic? 2004 Fashioning women in the Third Reich Berg Oxford Jones E C Empty shoes 2001 In Benstock S I and Ferriss S Footnotes on shoes Rutgers University Press NY Nahshon E 2008 Jews and shoes Berg Oxford Reid C 2020 German Automotive Giant Continental Admits To Nazi Past Including Concentration Camp Deaths Forbes Blau J 2014 Bloody Shoes Uneasy History Continental was “the backbone of the Nazi war economy” Web 24 News 2020 Friedländer V 1983 Man kann nicht eine halbe Jüdin sein Verlag Roter Morgen. Sudrow A 2010 Der Schuh im Nationalsozialismus: Eine Produktgeschichte im deutsch-britisch-amerikanischen Vergleich Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag Supplier for Hitler’s War Continental During the Nazi Era Continental Magazine Salamander The Nazi Forced Labor Documentation Center in Berlin-Schöneweide Sunday, November 01, 2020 People in the 19th century loved trains and when a five working day week became norm, urban families clambered to visit the seaside particularly in the summertime. Working boots were discarded as day trippers wanted to shoes walk through the sand. Sand shoes were lightweight canvas topped rubber soled shoes and thanks to vulcanisation of rubber were cheap, flimsy and usually wore out after a day’s wear. To reinforce the shoe a thin, flat rubber band was wrapped around the shoe and because this looked like a plimsoll line, they were called plimsolls and usually painted white. The significance of the colour was form a distance they could resemble white croquet shoes (made from kangaroo skin) and worn by the well to do. White plimsolls became a fashion icon of the younger working class and promenaders keen to look their best wore them with flannels and a Madras jackets. The simple plimsoll evolved into many other forms including the tennis shoe where sole patterns were added to improve grip; and in the US the high top shoe was worn to protect the ankle in games like basketball and baseball. In the US at the turn of the 20th century Converse introduced the high top Converse All Stars (or Chucks - named after Chuck Taylor a famous 30s basketball player). During the wars servicemen were issued with canvas topped rubbers for exercise and most took them home as souvenirs. Soon their older kids were wearing them to dance to quick tempo dance music of Swing and Jive. By the end of the thirties an Australian called Adrian Quist was a tennis champion and realized ground traction was the secret to better foot control on grass surfaces. Eventually he convinced the Dunlop Rubber Company to include tread patterns on their tennis shoes and Dunlop Volleys were born. Younger children wore gym shoes when the schools’ curriculum started to include compulsory physical exercise. The appeal of American sneakers was confirmed when James Dean and Elvis Presley were photographed wearing low cut canvas topped rubber soled shoes. Chucks and Keds became a by-word for teenage rebellion. Today the big footwear companies target inner city youth Afro-American, Hispanic and Asians demographics. Promotions rely heavily on “cultural influencers,” like bold colours and logos to appeal to cultural sensitivities in “ethnic pride.” Commodifying ethnicity is a deliberate marketing strategy to attract new and brand loyal consumers among inner city, low socio-economic groups. High priced designer trainers have obvious appeal to street gangs keep expressing their individualism and sartoria. US street gangs like LA Crips and Bloods wear specific designer trainers as part of their uniform. Preferred brands are those worn by popular hip hop gangsters and rap artists. Colours play an important role in gang clothing i.e. blue in Crips’ and red for Bloods. As a result many leading sport shoe companies deliberately court the patronage of popular rappers and some continue to make reference to gang behaviours in their lyrics or videos. Probably the most obvious and up front example is in Michael Jackson's Extended Music Video, “The way you make me feel “. The video starts with the Crip Walk and Michael Jackson is wearing a blue shirt. Some shoe companies have had to distance themselves from affinity with street culture by renaming some of their shoe lines such as adidas did with their 'Hemp" range, which was renamed “Gazelle natural, after public outrage. Also things like ‘stash pockets’ feature less in shoe design. Many high schools and universities have now banned footwear associated with gangs. Subsequent merging of music with fashion has seen leading sneaker companies working in close tandem with well-known graffiti, tattoo and sneaker artists to create an individual aesthetic which attract collectors. The popularity of Retro sneakers (reintroduction of older classic styles) is principally to allow the younger customers the opportunity to own a pair of originals. Another reason for the retro perspective is many of the companies are now reaching critical birthdays which give them ideal opportunity to niche market classics. Corporate take-overs have also seen a crop of retro styles make comebacks as new parent companies are keen to see new life breathed into old established names like Converse (1908) and Reebok. Up until quite recently being smart definitely did not mean being ostentatious but all that changed as more rap royalty become actively involved in shoe retail and design. Run–D.M.C arguably started the pimp shoe movement by immortalised their favourite runners in song “My adidas.” This started a landslide of interest with rappers designing their own footwear range. Hip hop impresario Jay-Z was the first rapper to receive a sneaker deal with a mainstream shoe company. He then went on to set up his own clothing and accessories line. Reggaetón, Daddy Yankee released his signature collection of athletic footwear DY and many others have followed. The move from competition to freestyle skateboarding in the 90's meant boarder (now called slashers) were no longer restricted to skateboard parks. The popularity of thrashing brought a revolution in clothing which was heavily influenced by hardcore punk and hip hop. Skateboard shoes (decks) was another mutation of canvas topped trainers made by independent companies like Vans, Airwalk and Vision Street Wear. These sold in huge quantities and were bought by young people keen to avoid the shoes sold by sport shoe giants like Nike and adidas. Skateboard attire became a fashion counter culture more in tune with Grunge than Bling- bling. Experts believe the drive for the sneaker phenomena relates to a mix of popular culture, nostalgia, technology and investment. In the past, high profile sports personalities were used by the major companies to endorse their products but due to recent falls from grace and spurious claims that sport shoes either prevent injuries or improve competitive times have caused the companies to rethink their strategy. Whilst the main bulk of sport shoes are sold for sport a significant market is directed at ath-leisure or fashionable trainers. The shelf life of a trendy trainer is short (3 months) and companies like Nike and adidas are forever introducing new lines. To add incentive companies offer "quick hit" shoes which is a clever marketing ploy and involves the sale of a small number of limited edition shoes as a special offer in selected outlets for a limited period of time only. With minimum advertising these events are hurriedly communicated through networks, websites and SMSs. Sneakerheads range from casual fans of sneaker fashion to those who buy and sell shoes like blue chip investments. The shoes can cost hundreds and even thousands of dollars depending on their cachet. Some wear them, and have multiple pairs (in case one gets scuffed); whereas others keep them in their boxes and store in a bank and or display them, unworn. Shoe collectors will often determine what will sell and companies are obliged to follow. There are many web sites (Nicekicks.com and Sneaker Freaker), magazines (Sole Collector), books, songs and even radio shows all dedicated to sneaker culture. The phenomena have caught the media’s attention and now there are several TV documentaries on the subject.

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The objective of this unit is to expose a Spanish for Spanish Speakers eighth grade class to poetry written by Spanish and Hispanic writers in Spanish and English. My purpose is to develop discussion and inspire creative poetry writing in both languages. This unit will have two phases: The first will introduce the Hispanic students to poetry in Spanish, and the second will introduce the students to the poetry of writers who like themselves are second generation Puerto Ricans. Although my students are fluent in spoken Spanish, they all have varying degrees of difficulty writing the language, but they are all fluent in English. This unit will be appropriate for use in language classes as well as bilingual classes in the Middle Schools. The poetry that I have selected will promote discussion, develop vocabulary and inspire writing. It can be taught in translation, in English, and can therefore, be used by an English teacher who wishes to expose his or her students to a sampling of Hispanic poetry. My objective is twofold: in the first phase of this unit it is to motivate students and elicit their enthusiasm about poetic language in Spanish, allowing them to recognize how the sounds of the language that they hear at home are part of a very rich cultural literary heritage, thus affirming their pride in their cultural identity. The main objective of the second phase of this unit is to present to the students poems written by Puerto Rican writers living in the United States who write primarily in English, also in Spanish and sometimes in “Spanglish.” Should the students identify with any of the themes presented in the poetry of the “Nuyorican” writers, it is my hope that this recognition would solidify their Puerto Rican identity, and affirm their uniqueness, as a part of this national minority in the United States. The procedure that we will follow weekly will be to have a student volunteer read the poem of the week for its rhythms and musicality. The teacher will then read the poem to the class. The class will look for any vocabulary which might present difficulty in any or both languages. We will study the content and structure of the poems as well as any other linguistic characteristic of the poems, such as rhymes, metaphors or images. Definitions of these poetic terms will be given and discussed, examples of each will be provided, (whenever appropriate in the course of a lesson. After the study of the poems has been completed; the students will be asked to write their own poems in the language in which they feel more comfortable writing. We will discuss any difficulties found in the poems either in the content or in the structure. The procedure for analyzing individual poems will be further explained in the section of this unit devoted to lesson plans. Background on Spanish American Poetry It is not my intention to give a summary of the history of literature in Spanish America in this unit, it is rather, to highlight important moments or ideas within literary movements, in order for us to have a clearer idea of the development of poetry in Spanish America. For teachers who wish to have more detailed information about the poetry of Spanish America, I refer to very useful literary and historical sources in the Teacher’s Bibliography of this unit. Poetry has existed in Latin America since the earliest pre-Colombian civilizations existed. The most advanced pre-Colombian cultures were the Maya who occupied today’s Honduras and Guatemala up to the Yucatan; the Incas of the Andes lived where we find Peru, Chile and Ecuador today; the Aztecs lived in Central and Southern Mexico. There were many languages throughout the continent, the most well known are “Quechua” spoken by the Incas; “Quiche” spoken by the Mayas; and the Aztec’s “Nahuatl.” We know that these civilizations were very artistic and advanced in many areas. However, they did not have a writing system. Their poetry was oral. The Spanish missionaries were the first to hear the artistic value of this oral poetry of the indigenous populations of America. We must then, rely on their translations to Latin, for the earliest examples of poetry in this continent. In the anthology The Yellow Canary Whose Eye is so Black Poems of Spanish America, Durán says about the Aztec kings, “ . . . they maintained “houses of songs” to train young poets and sponsored poetry contests . . . The Aztecs did not use rhyme but relied on a delicate balance between accented and unaccented syllables and elaborate symbolism. Their poetry of “flowers and songs,” was always sung or declaimed to music.” (Durán, Cheli 3) The coming together of Indigenous and Spanish cultures produced a unique and extraordinary body of literature in Spanish America. Since the arrival of Columbus the mixture of races and cultures created a new way of seeing the world which was reflected in literature. In his book Reflections on Spanish-American Poetry , Jorge Carrera-Andrade says “The Spaniard “changed” upon contact with America and, although he did not yet become a Spanish-American, he gradually acquired the coloration of New World attitudes . . . the inner transformation induced by the American environment and way of life produced a whole literature: the narratives of the Cronistas de Indias, the first observers and interpreters of the New World’s beauty.” (Carrera-Andade 3) During the period of Conquest and Colonization many Hispanic Americans were educated in Spain. The poets of this historical period followed the European trends in literature but their subjects were always distinctly American. An example from 1569 would be by the conquistador Alonso de Ercilla who praised the Araucan chiefs. The period of struggle for independence of the Spanish Colonies saw a literature of deflance of authority and a sense of social injustice that never left the Spanish American writer. Jose Mart’ is an example of a poet-martyr who literally died fighting for the freedom of his Island. The poet Ruben Dar’o began the movement of Modernismo which was to influence even the poets of Spain. After 1880 when most of the countries were independent from Spain, Spanish American literature was to be unique and innovative. Dar’o experimented with new meters and introduced many new ideas, Duran notes the influence of Poe and Whitman on Spanish American poets from Dar’o to Neruda. After Modernismo and the First World War there were many new currents which influenced the poets of Spanish America namely Cubism, Futurism, Dadaism, Surrealism. In Spain Ultraism appears and the Argentinian poet Borges brings it to this continent. Creacionismo is introduced by the Chilean poet Huidobro. All this activity occurs between 1910 and 1940. Many more movements and groups continue to write the history of Spanish American literature until the present. The images found in Aztec poetry will appear again in poets like César Vallejo from Peru, Pablo Neruda from Chile, Octavio Paz from Mexico and many others from this continent. They are images of the tropics, and of ancient Machu Pichu, of hunger and injustice, of freedom, of life and death. Poets like Nicolás Guillén from Cuba and Luis Palés-Matos from Puerto Rico incorporate the African roots in the rhythm of their poetry, making their song unique. This Afro-Caribbean trend will reappear in the poetry of Nuyorican poets such as Tato Laviera. It is also interesting to note how contemporary Nuyorican poets gather the urban speech of their people and transfer it to their poetry, so that, like the Aztec poets, they continue the tradition of poetry as song. Their drum is played to also awaken their people but also to preserve this new speech, this so called “Spanglish” which defines who they are. Carrera-Andrade sums up the uniqueness and value of Spanish American poetry as follows “ . . . an attitude exists in Spanish-American man which is his own; this attitude concerns not only the physical world but also the great concepts such as time, love, religion, politics. In contrast to the European, who feels historical emotion, the Spanish-American is a creature of the future and lives with passion in the present, which seems to him the only thing truly ‘perpetual’. There is a ’Spanish-American time’ which is not the same as time in other geographic regions. Similarly the poetry of Latin America is different from Spanish and European poetry in general, since it is the fruit of America’s sociological evolution and constitutes a stage in the development of its thought.” (Acarrera-Andrade 20). As I stated in my objectives the first part of this unit will be devoted to the study of poems by Spanish or Spanish-American poets. To initiate the student’s glimpse into the roots of poetry in Latin America I have selected a poem from Duran’s anthology already mentioned. This poem is “Yo, el Poeta” (I, The Poet)(C. Durán 2) from Nahuatl. Discussion of this poem will give us a chance to find out how important an art form poetry was in pre-Colombian America. In “Yo, el poeta” the poet says he is singer and he plays a drum which he hopes will awaken the souls of the dead. We will discuss how the poem shows the function of the poet in Aztec society. Why does he play a drum? Who does he want to awaken and why? In the second part of this unit I will show how the contemporary poets see their function in todays society and we will try to tie the two together to realize how far back our poetic roots go. Next I have selected three poems by Feder’co Garc’a-Lorca, (1898-1936) perhaps the best loved and most universally known poet of Spain. His poetry is full of mystery and music and he has a profound understanding of nature. I selected a poet from Spain to tie the two continents together and to show the cultural continuity between Spain and its descendants. Two of the poems are from the book The Cricket Sings which was written for children and its language will not present great difflculties to the students. I also selected these poems because I think the subject matter will elicit good discussions. In the poem “Canción de Jinete ” (The Rider’s Song) (Blackburn ) the poem describes a place, Córdoba, in Spain to which the rider will never arrive. Our discussion will include the mystery that surrounds the rider. Why is he never to arrive at his destination? Is there a reason? Why are the words “distant and alone” repeated? Why does the poet repeat the exclamation “Ay”? Is there a rhyme? The next poem from the same book is “De casa en casa” (From House to House) (Blackburn ). This poem suggests the idea of going from place to place as in “The Rider’s Song” discussed above, but in a different way, here the poet searches for and ideal place and finds that childhood is that ideal. It is a graphic poem, the children will be able to draw pictures of what the poet describes: houses, the seahorse, the sky, the earth, clouds, slings and stones, and a boy. There is a wish in the final verse of the poem: “I want to be a boy, a boy!” (Blackburn) This last verse will elicit the students’ own poems. They will be asked to write their own poems imitating Lorca’s; either beginning or ending them with “I want to be a . . . ” The last of Lorca’s poems we will study will be from the book Poems of Federico Garc’a Lorca it is the poem “Surprise.” We will study the vocabulary of this poem, its use of the verbs in the preterite and the imperfect and its rhyme pattern but the content of this poem will be more important than the structure. It is a poem about a man who is mysteriously stabbed in the street. It will elicit discussion about the senseless cycle of violence that the children witness everyday in the inner city. In this poem death takes place without a reason and by surprise. Could students write about such an event in their city, either because they have seen it happen or because they learned it through the media? Children will be asked to write about an event they thought was violent. This might be a vehicle to exorcise the pain and anger often displayed by the students in school. From Spain we will move to South America and study three poems by the Chilean Pablo Neruda (1904-1973) considered by some critics the greatest poet of Spanish America. He won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1972. He echoed the voice of the Inca ancestors when he wrote his poem to Machu Pichu. He captured the sufferings of his people living in constant political turmoil, poverty, and oppression in Spanish America. He started writing poems of love and desperation but later on in his career, he stripped his poems of any literary pretensions and wrote the “Elemental Odes.” In this period of his poetry he wanted to be understood by the people, the masses. Thus, he wrote about concrete aspects of life and found joy in the simplest objects, and in nature: an onion, a pair of socks, the color green, the air, a seagull. We will adhere to the following definition of an ode in order to study Pablo Neruda’s odes: “A lyric poem typically addressed to some person or thing and characterized by lofty feeling and dignifled style.” (Guralnik 519) We will explain this definition to the students and look for these characteristics in Neruda’s odes. The odes I selected are rather long but light in content and I think the students will enjoy reading them. Before we begin the reading of “Oda al color verde” Ode to the color green,) (Neruda 93) the students will be asked to make a list of “green” objects they know (grass, leaves, eyes, etc.). They will be asked to contrast their lists with the many definitions of green given in the poem. Are there any metaphors for the color green? Is there a rhyme? Students will be asked to write their own “Ode to the color . . . ” The “Oda a una estrella”, (Ode to a star) (Neruda 113) is a fantasy about a man who steals a star and takes it home. The light of the star creates many problems for the man. He encounters many difficulties and must dispose of the star. We will discuss the story within the ode, and how the poet creates this fantasy. The students will be asked to respond to the following questions: What metaphors represent the star? How does the man steal the star? Where does he keep the star? What problems does he encounter? How and why does he return the star? Is there a rhyme in this ode? What vocabulary needs explanation? The students will be asked to think about something they have or had that they were asked to give up. They will be asked to write an ode to something they consider to be very precious but must be given up. In his odes, Neruda tries to find what is universal to all mankind in the minute description of everyday objects; and in some odes humor is a main ingredient. Such an ode is the third one we will study, “Oda a los calcetines” (Ode to a pair of socks) (Neruda 127). The study of this ode will give us the chance to compare the many words used in Spanish for “socks” What is the word in Chile, in Puerto Rico, in Argentina, etc.? What does the poet compare his socks to? Why are socks so important to him? What are some metaphors for feet? We will review what is the “moral” of a story and answer what is the “moral” in this ode, according to the poet. Is there a rhyme? At this point, for our written practice we will make a class list of the objects we would like to praise, and we will write a class collaborative ode. For example, “Ode to gloves, hats, coats, . . . ”etc. Background on “Nuyorican” Poetry The term “Nuyorican” originally was coined by Puerto Ricans on the island to denote emigrants who settled mostly in New York. It was a term which had negative connotations. In his article “Teaching Puerto Rican Authors: identity and Modernization in Nuyorican Texts” Mr. Cruz-Malavé explains: “In the 1960s Puerto Rican authors began to reclaim this term. In so doing, they were affirming the immigrant community’s specific experiences, history and social practices, particularly code switching .” (Cruz-Malavé 51) This last characteristic, “code switching,” that is moving from one language to another, is what sets these writers apart from Insular, Spanish-American, Anglo, and African-American poets. Their language shows that they are indeed part of two cultures as the term Nuyorican implies. This language dichotomy, at times, shows a feeling of ambivalence, of belonging neither here nor there, as expressed in the first two lines of Tato Laviera’s poem, “my graduation day ” “i think in spanish/i write in english.” (Laviera 7) There is much controversy among critics surrounding the language of the Nuyorican poets. Some believe that the use of English in a Spanish text interspersed within a Spanish text, somehow diminishes its “Puertoricanness.” Others like Miguel Algar’n state: “The power of Nuyorican talk is that it is street rooted. It is the way people talk in the raw before the spirit is molded into “standards” . . . It is a language full of short pulsating rhythms that manifest the unrelenting strain that the Nuyorican experiences.” (Algar’n 16) This is a new language which requires the passage of time to become “legitimate” and “standardized.” If time shows that it does not survive because English overpowers Spanish or vice versa, at least the poetry will give testimony to its existence. Algar’n believes that “The poet is responsible for inventing newness. The newness needs words, words never heard before or used before. The poet has to invent a new language, a new tradition of communication.” (Algar’n 16) The force that propels this poetry is a sense of social injustice encircled by a feeling of outrage at the conditions in which the Puerto Rican immigrants find themselves in most large urban centers like New York. It is bearing witness to the endless cycle of poverty and discrimination that drives the denunciation of this poetry. There is also anger at what the poet perceives to be the submissiveness of a people who come to the big city in search the “American dream.” This poetry wants to awaken its people and shock them into action as in Pedro Pietri’s “Puerto Rican Obituary,” where he shows that the dream does not exist. In this poem there is also a mythification of Puerto Rico as a vision of paradise another characteristic present in much of this poetry. There is another type of poetry written by female Puerto Rican writers either born or raised in the United States, who write primarily in English, although Spanish is an ever present force in their work. They are concerned with the disenfranchized of the “barrio” but their poetry begins to move away from pure denunciation into other areas. They are concerned with international issues, femenist issues, and they show a preocupation with cultural identity. Their protest takes a more intimate and subttle approach than that of their male counterparts mentioned above. Rosario Morales, Aurora Levins-Morales and Judith Ort’z-Cofer are representative of this poetic trend which can be aligned with the poetry of contemporary Chicana writers. As stated in the objectives, the second part of this unit will be devoted to the poetry of Puerto Rican writers. This part of the unit will be taught beginning in February until the end of the school year and it will be introduced once a week as in phase I of this unit. The majority of the students in my target class are second generation Puerto Ricans much like the writers mentioned in Edna Acosta-Belén’s article “The Literature of the Puerto Rican National Minority in the United States.” They are “those Puerto Ricans who were born or raised in the United States and who are part of a national minority.” (Acosta-Belén 107) They struggle with their sense of identity in a society that will often reject or isolate them. These students are not exposed to the writings of second generation Puerto Ricans in their traditional English classes. Many times these students express their frustration because the schools they attend do not recognize people in their national minority, a fact that furthers their ostracism and sense of isolation. In this phase of my unit I intend to expose the students to the second generation of Puerto Rican writers who have expressed a sense of outrage at the isolation of their people, and who have shown through their poems the injustices caused by discrimination and poverty among other social problems. We will study and discuss the attitude of the poets towards the United States and their feelings about Puerto Rico. The students will be introduced to Ms. Naomi Ayala, a young Puerto Rican writer born in Puerto Rico but emigrated with her parents to New Haven in 1968. Ms. Ayala teaches creative writing in New Haven and gives workshops for adults and children. She will be discussing her poetry with my class in a workshop she is planning to conduct for us during this phase of the unit. It is important for my students to identify with people who, like themselves, feel the isolation and injustices I mentioned above. In an issue of the magazine Ms. Ayala says; “There is a feeling of displacement, because for me my home is still Puerto Rico. The richness of that culture is part of my make-up as a person and as a poet. I often feel like a fish out of water.” (Rodriguez 28) After the workshop, students will then attempt to write their own poems expressing their feelings about being Puerto Rican in the United States, and will discuss each other’s poems. We will continue this phase of the unit with a poem in Spanish by Julio Marzán. This poet was born in Puerto Rico in 1946 and teaches Spanish-American literature in this country. The poem entitled “Sustancia” (Nutshell) (Barradas 94) is about a doorman in a New York City building. We will focus on the relationship between the doorman and Sra. Mathews for whom he sometimes has to get a taxi. We will need to explain the significance of the Park Avenue address to the students. Once the importance of the address is established, the social class differences will be evident, and the students will be able to analyze the tone of the poem and its meaning. Is the tone angry or matter of fact? Does the poet use a rhyme scheme? What is the irony in this poem? What is the relationship between Sr. Rodriguez and Sra. Mathews? The students will be asked to discuss this relationship as well as the irony at the end of the poem. How is social injustice shown in this poem? The students will be asked to imitate the style of this poem and write a poem that begins with “El se–or . . . es . . . ” We will next study fragments of Pedro Pietri’s poem (in English) “Puerto Rican Obituary.” Pedro Pietri was born in Puerto Rico in 1944 but grew up in this country. His poems appear in several anthologies and he is also a playwriter. “Puerto Rican Obituary” (Lauter 2510) is a long mock epic of the Puerto Rican experience in the United States. It is sarcastic in its anger. I have selected verses 94 to 125 and 291 to 313 because of the age level of the students. An analysis of the entire poem may be too difficult at this stage. In the first fragment we will focus on the idea of the American dream. What is this dream according to the poet? Who promotes this dream in society? How are Puerto Ricans and African-Americans portrayed on T.V.? Why did all the people mentioned in the poem die? What is an Obituary? What is the empty dream? The second fragment is the end of the poem and Pietri’s idealization of Puerto Rico as a vision of paradise. What does the poet think about Puerto Rico? What is Puerto Rico like in this vision? The students will be asked to write about an aspect of being Puerto Rican in their city. They will be asked to imitate the style of this poet by repeating a certain phrase for emphasis. The next poet we will discuss is Tato Laviera who was born in Puerto Rico in 1951 and has lived in New York City since 1960. He is best known for his book La Carreta Made a U-Turn in which he, like Pietri denounces the injustices that the poor immigrants from Puerto Rico are faced with in the city. From this book we will study the poem “Frio”(Cold). This poem is about spending a cold night in a building without heat; it is also about poverty and alienation. The students will be asked to look at the vocabulary and find the Spanish words in the poem, what do they mean: why did the poet choose to write them in Spanish. How does the poem make you feel? What do the last three lines of the poem mean and why are they apart from the rest of the poem? Students will be asked to think about a time they felt cold, hungry, tired, upset, etc., and write a poem about this experience. They can write their poems in English but they must use three words in Spanish, this procedure may also be reversed for students who are more fluent in Spanish. We will continue our study with two poems from the book Getting Home Alive co-authored in 1986 by Rosario Morales and Aurora Levins-Morales who are mother and daughter respectively. Rosario was born in Puerto Rico. She married a Jewish-American political activist and in 1954 gave birth to Aurora, who moved with her parents from Puerto Rico to different parts of the United States. The poems I have selected are not about protest or denunciation of social conditions but rather about themes that celebrate life or that show how cultural diversity is a positive aspect of our multicultural society. We will study “Happiness Is A Coqu’” (Morales 131) by Rosario Morales. The poet prefaces her poem with the following explanation: “A coqui is a small Caribbean tree frog named after the sound it makes. Coquis fill the Caribbean night with music. The one I write about is a species that lives in El Yunque, the national rain forest of Puerto Rico.” (Levins-Morales 131) The poet writes with admiration of the sound the coqui makes in the still of the night. She describes how the sound enters her body, fills her heart, and how it makes her feel. She marvels at how such a small “instrument” can make such loud music. Students will be asked, how many notes does a coqui make? What are the sounds like? What is the sound of the coqui compared to? How does the sound of the coqui enter the body of the poet? Where does it lodge? Why the heart? What color is the coqui and where does it live? What does the repetition of “coqu’” and “qui” do for the poem? We could continue asking questions about this poem which is so rich in images and joyful in its evocation of this minuscule but unique and endearing symbol of Puerto Rico. The students will be asked to write a poem beginning with “Hapiness is . . . ” Aurora Levins-Morales is a product of two very distinct national ethnic minorities in the United States she is as she states in her poem “Child of the Americas” “ . . . a U.S. Puerto Rican Jew.” (Levins-Morales 50) I have choosen this poem because it expresses the multicultural aspect of American society. Some of my students have Hispanic surnames, but are also products of either multiethnic or multiracial marriages. In “Child of the Americas” the poet recognizes her Hispanic, European, Taino and African roots, that is, her multicultural background. She does not limit herself to two ethnic minorities, she wants to be accepted as a child of many cultures. She says English is in her consciousness and it is her craft. Spanish is in her flesh because she also speaks with her body, thus recognizing the importance of body language as a tool of communication in the Hispanic world. The discussion of this poem will be centered on the theme of multiculturalism. We will discuss who were the Tainos, when did they live in Puerto Rico, why did they disappear, when did Africans come to the Americas and why, what is a mestiza, what is a diaspora, what are crossroads, why is English a “tool”? The student will be asked to imagine a world at peace, without racial conflict; and write a poem about a future, ideal world, where peace and understanding among all people triumphs over discrimination. The last poet we will analize is Judith Ort’z-Cofer. She was born in Puerto Rico 1952. Her father was in the Navy and her family often moved from the island to different parts of the United States. She had to make constant adjustments moving back and forth between two cultures. She is an English professor and has published poetry since 1981. From her book Terms of Survival I havechosen three poems: “La Envidia” (Envy), “The Angel of the Trash Collectors,” and “So Much for Ma–ana.” These three poems were written in English. In “La Envidia” (Ort’z-Cofer 11) the poet envisions envy as a green snake. Through the use of several metaphors we see envy in its different forms. It is a necklace, it is someone elses strong muscles, it is a place you will never visit. Envy is insidious, and it starts as early as wishing for your mother’s milk when she gives it to another child. We will discuss first why the poet chooses to entitle the poem in Spanish. We will review metaphors and look for metaphors of envy within the poem. We will look for rhyme. We will discuss how does the poem makes us feel. Is envy a good feeling? What does the expression “The grass is always greener mean”? Do we have and equivalent expression in Spanish? The students will be asked to write a poem about a negative feeling such as envy, jelousy or hate, imitating the style of this author. “The Angel of the Trash Collectors” (Ort’z-Cofer 53) is a fantasy. The poet tells us about an angel of grey wings who travels in the cities’ trash collecting trucks protecting the men who must leave their homes at “dangerous” hours to performe the task of collecting garbage. There are several vocabulary words which will need explanation. They are: laden, refuse, exhaust, dispelling, vehicle and oblivious. We will make use of dictionaries to find meanings for these words. We will then discuss when do the men leave their homes? Why are their dreams unfinished? What are the “oblivious jaws” of the vehicle? Who is the angel? Why is the angel with the men? What do you think about the work the men do? What feeling does this poem evoke in the reader? Students will be asked to write a poem entitled “The angel of the . . . ” The poem “So Much for Ma–ana” (Ort’z-Cofer 37) is about several things. It is about so many unfinished things that we leave for “ma–ana,” (tomorrow) but it is about going back to Puerto Rico. It is the story of a mother who goes back to the island after twenty years and then corresponds with the daughter who has stayed behind in the United States. It is about a “mamá” asking her “ni–a” (child) to come back too. It is poem full of humor and emotion contrasting the many differences that exist between “here” and “there.” Students will be asked to look for the Spanish words in the text for their poetic value, such as in the rhyme “ni–a” “pi–a.” They will be asked to find out what is Mother’s life like since her return to the island? What does she write in her letters? What is the daughter’s life like? Is she happy? What is the daughter’s promise at the end of this poem? How does the poet convey humor and emotion? The student will be asked to think about the times they have been to Puerto Rico, who is left behind, perhaps grandparents, an aunt, an uncle, cousins? What is it like to go for a visit and then come back? How does this event make them feel? They will be asked to write a poem using Spanish and English, expressing some of the feelings that emerged during the discussion of this poem. The last poem that I am including in this unit need not be the last poem to be discussed in the school year. There are so many wonderful poets that I have discovered in the course of preparing this unit that I hope to be able to incorporate more in my teaching if the busy school calendar allows it. The poems chosen for this unit are a small sampling of the wide thematic and stylistic range of Spanish-American and Nuyorican poetry. Depriving the second generation Puerto Rican students of contact with these writers, will continue their social isolation and promote lack of self-esteem. They must not be deprived of their identity. Spanish-American voices should be integrated into the regular English curriculum. The canon must be also expanded in the middle grades. Copies of all the poems presented in this unit will be available at the Institute’s office. Lesson Plan 1 Poem: “Fr’o” (The Cold) by Tato Laviera. Poem will be read aloud by a student volunteer first, then by the teacher. In English: mph, penetrated, pores, mr. steam, embryo. In Spanish: asustos, (explain to the students that they will not find this word in the dictionary as it is spelled in this poem. It is probably a coloquial form of the verb “asustar” which means to frighten). Explain “personification.” This is a poem about poverty and alienation. What is the importance of the three Spanish words used in this poem? What does the verse “second birth called nothingness” refer to? What is the effect of the last three lines of the poem on the reader? Why are these lines set apart from the rest of the poem? Why is the heat called “mr. steam”? Should these two words have a capital letter? What unfair aspect of society does this poem talk about? Is there any humor at all? : Think about a time you were cold or hungry or upset, was it fair? Write a poem about this experience. If you write in English, use three key words in Spanish. Follow the structure of the poem “Frio.” Lesson Plan 2 Poem “Sustancia”(Nutshell) by Julio Marzán. Poem will be read aloud by a student volunteer first, then by the teacher. : portero, calle 85 y Park Avenue, dama, tiene razón. : Map of New York City. : What is this poem about? What does Sr. Rodriguez do for a living? Who is Sra. Mathews? What is the relationship between Sr. Rodriguez and Sra. Mathews? What is the tone of the poem? What is irony? Is there irony in this poem? How is social injustice shown in this poem? Is there a rhyme in this poem? How many lines does this poem have? How many words in each line? : Sometimes things are not what they appear to be. People are not aware that something is wrong in their life. Was Sr. Rodriguez really happy as a doorman? Write a poem imitating the style of “Sustancia.” Begin with “El se–or . . . es . . . ” Lesson Plan 3 Poem: “So much for Ma–ana” by Judith Ort’zCofer. In this poem the author creates an episode in the life of a mother and daughter separated by the return, after twenty years, of the mother to the lsland. The poem relates their correspondence which contains their impressions and feelings about each other. Poem will be read by a student volunteer first, then by the teacher. The vocabulary of this poem written in English, should not present any difficulties to the eight grade students. Pictures, posters, postcards and books about Puerto Rico. : What does the title of the poem mean? Why is the word “ma–ana” expressed in Spanish? Why did the Mother go back to the Island? Why do you think that the daughter stayed behind? What does mother do in the Island? What is Mother worried about? Find the Spanish words in the poem and explain their importance? Are there any metaphors? Is there a rhyme? What is the effect of the rhyme in this poem? What does the daughter promise at the end of the poem? Is there humor or sadness in this poem? : Think about a time you have been to Puerto Rico or to another place; what is it like to leave someone behind? Write a poem expressing your feelings about this event.

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This text is a comprehensive introduction to the vital subject of American government and politics. Governments decide who gets what, when, how (See Harold D. Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, How, [New York: McGraw-Hill, 1936]); they make policies and pass laws that are binding on all a society’s members; they decide about taxation and spending, benefits and costs, even life and death.Governments possess power—the ability to gain compliance and to get people under their jurisdiction to obey them—and they may exercise their power by using the police and military to enforce their decisions. However, power need not involve the exercise of force or compulsion; people often obey because they think it is in their interest to do so, they have no reason to disobey, or they fear punishment. Above all, people obey their government because it has authority; its power is seen by people as rightfully held, as legitimate. People can grant their government legitimacy because they have been socialized to do so; because there are processes, such as elections, that enable them to choose and change their rulers; and because they believe that their governing institutions operate justly.Politics is the process by which leaders are selected and policy decisions are made and executed. It involves people and groups, both inside and outside of government, engaged in deliberation and debate, disagreement and conflict, cooperation and consensus, and power struggles.In covering American government and politics, this text introduces the intricacies of the Constitution, the complexities of federalism, the meanings of civil liberties, and the conflicts over civil rights;explains how people are socialized to politics, acquire and express opinions, and participate in political life; describes interest groups, political parties, and elections—the intermediaries that link people to government and politics; details the branches of government and how they operate; and shows how policies are made and affect people’s lives. Business Communication for Success (BCS) provides a comprehensive, integrated approach to the study and application of written and oral business communication to serve both student and professor. Our writing is based on three premises. First, life sciences students are motivated by and respond well to actual data related to real life sciences problems. Second, the ultimate goal of calculus in the life sciences primarily involves modeling living systems with difference and differential equations. Understanding the concepts of derivative and integral are crucial, but the ability to compute a large array of derivatives and integrals is of secondary importance. Third, the depth of calculus for life sciences students should be comparable to that of the traditional physics and engineering calculus course; else life sciences students will be short changed and their faculty will advise them to take the 'best' (engineering) course. The Changing Story gives you assignments, resources, and examples to use in your teaching and learning. It will also help you think of ways digital stories can be used in your teaching, and help students harness the power of visual storytelling. College Success takes a fresh look at what it means, in today’s world, with today’s students, to be successful in college.Although many of the topics included—from study skills to personal health, from test-taking to managing time and money—will look familiar to those who have used student success texts that have been around for many editions, College Success takes a new approach. The focus is on realistic, practical tools for the students who need them. This is a book designed, frankly, for students who may have difficulty with traditional college texts. The style is direct and to the point. Information is presented concisely and as simply as possible. This is not a weighty tome that discusses student success—this is a manual for doing it.College student demographics have changed considerably in recent decades. More than a third of all students enroll not directly from high school but after a delay of some years. More students are working and have families. More students come from varied ethnic and cultural backgrounds. More students are the first in their family to attend college. More students have grown up with electronic media and now read and think in ways different from the previous generation. With these and so many other cultural changes, more students are not well prepared for a college education with the study skills and life skills they need to become successful students.For each student to get the most out of College Success and their college experience they must understand who they are as it relates to college. To that end, in every chapter students explore themselves, because success starts with recognizing your own strengths and weaknesses. Students make their own goals based on this self-assessment, determining what success in college really means for them as individuals. Interactive activities then help students learn the choices available to them and the possibilities for improving their skills. Skills are presented in step-by-step processes, tips for success in manageable highlighted displays. Most important, students always see the value of what they are reading—and how they can begin to apply it immediately in their own lives.College Success is intended for use in Freshmen Orientation, Study Skills or Student Success courses. A 2009 study revealed that currently nationwide, 34% of college freshmen do not return to their college for their sophomore year. This book is designed to help change that. Communication in the Real World: An Introduction to Communication Studies overviews the time-tested conceptual foundations of the field, while incorporating the latest research and cutting-edge applications of these basics. Each chapter will include timely, concrete, and real-life examples of communication concepts in action. A key feature of this book is the integration of content regarding diversity and organizational communication in each chapter through examples and/or discrete sub-sections. Discussions of diversity are not relegated to feature boxes. Also integrated into the content are examples that are inclusive in terms of race, gender, sexuality, ability, age, marital status, religion, and other diverse identity characteristics. Criminal Law uses a two-step process to augment learning, called the applied approach. First, after building a strong foundation from scratch, Criminal Law introduces you to crimes and defenses that have been broken down into separate components. It is so much easier to memorize and comprehend the subject matter when it is simplified this way. However, becoming proficient in the law takes more than just memorization. You must be trained to take the laws you have studied and apply them to various fact patterns. Most students are expected to do this automatically, but application must be seen, experienced, and practiced before it comes naturally. Thus the second step of the applied approach is reviewing examples of the application of law to facts after dissecting and analyzing each legal concept. Some of the examples come from cases, and some are purely fictional. All the examples are memorable, even quirky, so they will stick in your mind and be available when you need them the most (like during an exam). After a few chapters, you will notice that you no longer obsess over an explanation that doesn’t completely make sense the first time you read it—you will just skip to the example. The examples clarify the principles for you, lightening the workload significantly. The author's goals in writing Exploring Business were simple: (1) introduce students to business in an exciting way and (2) provide faculty with a fully developed teaching package that allows them to do the former. Toward those ends, the following features are included in this text:1- Integrated (Optional) Nike Case Study: A Nike case study is available for instructors who wish to introduce students to business using an exciting and integrated case. Through an in-depth study of a real company, students learn about the functional areas of business and how these areas fit together. Studying a dynamic organization on a real-time basis allows students to discover the challenges that it faces, and exposes them to critical issues affecting the business, such as globalization, ethics and social responsibility, product innovation, diversity, supply chain management, and e-business.2- A Progressive (Optional) Business Plan: Having students develop a business plan in the course introduces students to the excitement and challenges of starting a business and helps them discover how the functional areas of business interact. This textbook package includes an optionalintegrated business plan project modeled after one refined by the author and her teaching team over the past ten years.3- AACSB Emphasis: The text provides end-of-chapter questions, problems, and cases that ask students to do more than regurgitate information. Most require students to gather information, assess a situation, think about it critically, and reach a conclusion. Each chapter presents ten Questions and Problems as well as five cases on areas of skill and knowledge endorsed by AACSB: Learning on the Web, Career Opportunities, The Ethics Angle, Team-Building Skills, and The Global View. More than 70% of end-of-chapter items help students build skills in areas designated as critical by AACSB, including analytical skills, ethical awareness and reasoning abilities, multicultural understanding and globalization, use of information technology, and communications and team oriented skills. Each AACSB inspired exercise is identified by an AACSB tag and a note indicating the relevant skill area.4- Author-Written Instructor Manual (IM): For the past eleven years, Karen Collins has been developing, coordinating and teaching (to over 3,500 students) an Introduction to Business course. Sections of the course have been taught by a mix of permanent faculty, graduate students, and adjuncts. This book is suitable for an undergraduate or MBA level Financial Accounting course. The authors bring their collective teaching wisdom to bear in this book not by changing "the message"(financial accounting content), but by changing "the messenger" (the way the content is presented). The approach centers around utilizing the Socratic method, or simply put, asking and answering questions. The reason that this approach continues to be glorified after thousands of years is simple - it engages students and stresses understanding over memorization. So this text covers standard topics in a standard sequence, but does so through asking a carefully constructed series of questions along with their individual answers. Human Resource Management teaches HRM strategies and theories that any manager—not just those in HR—needs to know about recruiting, selecting, training, and compensating people. Most students will be managing people at some point in their careers and not necessarily in a human resource management capacity. As businesses cut back, they may outsource HR duties to outside vendors. Or, in smaller businesses, the HR department is sometimes small or non-existent, and managers from other departments have to perform their own HRM. Therefore, teaching HRM from the perspective of a general manager, in addition to an HR manager, provides more relevance to students' careers and will give them a competitive advantage in the workplace. This text also provides practical applications of theory relevant to today's workplace. You won't find discussions about “posting vacancies on a job board” or “sending memos.” In the real world, HRM leverages technology in every aspect of the job—from online training modules to technology for better managing flex-time workers and telecommuters. Consider how most companies have gone “paperless” with pay stubs by using software. While such technology has made HRM easier, it has also created a new set of challenges. For example, how does a manager actually implement a new pay system? Therefore, it's important for students to understand what kinds of platforms exist in today's workplace to enhance their effectiveness as future managers. The conversational style of Human Resource Management engages students, while the academic rigor of its content provides them with the tools that any manager needs—whether they work in HR or a different department. PLUS it offers an array of supplements that gives them practice creating real HR documents and role-playing real HR scenarios. Add value to your students' education, enhance the relevance of your curriculum, and make your students more employable by adopting this book for your HRM class. Read it now online today! Immigrant and Refugee Families: Global Perspectives on Displacement and Resettlement Experiences uses a family systems lens to discuss challenges and strengths of immigrant and refugee families in the United States. Chapters address immigration policy, human rights issues, economic stress, mental health and traumatic stress, domestic violence, substance abuse, family resilience, and methods of integration. The definitive text for the information search and evaluation process as practiced by news and strategic communication message producers. Currently used at the University of Minnesota School of Journalism and Mass Communication; JOUR 3004W/V, Information for Mass Communication. Information Systems: A Manager’s Guide to Harnessing Technology V1.2 is intended for use in undergraduate and/or graduate courses in Management Information Systems and Information Technology.Version 1.2 of John's book retains the same structure and theory of version 1.1, but refreshes key statistics, examples, and brings case material up to date (vital when covering firms that move as fast as Facebook, Google, and Netflix). Adopting version 1.2 guarantees your students will have the most current text on the market, drawing real and applicable lessons from material that will keep your class offerings current and accessible.One of BusinessWeek’s "Professors of the Year", John Gallaugher of Boston College, brings you a brand new Management Information Systems textbook that teaches students how he or she will experience IS from a Managers perspective first hand through interesting coverage and bleeding-edge cases.Get involved with John's community by visiting and subscribing to his blog, The Week In Geek, where courseware, technology and strategy intersect and joining his Ning IT Community site where you can get more resources to teach Information Systems.Shockingly, at a time when technology regularly appears on the cover of every major business publication, students find IS among the least appealing of management disciplines.The teaching approach in Information Systems: A Manager’s Guide to Harnessing Technology V 1.2 can change this. The text offers a proven approach that has garnered student praise, increased IS enrollment, and engaged students to think deeper and more practically about the space where business and technology meet. Every topic is related to specific business examples, so students gain an immediate appreciation of its importance. Rather than lead with technical topics, the book starts with strategic thinking, focusing on big-picture issues that have confounded experts but will engage students. And while chapters introduce concepts, cases on approachable, exciting firms across industries further challenge students to apply what they've learned, asking questions like:Why was NetFlix able to repel Blockbuster and WalMart? How did Harrah's Casino's become twice as profitable as comparably-sized Caesar's, enabling the former to acquire the latter? How does Spain's fashion giant Zara, a firm that shuns the sort of offshore manufacturing used by every other popular clothing chain, offer cheap fashions that fly off the shelves, all while achieving growth rates and profit margins that put Gap to shame? Why do technology markets often evolve into winner-take-all or winner take-most scenarios? And how can managers compete when these dynamics are present? Why is Google more profitable than Disney? How much is Facebook really worthThe Information Systems course and discipline have never seemed more relevant, more interesting, and more exciting. Gallaugher's textbook can help teachers make students understand why. This textbook introduces readers to the idea of cooperation and mutualism. Cooperatives and mutuals are participatory organizations in which members participate in control and governance, receive economic benefits through patronage refunds or net income, and become owners through equity. These mutual-benefit organizations exist alongside non-profit organizations and investor-benefit organizations through the global economy. When you teach Introduction to Psychology, do you find it difficult – much harder than teaching classes in statistics or research methods? Do you easily give a lecture on the sympathetic nervous system, a lecture on Piaget, and a lecture on social cognition, but struggle with linking these topics together for the student? Do you feel like you are presenting a laundry list of research findings rather than an integrated set of principles and knowledge? Have you wondered how to ensure your course is relevant to your students? If so, then you have something in common with Charles Stangor.Charles Stangor's Introduction to Psychology utilizes the dual theme of behavior and empiricism to make psychology relevant to intro students.Charles wrote this book to help students organize their thinking about psychology at a conceptual level. Five or ten years from now, he does not expect his students to remember the details of most of what he teaches them. However, he does hope that they will remember that psychology matters because it helps us understand behavior and that our knowledge of psychology is based on empirical study.This book is designed to facilitate these learning outcomes, and he has used three techniques to help focus students on behavior:Chapter Openers: Each chapter opens showcasing an interesting real world example of people who dealing with behavioral questions and who can use psychology to help them answer them. The opener is designed to draw the student into the chapter and create an interesting in learning about the topic.Psychology in Everyday Life: Each chapter contains one or two features designed to link the principles from the chapter to real-world applications in business, environment, health, law, learning, and other relevant domains. For instance, the application in Chapter 7 on Development, “What makes good parents” applies the concepts of parenting styles in a mini-handbook about parenting, and the application in Chapter 3 is about the difficulties that left-handed people face performing everyday tasks in a right-handed world.Research Foci: Introduction to Psychology emphasizes empiricism throughout, but without making it a distraction from the main story line. Each chapter presents two close-ups on research -- well articulated and specific examples of research within the content area, each including a summary of the hypotheses, methods, results, and interpretations. This feature provides a continuous thread that reminds students of the importance of empirical research. The research foci also emphasize the fact that findings are not always predictable ahead of time (dispelling the myth of hindsight bias), and also help students understand how research really works.Charles Stangor's focus on behavior and empiricism has produced, Introduction to Psychology, a text that is better organized, has fewer chapters, and is somewhat shorter than many of the leading books. When you teach Introduction to Psychology, do you find it difficult — much harder than teaching classes in statistics or research methods? Do you easily give a lecture on the sympathetic nervous system, a lecture on Piaget, and a lecture on social cognition, but struggle with linking these topics together for the student? Do you feel like you are presenting a laundry list of research findings rather than an integrated set of principles and knowledge? Have you wondered how to ensure your course is relevant to your students? Introduction to Psychology utilizes the dual theme of behavior and empiricism to make psychology relevant to intro students. The author wrote this book to help students organize their thinking about psychology at a conceptual level. Five or ten years from now, he does not expect his students to remember the details of most of what he teaches them. However, he does hope that they will remember that psychology matters because it helps us understand behavior and that our knowledge of psychology is based on empirical study. This is a derivative of INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY by a publisher who has requested that they and the original author not receive attribution, which was originally released and is used under CC BY-NC-SA. This work, unless otherwise expressly stated, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Linear Regression Using R: An Introduction to Data Modeling presents one of the fundamental data modeling techniques in an informal tutorial style. Learn how to predict system outputs from measured data using a detailed step-by-step process to develop, train, and test reliable regression models. Key modeling and programming concepts are intuitively described using the R programming language. All of the necessary resources are freely available online. This book is about how to read, use, and create maps. Our exploration of maps will be informed by a contextual understanding of how maps reflect the relationship between society and technology, and how mapping is an essential form of scientific and artistic inquiry. We will also explore how mapping is used to address a variety of societal issues, such as land use planning and political gerrymandering. You will gain insight into the technical underpinnings of mapping as a science approach, complement on-going interest and activities, or provide an applied focus for research or policy. Teaching the strategic management course can be a challenge for many professors. In most business schools, strategic management is a ŇcapstoneÓ course that requires students to draw on insights from various functional courses they have completed (such as marketing, finance, and accounting) in order to understand how top executives make the strategic decisions that drive whether organizations succeed or fail. Although students have taken these functional courses, many students have very little experience with major organizational choices. It is this inexperience that can undermine many studentsŐ engagement in the course. Organizational Behavior bridges the gap between theory and practice with a distinct "experiential" approach. On average, a worker in the USA will change jobs 10 times in 20 years. In order to succeed in this type of career situation, individuals need to be armed with the tools necessary to be life-long learners. To that end, this book is not be about giving students all the answers to every situation they may encounter when they start their first job or as they continue up the career ladder. Instead, this book gives students the vocabulary, framework, and critical thinking skills necessary to diagnose situations, ask tough questions, evaluate the answers received, and to act in an effective and ethical manner regardless of situational characteristics.

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Photo manipulation involves transforming or altering a photograph using various methods and techniques to achieve desired results. Some photo manipulations are considered skillful artwork while others are frowned upon as unethical practices, especially when used to deceive the public. Other examples include being used for political propaganda, or to make a product or person look better, or simply for entertainment purposes or harmless pranks. Depending on the application and intent, some photo manipulations are considered an art form because it involves the creation of unique images and in some instances, signature expressions of art by photographic artists. For example, Ansel Adams employed some of the more common manipulations using darkroom exposure techniques, burning (darkening) and dodging (lightening) a photograph. Other examples of photo manipulation include retouching photographs using ink or paint, airbrushing, double exposure, piecing photos or negatives together in the darkroom, scratching instant films, or through the use of software-based manipulation tools applied to digital images. There are a number of software applications available for digital image manipulation, ranging from professional applications to very basic imaging software for casual users. Photo manipulation dates back to some of the earliest photographs captured on glass and tin plates during the 19th century. The practice began not long after the creation of the first photograph (1825) by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce who developed heliography and made the first photographic print from a photoengraved printing plate. Traditional photographic prints can be altered using various methods and techniques that involve manipulation directly to the print, such as retouching with ink, paint, airbrushing, or scratching Polaroids during developing (Polaroid art). Negatives can be manipulated while still in the camera using double-exposure techniques, or in the darkroom by piecing photos or negatives together. Some darkroom manipulations involved techniques such as bleaching to artfully lighten or totally wash-out parts of the photograph, or hand coloring for aesthetic purposes or to mimic a fine art painting. In the early 19th century, photography and the technology that made it possible were rather crude and cumbersome. While the equipment and technology progressed over time, it was not until the late 20th century that photography evolved into the digital realm. At the onset, digital photography was considered by some to be a radical new approach and was initially rejected by photographers because of its substandard quality. The transition from film to digital has been an ongoing process although great strides were made in the early 21st century as a result of innovation that has greatly improved digital image quality while reducing the bulk and weight of cameras and equipment. An early example of tampering was in the early 1860s, when a photo was altered using the body from a portrait of John C. Calhoun and the head of Lincoln from a famous seated portrait by Mathew Brady – the same portrait which was the basis for the original Lincoln five-dollar bill. Another is exampled in the Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Online Catalogue wherein it exposes a manipulated American Civil War photograph of General Ulysses S. Grant posing horseback in front of his troops at City Point, Virginia. Close observation of the photograph raises questions and brings to light certain details in the photograph that simply do not add up. For example, Grant's head is set at a strange angle to his body, his uniform is of a different time period, and his favorite horse Cincinnati did not have a left hind sock like the horse in the photograph, although his other horse Egypt did have a sock but on a different foot. With further research, three different photographs were discovered that explained the composite using Grant's head from one photograph, the body of Major General Alexander McDowell McCook atop his horse from another photograph, and for the background, a 1864 photograph of Confederate prisoners captured at the Battle of Fisher's Hill. Queen Victoria herself once scratched out her own face on the negative of a family picture made in 1852, as she found herself 'horrid' looking. After this picture, she became more aware of how she looks in pictures and made sure to look a certain way. In the 20th century, digital retouching became available with Quantel computers running Paintbox in professional environments, which, alongside other contemporary packages, were effectively replaced in the market by Adobe Photoshop and other editing software for graphic imaging. Political and ethical issues Photo manipulation has been used to deceive or persuade viewers or improve storytelling and self-expression. Often even subtle and discreet changes can have a profound impact on how we interpret or judge a photograph, making it all the more important to know when or if manipulation has occurred. As early as the American Civil War, photographs were published as engravings based on more than one negative. In 1860 a photograph of the politician John Calhoun was manipulated and his body was used in another photograph with the head of the president of the United States, Abraham Lincoln. This photo credits itself as the first manipulated photo. Joseph Stalin made use of photo retouching for propaganda purposes. On May 5, 1920 his predecessor Vladimir Lenin held a speech for Soviet troops that Leon Trotsky attended. Stalin had Trotsky retouched[when?] out of a photograph showing Trotsky in attendance. In a well known case of damnatio memoriae ("condemnation of memory") image manipulation, NKVD leader Nikolai Yezhov, after his execution in 1940, was removed from an official press photo where he was pictured with Stalin, historians subsequently nicknaming him the "Vanishing Commissar"). Such censorship of images in the Soviet Union was common. The pioneer among journalists distorting photographic images for news value was Bernarr Macfadden: in the mid-1920s, his "composograph" process involved reenacting real news events with costumed body doubles and then photographing the dramatized scenes—then pasting faces of the real news-personalities (gathered from unrelated photos) onto his staged images. In the 1930s, artist John Heartfield used a type of photo manipulation known as the photomontage to critique Nazi propaganda. Some ethical theories have been applied to image manipulation. During a panel on the topic of ethics in image manipulation Aude Oliva theorized that categorical shifts are necessary in order for an edited image to be viewed as a manipulation. In Image Act Theory, Carson Reynolds extended speech act theory by applying it to photo editing and image manipulations. In "How to Do Things with Pictures", William J. Mitchell details the long history of photo manipulation and discusses it critically. Use in journalism A notable incident of controversial photo manipulation occurred over a photograph that was altered to fit the vertical orientation of a 1982 National Geographic magazine cover. The altered image made two Egyptian pyramids appear closer together than they actually were in the original photograph. The incident triggered a debate about the appropriateness of falsifying an image, and raised questions regarding the magazine's credibility. Shortly after the incident, Tom Kennedy, director of photography for National Geographic stated, "We no longer use that technology to manipulate elements in a photo simply to achieve a more compelling graphic effect. We regarded that afterwards as a mistake, and we wouldn’t repeat that mistake today." There are other incidents of questionable photo manipulation in journalism. One such incident arose in early 2005 after Martha Stewart was released from prison. Newsweek used a photograph of Stewart's face on the body of a much slimmer woman for their cover, suggesting that Stewart had lost weight while in prison. Speaking about the incident in an interview, Lynn Staley, assistant managing editor at Newsweek said, "The piece that we commissioned was intended to show Martha as she would be, not necessarily as she is." Staley also explained that Newsweek disclosed on page 3 that the cover image of Martha Stewart was a composite. Image manipulation software has affected the level of trust many viewers once had in the aphorism, the camera never lies. Images may be manipulated for fun, aesthetic reasons, or to improve the appearance of a subject but not all image manipulation is innocuous as evidenced by the Kerry Fonda 2004 election photo controversy. The image in question was a fraudulent composite image of John Kerry taken on June 13, 1971 and Jane Fonda taken in August, 1972 sharing the same platform at a 1971 antiwar rally; the latter of which carried a fake Associated Press credit with the intent to change the public's perspective of reality. There is a growing body of writings devoted to the ethical use of digital editing in photojournalism. In the United States, for example, the National Press Photographers Association (NPPA) established a Code of Ethics which promotes the accuracy of published images, advising that photographers "do not manipulate images [...] that can mislead viewers or misrepresent subjects." Infringements of the Code are taken very seriously, especially regarding digital alteration of published photographs, as evidenced by a case in which Pulitzer prize-nominated photographer Allan Detrich resigned his post following the revelation that a number of his photographs had been manipulated. In 2010, a Ukrainian photographer Stepan Rudik, winner of the 3rd prize story in Sports Features, has been disqualified due to violation of the rules of the World Press Photo contest. "After requesting RAW-files of the series from him, it became clear that an element had been removed from one of the original photographs." As of 2015, up to 20% of World Press Photo entries that made it to the penultimate round of the contest were disqualified after they were found to have been manipulated or post-processed with rules violations. Use in fashion The photo manipulation industry has often been accused of promoting or inciting a distorted and unrealistic image of self; most specifically in younger people. The world of glamour photography is one specific industry which has been heavily involved with the use of photo manipulation (what many consider to be a concerning element as many people look up to celebrities in search of embodying the 'ideal figure'). Manipulation of a photo to alter a model's appearance can be used to change features such as skin complexion, hair color, body shape, and other features. Many of the alterations to skin involve removing blemishes through the use of the healing tool in Photoshop. Photo editors may also alter the color of hair to remove roots or add shine. Additionally, the model's teeth and eyes may be made to look whiter than they are in reality. Make up and piercings can even be edited into pictures to look as though the model was wearing them when the photo was taken. Through photo editing, the appearance of a model may be drastically changed to mask imperfections. In an article entitled, Confessions of a Retoucher: how the modeling industry is harming women, a professional retoucher who has worked for mega-fashion brands shares the industry's secrets. Along with fixing imperfections like skin wrinkles and smoothing features, the size of the model is manipulated by either adding or subtracting visible weight. Reverse retouching is just as common as making models skinnier, “distorting the bodies of very thin models to make them appear more robust in a process called reverse retouching. It is almost worse than making someone slimmer because the image claims you can be at an unhealthy weight but still look healthy. In reality, you can't, you have to Photoshop it". Reverse retouching includes eliminating shadows from protruding bones, adding flesh over body parts, color correcting, and removing hair generated for warmth from extreme weight loss. Professionals are saying that if an image is not labeled "not retouched," then the public can assume that photograph has been modified. As the fashion industry continues to use photos that have been manipulated to idealize body types, there is a need for education about how unreal and unhealthy these images are and the negative implications they are promoting. A photoshop expert, who edited and altered a lot of images for the fashion industry and wants to remain private, says it's normal to photoshop a model thinner and it doesn't matter how thick or thin the model is. They usually edit away up to 10 kilo's. But in the past 20 years, the practice has changed as more celebrities are on social media and the public is now used to how they look. You can't alter their bodies or faces too much as the public will notice that. The retoucher notes that the industry is made for making a lot of dollars in advertising and that the unrealistic ideals cycle will continue as they have to maintain this. Since 2012, Seventeen Magazine announced they will no longer manipulate photos of their models. 14 year old Julia Bluhm petitioned that the magazine use a minimum of one, unaltered photo in their spread. The petition received over 84,000 signatures. Not only are photos being manipulated by professionals for the media, but also with the rise of social media everyone has easy access to edit photos they post online. Countless apps such as Facetune have been created to allow smartphone user tools to modify personal images. These apps allow people to edit virtually every aspect in the photo focusing on the face and body represented. With social media users and the younger generation being exposed to an extreme amount of imagery that has been manipulated the consequences have a negative impact as body ideals are unachievable. Social media has the opportunity to be used as a platform for promoting healthy body image and unedited photos; the need for approval over social media has to be altered in the near future. Photo manipulation has been used in advertisement for Tv commercials and magazines to make their products or the person look better and more appealing than how they look in reality. Some tricks that are used with photo manipulation for advertising are: fake grill marks with eye-liner, using white glue instead of milk, or using deodorant to make vegetables look glossy. Photo manipulation has triggered negative responses from both viewers and celebrities. This has led to celebrities refusing to have their photos retouched in support of the American Medical Association that has decided that "[we] must stop exposing impressionable children and teenagers to advertisements portraying models with body types only attainable with the help of photo editing software" These include Keira Knightley, Brad Pitt, Andy Roddick, Jessica Simpson, Lady Gaga and Zendaya. Brad Pitt had a photographer, Chuck Close, take photos of him that emphasized all of his flaws. Chuck Close is known for his photos that emphasize all skin flaws of an individual. Pitt did so in an effort to speak out against media using photoshop and manipulating celebrities’ photos in an attempt to hide their flaws. Kate Winslet spoke out against photo manipulation in media after GQ magazine altered her body, making it look unnaturally thin. And 42-year-old Cate Blanchett appeared on the cover of Intelligent Life's 2012 March/April issue, makeup-free and without digital retouching for the first time. In April 2010, Britney Spears agreed to release "un-airbrushed images of herself next to the digitally altered ones". The fundamental motive behind her move was to "highlight the pressure exerted on women to look perfect". In 2014, Hungarian pop vocalist and songwriter Boggie produced two music videos that achieved global attention for its stance on whitewashing in the beauty industry: the #1 MAHASZ chart hit "Parfüm" (Hungarian version) and "Nouveau Parfum" (French version) from her self-titled album Boggie, which reached two Billboard charts (#3 Jazz Album, #17 World Music Album).[circular reference] In the videos, the artist is shown singing as she is extensively retouched in real-time, ending with a side-by-side comparison of her natural and manipulated images as the song fades out. Multiple companies have begun taking the initiative to speak out against the use of photo manipulation when advertising their products. Two companies that have done so include Dove and Aerie. Dove created the Dove Self-Esteem Fund and also the Dove Campaign for Real Beauty as a way to try to help build confidence in young women. They want to emphasize what is known as real beauty, or untouched photographs, in the media now. Also, Aerie has started their campaign #AerieREAL. They have a line of undergarments now that goes by that name with the intention of them being for everyone. Also, their advertisements state that the model has not been retouched in any way. They also add in their advertisements that "The real you is sexy." Also, the American Medical Association has taken a stand against the use of photo manipulation. Dr. McAneny made a statement that altering models to such extremes creates unrealistic expectations in children and teenagers regarding body image. He also said that we should stop altering the models so they are not exposed to body types that can be attained only through the use of editing the photos. The American Medical Associations as a whole adopted a policy to work with advertisers to work on setting up guidelines for advertisements to try to limit how much photoshop is used. The goal of this policy is to limit the amount of unrealistic expectations for body image in advertisement. Governments are exerting pressure on advertisers, and are starting to ban photos that are too airbrushed and edited. In the United Kingdom the Advertising Standards Authority has banned an advertisement by Lancôme featuring Julia Roberts for being misleading, stating that the flawless skin seen in the photo was too good to be true. The US is also moving in the direction of banning excessive photo manipulation where a CoverGirl model's ad was banned because it had exaggerated effects, leading to a misleading representation of the product. In 2015, France proceeded to pass a law that battles against the use of unrealistic body images and anorexia in the fashion industry. This includes modeling and photography. The models now have to show they are healthy and have a BMI of over 18 through a note from their doctor. Employers who don't attain to this law will be fined and can serve a jail sentence up to 6 months. When a creator of a photograph does not disclose that the picture is edited or retouched, no matter how small the edit, they also can get a fine or 30% of the costs of what they used to create their ad. Some editors of magazine companies do not view manipulating their cover models as an issue. In an interview with the editor of the French magazine Marie Claire, she stated that their readers are not idiots and that they can tell when a model has been retouched. Also, some who support photo manipulation in the media state that the altered photographs are not the issue, but that it is the expectations that viewers have that they fail to meet, such as wanting to have the same body as a celebrity on the cover of their favorite magazine. Surveys have been done to see how photo manipulation affects society and to see what society thinks of it. One survey was done by a fashion store in the United Kingdom, New Look, and it showed that 90% of the individuals surveyed would prefer seeing a wider variety of body shapes in media. This would involve them wanting to see cover models that are not all thin, but some with more curves than others. The survey also talked about how readers view the use of photo manipulation. One statistic stated that 15% of the readers believed that the cover images are accurate depictions of the model in reality. Also, they found that 33% of women who were surveyed are aiming for a body that is impossible for them to attain. Dove and People Weekly also did a survey to see how photo manipulation affects the self-esteem of females. In doing this, they found that 80% of the women surveyed felt insecure when seeing photos of celebrities in the media. Of the women surveyed who had lower self-esteem, 70% of them do not believe that their appearance is pretty or stylish enough in comparison to cover models. Social and cultural implications The growing popularity of image manipulation has raised concern as to whether it allows for unrealistic images to be portrayed to the public. In her article "On Photography" (1977), Susan Sontag discusses the objectivity, or lack thereof, in photography, concluding that "photographs, which fiddle with the scale of the world, themselves get reduced, blown up, cropped, retouched, doctored and tricked out". A practice widely used in the magazine industry, the use of photo manipulation on an already subjective photograph, creates a constructed reality for the individual and it can become difficult to differentiate fact from fiction. With the potential to alter body image, debate continues as to whether manipulated images, particularly those in magazines, contribute to self-esteem issues in both men and women. In today's world, photo manipulation has a positive impact by developing the creativity of one's mind or maybe a negative one by removing the art and beauty of capturing something so magnificent and natural or the way it should be. According to The Huffington Post, "Photoshopping and airbrushing, many believe, are now an inherent part of the beauty industry, as are makeup, lighting and styling". In a way, these image alterations are "selling" actual people to the masses to affect responses, reactions, and emotions toward these cultural icons. This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (November 2020) A digital fake refers to a digital video, photo, or audio file that has been altered or manipulated by digital application software. Deepfake videos fall within the category of a digital fake media, but video may be digitally altered without being considered a deepfake. The alterations can be done for entertainment purposes, or more nefarious purposes such as spreading disinformation. The information can be used to conduct malicious attacks, political gains, financial crime, or fraud. It can also be used in pornographic style videos, where an individual's face is placed on the body of a porn star. "Photoshop" as a verb The terms "photoshop", "photoshopped" and "photoshopping", derived from Adobe Photoshop, are ubiquitous and widely used colloquially and academically when referencing image editing software as it relates to digital manipulation and alteration of photographs. The term commonly refers to digital editing of photographs regardless of which software program is used. Trademark owner Adobe Inc. objected to what it referred to as misuse of their trademarked software, and considered it an infringement on their trademark to use terms such as "photoshopped" or "photoshopping" as a noun or verb, in possessive form or as a slang term. However, Adobe's attempts to prevent "genericization" or "genericide" of the company's trademark failed. Separately, the Free Software Foundation advises against using "photoshop" as a verb because Adobe Photoshop is proprietary software. In popular culture, the term photoshopping is sometimes associated with montages in the form of visual jokes, such as those published on Fark and in Mad magazine. Images may be propagated memetically via e-mail as humor or passed as actual news in a form of hoax. An example of the latter category is "Helicopter Shark", which was widely circulated as a so-called "National Geographic Photo of the Year" and was later revealed to be a hoax. - Derivative work - Digital photograph restoration - Error level analysis - 2006 Lebanon War photographs controversies - Whitewashing (beauty) - Cottingley Fairies - Digital art - Kerry Fonda 2004 election photo controversy - Pascal Dangin - Photoshop contest - Scientific misconduct#Photo manipulation - Source criticism - Straight photography - SurfSafe, Web browser extension intended to spot images identified as altered - Tobacco bowdlerization - Truth claim (photography) - Visual arts - Jack Dziamba (February 27, 2013). "Ansel Adams, and Photography Before Photoshop". - Mia Fineman (November 29, 2012). "Artbeat". PBS Newshour (Interview). Interviewed by Tom Legro. South Florida: WPBT2. Retrieved January 30, 2016. - "World's oldest photo sold to library". BBC News. March 21, 2002. Retrieved November 17, 2011. 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The New York Times Company. - Kitchin, Rob (2011). "6". Code/Space: Software and Everyday Life. The MIT Press. p. 120. ISBN 978-0-262-04248-2. - "NPPA Code of Ethics". National Press Photographers Association. January 28, 2017. - Lang, Daryl (April 15, 2007). "Blade Editor: Detrich Submitted 79 Altered Photos This Year". Photo District News. - "Announcement of disqualification". World Press Photo. Retrieved January 22, 2016. - "World Press Photo Organizer: 20% of Finalists Disqualified". TIME.com. Retrieved January 22, 2016. - "What counts as manipulation?". World Press Photo. Retrieved January 22, 2016. - Metzmacher, Dirk. "Smashing Magazine." Smashing Magazine. N.p., n.d. Web. April 16, 2014. - Cage, Carolyn (October 6, 2017). "Confessions of a retoucher: how the modelling industry is harming women". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved October 30, 2018. - "Here's how retouched photos impact our mental health". Business Insider. 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Peachpit Press. August 15, 2005. ISBN 978-0-321-33658-3. - Rodriguez, Edward (2008). Computer Graphic Artist. Netlibrary. p. 163. ISBN 978-81-89940-42-3. The term photoshopping is a neologism, meaning "editing an image", regardless of the program used. - Geelan, David (2006). Undead Theories: Constructivism, Eclecticism And Research in Education. Sense Publisher. p. 146. ISBN 90-77874-31-3. And with digital photography, there is also the possibility of photoshopping – digitally editing the representation to make it more aesthetically pleasing, or to change decisions about framing. - Laurence M. Deutsch (2001). Medical Records for Attorneys. ALI-ABA. ISBN 9780831808174. - "Use Of The Photoshop Trademark" (PDF) (Press release). Adobe Systems Incorporated. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 9, 2015. - Katharine Trendacosta (August 26, 2015). "Here Is Adobe's Attempt to Stop People From Using the Term "Photoshop" All Willy-Nilly". Gawker Media. Retrieved February 2, 2016. - John Dwight Ingram (2004). "The Genericide of Trademarks" (PDF). Buffalo Intellectual Property Law Journal. State University of New York. 2 (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 2, 2017. Retrieved February 2, 2016. - Stallman, Richard (April 21, 2018). "Words to Avoid (or Use with Care) Because They Are Loaded or Confusing: 'Photoshop'". GNU Project. Free Software Foundation. Archived from the original on May 28, 2018. Retrieved May 28, 2018. Please avoid using the term 'photoshop' as a verb, meaning any kind of photo manipulation or image editing in general. Photoshop is just the name of one particular image editing program, which should be avoided since it is proprietary. There are plenty of free programs for editing images, such as the GIMP [link in original]. - Jenn Shreve (November 19, 2001). "Photoshop: It's All the Rage". Wired Magazine. - Corrie Pikul (July 1, 2004). "The Photoshopping of the President". Salon.com Arts & Entertainment. Archived from the original on March 10, 2008. - Danielson, Stentor; Braun, David (March 8, 2005). "Shark "Photo of the Year" Is E-Mail Hoax". National Geographic News. Retrieved May 20, 2006. - ABC News (January 4, 2013). "Pelosi Defends Altered Photo of Congresswomen". Retrieved January 4, 2013. - Washington Post (January 4, 2013). "House Democratic leader Nancy Pelosi defends altered photo of women House members". Retrieved January 4, 2013. - Salon.com (January 4, 2013). "Pelosi defends altered photo of congresswomen". Retrieved January 4, 2013. - Huffington Post (January 4, 2013). "Nancy Pelosi Defends Altered Photo Of Congresswomen (PHOTO)". Archived from the original on January 7, 2013. Retrieved January 4, 2013. - WSET News (ABC TV-13) (January 4, 2013). "Pelosi defends altered photo of congresswomen". Retrieved January 4, 2013.[permanent dead link] |Look up photoshop in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.| |Wikimedia Commons has media related to Photo manipulation.|

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Need to analyze The Scarlet Letter or To Kill a Mockingbird for English class, but fumbling for the right vocabulary and concepts for literary devices? You've come to the right place. To successfully interpret and analyze literary texts, you'll first need to have a solid foundation in literary terms and their definitions. In this article, we'll help you get familiar with most commonly used literary devices in prose and poetry. We'll give you a clear definition of each of the terms we discuss along with examples of literary elements and the context in which they most often appear (comedic writing, drama, or other). Before we get to the list of literary devices, however, we have a quick refresher on what literary devices are and how understanding them will help you analyze works of literature. What Are Literary Devices and Why Should You Know Them? Literary devices are techniques that writers use to create a special and pointed effect in their writing, to convey information, or to help readers understand their writing on a deeper level. Often, literary devices are used in writing for emphasis or clarity. Authors will also use literary devices to get readers to connect more strongly with either a story as a whole or specific characters or themes. So why is it important to know different literary devices and terms? Aside from helping you get good grades on your literary analysis homework, there are several benefits to knowing the techniques authors commonly use. Being able to identify when different literary techniques are being used helps you understand the motivation behind the author's choices. For example, being able to identify symbols in a story can help you figure out why the author might have chosen to insert these focal points and what these might suggest in regard to her attitude toward certain characters, plot points, and events. In addition, being able to identify literary devices can make a written work's overall meaning or purpose clearer to you. For instance, let's say you're planning to read (or re-read) The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe by C.S. Lewis. By knowing that this particular book is a religious allegory with references to Christ (represented by the character Aslan) and Judas (represented by Edmund), it will be clearer to you why Lewis uses certain language to describe certain characters and why certain events happen the way they do. Finally, literary techniques are important to know because they make texts more interesting and more fun to read. If you were to read a novel without knowing any literary devices, chances are you wouldn't be able to detect many of the layers of meaning interwoven into the story via different techniques. Now that we've gone over why you should spend some time learning literary devices, let's take a look at some of the most important literary elements to know. List of Literary Devices: 31 Literary Terms You Should Know Below is a list of literary devices, most of which you'll often come across in both prose and poetry. We explain what each literary term is and give you an example of how it's used. This literary elements list is arranged in alphabetical order. An allegory is a story that is used to represent a more general message about real-life (historical) issues and/or events. It is typically an entire book, novel, play, etc. Example: George Orwell's dystopian book Animal Farm is an allegory for the events preceding the Russian Revolution and the Stalinist era in early 20th century Russia. In the story, animals on a farm practice animalism, which is essentially communism. Many characters correspond to actual historical figures: Old Major represents both the founder of communism Karl Marx and the Russian communist leader Vladimir Lenin; the farmer, Mr. Jones, is the Russian Czar; the boar Napoleon stands for Joseph Stalin; and the pig Snowball represents Leon Trotsky. Alliteration is a series of words or phrases that all (or almost all) start with the same sound. These sounds are typically consonants to give more stress to that syllable. You'll often come across alliteration in poetry, titles of books and poems (Jane Austen is a fan of this device, for example—just look at Pride and Prejudice and Sense and Sensibility), and tongue twisters. Example: "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers." In this tongue twister, the "p" sound is repeated at the beginning of all major words. Allusion is when an author makes an indirect reference to a figure, place, event, or idea originating from outside the text. Many allusions make reference to previous works of literature or art. Example: "Stop acting so smart—it's not like you're Einstein or something." This is an allusion to the famous real-life theoretical physicist Albert Einstein. An anachronism occurs when there is an (intentional) error in the chronology or timeline of a text. This could be a character who appears in a different time period than when he actually lived, or a technology that appears before it was invented. Anachronisms are often used for comedic effect. Example: A Renaissance king who says, "That's dope, dude!" would be an anachronism, since this type of language is very modern and not actually from the Renaissance period. Anaphora is when a word or phrase is repeated at the beginning of multiple sentences throughout a piece of writing. It's used to emphasize the repeated phrase and evoke strong feelings in the audience. Example: A famous example of anaphora is Winston Churchill's "We Shall Fight on the Beaches" speech. Throughout this speech, he repeats the phrase "we shall fight" while listing numerous places where the British army will continue battling during WWII. He did this to rally both troops and the British people and to give them confidence that they would still win the war. An anthropomorphism occurs when something nonhuman, such as an animal, place, or inanimate object, behaves in a human-like way. Example: Children's cartoons have many examples of anthropomorphism. For example, Mickey and Minnie Mouse can speak, wear clothes, sing, dance, drive cars, etc. Real mice can't do any of these things, but the two mouse characters behave much more like humans than mice. Asyndeton is when the writer leaves out conjunctions (such as "and," "or," "but," and "for") in a group of words or phrases so that the meaning of the phrase or sentence is emphasized. It is often used for speeches since sentences containing asyndeton can have a powerful, memorable rhythm. Example: Abraham Lincoln ends the Gettysburg Address with the phrase "...and that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the Earth." By leaving out certain conjunctions, he ends the speech on a more powerful, melodic note. Colloquialism is the use of informal language and slang. It's often used by authors to lend a sense of realism to their characters and dialogue. Forms of colloquialism include words, phrases, and contractions that aren't real words (such as "gonna" and "ain't"). Example: "Hey, what's up, man?" This piece of dialogue is an example of a colloquialism, since it uses common everyday words and phrases, namely "what's up" and "man." An epigraph is when an author inserts a famous quotation, poem, song, or other short passage or text at the beginning of a larger text (e.g., a book, chapter, etc.). An epigraph is typically written by a different writer (with credit given) and used as a way to introduce overarching themes or messages in the work. Some pieces of literature, such as Herman Melville's 1851 novel Moby-Dick, incorporate multiple epigraphs throughout. Example: At the beginning of Ernest Hemingway's book The Sun Also Rises is an epigraph that consists of a quotation from poet Gertrude Stein, which reads, "You are all a lost generation," and a passage from the Bible. Epistrophe is similar to anaphora, but in this case, the repeated word or phrase appears at the end of successive statements. Like anaphora, it is used to evoke an emotional response from the audience. Example: In Lyndon B. Johnson's speech, "The American Promise," he repeats the word "problem" in a use of epistrophe: "There is no Negro problem. There is no Southern problem. There is no Northern problem. There is only an American problem." Hemingway, deep in thought about what quotation to choose for his epigraph. A euphemism is when a more mild or indirect word or expression is used in place of another word or phrase that is considered harsh, blunt, vulgar, or unpleasant. Example: "I'm so sorry, but he didn't make it." The phrase "didn't make it" is a more polite and less blunt way of saying that someone has died. A flashback is an interruption in a narrative that depicts events that have already occurred, either before the present time or before the time at which the narration takes place. This device is often used to give the reader more background information and details about specific characters, events, plot points, and so on. Example: Most of the novel Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë is a flashback from the point of view of the housekeeper, Nelly Dean, as she engages in a conversation with a visitor named Lockwood. In this story, Nelly narrates Catherine Earnshaw's and Heathcliff's childhoods, the pair's budding romance, and their tragic demise. Foreshadowing is when an author indirectly hints at—through things such as dialogue, description, or characters' actions—what's to come later on in the story. This device is often used to introduce tension to a narrative. Example: Say you're reading a fictionalized account of Amelia Earhart. Before she embarks on her (what we know to be unfortunate) plane ride, a friend says to her, "Be safe. Wouldn't want you getting lost—or worse." This line would be an example of foreshadowing because it implies that something bad ("or worse") will happen to Earhart. Hyperbole is an exaggerated statement that's not meant to be taken literally by the reader. It is often used for comedic effect and/or emphasis. Example: "I'm so hungry I could eat a horse." The speaker will not literally eat an entire horse (and most likely couldn't), but this hyperbole emphasizes how starved the speaker feels. Imagery is when an author describes a scene, thing, or idea so that it appeals to our senses (taste, smell, sight, touch, or hearing). This device is often used to help the reader clearly visualize parts of the story by creating a strong mental picture. Example: Here's an example of imagery taken from William Wordsworth's famous poem "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud": When all at once I saw a crowd, A host of golden Daffodils; Beside the Lake, beneath the trees, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze. Irony is when a statement is used to express an opposite meaning than the one literally expressed by it. There are three types of irony in literature: - Verbal irony: When someone says something but means the opposite (similar to sarcasm). - Situational irony: When something happens that's the opposite of what was expected or intended to happen. - Dramatic irony: When the audience is aware of the true intentions or outcomes, while the characters are not. As a result, certain actions and/or events take on different meanings for the audience than they do for the characters involved. - Verbal irony: One example of this type of irony can be found in Edgar Allan Poe's "The Cask of Amontillado." In this short story, a man named Montresor plans to get revenge on another man named Fortunato. As they toast, Montresor says, "And I, Fortunato—I drink to your long life." This statement is ironic because we the readers already know by this point that Montresor plans to kill Fortunato. - Situational irony: A girl wakes up late for school and quickly rushes to get there. As soon as she arrives, though, she realizes that it's Saturday and there is no school. - Dramatic irony: In William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, Romeo commits suicide in order to be with Juliet; however, the audience (unlike poor Romeo) knows that Juliet is not actually dead—just asleep. Poe was a fan of irony—and ravens. Juxtaposition is the comparing and contrasting of two or more different (usually opposite) ideas, characters, objects, etc. This literary device is often used to help create a clearer picture of the characteristics of one object or idea by comparing it with those of another. Example: One of the most famous literary examples of juxtaposition is the opening passage from Charles Dickens' novel A Tale of Two Cities: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair …" Malapropism happens when an incorrect word is used in place of a word that has a similar sound. This misuse of the word typically results in a statement that is both nonsensical and humorous; as a result, this device is commonly used in comedic writing. Example: "I just can't wait to dance the flamingo!" Here, a character has accidentally called the flamenco (a type of dance) the flamingo (an animal). Metaphors are when ideas, actions, or objects are described in non-literal terms. In short, it's when an author compares one thing to another. The two things being described usually share something in common but are unalike in all other respects. A simile is a type of metaphor in which an object, idea, character, action, etc., is compared to another thing using the words "as" or "like." Both metaphors and similes are often used in writing for clarity or emphasis. "What light through yonder window breaks? It is the east, and Juliet is the sun." In this line from Romeo and Juliet, Romeo compares Juliet to the sun. However, because Romeo doesn't use the words "as" or "like," it is not a simile—just a metaphor. "She is as vicious as a lion." Since this statement uses the word "as" to make a comparison between "she" and "a lion," it is a simile. A metonym is when a related word or phrase is substituted for the actual thing to which it's referring. This device is usually used for poetic or rhetorical effect. Example: "The pen is mightier than the sword." This statement, which was coined by Edward Bulwer-Lytton in 1839, contains two examples of metonymy: "the pen" refers to "the written word," and "the sword" refers to "military force/violence." Mood is the general feeling the writer wants the audience to have. The writer can achieve this through description, setting, dialogue, and word choice. Example: Here's a passage from J.R.R. Tolkien's The Hobbit: "It had a perfectly round door like a porthole, painted green, with a shiny yellow brass knob in the exact middle. The door opened on to a tube-shaped hall like a tunnel: a very comfortable tunnel without smoke, with panelled walls, and floors tiled and carpeted, provided with polished chairs, and lots and lots of pegs for hats and coats -- the hobbit was fond of visitors." In this passage, Tolkien uses detailed description to set create a cozy, comforting mood. From the writing, you can see that the hobbit's home is well-cared for and designed to provide comfort. Onomatopoeia is a word (or group of words) that represents a sound and actually resembles or imitates the sound it stands for. It is often used for dramatic, realistic, or poetic effect. Examples: Buzz, boom, chirp, creak, sizzle, zoom, etc. An oxymoron is a combination of two words that, together, express a contradictory meaning. This device is often used for emphasis, for humor, to create tension, or to illustrate a paradox (see next entry for more information on paradoxes). Examples: Deafening silence, organized chaos, cruelly kind, insanely logical, etc. The Penrose stairs = a classic example of a paradox. Are they going up or down?! A paradox is a statement that appears illogical or self-contradictory but, upon investigation, might actually be true or plausible. Note that a paradox is different from an oxymoron: a paradox is an entire phrase or sentence, whereas an oxymoron is a combination of just two words. Example: Here's a famous paradoxical sentence: "This statement is false." If the statement is true, then it isn't actually false (as it suggests). But if it's false, then the statement is true! Thus, this statement is a paradox because it is both true and false at the same time. Personification is when a nonhuman figure or other abstract concept or element is described as having human-like qualities or characteristics. (Unlike anthropomorphism where non-human figures become human-like characters, with personification, the object/figure is simply described as being human-like.) Personification is used to help the reader create a clearer mental picture of the scene or object being described. Example: "The wind moaned, beckoning me to come outside." In this example, the wind—a nonhuman element—is being described as if it is human (it "moans" and "beckons"). Repetition is when a word or phrase is written multiple times, usually for the purpose of emphasis. It is often used in poetry (for purposes of rhythm as well). Example: When Lin-Manuel Miranda, who wrote the score for the hit musical Hamilton, gave his speech at the 2016 Tony's, he recited a poem he'd written that included the following line: And love is love is love is love is love is love is love is love cannot be killed or swept aside. Satire is genre of writing that criticizes something, such as a person, behavior, belief, government, or society. Satire often employs irony, humor, and hyperbole to make its point. Example: The Onion is a satirical newspaper and digital media company. It uses satire to parody common news features such as opinion columns, editorial cartoons, and click bait headlines. A type of monologue that's often used in dramas, a soliloquy is when a character speaks aloud to himself (and to the audience), thereby revealing his inner thoughts and feelings. Example: In Romeo and Juliet, Juliet's speech on the balcony that begins with, "O Romeo, Romeo! Wherefore art thou Romeo?" is a soliloquy, as she is speaking aloud to herself (remember that she doesn't realize Romeo's there listening!). Symbolism refers to the use of an object, figure, event, situation, or other idea in a written work to represent something else—typically a broader message or deeper meaning that differs from its literal meaning. The things used for symbolism are called "symbols," and they'll often appear multiple times throughout a text, sometimes changing in meaning as the plot progresses. Example: In F. Scott Fitzgerald's 1925 novel The Great Gatsby, the green light that sits across from Gatsby's mansion symbolizes Gatsby's hopes and dreams. A synecdoche is a literary device in which part of something is used to represent the whole, or vice versa. It's similar to a metonym (see above); however, a metonym doesn't have to represent the whole—just something associated with the word used. Example: "Help me out, I need some hands!" In this case, "hands" is being used to refer to people (the whole human, essentially). While mood is what the audience is supposed to feel, tone is the writer or narrator's attitude towards a subject. A good writer will always want the audience to feel the mood they're trying to evoke, but the audience may not always agree with the narrator's tone, especially if the narrator is an unsympathetic character or has viewpoints that differ from those of the reader. Example: In an essay disdaining Americans and some of the sites they visit as tourists, Rudyard Kipling begins with the line, "Today I am in the Yellowstone Park, and I wish I were dead." If you enjoy Yellowstone and/or national parks, you may not agree with the author's tone in this piece. Time to become your own Sherlock Holmes! How to Identify and Analyze Literary Devices: 4 Tips In order to fully interpret pieces of literature, you have to understand a lot about literary devices in the texts you read. Here are our top tips for identifying and analyzing different literary techniques: Tip 1: Read Closely and Carefully First off, you'll need to make sure that you're reading very carefully. Resist the temptation to skim or skip any sections of the text. If you do this, you might miss some literary devices being used and, as a result, will be unable to accurately interpret the text. If there are any passages in the work that make you feel especially emotional, curious, intrigued, or just plain interested, check that area again for any literary devices at play. It's also a good idea to reread any parts you thought were confusing or that you didn't totally understand on a first read-through. Doing this ensures that you have a solid grasp of the passage (and text as a whole) and will be able to analyze it appropriately. Tip 2: Memorize Common Literary Terms You won't be able to identify literary elements in texts if you don't know what they are or how they're used, so spend some time memorizing the literary elements list above. Knowing these (and how they look in writing) will allow you to more easily pinpoint these techniques in various types of written works. Tip 3: Know the Author's Intended Audience Knowing what kind of audience an author intended her work to have can help you figure out what types of literary devices might be at play. For example, if you were trying to analyze a children's book, you'd want to be on the lookout for child-appropriate devices, such as repetition and alliteration. Tip 4: Take Notes and Bookmark Key Passages and Pages This is one of the most important tips to know, especially if you're reading and analyzing works for English class. As you read, take notes on the work in a notebook or on a computer. Write down any passages, paragraphs, conversations, descriptions, etc., that jump out at you or that contain a literary device you were able to identify. You can also take notes directly in the book, if possible (but don't do this if you're borrowing a book from the library!). I recommend circling keywords and important phrases, as well as starring interesting or particularly effective passages and paragraphs. Lastly, use sticky notes or post-its to bookmark pages that are interesting to you or that have some kind of notable literary device. This will help you go back to them later should you need to revisit some of what you've found for a paper you plan to write. Looking for more in-depth explorations and examples of literary devices? Join us as we delve into imagery, personification, rhetorical devices, tone words and mood, and different points of view in literature, as well as some more poetry-specific terms like assonance and iambic pentameter. Reading The Great Gatsby for class or even just for fun? Then you'll definitely want to check out our expert guides on the biggest themes in this classic book, from love and relationships to money and materialism. For more information on your favorite works of literature, take a look at our collection of high-quality book guides and our guide to the 9 literary elements that appear in every story! Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now: Have friends who also need help with test prep? Share this article! Hannah received her MA in Japanese Studies from the University of Michigan and holds a bachelor's degree from the University of Southern California. From 2013 to 2015, she taught English in Japan via the JET Program. She is passionate about education, writing, and travel.

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Babies, from his birth to approx two years of age, learn about the world by their senses and his motor skills. Kids in this stage learn from sensory cues. Let your little one see your smile when he does something you want him to do; let him hear your calm voice when he is scared or not feeling good. In this way, your child learns about their environments. When your child just begins to talk then he entered the stage where your child is oriented only to the present, he hasn’t learned how to think about his past or future. At this point, your child is still egocentric, seeing only his viewpoint. The child in the first grade, enter the phase of life, where he begins learning how to think more abstractly. In this stage, he also progresses to the point where he started thinking logically about things he sees. Stage 4: INFANCY It is the first year of your child’s life after birth. At this stage, your child is called a newborn baby. This stage has a distinctive appearance, arms and legs are relatively short as the head is very large. Infants are born with certain abilities already developed like they have a well-developed sense of smell; they try to communicate their needs by crying when they are hungry, uncomfortable, lonely, or bored. · When your little one is of 6 weeks, he typically starts smelling, and starts making vocal sounds, like “ahh”, ”dada”, ”gaga”. · By 6 months, your child spends a lot of time babbling, he has also learned to sit and starting to crawl. · By 12 months, your little champ starts saying his first word, he can stand with any help and support and also may have started to walk. Child development is the process through which human begins typically grow and mature from infancy through adulthood. We believe that investing in our children’s development from the earliest age is the single most important contribution we can make… Enrichment of vocabulary. It helps in developing a rapport between the child and the teachers. It prepares the child for building his memory and imagination. STORIES: A COMMUNAL CURRENCY OF HUMANITY Story telling is the very oldest form of teaching, the story creates magic and a sense of wonder at the world. Children should be told stories again and again, as stories define us, shape us, control us, and make us. Stories help your kids to know and understand the sounds and words, and develop early skills on them. When your child is listening to stories, it sparks his imagination, stimulates curiosity, and also helps your child in the development of his brain, social, and communication skills. BENEFITS OF STORYTELLING The story should be told in a dramatized manner or voice, as they love actions and movements. It is also very important to maintain eye contact with the children so that they have the feeling that they are a part of what is happening. Every human culture in the world is not yet literate, but still, every single culture tells stories. Storytelling is a very unique way for kids to develop an understanding, respect, and appreciation for others and promote a positive attitude to people from different lands, religions, and cultures. A very big advantage of storytelling is that listening to stories enhances your child’s vocabulary. EFFECT ON CHILDRENS When you tell your first story to your child, there is a magical moment. Your child sits enthralled, mouths open, eyes wide, and constantly staring into your eyes. Children enjoy telling stories. The stories should be REAL stories, not fantasy or fairy tales, the story should be short with simple and easy language along with different pictures. The story should cover the events of daily life, like, there was a child who gets up in the morning, brushes his teeth, washes his face and combs his hair, and so on. There were the good old days when we would lie beside our daadis or naanis, and they read stories for us- the righteousness of the Pandavas, the stories of Vikram and Betaal, and many more. These stories taught us the important lessons of our lives, they taught us about good and bad. Perfect storytelling is acting out a story. Storytelling parents are found to have a more emotional bond with the children, as storytelling is a creative form of expression where imagination is translated into words. Feeding to your little one can often be challenging, as several development changes are happening at this time. Toddlers are striving for independence and control and as a result, their growth rate slows down. All these changes make mealtime difficult. So, it is important for us to provide the structure and set limits. We have to provide them regular meals and snacks. If your child refuses to eat food, don’t make a big deal out of it. Try again after some time. HEALTHY DIETS LEADS TO HAPPY LIFE Train your child’s body to crave healthy food, as eating is a necessity but eating healthy is an art. Try to serve the food which is easy for your child to eat, by cutting the food into bite-size pieces, making food soft and moist. Always try to avoid foods that are hard to chew and swallow. HEALTHY FOOD CHOICES The brain uses more energy than any other organ in the body. Everything from attentiveness to learning and memory, are affected by the food your child consumes. Your child, whose brain is rapidly developing, needs a nutrient-dense diet to help them as they process the world around them. If your child doesn’t get suitable nutrients then they might struggle to develop the skills to maintain concentration, which is increasingly important as they get older. Create colorful plates containing a variety of vegetables. Your child’s food must contain “calcium” as it strengthens bones, “protein” which helps in building muscles of your child, “carbohydrates” which provides energy to your child and he actively participates in any activity, “iron” which makes healthy blood and at last most importantly “essential fats” as it helps your child’s body to absorb the other vitamins. EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT In the first five years of your child’s life, his brain develops more and faster than any other time in his life. His early relationships, experiences, and the things which he hears, sees, smells, touches-stimulates his brain, creating millions of connections. This is when the foundation for learning and health throughout life is laid down. A loving, nurturing relationship helps you and your children to learn more about each other. As he grows up, his needs will change. Your child’s play is not simply a reproduction of what he has experienced or what he has gone through, but a creative reworking of the impressions he has acquired. The more risks you allow your child to take, the better they learn to look after themselves. One of the best gifts you can give your child is the ability to play on their own. Instead of worrying about whether we should give our child gold stars for participating in any work or gold stars for being the best child, We have to involve our child in real-world activities where the result is itself a reward to him! Play is far more powerful for children, however, than many parents realize. It’s the key to learning. Researchers and educators across the world have found that play can help enrich learning and develop key skills such as inquiry, expression, experimentation, and teamwork. Problem-solving and decision-making skills are stalled when there’s always someone to think for them. Imagination and creativity aren’t relied on when games are always made up by someone else! By now you probably know why it’s important that children play on their own every day. If your kids aren’t used to playing on their own then there will be some adjustment. Our society has completely lost sight of what’s truly important in life. It’s time to find it again. Tips to help your child learn to play by themselves Giving children choices helps them feel like they have some power and control over what they do, and is a step in growing up. Everyone likes to have choices in the things they do. Some child care providers think they need to do all the planning. They forget that children need choices. Some children will just go along with whatever an adult tells them to do. Others will become angry because they aren’t given the chance to choose for themselves. Giving children choices helps them feel like they have some power and control over what they do. It’s a step in growing up. The more choices your child gets to make while living under your roof the better off they are. Give your child attention Everyone at every age needs attention! It feels good when someone focuses his or her full attention on you. Being attentive also feels good for your infant or toddler (and older children). For children, getting attention is even more important than for adults. Children need attention to grow, develop self-esteem and a positive sense of identity, and to flourish and succeed. There’s even research showing that parental attentiveness has a connection to releasing children’s growth hormones. Don’t jump to accommodate every request If my child has plenty of things to play with, I’m probably not going to stop what I’m doing to retrieve another toy he wants. This helps him focus on what he’s got instead of thinking of 50 other things he thinks he wants to play with. Location, Location, Location The location is not important as long as there’s something for the child to do and some type of boundary in place. It’s not independent play if they roam around the house and you have to follow them to be sure they aren’t getting into trouble. Be consistent with independent play and give it time Independent playtime is something that works best with consistency. Choose a time that works best and try to have playtime during that time each day so the kids know what to expect. Knowing what to expect is a huge thing for children, and they are much more likely to participate without a fight if they see it coming. Start with 5 minutes, 10 minutes, and then work up to 30 minutes or an hour as the child can do so and enjoys it. Learning to think critically may be one of the most important skills that today’s children will need for the future. In today’s global and rapidly changing world, your children need to be able to do much more than repeating a list of facts: your little champ needs to be critical thinkers who can make sense of information, analyze, contrast, compare and generate higher-order thinking skills. EXERCISE TO IMPROVE CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS I am not talking about whether there is any strategy to teach your child how to think critically. Our role is to ask sometimes open-ended questions to guide the thinking process of your child. Allow your child to experiment and refine her theories on what causes thinking to happen. For developing or helping your child to build a foundation of critical thinking you have to provide him the opportunities to play, offer your child ample time to think, attempt a task. Don’t intervene immediately. Try to ask him open-ended questions, rather than answers to the questions your child raises to you, help him think critically by asking questions in return: “What is your point of view? What ideas do you have?”. Respect his responses whether in your point of view that was correct or not. You could support him by saying, “yah! That’s interesting, tell me why you think so.” Or by saying, “How would you solve this problem? what’s going in your mind?” By allowing your child to think differently, you’re helping him to develop their creative problem-solving skills. PROMOTE CHILDREN’S INTEREST When your child is deeply vested in any topic or pursuit, they are more engaged and willing to experiment. The process of expanding their knowledge brings about a lot of opportunities for critical thinking, so encouraging this activity helps your child invest in their activity of interests. Always try to avoid teaching your child to do any task in one certain way, and one way only. It’s worth teaching kids early on about biases. When your kid understands how desires influence their judgment, they learn how bias works and do they avoid it. In addition to Ofsted ‘s latest Education Inspection Framework (EIF), the term cultural capital has been added. Cultural capital is the fundamental knowledge that children need to be educated people, it is the vital information that children need to prepare them for future success. Many kids arrive at an early year environment with their learning and playing, with different experiences than others. It’s about giving kids the best possible start to their early age education. It’s the job of setting up to help kids from 0-6 years of age feel the awe and wonder of the world they live in through the seven years of learning. We believe in the value of ensuring equity for children who are cultural and developmental in the early years of the learning environment. Defining present-day intellectual capital Three sources of cultural capital Bourdieu identified: objective, embodied, and institutionalized. Objective: Cultural objects, books, artworks Embodied: Vocabulary, tastes, mannerisms Institutionalized: Skills, certificates for the education More recent research by several scholars on the concept of cultural capital has added scientific, emotional, regional, and subcultural types of cultural capital to this list. Technical: marketable competencies, e.g. IT Emotional: empathy, compassion (things companies in management roles can be looking for in employees) National: ‘Operates on the assumption of the existence of traditions, both high and traditional, which generate and justify a sense of belonging and the occupation of a national governing role … It is a type with a limited exchange value because it is not unusual … in practice, lacking it acts as a handicap, rather than providing a route to profit and preferential possession.’ Subcultural: groups formed around cultural details that involve unique cultural awareness and behaviors for individuals to belong to the sub-set. In this new sense, ‘Cultural Capital’ is embodied by an individual who has knowledge of a wide range of cultures and is comfortable discussing their value and merits. It is defined by the maturity and capacity to be able to apply the correct information in any given situation: a job interview, a conversation with a neighbor, the creation of a network of work, etc. The benefits of cultural capital Evidence shows that the cultural capital passed down by families is helping children in school do better. The education system values the awareness and ways of thinking established by the development of abstract as well as formal cultural capital. As adults, cultural capital allows people to network with other adults with similar information and experiences and, in effect, monitor access to This system of privilege is defined in their 2009 book Community, Class, Distinction Bennet, et al. ‘This is the reproduction circuit associated with schooling and formal education. Those parents equipped with cultural capital are able to drill their children in the cultural forms that predispose them to perform well in the educational system through their ability to handle “abstract” and “formal” categories. These children are able to turn their cultural capital into credentials, which can then be used to acquire advantaged positions themselves.’ Valuing the cultures of children and families Each child and family who enters a setting will have their own awareness and experiences that will interact with their community and extended family. This may include cultures, values, customs, family and cultural heritage, interests, travel, and work. Evidence indicates that, if the cultures of children and families are respected, both the learning experience and the success of the child will profit. (Husain et al., 2018, p. 4 and Gazzard, E. 2018 in Chalmers, H. and Crisfield, E. 201) What is Montessori ‘s or childminder’s position here? The children learn from the various people around them about the local society. And here the question comes to mind how the kids know about their native culture as if any are from India how they know about the culture of India? So, here the role of Montessori or childminder comes into play. Depending on their background, it is really important to give content to children’s which helps children learn their native culture. Exciting and Stimulating activities of cultural capital Finding books on a child’s favorite topic Create role-playing games that further their interest in a given idea Take the Park Trips And plan neighborhood events such as police conferences. When your kid starts learning to write, It can be an exciting and somehow frustrating time. If you don’t try too much too soon, It can be fun for you and your kid as well. Teaching your kid to write depends on many factors such as the ease with which they can hold a pencil or a crayon, their enthusiasm to write or draw, their interest for big and small letters, and many more. Your toddler may be a keen artist, wanting to write or draw random letters or figures everywhere. But it is our responsibility to teach them to write, which involves more than just stick figure art and random shapes. We have to teach them not to rush to the alphabet, number, or shape. Create simple lines and shapes and ask your little one to simply copy them. HELP YOUR TODDLER TO WRITE When we speak, it is a manner in which we express our thoughts to other people, but when we write our thoughts, that means they are being recorded in graphic symbols. When we write we manifest our thoughts. It is often seen that when people are hesitant to speak, they pass the subject or matter through writing. Writing is the way and means through which we communicate with others. It is a way to release emotional tension. TEACH YOUR KID TO HOLD A PENCIL Do you worry that your kid might be gripping the pencil wrong? Teaching your kid to hold a pencil is no walk in the park. If you start forcing your kid to hold a pencil in a particular way, it might even prove to be a difficult one. It might be even more challenging to teach your kid to hold a pencil the correct way once they develop a grip of their preference. That’s why it is imperative that you teach your little one this important skill at the right time and in the right way. The grip requires the use of two fingers and a thumb. Teach your kid to grip the pencil by applying equal pressure from all the fingers. Give your child a short pencil, as it is easier for kids to write with short pencils, it allows a better grasp as kids have to pinch their fingers together to hold the pencil firmly. Writing is a complex action, which involves several acts. These movements are individual efforts and need practice. One part of writing depends upon the preparation of the motor. Mechanism and the other depending upon the preparation of intellect. STAGES OF PENCIL GRASPING As your kid grows, they will naturally hold their crayons and pencils in different ways. The way in which a kid holds a pencil depends on how ready their shoulder and arms muscles are. Typically around 1-1.5 years of age, your child starts to develop more control over their shoulder and arm muscles; they will move on to hold a pencil with their fingers. A child develops this grasp typically around 2-3 years old. The child continues to use whole arm movements to scribble with this grasp. From age 3.5-4 years old, your kid may move on to hold the pencil with three fingers. And at last at the age of 4-6 years, your kid starts grasping the pencil. The fingers of your little one’s now start moving independently and allow for more precise drawing and writing. When you’re teaching to your kids to write, you are teaching them to think, as writing is a window through which all thinking starts. Our task, regarding creativity, is to help our little ones climb their own mountains, as high as possible. Our kids are naturally creative. It is our job to give them the freedom and space to let their creativity blossom to its full potential. Outdoor play improves your child’s physical, mental, and social development. Physical skills are essential for your child’s growth, physical coordination, and the movement of the body. Outdoor play is a big part of healthy growth, development, and learning of your child. When children play outdoors, they increase their ability to jump, climb, throw, run, and balance themselves. Outdoor play helps your baby to learn about different surroundings and can make you feel more comfortable with the world around him. Enjoy some time on a blanket or towel with your little champ, crawling on the grass, through big boxes, under outdoor furniture, looking at different colored cars, street signs, and traffic light signals. Enjoying some beautiful moments with him, you can help your child make the most of this stage with outdoor plays. Playing outside helps your child to develop his learning abilities. By putting some educational materials outdoors, your child is soon learning through play, which is a fun way and also helps your child to develop new skills of information and abilities. With more room to play in, your child is often more active when outside. It helps them to build functional fitness, strong bones, and also enable them to burn off extra energy and calories. Outdoor plays help your child to come out of his shells and to be more socially prepared. It means that your child will be more willing to join in games and activities; he will also be more likely to talk to other children and make new friends. Theseactivities encourage your child to learn social skills and how yo interact with others. While playing outside and interacting with other children, help your child to learn independence when socially interacting with other children as well as learning to play himself. Your child learns how to takes turns while playing to pick himself up when he falls, all resulting in learning how to be independent and self-reliant. BUMPS AND BRUISES It’s OK for your child to push the play boundaries outside, where he has room to run faster, jump further, and climb higher. It might mean some tears and pain, a scrape, or a fall, but these risky activities help your little champ learn from mistakes and bounce back. Nursery rhymes and songs are very important for our kids as they help to hear the sounds and syllables in words, which helps our kids learn to read! Once our child understands what is being said they find the songs, rhymes, and poems incredibly hilarious!. Emotionally kids relate the rhymes, poems, or songs whatever they had heard to lots of the content!. Contents like being naughty, superheroes, fear of spiders are all close to children’s hearts. Children are taught songs and poems suitable to their age group. The songs are usually such that have numerous rhyming words, so the children can easily learn them, singing and dancing with the songs, or with the rhymes. Repeating rhymes also helps in the development of our kids. EFFECTS OF KINDER RYMPIES When children hear songs or rhymes they are hearing a different range of sounds than they would in normal, everyday speech. Rhymes are powerful tools that can cut through a labyrinth of thoughts, to convey deep meanings in crispy words! The sing-song, rhymes, and poems introduce your little one to the new ways of using their voice, sometimes making it louder and maybe some times faster or slower. These all improve the child’s vocabulary, cultural knowledge, and realistic. As your child starts singing songs or rhymes, they subconsciously start making connections with the constituents of words, they start searching for familiar sounds in the rhymes or music and this is often the “first step of your child”. OPEN DOORS TO HIS NEW WORLD Songs, rhymes, and poems help your little one to build a better imagination. If you expose your child to poems or rhymes, they are usually also exposed to bright and colorful illustrations. For instance, there is a widely known and loved rhyme that most will remember, A child, who listens to this rhyme a few times, is listening to a story about stars that are twinkling in the sky, and the child is shocked to see how they do that. The more rhymes your child is exposed to, the more he develops his skills. So, let your child enjoy the goodness of rhymes and poems so that he can fill his imagination world with more beautiful colors, as beautiful as a rainbow! The prepared environment is the gateway to cater to everything, keeping in view the inner need, since they are hungry for words. Therefore their vocabulary can also be enriched by classified cards. They are also fed with technical terms. Besides this, the child’s personality is groomed correctly when they are given attention at the right time and the right age, only by talking and listening properly to the child in the prepared environment. It must be bright, inviting, warm, and beautiful as it is placed where they can do things for themselves, live their own life without any immediate help from adults. In doing so, the child becomes conscious of his power and ability to do things himself. A prepared environment is a special place where children can flourish with freedom and independence. All of this is a vast forest. Inside the forest is the child. This forest is fascinating, green, beautiful, and full of hope, there are no paths inside this forest, the child has to make their paths, as teachers and children are families in the woods. Sometimes they find themselves together within the forest, sometimes they may get lost from each other, but it’s living together in this forest, that is important, and of course, this living is not easy. The child has full freedom here to move wherever they want; they have the privilege of choice and freedom to interact socially. We believe in giving full independence to our children to choose their daily activities in which they have more interest, and as a mentor, we keep an eye on them and carefully notice and correct them whenever they need help. And this improves their knowledge, learning, and thinking ability. The child has a high capacity to retain and reproduce words. He takes in much more than he shows. The prepared environment should support social development by encouraging freedom of interaction. Living in a good social environment increases the likelihood through which a child will develop a positive social relationship. The more your child interacts with his mentors, the more it will boost their self-confidence and self-esteem. Spending time in play and conversation with other kids allows your children to learn about emotions and relationships. They watch everything and notice how to interact with others and how to react in different situations. The intellectual environment helps the child in the prepared environment to develop their understanding, reasoning, learning, memorizing skills, and many more. As loving and caring mentors, we incorporate best practices to nurture and pamper our kids. From the early stage of their life, we focus on their physical, emotional, and intellectual development, as they all together develop the whole personality of the child.

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“What you need to know in order to write a story is not what I need to know in order to read it.”Ralph Hale The other day an editing client asked, “How should I handle exposition?” Is it better, he wondered, to put it in dialogue? In the character’s thoughts? Or just have the narrator tell it? There’s a tendency among many writers, myself included, to explain too much, and I’ve become ruthless about weeding out as much exposition as possible. So my gut reaction to the client’s question was, “None of the above. Get rid of it.” But this client is writing a story with an epic fantasy setting. How can the reader enter the world he’s built—a world complete with non-human characters, its own social structures, and a long history—unless the narrator explains some of it? Simply deleting every explanation isn’t a sound editorial strategy. In this article we’ll consider what exposition is. We’ll see why we can’t get rid of it altogether, and we’ll learn how brain science can help us understand when to use it and why. At the end, we’ll be a big step closer to writing novels that glide along on story-rails with the least possible friction. What exactly is exposition? “Exposition is a literary device used to introduce background information about events, settings, characters, or other elements of a work to the audience or readers. The word comes from the Latin language, and its literal meaning is ‘a showing forth.’ Exposition is crucial to any story, for without it nothing makes sense.” —Literary Devices.net “Exposition means facts—the information about setting, biography, and characterization that the audience needs to know to follow and comprehend the events of the story.” —Robert McKee, Story (p. 334). McKee goes on to extol the famous writers’ axiom “Show, don’t tell,” and he devotes an entire chapter to the craft of disguising exposition. So which is it? Is exposition necessary? Or is it so undesirable that it needs to be disguised? It’s both. Trouble is, the “Show Don’t Tell” evangelists never explain why we have to hide our exposition. They just vaguely imply that exposition is somehow against the rules because it’s “boring.” As explanations go, that’s pretty weak. After all, you’ve found a way to put your visions and inventions on the page, often in carefully-crafted prose. It’s not boring to you. You’re going to need a more convincing reason than “it’s boring” before you’re ready to remove it. Exposition and brainwork To understand why exposition is a such a challenge in fiction, let’s have a little brain science. Steven Pinker, in The Sense of Style, tells us that human working memory can hold only four or five items at a time. This is a severe mental limitation, but we work around it with a process called “chunking.” Chunking is when we group ideas so that together they occupy only one of the four or five available memory slots in our brain. Pinker gives this example: M D P H D R S V P C E O I H O P It looks random and meaningless, doesn’t it? It would take a fair amount of brain energy to force even a few of those 16 letters into your memory. But if you group the letters as MD PHD RSVP CEO and IHOP, you now have five chunks, each containing meaning—effectively five recognizable “words.” The amount of brain energy it took you to absorb that string dropped dramatically. And if you can package those five chunks into a coherent story, you create a single larger chunk that occupies only one memory slot, leaving the other three or four open for other stories. “The MD and the PhD RSVP’d to the CEO of IHOP.” Read that once—ideally aloud—and chances are that you can remember it and repeat it. (Of course there’s some cultural context here. IHOP, for those outside North America, is the International House of Pancakes, a restaurant chain.) What does this tidbit of brain science have to do with exposition? Simply this: exposition in a story is analogous to M D P H D R S V P C E O I H O P. It’s new, un-chunked information, and taking it in requires masses of brain processing power. Exposition, in other words, makes the reader work. Novelists, especially new novelists, often feel that their exposition is helping the reader do less work because it clarifies the story…explains things…teaches the reader what they need to know in order to keep up with the plot. The trouble with that belief—and some writers are remarkably insistent on it—is that we don’t open a novel in the hope of exercising our brains. We pick up a novel to be entertained, to enjoy core emotions like excitement, thrills, or risk. We read a story in order to be carried away to strange lands and thrilling adventures, to sigh over true love, weep at misfortune, and forget the trials of our own daily lives. We read novels to feel, not to think. We read them to relax, not to work. Our personal definitions of reading pleasure may range from the simplest love story to the most complex literary novel, but we still read novels for enjoyment. We might absorb “The MD and the PhD RSVP’d to the CEO of IHOP,” but it’s still work. We still have to do some translating in our heads. But present it as “A couple of smart women ate pancakes with a high-powered executive,” and it slides into our consciousness with almost no effort at all. Do we care which woman has which degree? Maybe. Do we need to know? Possibly. Do we need to know it while they’re having breakfast with the head of the restaurant chain? Probably not. The less brainwork a novel makes us do, the longer we’ll stay up turning pages, enjoying those pancakes along with the highly educated protagonist and her sidekick. Maybe you’re not writing fluffy pancakes. Maybe you’re more of an eggs-benedict-with-hollandaise writer. Your target reader has chosen your book because it has intellectual cachet, and they’re willing to put more brainpower into reading it. That’s okay. The principles of reading ease can scale. Why make even a very literary novel harder to read than it needs to be? Two common exposition faults The two exposition problems I see most often in my clients’ work are: - Over-reliance on the Big Block of Explanation. - Acrobatic contortions to avoid the Big Block of Explanation, in adherence to the mighty Show Don’t Tell rule. Let’s look at each one of them in turn. The Big Block of Explanation Here’s a purely made-up example of the Big Block of Explanation: “Let’s go to the mall,” Heather said. Imani thought back to the last time she had been to the mall. The terror she had felt at the sound of the first shot fired, the screams of people fleeing for their lives, the crash of displays falling over as customers dove under racks and counters for cover. It had been the worst day of her life. “I don’t want to go,” Imani replied. However vivid Imani’s recollection is in that middle paragraph, it does little to reveal her character. It explains some things about Imani, but it’s an info-dump—a Big Block of Explanation. The block interrupts the action—that is, the dialogue between Heather and Imani—by referring you to a past whose details may or may not be relevant at this point in the story. Here’s what happens in your brain: - You expend energy time-jumping to Imani’s past. - You process terror, shots fired, screams, crashes, and people diving under racks. By the time you get to Imani’s response, all your memory slots are engaged, and you’ve lost sight of what Heather said. - So you expend more brainpower backtracking in the text to remind yourself of Heather’s initial suggestion. Now, you might be willing to make that effort—to glance up the page and re-read—but if you happen to be an audiobook listener rather than a reader, you’re certainly not going to take the trouble. Either way, the extra brain-fuel you’ve just expended is debited from your attention account, and as that account balance drops, the story will start to feel like work. I don’t know about you, but when a story starts to feel like work, I put it down. Contortions to Avoid the Big Block of Explanation How about the second type of fault, where the writer bends over backward to avoid the Big Block of Explanation? Here’s what I mean: “Let’s go to the mall,” Heather said. Imani glared at her. “You know I can’t face going to the mall, Heather.” “I’m sorry,” Heather said. “I’d forgotten about the time you were there when that gunman shot the place up.” “That’s right. So I don’t want to go.” This is what I call the “As You Know, Bob” error. The characters are telling each other things they both already know, in order to inform the reader of something. It’s not only cringingly unnatural, but it commandeers almost as much reader brainpower as the first example. Even if you’re willing to forgive the unnaturalness of the dialogue, you’re forced to pause and process that past event before moving ahead with the present story. The brainwork framework Exposition can take a variety of forms, and some of them require more reader brainwork than others. Here are six common ones, from the most brain-intensive to the least: - Purely explanatory information from the narrator directly to the reader. This is naked exposition. No disguise at all. It serves one purpose: to explain something to the reader. It’s the form that most often evokes a “Show Don’t Tell!” scold from critique partners and beta-readers. This doesn’t mean that you should never use it. It just means that you shouldn’t use it where the reader’s brainpower is already low. More on this later. - A character’s inner thoughts. Also known as the free indirect style, this is a thin disguise for exposition, best used only when it performs the dual tasks of revealing character while explaining something. We engage emotionally with characters much more easily than we can process an explanation. - Flashbacks. A lot like character’s inner thoughts, but usually set apart in the text by a scene break. This allows the reader to process the flashback as the fresh beginning of a new story—that is, by freeing up memory slots. Note, though, that it’s hard work keeping track of the complex timelines flashbacks create. - Descriptive passages. These take take less brainwork to process than abstract explanations, because most readers already have a ready sensory vocabulary of colors, shapes, sounds, smells, etc. Similarly, they can call up images of clouds, mountains, trees, buildings, streets, and so forth, without working very hard. - Dialogue. Dialogue is technically action (the characters are doing something—speaking), so by definition it’s more immediately immersive and less “explainy” than straight exposition. But beware of the “As You Know, Bob” fault if you use dialogue to disguise exposition. - Letters, diaries, news reports, transcripts, and the like. This is the epistolary narrative device, and it can work in almost any kind of story. Like forms of dialogue, epistolary elements give a sense of immediacy. Reading the newspaper along with a character is much more engaging than being told about the article. The trick is not to cram in a lone epistolary element to solve an exposition problem. It should be one of several, a narrative device that runs throughout your story. Exposition and narrative drive Exposition is sometimes necessary, but it’s amazing how often it’s not. Here’s our little Imani and Heather scene without it: “Let’s go to the mall,” Heather said. Imani glared at her. “Are you kidding me?” “Okay, okay. Never mind.” This version leverages that magical thing called narrative drive. Narrative drive is what keeps a reader reading. The specific form of narrative drive here is mystery. That’s when the character knows more than the reader. In this version, Imani knows why she doesn’t want to go to the mall, but you don’t. All you know is that for some reason, she’s opposed to it. From her glare and her choice of words, she seems afraid or angry. Something bad lies behind that. What could the problem be? Heather might know about it, but either she’s forgotten or doesn’t care. Is she so self-centered? Or was it really not that big a deal? Yes, these are questions. It’s questions, not answers, that create narrative drive. You keep reading until you find answers, and ideally you don’t get the last answer till the very end of the story. (NB: Everything you need to know about narrative drive, Valerie Francis has brilliantly set forth in her articles on the subject. Links are at the end of this post.) The Pandora Effect Why do questions create the narrative drive that keeps us reading? In Greek mythology, Pandora is consumed by curiosity when someone gives her a closed box and tells her never to open it. She opens it. Bad things fly out. If you had the box, would you open it? “The Pandora Effect” is the name researchers have given to the experimental finding that yes, you probably would. Why? Because human beings are curious. Curiosity is one of the most fundamental traits of human existence. It’s the desire to close a gap in our knowledge. It drives us to explore, to invent, to solve problems in new ways. Without it, we’d still be living in caves. To bypass our powerful instinct for safety and survival, the curiosity instinct—which courts danger—must be at least as powerful. And it is. The Pandora Effect is our counterintuitive tendency to risk danger in order to find out what’s in the box. Raising questions in your story and leaving them unanswered for a while is like handing your reader that box. They will be eager to open it. Where does exposition belong? Well-written exposition can be engaging in its own right. Plenty of great classic novels are heavy on exposition—particularly those from the eighteenth, nineteenth, and early twentieth centuries. Long passages of exposition can be interesting, charming, and stylish, and people still read those novels today. But there’s a limit. No novel was ever more sprawlingly explainy than Moby Dick. Herman Melville knew everything about whaling, and by George he wants the reader to learn it too. That’s why modern readers can’t get through Moby Dick. We are twenty-first century century readers. The most dedicated and enthusiastic of us have consumed a lifetime of stories via movies and television alongside our reading, and we don’t want a lot of explanations. This isn’t just because attention spans have shrunk to the vanishing point (though that’s certainly a consideration). And it’s not solely because exposition requires brainwork. It’s also because we’ve become far more sophisticated at consuming stories than our eighteenth- and nineteenth-century ancestors were. We’ve been trained to process stories faster, to take in small cues quickly. Unlike our great-grandparents, we don’t need the camera to linger on a clue for us to spot it, and we don’t need a narrator to explain our characters’ every action or utterance in detail. We get it, already. Are you beginning to feel that this supposedly “necessary” thing called exposition doesn’t belong anywhere? Almost but not quite true. Blocks of explanatory material have very little place in a modern novel, but they aren’t completely disallowed. The most likely place in any story for some straight up exposition is at the beginning. “Once upon a time, there were three bears…” or “A long time ago in a galaxy far, far away…” or “It began with the forging of the great rings…” The reader’s brain is fresh at the beginning. Its memory slots are free. At that point, it can handle a little learning, a little instruction, a little scene-setting or world-building. A little. Not pages and pages. “At the beginning” isn’t limited to just the global opening. It can mean the start of an act or sequence; it can be when the story moves to a new setting, or introduces a new character. It can even be at the start of a new chapter. (Just don’t start every chapter with a block of explanation. I address the various ways to launch a scene in my article How To Launch a Scene.) The worst place for exposition of any sort is in the middle of the action—including in the middle of dialogue. Putting a block of explanation there is like popping up in front of the movie screen to tell the audience what you know. Consciously or unconsciously, the reader wants you to sit down, shut up, let them enjoy the show. So you still have some blocks of exposition… …and you’re convinced that you can’t get rid of them. What do you do? First, confirm that the information in each block of exposition genuinely serves the story. Does it turn a scene? Expose a character’s wants and needs? Reflect your story’s controlling idea? It is crucial to one of the obligatory scenes or conventions of your genre? Can the story work without it? No matter how interesting and creative it is, no matter how much trouble you took to research and write it, if the story can work without it, it’s a candidate for the chopping block. If it does serve the story, note the key story information it contains. In our Imani and Heather example above, that would be “Imani was present during a shooting” and maybe “Imani is traumatized.” Then think through your story. What would happen if you put that information prior to her conversation with Heather? If the reader knows in advance that Imani was traumatized at the mall, then the mystery raised by that conversation will be lost. But you gain a different form of narrative drive: dramatic irony. We know something that Heather doesn’t know. We shake our heads and think, “Oh, Heather, what a careless suggestion! You’re going to feel so bad when you find out.” What would happen if you inserted the information later? Then the mystery raised by the conversation with Heather remains. Where best to solve that mystery (by revealing the information about Imani’s trauma) will depend on how pivotal a character Imani is, and how her trauma affects the story. But if Imani’s trauma at the mall has no bearing on the story, remember: she’s a character, not a real person. You can remove that trauma as easily as you inflicted it. Some final brainwork numbers Say you’ve spent two and a half hours a day, five days a week for two years writing, editing, and polishing your novel of 100,000 words. That’s 1300 hours of work. The average reader can absorb fiction at about 250 words per minute—faster, if you’ve given them a real page-turner—so they will spend six or seven hours reading your novel. This means that you spend 200 times more effort creating your novel than the reader will spend reading it. And that’s exactly as it should be. If the ratio were any lower, it would mean that you’ve slowed the reader down with hard-to-process sentences. Obstacles. Friction. And I hope it’s clear by now that a major source of friction in fiction is exposition. Our love of our own creation tempts us all to leave details on the page that don’t drive the story forward. Some readers might forgive it, but if they leave reviews, they’ll include phrases like “takes a little getting into” or “rewards your patience.” Many will give up, and if those readers leave reviews at all, they will say damning things like “did not finish,” “tedious,” or “hard to follow,” even though they won’t be able to say exactly why. Here’s a tip: Nobody—not even the tolerant reader who loves nineteenth century novels—will ever complain because your story was a smooth joyride to read. As the author, you’re the world-builder, the omnipotent deity of the universe of your novel. You need to have done all the research, character development, mapping, and timelines. You have to know all about the geography of your world, the backstories of its people, the socioeconomic system in which they live. You have to know the wants and needs, the trials and the triumphs, that have brought your characters into this story. You have to do all the brainwork so that the reader has to do hardly any. Then you need to tell a story. Valerie Francis on Narrative Drive: I’m indebted to Rachelle Ramirez for editing this article and suggesting the eggs benedict. If you’re a writer looking for editorial help with your novel, you can learn more about my editing services at annehawley.net

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1 GEOGRAPHIC SETTING AND ENVIRONMENT Haiti occupies the western third of the island of Hispaniola (the Dominican Republic occupies the eastern two thirds). Haiti is slightly larger than the state of Maryland, with an area of 27,750 square kilometers (10,714 square miles) including several islands. Three main mountain ranges, separated by open plains, stretch across the country. The climate is tropical, with some variation depending on altitude. Coffee, cocoa, coconuts, avocado, orange, lime, and mango grow wild. The most important commercial crops are coffee and sugarcane. Other important crops include bananas, corn, rice, sorghum, beans, and cocoa beans. The virgin forests that once covered the entire country have now been reduced to about 4 percent of the total land area. 2 HISTORY AND FOOD Spain, France, the continent of Africa, and later the United States, were crucial in shaping traditional Haitian cuisine. Throughout its history, several foreign countries gained control of Haiti, introducing food and ideas from their native lands, many of which significantly affected the foods modern Haitians eat. The island of Hispaniola, which encompasses both Haiti and the Dominican Republic, was inhabited by hunter-gatherers as early as 5000 B.C. Fruits and vegetables such as guavas, pineapples, cassava, papayas, sweet potatoes, and corn were cultivated by early Haitian tribes, particularly the Arawak and Taino Indians. It was not long before the first European arrived on the island and began introducing oranges, limes, mangoes, rice, and sugarcane. Slaves from Africa were eventually transported to Haiti to work the sugarcane plantations. On December 6, 1492, Christopher Columbus landed on the island and named La Isla Espanola (later named Hispaniola), or the Spanish Island, and claimed it for Spain. The Spaniards called it Santo Domingo. The Spanish established sugar plantations and made the native Indians work as slaves. Hard labor and disease nearly wiped out the indigenous population by 1520, forcing the Spaniards to ship slaves from Africa to work the plantations instead. The Africans introduced okra (also called gumbo; edible pods), (red and yellow fruit), (edible root), pigeon peas (seeds of an African shrub), and various spices to the diet. They later introduced such Haitian specialties as red beans and rice and ; a pear-shaped vegetable) to Louisiana's Creole cuisine. By 1700, the French had taken control of Hispaniola from Spain. The French colonists successfully cultivated sugarcane, coffee, cotton, and cocoa with the help of African slaves. Haitians won their independence and became the first African-American republic in the New World in 1804. French rule, however, remains evident in modern Haitian society, particularly in the wide use of the French language, and in the contributions to the country's cuisine. French cheeses, desserts, and breads are commonly found at local markets and French-Style Lettuce Salad - 1 head lettuce - 1 garlic clove, sliced - 2 Tablespoons salad oil - 1 Tablespoon wine vinegar - ¼ teaspoon salt - Pepper, to taste - 1 Tablespoon parsley, minced - 1 teaspoon lime juice - Wash, drain, and thoroughly dry the lettuce. - Rub a salad bowl with garlic and add the other ingredients to the bowl. - Mix well. - Tear lettuce leaves into bowl. - Just before serving, toss thoroughly. Serves 4 to 6. - 1 Tablespoon cornstarch - 1 Tablespoon flour - 1 Tablespoon sugar - 1 can creamed corn - 2 eggs, beaten - ½ cup milk - 1 teaspoon vanilla - 3 Tablespoons butter, melted - Preheat oven to 325°F. - Combine cornstarch, flour, sugar, and salt in a saucepan. - Stir in creamed corn and beaten eggs. - Add the milk, vanilla and butter. - Mix well and pour into a shallow casserole dish and bake for about 1 Serves 2 to 4. - 3 egg whites - ¾ cup cocoa - 1 teaspoon cinnamon - 4 to 8 Tablespoons sugar, to taste - 1 cup cold milk - 11 cups milk Corn pudding may be served warm from the oven or at room - Mix egg whites, cocoa, cinnamon, and sugar into a paste. - Dilute the paste with 1 cup of cold milk. - Boil the remaining 11 cups of milk over low heat. - Gradually add the paste to the boiling milk, beating constantly. - Serve hot and foamy. - 4 cups water - 3 cups orange juice - 2 mangoes - 1 cup sugar - Boil the sugar and water together until sugar is dissolved; let mixture - Scoop out the mango flesh and combine with orange juice in a blender. - Add the sugar water with puree and continue to blend. - Pour into a pitcher filled with ice cubes and serve. 3 FOODS OF THE HAITIANS Haitian food is often lumped together with other Caribbean islands as "Caribbean cuisine." However, Haiti maintains an independently unique flavor. Unlike its Spanish-influenced counterpart, the Dominican Republic, Haitian cuisine is based on Creole and French cooking styles. Strong pepper flavoring in many dishes also sets Haitian food apart from the other islands. Several dishes are specifically native to Haiti, including rice (jon-JON). It requires Haitian black mushrooms, locally grown fungi. The stems of the mushrooms are used to color the rice black, then the mushroom caps with lima beans are used as a tasty topping. (kah-lah-LOO), consisting of crabmeat, salted pork, spinach, onion, okra, and peppers, and (pane pah-TAT), a sweetened potato, fig, and banana pudding, are other native dishes to Haiti. (pumpkin soup) is traditionally served for lunch on Sundays. In general, the average Haitian diet is largely based on starch staples such as rice (which is locally grown), corn, millet, yams, and beans. However, wealthier residents can afford meats (usually pork and goat), lobster, spiced shrimp, duck, and sweet desserts such as French-influenced mousse and pastries. Extravagant fare such as frog legs, cold cuts, and French cheeses are available (typically in Port-au-Prince, Haiti's capital), but they are not commonly eaten by the average Haitian. Riz et Pois , the country's national dish of rice and beans, is more common fare. It is relatively inexpensive, and the rice and beans provide carbohydrates for field workers. (cornmeal mush) cooked with kidney beans, coconut, and peppers, and (spicy pickled carrots and cabbage) can be filling, and its ingredients are usually affordable. Haitians also tend to frequently fry their meals in pig fat to give them greater flavor. (fried plantains, similar to bananas), (deep-fried beef), and (fried pork) are common examples. Haiti's tropical Caribbean climate allows for tropical fruits such as avocados, mangoes, pineapples, coconuts, and guava to grow in abundance. Such fruits are often used to make refreshing fruit juices. Other popular beverages include shaved ice topped with a fruity syrup, (a locally produced orange squash drink), and even sugarcane. Both adults and children enjoy chewing on the stalks to extract its sweet juice. Use a flat spatula or the bottom of a drinking glass to flatten the fried plantain slices to make Bannann Peze. Bannann Peze (Fried Plantains) - ½ cup vegetable oil - 2 medium-sized green plantains, peeled and sliced - In a heavy 12-inch skillet, heat the oil over moderate heat. - Add as many plantain slices as you can without crowding the pan and brown for about 2 minutes on each side. - As they brown, transfer them to paper towels to drain. - On a board, using a spatula, press each slice flat and round, about ¼-inch thick and 2 inches in diameter. - Heat the oil and fry the rounds again for about 1 minute on each side. - Drain on paper towels and serve immediately. - Serves 4. Riz et Pois Rouges (Rice and Red Beans) - 1 medium onion, chopped - 3 cloves garlic, minced - 1 medium green bell pepper, chopped - 2 Tablespoons vegetable oil - 1 cup rice, uncooked - 2 cans (15 ounces each) kidney beans, drained - ¼ pound ham, chopped - ½ teaspoon cumin - ¼ teaspoon salt - ¼ teaspoon oregano - ¼ teaspoon crushed red pepper - 2½ cups boiling water - Preheat oven to 350°F. - Heat oil in a large skillet. - Cook and stir the onion, garlic, and green pepper until tender, about 3 - In a separate bowl, combine and mix all the remaining ingredients. - Add the onion mixture to the bowl and stir well. - Pour entire mixture into an ungreased 2-quart casserole dish. - Cover and bake until liquid is absorbed and rice is tender, about 55 - Stir before serving. Makes 5 to 6 servings. Riz Djon-Djon (Rice and Haitian Mushrooms) - 2 cups long grain rice - 1 cup Haitian black mushrooms (or dried, black European mushrooms) - 2 cloves garlic, finely chopped - 4 Tablespoons butter - Salt, pepper, and thyme, to taste - Remove the stems from the mushrooms and soak them in a cup of hot water for 30 minutes. - Soak the heads in a separate cup of hot water. - Sauté the rice and garlic in butter, then add all the other ingredients, including the water used to soak the mushrooms (discard the mushroom stems, which are inedible). - Cook for 20 minutes and serve. Haitian Fruit Salad - 2 oranges, peeled and sectioned - 3 bananas, sliced - ½ cup melon balls - ½ cup strawberries, sliced - 4 slices pineapple, diced - ½ cup raspberries - ¼ cup roasted peanuts - ¼ cup pineapple juice - ¼ cup lime juice - 1 cup sweetened condensed milk - Shredded coconut (optional) - In a large bowl, combine oranges, bananas, melon balls, strawberries, pineapple, raspberries, and nuts. - In a separate bowl, combine the pineapple juice, lime juice, condensed milk, and beaten eggs. - Pour the juice mixture on top of the fruit. - Top with shredded coconut. 4 FOOD FOR RELIGIOUS AND HOLIDAY CELEBRATIONS Religion is an important part of Haitian life and culture. The two main religions are Roman Catholicism and Voudou (or Voodoo), a mixture of African animism (belief in spirits and nature) and Christianity. In addition to visiting family and enjoying delicious meals together, religious and secular (nonreligious) celebrations are also a time to forget about everyday poverty and hardship. Roman Catholics observe such holidays as Good Friday, Easter Sunday, and Christmas—one of the most celebrated of all Christian holidays worldwide. On Christmas Eve in Haiti, Roman Catholics attend midnight mass, followed by a celebration dinner and gift exchanges. Children will also travel through local streets carrying a small house or church that they have made ahead of time with strips of cardboard called a (fah-NAHL). Typically, only the homes of the wealthy will own a Christmas tree, but everyone in a village might get to enjoy Haitians who practice voudou enjoy harvest festivals that take place for two days each November. Haitian peasants observe (mahn-djay YAM), literally meaning "eat yam" day. Along with singing and dancing, the festival is celebrated by feasting and drinking. The purpose of this day is to recognize the importance of the yam in the rural Haitian diet. National holidays, holidays observed and celebrated by the majority of the population (regardless of religious beliefs), are also popular. November 2 is All Souls' Day (or the Day of the Dead). On this special day, loved ones who have passed away are honored and their lives celebrated through storytelling, eating, and drinking. Many people choose to place food in front of a loved one's grave or on the table where they used to eat. Only after the food has been offered will the rest of the family enjoy their own meals. A Typical Christmas Menu Fried pork or goat (spicy pickled carrots and cabbage) (sweetened potato, fig, and banana pudding) Probably the most widely celebrated event in Haiti is known as Carnival, or Mardi Gras. Though the main attraction is music, these three days Wednesday each February (known as "Fat Tuesday" in the United States) are also marked by days of celebratory feasting. Pain Haïtien (Haitian Bread) - 2 packages active dry yeast - 1½ cups warm water - ¼ cup honey - 2 Tablespoons vegetable oil - 1 teaspoon salt - ¾ teaspoon ground nutmeg - 4 cups flour - ¼ teaspoon instant coffee - 2 Tablespoons milk - Preheat oven to 350°F. - Dissolve the yeast in a large bowl in warm water. - Stir in honey, oil, salt, nutmeg, and 2 cups of the flour. - Beat until very smooth, about 1 minute. - Gradually add enough of the remaining flour to make a stiff dough. - Turn dough onto a lightly floured surface; knead until smooth, about 5 - Place in a greased bowl, cover, and let rise in a warm place until about double in size, about 50 minutes. Punch down on dough. - Press in greased jelly roll plan (about 15x10x1-inch). - Cut dough into about 2½-inch squares with a sharp knife, cutting two-thirds of the way through the dough. - Cover and let rise until double in size, about 30 minutes. - Dissolve the instant coffee in the milk and brush over the dough. - Bake until the bread is golden brown, about 35 minutes. - Break the bread into squares to serve. Makes 2 dozen squares. - 1 can pineapple, crushed - ⅛ teaspoon nutmeg, plus additional for topping - ½ cup coconut milk - 1 cup milk - Combine all the ingredients in a blender and mix well. - Top the drink with additional nutmeg. Serves 4 to 6. 5 MEALTIME CUSTOMS Most of Haitian society consists of peasants who live a simple lifestyle. On a small plot of owned or rented land, the peasants usually cultivate beans, sweet potatoes, maize (similar to corn), bananas, or coffee (and sometimes a combination). Men plant and harvest the crops while the women typically take care of the children, prepare meals, and sell the extra crops they have grown (if there are any) at the local market. Markets are frequently the center of economic and social activity in small Haitian villages, and a place where mostly women can be seen selling produce. Markets located in tourist areas, such as Port-au-Prince, the country's capital, often open for business as early as 5 A.M. It is normal for women to sometimes walk several miles each way to the market carrying large baskets of produce on their heads. Though vegetables and fruits are probably the most commonly sold food, salted codfish, and various meats, and manioc flour are also popular. There are no refrigerators, so seafood and meat is typically covered in salt to help preserve it in the warm, outdoor markets. Other homemade products such as clothing, cooking utensils, and baskets are also sold. Ready-to-eat meals are also available, usually for the hungry tourist. The most popularly sold dish is a porridge made of a ground corn, sugar, and milk, cooked over a large fire. It is usually eaten immediately after it has been purchased, typically served in a tin cup. Peasants themselves usually begin the day with a light breakfast of locally grown coffee and bread made of manioc flour (wheat flour is often too expensive for the typical Haitian peasant, who has very little money). Most peasants work in the fields and take a break for a light snack around midday. Another break from fieldwork (as well as a chance to see his family) is in the late afternoon when peasants often return home to eat the main meal of the day. Unfortunately, the main meal of the day may be little more than what was eaten for the midday snack—porridge and possibly a freshly grown fruit, such as pineapple, coconut, or mango. Haiti's national dish of beans and rice may also be eaten. Pumpkin soup is traditionally eaten for lunch on Sundays, for those who can afford its ingredients (it is also eaten on New Year's Day for good luck). Spicy, flavorful sauces are common in several Haitian dishes, particularly to season bland peasant dishes. The most popular sauce is (tih-mah-LISS), a very spicy tomato and onion mixture. Ti-Malice (Spicy Haitian Sauce) - 10 large tomatoes, peeled and quartered - 3 white onions, quartered - 4 red hot peppers (jalapeños work well), seeded - 3 Tablespoons brown sugar - 1 Tablespoon salt - 2 cups malt vinegar - Purée the tomatoes, onions, and peppers in a food processor. - Transfer to a large saucepan and add the brown sugar, salt, and malt - Stir well to combine. - Cook the sauce over medium heat, stirring occasionally, until it begins - Lower the heat and simmer for 20 minutes, continuing to stir - Serve with any Haitian rice or meat dish. - 6 cups water - 1 teaspoon salt (optional) - 2 cups cornmeal - 2 Tablespoons butter, margarine, canola oil, or olive oil - Bring water to boil in a large pot. Add the salt, if desired. - Gradually stir in cornmeal with a whisk. Turn heat down to medium. - Stir briskly to get the lumps out, then cook for another 10 to 20 minutes, stirring frequently (add water if it becomes too thick). - Remove from heat and stir in butter or oil. - Serve immediately or pour into a square pan. - Let cool and cut into squares. Serves 4 to 6. 6 POLITICS, ECONOMICS, AND NUTRITION About 61 percent of the population of Haiti is classified as undernourished by the World Bank. This means they do not receive adequate nutrition in their diet. Of children under the age of five, about 28 percent are underweight, and nearly one-third are stunted (short for their Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere, with unemployment rates as high as 70 percent of the population. Many families cannot afford healthy, vitamin-enriched meals, although mangoes are frequently eaten to avoid a Vitamin A deficiency. In addition, only about one-quarter of Haitians have access to adequate sanitation. Although the country is surrounded by an abundance of water, it continues to lack water in both quantity and quality. Poor nutrition and sanitation have caused Haiti to have one of the youngest life expectancies. In 1998, the average life expectancy was 54.4 years of age. 7 FURTHER STUDY Haiti: Cultures of the World . Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corporation, 1995. (accessed April 16, 2001). Culinary Specialties of Haiti. [Online] Available (accessed April 16, 2001). Recipe Goldmine. [Online] Available (accessed April 16, 2001).

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DRIVING CHANGE IN THE WORLD Projects, Multiple Viewpoints and Enacting Positive Change Our project based approach to teaching and learning frames projects on interdisciplinary, meaningful, and current real world problems. Students have the opportunity to explore current issues by speaking with a diverse range of experts and consulting sources that articulate a variety of viewpoints. Students explore media literacy and critical thinking as they evaluate and make sense of divergent perspectives on the specific issues they choose to dive deeper into, while connecting these issues to curricular content and skills. Speaking with experts and communities impacted by these issues allows them to generate a more nuanced understanding of content, with empathy. By investigating the larger context of the issues they are exploring, students engage in a design process to iterate, prototype and test possible solutions, towards doing or producing positive change. With constant feedback from peers, teachers and experts, students revise, reflect and tell the story of their learning journey, failures, successes and major discoveries. Making a Positive Impact in the World In the fall of 2016, the senior class of Tahoe Expedition Academy was asked to design a class service trip on their own. As a crew, they decided that with the turmoil in the Middle East and the refugee crisis in Europe, they would travel to Greece to volunteer with PRAKSIS, a non governmental organization that provides social and medical services for refugees. The goal of the trip was to understand and help refugees forced to flee their own country to find safety elsewhere. At the culmination their Learning Expedition titled “Move, Adapt, or Die: The Life and Times of a Syrian Refugee,” students produced this short documentary film, which illustrates the challenges of current Syrian refugees in Greece. They also created a Facebook page to spread awareness of the plight of refugees in Greece and to support the PRAKSIS aid organization and all of the volunteers they met along the way. If you are interested in supporting PRAKSIS, their donation portal is here with details on how your support would be used. HIGH SCHOOL ACADEMIC PROGRAMMING - FOUNDATIONS COURSES These classes are directly aligned with National Standards for the core content areas (Math, Science, History, English). These classes include individually-paced opportunities as well as one-on-one and small group instruction. Teachers target specific skills within these classes to support Real-World Projects through foundational class content. 9th and 10th-Grade Foundation Courses 9th grade foundation courses: Biology, Integrated Math I (students will be placed into a math class based on their previous math course), Social Studies - Human Geography, English and Language Arts, Spanish I, II, III, IV. 10th grade foundation courses: Chemistry or Physics (depending on math level), Integrated Math II (students will be placed into a math class based on their previous math course) Social Studies - Modern World History, English & Language Arts, Spanish I, II, III, IV. 11th and 12th-Grade Foundation Courses 11th-grade foundation courses: Physics or Earth Science (depending on math level), Integrated Math III (students will be placed into a math class based on their previous math course), Social Studies - U.S. History, English and Language Arts, Spanish I, II, III, IV. 12th grade courses: Earth Science or Chemistry (depending on math level), Calculus or Statistics (students will be placed into a math class based on their previous math course), Social Studies - U.S. Government, English and Language Arts, Spanish I, II, III, IV. These courses are an essential component of both student choice and academic support. Intensives are courses lasting from five to eight days in which students are engaged in either an in-depth study of a topic or intensive academic support. They are offered at the end of the fall semester so that students failing one or more courses have the opportunity and support to complete their work. Students passing all courses choose from a menu of multi-grade level intensives. Semester-long, interdisciplinary curricula that use a topical lens and specific case studies to explore content in depth and engage with real-world learning, problem solving and skills development. Individual Senior Projects In the spring, students in 12th-grade create and pursue their own integrated course of study during the last semester of their senior year called the Individual Senior Intensive, which tackles a real world problem. This long-term academic endeavor can involve language acquisition and volunteerism or other opportunities within respectable and faculty-approved boundaries and is intended to provide students with an opportunity to demonstrate what they are capable of doing and producing to have a positive impact on their lives and the world. Field Studies, Experts and Service Real World Projects embed and integrate field studies, experts and service learning into a larger curriculum unit. Beyond the classroom walls, students engage in acts of service, locally, nationally and globally. During field studies, they collaborate with local organizations, engage with relevant experts and contribute to their community through entrepreneurship and volunteerism. By giving and intentionally directing their efforts, intellect and resources to where it can benefit the greater good, students become active citizens in their communities. Advisors and teachers guide students through this process during their school career, which culminates with a Senior Project. MEET OUR AMAZING HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS Our faculty and staff empower students to question, think, explore and lead. Relationships between our students and teachers are paramount to creating a community of care, service, and commitment. To learn more about our faculty and staff please click below. Beth Valarino | Middle and High School Humanities Coach + Crew Leader Beth was born and raised in Honolulu, Hawaii. After she graduated from high school, she attended a small college in New Hampshire for a year and a half before moving back to Hawaii to finish her undergraduate degree. During her college years she participated in four separate study abroad programs that took her all over the world. She studied French and Environmental Science in Tahiti, sailed around the Marquesas Islands learning through a lens of Pacific Archaeology, and sailed around the world two times while taking college classes through a program called Semester at Sea. After she graduated from college, her life and teaching career took her on a journey teaching and living abroad. After spending ten years teaching at private international schools in Central America and in the Middle East, she returned to the United States where she taught at a college preparatory school in the Pacific Northwest before moving to the Reno/Tahoe area. Beth is excited to embark on her fourth year teaching at TEA, and her 15th year teaching. Her passion for life and love for adventure resonates through the experiences and opportunities she provides for her students. In Cairo, Egypt, she spent four years facilitating an outdoor education program in addition to classroom teaching. She organized sandboarding trips to the Fayoum desert, windsurfing trips to the Red Sea, horseback riding to the pyramids, and trips into lesser known Oases outside of Cairo’s city sprawl. One of the highlights of her teaching life was returning to Cairo in June 2018 to surprise her former students at their High School graduation! Some of Beth’s personal interests include reading, writing, surfing, stand up paddling, cycling, mountain biking, hiking, running, snowboarding, traveling, floating rivers, and spending time with her golden retriever and wife. She’s been to over 50 countries, ran two half marathons, and has summited Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Kenya, and Mount Meru. What inspired you to join TEA? Working at TEA has inspired a daily practice of gratitude and self-reflection. It’s helped me to look at mistakes or missteps as areas for growth, rather than areas of being small. It’s helped me to ask myself “What can I learn from this? How can I grow? What more can know or learn in order to be successful next time?” Where did you go to school? Chaminade University, BA in English, MAT, and MEd in Education and Teaching Do you have any special certifications? WFA Certified What is something that not everyone knows about you, but probably should? I love car camping, and we have a glamping set up that could rival a stay at the penthouse suite at The Four Seasons! Matt Morrison | Dean of Students + Middle and High School Humanities Coach + Crew Leader Matt’s passion for teaching came from his time as a snow board instructor at Northstar. Though he enjoyed instructing adults, it was the kid groups that truly made him smile. Life had other plans though, and Matt put his ideas of teaching on hold while working in the private yacht industry, plying the waters of the South Pacific during the winters and cruising around New Zealand during the summers. He ended up going back to school to get his teaching degree in New Zealand and worked in a local elementary school as a 4th/5th grade teacher for 2 years before moving back to the USA. Once back home in 2012, Matt joined TEA where he taught 5th grade for 6 years before making the transition to the Middle School and High School in 2018. Matt was thrilled to join the Middle and High School team and have the opportunity to focus in on his love of history, while also helping to solidify the Middle School as an integral part of TEA. What inspired you to join TEA? Seeing my kiddos come home from school each day with smiles on their faces and stories to tell. Where did you go to school? University of Waikato / Graduate Diploma in Teaching; Sierra Nevada College / BS in Business Administration What is something that not everyone knows about you, but probably should? I have logged over 26,000 nautical miles at sea. Loren Trux | Middle and High School Math & Science Coach + Crew Leader Loren earned his California Multiple subject Teaching Credential from Chico State University and is currently working toward a Waldorf teaching certificate. During his most recent teaching experiences in Waldorf education he discovered many alternative methods for reading instruction and teaching techniques. Loren discovered his passion for working with children at a day camp in Tahoe City more than fifteen years ago and is very excited to be doing what he loves in Tahoe once again. He is eager to learn more about the expeditionary model and looks forward to sharing his ideas with the communiTEA. He also enjoys many outdoor activities including mountain biking, kayaking, fishing and exploring nature with his family. Loren likes to play music and work making things with his hands. He lives in Kings Beach with his wife Ashley and daughter Iyla. Loren believes that a teacher’s task is to help each student reach their greatest potential. To do this he must be a guide, and companion in the pursuit of knowledge and the pursuit should be authentic for the student and teacher. What inspired you to join TEA? The opportunity to help kids reach their greatest potential. Where did you go to school? California Multiple Subject Teaching Credential from Chico State University What is something that not everyone knows about you, but probably should? I am an avid blacksmith and teach a blacksmithing class at TEA’s summer camp. Natalie Bladis | Middle and High School Math & Science Coach + Crew Leader Natalie was born in Westchester, New York and grew up on Lake Rippowam in South Salem where her love of the outdoors began. In high school, she took a class called Wilderness which sparked her interest in entering the fields of outdoor and project-based education. She even wrote her college application essay about being a high school math teacher. After high school, Natalie attended the State University of New York at Geneseo where she studied Mathematics and Secondary Education. The summer after her junior year of college, Natalie hiked the Pacific Crest Trail before teaching abroad in Ghana West Africa during her senior year. After college, she moved to California to be closer to bigger mountains and teach at a project-based learning school called Da Vinci Charter Academy in Davis. At Da Vinci, Natalie taught Integrated Math 2, Algebra 2/Trigonometry, AP Statistics, and AP Calculus AB. Natalie also founded and coached the Ultimate Frisbee team. Here in California, she has learned to rock climb and ski. In her spare time, Natalie enjoys yoga and creating ceramic art. What inspired you to join the TEAm? The most inspiring aspect of TEA for me is the concept of constructive adversity. I seek out constructive adversity in my own life every day to become the best version of myself. One of my personal core values is to face my fears with perseverance and an indomitable spirit. To work at a school that shares this core value inspires me to push myself and help my students set goals that push them every day in the academic setting. Where did you go to school? SUNY Geneseo, Mathematics and Secondary Education, Minor in Asian Studies (Visual Arts) Do you have any special certifications? I’m a Yoga Teacher and Ceramic Artist What’s something that not everyone knows about you, but probably should? Even though at heart I am a mountain girl, I love creatures of the sea. I once carried 2 whale vertebrate (each about 3 feet in diameter) 10 miles on the lost coast trail for my collection of sea things by strapping them to my already full pack. I have since traded one of the vertebrae for a moose skull. Nilo Bill | Middle and High School Math & Science Coach + Crew Leader Having received his Ph.D. from Oregon State University in geology and climatology after receiving his undergraduate degree from University of Miami, earning a triple major in Geology, Anthropology, and International Studies, Nilo draws from a diverse array of academic disciplines. The pursuit of knowledge has brought Nilo to do fieldwork all over the world, from Antarctica to Alaska. Recently, being named a National Geographic Explorer allowed him to work on solutions to climate change problems in the country of Iceland. This early work of Nilo’s has culminated in several publications in scholarly journals including in Earth and Planetary Science Letters, as well as a coauthor on a high-school level textbook titled The Himalayas: An Encyclopedia of Geography, History, and Culture. If you walk into Nilo’s classroom you will likely find students engaged in hypothesis driven science or discussions surrounding scientific epistemology, or, how scientists know what they know. Nilo believes that an eye toward his students’ future is important while maintaining a healthy dose of fun and adrenaline along the way. To Nilo, no matter where he is in the field with his students there is an outdoor lesson in natural science waiting to be unleashed. The real world provides the most interesting and useful problems to solve, and that is where Nilo’s classes always begin. If he is not talking about science with his students, Nilo is likely comparing notes with students on ski conditions, best Tahoe ski runs and plans of attack for upcoming powder days. What inspired you to join TEA? Creating students that are the best versions of themselves. Being able to not only teach students science and math in ways that excite me, but mentoring them into proto-adulthood. Where did you go to school? Oregon State University, Ph.D., Geology Do you have any special certifications? NOLS Wilderness First Responder What is something that not everyone knows about you, but probably should? I love bluegrass music and play guitar and banjo. Michaela Fooksa | Middle and High School Math & Science Coach + Crew Leader Michaela has been slowing making her way west her whole life. She was born in Boston and received her BA in Mathematics from Colgate University, where she led a math tutoring group at a local high school. She then moved to Nashville, Tennessee to work in a computational biology lab and receive her MS in Chemical and Physical Biology at Vanderbilt University. The next stop was Lake Tahoe, where she fell in love with the unending outdoor activities and the natural beauty and tranquility of the Sierras. Michaela has studied and done research in Math, Physics, Computer Science, Chemistry, and Biology, and she is excited to be able to share her interdisciplinary background as a math and physics teacher. In her free time, Michaela enjoys trail running, backpacking, skiing, swimming, yoga, reading, and country music. What inspired you to join TEA? Learning through real-world experiences not only cements lessons in students’ minds, but it also allows freedom and creativity to connect classroom experiences to real-life problems. I am excited to help show all that nature has to teach us and to inspire people to connect with and protect the natural world. Where did you go to school? Colgate University, BA in Mathematics, Vanderbilt University, MS in Chemical and Physical Biology with a concentration in Molecular Biophysics Do you have any special certifications? Member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, fluent in Czech What is something that not everyone knows about you, but probably should? I spent six months studying intensive statistical theory in Cape Town, South Africa, where I also took a course in African drumming and competed on the university’s swim team. Merinda Zywicz | Middle and High School Spanish & Humanities Coach + Crew Leader Merinda is from California and grew up spending time exploring and playing in the Sierras. She studied International Development with a focus on Latin America and Political Ecology. Her studies focused on trying to find solutions that balance the social, environmental and economic needs of the world, which makes her very excited to be at TEA where students grapple with those problems regularly. She has spent time working with non-profits that tackle these challenges in Ecuador, Chile and Costa Rica. Prior to working at TEA, Merinda worked as a ski instructor and naturalist in Tahoe. These jobs helped her realize her passion for teaching kids in settings where they are empowered to learn through their own experiences and pursue their curiosities. Merinda also spent a year in Madrid, Spain where she studied Spanish and worked as an au pair to foster language acquisition for the three young girls in the family. Teaching Spanish at TEA is a culmination of many of Merinda’s personal interest and she is excited to share her passion for the value of language with the students. Outside of TEA Merinda loves to ski, run, climb, bike and generally take advantage of the outdoor opportunities in Tahoe. What inspired you to join TEA? TEA’s approach towards framing learning as a way of tackling real world problems as well as their acknowledgment of the value of learning through experiences. Where did you go to school? University of California Berkeley, Bachelors in International Development with a focus on Political Ecology in Latin America What is something that not everyone knows about you, but probably should? I have skied in more countries than states. Katy Kimple | Student Success Coach + Crew Leader Katy graduated from SUNY Cortland in 2011 with a degree in Therapeutic Recreation became a nationally certified Recreational Specialist in 2012. Katy spent her first three years out of college working as a wilderness therapy instructor and found Lake Tahoe along the way. After moving to Tahoe, Katy has worked in many positions assisting people of all abilities and disabilities. She started a community integration program for adults with developmental disabilities in Truckee and South Lake Tahoe and then transitioned into working for Achieve Tahoe. Katy found her passion for teaching while working at Sierra Nevada College in Incline Village. Katy worked for three years as an Outdoor Adventure Leadership professor. Finding that taking students into the wilderness and out of their comfort zone was still a passion of hers. Most recently, Katy utilized her background in disabilities while working at Sierra Mental Wellness Group in social work. What inspired you to join the TEAm? I believe that every child should have the opportunity to learn and grow in the outdoors and TEA does exactly that, creates growth through adversity. Where did you go to school? State University of New York at Cortland, Therapeutic Recreation, BS in Science Do you have any special certifications?Certified Therapeutic Recreation Specialist, WFR, ASIST, and Know the Signs trainer What is something that not everyone knows about you, but probably should?Backpacking is my jam…I’ve through hikes the Camino de Santiago in Spain and about 3/4 of the way through the Appalachian Trail. Alison Levin | Project Manager + Real-World Intensive Coach + Crew Leader Growing up in Alabama, Alison spent her days exploring the Cahaba, playing catch with her dad, and rooting for Auburn. Her love for education began as a kid when she’d hold class for her stuffed animals and build challenge courses for the front yard caterpillars. She spent her summers at camp and eventually followed a college friend up to the Finger Lakes where she became a counselor and outdoor instructor in Skaneateles, New York. After 4 years at the University of Maryland (with a semester abroad in Cape Town, South Africa) Alison joined the Peace Corps and spent 27 months in the South Pacific. On a small island named Ambae on the archipelago of Vanuatu, Alison served as a community development advocate and English literacy facilitator. Alison focused on environmental education and incorporating creativity into the curriculum and teaching methods. She was on the Gender and Development Committee and ran several Training of Trainer workshops for the local educators. Though the whole adventure was filled with successes and failures, some of her fondest memories come from forming a Women’s Committee and building a market house so that each woman can gain financial independence and empowerment with her own income and community role. That, and stargazing after a few shells of kava in the company of her incredible host mama and papa. After the Peace Corps, Alison traveled for 6 months in Southeast Asia, hugged her family back home, and moved to Lake Tahoe where her camp friends had landed several years before. She has been here since, finding her favorite trails and learning how to ski – and loving every minute in this beautiful place! Alison is thrilled to join the team and begin contributing to the collective vision. She already suspects that her inner child will become an honor student at TEA! What inspired you to join TEA? The emphasis on connecting kids with the world: with nature as stewards to the land, with the local community as allies and advocates, and beyond as global citizens and changemakers. Where did you go to school? University of Maryland, Supply Chain Management What is something that not everyone knows about you, but probably should? If I’m not outside exploring, I’m either at a craft fair with my hand-lettered creations, at the Truckee Roundhouse makerspace learning something new, or in a hammock with a good book. Joe Taylor | Middle and High School Real-world Intensive Coach A Kings Beach local, Joe spearheaded the North Tahoe Boys and Girl’s Club art program and has served as its Director for the past four years. Joe has a proven track record as a community servant and works extremely well with children of all ages. His experience, enthusiasm, and knowledge of his craft make Joe an extremely valuable asset to our community. His love for his subject and background knowledge are the ingredients that are necessary to give our students the skills to identify with their innate ability to recognize beauty while they practice a passion for aesthetics. Katy Watts | College and Career Counselor + Registrar Katy was born and raised in the Bay Area and has been happily working with teenagers since 2002, after she earned her MA in School Counseling and PPS from Chapman University. After 3 years in public schools in the Bay Area, she moved to the Middle East (Bahrain) in 2005 to focus on college planning and guidance, where she worked with international students seeking admissions to universities not only in the US, but in Australia, Europe, Canada and anywhere else they could imagine. She has also worked with students from low income and first generation backgrounds. Most recently she has been an external freshman reader for a top UC. Well versed in public, private and Ivy League colleges and universities, Katy also has experience with recruited athletes. After working for eight years in two competitive private high schools in Houston as an Associate Director and Director of College Counseling, she and her husband and two children moved back west in 2015. She is starting her 4th year at TEA as the college counselor and was honored to help graduate the classes of 2017 and 2018 with 100% acceptance rates to college. Her focus has always been on guiding students in finding the right social, academic and financial fit for college. Katy continues to stay current on admission trends by attending local, regional and national conferences and visiting colleges and universities around the US. Eric Martin | Athletics and Activities Director + Real-world Intensive Coach Eric graduated from Salisbury University in 2004 with a BS in Business Marketing. At Salisbury, Eric had a standout lacrosse career — winning two National Championships in 2003 & 2004 and was named the 2003 & 2004 National Defenseman of the Year and the 2004 National Player of the Year. The summer following college, Eric was drafted by professional lacrosse teams in New York and California. After spending time on both coasts Eric made San Francisco home for the next 8 years, that is, while he wasn’t flying to/from or playing lacrosse games across North America. Eric enjoyed a nearly 10 year professional lacrosse career in the National Lacrosse League and Major League Lacrosse. Eric was a member of the US Men’s National Team that won the 2010 World Championship in Manchester, England. He’s a member of the Salisbury University Athletics Hall of Fame. Eric started working at TEA at the beginning of the 2011/12 school year. Prior to moving to Tahoe, Eric worked in sales and marketing within the sport and manufacturing industries. He directed and coached One City Lacrosse, a non profit that introduced lacrosse to underserved youth in San Francisco. He also co-founded and ran a lacrosse camps business. Eric believes that athletic participation and competition define character and perseverance. Eric will draw from his extensive professional background to help students discover and pursue their athletic passion. What inspired you to join TEA? The opportunities and challenges that Lake Tahoe and its surrounding lands provide to everyone willing to step out of their comfort zone. Where did you go to school? Salisbury University, BS in Business Marketing Do you have any special certifications? High Sierra Lacrosse Board Member, Wilderness First Responder What is something that not everyone knows about you, but probably should? I’m a better cook than you. Greg Wright | Marketing and Communications Director + Real-world Intensive Coach Greg’s path to joining TEA was through the world of action sports. Prior to TEA, Greg was at the helm of an influential action sports publishing network whose titles included Freeskier Magazine and Snow Board Magazine. His particular area of expertise is branded content production and distribution, and he’s found an impactful application for that skillset at TEA. From our TEAFilms.org program to our yearbook, website blog, social media, and monthly feel-good email newsletters, Greg may have earned the title “Chief Storyteller” at TEA. What inspired you to join TEA? The opportunity to use storytelling and content distribution to influence kids to solve real-world problems and advocate for causes they believe it. Where did you go to school? Sierra Nevada College, BS in Business Administration with an emphasis in Ski Area Design, Layout and Management. What is something that not everyone knows about you, but probably should? I love to cook and have even won competitive cooking awards for my pork green chili (that’s made with 100% jalapeños). Ken Martin | Finance & Operations Director + Title IX Coordinator + Middle and High School Math & Science Coach Ken is a lifelong student & practitioner of leadership and management, having led teams in several military, corporate, & non-profit environments. Ken derives immense satisfaction from helping people use their talents to accomplish goals. Ken is deeply grateful for the opportunity to contribute to a school where the students are enthusiastic learners, where the teachers and staff are creative and passionate, and where the entire community pulls together time after time to support this unique and powerful program. What inspired you to join TEA? Seeing students learn what they’re capable of when they’re tested by adversity. Seeing confidence, self-knowledge, passion, and purpose develop in students. Where did you go to school? Vanderbilt University BE Chemical Engineering and University of Houston – Clear Lake MBA What is something that not everyone knows about you, but probably should? I love to sing, mostly in quartets & choruses, having performed for thousands of people in many different settings, from elementary school classrooms to nursing homes, theatres and sports venues including the NHL Predators at Nashville’s Bridgestone Arena. As a teenager, I performed at the Palace Theater at Six Flags in St. Louis, MO. Most recently, I’ve performed with Nashville’s Music City Chorus in the 2018 BHS International Chorus Contest in Orlando, FL, placing 5th. Laura Quarin | Middle and High School Program Facilitator + Humanities Coach + Crew Leader Though originally from Canada, Laura’s love of exploration and travel have taken her all over the world. Laura has been fortunate to live and work in Canada, Australia, Panama, Egypt and now the United States. She has taught a variety of academic subjects, served as an athletic director in two different countries, worked as the humanities specialist and principal at a small school outside of Vancouver, British Columbia, and had an incredible first year at TEA as the Middle and High School Student Support teacher. Through Laura’s experience in various educational contexts, she has developed a passion for facilitating opportunities for young people to learn and grow in ways that inspire them. Her experience has taught her that given the right levels of engaging content, emotional support and academic challenge, all students can grow toward their own unique potential. Laura is a lifelong learner who follows her curiosity into historical non-fiction, through travel to new places and into the mountains as often as possible. She is grateful to have the opportunity to continue living out her passion for actively exploring the outdoors in the beautiful Tahoe area. Laura is in awe of the positivity of the entire TEA community and loves being a part of it. What inspired you to join TEA? The incredible level of growth I’ve witnessed TEA students experience, both in their academic depth and character development, as a result of their emersion in real-world constructive adversity, is absolutely astounding. Where did you go to school? Brock University – Bachelor of Kinesiology/minor in History; University of Wollongong – Diploma of Education; Western Kentucky University – Masters of Science in Athletic Administration What is something that not everyone knows about you, but probably should? Laura has summited three of the highest peaks on the African continent: Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Kenya, and Mount Meru. Mara Morrison | Co-Director + Middle and High School Humanities Teacher + Crew Leader Mara Morrison was born and raised in Oregon. Whether it was skiing Mt. Hood, traveling the world with her family, hiking the Pacific Northwest or camping up and down the West coast, Mara spent her childhood taking advantage of the beautiful world around her. Mara attended the University of Oregon to earn a Bachelor of Arts in History. After graduating, she moved to Tahoe and enrolled at Sierra Nevada College where she earned her teaching credential in secondary social studies as well as a Master of Art in Teaching. Her master’s thesis focused on using primary and secondary sources to teach about social injustices throughout history. Mara is passionate about connecting history to current events and sharing the passion for learning that she enjoys with her students. Mara has worked in a variety of settings with students ranging in levels from Kindergarten through University. In 2016, Mara joined the faculty at Tahoe Expedition Academy and has been the high school history teacher, 11/12th grade crew leader, Dean of Students, and Middle School and High School Director. Mara is passionate about bringing real-world experiences to the students of TEA and ensuring they have the skills and abilities to leave TEA to become courageous citizens of the world. She was drawn to her leadership position in order to advocate and support students, parents, and teachers while contributing to the “magic sauce” of TEA. What inspired you to join TEA? TEA allows teachers to bring curriculum alive in order to make learning fun, challenging, and applicable to the real world. Traveling for fieldwork with students allows them to dive deeper into content, work with experts, develop a multicultural understanding of the world, and allows the student and teacher relationship to develop. When I see TEA students alongside students from other schools I am always blown away by their social and emotional maturity. TEA allows us to bridge the gap between rigorous academics, social-emotional learning and character development, and real-world adventure. At most schools, it is hard to implement change, but at TEA we thrive on it because we live in a dynamic world. Where did you go to school? University of Oregon, B.A. History + Sierra Nevada College, M.A.T. What is something that not everyone knows about you, but probably should? I love cooking and baking. I used to make wedding cakes and novelty cakes for special events.

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[WJMCR 6:3 June 2003] This content analysis of a sample of advertising from Time, New Yorker, and Saturday Evening Post during the 1920s and 1930s examined the impact of the national economic conditions on advertising and its visuals. This study suggests that the impact of national economic conditions in the 1920s and 1930s on the use of ad visuals in the mainstream magazine advertisements seemed visible. Photographs were more prevalent in the 1930s. Also, the use of literal visuals was dominant in the 1930s. The difference in the use of advertising visuals was statistically significant between the two periods of time in the early twentieth century. This study supports cultural historian�s argument that advertising is viewed as mirrors of society, being influenced and shaped by the culture and society. Advertising visual and its graphical components have long been the target of studies since marketers began to adopt full-scale marketing activities in the late nineteenth century. The important theme was how the visual appeal could be translated into an effective selling message.1 The role of advertising visuals includes obtaining attention, creating impact, and stimulating interest from an indifferent audience through conveying a main selling point of products or brands.2 Advertising visuals perform two main functions – literal and symbolic.3Literal visuals provide factual information on products or services, and symbolic visuals perform an indirect role to connect the images of products or services with the meanings that are appropriately assigned to them. Advertising is part of the changing social, economic, and cultural environment, and its visuals might have been created in a way that could reflect those changes that people would want to adjust themselves to.4 Another way of linking advertising and its visuals to society and culture is the cultural approach to advertising. Cultural historians argue that advertising is an important window through which different aspects of society and culture can be explained.5 But also, the advertising itself can be explained to determine how it might have been shaped by society. This approach recognizes advertising not only as a window to culture but also a mirror that reflects the culture, or the cultures.6 For any specific period of time, this approach viewed that prevailing social and cultural values could have dictated how advertising and its visuals evolved around them. Based on this approach, the two economically contrasting periods, the �Roaring Twenties� and the �Great Depression� were compared through a content analysis of visual forms in the magazine advertisements to see if the ads and its visuals had reflected the underlying economic conditions in them. Visuals in Advertising. Visual appeal always had a prominent place in advertising. The old saying is that a picture is worth a thousand words, so many advertisers usually try to visually communicate messages, rather than bog down the receiver in heavy text. Hecker & Stewart state:7 Visual recall is becoming increasingly important, and corporate symbols and advertising will need to be stronger and eye-catching to capture consumer attention. Nonverbal communication will not only become a means for drawing attention to a verbal message, but it will also become the message itself in many instances � The use of imagery, visual associations, drawings and paintings, models, visual memory devices, product and corporate symbols � are pervasive in advertising. Visual imagery is used to command attention, stimulate curiosity, demonstrate product features and benefits, establish a personality for a product, associate the product with certain symbols and lifestyles, and anchor the brand identity in the minds of the target audience.8 Additionally, advertisers use visual imagery to enhance or strengthen the message about their product. For instance, when something neutral (the product) is paired with something that elicits a positive affective reaction (a visual), the neutral stimulus may come to evoke a positive response to the ad.9 In other words, visuals can add meaning (and subsequently a positive response) to something that is basically neutral (the product). Rossiter & Percy10 divided visual communication in advertising into two categories of stimuli � static and dynamic. The three elements that determine static stimuli are picture size, exposure duration and number of exposures. An increase in any of these variables has been shown to increase recognition, encoding of details and development of denotative images among viewers. Although the attributes of static stimuli do not fit perfectly in measuring dynamic stimuli, this latter type also has resulted in high viewer response. Communication by visual image is easily the most important dimension of an advertising message. Even in a medium like radio, the images produced by the listener still carry an important function.11 Visual imagery also can have an effect on textual components in advertisements, which affects brand awareness or liking. Edell & Staelin12 found that very different processing occurs depending on pictorial and verbal message congruencies in advertisements. Advertisements were more effective when the picture �agreed� with the textual message. In 1987, Moriarty offered an effective typology of visuals in a content analysis of magazine advertising. The first category of visuals determines whether a visual is photographic or an illustration. At the next level (the crux of the current study), it is determined if visuals are literal or symbolic. If literal, they can be further subcategorized into identification (brand, logo, package), description (what it looks like, parts attributes, schematics), comparison (between two competitors, before and after) or demonstration (how to do, make, use, etc.). Symbolic visuals can use association (lifestyle, typical person, situation), association with a character or celebrity, metaphor, storytelling or aesthetics. (See Table 1) In general, literal visuals are used to communicate factual information, so their role is to identify, describe and report details of a product. Symbols communicate through meaning. They present concepts through the use of abstract associations. Cultural approach to the history of advertising. While much of the early history written about advertising has supported one side or another in the dispute over the direct effects of advertising on consumers, cultural history has tended to say more about American culture than advertising per se.13 In this approach, advertising is viewed as mirrors of society, being influenced and shaped by the culture and society. Technological developments, social, economic, and political conditions influence the society and, as a consequence, impact what is contained in advertising. For example, economic conditions have been regarded as important historic forces that have influenced society, industry, educational system, politics and religion. America has symbolized �economic abundance� during the last three centuries, and that force has helped shape the American society through an institution of modern advertising.14 Potter stated, in his landmark work on cultural history of advertising, People of Plenty: Economic Abundance and the American Character: Advertising should be recognized as an important social influence and should be identified with one of the most pervasive forces in American life, the force of economic abundance. The most critical point on the functioning of society shifts from production to consumption. So, the culture must be reoriented to convert the producer�s culture into consumer�s culture. Advertising appeals primarily to consumer�s desires. This is what he called �the social effect of advertising,� which is, in parallel but broader sense, �to make the individual like what he gets � to enforce already existing attitudes, to diminish the range and variety of choices, and, in terms of abundance, to exalt the materialistic virtues of consumption.� He argues that advertising should be directed to the stimulation or even the exploitation of materialistic drives and then to the standardization of these drives as accepted criteria of social value. In other words, advertising is part of the social, cultural and business milieu, and its achievement depends on the ability of the advertiser to predict and react to a changing society.15 Advertisements contained in the media respond in similar ways to external circumstances, so the content of advertising reflects how advertisers delivered their audiences to the world.16 As such, advertising can be an important window through which different aspects of American society can be explained. But also, the advertising itself can be explained to determine how it might have been shaped by American society. This approach, called cultural history, recognizes advertising not only as a window to culture but also a mirror that reflects the culture, or the cultures. In summary, advertising is part of the changing social, cultural and business environment, and its success depends on the ability of the advertisers to predict and to react to a changing society. In this sense, advertising reflects the society�s economic and political conditions,17 so its visuals would be created in a way that could appeal to consumers who were concerned with and affected by those societal variables. Advertising and its visuals in the early twentieth century. Stimulated by the automobile industry, the American economy took off on a period of prosperity in the 1920s. Factory assembly lines multiplied, the stock market soared, and industrial production nearly doubled between 1921 and 1929. Americans enjoyed the prosperity, and this affluence led the emergence of mass market over a decade. Faced with a robust economy and relaxed regulation, advertising would never again have so positive a climate in which to operate. The total volume of advertising expenditures reached up to $3.4 billion in 1929 and this was almost 60% increase from that of 1919.18 During the decade, people showed an evangelical fervor in advertising appeals.19Trend showed greater emphasis on image projection in regard to copy style and visual approach, and the common theme of advertising in this era revolved around issues of lifestyle and image.20 Particularly, the Art Deco movement had a significant impact on advertising style and visuals and diversity of advertising styles became identified with this movement. Advertising visuals in this period, by and large, comprehended lifestyles of people and images of products to create impact. The end of the �Roaring Twenties� was signaled by the stock market collapse of October 29, 1929, a day known as �Black Tuesday.� Even though few Americans had stock market holdings, most of them were greatly affected by the Great Depression that followed.21 Between 1929 and 1933 the Gross National Product (the sum of all goods and services produced in the U.S.) fell from $103 billion to $55.7 billion. Also, the advertising budgets fell from $3.4 billion to $1.3 billion, a drop of 62%. Bank failed, factories closed, railroads went bankrupt, farmers fell into desperate straits, and the white-collar group was deeply impacted. Advertising was considered a tyranny of waste from top to bottom, especially intolerable in this era when everybody was going to tighten his belt.22 The Depression affected people and the society in many ways. It caused higher rate of unemployment and, in turn, low disposable income. The hardest hit was that the Depression threatened American beliefs in the future of the country and the capitalist economic system.23 Even though many advertising agencies and corporate advertising departments increasingly engaged in a struggle for survival after the market crash, even steeper declines in advertising expenditures and revenues were brought in this era. The look and content of advertising in the early 1930s were affected by economic and professional concerns.24 Advertisers eventually replaced color and illustrations with extensive text in a multiple of typefaces to grab attention. Louder headlines, strident hard-sell copy, and gross exaggerations appeared as pseudoscientific arguments and appeals to emotion. Advertising capitalized on consumers� intensified economic and personal insecurities with this hard-sell approach. Ads looked depressed compared to lavish, colorful, and imaginative ads of previous decade. This trend had been prevailing until World War II, which ended the Depression. The criticism argues that creative leaders in the 1920s pursued their own nonrepresentative tastes, and they often made the mistake of trying to escalate the public�s taste of using artistic language that was too toney and abstract for their audience. However, it seems that advertising creative had employed some generalizable visual strategies in their advertisements to create impact on the audiences. Similarly, in the 1930s, which can be represented as the time of depression, it is suggested that economic and professional concerns largely affected the style and content of advertising.25 A consideration of the function of advertising visuals in conjunction with the social and economic changes during the 1920s and the 1930s suggests several research questions about the types and functions of visuals in print advertisements in the 1920s and the 1930s, the following research questions are suggested: RQ #1. What were the main categories of products advertised with visuals during these periods? RQ #2. What type of advertising visuals (photographs or illustrations) dominated these periods? RQ #3. What were the important functions of advertising visuals in the 1920s and the 1930s? RQ #4. Was there any relationship between the type of visuals and their functions? RQ #5. In each category of the function, what were the prominent uses of visuals? (e.g. for literal visuals, identification or demonstration, and for symbolic visuals, association or metaphor) It is hypothesized that the economic and social conditions that prevailed in the United States in the 1920s and 1930s will be reflected in the visuals used in magazine advertising. Specifically, advertisements in the 1920s are expected to perform more symbolic functions while those in the 1930s did more literal functions. Consequently, the use of visuals for each of the two categories, symbolic and literal, is expected to be significantly different between two eras, 1920s and 1930s. The literal functions, such as identification, description, comparison, and demonstration, are expected to be the focus of advertising visuals in the 1930s, while the 1920s� advertising visuals performed more of such symbolic functions as association, metaphor, storytelling, and aesthetics. To study the most interesting and challenging research problems, which are those about the causes and effects of communication, content analysis, a research tool for making inferences about the meaning of communication messages, is a powerful device to assess �average� of a culture or a social system in general.26 Berg27also suggests that content analysis may focus on either quantitative or qualitative aspects of communication messages. Especially for the study of advertising, a quantitative content analysis can move beyond counting to deal with the meanings that advertising attaches to prevalent culture by including latent variables such as contextual and societal variables that are not physically present and countable.28In this regard, quantitative content analysis may be one of the appropriate approaches to assessment of the cultural impact of the societal changes on advertising. This study applied content analysis to chart functions of visuals in magazine advertisements of the 1920s and 1930s. The goal of developing sampling frames was to select magazines that would represent a wide range of readership and demographic categories. Three mainstream magazines were, therefore, selected; Time, New Yorker, and Saturday Evening Post (See Table 2 for the most recent target audience, circulation and editorial content of these magazines). Time, which Henry Luce and Briton Hadden started in March 1923, was chosen for the study, because it was felt that it was a �mainstream� publication that was extant almost 80 years ago and still on newsstand today. Because of the change in frequency of publication by Saturday Evening Post from a weekly to a bi-monthly in recent years, it was not at first considered. However, this problem was outweighed by the fact that Saturday Evening Post was probably the strongest weekly magazine29 and was almost symbol of the country itself.30 Also, New Yorker was examined for this study, because it was felt that �it is a magazine avowedly published for a metropolitan audience and thereby will escape an influence which hampers most national publications. It expects a considerable national circulation, but this will come from persons who have a metropolitan interest.�31 To analyze approximately the same number of advertisements from each magazine, we employed a quota sampling procedure. Four issues of each magazine from the years 1927, 1928, 1929, 1935, 1937, and 1939 were selected for a total of seventy-two issues. Since Time and New Yorker did not deliver enough advertisements until the latter years of the 1920s, advertisements appeared in the 1927, 1928, and 1929 were collected to represent the 1920s. For ensuring enough time difference between the two periods, years of 1935, 1937, and 1939 became the sampling frame years of the issues for the 1930s. Beginning with a random selection of January, February, or March, the first issue of every third month was systematically included in the sample. Similarly, every fourth full or double-page display advertisement was included, counting from a randomly chosen starting point. A total of 334 advertisements was collected. Advertising visuals were grouped together in three ways: by product category, by its execution type (photograph or illustration), and by function in advertising. In order to sort them by types of product, we established nine segments of product categories: auto or auto-related (including tire, gasoline, and motor oil), financial service (including bank, insurance, and other financial services), home electronics, food, beverages (including beer and other liquors), cigarette, clothing, household miscellaneous goods and others (including personal care, furniture, travel, etc.). Illustration and photograph were the two main categories of visual type while some of them used a combination of illustrations and photographs. The functions of visuals were divided into two broad categories: literal and symbolic. Literal visuals were divided into identification, description, comparison, and demonstration. Symbolic visuals included association, association with a character or celebrity, metaphor, storytelling, and aesthetic. The author of this paper, who had worked as an advertising manager for several years, coded all ads. For checking coder reliability, we used Scott�s pi. Twenty-five ads that were not included in this study were coded twice to get the Scott�s pi. The coder reliability of each coding category ranged from 78% to 87% (i.e. 87% for functions of visuals, 82% for type of visuals, and 78% for sub-function items). Advertising both in the 1920s and the 1930s was led mainly by automobile industry. Table 3 summarizes types of product categories examined in this study. Automobile ads, combined with tire, battery, and motor oil ads, accounted for about 31% of all advertised products in three magazines in the 1920s and the 1930s. Auto or auto-related ads were seen on every other page of magazines in this era. Ads of Plymouth, Chevrolet, Chrysler, Cadillac, and other brands frequently appeared in a classical style along with Kelly Springfield tire ads, which was one of the outstanding tire campaigns that ran from 1918 to 1931. The second most frequent product type was insurance and financial services. Particularly, in the 1930s, when people suffered substantially from shortage of disposable income, several types of financial services often appealed to those who needed financial aids. In response to dramatic increase of demand for radio and refrigerator, home electronics business owners became one of the dominant advertisers in this period, as were food marketers. Of course, our indispensable necessities for everyday life, such as clothing, food, and drinks, which were not much sensitive to the changes of economic condition, followed home electronics. As with the financial service industry, a significant change in advertising volume between the 1920s and the 1930s was identified in the category of household miscellaneous goods, such as chair, desk, furniture, heater, watch, clock, lamp, carpet, and the like. The ad frequency within this category radically dropped from 16% to 9% of the total volumes. As disparity in wealth became severe problem, the relative poor had to reduce their consumption of goods or services that were not always required for their everyday lives. Interestingly, the liquor ads increased from 5% to 16% (moving from tied for last to second) during this period, indicating a considerable shift in the type of products advertised between these two periods (Spearman�s r = .39, p<.20). This might reflect a desperate affective state, which could be explained by the surge of financial crisis in the 1930s. Table 4 and Table 5 crosstabulates the two periods of time with types of ad visuals used. There was a significant difference in the use of photographs and illustrations during the 1920s and 1930s (Chi-square=17.295, d.f.=1, p<.000). The percentage of ads that contained photographs rose during this period. In the 1920s, photographs appeared in only 28% of all ads while illustrations were used in 72% of ads. But the ratio changed to 50 to 50 in the 1930s. Two factors, at least in part, may explain to this ratio change: the increase in importance of realistic impression and spread of the use of photographs in ads. In the 1930s, advertising capitalized on consumers� intensified economic and personal insecurities with hard-sell approach, which emphasized louder headlines, strident hard-sell copy, and identification and description of the product.32 The result was a dramatic increase in the use of photographs rather than illustrations because the focus shifted to real impressions of the product rather than depiction of product personality or image. Another factor contributing to the increased use of photographs could have been an effort to reduce production costs because illustrations would usually take more time and labor, and, in turn, more cost than photographs. A recent study shows that almost 97% of print ads used photography rather than illustrations for realistic description of impressions of products or brands.33 The percentage change in the use of illustration in Saturday Evening Post was tremendous, declining from 83% in the 1920s to 38% in the 1930s. Typical uses of photographs and illustrations in the 1920s can be seen in the Chrysler ad in the May 7th 1928 issue of Time and the Plymouth ad in the July 10th 1937 issue of Time. Chrysler tried to appeal to consumers� feeling, showing its �72� Sport Roadstar in an artistic illustration, while Plymouth wanted to demonstrate the actual scene of an inspector�s careful scrutiny of all door pulls and window-lift handles. Table 6 shows that there was a significant difference in the role of visuals between the 1920s and the 1930s (Chi-square = 12.704, d.f. = 1, p < .000). A two-step comparison attempted to determine the difference in the use of literal and symbolic visuals in the 1920s and the 1930s (See Table 6). First, in the 1920s, literal visuals only accounted for 43% while symbolic visuals made up 57%. In the 1930s, literal visuals increased to 59% while symbolic visuals decreased to 41%. The other way is to compare among segments of role of the ad visuals. Association took the first rank with its usage level of 28% of the total visual ads in the 1920s. It decreased to 12% in the 1930s. On the contrary, in the 1930s, description increased to be involved in 33% of the total ads examined in this study although it only made up 22% of total ads in the 1920s. In addition, Table 7 shows that the percentage of illustrations used in literal advertisements was less than those used in symbolic advertisements. This suggests that illustrations were more appropriate visual type for symbolic functions. A Chi-square analysis of the difference in the use of illustrations and photographs for literal and symbolic visuals found that there was a statistically significant difference between literal and symbolic visuals (Chi-square = 3.954, d.f. = 1, p < .049). The association function of the visual represents an effort to relate the product with consumers� lifestyle, typical person�s character, and everyday use situation. It is an indirect way of identification or description of the product to persuade consumers to try their products. It never wants to directly describe or identify product characteristics or its usage, but it usually entices consumers to try the product through indirect explanation of potential consumers� lifestyle and situations in which the product is certainly tried. In the 1920s, when a typical person had disposable money, the advertisers could not successfully persuade them to buy only with direct explanation or description of the product. Rather, they needed to appeal to their consumers with much more sophisticated use of language or visuals. Hard copy or big headline was never better than soft copy and artistic visuals because consumers were fully supplied with various kinds of products, with which they could enlarge their choices of decision. An illustrative example using association function of visuals is the Camel ad in the first December issue of Time magazine in 1927. This ad tried to associate Camel with a group of people who were enjoying the beautiful rural scenery in the winter season. It was stingy in using copy and never tried to use all the space reserved for visuals and copies. Rather, it just tried to maximize the effect of minimal use of copy and picturesque illustration. The soft sell approach, however, faded when the stock market collapsed in 1929. In the 1930s, demonstration and identification became the two main functions of advertising visuals in part because consumers might have considered product characteristic and price more than anything. This may be due to their lack of money to buy, time spent on decision and enthusiasm toward search for upscale and sophisticatedly advertised products. Advertisers wanted to give a direct message. They had to identify what their products were, describe as may advantages as possible, and distinguish the features of their products from competitor�s products. In the 1930s, advertising creative directors became more concerned with literal roles of visuals such as identification, description, comparison and demonstration. Table 8 shows this point very well. Out of 157 visuals, sampled from the 1930s ads, almost two thirds contained literal visuals. Such hard-sell approach dominating advertising space in the 1930s can be exemplified by the Plymouth De Luxe Four-Door Touring Sedan ad, which appeared in Time, in the second week of May 1939. The visual of this ad was primarily used to show advantages of lower mileage, space advantage and low price, using hard copy and actual photographic description. When advertisers thought that they needed to appeal to consumers� rationality, they used literal visuals, and, conversely, when they thought that they needed to appeal to consumers� emotions they used more symbolic visuals. This is how the contrasting application of two conflicting role of ad visuals looks like. When this result is connected to the types of ad visuals, photograph vs. illustration, it becomes evident that the rational approach employed more photographs while the emotional approach embraced illustrations more. In other words, in the 1920s, when advertisers felt that it was better to make mostly emotional appeals to consumers, symbolic visuals using illustration could accomplish the goal better. On the contrary, in the 1930s, literal visuals using photographs better served advertisers� goal to make rational appeals to more practical. This study suggests that the impact of national economic conditions in the 1920s and 1930s on the use of ad visuals in the mainstream magazine advertisements seemed visible. As expected, photographs were more prevalent in the 1930s than the 1920s. Also, the use of literal visuals was dominant in the 1930s, when advertisers wanted to speak in detail about the product advertised to persuade the obstinate consumers. In particular, rather than providing image or feeling associated with products, extra efforts had been made to identify and describe their product and their characteristics. All these were found significantly different between the two contrasting periods of time in the early twentieth century. Presumably, one of the fine indicators of social condition, the economic condition dictated how advertising uses its visuals to persuade consumers. This was particularly predictable during the period of prosperity in the Roaring Twenties or the nationwide economic crisis, the Great Depression. One of the key arguments of the cultural history of advertising contends that advertising should be viewed as mirrors of society, because it is influenced and shaped by the culture and society.34 The society is influenced by technological developments as well as social, economic, and political conditions and, in turn, the societal change is reflected in advertising. In line with the arguments from the cultural history viewpoint, this study supports the thesis that the influence of the economic conditions was reflected in mainstream advertising. The increase in the use of literal visuals and illustrations in the 1930s suggests that advertising reflected the changing need of consumers and society during the national economic crisis. This result was also supported by comparison of the two periods. However, interpretation of the results of this type of content analysis always requires a special caution. Rarely are there single-cause phenomena. Obviously, there would be some other factors that might explain the changes in the use of visuals in advertising. New movement of design might have contributed to this trend in that they emphasized simple forms, quality materials, sound construction and, importantly, adding colorful decoration only to satisfy prevailing tastes in the 1930s. Technological development and new social values would also be considered as important variables. While this study could not completely attribute the changes in the use of visuals exclusively to the economic conditions, nevertheless it appears reasonable to conclude that at least part of the changes were attributable to them. The function of advertising can be explained in two ways: economic effect and social effect.35 As far as the latter is concerned, the changes in nationwide economic status are worth considering as historical forces that would have affected the society and, as a result, altered what had been contained in advertising. Daechun An is an assistant professor of Journalism at the University of North Texas. Note: This paper has been presented to the Magazine Division of the 2002 AEJMC National Conference in Miami Beach.

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The Worimi have been on ‘Country’ since time immemorial. The Dreaming is a complex network of knowledge, faith and practices that derive from stories of creation, and it dominates all spiritual and physical aspects of Aboriginal life. The Dreaming sets out the structures of society, the rules for social behaviour and the ceremonies performed in order to maintain the life of the land. It governed the way people lived and behaved. Those who did not follow the rules were punished. The Dreaming or Dreamtime is often used to describe the time when the earth, Aboriginal people, the animals and the landscapes were created. During the Dreaming, ancestral spirits came to earth and created the landforms, the animals and plants. The stories tell how the Ancestral Beings (deities or gods) moved throughout the land creating the rivers, lakes and mountains. Even today, Aboriginal people still know of these special places where the Ancestral Beings have been and where they came to rest. Dreamtime Stories explain how Aboriginal people came into being and the creation of Totems, along with their links with each Aboriginal Nation, how people learnt languages and dance and how they came to know about fire. The Dreaming did not end with the arrival of Europeans but simply entered a new phase. It is a powerful living force that is maintained and cared for. Bayami (Great Spirit); In Worimi Dreaming this Ancestral Being, created their world. In the beginning Bayami stepped down from the sky and created the land, formed the mountains and valleys, filled rivers with water, and created all living things. Everything Bayami created had a purpose, plants of all shapes and sizes were placed on the land, he also placed men and women on the special places he had created and made the first laws that governed the way Aboriginal people lived, that remained unchanged through thousands of years of Aboriginal life. Bayami stayed and made sure all living things he created lived together in harmony. When he was satisfied he stepped back into the sky from which he came, where he remains now watching over his people and the wonderful place he created. Aboriginal spirituality takes many forms practices and has been profoundly influenced by the impacts of colonialism, both past and present. For Aboriginal people, spirituality refers to ways of being, ways of knowing. It encompasses a sense of belonging – belonging to the land, to the sea, to the people and their culture. Spirituality links the past, the present and the future and can be expressed through dance, ceremonies, art and artefacts. It is an integral part of an Aboriginal persons being and is essential to their way of seeing and thinking about their world, and their connection to their Dreaming and Country. The journeys of the Spirit Ancestors across the land are recorded in Dreaming tracks. A Dreaming track joins several sites which trace the path of an Ancestral Being as it moved through the landscape, forming its features, creating the plants and animals and laying down the Lore. Many Aboriginal communities travel along Dreaming tracks with their children, to teach them the stories of the sites. They explain and perform ceremonies to teach them about their Country and their Dreaming. Dreaming tracks are sometimes called ‘songlines’ and record the travels of the Spirit Ancestors who ‘sung up’ the country into life. It is believed that performing the right songs and ceremonies at sites along the Dreaming Tracks gives people direct access to the Dreaming. One of these Spirit Ancestors is the Rainbow Serpent, whose Dreaming track is shared by many Aboriginal communities across Australia. The Rainbow Serpent (Yuulangga) is represented as a large, snake-like creature, whose Dreaming track is always associated with watercourses, such as billabongs, rivers, creeks and lagoons. It is the protector of the land, its people, and the source of all life. However, the Rainbow Serpent can also be a destructive force if it is not properly respected. The Rainbow Serpent is a consistent theme in Aboriginal paintings and has been found in rock art up to 6000 years old. The Rainbow Serpent is a powerful symbol of the creative and destructive power of nature. In most paintings of Rainbow Serpents, they tell the story of the creation of the landscape. Even today, after the rains have filled the waterholes and rivers and replenished the vegetation, the Rainbow Serpents spirit can be seen as a rainbow stretching from one waterhole to another. The land (barray) held the key to life’s secrets. Man (guri) was given the knowledge to read the land, and for every rock (bakan), tree (wati) and creek (dungang), he found an explanation for existence. He did not own the land, the land owned him. To know the land was to know life. Land is the lifeline of existence as we know it. Without it no community will survive. In the Goori way, it is a mother; We come from the earth, we return to the earth, we live off the earth, we seek solitude in her, we are protected by her, we dare not desecrate her, our law is enshrined in her and we carry out our rituals accordingly. Land is the starting point to where it all began, it’s like picking up a piece of dirt and saying this is where I started and this is where I will go. The land and its environment was managed, nurtured, protected and respected by Aboriginal people in a cyclical process of birth, death and renewal that is central to Aboriginal philosophy. This relationship ensured that the land would not be exploited. Family groups were restricted to designated areas for day to day activities, and these restrictions included areas to which access was limited by both gender and the level of instruction one had received in traditional lore. Lore: Acquired knowledge or wisdom on a subject such as local traditions, handed down by word of mouth and usually in the form of stories. To Aboriginal people land is not just something that they can own or trade, it is the core of their spirituality, identity and purpose; Aboriginal people are connected to this land and always will be. The land has never just been about soil, rocks or minerals, but a whole environment that sustained Aboriginal people, their culture and practices in a traditional past and now in an ever evolving modern present. The spiritual relationship Aboriginal people have to the land has been and continues to be deeply misunderstood by many Europeans. When European colonisers first arrived in Australia they encountered an unfamiliar land occupied by people they had no understanding of, particularly their social structures and their land ‘ownership’ system. As a result, Australia was mistakenly deemed to be ‘terra nullius’ and the land was claimed by the British. It is sometimes said that Aboriginal people did not own the land and just wandered around. This myth has come about because the British saw no evidence of cultivation or land ownership systems. They saw no fences or barriers to show land ownership as in the European way, therefore the British concluded that Aboriginal people had no interest in the land. Aboriginal people divided the land up into traditional lands using geographic boundaries such as rivers, lakes and mountains. The knowledge about their boundaries was communicated through carved trees, rock carvings and paintings, as well as being passed down by the Elders. The Elders would pass on their knowledge by teaching the younger people through songs, dance, art and storytelling. Traditional Custodians of Port Stephens The Worimi (Warrimay) have always been and remain today the traditional custodians of a large area of land, “The Worimi Nation” oral history passed down by the Elders record that the Worimi Nation was originally bounded by four rivers, Hunter River to the south, Manning River to the north, the Allyn and Patterson Rivers to the west. The Worimi Nation was home to 18 clan groups or ‘ngurras’, with the Worimi Conservation Lands falling within the area of the Maiangal ngurra. All spoke the Gathang language. Traditionally, the Worimi people used Stockton Bight to travel between the northern and southern parts of the Worimi Conservation Lands (WCL). We know these areas today as Birubi Point to the north and Stockton to the south. Much of Worimi Country has changed dramatically since 1788, and dispossession has had significant impacts on Worimi people and their culture. As a result, the granting of the freehold title over the WCL means it is of particular significance to the Worimi. It is an area where the protection of Worimi cultural values has priority in Australian law, where decisions affecting Worimi Country and culture are made by Worimi people through their majority representation on the Board of Management, and where Worimi traditional owners are employed to implement these decisions. When Europeans arrived in their country they conducted a great deal of research into the lifestyles and practices of the Worimi. They noted that the Worimi who inhabited Port Stephens were slightly fairer in skin colour, taller and of a more muscular physique than the Eora people of the Port Jackson region of Sydney. In 1873 William Scott (source of The Port Stephens Blacks) wrote; “The Port Stephens Aborigines were more prone to laughter than tears, seemingly regarding life as great fun to be enjoyed to the utmost”. The Worimi are proud of their culture and heritage, their descendants still live on their traditional lands and continue to maintain their cultural practices by passing their knowledge, arts, rituals and performances from one generation to another, speaking and teaching their traditional language, protecting cultural property and their sacred and significant sites and objects. Ngurra is a traditional word used by the Worimi of Port Stephens to identify groups of Worimi people living within their own distinctive territory. Early Europeans recorded eleven Ngurras of the Worimi Nation, however, Worimi Elders record that there were eighteen. With the arrival of European settlers, the Worimi Ngurras were dispossessed of their lands and eventually forced onto Reserves and Missions. The government policies in which families and communities were separated were more than just heartbreaking for the individuals involved – they also effectively halted the passing of cultural knowledge and lore from one generation to next. There were 4 Ngurras of Port Stephens and surrounding areas each occupying a definite area. Two of these were salt-water groups, and two were inland groups. Maiangal and Gamaipingal Garuagal and Buraigal Before 1788, there were approximately 700 languages spoken throughout Australia, with an estimated population of 750 000 to 1 million people. The Gathang is the traditional language spoken by the Worimi throughout their Nation. The Gathang language that was once spoken by the Worimi of Port Stephens would soon became unspoken with the arrival of European colonisation of their lands. When the Australian Agricultural Company established its headquarters at Carrington on the north shore of Port Stephens in 1826, the Worimi migrated toward the settlement, and began to learn the European lifestyles and language. This migration reduced the number of Worimi following a traditional lifestyle which inevitably led to the loss of their language and culture. There are many place names in Gathang language that are used to describe a particular area such as; Birubi (‘Southern Cross’ or ‘view of the Southern Cross’), Tanilba (place of white flowers), Mallabula (swampland between two mountains), Karuah (place of native plum tree) and Pindimar (place of black possums). In the 1960s the linguist Nils Holmer made audio recordings with Worimi Elders, Eddie Lobban and Fred Bugg. From this he compiled a set of rules that describe the structure of the Gathang language that control the way that sentences are formed. Today; efforts are now being undertaken to revive the Gathang language, through books songs, dance, storytelling and language workshops. The Worimi people lived a hunter and gatherer life. The men hunted the large animals such as kangaroos and emus, whilst the women and children hunted smaller animals and collected fruits, berries and medicinal plants. The local environment provided a variety of food (buwatja) sources during particular seasons. Although there are no major freshwater (ngapuwi) creeks (duumala) or rivers (bami) in the area, this would not have constituted a barrier to occupation as ground water is readily available in low lying areas. The estuarine, marine and terrestrial plant and animal resources are extensive and easily accessible. Their traditional knowledge of plants and animals has not been surpassed. On the coast and in the harbour the Worimi caught fish and collected many types of shellfish including pipis, mussels and oysters. To maintain the fragile environment and because of seasonal variations, the Worimi would only stay in an area for a certain time. This helped make sure they didn’t hunt, fish or harvest an area too much so there would be food for the next season. Every part of the animal and plant was eaten or used to make things such as clothing, baskets, tools and weapons. Carefully chosen tree branches were made into hunting weapons and utensils such as boomerangs (barrgan), woomeras (wamarr) and digging sticks (ganay). Boomerangs were made from Wild Myrtle (garrigay). Gums and resins from some plants acted as adhesives for certain weapons. The lifestyle of the Worimi was a mobile one; they never stayed in one place for too long and because of this they constructed the most basic shelters. Seasonal changes determined which particular structure they would erect; the shelter used at the camp when the weather was cool or wet were bark huts (ganya) made from paperbark, and when the weather was hot and dry, shelters were made of bush (wirray). In 1826 Robert Dawson (superintendent of the Australian Agricultural Company) describes the bark shelters of the Worimi as being: “A small hut supported by three forked sticks, about three feet long, brought together at the tops in a triangular form; the two sides towards the wind are covered by long sheets of bark, the third always open. In the winter, each family has its own fire in the front of the hut”. The Worimi, as with all Aboriginal Nations have a complex system of family relations, where each person knows their kin and their country. These extended family relationships are the core of Aboriginal kinship systems that are central to the way culture is passed on and society is organised. Kinship systems define where a person fits into the community, binding people together in relationships of sharing, obligation and responsibility in raising and educating children with structured systems of moral and financial support within the community. The traditional meaning of a Worimi Elder is someone who has gained recognition within their community as a custodian of knowledge and lore, and has permission to disclose cultural knowledge and beliefs. The Elders bridge the past and the present and provide guidance for the future. They teach important traditions and pass on their stories, skills, knowledge and personal experiences. Elders are highly respected people within all Aboriginal communities. Elders can be referred to by using the term “Aunty or Uncle” in the formal introduction of their name. An artefact is anything which has been made or modified by humans. The term ‘stone artefact’ includes both a finished product – usually a stone tool – and the debris which was left behind when it was made. The Worimi used stone tools for many things including: to make other tools, for hunting and preparing food, to chop wood, and to prepare animal skins. Stone artefacts are one of the most common forms of artefacts found on Worimi country. They are generally in areas where the landscape has not been drastically altered by European settlement; these artefacts can be found lying on the surface, often in quite large numbers. They can also be uncovered by erosion, or the shifting of wind-blown sand. Under the National Parks and Wildlife Act removal of any artefact is prohibited and carries heavy fines. A ‘midden’ is an occupation site where Aboriginal people feasted on fish, shellfish, birds and animals. At some sites, substantial deposits grew over generations from continued use of the same area, showing some middens few metres deep. Non-Aboriginal people refer to middens as waste dumps and while this is partly true, it ignores the sophisticated cooking techniques of Australian Aboriginal people. In Aboriginal community’s middens were associated with large communal ovens. The Worimi people constructed a pit lined with stones to retain and radiate the heat of the cooking fire. When the fire burnt down to glowing coals, some foods were wrapped tightly in green vegetation and covered with more hot stones and coals and left to bake slowly. The food cooked this way retained a lot of moisture and sweetness. After the meal, the oven was swept out in preparation for the next day’s feast and as a consequence animal bones and shell remains built up beside the ovens. Some of these heaps grew to be some metres in height and examples can be found on most riverbanks and seashores. Shell middens tell us a lot about activities of the Worimi in the past. The types of shells and bones in a midden can show the type of aquatic and terrestrial food sources that was used, and the time of year when Worimi people used it. Shell middens are generally located around sandy beaches and dunes; some are also located around estuaries, swamps, tidal creeks, rivers and lakes. Charcoal from campfires and pipi shells are mostly found in middens on the Worimi Conservation Lands. Some middens also contain artefacts and tools made from stone, while others contain fishhooks made from bone or shell. Middens are usually located in the best possible spot – a pleasant place, that’s easy to get to, where there are plenty of shellfish. They are often found close to fresh water on a level, sheltered area. Flaked Stone Tools The flaked stone tools were made by hitting a piece of stone, called a core, with a ‘hammer-stone’. This would remove a sharp fragment of stone called a flake. Both cores and flakes could be used as stone tools. New flakes were very sharp, but quickly became blunt during use and had to be sharpened again by further flaking, a process called ‘retouch’ providing a distinct difference between a simple rock and an artefact. The best types of stone are rich in silica, hard and brittle. These include quartzite, chert, flint, silcrete and other stones with fine grained qualities. The Worimi quarried such stone from outcrops of bedrock, or collected them from rivers and streams. Many flaked stone artefacts found on the Worimi Conservation Lands do not occur naturally in the area therefore the cores would have been carried long distances. Canoes (guuyang) were made from the bark of the Stringy-bark tree (bana). Using a stone axe to cut the particular shape of the canoe the bark would be carefully prised from the tree by their spears and immersed in water then passed over a hot fire to cure and shape the bark. Most canoes were generally 15 feet in length and each end bound with vine and plugged with clay (barray), a small fire (watha), burned on a bed of clay at the back of the canoe. Their paddles (walung) were made of seasoned hardwood and were shaped like a large spoon. They were used in a kneeling position from the middle of the canoe. The Worimi accessed fresh ground water from the low-lying areas around the Port. Freshwater (ngapuwi) was also accessed from permanent seepages from the rocky hillsides and headlands. A favoured location used by the Worimi for accessing fresh water is a waterhole at Karuah known as the ‘dam’ and a natural spring at Salamander Bay. The Worimi also used water (bathu) for the leaching out of poisons from certain plants prior to consumption. For example, the nuts from the Burrawang Fern, a form of Cycad, were used as a source of flour to make damper type bread. Although high in nutritional value, about 43% carbohydrates and 5% protein, but in the raw state they are very toxic. To render the plant edible, the nuts were left to leach out the poison in running water for several days. Water was also used in the manufacturing process of tools and weapons. The sharpening of points or wearing of edges was necessary. To ensure there was a continuous availability of water to meet these and other needs, small wells were often made in rock (giba) surfaces. The Worimi used fire (watha) for warmth, providing light, cooking, hunting, protection from evil spirits (guwiyn), communications, ceremonial applications, medical applications, manufacturer of weapons and tools, and as a tool itself in altering the landscape. Through a process, called fire-stick farming, the vegetated landscape was undoubtedly changed. Continuous burning turned forests into grasslands and increased the carrying capacity for edible grass-eating animals such as kangaroo (wambuyn) and wallaby (barrin). Nearly all the larger native animals were grass eaters. Apart from the advantages for hunting and food gathering yielded by the fire-stick farming processes, an additional gain was that large masses of undergrowth were not able to build up. Thus, the risk of fire to the community was minimised. Many Australian plant species are relatively fire-resistant and some rely on fire and extreme temperatures for germination. Stone (giba) was used to make implements. It was also used for food preparation and cooking. Common implements made of stone were axe heads, scrapers, knives, chisels and spear heads. The Worimi manufactured their tools in different locations, such as Stockton Beach, Birubi, Soldiers Point and Karuah. The nature of their lifestyle ensured that stone work was done on site with only the finished product being carried away. Geographical variations in availability of differing stone types led to ongoing trade, enabling all groups to benefit from the comparative advantage one might hold. The Worimi preferred the marine resources; such as fish (makurr), oysters (ninang) and pipis (bitjagang), however, their pattern of exploitation was associated with the seasonal availability and the relative abundance of other food sources, such as kangaroos (wambuyn), wallaby (barrin) as well as vegetable foods, such as the gigantic lily (bulungiyan) and wild yams (wambay). A favourite food that the Worimi considered a delicacy was the Cobra (nyumarr) a worm mostly found in the mangrove trees. The environmental richness of the estuaries and coastline confirmed that the Worimi had a variable and readily available food resource. The abundance of marine sources of food in summer (garrwaayn) tended to make the Worimi more relaxed during the summer months. There was an abundance of seafood both inside and outside the Port, which the Worimi accessed during different seasons. Aquatic resources inside the harbour were a staple component of their diet, primarily in the form of fish (makurr) and oysters (ninang). On the seaward side of the Port, the Worimi collected seafood along the coastline from Fingal Bay, to Birubi Point through to Stockton. This included several species of fish, crustaceans and shellfish. Aquatic foods included; Fish – makurr Mullet – biiwa Flathead – darawang Bream – gupirr Jewfish – djarrawarra Pipi – bitjagang Oyster – ninang Crab – dijiraa Lobster – wira Prawn – banung Although there was a preference for the aquatic foods, the terrestrial foods were not neglected but formed a supplement and variety to their diet which were accessed during winter (dhakarr). They would venture inland in the colder conditions of winter to hunt for kangaroo (wambuyn) and wallaby (barrin). Of all the land animals, the kangaroo and the wallaby were the preferred meat when hunting, however, they considered the possum (wathu) a delicacy and were only eaten on special occasion. Terrestrial animal foods included; Kangaroo – wambuyn Wallaby – barrin Possum – bilu Carpet Snake – dhungiyn Emu – mitukit Echidna – miriki Goanna – wurran Flying Fox – gandjiwang The Worimi also accessed a variety of bush food for their dietary needs. The wild Native Plum (garuwa) and the Lilly Pilli (buranggirrbang) were highly sought after. The wild yams (wambay) a common vegetable tuber of a slender vine that flourished in the scrubby gullies were dug up by the women with their yam sticks (ganay). The tubers vary in thickness to 5cm and are up to 20cm in length and were baked in the ashes. The apple berry (garamalay) is an oblong berry, 2 cm long and 1 cm wide grows on a small vine and forms in summer. The fleshy green fruit turns yellow when ripe. Fruit is eaten raw when it has fallen to the ground, or roasted if still green. The skin is hairy and similar to peach and the fruit has a sweet flavour similar to kiwifruit. The roots of the Swamp Fern (bangwaal) were soaked, roasted and pounded to make flour then baked into a form of bread. The young flowering spikes of the Gigantic Gymea Lily (bulungiyan), after a long soaking in water were roasted prior to consumption. The Bush honey (girrga) was extracted from the hives via the use of a small axe (magu) however; they favoured the honeycomb as a great delicacy as opposed to the pure honey. The flowers of the Grass Tree (bumiray) and the Golden Wattle (batjigay) were also used as a valued source of sugary carbohydrates. The leaves of the Native Hop Bush when crushed were used for toothache and the relief of fever. The crushed leaves of the Sally Wattle Bush (gupang) were used to poison the water and stun fish for easy capture. The soft bark of the Paper-Bark Tree (bilbuuribith) was used as bandages, bedding, shelters and food wrap. Coolamons (gulaman) were made of wood or paperbark and were used for carrying food, water and even babies. The juice from the leaves of the Pigface plant (gaarkula) when mixed with water was used to treat diarrhoea, dysentery and stomach cramps. The leaf juice was also used externally, much like Aloe Vera for burns, abrasions, open cuts, grazes, mosquito bites and sunburn.

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https://worimiconservationlands.com/the-worimi-warrimay-have-always-been-and-remain-today-the-traditional-custodians-of-a-large-area-of-land-the-worimi-nation-oral-history-passed-down-by-the-elders-record-that-the-w/

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en

Often, readers of this novel confuse Nick’s stance towards those characters and the world he describes with those of F. Scott Fitzgerald’s because the fictional world he has created closely resembles the world he himself experienced. But not every narrator is the voice of the author. Before considering the “gap” between author and narrator, we should remember how, as readers, we respond to the narrator’s perspective, especially when that voice belongs to a character who, like Nick, is an active participant in the story. When we read any work of fiction, no matter how realistic or fabulous, as readers, we undergo a “suspension of disbelief”. The fictional world creates a new set of boundaries, making possible or credible events and reactions that might not commonly occur in the “real world”, but which have a logic or a plausibility to them in that fictional world. In order for this to be convincing, we trust the narrator. We take on his perspective, if not totally, then substantially. He becomes our eyes and ears in this world and we have to see him as reliable if we are to proceed with the story’s development. In The Great Gatsby, Nick goes to some length to establish his credibility, indeed his moral integrity, in telling this story about this “great” man called Gatsby. He begins with a reflection on his own upbringing, quoting his father’s words about Nick’s “advantages”, which we could assume were material but, he soon makes clear, were spiritual or moral advantages. Nick wants his reader to know that his upbringing gave him the moral fibre with which to withstand and pass judgment on an amoral world, such as the one he had observed the previous summer. He says, rather pompously, that as a consequence of such an upbringing, he is “inclined to reserve all judgments” about other people, but then goes on to say that such “tolerance . has a limit”. This is the first sign that we can trust this narrator to give us an even-handed insight to the story that is about to unfold. But, as we later learn, he neither reserves all judgments nor does his tolerance reach its limit. Nick is very partial in his way of telling the story about several characters. He admits early into the story that he makes an exception of judging Gatsby, for whom he is prepared to suspend both the moral code of his upbringing and the limit of intolerance, because Gatsby had an “extraordinary gift for hope, a romantic readiness”. This inspired him to a level of friendship and loyalty that Nick seems unprepared to extend towards others in the novel. Nick overlooks the moral implications of Gatsby’s bootlegging, his association with speakeasies, and with Meyer Wolfsheim, the man rumored to have fixed the World Series in 1919. Yet, he is contemptuous of Jordan Baker for cheating in a mere golf game. And while he says that he is prepared to forgive this sort of behavior in a woman: “It made no difference to me. Dishonesty in a woman is a thing you never blame too deeply – I was casually sorry, and then I forgot,” it seems that he cannot accept her for being “incurably dishonest” and then reflects that his one “cardinal virtue” is that he is “one of the few honest people” he has ever known. When it comes to judging women – or perhaps only potential lovers – not only are they judged, they are judged by how well they stand up to his own virtues. Nick leaves the mid-West after he returns from the war, understandably restless and at odds with the traditional, conservative values that, from his account, haven’t changed in spite of the tumult of the war. It is this insularity from a changed world no longer structured by the values that had sent young men to war, that decides him to go East, to New York, and learn about bonds. But after one summer out East, a remarkable summer for this morally advantaged young man, he “decided to come back home” to the security of what is familiar and traditional. He sought a return to the safety of a place where houses were referred to by the names of families that had inhabited them for generations; a security that Nick decides makes Westeners “subtly unadaptable to Eastern life”. By this stage, the East had become for him the “grotesque” stuff of his nightmares. What does this return home tell us about Nick? It is entirely reasonable that he would be adversely affected by the events of that summer: the death of a woman he met briefly and indirectly, who was having an affair with his cousin’s husband and whose death leads to the death of his next-door neighbor. His decision to return home to that place that he had so recently condemned for its insularity, makes one wonder what Nick was doing during the war? If the extent and the pointlessness of death and destruction during the war had left him feeling he’d outgrown the comfort and security of the West, why has the armory he acquired from the war abandoned him after this one summer’s events? Don’t we perhaps feel a little let down that Nick runs away from his experience in the East in much the same way that he has run away from that “tangle back home” to whom he writes letters and signs “with love”, but clearly doesn’t genuinely offer? Is it unfair to want more from our narrator, to show some kind of development in his emotional make-up? It is unfair to suggest that this return home is like a retreat from life and a kind of emotional regression? The only genuine affection in the novel is shown by Nick towards Gatsby. He admires Gatsby’s optimism, an attitude that is out of step with the sordidness of the times. Fitzgerald illustrates this sordidness not just in the Valley of Ashes, but right there beneath the thin veneer of the opulence represented by Daisy and Tom. Nick is “in love” with Gatsby’s capacity to dream and ability to live as if the dream were to come true, and it is this that clouds his judgment of Gatsby and therefore obscures our grasp on Gatsby. When Gatsby takes Nick to one side and tells him of his origins, he starts to say that he was “the son of some wealthy people in the Middle West – all dead now . . . ” The truth (of his origins) doesn’t matter to Gatsby; what matters to him is being part of Daisy’s world or Daisy being a part of his. Gatsby’s sense of what is true and real is of an entirely other order to Nick’s. If he were motivated by truth, Gatsby would still be poor Jay Gatz with a hopelessly futile dream. Recall the passage where Nick says to Gatsby that you can’t repeat the past, and Gatsby’s incredulity at this. Nick begins to understand for the first time the level of Gatsby’s desire for a Daisy who no longer exists. It astounds Nick: “I gathered that he wanted to recover something . . . that had gone into loving Daisy . . . out of the corner of his eye Gatsby saw that the blocks of the sidewalks really formed a ladder and mounted to a secret place above the trees . . . Through all he said, even through his appalling sentimentality, I was reminded of something – an elusive rhythm, a fragment of lost words, that I had heard somewhere a long time ago . . . ” These are Nick’s words. Whose “appalling sentimentality” is operating here? Has Nick reported any of Gatsby’s words – which comprise so little of the novel – to suggest that he would even begin to put his love for Daisy in these “sentimental” terms? Is not this excess of sentiment in fact Nick’s sentiment for Gatsby or perhaps Nick’s attempt at displaying those “rather literary” days he had in college? Or both? We should consider the distance that Fitzgerald has created between his presence in the story and Nick’s and their implications. Fitzgerald has created a most interesting character in Nick because he is very much a fallible storyteller. When an author unsettles an accepted convention in the art of storytelling by creating a narrator like Nick, it draws attention to the story as fiction, as artifice. Ironically, in doing this, he has created in Nick a figure who more closely resembles an average human being and thus has heightened the realism of the novel. When F. Scott Fitzgerald turns on the heat in Gatsby, he amplifies a single detail into an element of function and emphasis that transforms neutral landscapes into oppressive prisms. Through these prisms which distort and color the lives of Fitzgerald’s characters, we see why human’s elations are, as Nick Carraway describes them, “shortwinded”. Heat is the antithesis of Jay Gatsby. It is symptomatic of his undoing, his nemesis. As he suited up in his cool demeanor time and time again, perhaps we should have guessed that his coldly methodical five-year plan to restore the past would end up, in the sizzling heat of a five-hour showdown, as useless as one of the spent matchheads Daisy flings so carelessly after lighting a cigarette. From midafternoon at the Buchanan palace to twilight at the Plaza Hotel, Fitzgerald’s emphasis on the oppressive heat sticks out as clearly as Gatsby’s pink suit against Daisy’s crimson carpet. It is an emphasis that has a cumulative effect of placing characters into a setting they cannot escape and into a situation that reflects their internal discomfort. The plot heats up as the setting heats up, furthering suspense while placing untested characters in such boiling heat that their lives can find expression only in explosive release or resignation. Their tempers flare as the temperature rises and it is not until they lose their composure that anything begins to cool. In Fitzgerald’s stylish hands, heat functions to shape plot and test character. His acute recognition of the role of atmosphere in both furthering conflict and testing character is illustrated by his unwavering use of detail from first to final draft. From the beginning of these scenes to the end, we are made to feel the relentless heat as clearly as we see the green leather seats in Gatsby yellow car. Fitzgerald’s revision adds more than degrees to the hot day. Heat serves to parallel the acceleration of conflict between Gatsby and Tom. Heat gives their conflict a further sense of inevitability. Fitzgerald does not miss his many opportunities to remind us that the heat of the moment is testing his characters, wearing away the outer veneer they wear so well, and revealing them as they struggle in a hot situation. In the manuscript, Nick rides on a train during the “simmering hush of noon” toward his luncheon engagement. By the time final copy was written, a new line was added: “The next day was broiling, almost the last, certainly the warmest day of the summer”. In the original manuscript, the conductor on the train says the word “hot” six times. In the published version, he repeats the word seven times. The constant reference to the heat creates an atmosphere of strain so that small text changes can have a cumulative atmospheric effect: Man versus nature while man versus man. The weather takes its toll on character’s moods. “Make us a cool drink, said Daisy,” in the manuscript. ‘”Make us a cool drink, ” cried Daisy” in the published version. It is a small detail. Its significance is that so many small details like this one were included that our perception of the scene and the characters is altered. We begin to anticipate that tension will get the best of these characters. “They certainly look cool,” said Gatsby pleasantly” (of the drinks) in the manuscript. In the final version, Gatsby repeats his line “with visible tension”. When Gatsby, Tom and Nick walk out on the Buchanan veranda, which Nick describes as “stagnant in the heat,” Fitzgerald establishes the rivalry between Tom and Gatsby that will result in one becoming victor and the other vanquished by day’s end. In the typescript, Gatsby says, “I live there,” and Tom replies, “I see. ” Revised, Gatsby says, “I’m right across from you,” and Tom says, “So you are. ” Fitzgerald establishes the face-off, positioning competitors across from one another. It is the heat that will force articulation of the conflict–it will become so unbearable that no one will be able to stay cool and composed nor to pretend that the situation is cool and comfortable. We are reminded of the “dog days” in both the original and the published version, and reminded that the Buchanan salon is “darkened against the heat. It is because it is so hot that Daisy suggests going to town. We are told in the manuscript that Daisy’s voice “struggled on through the heat, beating against it, molding its deadly senselessness into forms. In the transcript revision, “deadly” is removed, allowing the reference to stand more simply and to blend into the text more effectively. In the manuscript, Daisy asks of Gatsby, “How do you look so cool? Tell us your secret, brother Gatsby. ” In publication, she cries, “Ah, you look so cool. ” She repeats, “You always look so cool. Brother Gatsby,” hardly indicative of their relationship, is appropriately omitted, and we are left to realize the contrast between cool Gatsby and everyone else whose composure is wilting in the heat. In both the manuscript and typescript, Tom’s response to Daisy’s awe of Gatsby is to interrupt quickly and to order, “Get your fur coats. ” In the published version, the fur coats have been omitted, doubtlessly in view of the heat. Again heat comes into the picture before they can leave. Daisy suggests that they should smoke a cigarette before leaving. Tom says they did that all through lunch. In the final version, Fitzgerald adds to Daisy’s dialogue, “Oh, let’s have fun. It’s too hot to fuss. ” As they board their cars, Daisy suggests that she and Gatsby follow the others in Tom’s car. In the transcript, she is described as speaking “coldly” to Tom. In the final version, “coldly” has been cut. In the transcript, they left “toward the city through the oppressive afternoon,” but in final form, they “shot off into the oppressive heat. ” Heat plays another important function. It is important to stop at Wilson’s garage, for Myrtle (whose nerves were continually “smoldering” in an earlier chapter) to mistake Jordan for Daisy, and for Myrtle to recognize the car. Tom says he’s probably got enough gas to get to town but Jordan objects. “I don’t want to get stalled in this baking heat,” she says. Thus, Fitzgerald has provided a believeable reason for stopping at the garage, a reason in keeping with his characterizations. Missing from previous drafts is Nick’s added comment upon leaving the garage that “the relentless beating heat was beginning to confuse me. By now, we have become so aware of the oppressive nature of the heat that we are not surprised to find Nick wearing out, nor do we expect anyone else to be fresh; the weather has worked on everyone’s nerves. The unmitigating heat adds tension to the upcoming confrontation but it also delays the action so that the confrontation scene can be more fully exploited and believed. As Tom pulls out of the garage, suddenly aware of the parallel between his life and George Wilson’s, he is described at first as feeling “the cold touch” of panic. After revision, what he feels is “the hot whips of panic. In the original manuscript, as Tom catches up to Gatsby on the road, Daisy simply says, “You go first. We’d rather follow you. ” In final form, she says, “It’s so hot. You go. We’ll ride around and meet you after. ” Once in the Plaza, Nick tells us that the room is “large and stifling,” with too few windows, and through these come only a “gust of hot shrubbery from the park. ” In the transcript this same “hot shrubbery” was the setting for a little cafe in Central Park. Just as heat represents the building up of emotions and losing of control, cool represents control. Added in Fitsgerald’s final draft, Tom says, “The thing to do is to forget about the heat,” our first hint that Tom may be the one most able to control himself, even though he’s been portrayed as an intellectual buffoon. Nick remembers vaguely the argument that occurred at the Plaza. What he remembered vividly is that his underwear kept climbing around his legs and beads of sweat raced across his back. In his earlier manuscript, Fitzgerald said of the ballpark that “it was so hot that my underwear climbed like a damp snake around my legs, so hot that when I took off my coat, beads of sweat raced cold across my back. Obviously, Fitzgerald knew to retain the descriptive element of heat as he moved his meeting from the ballpark to the Plaza and his hot shrubery from the little cafe to the gardens outside the Plaza windows. When the subject of marriage came up originally, no reference to heat was made. In the final version, Jordon cries dismally, “Imagine marrying anybody in this heat! ” (84). Also added: “From the ballroom beneath, muffled and suffocating chords were drifting up on hot waves of air. ” When Tom argues that Daisy loved him when they were married, Daisy’s voice is described as being “cold,” (88) a description missing in earlier drafts. She also throws a burning match on the carpet. The reader recognizes that when Daisy is defeated, when her courage leaves her, her voice goes cold and the fire is thrown away from her. From this point on, there are no more references to heat. The fire in Daisy has been extinguished and Gatsby begins to panic. When Gatsby and Daisy leave the Plaza suddenly like children being dismissed from supper, even the heat of Tom’s temper has cooled, and when the scene ends at 7:00 that evening, Nick and Jordon and Tom drive through “the cooling twilight. ” Heat is a detail emblazoned on our senses by repeated emphasis until it alters our percepton of a normal day in the city and becomes the overpowering atmosphere in which people struggle to direct or redirect their lives. The heat led Daisy to show to her husband her love for Gatsby. The heat directed this luncheon party from the Buchanan house where Gatsby felt that he could do nothing to the Plaza where he could claim his true love. It led Tom Buchanan to George Wilson’s garage where a jealous Myrtle Wilson mistook Jordon for the source of her imprisonment in her desert on the highway. It is the heat that finally wilts Daisy’s daring , that makes her as tired as she was when she first met Tom Buchanan and saw a way out of Louisville. And it is in the heat of debate that Gatsby is handed defeat. To the rekindled romance that might have been, it doesn’t matter what happened once Daisy and Gatsby left the Plaza. To the fair-weather princess, their passions had become too heated. Theirs was, after all, an early summer love, and the fair-weather was no more.

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https://benjaminbarber.org/nick-carraway-has-a-special-place-in-this-novel/

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en

Criteria, standards and intuitions in the imprecise work of assessing writing. Standards-based assessment using explicitly stated criteria for both school-based and centrally organised common assessment is prescribed in current state and national programs that emphasise the need for comparability, consistency and accountability in curriculum at all levels of schooling. The application of generally applicable, pre-specified criteria and performance standards has been recommended as a procedure whereby the subjectivity of assessors' qualitative judgements can be minimised and comparability achieved. It has been characterised as a value-neutral and efficient assessment technology. An important part of the rhetoric of school-based, criteria- and standards-referenced assessment--apart from its reputation for certainty, objectivity and fairness--is its student-centredness. For both formative and summative assessment purposes, teacher-designed tasks and the pre-specification of criteria and standards are believed to eliminate the ill effects of other 'subjective' methodologies, because assessors' judgements are based solely on comparisons between individuals' performances and the explicitly stated performance criteria and standards. The assessment technology and procedures are given as insurance that assessment is objective, reliable, and therefore equitable, and that it will produce reliable assessments of levels of achievement. Although criteria- and standards-based assessment has been widely used to assess written texts in senior secondary schools for twenty years, it is now to be routinely used throughout the early and middle years as well. It is timely, therefore, to revisit a review of research that has examined the ways that criteria and standards are applied during the assessment of students' writing. Writing and assessment The production of written texts--either on paper or electronic media--is one of the most common tasks required of students for the assessment of literacy skills and procedures, and knowledge and understanding of language and textual resources. Writing is also the mode whereby knowledge and understanding and other assessable elements are presented for display in most curriculum areas. In this case, written texts are the carriers of displays of required learning and achievement. Students are required to compose posters, advertisements, PowerPoint presentations, newspaper articles, menus, health plans, design briefs, and many types of reports, recounts and other types of texts to display knowledge and understanding of facts, concepts, procedures and skills in investigation, reflection, analysis and synthesis of information and ideas. For the teacher, therefore, the crucial skill for assessing authentic achievement is the ability to differentiate between the carrier and the content, the medium and the message (McLuhan, 1964). This paper focuses on this problem and reviews research on the criteria-based assessment of students' written texts that, in accord with McLuhan (1964), demonstrates that the separation of form and content is impossible, even for skilled and experienced teachers. It is argued that, even when criteria and standards are explicitly specified, content knowledge and even literacy skills are so deeply embedded in the medium that the qualities of the medium influence not only their visibility to the assessor but also how they are perceived. The stated criteria for assessment become too difficult to apply directly; they must be reinterpreted and re-inflected by the assessor. As a result, it is the medium that is intuitively assessed, rather than the quality of its discrete features or the information it carries. Even the use of a supposedly objective assessment technology, such as standards-based assessment, simply disguises rather than eliminates this problem (Broadfoot, 1981). The work of assessing The role of the assessor of writing is much more than that of a 'neutral technician' making judgements that require a simple comparison between culture-neutral, 'fixed' standards and the assessable knowledge, skills and processes visible in the student text. In complex tasks, including tasks used to assess achievement in more than one curriculum area--where interpretation and inference is required of the assessor--the problem is intensified. Assessors' intuitions about the writer have been shown to play a large part in the valuing of and judgements about texts. These intuitions are gathered from many sources, including students' classroom behaviour, the appearance of the text including surface features such as neatness and handwriting, and also the order and time of reading each text. A written text demonstrating above average knowledge and skills may be rated higher or lower, depending on the quality of the text read immediately before it. Based on such non-assessable characteristics, conditions and perceptions, the assessor positions the text as good or bad. For instance, in one early study, when the word 'honours' was randomly stamped at the top of students' written texts, those texts received higher grades than others in the sample (Diedrich, 1974). Many other factors have also been shown to influence the reliability of assessments of writing: assessor training procedures (Linn, Kiplinger, Chapman & LeMahieu, 1991; Herman, 1992), the level of monitoring during the assessment processes (Cooper & Odell, 1977), the rating techniques especially considering the speed of rating (Branthwaite, Trueman, Berrisford, 1981; McColly, 1979), whether rating was 'holistic' or 'analytic' (Freedman 1979), and assessor subjectivity (Freebody, 1990; Freiberg 2001; Gilbert, 1989; Hake & Williams, 1981; Ozolins, 1981). Although the effects of many of these can be reduced by changes in assessment procedures, assessor subjectivity has been found to be more intractable. For example, Himley (1989) analysed six teachers' (or assessors') constructed readings of students' writing in a group discussion. The participants' talk showed that their judgements of the texts were influenced by, and constructed from, their intuitions about the attitudes, dispositions and character of the student writer. In fact, the primary task in the assessment process was the identification of the subjectivity of the student writer. The teachers noted that they 'constructed a writer, a presence or "felt sense" in the text, and then rewarded "her", albeit a bit ambiguously, with our communal stamp of approval' "academic" she tried to be, the less we liked her' (p.17). Evident in this is the seamless shift from judgements of the text to judgements of the person, and back again. Such findings highlight the importance of ensuring that the pre-specified criteria are clearly stated and directly focused on the types of knowledges, skills and processes to be assessed and that they do not invite or require high degrees of interpretation and inference. For instance, the application of criteria such as 'evidence of a strong personal voice', 'originality', 'imagination and creativity' require a great deal of inferential and interpretive work. The enactment of such criteria at the interface between the assessor and the text has been shown to be influenced both by subtle stylistic characteristics in texts and by the attitudes, dispositions and intuitions of the assessors. For instance, in a study of the effect of 'register' in student essays, Freedman (1984) showed that, in looking for 'personal voice' in written texts, assessors made very fine distinctions of value based on their personal preferences and intuitions about the type of student whose writing was being assessed. Participant teachers were asked to assess student essays, some of which were written by students of various 'abilities' and some of which although the assessors did not know it--had actually been written by adult, professional writers. The results of the study showed that there was a higher degree of assessor consensus about holistic ratings of real student essays than there was in the ratings of 'fake' student essays. In general, student essays were assessed more favourably. Analysis of the essays showed that differences between the professionals' texts and students' texts included length (the student essays were shorter) and degree of 'formality (professionally written essays were more informal and more 'familiar' in tone, aiming to establish a close and yet authoritative relationship with readers). Strategies used by professional writers to achieve 'informality' included use of the first person pronoun, direct address to the reader and writing about 'deeply held beliefs and novel ideas'. None of the strategies used by professional writers complied with the preferred relationship of the institutional assessor with the institutionally 'appropriate' subordinate and compliant student. Freedman noted that the student writing that was preferred used 'linguistic forms that show respect, deference, and the proper degree of formality' (p. 341). Particular stylistic qualities in writing appear to endow texts with a special value that seems to transcend other textual variables. Criteria seem to be applied differentially, depending on perceptions of overall style. Appraisals of inappropriate 'style' seem to focus assessors on elements of 'mechanics' and 'usage', which--though they are not the major 'problems' in the texts--are more easily identified and explained and are, therefore, cited by assessors as justifications for the grade given (see Freiberg, 2001; Gilbert, 1987, 1989; Hake & Williams, 1981). Student writing that is not stylistically appealing focuses assessors on the 'mechanics' of the text. Criteria, standards or intuitions Assessor subjectivity has also been found to comprise situated interpretation of criteria, application of 'gate-keeping' criteria, ability to recognise particular displays of criteria, and individual stylistic preferences. Several significant studies of the assessment of writing in Australian schools have demonstrated the difficulty that even the most experienced teachers had in maintaining their focus on the application of discrete skills and knowledge during the assessment of students' written texts. In 1989, an evaluation of the Queensland Writing Task (Nuyen, 1990) was carried out after the initial administration of the test to all Queensland Year 12 students in that year. The aim was to evaluate the appropriateness of the Writing Task and the management of the test. The study also evaluated 'the practicality of criteria-based holistic assessments' and the appropriateness of the criteria and standards that were used to assess students' written scripts (Nuyen 1990, pp. 1-2). The study included a large participant group (174 markers and 28 chief markers) of Queensland secondary English teachers from both State and non-State schools, who were recognised within their schools as expert teachers of English and as such had been nominated for selection as markers. Nuyen (1990) found that, although markers and chief markers were consistent regarding their judgements about what was appropriate and effective in students' written texts, these judgements were not limited to demonstrations of the application of the knowledge, understanding and skills listed in the assessment criteria. The criteria appeared to be interpreted subjectively by the markers so that their judgements could be based on choice of topic, type of narrative genre, relevance, length, register, creativity, originality, and overt expression of values or beliefs (e.g. religiosity, or persuasive exposition described as 'sermonising'). Nuyen's research showed, evident in the excerpt from the findings below, that many stylistic 'indefinables' were used as 'gatekeeping' criteria even when they were not explicitly pre-stated as assessment criteria. Most [chief markers] were irritated by the same factors: factual or historical inaccuracy; religious sermons; offensive language; over-use of cliches. Again, as with the markers, all strived to be objective and cast aside their personal prejudices. However, there could be a danger of a 'halo effect' if too many of these responses were found in the same folders or in consecutive folders. (Nuyen, 1990, p.18) Features of students' written texts that appeared to have influenced markers' overall impressions of 'quality' and their criteria-based holistic assessments, therefore, related not to writing skills but to the subject positions adopted by the student writers and the assessors' judgements about the appropriateness of these. Significant effects on teachers' applications and inflections of specified criteria have been found when students' written texts are valued for their levels of self-expression rather than displays of literacy skills and accuracy. Gilbert's (1989) analyses of teacher and student talk about writing and the assessment of writing demonstrated that the teacher consistently judged the appropriateness of student writing based on evidence of 'personal voice', 'creativity', 'originality' and 'spontaneity', irrespective of the stated assessment criteria. She found that when the author was 'visible' to the assessor, texts could be read as holistic, quasi-literary utterances; when the author was not 'visible', texts were read as a set of component skills and mechanical devices (e.g. punctuation, spelling, grammar). Thus evidence of poor literacy 'skills' was sought to justify intuitive judgements of poor style. Student writing--not only creative writing or story narrative productions, but also analytical exposition, factual reports and transactional writing--has been found to be valued for its degree of self-expression (Gilbert, 1987, 1989) and 'flair' and 'style' (Freebody, 1990; Freiberg, 2001; Ozolins, 1981), rather than for the displays of competence definable as literacy skills. Further, teachers or assessors have been found to attribute the writing skills necessary to portray 'self ', 'voice', 'flair' and 'style' to the aptitude and dispositions of students rather than to the curriculum in which they engaged. Writing competencies were routinely attributed to innate or 'inherited' ability, and 'performances' of writing tasks that were read as being produced by diligently learned skills were not valued as highly. Implicit in this is the assumption that there is a hierarchy of valued cultural attributes which students must display through their writing performances if they are to be assessed as writing quality texts. If these culturally defined attributes are not displayed, the students may be assessed as incompetent writers, irrespective of the accuracy of their writing. Despite the routine uses of criteria and standards for assessment of students' writing, the features of written texts that counted as displays of these all important attributes appeared to be 'transcendent devices' (Freiberg, 2001) that resonated with the assessors. One study (Freiberg, 2001) of 38 English teachers' interpretations of criteria used to assess writing found that stated criteria were routinely re-cast so that 'invisible' qualities, transcendent and indefinable in nature, were what came to count as displays of 'good writing'. Because these qualities are unexplained and not explicitly definable in textual terms, it becomes impossible for students who do not possess the valued 'style', as a legacy from their life outside the classroom, to learn how to display it in written productions for assessment. Because of their elusive nature, these indefinable, transcendent displays were found to be realised through the assessors' recognition of particular qualities in students' texts. The level of subjectivity of judgements about 'confidence', 'thought', 'insight', 'maturity' and 'imagination' as qualities within texts was evident, because they could only be produced by the participants in self-referencing terms: 'I can understand it, they've actually given me something that I can read'; 'I love reading this. It's something that, I think, attracts you immediately. You, as a teacher just think, "I like the way that sounds"'; 'It just comes down to like a gut feeling' (Freiberg, 1993). The analysis of the criteria used to assess written texts found that most required interpretation; they were not explicitly specified in ways that would allow them to be read as specific textual practices. The descriptions of different standards, therefore, were also unanchored: first, because the criteria to which they were linked were undefined, and second, because the differentiations between the particular unspecified attributes of texts were made in comparative, quantitative terms such as 'great' and 'reasonable', 'broad' and 'fine'. The effect of this was to afford the assessor a warrant to 'invent' the articulation of the criteria and the standards. Under these conditions, assessors are able to decide what will count as meeting the criteria and as meeting it 'greatly' or 'reasonably', 'more' or 'less'. In the enactment of criteria-based assessment, therefore, the actual criteria and standards are not central to the process. Rather, it is teachers' meanings that are central. The standard at which a student's writing is assessed is based, therefore, on the resonance it produces within the assessor. If a text can be read as 'literature' or 'good' writing, particular assessment processes are called into play. These processes are different from the processes that are enacted when the student text is appraised as 'bad' writing. Smith (1991) also addressed the issue of teachers as readers enacting criteria-based assessment in senior secondary English in Queensland schools. Smith's (1991) analysis of the reading practices of five experienced English teachers was based on the premise that, as teachers enacted criteria-based assessment of student writing, they drew on various reading 'repertoires'. These repertoires were found to shape the ways in which criteria were inflected in the 'readings' of student texts. Smith's research challenges the assumption that the explicit statement of criteria and standards means that teachers' reading practices also become explicit. 1. that teachers' 'readings' were influenced by non-specified criteria and a range of contextual factors which formed the interpretive resources of the teacher/reader; 2. that teachers/assessors habitually justify judgements by referring specifically to mechanics such as spelling and punctuation, while it is clear that these textual errors cannot alone account for the grades awarded, and 3. that teachers/readers position texts in relation to other texts and in relation to other past and recent experiences of assessment, and that this positioning affects the ways in which the criteria and standards are inflected in each instance of assessment. Smith concluded that each instance of criterion-based assessment in schools is 'a complex interaction between the readers, the single text, and other like texts' (Smith, 1991, p. 65) and that the presupposition that criteria and standards are applied objectively and reliably is contradicted in the actual school-based practices. Assessment of writing is very complex and imprecise. It becomes perhaps more difficult for assessors to 'read' student writing as text rather than as the display of the person-behind-the -text when summative assessment is school-based. The inclination of the reader to look for the 'author behind the text' is satisfied when the teacher assesses the writing of students s/he knows. This prior knowledge, or at least the assumption of prior knowledge about the person, helps to produce the 'reading' of the student text. It is clear that if assessment of authentic achievement in writing is to be achieved, criteria that invoke creative and personal qualities such as 'originality' and 'imagination' must be explicated in terms of the knowledge and skills in writing technologies that are able to be taught and learned. Assumptions about assessor neutrality and the belief that assessment based on pre-specified criteria and standards is objective, reliable and equitable have allowed practices of assessment based on cultural displays--such as 'style', 'sophistication', 'originality', 'imagination', 'maturity' and development of 'personal voice'--to remain unexamined (Freebody, 1990). In the assessment of writing, therefore, we must consider many factors: the types of criteria and standards specified; the level of interpretation and inference required; the visibility of the assessable elements and the complexity of the tasks and written productions, and the influence of the medium on the message to be assessed. In the end, it is the work of the assessor--at the interface between the assessor and the item being assessed--that is the point at which these essential elements will be either delivered or denied. Branthwaite, A., Trueman, M., & Berrisford, T.(1981). Unreliability of marking. Educational Review, 33 (1), 41-46. Broadfoot, P. (1981). Towards a sociology of assessment. In L. Barton & S. Walker (Eds.), Schools, teachers and teaching (pp. 197-217). London: Falmer Press. Cooper, C.R. & Odell, L. (Eds.). (1978). Research on composing: Points of departure. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. Diedrich, P. (1974). Measuring growth in English. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. Freebody, P. (1990). Inventing cultural-capitalist distinctions in the assessment of HSC papers: Coping with inflation in an era of literacy crisis. Paper presented at the Inaugural Australian Systemics Conference on Literacy in Social Processes, Deakin University, Geelong. Freedman, S. (1979) Why do teachers give the grades they do?. College Composition and Communication, 30 (2), 161-164. Freedman, S. (1984). The registers of student and professional expository writing: Influences on teacher responses. In R. Beach and L.S. Birdwell (Eds.), New directions in composition research (pp. 334-347). New York: The Guilford Press. Freiberg, J.M. (1993). The operation of cultural capital in summative criteria-based assessment in senior secondary English. Unpublished Masters thesis, Deakin University, Victoria. Freiberg, J.M. (2001). Criteria-based assessment in Senior High School English: Transcending the textual in search of the magical. In P. Freebody, S. Muspratt & B. Dwyer (Eds.), Difference, silence and textual practice: Studies in critical literacy (pp. 287-322). New Jersey: Hampton Press. Gilbert, P. (1987). Post reader-response: The deconstructive critique. In B. Corcoran & E. Evans (Eds.), Readers, texts and teachers (pp.234-262). Montclair, N.J: Boynton/Cook Publishers. Gilbert, P. (1989). Writing, schooling, and deconstruction: From voice to text in the classroom. London: Routledge. Hake, R., & Williams, J. (1981). Style and its consequences: Do as I do, not as I say. College English, 43, 433-451. Herman, J.L. (1992). What research tells us about good assessment. Educational Leadership, May, 74-78. Himley, M. (1989). A reflective conversation: 'Tempos of meaning'. In B. Lawson, S. Ryan, & W.R. Winterowd (Eds.), Encountering student texts (pp. 5-19). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. Linn, R.L., Kiplinger, V.L., Chapman, C.W., & LeMahieu, P.G. (1991). Cross-state comparability of judgements of student writing: Results from the new standards project workshop. Los Angeles: UCLA Center for the Study of Evaluation. McColly, W. (1979). What does educational research say about the judging of writing ability?. Journal of Educational Research, 64, 148-156. Nuyen, N. A. (1990). An evaluation of the Writing Task from the perspectives of teachers and markers Queensland, 1989. Brisbane: Board of Senior Secondary School Studies. Ozolins, A. (1981). Victorian HSC examiners' reports: A study of cultural capital. In H. Bannister & L. Johnson (Eds.). Melbourne working papers, 1981 (pp. 142-183). Melbourne: University of Melbourne. Smith, C. (1991). The teacher as reader/assessor of student texts. English in Australia, 98, 49-65. Jill Freiberg | Griffith University |Printer friendly Cite/link Email Feedback| |Title Annotation:||students writings evaluation by teachers| |Publication:||Literacy Learning: The Middle Years| |Date:||Oct 1, 2008| |Previous Article:||Accountability as testing: are there lessons about assessment and outcomes to be learnt from No Child Left Behind?| |Next Article:||When assessment is about learning.|

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Bedtime stories play an important role in your child’s development. Not only do bedtime stories create an opportunity for parents to bond with their kids, but reading to a little one at the same time night after night can help them establish a healthy sleep routine. Child psychologists also point to the cognitive benefits for young people who are raised with bedtime stories, including higher-than-average literacy rates and an emotional connection to reading. This guide to bedtime stories will include some of the most cherished bedtime stories available for children today; our list will include printed books you can request from your local library or order from web-based retailers, as well as some beloved favorites that are available in user-friendly online versions. But first, let’s look at some expert tips for effective bedtime story reading. Tips for Parents No child is too young for a bedtime story. Many experts encourage parents to begin reading to their children while they are newborns, and continue throughout their childhood; the 2016 Time to Read Survey noted that bedtime reading can benefit children as old as 11 years of age. Regardless of how old your child is, age-appropriate reading material is crucial. Readings for toddlers and preschoolers should utilize a fairly straightforward vocabulary, and also include pictures or illustrations. As your child advances into elementary school and begins learning to read, chapter books may be more effective. Here are a few more tips for parents who plan to read bedtime stories to their kids: - Read slowly. This is especially important for young listeners and children who have not yet learned to read. If the story contains words the child doesn’t know, take a minute during the initial readings and explain the definitions. - Involve your child in the reading. Swap out character names for your children’s names and allow them to be part of the story. Draw parallels between your child’s life and the world of the story in order to drive home important messages. - Be dramatic. Emphasize emotional moments by reading them in an appropriate tone, and use distinct voices for different characters. This will enhance your child’s personal involvement in the story, and enhance their imagination. - Clearly define the characters’ roles. To help your child develop a sense of right and wrong, you should make sure they understand the difference(s) between the heroes and the villains of each story. - Read each story more than once. Your child probably won’t grasp everything about a story during the first bedtime session, so read it more than once — if possible, on consecutive nights. - Don’t read the same story too often. Your child will most likely favor certain stories to others, but avoid reading the same volume night after night for long periods of time. After a few readings, their imaginative connection to the story will begin to diminish. If your child insists on hearing an old favorite for the twentieth time, then suggest reading something new that night and then switching back to the preferred story the next night. - Don’t be afraid to improvise. Rather than reading from a book, you can make up a story that allows your child to be more involved — and even dictate the narrative a bit. Parenting.com offers a list of effective ‘story starters’ for bedtime ad-libbers. The Best Bedtime Stories Available in Print Next, let’s look at some of the most popular bedtime story books that are exclusively available in print. The books are listed in order of appropriate reading audience, beginning with the youngest. Each entry features a link to that title’s most popular Goodreads review page. Beginning Readers (Birth to Age 3) - Big Fat Hen by Keith Baker: Designed for readers up to age three, Big Fat Hen features colorful illustrations and a memorable nursery rhyme narrative that helps children learn to count. - The Everything Book by Denise Fleming: This comprehensive favorite teaches young listeners about shapes, colors, seasons and other basic concepts. The Everything Book is geared toward kids between one and four years of age. - Chicka Chicka Boom Boom by Bill Martin Jr. and John Archambault: This illustrated tale from 1989 offers a fun, high-spirited way for kids to learn the letters of the alphabet. Caldecott honoree Lois Ehlert provided the vivid illustrations. - Otto Goes to Bed by Todd Parr: Colorful, oddball illustrations and fun verses highlight this story of a young dog who must go to bed, whether he wants to or not. This title is geared toward infants and toddlers. - Pajama Time! by Sandra Boynton: Children will love the brightly colored illustrations and playful rhymes found in this quirky classic, while parents will appreciate the positive message that bedtime is important — and fun. - More More More Said the Baby by Vera Williams: This Caldecott Honor Book chronicles a snuggly day in the life of three toddlers. The easy prose, vibrant illustrations and diversity-friendly message make More More a perfect read for any of preschool age or younger. - Guess How Much I Love You by Sam McBratney and Anita Jeram: This heartwarming tale explores the bond between Big Nutbrown Hare and his son, Little Nutbrown Hare. The book — which celebrated its 20th anniversary in 2015 — was followed by four sequels. - Are You My Mother? By P.D. Eastman: A beloved bedtime choice since it first appeared in 1960, this illustrated story follows a baby bird as he searches for his mother and meets a handful of other animals along the way. - Good Night, Gorilla by Peggy Rathmann: It’s bedtime for all of the animals at the zoo, but one sneaky primate has decided to tag along as the night watchman makes his rounds. Easy verses and playful illustrations highlight make Good Night, Gorilla a great choice for toddlers and preschoolers. - Goodnight Moon by Margaret Wise Brown: Considered one of the greatest bedtime stories of all time, this classic boasts a lovely narrative and iconic illustrations by Clement Hurd. Goodnight Moon celebrates the 70th anniversary of its original publication in 2017; a three-dimensional rendition is also available on YouTube. - The Very Hungry Caterpillar by Eric Carle: First published in 1969, this beloved tale features striking collage-style illustrations and finger-sized cutouts that allow children to physically participate in the story. If your kids enjoy this one, check out the other titles from author and illustrator Eric Carle; his 50-year career includes a bibliography of more than 70 titles. - One Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish by Dr. Seuss: Clever rhymes and memorable illustrations highlight this beginner’s book from Dr. Seuss, which has entertained young kids for nearly 50 years. This title is ideal for teaching kids the basics of colors and counting. - Corduroy by Don Freeman: Corduroy features a lovable teddy bear searching for a missing button after his residence — a popular toy store — has closed for the night. Vibrant illustrations and a positive message have endeared young readers to this book since its original publication in 1968. - Where’s Spot by Eric Hill: This fun, flip-back classic about an inquisitive canine and his critter pals has been a bedtime favorite since it first appeared in 1980. Spot was also featured in a series of animated shows that appeared on the BBC between 1987 and 2000. - The Snowy Day by Ezra Jack Keats: The Snowy Day received the Caldecott Medal in 1963, and has since become a treasured classic among toddlers and preschoolers. The colorful vintage illustrations are fun for adults, too. - The Complete Adventures of Curious George by H.A. Rey and Margret Rey: This collection of seven original volumes chronicles the adventures of Curious George — a mischievous monkey — and his guardian, the Man in the Yellow Hat. Each story features iconic illustrations and playful, uplifting storylines perfect for pre-K children. - The House in the Night by Susan Marie Swanson: A 2009 Caldecott Medal winner, this evocative story features gorgeous black-and-white illustrations and an uplifting message about the meaning of home. The dreamy verses will have your kids slumbering in no time. - The Paddington Bear series by Michael Bond: The 20 volumes in this imaginative series follow the title character — a teddy bear abandoned at a train station — as he travels the world and makes friends wherever he goes. - If You Give a Mouse a Cookie by Laura Joffe Numeroff: Clever illustrations highlight this ‘what if’ story that examines the ramifications of feeding uninvited houseguests. This title was followed by If You Give a Moose a Muffin, which follows a similar story arc; both books were illustrated by Laura Joffe Numeroff and Felicia Bond. - The Frog and Toad books by Arnold Lobel: This award-winning six-book series explores the illustrated adventures of the two title amphibians. Each book contains multiple stories that lead to lessons about sharing, self-discipline, the merits of hard work and other important concepts. - Green Eggs and Ham by Dr. Seuss: This 1960 classic offers the perfect entry point into the idiosyncratic world of Dr. Seuss. Memorable verses and iconic illustrations have made Green Eggs and Ham one of the top English-language children’s bestsellers of all time. - The Cat in the Hat by Dr. Seuss: Another memorable beginner’s book from Dr. Seuss, The Cat in the Hat spins a surreal tale about a mischievous feline that entertains a pair of children for the afternoon. Roughly 10 million copies have been printed since its original publication in 1957, and the book has been translated into more than a dozen different languages. - Three Little Dreams by Thomas Aquinas Maguire: A boy atop a dragon, a magical star and a bird riding a paper airplane complete the trio of fantastic tales featured in this wordless picture book. - Love You Forever by Robert Munsch: This heartwarming, pastel-colored mini-epic examines how much a parent loves their child over the course of their lives. Expect a few tears during readings of Love You Forever, which was originally published in 1986. - Good Night, Good Knight by Shelley Moore Thomas: Geared toward young elementary-age children, this 46-page tale follows three young dragons and the Good Knight guardian who tucks them in and reads them bedtime stories every night. This title features lovely illustrations by Jennifer Plecas. - How the Grinch Stole Christmas by Dr. Seuss: A perfect choice for holiday bedtime readings, this Dr. Seuss favorite teaches valuable lessons about the importance of family, community and a sense of belonging. The animated TV special has also become a yuletide institution. Intermediate Readers (Ages 4 to 6) - Winnie the Pooh and The House at Pooh Corner by A.A. Milne: First published in the 1920s, these two novels have become perennial bedtime favorites and the characters have cemented their place in pop culture. The dreamy tales center around Winnie, a honey-craving teddy bear, and the other animals living in the magical Hundred Acre Wood. - The Giving Tree by Shel Silverstein: First appearing in 1964, this eco-friendly classic traces the complex — and rewarding — relationship between a boy and his favorite tree over the course of their respective lives. - The Arrival by Shaun Tan: This uplifting picture book chronicles the journey of an elderly immigrant who leaves his family to create a better life for them in a new home. Gorgeous illustrations and a profound message elevate The Arrival, which is an ideal tool for teaching tolerance to young elementary schoolers. - The Arthur books by Marc Brown: Since the late mid-70s, Marc Brown has entertained children across the globe with his stories about Arthur, a bespectacled aardvark who attends an elementary school with his animal friends. The books in this extensive series boast playful illustrations while tackling some of the issues faced by today’s young people. - The Magic School Bus series by Joanna Cole: Led by the lovable Ms. Frizzle — a science teacher with an other-worldly teaching style — the Magic School Bus books take readers on fascinating scientific journeys. Some of the most memorable exploits involve trips inside the human body, into space and deep within the earth’s core. - The Berenstain Bears series by Stan and Jan Berenstein: The Berenstain Bear family — Papa, Mama, Brother and Sister — have delighted young people since the 1960s. Each book in this vast series addresses typical family problems with playful, often funny plotlines and iconic illustrations. - Where the Wild Things Are by Maurice Sendak: This 1963 game-changer follows a young boy whose nighttime journey transports him to a magical realm populated by strange — yet friendly — monsters. Where the Wild Things Are received a Caldecott Medal in 1964. - Horton Hears a Who! By Dr. Seuss: Horton — a lovable elephant — gets to the bottom of a strange noise in this 1954 illustrated classic from Dr. Seuss. The story emphasizes concepts like kindness, empathy and the importance of community. - The Lorax by Dr. Seuss: One of Dr. Seuss’s most socially conscious works, The Lorax tells the tale of a strange mustachioed creature who appears to warn mankind about the environmental dangers of deforestation and urbanization. - Oh, the Places You’ll Go! By Dr. Seuss: This tribute to the joys and mysteries of adult life has been cherished by both kids and grown-ups since it first appeared in 1990. This was the last book published in Dr. Seuss’s lifetime. Experienced Readers (Ages 7 and Older) - Where the Sidewalk Ends and A Light in the Attic by Shel Silverstein: The idiosyncratic poetry of Shel Silverstein is on full display in this pair of verse collections that have charmed children for generations. Both titles are often available in boxed sets. - The Wind in the Willows by Kenneth Grahame: This 1908 classic chronicles the adventures of Mr. Toad, Rat, Badger and the other beastly denizens of England’s Thames Valley. The Wind in the Willows went on to inspire several film and stage adaptations. - Alice in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass by Lewis Carroll: Alice’s adventures with the Mad Hatter, the Cheshire Cat and Wonderland’s other residents have stirred the imaginations of young readers for more than 150 years. Classic illustrations help drive home the absurd, memorable stories featured in these two novels. - James and the Giant Peach by Roald Dahl: This vivid, imaginative tale chronicles the adventures of James and his insect friends aboard the titular oversized fruit. Their exciting journey is ideal for older kids, while the fantastic imagery will delight young listeners. - Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day by Judith Viorst: This funny account of one boy’s rough day at home and school ends with a positive message about appreciating what you have and not dwelling on negative experiences. The book features wonderful illustrations by Ray Cruz. - Miss Nelson Is Missing by Harry Allard: The kindly Ms. Nelson has disappeared from her rowdy grade-school classroom, only to be replaced by the strict Viola Swamp. Complete with a surprise ending, this title offers important lessons about the consequences of good — and bad — behavior. - Matilda by Roald Dahl: Featuring memorable illustrations by Quentin Blake, this bedtime and classroom favorite from 1988 follows the intelligent and resourceful Matilda as she navigates a challenging childhood populated with memorable supporting characters. - Charlie and the Chocolate Factory by Roald Dahl: This classic tale of perseverance follows young Charlie Bucket as he travels through Wonka Land, a magical candy factory presided over by an enigmatic host. The story is charming, dreamy and harrowing in equal measure — an ideal bedtime choice for older elementary students. Several sequels followed. - Charlotte’s Web by E.B. White: Classic illustrations by Garth Williams highlight this touching story of a pig named Arnold and his friend Charlotte, a spider with a few little ones on the way. Get the tissues ready. - Heidi by Johanna Spyri: Heidi tells the exciting tale of a plucky Swiss orphan who goes to live with her grumpy grandfather, and then must find her way back to him after she is kidnapped by a sinister governess. The timeless message and beautiful prose still feel fresh today, more than 130 years since the novel’s original publication. - Little Women by Louisa May Alcott: This story of the four March sisters and their determined matriarch has been cherished by little girls since it first appeared in 1868. Younger readers might struggle with the old-fashioned prose, but the book is quite suitable for ages 8 and up. - The Ramona series by Beverly Cleary: Beginning with Ramona & Beezus in 1955, this seven-book series follows spunky Ramona Quimby and her sister Beezus throughout their childhood. Along the way, each book tackles the importance of family and the unbreakable bond between siblings of any age. - Because of Winn-Dixie by Kate DiCamillo: A Newbery Honor winner, this 1990 coming-of-age story follows young Opal and her closest companion, an ugly mutt named for the titular grocery store where she first encounters him. - The Fudge series by Judy Blume: This four-book series follows 9-year-old Peter Hatcher and his rambunctious two-year-old brother, Fudge, whose escapades keep getting Peter into trouble. - Black Beauty by Anna Sewell: Written from the perspective of Black Beauty — a colt who is raised in the English countryside — this 1877 classic was one of the first stories to address the important issue of animal welfare. Later illustrated versions have cemented this book as a bedtime favorite for all ages. - The Little House on the Prairie series by Laura Ingalls Wilder: Ms. Wilder’s autobiographical accounts of rural life in the 19th century have charmed readers for generations. The vivid stories in this nine-book series give parents an opportunity to draw parallels between the past and present. - The Encyclopedia Brown series by Donald J. Sobol: Let your kids exercise their brains with this fun, compelling series about a young gumshoe who solves neighborhood mysteries. Each chapter features a hidden solution at the end, giving listeners the chance to crack the case on their own before the answer is revealed. - Tuck Everlasting by Natalie Babbitt: This 1972 classic follows the Tuck family, who attempt to live a normal acceptance after being granted eternal life from a magical spring. The book is still popular in today’s classrooms, as well as during bedtimes. - The Secret Garden by Frances Hodgson Burnett: In this powerful story from 1911, orphaned Mary Lennox travels to live with a distant relative in a countryside manor and soon learns her new home is filled with mysteries. The lengthy tale is ideal for nightly readings with older children. - A Wrinkle in Time Quartet by Madeleine L’Engle: Winner of numerous awards including the 1963 Newbery Medal this four-part science fiction saga follows a young girl searching for her missing father, a scientist with a mysterious past. The Best Bedtime Stories Available Online Bedtime stories have evolved over the years and today, parents across the country are turning to websites and video channels to find suitable reading material for their children. The following list includes dozens of bedtime tales you can find online; some are offered in a text-only format, while others are presented in an animated format. Like the previous list, this one is ranked by age of the reading audience. A link to the current web page is included with each entry. Beginning Readers (Birth to Age 3) - Small Bird’s Adventure by Wesley van Eden, Nick Mulgrew and Jennifer Jacobs: This illustrated tale aimed at very young readers follows Small Bird after he escapes his cage and tries to return home to his owner, known affectionately as ‘Giant’. - Clever Pig by Joshua Morgan, Nathalie Koenig and Lee-Ann Knowles: Clever Pig searches for his carrot snacks before bedtime in this fun story with adorable barnyard illustrations. - Kitten’s First Full Moon by Kevin Henkes: This video adapted from a 2004 Caldecott Medal Winner features adorable characters and striking pencil-shade illustrations. - Londi the Dreaming Girl by Lauren Holliday and Nathalie Koenig: Londi a spacy little girl ponders the mysteries of the universe on her way to fetch water in this imaginative tale of friendship and family. - The Best Thing Ever by Melissa Fagan, Lauren Nel and Stefania Origgi: A resourceful young boy named Muzi determined to build the greatest thing the world has ever seen is at the heart of this charming illustrated story. - The Princess and the Pea by Hans Christian Andersen: This easy-to-read online version of the classic Danish fairy tale is geared toward exceptionally young listeners. - The Ugly Duckling by Hans Christian Andersen: Another H.C. Andersen favorite, this fairy tale follows a young ‘duckling’ who is tormented by his companions until he makes a startling discovery. An uplifting story that inspires self-confidence in kids of all ages. - Little Sock and the Tiny Creatures by Lili Probart, Jon Keevy and Chani Coetzee: Little Sock is separated from the other dirty clothes in this illustrated adventure, and makes his way back to the laundry basket with the help of some household critters. - The Owl and the Lion: Lion has been bullying the other jungle animals for too long, and Owl decides to stand up to him in this fun story with a message of kindness and tolerance. You and your kids can follow along with subtitles and electronic narration. - The Giant Turnip: Gorgeous watercolor illustrations highlight this tale of a farmer who strives to grow the biggest turnip ever and his family’s efforts to pull the enormous vegetable out of the ground. - Nighty Night Circus: This lively, textless animated video follows a group of animals as they prepare for bed. The clip comes from Fox & Sheep, a popular nighttime app for kids and parents. Intermediate Readers (Ages 4 to 6) - Escape at Bedtime by Robert Louis Stevenson: Children leave their bed and discover a magical world in their backyard garden in this beautiful poem from Robert Louis Stevenson. - The Three Golden Apples by Nathaniel Hawthorne: Inspired by classic Greek mythology, this kid-friendly version of the Hercules story follows the heroic strongman as he rescues three magical apples from the garden of Hesperides. - The Three Little Pigs: This animated retelling of a children’s classic follows three pigs determined to build houses of their own and the mean-spirited wolf who attempts to foil their plans. - Riquet with the Tuft by Charles Perrault: Taken from a 17th century tale by the French storytelling master, this story of a homely-yet-witty young man still resonates with children today, thanks to its uplifting message and memorable characters. - Aladdin and the Magic Lamp: The most famous of tales from the classic Arabian Nights collection, this story follows a young beggar whose luck changes for better and worse after rubbing a magic lamp and meeting a genie. - Pied Piper of Hamelin: The good people of Hamelin turn to a mysterious flutist to solve their infestation problem in this animated rendition of the iconic fairy tale. - Little Red Riding Hood: The classic tale of survival and trickery comes to life in this kid-friendly animated version, in which the titular girl outwits a hungry wolf on the way to her grandmother’s house. - The Moon and the Cap by Noni: This illustrated tale with universal appeal follows a young boy who attempts to retrieve his missing cap and finds it in the unlikeliest of places. - Searching for the Spirit of Spring: Inspired by an African folk tale, this illustrated story charms young readers with its hopeful message of kindness and generosity. - The Fisherman and His Wife by the Brothers Grimm: A talking fish spells trouble for a greedy fisherman and his equally conniving spouse in this timeless fairy tale from the Brothers Grimm. - Down the Memory Lane with Nash by Uma Bala Devarakonda: Young Nash and his dog Toby learn about his grandmother’s childhood in this lovely tale of family and tradition. - The Elephant in the Room by Sam Wilson: Striking visuals drive this imaginative story of young Lindi and her best friend, an enormous elephant that may or may not be real. - Shelley Duvall’s Bedtime Stories: Charming audiences since it debuted in 1992, this Showtime series features classic children’s stories presented by actress Shelley Long. Dozens of full-length episodes are available on DailyMotion. - When I Grow Up by Michele Fry, Simone van der Spuy and Jennifer Jacobs: Eye-catching illustrations and an inspiring theme propel this story of a young girl whose career aspirations include becoming an astronaut, a doctor and a winning soccer player. - The Nestlings by Arthur Scott Bailey: The brave Jolly Robin is forced to leave his nest for the first time in this heartwarming tale of survival and love. The online version features a few original illustrations from the original publication, which first appeared in 1917. Experienced Readers (Ages 7 and Older) - A Book of Nonsense by Edward Lear: Introduce your kids to the mad brilliance of Edward Lear with this poetry collection that features absurdist verses and imaginative drawings by the author himself. - East of the Sun and West of the Moon: Featuring original illustrations, this rendition of a classic Norwegian folk tale transports kids to a world of talking bears, troll princesses and magical apples. - The Town Mouse and the Country Mouse by Aesop: This colorful retelling of the classic fable follows two mice one city dwelling, the other not so much as they experience what life is like for the other. - Dreamlands: a Bedtime Book by Stephan Smith: This colorfully animated bedtime story whisks young viewers to a magical realm where flowers are as tall as skyscrapers and even the oranges need to sleep. - Graça’s Dream by Melissa Fagan: A heartwarming story of tolerance and perseverance, this tale follows a woman named Graça as she attempts to bring literacy to her small Mozambican village. - The Stones of Plouvenic by Katharine Pyle: Adapted from a French folk tale, this playful story teaches children that the most valuable treasure can often be found in the least likely of places. - The Tale of Peter Rabbit by Beatrix Potter: This online retelling of the classic critter tale from 1902 features original illustrations by Beatrix Potter. - The White Stone Canoe by Hamilton Wright Mabie, Edward Everett Hale and William Byron Forbush: This haunting tale for kids 7 and up follows a young Native American chief who searches for his lost love in the spiritual afterlife. - Children’s Bedtime Stories by Gordon Dioxide: This collection of 20 fantastical tales come from the creative mind of Gordon Dioxide, who has also produced read-along videos for his stories. - Wildlife in a City Pond by Ashish Kothari: Featuring original illustrations by Sangeetha Kadur, this eco-minded tale follows a young boy as he explores the flora and fauna found in the park near his home. - The Dragon’s Eggs by Jade Matre: This kid-friendly fantasy follows brave little Luca as he combs an abandoned castle for dragon’s eggs and learns a valuable lesson about preservation in the process. - Island of the Nine Whirlpools by Edith Nesbit: Adapted from a story by celebrated children’s author Edith Nesbit, this fairy tale has it all: wicked witches, mystical castles and a dashing hero rescuing a kidnapped princess.

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Design is powerful. The ways that buildings, products, processes, and even services are designed can include or exclude people. This toolkit offers suggestions for rethinking approaches to design and providing services in ways that are more inclusive. In this toolkit, we identify: - Common barriers to accessing mental health services - Ways to improve access through: - Design solutions - Use of technology As you explore these resources, consider this definition of disability that emerges from a social justice perspective of disability and access: In this toolkit, we use the term disability to describe this shared experience of exclusion. This experience is common to people with a wide variety of bodily conditions. People who are deaf, blind, who use wheelchairs and other mobility devices, people with intellectual disabilities, chronic illnesses, dyslexia, and speech-related conditions all share the common experience of being disabled by the design and perspectives of society. When we see disability in this way, we recognize that, as people who design and deliver services and processes, we can be a part of the problem of exclusion or a part of the solution of inclusion. We hope that this toolkit will provide you with the resources you need to create more inclusive mental health services. Barriers are often placed on disabled people due to the misinformation and misperceptions about disability held by those around them. As a result of these problematic perspectives, disabled people experience what is called ableism. Ableism is a type of prejudice and discrimination directed toward people with disabilities. It includes attitudes, beliefs, and practices that demonstrate a preference for being nondisabled. Some of the ways this manifests itself are described below. - Lack of knowledge of civil rights laws: Some service providers may view providing services to disabled people as a charitable act, rather than recognizing that access to the same services that other people take for granted is a civil right—a matter of social justice. - Inaccurate assumptions: Many people tend to make assumptions about what a person can or cannot do based on physical characteristics. These assumptions often lead people to act in ways that do not respect the person's autonomy. For example, a therapist may rely on family members or other service providers for information rather than communicating directly with the person seeking services. Or a service provider may make decisions for the person to "protect" them rather than providing the person with options. - Placing too much value on being non-disabled: People often think that being non-disabled is the preferred state over being disabled (i.e. walking is better than using a chair, speaking is better than ASL, etc). This perspective results in a focus on "fixing" the person rather than on removing the barriers that exist around them. - Mis-location of the barrier: People often assume that the bodily difference is a barrier, rather than recognizing that the problem is that processes, products and services are not designed with that difference in mind. - Unconscious or implicit bias: Biases that lie outside awareness are likely to impact interactions and treatment decisions. - Assuming the bodily difference is the presenting problem: Disabled people often have the experience of working with a therapist who focuses on the bodily difference as the problem, rather than recognizing that it is merely an aspect of the person and that the person is experiencing the same kinds of problems that other people face. Communication includes both face-to-face interactions as well as other ways that information is shared. The ADA specifically addresses communication and requires that communication with people with disabilities be equally effective to that with nondisabled people. Some of the barriers to effective communication are described below. - Inaccessible websites: Mental health agency websites may be inaccessible to people who use various types of assistive technologies. Videos posted on websites may not be captioned or audio described. - Inaccessible printed information: The typical intake process usually requires reading and signing forms. Most mental health agencies do not have these forms in a format that is accessible for people who are blind or those with dyslexia. - Lack of knowledge of video or message relay services: A mental health agency receiving a call from a Deaf person via video or message relay may not be familiar with the process and thus may not respond effectively. - Lack of readiness to provide access services: Deaf people are often denied services by mental health agencies because the agency staff do not realize it is their responsibility to provide sign language interpreters (or other kinds of access services). When there is recognition of their responsibility, the staff still may not have readily available a way to acquire such services upon request, resulting in delays in scheduling an appointment for the Deaf person. - Training in highly verbal therapeutic approaches: Most therapists engage in traditional talk therapy and may not have training that supports their ability to adapt their communication strategies or approaches as needed. - Lack of knowledge of accommodation strategies: Most mental health providers do not have training in or exposure to the kinds of accommodations that might remove barriers to access. - Inaccessibility of supplemental materials: Therapists often assign outside work such as reading or watching videos. These materials may not be available in accessible formats. - Ineffective and inaccessible evaluation and diagnostic tools: Disabled people often experience misdiagnosis due to the limitations of diagnostic tools. They are often not designed to be accessible and/or are normed in ways that make the results inaccurate for some people. In this section on physical barriers we refer to barriers resulting from the design of buildings, parking areas, sidewalks and other aspects of the built environment. - Lack of access to nearby public transportation: For some, public transportation is the only accessible transportation available. When services are difficult to reach with public transportation, this can present a barrier. - Inaccessible offices: Buildings housing mental health and related services may not be accessible to people using wheelchairs or other mobility devices. Restrooms are often not accessible. - Inaccessible office layout: Even when buildings themselves are built to meet ADA standards, individual therapists' offices may be configured in a way that makes it difficult or awkward for people who are wheelchair users to get in and out or position themselves in a comfortable way with the office space. - Inaccessible residential service facilities and housing: Programs that provide residential treatment are sometimes located in facilities that are not accessible to people who are wheelchair users or mobility devices. The focus of this section is on how policies or typical procedures may result in lack of access. - Policies that exclude: Some mental health providers mistakenly assume that they can deny services to disabled people due to the lack of expertise of staff, lack of funds for providing accommodations, or inaccessibility of their facility. - Lack of policies in place to facilitate access: People with disabilities may experience delays because those taking their requests for appointments are unaware of the process for providing access. - Lack of flexibility in appointment times and length: Since accommodated communication may take longer, it stands to reason that a longer appointment time would provide equal access to the therapeutic services, yet this flexibility is not always extended. - Lack of opportunity to connect with peers in group or psychosocial programs: In many therapeutic programs, interaction with and learning from peers is a major component of the therapeutic process. If accommodations are only provided during formal sessions, participants may miss out on critical aspects of the program. - Lack of access to community support programs: Many therapists refer people to community programs such as 12-step programs or grief support groups. These programs often are housed in inaccessible locations, do not provide accommodations, and those participating in and facilitating the programs may be prone to similar biases as discussed above. Creating an inclusive environment means that, to the extent possible, service providers take a proactive approach to providing access. This section will focus on changes that can be made proactively to remove the barriers identified in the previous section. - Disabled people deserve our pity. - People with disabilities are needy and require more time and attention than others. - Accommodations are expensive. - Disabled people are inspirational. Some people also tend to ascribe other stereotypes, making assumptions that all people with a specific condition are likely to be similar. Another societal response to disability is to doubt the existence of certain conditions, especially those that are not apparent such as a learning disability. It's important that mental health providers confront the biases that arise from growing up in a society where these perceptions are dominant. The ideas in the videos below challenge dominant perceptions of disability: It is also critical that all staff are aware that disabled people have a right to access services under the Americans with Disabilities Act. The following resources provide guidance on ensuring services are accessible: - Accessible Health Care [New Window] - Additional ADA Resources [New Window] - National Deaf Center: Mental Health Services Tip Sheet (PDF) [New Window] Consider inviting disability activists to present at your in-service training. When available, attend sessions that challenge perceptions of disability at professional conferences. Arkansas mental health providers are invited to contact the staff of the University of Arkansas - Partners for Inclusive Communities to present an in-service workshop. Contact information is available at the bottom of this page. As mentioned above, communication refers to face-to-face interactions as well as all of the other ways that information is exchanged. The ADA requires that businesses provide equally effective communication to people with vision, hearing and speech disabilities. In this section, we start with how people might learn about your services and then move into communication that occurs once services are initiated. Before people can access your services, they need to locate and learn about them. This may happen by calling the office or going to your website. To provide proactive access by phone and website, there are several things to consider. Access by Phone Deaf and hard of hearing people and people with speech-related conditions may use a telecommunications relay service to contact you by phone. The caller calls the relay service to request that the call be made. The communication assistant calls the other party and relays the message between the two parties. There are four types of relay services: - Text-to-Voice Relay Service (TRS): The caller calls a service using a TTY and types a message. The communication assistant (CA) reads the message to the other party and types what is spoken back to the caller. - Video Relay Service (VRS): A deaf caller who is an American Sign Language (ASL) user calls the relay service using a computer or video conferencing equipment. A sign language interpreter makes the call to the other party and voices what the deaf caller signs. The interpreter then signs back to the deaf caller what the speaker says. - Voice Carry Over (VCO): Callers who are deaf or hard of hearing but prefer to use their own voice can make the call and speak directly to the other party. What the other party says is typed and sent via text by the CA. - Speech-to-Speech Relay Service (STS Relay): The CAs providing this service are skilled in understanding people with speech-related conditions, listening to their message and re-voicing it for the other party. A deaf or hard of hearing person may also make a call using an interpreter that is in the same room with them. And a person with a speech-related disability may also call directly. It's important that those who answer the phones: - Understand that they may receive calls from these relay services and that they should not rush to hang up if there is a slight delay in response while the CA waits for the caller's response. - Recognize that speaking to the communication assistant does not violate confidentiality or HIPPA laws. The CA is bound by strict confidentiality rules. - Speak directly to the person who is calling rather than saying "tell her..." - Be prepared to respond to callers that may be difficult to understand and take the time necessary to understand the caller. More often, people who want to know about your services are likely to search the Internet and find your website. There are aspects of website design than can render the site inaccessible. Here are just a few things to consider to make sure your website is accessible. - Make sure that the site can be navigated using the keyboard alone (without a mouse). - Provide alternative text descriptions for images on the site. - Make sure that any documents provided on your website are accessible. - If you provide educational or orientation videos, make sure they are captioned and provide a transcript. Learn more about web accessibility: When someone initiates mental health services, there are typically several forms that are processed. One way to provide proactive access is to make sure that the commonly used forms, brochures and information sheets are available in accessible digital format. This will allow people who are blind, have low vision, or have learning disabilities to access these materials using assistive technology. Learn more about making your documents accessible: Readiness to Provide Access Services In order to avoid delays that may result when someone requests a sign language interpreter or other communication access services, it is important to have contact information for qualified service providers ready and available to appointment schedulers. These individuals also need to be made aware of and comfortable with the process of requesting and scheduling these service providers. In Arkansas, there are three interpreter referral agencies* that coordinate access services: - Communication Plus: 501-224-2521 - Communicating Hands: 501-374-5293 - Sign Language Interpreter Network of Northwest Arkansas: 479-268-2417 or email@example.com If you are outside of Arkansas, you can find an interpreter referral agency in your area by using the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf Interpreter Agency/Referral Service search tool. If you are unable to locate a service using that tool, you may also contact your state school for the deaf or state vocational rehabilitation office. They will likely be able to connect you with an interpreter referral agency in your state. *Our purpose is not to promote a specific business. If you know of other interpreter referral agencies within Arkansas, please send a message to Melanie Thornton at firstname.lastname@example.org. When access is not achieved proactively through design of a product, process or service, individual accommodations provide an alternative means to achieve access. The ADA requires that businesses provide "reasonable modifications" and "auxiliary aids" when necessary so that everyone has an equal opportunity to benefit from services and participate in programs. "Reasonable modification" and "auxiliary aids" can include: - Provision of access services such as a sign language interpreter - A modification of a typical process or procedure - A modification of a format - Use of communication tools and technologies to remove barriers to or enhance communication We have created a separate section focused on use of technology. Here we focus on the first three categories of accommodations listed above. These suggestions are not meant to be exhaustive. Accommodations should not be viewed as a laundry list of options or as formulaic but as solutions that remove barriers to access. Often the best solutions are suggested by the individual or arise out of a creative, interactive process between a service provider and the disabled person. - Sign Language Interpreters: People who are deaf or hard of hearing may use sign language as their preferred mode of communication. If the therapist is not fluent in sign language, a sign language interpreter facilitates access between the deaf or hard of hearing person and the therapist. - Sign Language Interpreters-Tactile or Close Proximity: People who are DeafBlind may use sign language as their preferred mode of communication. If the therapist is not fluent in sign language, a sign language interpreter facilitates access between the DeafBlind person and the therapist, either by signing in the DeafBlind person's hands or sitting very close and signing in the case of someone with low vision. - Oral Interpreters: Some people who are deaf communicate using speech and speech reading. When the deaf person has difficulty speech reading the therapist or other service provider, an oral interpreter may be provided to mouth the words that are being spoken in order to bridge that communication gap. - Speech-to-Text Providers: A speech-to-text provider facilitates communication access by typing what the therapist says so that the deaf person can read the text. - Re-voicers: When a client has a speech-related condition, and the therapist is unable to understand the person's speech, a person who is skilled at understanding that person's speech may re-voice what they say for the therapist. A re-voicer may also be used when a person is using a communication aid to communicate. In this case, the re-voicer speaks the message as the person expresses it using the technology. Considerations for choosing sign language interpreters: - Access service providers working in the mental health setting should have the highest level of credentials. - Using a family member or non-certified person who is able to sign as an interpreter is unethical and in states that have licensure laws (like Arkansas), illegal. - The interpreter referral agency can assist in making sure that the interpreter has the appropriate level of certification. - Certified interpreters are bound by a code of professional conduct which includes a commitment to confidentiality. - In the event that no interpreters are available in your area, there are also agencies that provide remote interpreting using video conferencing technology. This should be a back-up plan rather than the first choice. Considerations when choosing other access service providers: - The term speech-to-text services refers to three primary systems: Communication Access Realtime Translation (CART), C-Print®, and TypeWell. - Certification levels exist for CART providers. - C-Print and Typewell providers complete a course that provides a certificate. Referral agencies will likely be able to ensure that the person has the skills necessary to perform the role for your agency. - There is no certification for re-voicers. When hiring a re-voicer, getting the client's recommendations and/or checking references are ways to ensure the professionalism of the service provider. - There is currently no pathway to certification on a national level for oral interpreters. Some may hold certifications from the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf from previous years. In some states credentials for oral interpreters are offered on the state level. Using a communication access provider: - Make sure the seating configuration works to facilitate good access. - Speak naturally and directly to the person, not to the access provider. - Remember that the role of the access provider is to facilitate communication, not to assist the person. - Remember that the access provider will translate everything that is said when the deaf person is present. - National Deaf Center: Sign Language Interpreters: An Introduction (PDF) [New Window] - National Deaf Center: Hiring Qualified Interpreters (PDF) [New Window] - National Deaf Center: Sign Language Interpreters: An Introduction (PDF) [New Window] - National Deaf Center: Hiring Qualified Speech to Text Providers (PDF) [New Window] - Increased appointment length: If communication between the therapist and the client takes longer than is typical, it follows that a longer appointment time than the usual 45 to 60 minutes may be necessary in order to provide an equitable experience. - Meeting in an accessible location: If the mental health clinic is inaccessible, providing treatment services in another accessible location would be considered a reasonable accommodation. It's important to take into consideration that the location needs to provide the same level of respect for privacy as the office environment. - Access to forms: When the forms that have to be completed by a new client, for example, present a barrier, a reasonable accommodation would be to provide access through the provision of a reader, the use of assistive technology, or a modification of the form to make it more accessible. - Flexibility with and modification of therapeutic interventions: Occasionally the nature of a therapeutic intervention may present barriers. It will be important to think through the aspects of the therapeutic process and consider how to modify certain interventions or if there are others that would be more effective. For example, visualization activities where therapists use their voices to set a certain mood will be less effective with someone who doesn't hear the voice. Visualization activities can still be used, but they may need to be modified by teaching the strategy and allowing the person to do the visualization on their own or by using a relaxing video to set the tone between instructions. - Ensuring supplemental materials are accessible: Before assigning readings or suggesting videos to watch, make sure they will be accessible to the client. If not, a reasonable accommodation would be to create an accessible version or to suggest a similar alternative that is accessible. - Assessment and evaluation: The intersection of assessment and disability is a complex one that could require its own toolkit. In short, it's important to be aware that standardized assessments may not provide a valid picture of the person being tested if there are barriers inherent in the assessment's design. Some examples of typical barriers are: - A timed assessment scores a young man lower because he doesn't finish when the slower completion rate is due to a motor-related condition. - An assessment with elements that are purely visual and even when described verbally place a blind person at a disadvantage. - An assessment that includes figures of speech that would not be familiar to someone for whom English is not their first language—as in the case of a native sign language user. In such situations the evaluator will need to determine whether to provide an accommodation or eliminate the use of the instrument all together and identify alternative options. Technology provides solutions to a multitude of persistent barriers to access and has changed the design landscape. To recognize the difference that technology makes, consider this question: What if Stephen Hawking had been born before the computer technology were available that gave him the tools to communicate and record his ideas?We have chosen to provide a separate section focused on technology because technological solutions can be both design solutions and accommodations and there is quite a bit to cover related to technology. Generally, when discussing technology that removes barriers, the term assistive technology is used. Yet many of the technologies that accomplish the removal of barriers are used by non-disabled people as well. We also recognize that many mainstream technologies started out as access solutions before moving into the mainstream. Barrier removal, in fact, might be considered a propeller of innovation for technology. The line between what might be considered assistive technology and what is just technology is definitely not a solid line. We prefer, therefore, to simply address the topic of technology and how it can be used to solve access barriers. We will focus our discussion of technology on items or products that can be used to remove or reduce barriers to face-to-face communication. We will include items that are high tech or low tech and in between. The examples we provide are not intended to be exhaustive by any means. Where specific products are mentioned, it is not our intention to promote those products but to be concrete enough that the reader can find a product when needed. Spoken language may present a barrier when communication is taking place between a therapist and someone who is D/deaf or hard of hearing, DeafBlind, and or who has a condition that affects auditory processing. Possible solutions include: - Amplifying or increasing clarity of speech - Assistive Listening Devices (ALDs) - Hearing Enhancement Apps - Use of an alternate form of communication - Two-Way Text Communication Devices and Apps - Alternative Communication Apps and Devices Note: None of the technology solutions described should be seen as alternatives to providing access services such as interpreters or CART providers when those are requested, but may be the preferred options for some and may be short-term solutions when access service providers are not available. The term Assistive Listening System (ALS) refers to a variety of systems that are used to amplify sound and reduce barriers that result from distance and extraneous noise. These systems vary from large systems in an auditorium to more personalized units.This technology can be used in conjunction with or without a hearing aid. For most therapy situations, the three types of systems that might be considered are: - FM Systems - Infrared Systems (IR) - Personal Amplifiers With both FM and IR systems, the speaker wears a clip-on mic that is connected to a transmitter. The listener wears a receiver that translates the signal and delivers it by way of the person's hearing aid or headphones. FM systems are preferred in situations where there is greater distance between the speaker and the listener, when the speaker is moving around and when there may be objects between the speaker and the listener. Infrared systems are preferred in situations where privacy is of utmost concern (since the signal cannot pass through walls) and when there is a direct line of sight between the two transmitter and receiver. When two people are communicating and can sit near each other, a personal amplifier may also be adequate. With these devices, the microphone and the receiver are both in the single device. The user points the microphone toward the speaker. Hearing aids are expensive and not everyone who needs a hearing aid is able to afford one. For people in this situation, hearing enhancement apps can provide a helpful alternative. These apps are available on Android and iOS devices. The user will need to spend a few minutes going through a "hearing test" to get the settings correct. After that, with earbuds connected to the device, the speaker's voice is directed and amplified to the listener. One example of such an app is Petralex. It is available at no cost for both Android and iOS devices. Two-Way Text Communication solutions provide options when spoken communication is a barrier both expressively and receptively. That is, both parties need to communicate via text. This would be most common when one person is D/deaf or hard of hearing and the other person does not know sign language. These technologies could also be classified as alternative communication but are separated out because of the fact that they resolve barriers to two-way communication. Writing notes back and forth would be considered a low tech solution when spoken language presents a barrier. With technology being more available, most people have put away the pen and paper begun to use computer and tablet technology to communicate. Here we introduce several two-way text solutions. FireChat App: A free app available on both Android and iOS devices. It allows two people to chat with each other in the same room by setting up chat profiles and connecting without using personal email or social networking accounts. There are other similar apps that are available for iOS only or Android only. This was the only app we found that was available on both. Flipwriter AAC: Currently available only on iOS devices, this app sells for approximately $50. One user types a message and it is displayed both for the user and outward-facing for the other person. Tap the message, and it reads it aloud (Text-to-Speech). Tap a microphone and the other person can respond by voice. The app translates the speech to text (though accuracy will vary and always needs to be monitored). The app also allows the user to store commonly used phrases. sComm Ubiduo: A high-end device, this product sells for $2000 and up. Two keyboards and screens are connected either wirelessly or wired and allow users to sit across from each other and type messages back and forth. The two pieces fit nicely together for traveling. Laptop or computer: Another simple solution would be to simply sit together in front of a computer screen and take turns typing back and forth. Though, with this set up, seeing facial expressions is difficult. Text-Based Systems: Text-based alternative communication applications may be on a computer, a stand-alone device or a tablet. Text input can be through a combination of typing and pointing to commonly used words and phrases. If typing or pointing with one's fingers is not possible, then a person may use alternative input devices such as an eye tracker, a mouth stick or a pointing device. Typically, the person inputs the phrase or sentence, then initiates the text-to-speech function so that the message is delivered by a synthesized voice. If a client doesn't already have access to a device, there are many low-cost apps that could be used in a therapy session. A few examples of these apps are ClaroCom (iOS, free or $16.99 for pro version), Verbally (iOS, $99), and Speech Assistant (Android, free). Picture-Based Systems: For children and adults who are not strong readers, a picture-based communication application may work best. These also may exist as a software application on a computer, a stand-alone device or an app on a tablet. A few examples include Avaz (iOS or Android, $40), Proloquo2Go (iOS, $250), and Sounding Board (iOS, free). The more sophisticated apps allow users to upload their own photos and images. Story Board Apps: Visual storytelling applications provide a way to communicate about a series of events that have taken place. Pictello (iOS, $18) is one example of an app that could be used to create a description of an experience that happened outside the therapy session, for example. Telehealth technology can provide access to mental health services for people who might face barriers with transportation or mobility, allowing them to connect to services remotely. At the same time, these technologies may also present barriers for others. When the COVID-19 outbreak forced providers to move all mental health services online, it became clear that some people did not have access to a reliable internet connection or to a device to allow them to continue their therapy sessions online. This points to the reality of the digital divide that exists. This move to providing services remotely also resulted in barriers for some people with disabilities. Planning ahead and providing access services can reduce these barriers. Choosing an Accessible Platform These questions will help you determine what platform will be most accessible. - Does the company that created the platform have information about accessibility? - Do they provide keyboard shortcuts? - Does the platform allow for captioning to be provided and/or includes a chat tool? - Does the platform have a chat feature for communicating during the session? - Does the platform allow for more than one video so that an interpreter can be added to the session? - Is the platform simple and intuitive for the client to use? Providing Communication Access Providing ASL Interpreters If a deaf client needs an interpreter, you will need to be able to provide access to an interpreter through the platform. If you have been using an interpreter for face to face sessions and change to providing therapy remotely, see if the interpreter you have been using can continue to provide services for you and your client. That will offer the best continuation of services. If for some reason the interpreter is not ablate do so, check with the interpreter referral agency you used to see if they have a recommendation. There are also companies that specialize in providing video remote interpreting (VRI) if your local providers do not have the equipment to do so. While talking to a client through telehealth or video conferencing technology does not require a lot of bandwidth, following an interpreter does. A client who is Deaf will need to have a good stable internet connection to follow the interpreter. Interruptions to the video feed can disrupt communication. Providing Access Through Captioning A hard of hearing client who was able to speech read you in person may have more difficulty doing so when using this technology. Real-time captions may need to be provided even if they were not needed in person. Check with your local interpreter referral agency to see if they can provide real-time captioning. If not, again, there are companies that specialize in doing so. If you are using a platform that has a chat feature and it is only you and your client in the session, they client may prefer that you simply type your message to them in the chat box and they respond by speaking. Providing Practice Sessions Clients who are new to connecting online in this way may benefit from having a practice session before the actual session. You might want to consider, if possible, having a staff member set up a session with the client in advance so they know what to expect and can make sure everything is working properly. This could be helpful also to people who use assistive technology. If you need additional information on this topic or would like to schedule training, please contact Melanie Thornton, Coordinator of Access and Equity Outreach at email@example.com for more information.

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IN LATE AUGUST 1619, a year and a few days before the arrival of the Mayflower, around 20 Africans from the ship White Lion were sold in Jamestown colony; their arrival was duly recorded by John Rolfe (of Pocahontas fame), the colony’s registrar. They were not the first Africans in what would become the United States, but they (and the hundreds of thousands of Africans who followed) brought with them, in their heads and hands, knowledge and skills that transformed the food of the nascent nation. Their position, and that of their descendants, at the bottom of the established pecking order placed them at the working epicenter of nation-building—and meant that, over the intervening four centuries, their influence in culinary life, agriculture, animal husbandry, brewing, and distilling would create a lasting culinary legacy that is often overlooked. Establishing a chronology of labor is difficult, but the first work that was done was probably agricultural and domestic, with the newly arrived working in the fields alongside indentured whites. Angolan-born Antonio, one of the original group of Africans, served a term of indenture and became a farmer and a sizeable landowner. Through the work of Antonio and those like him, farming would be transformed by ideas, such as the careful planting of crops, that were a part of African and Native peoples’ traditions. The crops produced from their methods yielded almost five times as much as the scattered-seed method that was common in Europe. Agricultural practices from the African continent prevailed in many areas, but in none as much as in the cultivation of rice in the Carolina Low Country. From early years, the expertise of enslaved Africans who were from the rice-growing regions of West Africa—Senegambia, Liberia, and Sierra Leone—created extraordinary wealth for the Carolina colony. The Carolina Gold seed itself may have arrived from Madagascar. Other ideas ranging from crop rotation to systems of planting also were transmitted. Crops from Africa like okra, watermelon, black-eyed peas, sorghum, coffee, kola nuts, and sesame were brought across the Atlantic and became staples of the American diet, especially in the South. Some crops, like peanuts, arrived from other parts of the hemisphere via the African slave trade. Recent studies suggest that not only plants but also animals may share African genesis. The celebrated Texas Longhorn cattle, long thought to be a mix of Criollo and European cattle, actually contain DNA of Fulani cattle from West Africa, and descendants of enslaved Fulani herdsmen were some of the nation’s first cowboys. Indeed, by the end of the Civil War, fully 1 in 4 cowboys was Black. Agriculture and animal management were not the only areas influenced by Africa and its descendants; the very taste of the new nation was given an African tinge by the myriad African American cooks who toiled in its taverns and kitchens. When many of the founding fathers sat to table, their meals were prepared by Black cooks and served by Black hands. Washington’s chef, Hercules; Jefferson’s chef, James Hemings; and unknown cooks for the signatories of the Declaration of Independence brought African American culinary know-how to the highest levels of the profession. In Star-Spangled Manners, Judith Martin, better known as Miss Manners, goes so far as to suggest that the very nature of America’s much-vaunted Southern hospitality owes more to African customs than European ones. The scope of influence of African Americans in the beverage industry is still being uncovered, but already findings indicate that in the Colonial and Federal periods, a significant number worked in taverns as servers and were functioning as master brewers, as with Peter Hemings, James’ brother, who occupied that position at Monticello. Nathan “Nearest” Green, who was born enslaved, was the distiller who taught his craft to Jack Daniel. As it was a branch of the service industry, many of the country’s early bartenders were Black, and before Prohibition, most of the bartenders in Washington, D.C., were Black, even founding the Black Mixologists Club, a professional organization. Tom Bullock, who tended bar in St. Louis, wrote The Ideal Bartender in 1917, the first such tome penned by an African American—and one that became a bible for mixologists leading the craft cocktail revolution a century later. Food also offered a range of possibilities for those with an entrepreneurial bent. Women in Gordonsville, Virginia, saw a market for selling food to passengers on the railroads that crossed the town: They sold fried chicken and baked goods through the train windows to hungry passengers. In 19th-century Philadelphia, Robert Bogle established a group of Black caterers who offered their services to the city’s well-to-do. Around the country, African American street vendors hawked everything from New Orleans calas (rice fritters) to pig’s feet in Harlem. African American eateries large and small have fed all Americans for centuries, from Providence’s first ale and oyster house, opened by Emmanuel Bernoon in 1736, to Edouardo Jordan and Mashama Bailey’s restaurants earning James Beard Awards today. African Americans have toiled in every aspect of the country’s food—growing it, selling it, serving it, and creating and offering the beverages to accompany it. It’s a 400-year history that is only now in the 21st century being fully understood, researched, and told. It’s about time. —Jessica B. Harris, professor emerita at Queens College, is a culinary historian, consultant, and cookbook author specializing in the food of Africa and its diaspora. Top left: An early bottle of Jack Daniel’s; the formerly enslaved Nathan “Nearest” Green was the first master distiller at Jack Daniel’s and the first Black master distiller on record in the U.S. Top right: This sort of rice mortar and pestle would have been used by enslaved Africans to hull rice in a West African technique. Bottom left: Fanner baskets, used across the Low Country to winnow rice, are a technology brought to the U.S. from West Africa. Bottom right: This Victorian oyster fork is similar to what might have been used in Thomas Downing’s luxurious Lower Manhattan oyster cellar. Many thanks to the Museum of Food and Drink in New York City, whose exhibit African/American: Making the Nation’s Table opens April 3. For details, visit mofad.org. A WARM VAT OF RICE sitting on the stovetop is a family’s diagram of prosperity. Scorched-bottom silver pots chart out things you need to know about a brood. The engraved scratches are a remembrance of times of abundance and lack; a Tupperware canister front and center on the countertop is an allegorical sign of having more than you need. Chef Joseph “JJ” Johnson’s culinary journey took him from fine-dining kitchen brigades to dreaming up FieldTrip, his newest restaurant. His fast-casual rice bowl shop sits in the cradle of Black life—Harlem, USA—offering items like fragrant Carolina Gold rice with barbecue-tinged proteins. His late Puerto Rican maternal grandmother inspired his asopao, a comforting chicken and rice dish, and the only difference is that he cooks his grains before combining the spice and poultry. His grandma Iris’ one-pot method turned out perfect, always. East and west, north and south, the heart connects to the foot. From enslaved Africans cultivating in the Low Country in South Carolina and Georgia—the ancestors of today’s Gullah Geechee people—to Johnson’s eatery in Harlem, rice is a thread that connects generations of African American kitchens. When the Instant Pot hums or a chef’s culinary voice sings, ancestors are honored. All is well when the electric cord stays plugged into the home. —Nicole A. Taylor is the executive food editor at Thrillist. AT THE ONSET of the 19th century in New York City, working in the oyster business was commonplace for many African Americans. In 1810, the New York City directory listed 27 oystermen; 16 were Black. When Thomas Downing showed up in 1819, he arrived with deep knowledge of regional fish and bivalves. His hustle muscle and business acumen were also very much intact. Downing was also an abolitionist, caterer, and entrepreneur. Born to free Black parents and raised along the eastern shore of Virginia, he was adept in Atlantic waters. Less than 10 years after arriving in New York, he opened an oyster restaurant at 5 Broad Street in Manhattan. Like it is today, Broad Street was in a bustling financial district teeming with bankers, traders, and people of means. Unlike the more humble oyster cellars of the day, his space was adorned with a chandelier, fine carpet, and curtains, distinguishing Downing from not only his fellow Black oystermen but also the entire industry. In those days, oysters were so abundant that all you could eat could be had for just six cents. By 1842, oysters swelled to a $6 million industry catering to the elite, and Downing grew wealthy. Respected by his financial and political clientele, Downing leveraged his social and monetary capital as an abolitionist. He harbored refugees from slavery in his cellars. For Downing, the oyster business, and more broadly the catering business, was about freedom. In 1836, he helped found the United Anti-Slavery Society of the City of New York and campaigned for equitable voting rights. For today’s Black chefs, Downing’s legacy is living history. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, in 2018, 17% of chefs and head cooks were Black, about five percentage points higher than their representation in the entire workforce. Between 2007 and 2012, the number of Black-owned eating and drinking establishments increased by nearly 50%, according to the National Restaurant Association. Though these numbers suggest broader participation in culinary arts among Black chefs, these chefs are part of a long lineage of independent culinary professionals who’ve taken what was once considered undesirable work and transformed it into a means of income and influence. Though industrialization and the Great Migration of the 20th century took many African Americans out of the kitchen, they are now returning to the industry. Chefs like Ashleigh Shanti, BJ Dennis, and Edouardo Jordan are bringing their full selves and history into their work. Their talents continue to unfold, each beautiful morsel a full-flavored reclamation of a centuries-old story. —Stephen Satterfield is an editor and cofounder of Whetstone Magazine. IN COLONIAL AMERICA, beef cows were herded by enslaved men, many of whom had been born in cattle-raising areas of West Africa. They brought with them skills inherited from several thousand years of cattle-raising. In the Carolinas, they were known as cow hunters. These men rounded up the animals to secure in the cow pens at night, managed the herd, and butchered stock to be sold. Then as now, beef was an important commodity: Beef, salted in casks, was a significant part of trade to Caribbean sugar plantations, while cattle on the hoof were regularly herded to markets in urban centers. Before the Civil War, cattle ranching moved ever westward into Texas and New Mexico, and after the war, 25% of American cowboys were Black men. That’s 1 in 4 cowboys—men like Nat Love, Bass Reeves, and Bill Pickett—driving cattle on the two- to three-month journey along the Shawnee Trail, the Chisholm Trail, and the Goodnight-Loving Trail, bringing beef to northern shipping points in Kansas and beyond. Black cooks also prepared and served beef, laying the foundations of American cuisine. All along the mid-Atlantic by the late 18th century, skilled plantation cooks had adapted English styles of beef cookery to the tastes of the dining elite. The 1824 cookbook The Virginia House-Wife listed no fewer than 18 beef recipes enslaved cooks were skilled at producing. Today, at The Grey in Savannah, Georgia, chef Mashama Bailey articulates this layered legacy in her braised beef shank recipe, flavored with peanut butter and coffee. —Leni Sorensen is a scholar and culinary historian in Crozet, Virginia. TO MARK THE SHIFT CHANGE between meal services at Benne on Eagle in Asheville, North Carolina, chef de cuisine Ashleigh Shanti leads her team in a focused but relaxed round of ingredient prep. Sometimes they pick crabmeat. Other times, they snap green beans. But often, usually, they strip collards. “We all do it together,” she says of the time they carve out to mentally reset for the evening ahead. It’s part of Shanti’s appreciation for tedious but crucial labor: “It reminds me of my aunt [and] my grandmother, just doing that one thing together.” With collards, it’s not just how you stew, sauté, or season them that matters. The essence of the dish comes forth in its making. At Benne, the year-old restaurant celebrated for its deferential yet creative approach to telling a Black Appalachian food story, collard greens play sideman—but never second fiddle. They appear in Shanti’s collard green and shaved fennel salad, a raw application that Shanti says goes overlooked too regularly. They are traditionally stewed and served in their potlikker. Shanti often dries the leaves like “hanging britches” on a clothesline, taking a cue from her grandmother, who gave garlic and dragon beans the same treatment. She rehydrates them with buttermilk, cooks them down, and calls the side Buttermilk Britches in homage. Other uses of the brittle iteration get ground to a powder as part of the restaurant’s house seasoning blend with benne seed, mushroom powder, kitchen pepper, Maldon salt, and brown sugar. African American culture has historically been obscured from how this region is presented, but its influence has been tangible for centuries. On the dining room wall, four prominent portraits of African American women hold court. They are Hanan Shabazz, Mary Jo Johnson, Earlene McQueen, and Mary Frances Hutchinson, all restaurateurs from decades past who fed the historic Black neighborhood The Block, where Benne on Eagle makes its home today. “Collards have shown up on all their menus at some point,” Shanti says of the women whose faces she can see from the open kitchen. “Collards are a dish that everyone in the community loved and can still relate to.” —Osayi Endolyn is a James Beard Award–winning writer living in Gainesville, Florida. THE HISTORY OF ARACHIS HYPOGAEA, the peanut, originally domesticated in South America, became extremely Black almost immediately upon its introduction to West and Central Africa in the 1500s, during the early period of the transatlantic slave trade. The peanut was kissing cousin to the Bamana groundnut, a native edible that also produced shelled legumes in the ground. More prolific and versatile, used for everything from savory sauces to confections, the peanut spread and became a staple and, in time, crossed to North America on a reverse trip. Called goobers or gooba peas by some, pindars by others, colloquial names for the peanut in the early American South had an Angolan connection, pointing to a fairly early introduction. Many enslaved Africans grew them in their provision gardens. In time the crop would know crossover appeal; by the 1830s and ’40s, there were peanut plantations exporting the snack to the urban North, and by the Civil War, soldiers were singing, “Goodness, how delicious, eating goober peas.” Boiled and roasted peanuts, peanut candy, peanut soup, and many other delicacies would join numerous confections, pies, cakes, and ice cream flavors laden with the peanut. And although he was not the inventor of the ancient preparation of peanut butter as many have thought, nobody popularized the peanut and its 300-plus uses more than Dr. George Washington Carver. —Michael W. Twitty is a food writer, historical interpreter, and culinary historian. “EXPECT NOT GOATS AND COWRIES, for my yams are dry, and the barns are empty,” wrote Kukogho Iruesiri Samson, a Nigerian poet. Yams are considered to be the most common African staple aboard Middle Passage ships; some estimates say 100,000 yams fed 500 slaves, sometimes their only foodstuff. Contrary to some folks’ conception of holiday pies and marshmallow-studded mash, New World sweet potatoes feature in those dishes, not yams, which are eaten in West Africa, the Caribbean, throughout Latin America, and in parts of Asia and are a different vegetable entirely. Sweet potatoes tend to be long and pointed, with orange flesh, and are fairly sweet, while yams have whitish flesh and are larger and more cylindrical. Sweet potatoes are creamier, yams floury, starchier. In either case, they can be boiled, mashed, fried, or roasted over embers. Yams are honored in West African and Brazilian ceremonies and offerings to the orixás, in song, and in literature. Okonkwo, Chinua Achebe’s tragic hero in Things Fall Apart, reveled in planting yams, deeming them the king of crops and thereby solidifying his manhood and ability to provide. In the New World, enslaved Africans found the sweet potato, which took its place. Ralph Ellison’s Invisible Man celebrated a Harlem sweet potato vendor’s steaming sugary pulp as nectar. He apologized for his ebullience and Carolina homesickness with every bite. As the sweet potato takes up the role of the yam—foodstuff for sacred twins and ancestors—it epitomizes the adaptive creativity of the diaspora, a transfer food for Houston chef Jonny Rhodes to embrace in his Sweet Potato Gnocchi at his storytelling restaurant, Indigo. —Scott Alves Barton, PhD, is a chef and culinary educator. Sugarcane, the bamboo-like grass that yields what one of Alexander the Great’s commanders called honey from a reed, was brought to the Americas by Columbus in 1493. It flourished in the new hemisphere and transformed the agriculture, adding a diabolical twist to the production of sugar: the refinement of a plantation system in which huge tracts of land were worked by enslaved Africans. This system produced massive amounts of the white gold that fed Europe’s insatiable hunger for sugar to sweeten the coffee and tea that were all the rage. Sugar came late into the United States: The first cane was planted in Louisiana in 1751, and by 1795, Étienne de Boré had produced the first granulated sugar crystals. In 1843, Norbert Rillieux, a free man of color, patented the multiple-effect evaporator that offered a safer, cleaner, and cheaper way of producing sugar than the traditional Caribbean methods. Its adoption was rapid, and by the middle of the 19th century, Louisiana had become a hub of Queen Sugar, producing a quarter of the world’s crop. Work in the cane fields was brutal and produced conditions that were even more harrowing than those cultivating rice, tobacco, indigo, or cotton. The history’s not always sweet, but there’s a lot of it in that small packet that comes with your morning coffee or tea. Think about that while sampling a piece of my mother’s lemon pie. —Jessica B. Harris

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Christmas or Christmas Day commemorates and celebrates the birth of Jesus. The word Christmas is derived from Middle English Christemasse and from Old English Cristes mæsse. It is a contraction meaning "Christ's mass." The name of the holiday is sometimes shortened to Xmas because Roman letter "X" resembles the Greek letter Χ (chi), an abbreviation for Christ (Χριστός). Christmas in the West is traditionally observed on December 25, or January 7 in the Eastern Orthodox Churches. In most Christian communities, the holiday is celebrated with great cheer, song, exchange of gifts, storytelling and family gatherings. The popularity of Christmas is due in large part to the "spirit of Christmas," a spirit of charity expressed through gift-giving and acts of kindness that celebrate the human heart of the Christian message. Besides its Christian roots, many Christmas traditions have their origins in pagan winter celebrations. Examples of winter festivals that have influenced Christmas include the pre-Christian festivals of Yule, and Roman Saturnalia. - 1 History - 2 The Nativity - 3 Economics of Christmas - 4 Santa Claus and other bringers of gifts - 5 The Christmas Tree - 6 Regional customs and celebrations - 7 Christmas in the arts and media - 8 Notes - 9 References - 10 External Links - 11 Credits While Christmas began as a religious holiday, it has appropriated many secular characteristics over time, including many variations of the Santa Claus myth, decoration and display of the Christmas tree, and other aspects of consumer culture. Many distinct regional traditions of Christmas are still practiced around the world, despite the widespread influence of Anglo-American Christmas motifs disseminated in popular culture. Origins of the holiday The historical development of Christmas is quite fascinating. According to the Bible, Jesus' birth was celebrated by many well-wishers including the Magi who came bearing gifts. The early Christians in the Roman Empire wished to continue this practice but found that celebrating Jesus' birth was very dangerous under Roman rule, where being a Christian could be punishable by death. Thus, Christians began to celebrate Christ’s birthday on December 25, which was already an important pagan festival, in order to safely adapt to Roman customs while still honoring Jesus' birth. This is how Christmas came to be celebrated on the Roman holiday of Saturnalia, and it was from the pagan holiday that many of the customs of Christmas had their roots. The celebrations of Saturnalia included the making and giving of small presents (saturnalia et sigillaricia). This holiday was observed over a series of days beginning on December 17 (the birthday of Saturn), and ending on December 25 (the birthday of Sol Invictus, the "Unconquered Sun"). The combined festivals resulted in an extended winter holiday season. Business was postponed and even slaves feasted. There was drinking, gambling and singing, and nudity was relatively common. It was the "best of days," according to the poet Catullus. The feast of Sol Invictus on December 25 was a sacred day in the religion of Mithraism, which was widespread in the Roman Empire. Its god, Mithras, was a solar deity of Persian origin, identified with the Sun. It displayed its unconquerability as "Sol Invictus" when it began to rise higher in the sky following the Winter Solstice—hence December 25 was celebrated as the Sun's birthday. In 274 C.E., Emperor Aurelian officially designated December 25 as the festival of Sol Invictus. Evidence that early Christians were observing December 25 as Jesus' birthday comes from Sextus Julius Africanus's book Chronographiai (221 C.E.), an early reference book for Christians. Yet from the first, identification of Christ's birth with a pagan holiday was controversial. The theologian Origen, writing in 245 C.E., denounced the idea of celebrating the birthday of Jesus "as if he were a king pharaoh." Thus Christmas was celebrated with a mixture of Christian and secular customs from the beginning, and remains so to this day. Furthermore, in the opinion of many theologians, there was little basis for celebrating Christ's birth in December. Around 220 C.E., Tertullian declared that Jesus died on March 25. Although scholars no longer accept this as the most likely date for the crucifixion, it does suggest that the 25th day of the month—March 25 being nine months before December 25th—had significance for the church even before it was used as a basis to calculate Christmas. By 240 C.E., a list of significant events was being assigned to March 25, partly because it was believed to be the date of the vernal equinox. These events include the creation, the fall of Adam, and, most relevantly, the Incarnation. The view that the Incarnation occurred on the same date as crucifixion is consistent with a Jewish belief that prophets died at an "integral age," either an anniversary of their birth or of their conception. Impetus for the celebration of Christmas increased after Constantius, son of Emperor Constantine, decreed that all non-Christian temples in the empire be immediately closed and anyone who still offered sacrifices of worship to the gods and goddesses in these temples was to be put to death. The followers of Mithras were eventually forced to convert under these laws. In spite of their conversion, they adapted many elements of their old religions into Christianity. Among these, was the celebration of the birth of Mithras on December 25, which was now observed as the birthday of Jesus. Another impetus for official Roman support for Christmas grew out of the Christological debates at the time of Constantine. The Alexandrian school argued that he was the divine word made flesh (see John 1:14), while the Antioch school held that he was born human and infused with the Holy Spirit at the time of his baptism (see Mark 1:9-11). A feast celebrating Christ's birth gave the church an opportunity to promote the intermediate view that Christ was divine from the time of his incarnation. Mary, a minor figure for early Christians, gained prominence as the theotokos, or god-bearer. There were Christmas celebrations in Rome as early as 336 C.E. December 25 was added to the calendar as a feast day in 350 C.E. Christmas soon outgrew the Christological controversy that created it and came to dominate the Medieval calendar. The 40 days before Christmas became the "forty days of Saint Martin," now Advent. Former Saturnalian traditions were attached to Advent. Around the twelfth century, these traditions transferred again to the "twelve days of Christmas" (i.e., Christmas to Epiphany). The fortieth day after Christmas was Candlemas. The Egyptian Christmas celebration on January 6 was adopted as Epiphany, one of the most prominent holidays of the year during Early Middle Ages. Christmas Day itself was a relatively minor holiday, although its prominence gradually increased after Charlemagne was crowned on Christmas Day in 800 C.E. Northern Europe was the last part to Christianize, and its pagan celebrations had a major influence on Christmas. Scandinavians still call Christmas Jul (Yule or Yultid), originally the name of a 12-day pre-Christian winter festival. Logs were lit to honor Thor, the god of thunder, hence the "Yule log." In Germany, the equivalent holiday is called Mitwinternacht (mid-winter night). There are also 12 Rauhnächte (harsh or wild nights). By the High Middle Ages, Christmas had become so prominent that chroniclers routinely noted where various magnates "celebrated Christmas." King Richard II of England hosted a Christmas feast in 1377 at which 28 oxen and three hundred sheep were eaten. The "Yule boar" was a common feature of Medieval Christmas feasts. Caroling also became popular. Various writers of the time condemned caroling as lewd (largely due to overtones reminiscent of the traditions of Saturnalia and Yule). "Misrule"—drunkenness, promiscuity, gambling—was also an important aspect of the festival. In England, gifts were exchanged on New Year's Day, and there was special Christmas ale. The Reformation and modern times During the Reformation, Protestants condemned Christmas celebration as "trappings of popery" and the "rags of the Beast." The Catholic Church responded by promoting the festival in a more religiously oriented form. When a Puritan parliament triumphed over the King, Charles I of England (1644), Christmas was officially banned (1647). Pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities. For several weeks, Canterbury was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways with holly and shouted royalist slogans. The Restoration (1660) ended the ban, but Christmas celebration was still disapproved of by the Anglican clergy. By the 1820s, sectarian tension had eased and British writers began to worry that Christmas was dying out. They imagined Tudor Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration, and efforts were made to revive the holiday. Prince Albert, from Bavaria, married Queen Victoria in 1840, introducing the German tradition of the 'Christmas tree' into Windsor castle in 1841. The book A Christmas Carol (1843) by Charles Dickens played a major role in reinventing Christmas as a holiday emphasizing family, goodwill, and compassion (as opposed to communal celebration and hedonistic excess). The Puritans of New England disapproved of Christmas and celebration was outlawed in Boston (1659-1681). Meanwhile, Christians in Virginia and New York celebrated freely. Christmas fell out of favor in the U.S. after the American Revolution, when it was considered an "English custom." Interest was revived by several short stories by Washington Irving in The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon (1819) and by "Old Christmas" (1850) which depict harmonious warm-hearted holiday traditions Irving claimed to have observed in England. Although some argue that Irving invented the traditions he describes, they were imitated by his American readers. German immigrants and the homecomings of the Civil War helped promote the holiday. Christmas was declared a federal holiday in the United States in 1870. Washington Irving writes of Saint Nicholas "riding over the tops of the trees, in that selfsame waggon wherein he brings his yearly presents to children." The connection between Santa Claus and Christmas was popularized by the poem "A Visit from Saint Nicholas" (1822) by Clement Clarke Moore, which depicts Santa driving a sleigh pulled by reindeer and distributing gifts to children. His image was created by German-American cartoonist Thomas Nast (1840-1902), who drew a new image annually beginning in 1863. By the 1880s, Nast's Santa had evolved into the form we now recognize. The image was standardized by advertisers in the 1920s. In the midst of World War I, there was a Christmas truce between German and British troops in France (1914). Soldiers on both sides spontaneously began to sing Christmas carols and stopped fighting. The truce began on Christmas Day and continued for some time afterward. There was even a soccer game between the trench lines in which Germany's 133rd Royal Saxon Regiment is said to have bested Britain's Seaforth Highlanders 3-2. According to tradition, Jesus was born in the town of Bethlehem in a stable, surrounded by farm animals and shepherds, and Jesus was born into a manger from the Virgin Mary assisted by her husband Joseph. Remembering or re-creating the Nativity (the birth of Jesus) is one of the central ways that Christians celebrate Christmas. For example, the Eastern Orthodox Church practices the Nativity Fast in anticipation of the birth of Jesus, while the Roman Catholic Church celebrates Advent. In some Christian churches, children often perform plays re-creating the events of the Nativity, or sing some of the numerous Christmas carols that reference the event. Many Christians also display a small re-creation of the Nativity known as a crèche or Nativity scene in their homes, using small figurines to portray the key characters of the event. Live Nativity scenes are also re-enacted using human actors and live animals to portray the event with more realism. Economics of Christmas Christmas has become the greatest annual economic stimulus for many nations. Sales increase dramatically in almost all retail areas and shops introduce new merchandise as people purchase gifts, decorations, and supplies. In the United States, the Christmas shopping season generally begins on "Black Friday," the day after Thanksgiving, celebrated in the United States on the third Thursday of November. "Black" refers to turning a profit, as opposed to the store being "in the red." Many stores begin stocking and selling Christmas items in October/November (and in the UK, even September/October). More businesses and stores close on Christmas Day than any other day of the year. In the United Kingdom, the Christmas Day (Trading) Act 2004 prevents all large shops from trading on Christmas Day. Most economists agree, however, that Christmas produces a deadweight loss under orthodox microeconomic theory, due to the surge in gift-giving. This loss is calculated as the difference between what the gift giver spent on the item and what the gift receiver would have paid for the item. It is estimated that in 2001 Christmas resulted in a $4 billion deadweight loss in the U.S. alone. Because of complicating factors, this analysis is sometimes used to discuss possible flaws in current microeconomic theory. In North America, film studios release many high-budget movies in the holiday season, including Christmas theme films, fantasy movies, or high-tone dramas with rich production values. Santa Claus and other bringers of gifts In Western culture, the holiday is characterized by the exchange of gifts among friends and family members, some of the gifts being attributed to Santa Claus (also known as Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas, Saint Basil and Father Frost). Father Christmas predates the Santa Claus character, and was first recorded in the fifteenth century, but was associated with holiday merrymaking and drunkenness. Santa Claus is a variation of a Dutch folk tale based on the historical figure Saint Nicholas, or Sinterklaas, who gave gifts on the eve of his feast day of December 6. He became associated with Christmas in nineteenth century America and was renamed Santa Claus or Saint Nick. In Victorian Britain, Father Christmas's image was remade to match that of Santa. The French equivalent of Santa, Père Noël, evolved along similar lines, eventually adopting the Santa image. In some cultures Santa Claus is accompanied by Knecht Ruprecht, or Black Peter. In other versions, elves make the holiday toys. His wife is referred to as Mrs. Claus. The current tradition in several Latin American countries (such as Venezuela) holds that while Santa makes the toys, he then gives them to the Baby Jesus, who is the one who actually delivers them to the children's homes. This story is meant to be a reconciliation between traditional religious beliefs and modern day globalization, most notably the iconography of Santa Claus imported from the United States. The Christmas Tree The Christmas tree is often explained as a Christianization of the ancient pagan idea that evergreen trees like, pine and juniper, symbolize hope and anticipation of a return of spring, and the renewal of life. The phrase "Christmas tree" is first recorded in 1835 and represents the importation of a tradition from Germany, where such trees became popular in the late eighteenth century. Christmas trees may be decorated with lights and ornaments. Since the nineteenth century, the poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima), an indigenous flowering plant from Mexico, has been associated with Christmas. Other popular holiday plants include holly, red amaryllis, and Christmas cactus (Zygocactus), all featuring the brilliant combination of red and green. Along with a Christmas tree, the interior of a home may be decorated with garlands, wreaths, and evergreen foliage, particularly holly (Ilex aquifolium or Ilex opaca) and mistletoe (Phoradendron flavescens or Viscum album). In Australia, North and South America, and to a lesser extent Europe, it is traditional to decorate the outside of houses with lights and sometimes with illuminated sleighs, snowmen, and other Christmas figures. Municipalities often sponsor decorations as well. Christmas banners may be hung from street lights and Christmas trees placed in the town square. While some decorations such as a tree are considered secular in many parts of the world, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia bans such displays as symbols of Christianity. In the Western world, rolls of brightly colored paper with secular or religious Christmas motifs are manufactured for the purpose of wrapping gifts. Regional customs and celebrations Christmas celebrations include a great number and variety of customs with either secular, religious, or national aspects, which vary from country to country: After the Russian Revolution, Christmas celebration was banned in that country from 1917 until 1992. In the Southern Hemisphere, Christmas is during the summer. This clashes with the traditional winter iconography, resulting in oddities such as a red fur-coated Santa Claus surfing in for a turkey barbecue on Australia's Bondi Beach. Japan has adopted Santa Claus for its secular Christmas celebration, but New Year's Day is a far more important holiday. In India, Christmas is often called bada din ("the big day"), and celebration revolves around Santa Claus and shopping. In South Korea, Christmas is celebrated as an official holiday. In the Netherlands, Saint Nicholas' Day (December 6) remains the principal day for gift giving while Christmas Day is a more religious holiday. In much of Germany, children put shoes out on window sills on the night of December 5, and find them filled with candy and small gifts the next morning. The main day for gift giving in Germany is December 24, when gifts are brought by Santa Claus or are placed under the Christmas tree. In Poland, Santa Claus (Polish: Święty Mikołaj) gives gifts on two occasions: on the night of December 5 (so that children find them on the morning of December 6, (Saint Nicholas Day) and on Christmas Eve (so that children find gifts that same day). In Hungary, Santa Claus (Hungarian: Mikulás) or for non-religious people Father Winter (Hungarian: Télapó) is often accompanied by a black creature called Krampusz. In Spain, gifts are brought by the Magi on Epiphany (January 6), although the tradition of leaving gifts under the Christmas Tree on Christmas Eve (December 24) for the children to find and open the following morning has been widely adopted as well. Elaborate "Nacimiento" nativity scenes are common, and a midnight meal is eaten on Noche-Buena, the good night, Christmas Eve. In Russia, Grandfather Frost brings presents on New Year's Eve, and these are opened on the same night. The patron saint of Russia is Saint Nicola, the Wonder Worker, in the Orthodox tradition, whose Feast Day is celebrated December 6. In Scotland, presents were traditionally given on Hogmanay, which is New Year's Eve. However, since the establishment of Christmas Day as a legal holiday in 1967, many Scots have adopted the tradition of exchanging gifts on Christmas morning. The Declaration of Christmas Peace has been a tradition in Finland since the Middle Ages. It takes place in the Old Great Square of Turku, Finland's official Christmas City and former capital. Social aspects and entertainment In many countries, businesses, schools, and communities have Christmas celebrations and performances in the weeks before Christmas. Christmas pageants may include a retelling of the story of the birth of Christ. Groups visit neighborhood homes, hospitals, or nursing homes, to sing Christmas carols. Others do volunteer work or hold fundraising drives for charities. On Christmas Day or Christmas Eve, a special meal is usually served. In some regions, particularly in Eastern Europe, these family feasts are preceded by a period of fasting. Candy and treats are also part of Christmas celebration in many countries. Another tradition is for people to send Christmas cards, first popularized in London in 1842, to friends and family members. Cards are also produced with secular generic messages such as "season's greetings" or "happy holidays," as a gesture of inclusiveness for senders and recipients who prefer to avoid the religious sentiments and symbolism of Christmas, yet still participate in the gaiety of the season. Christmas in the arts and media Many fictional Christmas stories capture the spirit of Christmas in a modern-day fairy tale, often with heart-touching stories of a Christmas miracle. Several have become part of the Christmas tradition in their countries of origin. Among the most popular are Tchaikovsky's ballet The Nutcracker based on the story by German author E.T.A. Hoffman, and Charles Dickens' novel A Christmas Carol. The Nutcracker tells of a nutcracker that comes to life in a young German girl's dream. Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol is the tale of the rich and miserly curmudgeon Ebenezer Scrooge. Scrooge rejects compassion, philanthropy, and Christmas until he is visited by the ghosts of Christmas Past, Present and Future, who show him the consequences of his ways. Some Scandinavian Christmas stories are less cheery than Dickens'. In H. C. Andersen's The Little Match Girl, a destitute little girl walks barefoot through snow-covered streets on Christmas Eve, trying in vain to sell her matches, and peeking in at the celebrations in the homes of the more fortunate. In 1881, the Swedish magazine Ny Illustrerad Tidning published Viktor Rydberg's poem Tomten featuring the first painting by Jenny Nyström of the traditional Swedish mythical character tomte, which she turned into the friendly white-bearded figure and associated with Christmas. Many Christmas stories have been popularized as movies and television specials. A notable example is the classic Hollywood film It's a Wonderful Life. Its hero, George Bailey, is a businessman who sacrificed his dreams to help his community. On Christmas Eve, a guardian angel finds him in despair and prevents him from committing suicide by magically showing him how much he meant to the world around him. A few true stories have also become enduring Christmas tales themselves. The story behind the Christmas carol Silent Night, and the editorial by Francis P. Church Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus first published in The New York Sun in 1897, are among the most well-known of these. Radio and television programs aggressively pursue entertainment and ratings through their cultivation of Christmas themes. Radio stations broadcast Christmas carols and Christmas songs, including classical music such as the "Hallelujah chorus" from Handel's Messiah. Among other classical pieces inspired by Christmas are the Nutcracker Suite, adapted from Tchaikovsky's ballet score, and Johann Sebastian Bach's Christmas Oratorio (BWV 248). Television networks add Christmas themes to their standard programming, run traditional holiday movies, and produce a variety of Christmas specials. - "Christmas", The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1913. Retrieved July 4, 2008. - the Odinic Rite, Yule Retrieved September 10, 2008. - Julilla Sempronia,"Ancient Voices: Saturnalia, AncientWorlds 2004. Retrieved July 4, 2008. - Modern scholars favor a crucifixion date of April 3, 33 C.E. (These are Julian calendar dates. Subtract two days for a Gregorian date.), the date of a partial lunar eclipse. See Odenwald, Dr. Sten, "Can you date the crucifixion of Jesus Christ using astronomy?" (1997). - Frederick Holweck, "The Feast of the Annunciation", Catholic Encyclopedia, 1907 ed. newadvent.org. Retrieved July 4, 2008. - Louis Duchesne. Les origines du culte chrétien: Etude sur la liturgie latine avant Charlemagne. (Paris, 1889). - Thomas J. Talley, Origins of the Liturgical Year. (New York: Pueblo Publishing Company, 1986). - Murray, Alexander, "Medieval Christmas", History Today 36 (12) (December 1986): 31-39. - Ruth Reichmann, "Christmas". Retrieved July 4, 2008. - Chris Durston, "Lords of Misrule: The Puritan War on Christmas 1642-60", History Today 35 (12) (December 1985): 7-14. - Geoffrey Rowell, "Dickens and the Construction of Christmas", History Today 43 (12)(December 1993): 17-24. Retrieved July 4, 2008. - "Christmas history in America" . thehistoryofchristmas.com. Retrieved July 4, 2008. - . complete text. hymnsandcarolsofchristmas. Retrieved July 4, 2008. - Washington Irving. History of New York. 1812. - Barbara Mikkelson, and David P. Mikkelson, Modern Images of Santa Claus."The Claus That Refreshes", Snopes.com. 2006. Retrieved July 4, 2008. - "The Deadweight Loss of Christmas," American Economic Review 83 (5)(December 1993) - "Is Santa a deadweight loss?" The Economist, 20 December, 2001 - Douglas Harper, Christ, Online Etymology Dictionary, 2001. Retrieved July 4, 2008. Cite error: Invalid <ref>tag; name "Harper" defined multiple times with different content - "Christmas," The New Columbia Encyclopedia. New York and London, Columbia University Press, 1975. ISBN 0231035721 - Restad, Penne L., Christmas in America: A History. New York, Oxford University Press. 1995. ISBN 0195093003 All links retrieved February 20, 2017. - Christmas: The Curious Origins of a Popular Holiday - Christmas Encyclopaedia Britannica. - Christmas in India - Max Heindel, The Mystical Interpretation of Christmas 1920. ISBN 0911274650. New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia: Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

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Hey everyone – Academic institutions worldwide, such as Stanford University’s Center for Teaching and Learning or Cornell University’s Center for Teaching Excellence, are searching for ways to improve learning outcomes – knowledge and skills that students take away from the classroom. These concepts are also finding their way into the entrepreneurial environment, as learning has become increasingly important in the today’s chaotic economy. Learning outcomes as a concept have been studied for thousands of years, reaching back to Socrates and his students. Socrates spent his entire life trying to understand a better way of conversation that could not only enlighten the student, but everyone in the classroom, including the teacher. His findings led to the creation of the Socratic method – a dialectical (discussion-based) process for the meaningful acquisition of knowledge. Before we can appreciate the values that entrepreneurs can gain from the Socratic method, we need to first define the Socratic method and its role in entrepreneurial learning. The Socratic Method (Re)defined. Since Socrates never recorded his own teachings, our understanding of the Socratic method comes from the Socratic Dialogues, a series of stories written by his most famous student, Plato. The purpose of the Socratic method is to generate an open-ended discourse, so its own definition is vague and open to interpretation. One way of defining the Socratic method is as “a systematic process for examining the ideas, questions, and answers that form the basis of human belief. It involves recognizing that all new understanding is linked to prior understanding, that thought itself is a continuous thread woven throughout lives rather than isolated sets of questions and answers.” Another way to understand the Socratic method is to understand what it’s not. This can best be viewed in Socrates’s direct opposition and reaction to Sophism. Sophism was another method of teaching in Ancient Greece in which a handful of intellectuals taught general wisdom about human affairs, such as rhetoric and philosophy, to children of the wealthy. While early Sophists were well-respected, later Sophists came to be known as deceptive (due to their use of rhetoric) and elitist (since they reserved their teaching to only those who could afford it). Critics accused the Sophists of doling out opinions on specific subject matter as opposed to actually encouraging independent thinking. The Socratic method, on the other hand, is a way of thinking that allows individuals to define their own purpose for learning and explore this purpose through open-minded questioning of what they hold to be true. Entrepreneurs can find value in the Socratic method because they, too, are bombarded by assumptions based on what others and they themselves believe to be the best plan of action for pursuing a business idea. Entrepreneurial learning, or the acquisition of knowledge necessary for creating a business venture, is built around the constant questioning and testing of these assumptions – theories about what we hold to be true – for validity. These assumptions can range from beliefs about what the market wants, where opportunities lie, to the effectiveness of a new product feature. The Socratic Method and Entrepreneurial Learning. The nature of the Socratic method is indefinite and, therefore, has countless interpretations and applications. In examining the Socratic principles outlined by Rob Reich, a Political Science professor at Stanford University, we observed that the principles he advocates for in the classroom translates to entrepreneurial learning. We applied Reich’s interpretation of the Socratic method to entrepreneurship and found valuable insights relevant to starting successful companies. Here are two quick takeaway on what entrepreneurs can learn from Socrates. 1. The Socratic method provides focus through clarity of purpose. Reich encourages his students to use the Socratic method “to examine [their] values, principles, and beliefs”. In essence, this approach demands that you as an entrepreneur answer the question, “Why are we here? Why do we exist as an organization?” Founders who define values, goals, and concepts for their company set a clear direction for the organization. By constantly questioning our belief system, we reach clarity of purpose. Clarity of purpose leads to a shared sense of accountability, keeping team members on the same page and in pursuit of the exact same outcomes. Organizations, then, are able to fully maximize human capital when everyone’s desires are aligned and pointing to a shared vision of the future. Like running a race, it makes sense for a company to first define its starting line in order to work towards an intended finish line. Furthermore, given the myriad directions that outside forces (markets, investors, competitors) can pull an organization, the Socratic principles of self-inquiry can help you stay the course through the inevitable distractions. When a company clearly defines and communicates its belief system, it attracts customers and employees who share similar beliefs about the world. Apple is the most obvious and universally recognizable example of a company who does this extremely well. Their rallying cry of “Think Different” engenders fanatical loyalty and support for the Apple brand. 2. Use the Socratic method to develop and reinforce an entrepreneurial mindset. Reich states that the “Socratic method is better used to demonstrate complexity, difficulty, and uncertainty than at eliciting facts about the world”. Note the keywords: complexity, difficulty, uncertainty. These words paint a realistic picture of day-to-day life at the beginning of a venture, and in so doing present an opportunity to learn. Most people view this set of words as negative. An entrepreneurial mindset involves interpreting complexity, difficulty, and uncertainty as an opportunity to test assumptions, run experiments, and create knowledge from these activities. Entrepreneurs start testing assumptions by defining current beliefs based on past observations or intuition. They then ask themselves or are asked by outsiders (investors, mentors, etc.) questions that serve as the basis for setting up experiments. Whether in the form of interviewing customers, doing competitor analysis, or conducting A/B testing, experimentation essentially tests what entrepreneurs hold to be true against reality. The Socratic principles of defining current beliefs, developing a question, and setting up experiments to discover new insights are the core building blocks of entrepreneurial learning. The Socratic method is a powerful, world-changing idea for a reason, and entrepreneurs, whether consciously or unconsciously, follow a Socratic path as they grow their ventures. Learn NC’s Socratic method Stanford University Newsletter on Teaching’s The Socratic Method: What it is and How to Use it in the Classroom On July 9th, the Texas Business Foundations Summer Institute (TBFSI) at the University of Texas at Austin embedded a healthcare-focused 3 Day Startup into the curriculum with over 50 students. Participants in the TBFSI program are used to intense days, working from nine to five during eight weeks of their summer vacation. Their interests are quite different from the business, design, and computer science students in most 3DS programs. With backgrounds ranging from pharmacy and biology to psychology and geoscience, each participant is working towards earning a business certificate that they can pair with their specific science-related expertise. The objective was simple: develop a sustainable healthcare company in 3 days. Teams began each day with exercises like “Rock, Paper, Scissors” to build teamwork skills and a product innovation exercise involving random household objects that students sold as coffee stirrers to practice storytelling. Afterwards, students quickly dove deep into developing their solutions to society’s biggest health care concerns such as obesity, autoimmune disease, and EMRs (electronic medical records) lack of standardization. Diversity and Teamwork With Gallup’s recent release of Entrepreneurial StrengthsFinder, progressive entrepreneurial ecosystems across the nation are adding this tool to their arsenal of personality assessments. These tests provide a valuable framework to explain one’s strengths, weaknesses, and the value one is adding to a team, project, or organization. For the 3 Day Startup Healthcare Program, participants were broken up into teams based on their Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) assessment results and coached to lead with their strengths. Through the (MBTI) method, diversity was evenly spread. The students could see the value they were adding to their teams. Joe Gerstandt, a thought leader in diversity and inclusion, says “diversity is a driver of innovation. When everyone is thinking the same, no one is thinking at all.” Actively creating situations where teams can work in a more diverse environment will increase creativity and yield a space more conducive to high performance. In higher education, team building through MBTI and other methods should not be a rarity. Experiments such as these can develop effective tools to increase self-awareness and how to work in a team. Competitive Intelligence How-To It is easier to talk about why collecting information on a market is important rather than to how to actually do it. Thankfully, Laura Young, Co-Founder of Bizologie, was there to give teams a roadmap of how to find the information they were looking for. Having a background as a Librarian at the University of Texas and a research analyst at Austin Ventures allowed her to develop a process of competitive landscaping to take the guesswork out of the process. The list of resources she has created is a great tool for entrepreneurs to kickstart their competitive landscaping. Understanding the competition is just as important as understanding what one’s company brings to the table. The demand for entrepreneurship education is rapidly growing at universities with almost 90% of students now believing that entrepreneurial skills are “vitally important given the new economy”. With the rise of campus incubators (like those at Duke, UCLA, and Syracuse) and private incubators (like Y Combinator and Techstars), the opportunities for students to pursue ventures while still in college are dramatically increasing. There are a number of avenues to accelerate your entrepreneurial journey – classes, incubators, etc. There is a strong case to be made for short format entrepreneurship programs as the most effective choice for that journey. After running over 100 3DS programs on 5 continents, our experience shows that entrepreneurial learning happens best in 3 days versus 3 months for college students. Time constraints create focus. Parkinson’s law states that “work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion.” For example, think about the last time you procrastinated a school assignment and maniacally cranked it out the night before. Fighting against the clock (aka clutch time) leads to a state of intense focus and efficiency. The idea of time-capping projects is not new. Productivity hacks like the Pomodoro Technique advocate for 25 minutes of intense work output interspersed with break intervals. Goal-setting theories like the SMART criteria – making goals Specific, Measurable, Assignable, Realistic, and Time-related – also preach creating time-bound goals. The email-marketing powerhouse, Mailchimp, is a great example of a company that manipulates time for productive sprinting. Ben Chestnut, CEO of Mailchimp, encourages his team to consistently crank out new products by having them work in cyclical 1-week stretches of intense focus. The success of Mailchimp stems from the company’s ability to harness one of the most effective creative forces out there: time. In terms of building a company over the span of a weekend, knowing that your team only has 72 hours intensifies the process of ideation, marketing validation, prototyping, and so on. Not only does this intensity increase focused productivity, it also leads to a heightened level of execution in a simulated high-pressure startup environment. Short form immersions empower students to move fast and break things…without fear of failure. Let’s first talk about the importance of failure. Failing is a stigma that’s deeply ingrained in our cultural consciousness. Failure is seen as the polar opposite of success. Success and failure, however, are not dichotomous opposites but rather necessary complements. Failure is embedded in the process of creating something great since, at its core, failure is simply “trial-and-error learning.” The key to successful failures is to fail quickly and with a purpose. First, failing early (and cheaply) allows teams to avoid the pitfall of escalating commitment – a tendency to keep throwing energy and time behind a failing course of action. Scrapping a bad product you built in two days is cognitively and emotionally easier than scrapping a bad product you’ve been working on for the past two months. Secondly, successful failures have end goals in mind. They disprove or validate assumptions in order to reiterate a product or plan of action. For short burst formats like 3 Day Startup, students are given permission to fail. Since the level of expectations is different for a 3-day event versus a 3-month program, students can view the exercise as a safe space for entrepreneurial experimentation. The 3DS “laboratory” gives students permission to fail and fail quickly. Students can commit for 3 days. Lastly, university students are generally resource-crunched individuals when it comes to time and money. While entrepreneurs obviously have to make professional and personal sacrifices, it’s impractical to ask students to make a long-term commitment to a startup idea without some level of validation. It’s like getting married without a few first dates. A three day immersion is a manageable short-term commitment that’s less intrusive on the life of a university student. Once startup ideas are validated and show promise, students should take it to the next level and apply for that incubator or accelerator program. Time’s How Entrepreneurship Can Fix Young America The question we kept asking ourselves at 11:40 pm, 20 minutes before the due date of 3DS William & Mary application was, “Is it worth applying?” Looking back, we could almost laugh at ourselves for thinking that. 3 Day Startup (3DS) was an experience that we never expected to have. Initially, we didn’t know if it would be useful to us, but we thought it would be at least a decent opportunity to make some new connections over a weekend. Our startup idea had already been incubating for months prior to 3DS, so we initially thought this was going to be a way to get the opinion of others, and nothing more. In reality, we couldn’t have been more wrong. In late May, the 8020 Foundation and 3 Day Startup partnered to bring the San Antonio cybersecurity community together to focus on entrepreneurial learning and new venture creation within the cybersecurity space. From Heartbleed to breaches at Ebay and Target, the markets and industries tied to information security have been in the spotlight in recent weeks. Looking at the world through an entrepreneurial lens, however, one can see these problems as opportunities for improving the way the cybersecurity industry serves its market. This situation, coupled with a rapidly growing cybersecurity industry, set a perfect stage for a 3DS program focused on the space. This 3DS, the first of its kind, provided an opportunity for community members–both UTSA students and local cybersecurity enthusiasts–to experience core entrepreneurship practices such as customer discovery, rapid prototyping, fast failure, and learning-by-doing. The participants originated from a variety of backgrounds: cybersecurity and computer science PhD students at University of Texas at San Antonio, members of the San Antonio Hackers Association, and a wide range of industry professionals. The participants experienced a series of modules over the course of a weekend, including an overview of entrepreneurship and innovation within the cybersecurity industry, how to recognize market opportunities in the information security space, and pitching/advocacy workshops. Led by facilitator Maia Donohue and lead mentor Dane Stuckey, Director of Cyber Operations at Root9b, the first module guided the participants through an ideation session. Pitching and group voting transitioned into a team formation process where the participants formed six project teams. Participant led-projects included concepts such as a tool to perform rapid vulnerability scans, memory-focused protection agents, CEO/CISO (Chief Information Security Officer) interfacing dashboards, and a suite of threat diagnosis and education tools aimed at novice software developers. While many participants showed up as battle-hardened cyber security soldiers, others simply showed up with an open mind and a willingness to learn. Said one participant, a recent Codeup graduate, “I was exposed to elements of cyber security I had no idea existed. It was a phenomenal experience.” James Gray just graduated from The University of Texas at Austin. James is now working on the product and business development team at Sparefoot. He was also the lead organizer of the 10th 3DS Austin in Spring 2013 when he was still a student. James says the most rewarding part of organizing the program was to see teams progress from start to finish. He also enjoyed trying new things during the organizing process, hearing input from fellow organizers, and trying to launch a bigger and better program than the previous 3DS Austin he participated in. “It was also really fun. We got to work with some really big sponsors like Intuit,” he says. In addition to the hands-on 3 Day Startup programs we run at universities, we offer a variety of ways to learn more about relevant topics surrounding entrepreneurship when our programs are not in session. Last month, we partnered with Evan Loomis, Director of Corinthian Health Services, to produce a livestream about raising startup capital. You can view a recording of the session on our website. Evan was also kind enough to put together a recap of best practices to reach out to investors. Finding the Best Introduction First, make sure you have a LinkedIn account. That’s the best way to identify people in your network that know investors. Being a Good Introducee For an introducer, an introduction is a dangerous thing. If the introducee misses the meeting, doesn’t do his or her homework, acts rudely, or makes vague or unreasonable requests, it can damage the introducer’s relationships and reputation. Access to someone else’s rolodex is a precious thing. Here are some ways to make sure you don’t take the introduction for granted: - Keep all emails as short as possible. Usually, six sentences is the max. - Suggest specific times to meet, but be flexible. Put all times in the time zone of the person you’ll be meeting. - Be specific about what you are asking for. Never use phrases like, “Can I pick your brain?” - Once you meet the investor, remind them who your mutual friend is. Do it quickly and in a way that is complementary. “Our friend Dave speaks very highly of you. He was kind to connect us. It sounds like you guys went to college together.” Everyone knows someone. Pick five people you know that might be able to help you with your goal and ask if you can bring them coffee for a short conversation. At the end of your meeting, ask, “What two people come to mind that might be helpful here?” Asking for three people is greedy. One is lame. Just ask for two. Give them a minute to think about it and wait for them to name two people. Mention that you’d love an introduction and that you will follow up. Within a few hours, you should email them a general thank you email and then separate emails for each introduction you need. So, if they offer to introduce you to two people, you’ll send them a total of three emails. Email 1: General Thank You Thank you so much for your time and wisdom today. I know you are slammed with [insert something here showing that you are aware and applaud them for their success in what they are doing,] so I’m especially grateful. I’ve been thinking about [insert the one big idea / feedback they gave] since we met; it is a really great way to frame how we are thinking about our business. Thank you also for the offers to connect me with Jason and Angela. I’ll follow up with separate emails that you can reference to make introductions really easy for you. ***Why This is Important: Following up and saying thank you are critical to building a long-term friendship with people you connect with. Make it easy on yourself by preparing your emails ahead of time, so you won’t forget once you’ve shifted your focus to the next contact. Email 2 and 3: Thank you so much for meeting with me to discuss our new venture: [insert your company name and tagline here]. Thanks for offering to introduce me to [investors name]. As you mentioned, it sounds like he’d have a lot of insight about [insert the reason they recommended the introduction]. I’d love to connect with him. PS: As background for [investors name], I’ve included a blurb below on [company name] and my background. About [Company Name]: [150 word description of your company] About me: [50 words about you] Optional: [Short pitch deck or executive summary] ***Why This is Important: On your roadshow, you want to make it as easy as possible for people to help you. By creating a separate email to forward along, you get to tell the introducee how to talk about you and all the introducee has to do is hit forward. Allow Me to Reintroduce Myself Two years ago I presented at an investor conference and when I used the phrase “making it rain” the audience of VCs and angel investors returned only blank stares. Ever since, I’ve been interested in exploring and discussing the relationship between rap music and entrepreneurship. A month ago I delivered a keynote at Startup Week hosted at The University of Texas at Austin. This piece is an adaptation of that talk. Rap music is one of the few genres that embraces business principles. When was the last time you heard an opera singer, jazz guitarist, or dubstep producer talk about the business of what they do in their art? Rappers, however, talk about this topic all the time. There are a staggering number of commonalities between rap and startups. For example, the culture of “performance enhancing substances” is heavily referenced in both industries. Another common thread is that the parental approval rate for kids wanting to pursue a career in rap music or entrepreneurship is still relatively low. This is the case because both endeavors still maintain a high failure rate: 90% of new businesses fail and the number of rappers that fail is probably even higher. Given these commonalities, there are several insights that these industries can provide to one another. Here is what entrepreneurs can learn from rap music. Get a Cofounder Rap music and startups resemble each other at the earliest stages. Rap music starts with a rapper and a producer. The rapper provides the words, the voice, and handles the more public-facing activities. The producer (also called a beat maker) creates the tracks that the rapper raps over. Some of the biggest names in rap music today found their initial success due to their own in-house producers (see: Drake and 40, Kendrick Lamar and Ali). Often this person not only supplies beats, but helps architect the sound of a rapper’s signature style. This duality is eerily familiar to the beginning stages of a startup. Two people — a business and a technical cofounder—represent the best foundation on which to build a new company. The tech cofounder usually builds the software that powers the product, and the business cofounder runs operations, fundraising, or other activities that are needed for the startup. Aside from the obvious benefit of having a cofounder with a set of skills that complement your own, having another person with dedication and passion that equals yours increases the chances of capturing opportunities by way of identifying early employees, discovering initial investors, and more. And attaining success in a startup is difficult. There are ups and down in the process. Having someone to balance you out is of enormous value. Single founders often endure a lonely journey. The best way to choose a cofounder is to collaborate on projects, in hackathons, or at programs like 3 Day Startup. This is the fastest way to see a potential cofounder in action and test them out so you can understand their work ethic, capabilities, communication style, and sensibilities. How do they lead a team? How strong is their execution ability? How are they in front of a crowd? Can they build what they claim they can build? The RZA is the leader of the Wu-tang Clan, the biggest and most successful collective in the history of rap music. He is known for a gruff rapping style, grimy beats, and an obsession with kung-fu films and asian mysticism. But he had to try a few times before he found the winning formula — or what the startup world might refer to as product/market fit. Signed to Tommy Boy records in 1991, he released his first single “Oh We Love You Rakeem” under the moniker “Prince Rakeem”. Prince Rakeem’s persona was that of a smooth talking loverman character. This record flopped and rap music fans paid it little mind. Undeterred, the RZA re-emerged a few months later with an altogether new project: he and his neighborhood crew reformed as the grimier, gloomier Wu-tang clan and released one of the greatest rap records ever. Grammy award-winning rapper Common followed a similar path: his first release, under the name “Common Sense”, represented a thuggish portrayal of life at the bottom. This release failed to gain the reception he was looking for so he retooled and eventually ended up releasing more emotional, progressively-minded lyrics referred to in the rap industry as “conscious.” Initial failures provide learning and feedback to eventually reach success. Just like the The RZA and Common, several of the most famous startups in the world experienced a bump in the road before they hit it big. Paypal began as a mobile payments company and pivoted several times before realizing that the greatest customer need their product met involved handling transactions inside the Ebay platform. This was the first step upon which Paypal created their dominance of online payment processing. Twitter, originally known as “Odeo”, represents another notable example of the founders going back to the drawing board. Odeo provided directory and subscription services for podcasts before scratching that concept in favor of short-burst messaging. Finally, Instagram began as a complicated, feature-heavy geolocation app with a Swiss army-like array of features. User behavior indicated that photo-sharing resonated most with their users so they scrapped the excess features and honed in on what really excited their users. Practice Rapid Prototyping and Customer Feedback The rap industry follows an extremely effective product development cycle unlike any other genre. Rappers use mixtapes as de facto beta products. A rap “mixtape” is not a cassette — it is an unofficial album not fully refined and developed, usually given away for free online. The goal of releasing a mixtape is to generate awareness and receive feedback from the market before the release of a full-length record. Aspiring rappers release mixtapes through various channels, allowing them to build a following and catch the ear of more established rappers who run their own labels. This process is know as “co-signing” — in the startup world this could be compared to partnerships. In the early 2000s, Lil Wayne proclaimed that he was the greatest rapper alive and the rap world let out a collective laugh. Up to this point, Wayne was considered an afterthought in the cannon of rappers on the Cash Money record label and mostly known for being the weak link in the Louisiana supergroup the Hot Boyz, which featured more marketable rappers such as Juvenile and B.G. But he kept cranking out music at a rapid pace, eventually releasing 14 mixtapes in the early 2000s. With each release, Lil Wayne was refining his sound based on feedback from listeners before releasing an official album. This proved to be successful for him. When he released Tha Carter III in 2007, the album achieved double platinum status. Share Ideas and Tools: A Tale of Two Apaches Ecosystems and communities matter for a slew of reasons. Good ecosystems encourage sharing ideas and tools. Rap music is built upon samples, which borrows beats or small snippets from other songs. A “break” — short for break beat — is the part of the song where the instrumentals and vocals drop out and all you can hear is the drums. Kool Herc, the father of hip hop, had the idea to get two copies of the same record and play the break beats one after another, creating an uninterrupted beat over which rappers could rap. Others starting copying this technique, searching for and sharing popular breaks from records. Some of the most famous rap songs ever are built on some famous breaks. The image below maps out popular songs that sample the Apache break: The way the rap community uses breaks is exactly how the startup community uses open source software. Open source software is software developed and shared by hobbyists, amateurs, and professionals. Coincidentally, one of the most important pieces of open source software is the Apache web server. This software runs major infrastructural components of some of the biggest software companies in the world. Represent Your Local Community Unlike other genres, rappers constantly remind you where they are from. The regionality of rap is one of its greatest strengths: region-specific genres such as the Bay Area’s hyphy, Texas’ chopped and screwed music, and traditionalist East Coast rap all have unique signatures that provide identity, character, energy, and relevance to each community. Startup ecosystems have similar regional differences, and coincidentally, these three rap music hubs* represent three of the largest startup ecosystems. In the startup world, the Bay Area is known for innovative consumer-facing startups. Texas, specifically Austin, is known for profitable B2B software startups. New York City is known for media and content-focused companies. Rap regionality is a big deal because it is empowering on a local level. Successful regional artists provide success stories to others from that community. Global names matter and they always will: Global rap superstar 50 Cent and Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg are similar in this respect. Both of them represent huge successes. But both of them emerged from fairly predictable sources, i.e. locales where lots of successful rappers and startup founders are from, respectively (50 is from Queens and Zuckerberg went to Harvard). Tech N9ne (Kansas City), Nipsey Hussle (Compton), or E-40 (Bay area) may not be household names in popular music. But each of these artists is stylistically inseparable from their hometowns; they embody the idea that someone from their community can make it in the rap game. Anyone who attended Harvard can look to Zuckerberg’s success as a motivator. But it can be more motivating to see a local entrepreneur having regional success. This is why Dan Graham’s Build-A-Sign is important to Austin and Brett Martin’s Castle Branch is important to Wilmington, NC — these companies may not be well-known outside of their regions but they are symbolic of the potential of their respective ecosystems. It is an exciting time for both rap and startups. Both of these cultural forces have boomed in popularity over the last two decades: demand for rap music and entrepreneurship are at all-time highs. The change in tide for both indicates a change in attitude of the new millennia. The current generation of young people that are driving our culture and shaping our economic future resonate with the values inherent in both rap and startups: innovation, a healthy sense of risk, and the power of community. During the week of April 13-19, 3 Day Startup partnered with Stanford’s Epicenter and the NCIIA to launch 3DS Springboard across nine universities. 3DS Springboard is an interactive workshop focused on the beginning steps of launching a company or a project through on-campus innovation. Over four 90-minute sessions, students joined the 3DS team and Epicenter University Innovation Fellows on their campuses to start a company, a project, or a movement.

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Communication and professional relationships with children, young people and adults. 2. 3:1. 1 Describe how to establish respectful, professional relationships with children and young people. (Sourced from teaching assistants handbook level 2): Ten ways to develop positive relationships with pupils: 1. Remembering children’s names and pronouncing them correctly. 2. Being approachable and willing to listen to pupils 3. Listening and responding to pupils in ways which let children feel they are understood. 4. Giving time to pupils as individuals within the school. 5. Avoiding stereotype judgements about individual pupils concerning race, gender, ability or religion. 6. Getting pupils own explanation concerning behaviour before critciising them; do not jump to conclusions. 7. Communicating with pupils I n a sensitive way, e. g. do not interrupt them rudely or talk over them. 8. Showing pupils that they are valued and important people. 9. Being alert to children’s feeling. 10. Looking at the world from a child’s point of view. It is essential to show a genuine interest in the child’s welfare from a nurturing and educational perspective, being aware of confidentiality when working with children in your local community. 2. 3:1. 2 describe with examples how to behave appropriately for a child or young person’s stage of development. With every age group and remembering all children will have their own unique development it is important to get the basics right – “remember their frame of reference” – at the point of communication/instruction form the TA is the child/young person able to understand, carry out, think out a solution etc. t is important to remember also the developmental milestones discussed in section 2. 1 and alter behaviour accordingly. However there are differences in behaviour dependent upon leaners age, i. e. Children who are 3-5 years old need to have their welfare considered as a priority and a warm, safe play environment provided. These children will struggle to articulate their needs/wants appropriately. The TA’s role is to support the child’s expression and to guide the child in achieving appropriate age related milestones. As the child gets older the more independent the child becomes in terms of, gross and fine motor skills, cognitive development, communication and language, emotional, social and personal development; therefore the behaviour of the TA has to alter accordingly. Children and young people need to have their own ability and points of view heard, their education and knowledge respected in the classroom. However structure and rules in the classroom are important to give a foundation for a warm supportive atmosphere. Another example of this will be to awareness by the TA that from the age of 8 children will have a developmental milestones regarding personal, emotional and social development; so children can become sensitive to criticism, puberty changes and their idea of self-becoming more defined. The TA needs to encourage physical activity, allow them to talk freely or be aware of children needing alone time or privacy. * 0-18 months – A warm soft tone in voice, with soft friendly facial expressions; when preparing dinner and guiding the young child to either eat food or drink milk etc. he adult’s behaviour should be gentle and encouraging through eye contact, demonstration and praise. * 2-3 years – verbal communication with tone, body language becomes more important as the child starts to understand more words. With the situation of giving safety instructions to a child then the adults behaviour should reflect the importance of the instruction whilst ensuring the child feels safe and capable of following it, such as, holding hands whilst crossing the road. I would ensure that I made eye contact with the child, positive friendly tone to voice and be at their level and then hold out my hand and state that when crossing the road we must hold hands and walk carefully across the road. This instruction is one often repeated on a daily basis when out and will develop as the child becomes older in terms of road safety – aware of traffic movements. * 5 8 years old – verbal instruction, participation, body language, discussion; these are all valuable at this age dynamically. When involved in a task with children of this age, I would allow a greater freedom of involvement/contribution from the child using my own facial expressions to encourage this, such as, guided reading in a group – recently I experienced this where I encourage the children to ask each other questions, deciding how they would respond appropriately in the group environment. I found that this approach generated a good productive learning environment and they seemed to enjoy it. * 12 – 16. This age group needs a greater recognition for independence and knowledge. I would endeavour to use a more conciliatory attitude with this age group. I would ensure that my body language was positive and accepting, such as, if involved with a group activity I would facilitate their ability to achieve a positive outcome by asking questions; these questions may relate to group dynamics, resolution of activity and how could the situation be improved. * 17-19 years old. This age group I would behave hopefully showing respect through my tone/body language. My verbal communication would be relevant and respectful allowing an openness of opinion within the learning environment. 2. 3:1. 3 Describe how to deal with disagreements between children and young people. In the teaching assistants handbook there is a sentence which states, “to develop positive relationships every child needs: S – Security P – Praise E – Encouragement C – Communication I – interaction A – Acceptance L – Love The “special” example could be discussed in class by the learners and from there the discussion could be guided to discuss conflict situations. The learner through discussion and role play would become aware of passive, aggressive, submissive and assertive actions and realise the affect in a conflict situation if these traits where displayed. In an actual event depending upon the severity it is important that both parties are heard with witness statements where appropriate and in line with the schools policy/legal/confidentiality constraints, if appropriate the issue resolved at time with a mutual agreement, such as an apology or where necessary moving into schools disciplinary policy. e. g. If a child of five kept annoying a fellow class mate and disrupting a task, then they might be asked to stop, sit on their own and placed on the class room” cloud”! , or if a child using physical violence and or swearing then this would be a matter or the teacher/head teacher to become involved in instigating school policy. 2. 3:1. 4 Describe how own behaviour could * Promote effective interactions with children and young people. * Impact negatively on interactions with children and young people Effective interactions: 1. Encouraging children to sort out their problems together. E. g. Conflict in playground could be resolved by asking the children/young persons to discuss what happened giving each time to state their opinion and then asking questions to aid the children overcoming the problem; do you agree with this? And how would you progress the situation now? 2. Being a good role model; I would ensure that my own behaviour is appropriate and I would endeavour to demonstrate organically good manners, politeness and fairness. The class rules state to, “Care and Share”. 3. Allowing children to set their own ground rules/ agreeing a strategy with a child/children/ negotiating solutions with children * : in class the children established their own ground rules for behaviour, these were then written out onto a large poster and the children coloured in the words and decorated the poster. The poster is now displayed in the class room for all to see, they then all signed it to say they agreed to act accordingly. 4. Talking to a child who has behaved inappropriately, away from others but still remaining in sight. I experienced a situation whereby a child had pushed another child which caused the other child to fall over and hurt themselves; the child that was hurt was quite upset and I felt that the child that had caused the accident needed to be spoken to about their behaviour. I ensured the hurt child was ok and was settled and then I asked the other child to move to the other side of the class rooms – I was in sight of other children and teacher. I then asked why that behaviour has happened, we discussed the situation in light of the class rules that had been written and agreed and then the child agreed to apologise to the to the other child and I ensured that both children felt the issue had been resolved. 5. Thanking children for the help and support. I feel it is very important that a good example is set by my own behaviour and positively pointing out when they forget to say please and thank you. At school there is a series of doors that breaks up the corridors between classrooms; children are encouraged to keep open the door whilst other people go through them. The children are asked to take note of those children who thank the child opening the door. In cases of exceptionally good behaviour “house” points can be given. Also year 2 to year 4 are encouraged to become good role models for the younger children, especially reception children; the teachers and teaching assistants always thank the older children for their help. Impact negatively: 1. Shouting at children: In all ages, including adults shouting at them has little positive effect. In babies and younger children, shouting would cause extreme fear and only result in upsetting them severely. As children get older the initial fear reaction will still be there however the child may become confused, aggressive themselves as they will tend to mimic the way they are being communicated with. It can be the case of trying to motivate a child/young person through fear rather than interest. An exception may be when immediate danger, such as crossing the road or prevent an accident. 2. Invading children’s private space: It is important recognise a child’s personal space, at all ages it is important when in any caring, supportive and educational role with children that their personal space is not violated. In my personal experience I always ask my daughters permission to help undress/dress her; even when she was a baby I would talk through what I was about to do and why I was doing it, such as changing her nappy or feeding her. I wanted her to understand that I do not have any rights to just invade her space without telling her what I was doing and now as she can do most things herself I will ask her if she needs help etc. before doing g it. In school I would always ensure that I would ask the child if it’s ok to help, such as during break time first aid cover – letting them know what I was doing for their care. 3. Teasing a child. Nobody likes to be teased even” in fun”!! – I feel humour is in important but a child’s emotional development has to be recognised as to what is appropriate humour to use. A child of 5 would generally not understand sarcasm and could feel unsettled by its use; however when dealing with young people in some cases sarcasm may be appropriate as a 2. 3:2. 1 know how to interact with and respond to adults. Describe how to establish respectful, professional relationships with adults: It is very important when dealing with adults that appropriate forms of communication are used. Verbal, nonverbal, symbolic and written, using these with integrity and appropriateness will generate a positive start to forming professional relationships with adults. This is important because it helps to maintain a positive learning environment that benefits everyone. 2. 3:2. 2 describe the importance of adult relationships as role models for children and young people. When a child or young person sees an adult behaving in a certain way, communicating with other adults it shows them how they could/should behave. It is important that adults are good role models for children and young adults because it shows them how to behave. Children and young people will often mimic the communication techniques of their family environment consciously or subconsciously. . 3:3 know how to communicate with children, young people and adults. 2. 3:3. 1 and 3. 2 Describe how to communicate with children and young people differs across different age ranges and stage of development. Describe the main differences between communicating with adults and communicating with children and young people. * 0-18 months – at this age and development the adult’s display of body language, facial expression, eye contact, tone of voice and verbal communication needs to be soft and reassuring to the baby. The baby needs to feel loved, warmth, well fed, well rested and played with. Gently singing voices, soft toys and basic language such as food descriptions – milk, water, yes, no, hot and cold. * 2-3 years – at this age and development the child needs the points described above but now there ability to understand language is greatly developed; they will be able to understand a lot more and communicate back what their likes, dislikes, wants and needs. They will be asserting themselves – “the terrible twos”!! As some people call them. Then need to know boundaries such as safety boundaries but they ill understand basic explanations as to why as well. Often techniques such as the reflective chair is needed, naughty step etc. as at this age children their emotional development will tend to be yes or no, wrong or right, however praise and recognising when the child has behaved well is vital in achieving good communication with them. * 5-8 years old – again at this age and development the adult needs to recognise the child greater ability to understand verbal communication such as sarcasm, storytelling, and factual information. They will need a lot of emotional support as they will have gone through some important transitions such as starting school, new role models in the lives – teachers etc. , new friends, an awareness of social status at school – these will need support from their carers and learning environment. This age group will be able to understand written communications better; the concentration spans will be longer enabling them to take in more information, such as in lessons. 12-16 years old – this age and development will be actively seeking communication with their peers and subjects of interest such as animal rights, poetry, music etc. They may find it difficult to talk to their carers/educators as they may feel that there is little similar interest etc. They will be using social media hopefully under parental guidance. They will be able to write extensively and express opinions about factual information. Their imagination will be able to create their own ideas and express them in their own unique way – such as photography. The adults need to communicate effectively showing respect to the young person but ensuring safety is paramount. * 17-19 years old – at this point the young person is nearly an adult and will have a wide ranging vocabulary to use, be able to express ideas/opinions in a variety of ways. They will be able to retain large amounts of information and then communicate it all at exam times under a great deal of pressure. There emotional development however may still need maturing and therefore the adult needs to be aware of this as frustrations may be shown through confrontational behaviour. Emotional and intellectual support will need to be communicated by the responsible adults at this time. * Adults – at this point the communication status should be relatively equal. There will be exceptions as respect has to be given for knowledge and position in society and this comes from a knowledge that can be taught through observations – how adults communicate with one another as a child develops and maturity – through experience, such as a doctors, police people, fire brigade etc. The difference being that there should be : 1. Appropriate body language . Tone of voice 3. Eye contact 4. Active listening 5. Correct emotional, intellectual response This is a dynamic process changing as the form of communication develops,i. e communication via text will have none of the above just written information but when talking to someone face to face , all of the above will be involved plus memory of previous conversations and there content etc. 2. 3: 3. 3 Identify examples of communication difficulties that may exist. 3. 4 Describe how to adapt communication to meet different communication needs. Communication Difficulty| Strategies to use| English as a second language| Use visual cards with the word and the picture associated with it. Use their own language against our language on picture cards, source IT solutions such as translating documents/reading books so they have both to compare – may need translator for a time. | Hearing problems| Sign language, ensure eye contact is made. Sit at front of class – made need specialist support, medical, support teaching – also specialist hearing programmes on IT. Cultural differences| Embrace the difference; ask guardians if the class can explore their culture – read books in class, bring in objects etc. with culture to discuss – “show and tell”. | Stammer/Stutter| Ensure confidence in child, take time and don’t interrupt, made need specialist support, include in reading| Personality Clash| Don’t label child/young person – try and find common ground and try and get them to work together on a project – explain challenges to them and see if they would like to work together to overcome them. Shy/lacks confidence| Look at what they enjoy and give lots of praise when they take part without embarrassing them, involve as much as possible at their comfortable level| Forceful personality| Look at structuring their involvement; discuss other people’s characters and how they respond in situations and look at pros and cons – ask them to role play difference scenarios. | Additional points: Scenarios: 1. 2 children aged three years old are playing chase; one child has had enough and starts to get fractious about it when the other persists on carrying on the game. I would initially see for a very short time if the issue could resolve itself on its own, however if I had to come in this is what I would do: * Make sure I was at their height level * Ask them both what was wrong in front of one another ensuring the children did not interrupt one another – by stating that we should listen and respect one another. * I would then see if they could play together doing something else. * I would express open body language; my tone of voice would be soft but reassuring. I would try to ensure that the children were friends and played together, if not that they both felt at ease. 2. 4 children aged 7 are working on a project together creating a large scale model of a dinosaur from clay, one of the children keeps breaking the model in places as he has Dyspraxia and has poor coordination and manipulative skills and the others are getting frustrated. Initially I would ensure that the children were calm by asking them to speak one at a time to tell me what the problem was. I would then ask the child with Dyspraxia what they felt the problem was; I would then ask the other children if there was one part that could be made by the other child. It would be important to ensure that the child with Dyspraxia felt included and I would do this by body laugauge and eye contact so that they were involved in the decision making process. 3. 2 ten year old boys are arguing about who has made the best picture for a school competition and it is now starting to get out of hand. At this point a the situation needs to calm down so that would be my first priority and I would do this by asking them both to stop talking at each other and tell me one at a time what was the problem. Ensuring I was actively listening to them and had good eye contact. At this point how the conversation would go is difficult to say as I would suspect that in a few cases humour would be good to resolve, or a discussion on difference of opinion and the respect to agree to disagree etc. – could be used as a good learning opportunity for communication development. . 4 girls aged 15 have been short listed for the main role in the school’s annual production. There are roles for them all but they all want the leading part and tensions is clearly mounting amongst them to the point where they are picking fault with each other and highlighting the fact that one wears glasses, one is too “ fat” and one is Asian so couldn’t possibly play the leading part in Grease. This situation is a great opportunity to discuss diversity, cultural and social difference, empathy and acceptance of difference. I would bring all the girls together and let them express what strengths they feel they have for the role in front of the other girls and then guide the conversation to who they felt best would suit the role, allowing difference of opinion be expressed but ensuring respect was maintained. My goal would be for the girls to choose themselves who would play lead. It may be important to carry on this situation by visiting/seeing performances which different to the normal expectations such as a modern Romeo and Juliet play etc. 2. 3:3. 5 Describe how to deal with disagreements between: The practioner and children and young people * The practioner and other adults If there was a disagreement between myself and a child/young person I would hope that the situation could be resolved between us. I would ensure that the environment we were in was conducive and that we were not on our own and that the child/young person was safe. I would initially say to them that I am sorry if I have upset them and that I really want to sort the issue out for everyone, I would ensure that my body language was appropriate, my tone of voice friendly and my language appropriate for their age. I would ask them to tell me what they felt was wrong and ask how that makes them feel, if I thought it would help I would offer an explanation and then ask if they felt this had resolved the issue. If the issue was not resolved I would ask that another adult such as the teacher be involved to help come to a resolution. It is important to ensure that they child/young person has felt that their point of view has been heard no matter the outcome. In a case where safety is a risk then the child/young person might not be allowed to climb the outside of the school building! But their wish has been expressed and heard and may be a trip to a rock climbing centre could be arranged. If there was a disagreement between myself and another adult I would wish to discuss the problem and ensure that it got resolved. I would actively listen, use appropriate body language and respond with respect. If the situation could not be resolved then I would ask for another adult to arbitrate the situation. 2. 3:4. 1 know about current legislation, policies and procedures for confidentiality and sharing information, including data protection. Identify relevant legal requirements and procedures covering confidentiality, data protection and the disclosure of information. Data protection act 1998 covers 8 enforceable principles of personal data: 1. Fairly and lawfully processed 2. Processed for limited purposes 3. Adequate, relevant and not excessive 4. Accurate 5. Not kept longer than necessary 6. Processed in accordance with data subjects rights 7. Secure 8. Not transferred to countries without adequate protection Individual rights are protected by Freedom of Information Act 2000; this allows individuals to ask any public sector organisation for all recorded information they have. Also; * Public authorities are obliged to publish certain information about their activates * Members of the public can request information from public authorities. Any personal data such as health records, credit checks etc. are governed by the Data Protection Act 1998. Also the school will have their own policies and procedures outlining their confidentiality mandate for the school. The teachers and teaching assistants must ensure that these are followed. At school there will be records held about all pupils and these records are protected by these laws. However there will be general information that everyone needs to be aware of such as health issues, allergies, exclusion from religious education or physical education. Also if there are any confidential matters those teachers/assistants need to be aware of such as transitions that happening at home and child welfare issues. Also emergency contacts have to be available. There will also be the information shared between colleagues at school that must be treated confidentially and discussed only ever in a professional manner, the parameters for these conversation may be outlines in the schools confidentiality policies. 2. 3:4. 2 describe the importance of reassuring children, young people and adults of the confidentiality of shared information and the limits of this. Any information shared amongst colleagues, children and young people with reference to others at their school must have a purpose and be non – detrimental to the individual concerned. There is an obvious need for the knowledge of allergies to be known, such as nut allergies. The school needs to issue a policy so everyone is aware of what to do in such circumstances and what not to do to prevent an event. The parents of all children may need to be issued with a ban on nuts at school etc. There may be an incident where I am asked for specific information relating to another child by a parent, such as an address for a birthday party invitation. This is not a reason to state personal data to another and the parent should be asked to contact the appropriate parent themselves. Another situation that could arise is whereby private information needs to be isolated before seeing to an issue that has is just arisen; in the case of completing school achievement records of a child/young person these should not be left if a first aid incident needed to be dealt with. The records could be placed out or reach or placed in a draw quickly before attending issue. If I had any concerns of a child’s welfare I would speak to the teacher about the issue before discussing it with anyone else. If appropriate I would speak to head teacher/safe guarding officer as well in such cases the teacher was implicated. I would write my own notes and then give them to the head teacher and monitor the situation. If a child raised an issue with me and I felt that their safety was at risk I would have to let them know that I have a duty of care to inform the safe guarding officer at school of what I have been told. However I would do my upmost to ensure that the child/young person was looked after treated with respect and the situation dealt with care. 2. 3:4. 3 identify the kinds of situations when confidentiality protocols must be breached. I would breach confidentiality of a child/young person if I felt that their safety/welfare was at risk. Cite this How to Establish Professional Relationships With People? How to Establish Professional Relationships With People?. (2016, Oct 12). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/how-to-establish-professional-relationships-with-people/

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Good practice books with non formal and gamified activities for NGOs to be used by other NGOs in their own inclusion and integration projects. What is Gamification? (A simple question, no simple answers) There are many definitions for Gamification, but probably the more encompassing one would be the one Gartner coined: “Gamification is the use of game mechanics and experience design to digitally engage and motivate people to achieve their goals.” This definition highlights gamification’s reliance on digital technology and the design of the user experience. The key elements of this definition are: - Game mechanics as, for example, the use of elements such as points, badges and leaderboards that are common to many games. - Experience design describes the journey players take with elements such as game play, play space and story line. - Gamification is more often than not a method to digitally engage, rather than personally engage, meaning that players interact with computers, smartphones, wearable monitors or other digital devices, rather than engaging with a person (but it doesn’t always have to be the case) - The goal of gamification is to motivate people to change behaviors or develop skills, or to drive innovation. - Gamification focuses on enabling players to achieve their goals. When organizational / educational goals are aligned with player goals, the organization achieves its goals as a consequence of players achieving their goals. Gamification Techniques everyone can use Gamification is normally employed as a strategy to make user interfaces more engaging to achieve learning goals and promote cooperation, as an example. There are hundreds of different techniques, some of the most commonly used are listed below, but before you get started make sure of the following: Take the long view: Regardless of who or what you’re trying to gamify, it’s very important that you take the long view. It’s very easy to get people riled up, and in any group of people, there are going to be those that love competition and those that do not. One of the more important things to avoid when it comes to gamification for social good is going too deep too early. Make sure that whatever you do is appropriate for the audience and not going to be a one-size-fits-all type of program. Don’t overemphasize rewards: Thinking that people will only participate in your program if the rewards are big and flashy is a fallacy. The best gamification programs are about the experience itself (sometimes a competitive experience, others a collaborative one). Focusing on the rewards only often creates false incentives (people end up cutting corners and doing things you really don’t want them doing, just for the win). Level the playing field: Starting by clearly understanding what framework to use and share the rules, goals and expectations with everyone involved (you can even create those together, if the opportunity and the conditions are there). This helps everyone understand how the game works, what they have to do, and how to succeed. Of course, gamification in the social environment should preferably be about some larger goal and having the rules of the game out in the open helps everyone participate, regardless of who ends up winning or not. You’re all winners! This probably goes without saying, but when we talk about gamification, most of the times the competitive aspect is very strong, but even in the more competitive scenarios performance should be measured at least in part based on participation, let alone in projects of the cooperative kind. If 90% of your participants are fully engaged in your program (whatever it is), that’s a huge win, regardless if the top 10% are driving the majority of the results. Gamification in the context we are working is about the team, about every single participant. Where to start? The concepts we are sharing here may seem quite simple but one can easily get lost in the process. A game is most successful when there is a clear theme and goal, and when the game is designed to help the player achieve those goals. Picking the right style of game for the right case or issue is also important. - Recognize the theme. Figure out the problem, cause, issue of interest. - Figure out the GOAL. What is the point of the game? What would you like the players to be able to do upon completion of the game? - Plan how to realize the goal you set through the game engine. Is it a simulation game? Trivia game? Strategy? - Reward player understanding and knowledge acquisition. - Know the audience. The players determine the course of the game you are developing and how successful that game is. Having a good framework makes the process a lot more manageable, easier to measure and to replicate in different countries / contexts. The framework we found to be more robust, complete while fairly easy to understand is the Octalysis tool, developed by the Gamification Expert Yu-Kai Chou. Chou regularly offers his Udemy courses on Gamification for free and they are extremely informative and clear. Why does Gamification make sense in the Citizen Time project? - More than just gamification, this project is using the power of play to foster interconnectedness, to go back to the basics of what it means to be a human being, to use emotional tools that cause visceral and emotional reactions and connect to those who might seem different at first, but are so alike when we look closer. It’s the best place to see the other as just another part of ourselves. What better tools to promote empathy than to play music together, to be part of a theater play, to go back to that childlike place when we play an engaging game, either something physical, like football, a board game, or even a digital collaboration game online? How could these experiences of play help? Jean-Michel Blottière, Co-President Games for Change Europe said it in the best possible way: We don’t pretend we can solve the extremely complex issues involved in two days. They will take far longer to understand and master. We don’t think videogames are a kind of “magic wand” to be waved at Immigration or Integration. We certainly don’t claim we are specialists in answering these questions. Instead, our plan was simply to bring together game designers, researchers, activists, artists and others who recognize the importance of the topic, experts who are willing to explore how video games can help. Two of the most important areas where video games have proven to be successful are to educate, and to tackle critical issues without preaching. Combine those strengths with a game’s proven ability to build self-esteem in players, and they seem a perfect way for exploring such an important and timely subject. Video games already offer extremely powerful alternative education models. Would it be possible to create games that would educate migrants and refugees who don’t speak the language of the country where they’ve just arrived, but who can master the universal language of video games? We wanted to see if it is feasible to create videogames that would help restore the self-esteem of people who have been deprived of their social position, their everyday way of life, and find themselves living in tents in mud pools or hiding in trucks; people who are trying to cross borders, most of the time without success, even losing loved ones in the attempt. We know video games can influence gamers for better or worse. Some of them merely strengthen “fixed mental attitudes,” reinforcing stereotypes about women and other cultures. Europe is made up of old countries, proud of their “identities.” But it should be possible to create videogames which could help French, English, German, Italian citizens to better understand “others,” “strangers,” “invaders.” Can video games assist in changing these “fixed mental attitudes” as well? We could add to this list many other topics ripe for exploration. Social entrepreneurship can offer the possibility of a meaningful and productive future for refugees who see no future at all. Videogames can restore pride in one’s traditions and culture. There are even more needs to be addressed such as getting “papers” please, and locating lost family members. Marie Gillespie told us how important cell phones are for refugees to get information about which border is open or closed; to alert coast guards when Zodiacs are about to sink; or to help sick people to explain, via translation tools, their symptoms. What will work? What won’t? We don’t know. Not yet. This was a beginning dialogue. The dialogue began. Where it goes after this is up to you. Au travail! Some inspiration / examples So how can a game be used for social change or as behavior change tool? With Gamification the idea is that you take something as routine as vocabulary building, recycling, or exercise and turning it into something exciting. Let’s face it; some of the good habits we really want to and are trying to develop can be tedious. By turning these events into games, you can change these tasks into something exciting, and make it easier to learn or sustain a behavior too. It would be wonderful if we could ALWAYS have enough intrinsic motivation to change certain habits or states of mind without external aids like gamification, but while we work of those more permanent internal shifts, any help is welcome. Let’s look at a few brilliant examples of using gamification for social change. Vermontivate online game is an annual challenge designed to help players of all ages and experience levels take meaningful action on climate change. You can play as an individual, or as a team member for a school, a community or workplace. You can “win” prizes by collecting points for completing an extensive array of suggested climate-friendly tasks, as well as being recognized for submitting photos or other sharing activities. World Peace Game The World Peace Foundation recognized children’s potential, and set out to educate them using a system called the World Peace Game. This game was developed almost twenty years ago and is a political simulation which takes up an entire classroom and typically involves the participation of at least twenty-five students. The game starts with each child, who has been chosen to represent a particular country, inheriting some form of conflict upon their country be it economic, political, resource related, and so on. The idea is that each child must then use their thinking skills and imagination to work out this problem in a peaceful way. GeoQ: Game Based Training Tool For First Responders GeoQ is a web-based, open source workflow and exploitation platform, which enables analysts to work with each other and first responders in a collaborative mapping environment. Freeric is a multiple-choice game that has you pick the definition to a word. The United Nations World Food Program owns and supports this web-based game. For each right answer, you donate ten grains of rice. The donated rice is then given to underprivileged countries. Not only are you learning definitions to words you didn’t know the existence of, you‘re donating rice to a hungry family. MOTOVATE is an app-supported incentive program for families and fleets to improve driver behavior and reduce distracted driving. Samaritan App The samaritan app reveals the story of unsheltered people whom you pass by daily. You can give towards critical needs and create lifelines of hope MaximusLife Raise money and awareness for good causes when you walk, run, workout, bike, do yoga, lose weight, drink water or any other activity based challenges you choose. Every check-in allows you to easily raise awareness, earn sponsored donations and enters you to win big prizes for your social good! Everyday you check-in to your challenge you earn points for rewards and earn entries to win rewards and experiences from our sponsors & celebrities. We365 What if everyone took one positive action, big or small, every day? We365 is a community of people making the world more awesome by accepting inspiring challenges that impact hundreds of causes. From the environment to human rights, We365 makes taking positive action and tracking your impact easy. To help you get started Even though the Octalysis Framework can be quite helpful, there are already a few ready-made, very good tools to assist you in taking those first steps, that are often the more challenging ones: Classcraft is an amazing resource to use to gamify a learning environment like a classroom or a workshop Quest to Learn (Q2L) is similar to Classcraft but aimed at students from middle to High School. Quizziz Free self-paced quizzes to review, assess, and engage – easily integrates with Google Classroom too. Gamification Badge Kit for you are looking for something simple to give that gamification feel, but ease into it slowly, you can download this free Gamification Badge Kit to recognize participants in your programs for their achievements, commitment, team work, etc. Gamification.co A blog about gamification, with lots of examples, free resources, webinars about how to use gamification Games for Change Festival If you are interested in how serious games and gamification can be a tool to solve problems around the world, you will want to check out a festival designed to highlight the impact games can have across many different industries. Every year the Games for Change Festival showcases cutting edge games that target areas of concern in healthcare, environmental impact, research, human rights, economics, education and many other major issues. Activity ideas, concepts and best practices An activity similar to games nights that revolves around the theme of immigration and features games connected to that theme, including, but not limited to videogames, board games, VR experiences or Adventures where the idea is to step into an immigrant’s shoes in an immersive way. Because these games exist already and this isn’t a simple addition of game elements to already existing experiences, we normally refer to this type of activities as Game based learning. There are a number of games that could be used and here we list only a few that we have played and know can be impactful and generate debate. All of the games listed here are free to play (the reason why games like Papers, Please are not included here). The migrant trail The Migrant Trail is a single-player simulation game examining the life of migrants and border patrol agents on the U.S.-Mexico border as part of The Undocumented transmedia campaign (pairing the game up with The Undocumented documentary). Cloudchasers Journey of Hope – Guide a trailblazing father and daughter team through the deadly deserts of a dystopian future. Way WAY’s non-verbal gameplay is meant to elicit feelings of connection with random strangers from no particular part of the world. As players are unknowingly paired up with one another, they must adapt to gameplay changes while depending on a stranger to help them succeed and vice versa. This unique gameplay style is meant to spawn feelings of kinship and personal connection, which can be shared on a global message board on the game’s website. Choosing my way , Choosing My Way is a video game where players decide how to respond to opportunities and challenges after resettlement in the United States. Players choose goals, collect resources, and respond to situations. The goals and situations change every time, so the game is never the same. Syrian Journey A powerful game likened the Choose Your Own Adventure style that asks the questions: If you were fleeing Syria for Europe, what choices would you make for you and your family? Take our journey to understand the real dilemmas the refugees face. Along with this game, because it centers around empathy the activities that have been conducted included writing a journal from the perspective of a Syrian refugee. Prior to the game, other media are used, including the video clips like “What’s Happening in Syria?” These are followed by the question, “How many refugees have left Syria since the beginning of the war?” Next, students read through Bana Alabed’s Twitter feed. Alabed is a girl who, with her mother, fled Syria and regularly tweets about the refugee crisis. In the experiences described by some teachers who have used this game, they also asked participants to view videos on the I Am Syria website, answer questions, and create a Venn diagram comparing their lives to those of children in Syria. According to the teacher Matthew Farber, the participants were also required that their diagrams had at least eight differences and four similarities. When students play Syrian Journey, they take notes on the decisions and choices made, and describe the difficulties and challenges faced. As Syrian refugees, readers decide whether to deal with smugglers or to take a dangerous raft ride across the Mediterranean Sea. The culminating activity is a student journal that includes the country they are headed to and whether asylum was granted. Mission US: City of ImmigrantsIn the past several years, the National Endowment of the Humanities (NEH) has supported and funded digital games, including Mission US: City of Immigrants, a game about the immigrant experience. You play as Lena Brodsky, a Jewish immigrant in 1907 New York. It’s a great teaching tool as you quickly realize how difficult it can be to assimilate to a new country. The game includes an Educator Guide with lesson plans and primary sources. The Waiting Game ProPublica and WYNC produced The Waiting Game, an online game designed to introduce users to the experiences of asylum seeks before, during, and after their attempts to make it to the United States. The VR experiences Carne y Arena Carne y Arena premiered at the 2017 Cannes Film Festival as part of the official selection and was the first virtual reality project to ever be featured at the festival, written and directed by Alejandro González Iñárritu it immerses “viewers into the harsh life of an immigrant”. The experience is not available to the general public, but there’s plenty of information, videos and accounts of the experience that almost feel like we can experience it first-hand. Limbo: a virtual experience of waiting for asylum Limbo: a virtual experience of waiting for asylum What is it like to flee your home and start again in a new country? Asylum seekers live on £5 a day while they wait to hear whether they can stay in the UK. This exclusive Guardian virtual reality film allows you to experience how this period of limbo feels, waiting for a decision that will affect the rest of your life Maybe even, a more simple, less technology and more community centered board games event where participants could gather and play board games like: The immigration Game According to the Game Designer ” The tiles for the The Immigration Game are all based on true stories collected from my personal experience as an immigrant, books, Internet blogs, and interviews conducted with friends, family members and neighbors about their immigration experience to the US. Research on how to share this experience is still on-going. The goal is to educate native born Americans about issues surrounding the process of immigration and the life of immigrants, especially cultural and identity issues that are often not spoken about in the news.” Refugee Journeys is based on a simple “snakes and ladders” game concept – players move forward, backward, or miss turns based on the cards they draw or the spaces they land on. Cards include integration experiences of real refugees, drawn from academic research, news and media, and the game creator’s personal experiences. Examples are: “You are 65 years old. You want to learn English, but the topic is always about finding a job. Move back a space.” “You were sponsored to a rural area, where there is no bus transportation. You always have to ask for rides. Move back two spaces.” “Your child has made a friend at school. Move forward a space.” Players move through the game using an “Identity card” which details their country of origin, family background, housing situation, gender, and many other identity markers. As they move through the game, their identity influences the path they take. Forced to flee This is rather a simulation exercise, more than a board game, but it goes in the same direction and follows similar precepts. The goal is to work together in “family units”, making difficult decisions to maintain their supply of food, money, and health while securing their future post-conflict. The idea would be to play these games, either individually – in the case of video games and VR – or collectively – with the boardgames and then discuss the experiences, the challenges, the struggles, the frustrations they encountered but also ideas and insights that might have come up during the play session. Immersive theatre often uses game mechanics and techniques to induce a sense of agency in the participant. Site, specific, interactive, immersive forms of theatre help in getting immersive” as defined by the concept of ‘immersive theatre’; to describe performance where the audience member is an active participant and experiences the piece from literally being inside it. This can include walking around the set, touching things and interacting with performers. In many immersive shows, the decisions that the audience members make have around the set, touching things and interacting with performers. In many immersive shows, the decisions that the audience members make have a bearing on the actions of the actors and the direction of the story. Consider questions of empathy. What kind of emotions will the audience be feeling? What kind of environment were they in before they entered the show? Are they stressed/anxious? How can we remedy this? Design decisions are frequently questioned throughout the process to check how they will impact the audience. Immersive theatre often includes elements of gamification. As with apps where users are rewarded for their time spent using them, gamification in theatre is often used to encourage audience participation and risk-taking. For example, renowned immersive theatre company Punchdrunk are known for their ‘one on one’ experiences, where an audience member finds themselves alone with an actor. Naturally exhilarating, fans of Punchdrunk will often spend their shows deliberately seeking these out and ‘collecting’ them like Easter eggs in video games. Akin to this, multi-sensory techniques used in immersive theatre, such as Sensory Labyrinth Theatre add another deeper, more meaningful and more empathetic layer to these practices. This type of immersive theater was created by Iwan Brioc, Artistic Director of Theatr Cynefin, as an applied theatre methodology inspired by Enrique Vargas’s ‘Poetics of the Senses’. In this form of play, that relies greatly on game-like mechanics to enter the labyrinthine ways of human connections (as described by the Brioc himself on his website): “individual audience members journey alone through a darkened three-dimensional labyrinth and along the way encounter moments and meetings that provoke subconscious sensory memories (sensory portals) into which they are gently invited to fall. In accepting this invitation constructs such as time and space, me and you, the inner and the outer start to collapse. Framed for the audience as ‘theatre,’ this space also takes on the added dimensions of the aesthetic space – memory and imagination: so that consciousness and this conditioned process of construction we call ‘reality’ can become an observable phenomenon – observed by the ‘character’ of the traveller in the performance. One function of this technology is to support the emergence of ‘communitas’-the quality, first described by anthropologist Victor Turner, without which community is just a term to describe a group of people and not a feeling of common humanity with a shared meaning within that group of people. Sensory Labyrinth Theatre has the capacity to bring about ‘communitas’, an unifying sense of meaning from having touched together the ineffable mystery of our being, undermining any cultural, religious or ethnic barriers that otherwise divide us.” Mixed realities (when we mix everything up and shake it up a bit more) Using game elements doesn’t necessarily mean that the experiences or projects created don’t have to be games, per se: There are some very interesting programs using tools like Storyboard That to create graphic novels, while others interview immigrant family members and publishing the interviews on StoryCorps, a podcasting site for oral histories. A good way to start is by reading this guide about Community Storytelling best practices and how to’s. These tools use storytelling as their core mechanics, which is commonly used in games as well, while not exclusive to games. Other enthralling tools that can be used for immersion and gamelike scenarios are, for example, BreakoutEDU – To play, you figure out a series of puzzles that open a series of locks. As a result, participants are embodying the push and pull factors of immigration through the core mechanics of a breakout and escape game. Other tools can be used for creating location-based games using ARIS or TaleBlazer,. An example, just for you to get an idea around this topic is Jewish Time Jump, an ARIS location-based augmented reality game about the immigrant experience. Set in Greenwich Village, New York, in 1900, it is playable on a smartphone. “The European Commission’s support for the production of this publication does not constitute an endorsement of the contents, which reflect the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.”

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Courtesy Library of Congress Music in the Early American Republic Early American ears pulsed, lips hummed, and feet shuffled to the multitude of sounds infusing life’s rhythms. During the earliest decades of the nation, virtually everyone heard, made, and moved to music. In an age before broadly accessible commercial entertainment, where one’s routine labors begged for distracting relief, song and dance enlivened life’s tedium. Music filled an important social niche in the publically lived do-it-yourself world of early America. During an era before recording devices, the ephemeral life of sound resonated solely around those who made it. Early American music constructed a momentary community of listeners who could create or transcend the young nation’s refashioning social order. Describing this world of early American music challenges any historian precisely because of music’s ubiquitous presence in the lives of all Americans. Because nearly everyone made music, and because music could be used in any number of ways, the shear variety of sounds and sites of performance preclude easy generalization. Music held the social order together, but it might also be used to challenge the status quo. People sang privately to sooth their sorrows and publically to celebrate joyous events. Song might awaken the sacred forces to one’s aid; it might also embody profane desires and accompany riotous behaviors. Bells pealed to mark the seasons and to call a community to arms. Some worked to music, while others played. Music might even provide one’s livelihood. Musical acumen and literacy gave the educated elite status, while common folk employed music to express equally as meaningful identities. In all these ways, music symbolized, expressed, and transcended the diversities of early America. This essay treats some of the particular music making activities of Native Americans, the enslaved, new immigrants, and American-born United States citizens. Interwoven with an exploration of some of the sounds made by these groups of people, it considers the ways music contributed to their religious, festive, political, and artistic activities. Early Americans made music in multiple sites and for diverse ends. Our recognition of its significance to them opens new avenues of historical discovery. Native American Music Native American music styles in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries remained as diverse as there were tribal communities. Despite this, some broad generalization can be made when compared with non-Native sounds and uses of music. Singing rather than instrumental performances grounded Native music making, although drums and other percussion instruments accompanied many songs, as did flutes and whistles in certain regions. Indigenous songs nearly always connected to spirituality even if ostensibly made for other reasons, and the efficacy of a ritual might require the appropriate song to be sung. Yet like music-makers the world over, specific pieces accompanied dancing, storytelling, or even games. Certain songs would be used for a particular ceremonial or seasonal event in traditional and innovative ways. With the increasing arrival of newcomers to the continent, tribal people adopted and adapted European instruments, such as the fiddle, to indigenous music making practices. Records kept by Spanish missionaries in California and New Mexico reveal the centrality of music to their conversion efforts. These priests used fluency with European music and instruments to measure degrees of assimilation, an important gauge in their efforts towards complete and permanent conversion. Yet even after integrating aspects of European music, to Native Americans, as one scholar notes of Ojibwa music, “songs fundamentally did things in the world.” As such, Native people categorized songs in terms of their usefulness, for example as love songs, dream songs, or pipe songs. Songs also mediated personal bonds and functioned as part of ceremonial protocol. Music built and stabilized relationships within a tribe, between tribes, and between tribal and non-tribal people. Native American music facilitated interactions, including those between the human and spiritual worlds. Music performed in the context of sacred observances was also important to African and European born and descended people. By the turn of the nineteenth century, the hymns of Congregationalist Churches had shifted from ritual to art with a full support system of church choirs, singing masters, published psalters, and singing schools. The first known black American published composer, the African-born former slave Newport Gardner of Rhode Island, emerged from this singing-school movement. By 1810, over 5000 musical compositions by American psalmodists had appeared in print, including Richard Allen’s 1801 hymn collection for his Philadelphia African Methodist Episcopal Church, the first known compilation of sacred music for a black congregation. By the 1820s, singing societies influenced by German Romanticism, such as the Boston Handel and Haydn Society, attached moral uplift to certain song styles. Such institutionally supported sacred music competed with the music culture enlivened by the Second Great Awakening. These styles necessitated accessible and individual expressiveness as part of revivalist religiosity. A lack of musical literacy in the rural areas of the revivals led to call-and-response song patterns and singing “marked by spontaneity, immediacy, emotionality, and the use of well-known tunes.” This trend remained true among black urban congregations as well, in which the act of vocalizing could inspire worshipers even more than a song’s lyrics. A central message of this sacred music style invoked the fundamental appeal of the Great Awakening ideology: God’s grace was available to all. Often in conjunction with religious purposes, Americans heard an increase in music making during holidays. In primarily agricultural communities, early winter was a time to celebrate after a demanding harvest season. The English wassailing tradition, whereby lower sorts intruded into the homes of the wealthy singing demands for food and drink in exchange for goodwill, continued in early America. Though less meaningful by the nineteenth century with the demise of older traditional hierarchies and obligations, rowdy, raucous, drunken singers paraded at night during the Christmas season even in urban areas. Drinking and singing remained intertwined as significant holiday practices. John Canoe rituals enacted during the Christmas season by African-Americans included public song and dance. In these, parading bands of musicians requested gifts of food, money, or alcohol, taking African-derived song and dance culture to the broader communities amongst whom they lived. Parades remained central to black public musical activities that “typically featured boisterous, improvised music and back-and-forth interactions between male and female spectators and parade performers.” Messages could be sung in this ritualized context not uttered in other circumstances. Cloaked in a garb of traditional holiday license, ridiculing the powerful or “singing the master,” empowered the enslaved to express feelings otherwise forbidden. Music of the Enslaved As music scholar Jacqueline Cogdell Djedje states of African American music, “on the one hand very little disappears, but also nothing remains the same.” During the early American republic, music made by black Americans could be decidedly African, but it could also be distinctive from anything heard on that continent. The factors that shaped the nature of the African-derived music in early America largely depended upon a music maker’s exposure to the sounds of the diverse American populace. West and Central Africans made music as varied as the Europeans amongst whom those enslaved would eventually live in America. They carried their local musical expectations to their new homes across the Atlantic, where they accessed multi-continental repertoires. They and their descendants built upon musical heritages both deep and broad. During this era, diverse African songs, dances, instruments, as well as rituals and festivals, remained significant to enslaved and free black populations. Congo Square in New Orleans, a place central to the survival and dissemination of African-derived performative traditions, persisted as a site where slaves from the city could go to socialize on Sunday afternoons. Here they sang and danced in styles from distinct homeland traditions providing not just entertainment, but also connection to one’s heritage. Some Catholic Congolese slaves performed sangamentos, the highly choreographed mock war dances accompanied with drums and bells crucial to later Mardi Gras practices. This diasporic custom combined traditionalism and adaptability more “inventive” than “invented,” evidence of continued African traditions in America. The persistence of practices such as sangamentos bound new communities together and provided cultural sustenance in the harsh new circumstances of slavery. Slaves’ lives were filled with labor. Traders might expect the enslaved to sing and even fiddle while marching in the chained coffles to the growing western plantations. Song organized regimented tasks and eased the burden of toil. The call-and-response style helped build and strengthen community. Particular songs might be appropriate for a certain labor activity, such as rowing, hoeing, or shucking corn. Work songs reinforced social bonds and hierarchies, although lyrics might challenge these with satirical rhetoric. Enslaved musicians had to master multiple genres as they performed for both the formal cotillions of elite white society and the livelier jigs, breakdowns, and reels popular with lower class white and black dancers. Black music and dance emphasized improvisation, complex rhythms, artist/audience dialogue, as well as personal stylistic competition in community-approved contexts. These African-derived music ways gained poignancy under slavery. They could even function as political statements for people denied an officially sanctioned political voice. Music and Politics Much political activity in the young nation transpired with musical accompaniment, although at times this “music” might more appropriately be called “noise.” Drums (and even pots and pans) drew attention to community grievances, as in the “rough music” used to enforce social norms under threat. They did the same for impromptu public protests and even institutionally sanctioned civic parades. Although political music often took place in the street, taverns hosted politically infused music making as well. Concerts and balls facilitated by amateur and professional musicians raised money for a cause or commemorated significant civic events. Americans marked Independence Day and Washington’s birthday with patriotic songs, balls, and parades. They did the same to honor the Revolutionary War hero General Lafayette on his 1824–1825 tour of the country. This shared musical commemorative culture helped knit the young nation together. In addition, stage performances allowed for the consideration, creation, and affirmation of one’s sense of self in relation to the diverse American population. An Irish immigrant character might sing as a laughable bumpkin or a liberty-seeking republican refugee. Staged characters sung a combination of their old and newly forming national, ethnic, and racial identities during these decades when the traditional order had become increasingly unstable. Music was central to these performances that shaped the nation. One good example is the song “Yankee Doodle,” which might accurately be described as the first American national anthem. Singing “Yankee Doodle” exemplified what one scholar has called a “sophisticated rural self-parody.” As a celebratory comparative to British pretentiousness and a glorification of a distinct American character, singing Yankee Doodle in the young nation remained a political act. An infinite array of locally created verses, mostly now lost to modern singers of the tune, reveal a proud articulation of American rusticity (as well as the glorification of sexual adventures and drunken escapades). Other popular early American songs borrowed heavily from British music culture, but were transformed with deep sarcasm to serve American ends. Sailors and boatmen played an essential role in this transition. Music was already crucial to the labors of these men who sang to keep time as they rowed, heaved, and pulled. The centrality of American seamen to securing the legitimacy of the new nation led to the development of maritime-themed patriotic songs in particular. Though native-born Americans employed music to shape the nation’s identity, the significance of European immigrant musicians to early United States music cannot be overstated. English, German, French, and Italian musicians fundamentally shaped the young country’s sacred, military, social, and concert music. They published songsters, organized bands, performed in orchestras, led educational efforts, and ran music-related businesses. In addition, the growing American sheet-music industry facilitated domestic exposure to diverse immigrant sounds. Published songs denoted as Irish, Scottish, and Italian helped invent the idea of ethnicity in America, even if they were only loosely based on actual regional European styles. Irish ballads and dances remained popular through the early nineteenth century due to immigrants influenced by the Celtic cultural revival, as well as Irish music’s fundamental role in British American culture. Nostalgia-infused “traditional” Irish music (and musicians) found commercial success in the young nation. As such, it became a genre of music that bonded an Irish-American ethnic community together, introduced Irish culture to those unfamiliar with it, and entrenched stereotypes about the Irish. Similarly, Americans held Scottish folksongs in high esteem as they imagined a disappearing Scottish primitivism. Later German arrivals initiated the rise of singing societies, called Männerchöre, which functioned as social and musical organizations. These not only helped keep German culture alive in America by the repetition of musical forms, but they also provided support systems though which immigrant communities could remain active and strong. These same immigrant musicians facilitated the development of formal European-style concert traditions in the United States. In the earliest years of the century, no musical style or genre was reserved for a particular class of people. Concert halls welcomed all to their performances, although elites remained segregated in boxes from the messiness of the pit. Concert music had existed in East Coast urban centers for a century when in the 1830s wealthy patrons financed via subscriptions the first professional orchestras. Lacking the aristocratic tradition of court and church patronage, the early American music “industry” had to function as locally financed businesses. New Orleans was the first American city to support an opera company. French operas had been performed in the city from at least 1796. A decade later, in the span of four months, New Orleanians could witness twenty-one performances, which included sixteen different operas from nine composers. This town of only 12,000, one third of who were enslaved and who attended performances on discounted tickets, clearly valued and invested in public music performances. An evening listening to opera often ended with dancing at a ball. Though most of these dances were segregated by race, authorities could only enforce this rule with limited success. From the 1790s through the 1830s, the number of theater and concert performances grew, although not until the 1840s did the United States develop the necessary infrastructure to support the performing arts broadly. Immigrant musicians made up the majority of these professionals and typically performed European composed pieces from the traditional European canon. Yet in these same settings, audiences demanded patriotic pieces. Bands formed from discharged military musicians honored such wishes. Most towns supported at least one band by the early nineteenth century whose members played in the streets as often as in the concert halls. The hugely popular African American composer Frank Johnson led military bands and dance orchestras in the concert halls of Philadelphia and cities across Europe. These democratic assumptions about experiences with music changed by mid-century with the growing sense of moral uplift attached to certain types of music. As a result, musicians transformed from craftsmen to artists. By the 1840s the elite had increasingly withdrawn into performances reserved purely for their own enjoyment (such as Italian opera performed in the original language). Blackface minstrelsy, which both adopted and parodied this now-segregated art music, filled the publicly available musical performance void. The decade of the 1840s saw a marked shift in American music. By mid-century, music had become a commodity. The broader forces of the market revolution had thoroughly altered American music. Industrial development spurred by transportation innovations, the rise of cities, and an increase in immigration changed the sounds and sites of music in America forever. European virtuosos, such as Ole Bull and Jenny Lind, toured even into the American hinterlands. As the middle class family withdrew into a private sphere, they simultaneously domesticated music making. The parlor piano, the sheet music industry, and the greater access to touring performers reinforced each other; mass commercial sound styles grew. The rise of widely and cheaply available popular music in all its various forms shaped composers’ and publishers’ choices. Blackface minstrelsy developed as a significant part of this phenomenon. Initially occupying the raucous space desired by white working class men, blackface minstrelsy entered the domestic sphere as well. The broadly participatory public music making so normal in the young nation had increasingly been overshadowed by professional commercial activities. Yet this commercialization only went so far. Attempts to repress the earthy, bawdy, vernacular, oral music cultures considered unbecoming to a legitimate nation only partially succeeded. In the 1830s, when the city of New Orleans introduced a formal parade to officially conclude the carnival season, they hoped to structure and control the chaotic parading accompanied by boisterous song and dance. Instead, citizens continued to march in “rich confusion, up and down the streets, wildly shouting, singing, laughing, drumming, fiddling, fifeing . . . as they wend their reckless way . . . laughing loudly at threatened punishment.” Though much about the sounds, sites, performers, and performances had changed, much still remained the same. An exuberant humanity pulsated with playful, personal, and public music making. Our recognition of their expressiveness provides a richer and more complete understanding of the lives of early Americans. Ann Ostendorf is Associate Professor of History at Gonzaga University. She is the author of Sounds American: national Identity and the Music Cultures of the Lower Mississippi River Valley, 1800-1860. Her current research is on the histories of the Roma (Gypsy) in the colonial Atlantic world. For a concise history of the Early American Republic, see Paul E. Johnson, The Early American Republic, 1789–1829 (2006). Victoria Lindsay Levine, “American Indian Musics, Past and Present,” in The Cambridge History of American Music, ed. David Nicholls (1998), 4–12; Kate Van Winkle Keller with John Koegel, “Secular Music to 1800,” in The Cambridge History of American Music, 60–61; Nym Cooke, “Sacred Music to 1800,” in The Cambridge History of American Music, 79; Michael D. McNally, Ojibwe Singers: Hymns, Grief, and a Native Culture in Motion (2000), 26–28. Cooke, “Sacred Music to 1800,” The Cambridge History of American Music, 81–83, 97–99; Eileen Southern, The Music of Black Americans: A History (1997), 68–89; Katherine K. Preston, “Art Music from 1800–1860,” in The Cambridge History of American Music, 197. Stephen Nissenbaum, The Battle for Christmas: A Social and Cultural History of America’s Most Cherished Holiday (1997), 9¬¬–11, 16–17, 42–45, 261–62, 285–91; Roger D. Abrahams, Singing the Master: The Emergence of African-American Culture in the Plantation South (1992); William D. Piersen, “African American Festive Style and the Creation of American Culture,” in Riot and Revelry in Early America, ed. William Pencak, Matthew Dennis, and Simon P. Newman (2002), 256–68. Jacqueline Cogdell Djedje, “African American Music to 1900,” in The Cambridge History of American Music, 103–34. Two classic works on black music in Early America include Dana J. Epstein, Sinful Tunes and Spirituals: Black Folk Music to the Civil War (2003) and Eileen Southern, The Music of Black Americans: A History (1997). Jeroen Dewulf, From the Kingdom of Kongo to Congo Square: Kongo Dances and the Origins of the Mardi Gras Indians (2017), xvi; Freddi Williams Evans, Congo Square: African Roots in New Orleans (2011). Djedje, “African American Music,” The Cambridge History of American Music, 103–34; Abrahams, Singing the Master. William Pencak, “Introduction: A Historical Perspective,” in Riot and Revelry, 5-6; Sterling E. Murray, “Music and Dance in Philadelphia’s City Tavern, 1773–1790,” in American Musical Life in Context and Practice to 1865, ed. James R. Heintze (1994), 3–47; Ann Ostendorf, Sounds American: National Identity and the Music Cultures of the Lower Mississippi River Valley, 1800–1860 (2011), 90–98; Jeffrey H. Richards, Drama, Theatre, and Identity in the American New Republic (2005), 5–8. Nissenbaum, Battle for Christmas, 25–26; William Pencak, “Play as Prelude to Revolution: Boston, 1765–1776,” in Riot and Revelry, 141–49; Paul A. Gilje, To Swear Like A Sailor: Maritime Culture in America, 1750–1850 (2016), 157–81; Ann Ostendorf, “The Mythical Musical Boatmen: Integrating National Icons in Antebellum American Culture,” American Music 37 (forthcoming). Edward C. Wolf, “Peter Erben and America’s First Lutheran Tunebook in English,” in American Musical Life, 49–74; James R. Heintz, “Gaetano Carusi: From Sicily to the Halls of Congress,” in American Musical Life, 75–132; Jon W. Finson, The Voices that Are Gone: Themes in Nineteenth-Century American Popular Song (1994), 270–84; Ostendorf, Sounds American, 4–10, 107–72; William H. A. Williams, ‘Twas Only an Irishman’s Dream: The Image of Ireland and the Irish in American Popular Song Lyrics, 1800–1920 (1996), 19–25; Michael Broyles, “Immigrant, Folk, and Regional Musics in the Nineteenth Century,” in The Cambridge History of American Music, 138¬–139, 146–147. William Brooks, “Music in American: An Overview (Part 1),” in The Cambridge History of American Music, 38–39; Henry A. Kmen, Music in New Orleans: The Formative Years, 1791–1841 (1966), 44–46, 56–74; Preston, “Art Music,” in The Cambridge History of American Music, 186–187, 192. Dale Cockrell, “Nineteenth-Century Popular Music,” in The Cambridge History of American Music, 160–162; Southern, Music of Black Americans, 108–14; Preston, “Art Music,” in The Cambridge History of American Music, 190–91; Lawrence W. Levine, Highbrow Lowbrow: The Emergence of Cultural Hierarchy in America (1988). Preston, “Art Music,” in The Cambridge History of American Music, 200–04; Cockrell, “Nineteenth-Century Popular Music,” in The Cambridge History of American Music, 158–85; Brian Roberts, Blackface Nation: Race, Reform, and Identity in American Popular Music, 1812–1925 (2017), 25; Nicholas E. Tawa, Sweet Songs for Gentle Americans: The Parlor Song in America, 1790–1860 (1980). This essay does not deal with blackface minstrelsy, the most popular form of entertainment in the United States from the mid to late-nineteenth century. Blackface minstrelsy’s emergence in the 1830s and its surge in popularity in the 1840s falls beyond the chronological scope of the era traditionally thought of as the Early American Republic. However, its significance to American music and dance (among so much else) cannot be overstated. For scholarly treatment of blackface minstrelsy, see Eric Lott, Love and Theft: Blackface Minstrelsy and the American Working Class (1993); Dale Cockrell, Demons of Disorder: Blackface Minstrels and their World (1997); W. T. Lahmon, Jr., Raising Cain: Blackface Performance from Jim Crow to Hip Hop (1998); William J. Mahar, Behind the Burnt Cork Mask: Early Blackface Minstrelsy and Antebellum American Popular Culture (1999). Dewulf, Kingdom of Kongo, 134–35; James R. Creecy, Scenes in the South (1860), 44.

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Guiding Principles for Use of Technology with Early Learners The thoughtful use of technology by parents and early educators can engage children in key skills such as play, self-expression, and computational thinking which will support later success across all academic disciplines and help maintain young children’s natural curiosity. The Departments recognize that families and early educators have many different options for using technology with early learners. The Departments believe that guidance needs to reflect the reality that families and early educators have access to apps, digital books, games, video chatting software, and a multitude of other interactive technologies that can be used with young children. Even as new technologies emerge, the Departments believe that these principles apply, though guidance may evolve as more research on this topic is published. The Departments’ four guiding principles for use of technology with early learners are as follows: - Guiding Principle #1: Technology—when used appropriately—can be a tool for learning. - Guiding Principle #2: Technology should be used to increase access to learning opportunities for all children. - Guiding Principle #3: Technology may be used to strengthen relationships among parents, families, early educators, and young children. - Guiding Principle #4: Technology is more effective for learning when adults and peers interact or co-view with young children. Two documents in particular influenced the development of the Departments’ guiding principles: Uses of Technology to Support Early Childhood Practice and the 2016 National Education Technology Plan (NETP). HHS published Uses of Technology to Support Early Childhood Practice9 in March 2015 to examine how technology can be used to support and improve the quality of practice of early childhood practitioners, particularly in their own professional development. The report presented an overview of research related to the use of technology by conducting a literature review and consulting with experts on the topic in four key focus areas: 1) instruction and assessment; 2) parent, family, and community engagement; 3) professional development and informal learning; and 4) facilitators and barriers. At ED, the Office of Educational Technology released the 2016 NETP, the federal government’s flagship educational technology policy document. Titled Future Ready Learning: Reimagining the Role of Technology in Education, the plan articulates a vision of equity, active use, and collaborative leadership to make everywhere, all-the-time learning possible for all learners. While acknowledging the continuing need to provide equitable access to technology itself, the plan goes further to call upon all involved in American education to ensure equity of access to transformational learning experiences enabled by technology, including for early learners.10 The Departments’ four principles state the position of the Departments on this topic and are expanded below. Guiding Principle #1: Technology—when used appropriately—can be a tool for learning. Developmentally appropriate use of technology can help young children grow and learn, especially when families and early educators play an active role. Early learners can use technology to explore new worlds, make believe, and actively engage in fun and challenging activities. They can learn about technology and technology tools and use them to play, solve problems, and role play. How Do You Determine What is Developmentally Appropriate for a Child When it Comes to Technology? In Technology and Interactive Media as Tools in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth through Age 8, the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and the Fred Rogers Center state that “appropriate experiences with technology and media allow children to control the medium and the outcome of the experience, to explore the functionality of these tools, and pretend how they might be used in real life11.” Lisa Guernsey, author of Screen Time: How Electronic Media—From Baby Videos to Educational Software—Affects Your Young Child, also provides guidance for families and early educators. For example, instead of applying arbitrary, “one-size-fits-all” time limits, families and early educators should determine when and how to use various technologies based on the Three C’s: the content, the context, and the needs of the individual child.12 They should ask themselves following questions: - Content—How does this help children learn, engage, express, imagine, or explore? - Context—What kinds of social interactions (such as conversations with parents or peers) are happening before, during, and after the use of the technology? Does it complement, and not interrupt, children’s learning experiences and natural play patterns? - The individual child—What does this child need right now to enhance his or her growth and development? Is this technology an appropriate match with this child’s needs, abilities, interests, and development stage? Appropriate use in formal early learning settings Early educators should keep in mind the developmental levels of children when using technology for early learning. That is, they first should consider what is best for healthy child development and then consider how technology can help early learners achieve learning outcomes. Technology should never be used for technology’s sake. Instead, it should only be used for learning and meeting developmental objectives, which can include being used as a tool during play. When technology is used in early learning settings, it should be integrated into the learning program and used in rotation with other learning tools such as art materials, writing materials, play materials, and books, and should give early learners an opportunity for self-expression without replacing other classroom learning materials.13 There are additional considerations for educators when technology is used, such as whether a particular device will displace interactions with teachers or peers or whether a device has features that would distract from learning. Further, early educators should consider the overall use of technology throughout a child’s day and week, and adhere to recommended guidelines from the Let’s Move initiative, in partnership with families. Additionally, if a child is eligible for services under IDEA and/or Section 504 and Title II, the student may require specific technology to ensure that the student can access the instructional material. What Are Some Differences Between Using an e-Book and a Physical Book with Early Learners? E-books have the potential to provide learning experiences for children and they also have capabilities that are impossible to deliver in print format. For example: - A device can hold a complete library of stories and information for children to explore. - Words and sentences can be highlighted during oral narration. - Children can elect to have a pre-recorded narrator read the entire text out loud to them. - Children can experience embedded interactive features within the text. On the other hand, research has shown that some interactive features may actually impede a young child’s comprehension.14, 15 An example is a feature that allows children to jump around to different points in the story, which can make it difficult for developing readers to follow a sequence of events. The optimal way for children to experience a physical book or an e-book is with an adult who is actively involved,16, 17 asking questions that allow children to expand on what they’ve read to make connections and providing opportunities to check for comprehension. However, the design of some e-books may dampen parents’ desires to play that interactive role. Two research studies have shown that when parents read e-books that have features that asked questions, parents were less likely to play that role with their children while reading together,18, 19. On the positive side, another research study showed that children who read an e-book with a parent remembered content better than children who read an e-book alone, regardless of what the parent was saying during the reading.20 When making decisions about incorporating e-books, parents should consider what features are available and when and how they will be used. Bedtime use of e-books may also require additional considerations. For example, currently there is limited research on the impact on sleep when using e-books for bedtime reading, but some research suggests that the backlighting of electronic devices can curtail the amount of time children spend sleeping if a device is used right before bedtime.21 Just as with other educational tools, school-aged children should be taught how to correctly handle and care for devices. These skills and the use of technology should generally not be taught as a separate rotation or class, but rather integrated into the learning objective of the lesson.22 In some cases, however, individualized instruction may be desirable to meet the specific needs of a child. As children grow older, they should continue to build on this basic skill set with lessons in digital citizenship. What is Digital Citizenship? In the Ed Tech Developer’s Guide, released by the Office of Educational Technology in April 2015, digital citizenship is defined as “a set of norms and practices regarding appropriate and responsible technology use… and requires a whole-community approach to thinking critically, behaving safely, and participating responsibly online.”23 As early learners reach an appropriate age to use technology more independently, they must be taught about cyber safety, including the need to protect and not share personal information on the internet, the goals and influence of advertisements, and the need for caution when clicking on links. These skills are particularly important for older children who may be using a parent’s device unsupervised. Early childhood educators and administrators should ensure that the proper filters and firewalls are in place so children cannot access materials that are not approved for a school setting. Distinctions between active and passive use To understand how to use technology appropriately with young children, families and early educators should understand the differences between passive and active use of technology. Passive use of technology generally occurs when children are consuming content, such as watching a program on television, a computer, or a handheld device without accompanying reflection, imagination, or participation. Active use occurs when children use technologies such as computers, devices, and apps to engage in meaningful learning or storytelling experiences. Examples include sharing their experiences by documenting them with photos and stories, recording their own music, using video chatting software to communicate with loved ones, or using an app to guide playing a physical game. These types of uses are capable of deeply engaging the child, especially when an adult supports them. Deep engagement is less likely to occur when a device is used passively. In many circumstances, minimal learning occurs when children use devices merely to consume videos on their own. However, screen time should not be the only factor when considering the value of a child’s interaction with technology since high-quality, research-based video content can lead to deep cognitive processing in the minds of young children.24 As most content does not meet this standard, adults need to recognize that what matters most is whether the child’s mind is active and deeply engaged with the content. One way an adult can tell if a child is actively engaging with content is for an adult to watch with them (known as co-viewing) and to guide them to a deeper engagement. Co-viewing and the importance of adult interaction is further discussed in guiding principle #4. Similarly, adults need to be cautious about assuming that a child using a device in a physically engaging way reflects active learning. While actions such as swiping or pressing on devices may seem to be interactive, if the child does not intentionally learn from the experience, it is not considered to be active use. To be considered active use, the content should enable deep, cognitive processing, and allow intentional, purposeful learning at the child’s developmental level. Research on Television Use Research on television has shown that the impact of children passively consuming content is associated with adverse effects on their health in terms of weight25, 26, 27 sleep habits28, 29 and language development30, 31, 32. One study also showed that fast-paced, cartoon television shows can have an immediate negative impact on executive function skills for four-year-olds.33 Executive function refers to a set of cognitive and regulation skills involved in goal-directed problem solving, including working memory, inhibitory control, and flexible shifting of attention. These studies have led to previous recommendations from the AAP limiting the amount of time children have spent with screens. The Departments further encourage families and early educators to think of ways they can reduce the sedentary nature of most technology use. Technology can encourage and complement physical activity, such as a parent and child using a yoga app together, exploring different varieties of flowers in a neighborhood park while referencing an app to learn about them, or playing console games that encourage adults and children to exercise or dance together. Additional guidance for families and early educators Adults should strive to provide balance and moderation when using technology with children. They should set limits that are developmentally appropriate and meet the needs of their children and family. When introducing technology to children, adults should model behaviors such as using technology to promote positive interaction instead of allowing it to interfere with interactions, designating and enforcing face-to-face time that is free of interruptions, and using technology together before allowing children to use it independently. What is Developmentally Appropriate Technology Use for Children Aged 0-2? Research shows that unstructured playtime is particularly important for infants and toddlers because they learn more quickly through interactions with the real world than they do through media use and, at such a young age, they have limited periods of awake time.34 At this age, children require “hands-on exploration and social interaction with trusted caregivers to develop their cognitive, language, motor, and social-emotional skills.”35 Research also shows that children aged 0-2 should not watch media or use technology alone. Children age 12-24 months can learn from videos if parents co-view material with them and use the video as a learning tool to build language skills.36 Some studies have shown that children in this age range can learn from videos, but do not retain information as long as comparison groups who learned the same material using books with their parents did.37 When video chatting, children under 16 months show no learning gains,38 though there may be a benefit in promoting bonding when physical distance limits frequent in-person interactions. Based on this research, the Departments recommend the following: For children under the age of 2, technology use in early learning settings is discouraged. With families, technology can be used in active ways that promote relationship development, such as using video chatting software to talk to relatives, friends, and families whom they are not able to see on a regular basis. Parents who are interested in using media with their children can start around 18 months with high-quality content, but should always co-view content and use technology with their children. As determined appropriate by the IFSP team under Part C of the IDEA, children with disabilities in this age range may also use technology, for example, an assistive technology device to help them communicate with others, access and participate in different learning opportunities, or help them get their needs met. For children ages 2-5, families and early educators need to take into account that technology may be used at home and in early learning settings. New recommendations in the AAP’s 2016 Media and Young Minds Brief suggest that one hour of technology use is appropriate per day, inclusive of time spent at home and in early learning settings and across devices.39 HHS supports more limited technology use in early care settings, and more information on their recommendations can be found in Caring for Our Children: National Health and Safety Performance Standards.40 However, time is only one metric that should be considered with technology use for children in this age range. Families and early educators should also consider the quality of the content, the context of use, and opportunities the technology provides to strengthen or develop relationships. At home, parents can use technology to supplement real-world interactions, for instance, by using an app at the zoo or recapping what they experienced while there. For children ages 6-8 in school settings, technology should be used as a tool for children to explore and become active creators of content. If children have more than one teacher, those teachers should be aware of how much screen time is being used across subject areas and at home. Students should learn to use technology as an integrated part of a diverse curriculum. At home, parents should set limits they feel are appropriate for their children, understanding the differences between passive and active technology use as well as the benefits of using technology with an adult versus solo use. Parents should also be aware of how much technology is being used in the classroom, what is needed for homework, and how this fits into an overall picture of technology use for their child throughout the day. The AAP has created an interactive Family Media Plan Tool on HealthyChildren.org to help parents be thoughtful about media exposure for their children. Guiding Principle #2: Technology should be used to increase access to learning opportunities for all children. When appropriately used by early learners with guidance and modeling by adults, technology can complement or extend learning in ways not easily achieved otherwise. For example, technology can introduce children more directly to cultures and places outside their community. Although children may have access to print resources from libraries, technology can increase the amount of reference information immediately available to them on a given topic and give them the ability to ask questions of people outside of their classroom. Additionally, within a child’s own community, technology should be culturally responsive. What Does It Mean to Be Culturally Responsive? Culturally responsive materials are designed to create learning environments that are conducive to learning for all students, no matter their ethnic, cultural, or linguistic background. In a chapter titled “Technology Tools for Family Engagement: The Role of Diversity,” in the book Family Engagement in the Digital Age: Early Childhood Educators as Media Mentors edited by Chip Donahue, Kevin Clark suggests that early educators ask themselves the following questions when selecting media: - Do children see different types of people, characteristics, and attributes? - Do children hear a variety of sounds, voices, and music? - Are a variety of situations being depicted (e.g. family structure, lifestyles, power/working relationships?)41 It is important that these questions are considered across content, including in apps and other media. Children themselves may be encouraged to take part in creating this content. Technology can help children author their own materials and stories and share their real-life experiences with others, increasing the amount of diverse, culturally relevant, and community-based content in the classroom. How Does Technology Support STEM and Early Learning? Technology can be a powerful tool to support learning in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). There are many resources that use technology to make STEM come to life for young children, allowing access to experiences they wouldn’t otherwise have. For example, children can use the panda cams at the Smithsonian National Zoological Park to observe animals that aren’t found in their everyday lives, take virtual tours of science museums, and observe cause and effect through simulations and games, without risk of harm. When combined with social interactions and guidance from parents and early educators, the combination of video and games (transmedia) can be powerful tools at home and in the classroom to promote STEM learning. For example, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting-PBS, a 2010 grantee of ED’s Ready to Learn Television program demonstrated significant improvement in 4-year olds’ math skills when using the PBS KIDS Transmedia Math Supplement to bolster mathematics instruction.42 The 2015 Ready to Learn Television program grant application included a competitive priority to support scientific literacy, which has additional potential to support young children in STEM. The “T” in STEM is often confused with technological devices such as tablets, laptops, and other physical devices or with the broad term “educational technology.” Educational technology is content agnostic and describes using technology as a tool to promote learning across disciplines or content areas. The “T” in STEM, however, is intended to introduce children to the underlying concepts of building or creating technology, including computational thinking, which is the basic logic underlying computer science and is beginning to be incorporated into early childhood settings. Digital use divide The 2016 NETP presents research that points to a widening digital use divide, which occurs when some children have the opportunity to use technology actively while others are asked primarily to use it passively. The research showed that children at lower income levels are more likely to complete passive tasks in learning settings while their more affluent peers are more likely to use technology to complete active tasks.43, 44 For low-income children who may not have access to devices or the internet at home, early childhood settings provide opportunities to learn how to use these tools more actively. For example, research shows that preschool-aged children from low-income families in an urban Head Start center who received daily access to computers and were supported by an adult mentor displayed more positive attitudes toward learning, improved self-esteem and self-confidence, and increased kindergarten readiness skills than children who had computer access, but did not have support from a mentor.45 Access to technology for children is necessary in the 21st century but not sufficient. To have beneficial effects, it must be accompanied by strong adult supports. Children with disabilities The 2016 NETP discusses equity in the context of connectivity, access, and active experiences, including the accessibility of technology by children with disabilities. These include apps, devices, materials, and environments that support and enable access to content and educational activities for all learners.46 The Departments support the creation of “born accessible” materials (a play on “born digital,” which refers to materials created specifically for digital platforms) that use the principles of Universal Design for Learning and follow industry accessibility standards from the very beginning of the development process.47 Accessibility is not limited to those with sensory or physical disabilities; it also includes individuals with intellectual or other developmental disabilities. Universal Design for Learning In the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA), reauthorized by the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is defined as “the meaning given the term in Section 103 of the Higher Education Act of 1965 (20 U.S.C. § 1003).” In that section of the Higher Education Act of 1965, UDL is defined as “a scientifically valid framework for guiding educational practice that—(a) provides flexibility in the ways information is presented, in the ways students respond or demonstrate knowledge and skills, and in the ways students are engaged; and (b) reduces barriers in instruction, provides appropriate accommodations, supports, and challenges, and maintains high achievement expectations for all students, including students with disabilities and students who are limited English proficient.” The Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST) developed the UDL framework for making a curriculum inclusive of “flexible approaches that can be customized and adjusted for individual needs.” The CAST guidelines encourage instructional practices and educational content that embrace the widest possible diversity of learners. The UDL approach encourages the development of tools that consider this diverse range of users in the original design rather than add-on features. To see the guidelines, refer to the CAST website. When used appropriately, technology has the potential to help learners of all ages and abilities fully engage in learning by providing greater access to curriculum and improving learning outcomes.48 For instance technology may provide children who struggle to communicate with an efficient means of communicating. One example is an app that enables children to point to a picture or a series of pictures and then says the words that correspond to the selected item. For IDEA-eligible children receiving early intervention services or special education and related services, decisions about assistive technology use would be made by the child’s IEP or IFSP) team under IDEA, as appropriate. For children with disabilities who are not eligible for services under the IDEA, children could receive appropriate technology in a preschool program operated by a recipient of Federal financial assistance or in a public preschool program, regardless of receipt of Federal funds. For students enrolled in public elementary schools who are not IDEA-eligible who are entitled to special education or related aids and services under Section 504, these determinations generally would be made by the group that makes the placement and services decisions for that student under Section 504. Recommendations regarding active and passive use for entertainment and learning purposes apply to all children, including those with disabilities. For assistive technology that is necessary for the child to communicate with others or allows them to participate in developmentally appropriate activities, age or time limits should be determined together with the child’s IEP or IFSP team. Dual language learners For dual language learners, digital resources can support language skills development in the home language and English. For example, students and families can use digital tools to create and share stories in their home language that are culturally relevant for classroom use. Educators can use digital tools to adapt materials with translations in both languages to improve comprehension and communication. In addition, oral language development focused on listening and speaking skills can be enhanced in two or more languages using speech-recording and playback features. When used appropriately and sensitively, technology can help meet the needs of dual language learners as individuals and enhance their learning opportunities.49 Guiding Principle #3: Technology may be used to strengthen relationships among parents, families, early educators, and young children. Connections between home and school In early childhood settings, technology can be used to strengthen relationships between early educators and family members. For example, digital portfolios documenting student work through photos, audio, and video recordings enable teachers to share what children are learning in class with families more often and more informally than is possible in traditional school-based conferences. This allows parents to track their child’s progress, provides more opportunities for them to validate their child’s efforts and accomplishments, and opens up opportunities for the parents to engage their child about their learning to reinforce or supplement it. In addition to using e-mail, text messages, and social media to make communication between early educators and families easier, technology can also be used to provide information and coaching to parents to reinforce at home what is learned at school. In fact, according to the HHS report, Uses of Technology to Support Early Childhood Practice, 40% of parent, family, and community engagement (PFCE) products used video technology to model ideal parent behaviors or coach a parent’s behavior. An additional 40% of PFCE products were used to present parents with educational materials.50 Technology has tremendous potential to strengthen communication and connection between families and early educators to the benefit of children. Technology can also be used to enhance relationships between children and adults and between children when distance or other barriers such as health prevent in-person interaction. While video chatting can be done at any age (as interactions tend to be brief and guided by an adult), “new evidence shows that infants and toddlers can attend to and engage in joint attention during video-chat interactions but do so more effectively after approximately 16 months of age and with parental support.”51 Video chatting is not limited to interactions between parents and children or grandparents and children, but is also applicable when children communicate with peers. While technology has the power to bridge the physical divide between children and loved ones in the ways described, technology should not be used to replace meaningful face-to-face interactions. Precautions should be taken to ensure that technology use does not impede the development of healthy, authentic interactions with adults and peers. Guiding Principle #4: Technology is more effective for learning when adults and peers interact or co-view with young children. Most research on children’s media usage shows that children learn more from content when parents or early educators watch and interact with children, encouraging them to make real-world connections to what they are viewing both while they are viewing and afterward.52 The Ready to Learn Television Program The Ready to Learn Program: 2010-2015 Policy Brief, published in March 2016, summarized ED’s Ready to Learn Television program research on the effectiveness of three educational television production organizations.53 The brief reported on 15 effectiveness/summative research studies with children aged 3-8 using media in informal learning settings (such as after school or child care programs); 7 of the studies focused on learning at home. From the 7 studies that focused on learning at home, positive associations were found between at-home engagement and children’s math learning with children whose parents received interventions such as content guides and suggestions for supplemental activities. The studies also found that parents’ awareness of children’s math learning increased their likeliness to engage in activities and strategies to help their children learn math.54 While technology such as tablets and smartphones are designed to be handheld and lend themselves to individualized instead of shared experiences, children may benefit greatly when parents are actively involved while children use such devices. One research study of maternal interaction with 15-month olds found that the infants are 22 times more likely to transfer learning from a touchscreen to a real object, but only if the interaction with the mother was highly scaffolded with high levels of maternal input and emotional responsiveness.55 There are many ways that adult involvement can make learning more effective for young children using technology. Adult guidance that can increase active use of more passive technology includes, but are not limited to, the following: - Prior to the child viewing content, an adult can talk to child about the content and suggest certain elements to watch for or pay particular attention to; - An adult can view the content with the child and interact with the child in the moment; - After a child views the content, an adult can engage the child in an activity that extends learning such as singing a song they learned while viewing the content or connecting the content to the world. How Can We Protect Privacy and Security for Young Children? The Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA) (15 U.S.C. § 6501–6505) governs online collection of personal information by online services such as apps and websites from children under aged 13. For example, before a developer can collect personally identifiable information from a child under 13 verifiable parental consent is required. Any information collected from a child, including photos of the child or a voice recording, must be protected by reasonable security measures. The Federal Trade Commission, which enforces COPPA, has said that school officials can act in the capacity of a parent to provide consent to sign students up for online educational programs at school. If technology is being used in a school setting, the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) might also protect the child’s privacy online. More information on FERPA is available through the U.S. Department of Education’s Privacy Technical Assistance Center: http://ptac.ed.gov/. Regardless of whether either of these two statutes applies, families and educators should evaluate an app’s privacy policies prior to using the app. Assistance on what to review for can be found in the PTAC Model Terms of Service. Advertising and in-app purchases Beyond ensuring privacy and security, before downloading an app, families, educators, and others who work with young children also need to evaluate whether the app offers in-app purchasing or advertising. Many apps, particularly those that are free, offer advertising or in-app purchases, both of which are generally inappropriate for young children. Many methods of online advertising have the ability to track a user’s behavior across multiple sites and services, putting a child’s privacy and security at risk. Additionally, parents should also evaluate whether the app includes advertising, particularly age-inappropriate advertising. While adults can sometimes protect from in-app purchases by using appropriate passwords or disabling in-app purchases at the device level, a best practice is to choose software for very young children that avoids in-app purchases and advertising altogether. Parents and early learning educators should stay up-to-date and informed Parents and early learning educators who follow the Departments’ principles can help ensure that technology is being used intentionally and appropriately to expand a young child’s learning and enable experiences and opportunities that previously were not available. However, not all technology is appropriate for young children and not every technology-based experience is good for young children’s development. To ensure that technology has a positive impact, adults who use technology with children should continually update their knowledge and equip themselves to make sophisticated decisions on how to best leverage these technology tools to enhance learning and interpersonal relationships for young children. Some sources for information on how to do this include: Common Sense Media, Fred Rogers Center, Joan Ganz Cooney Center, National Association for the Education of Young Children, and Zero to Three.

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Seventh grade teacher Elizabeth Delmatoff piloted a social media program in her Portland, Oregon classroom. By the end of the year, 20% of students school-wide were completing additional assignments for no credit, grades increased more than 50%, and chronic absenteeism reduced by at least 30%. This school, for the first time in its history, met its adequate yearly progress goal for absenteeism. (Kessler, 2010) This We Believe - Educators use multiple learning and teaching approaches. Middle level educators continuously seek practices to enhance learning and increase achievement of middle level students. Thus, many teachers are integrating technology with instruction especially since young adolescents are frequent computer users and find technology very engaging (Simpson & Clem, 2008). Downes and Bishop (2010), in their four year study on technology integration in middle level education, found that teachers and students feel strongly that technology is an essential learning component because it assists with engagement, makes education relevant to students' lives, and serves as an inspiring force (p. 31). One type of technology teachers are adopting is the use of social media. Social media are web-based, highly interactive platforms that provide space for creating online communities of people with similar interests and activities where individuals and communities share, co-create, discuss, and modify user-generated content (Kietzmann & Hermkens, 2011; Lamphere, 2012). While most AMLE research summaries tend to report on empirical research, this summary provides current information from a combination of empirical studies and conversation driven by opinion, emotion, and experience. Due to the newness of social media, particularly its use as an instructional tool in education, sharing perspectives—often found on blogs—of those presently using social media in middle level classrooms can help inform educators considering this curricular approach. As emphasized in This We Believe: Keys to Educating Young Adolescents (National Middle School Association [NMSA], 2010), engaging students in "active, purposeful learning" is one of the hallmarks of successful middle level schools. "Additionally, learning experiences are greatly enhanced when all students have the technology to access rich content, communicate with others, write for authentic audiences, and collaborate with other learners next door or across the globe" (p. 16). Incorporating social media as an instructional tool can provide potential benefits for students and teachers (Krutka, 2014a). In 2010, the Pew Internet and American Life Project found that 73% of teens between the ages of 12 and 17 use social media (Lenhart, Purcell, Aaron, & Zickuhr, 2010). Since then, the percentage has probably increased. Integration of social media has the engagement factor teachers and students seek while enabling students to gain a variety of academic and social skills (Richardson, 2011). Many educators are using social media to help bridge the gap between schools and the outside world by finding innovative ways to engage and extend student learning (Storz & Hoffman, 2013; Varlas, 2011). Due to these features, social media has enormous potential in middle school classrooms. Though social media use by students and teachers is increasingly popular, debate exists on how to best use the medium and how to protect users and ensure ethical use (Kepple, Campbell, Hartshorne, & Herlihy, 2015; Weathersbee, 2008). This research summary provides an overview of social media types, addresses benefits and challenges with incorporating social media into student learning, and offers suggestions for practice. Resources for teaching and learning are also included. Social Media Types Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) identify seven types of social media: - collaborative projects (e.g., Wikipedia) - blogs and microblogs (e.g., Twitter, Kidblog.org) - social news networking sites (e.g., Digg and Leakernet) - content communities (e.g., YouTube and DailyMotion) - social networking sites (e.g., Facebook) - virtual game-worlds (e.g., Minecraft, World of Warcraft) - virtual social worlds (e.g., Second Life) Other common social media sites include FourSquare, LinkedIn, Flickr, edmodo, Pinterest, and YouTube. Some social media are a combination of two or more of the types Kaplan and Haenlein outlined. For example, Shi, Rui and Whinston (2014) explain that Twitter is a blend of broadcasting service and social networking. Many social media sites can be accessed through mobile applications (e.g., iPhone, Blackberry) as well as desktops and laptops. Benefits of Incorporating Social Media in Middle Schools Increased Student Engagement, Learning, and Citizenship Education Social media sites provide a forum for extending the traditional classroom with an array of benefits that fit This We Believe (2010) tenets by capitalizing on students' personal backgrounds and cultural experiences to further learning. Increased student engagement and learning and citizenship education are benefits related to social media use in school. For example, middle grades students can discover how technology-assisted writing can foster innovation, global communication and participation, and creative problem solving with a broader community. Purposeful use of social media can help develop responsible, productive digital citizens whose natural love of learning will travel with them throughout their lives. Ramsay's Can We Skip Lunch and Keep Writing? Collaborating in Class and Online (2011) shares reflections on the integrated collaborative technology writing activities she incorporated in her classroom to advance students' learning experiences. She found that her students engaged for longer periods of time in writing tasks due to online collaboration. Further, Ramsay purports that technology-assisted writing can nurture student creativity, communication, and problem solving skills while developing digital citizens. Social media provides students with options for creating authentic, creative products through tools such as blogs, YouTube, and podcasts (Frye et al., 2010; Lamb & Johnson, 2010). Students can also use social media to research content material in order to develop new knowledge (Frye et al., 2010; Lamb & Johnson, 2010). Additionally, social media helps facilitate differentiation by allowing the needs of creative learners to be met through a cooperative learning environment. Students are better able to balance their individualism with the need for contact with others, allowing new ideas to flourish (Garrett, 2011; Shoshani & Rose Braun, 2007). Collaboration and Relationship Building Social media can help adolescents develop and strengthen collaboration skills as they share knowledge, learn with and from others, and are active in the learning process (Fewkes & McCabe, 2012; Jackson, 2011; Liu, Liu, Chen, Lin & Chen, 2011;Yu, Tian, Vogel, & Kwok, 2010). Further, through collaboration on social media platforms, constructive and meaningful teacher and student relationships can develop (Connolly, 2011). Social media outlets, such as Twitter, are being utilized by teachers for informal professional development as educators worldwide share resources and best practices (Krutka & Milton, 2013). Bridge the Digital Divide and Increase Access and Equity The International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) states that digital skills are essential for "students to work, live and contribute to the social and civic fabric of their communities" (2014, para 2). Further, ISTE purports that equitable access to technology-integrated learning opportunities is vital to bridge the digital divide and increase students' chances for success (2014). However, as the National Center for Education Statistics shared (2012), the digital divide is increasing and, thus, children without access to technology can be left further behind. Therefore, inclusion of social media in education activities is necessary to help increase equity among students of different racial and socioeconomic backgrounds by increasing access to information and information technology (Darling-Hammond, Zielezinski, & Goldman, 2014; Grinager, 2006). Darling-Hammond et al. (2014) recommend the following practices to promote optimal learning opportunities for all students: (a) technology access policies should aim for 1:1 computer access and ensure that speedy internet connections are available, (b) policies and practices should favor technology that promotes high levels of interactivity and engagement and that allows for varying learning choices and opportunities, (c) instructional opportunities should enable students to use technology to create content as well as learn material, and (d) learning environments that provide significant and varied levels of teacher support and opportunities for interactions among students as companions to technology use (p. 14-15). Challenges Related to Incorporating Social Media in Middle Schools There are a variety of challenges middle level educators must consider when incorporating social media in young adolescent classrooms. The first issue many educators currently face is equitable access for students and teachers. Further, uncertainty exists on the type and frequency of professional development for middle level educators that addresses ethical and appropriate use of social networking. Additionally, educators must learn how best to help students navigate safely and monitor students in a virtual environment. Lastly, educators must recognize the possibility for distractions and overstimulation that is often linked to certain types of social media and networking activities (Chen & Bryer, 2012). Access to technology for students and teachers has tremendous benefits particularly if accompanied with appropriate learning opportunities. However, gaining consistent and equitable access remains a challenge for all levels of learners; therefore, making technology available to all students should be a priority among educators (NMSA, 2010; U.S. Department of Education, 2010). Educators and policymakers need to provide the appropriate technology funding and related professional development so students and teachers have the equipment, knowledge, and skills necessary for taking full advantage of what technology can offer. It is imperative for educators to have professional development opportunities that enable them to learn developmentally appropriate best practices for preparing students (NMSA, 2010). This includes how to utilize all that social networking has to offer. For teachers to understand the features, benefits, and limitations to social media sites, they need appropriate and sustained training, time to practice newly learned skills, and time for collaboration with colleagues to hone teaching practices (Boss & Krauss, 2007). As teachers have different levels of technology use knowledge and interests, department and grade-level conversations should occur to identify specific needs. Monitoring, Safety, and Ethical Use of Social Networking AMLE (NMSA, 2010) believes that middle schools must provide adult advocates to middle school students to guide academic and personal development in an inviting, safe, inclusive, and supportive school environment (p. 35). This can be challenging in a face-to-face environment and even more difficult in a virtual environment (Schmitz, Sigler Hoffmann, & Bickford, 2012). Kessler (2010) purports on the blog, www.mashable.com, that the best way to keep young users safe is to teach them how to be safe. Students need to learn how to make great choices about what they share and what are appropriate actions with others, and always review and manage their online reputations in light of others' ability to contribute to that reputation either positively or negatively with a few clicks of the mouse (Richardson, 2011). Protecting students in all learning environments is essential. Having explicit and consistent conversations and policies about how to do this ethically, legally, and effectively must occur before and during use of social media and involve input from key stakeholders. Edutopia.com, a website published by the George Lucas Educational Foundation and highly regarded by the educational community, provides thoughtful resources on creating social media guidelines for schools. A useful handbook found on Edutopia.com was created by Anderson, in collaboration with Facebook (n.d.), on How to Create Social Media Guidelines for Your School. Plagiarism is a challenge many face when incorporating social media activities. Vise (2011) shared that "one-third of all unoriginal content in student papers came from social networks, including Facebook and all of the various 'content-sharing' sites where users post and share information" (para 5). However, using plagiarism checking software like Anti-Plagiarism, DupliChecker, PaperRater, or Plagiarismdetector, can ensure that work presented is the creation of the author with credit provided to sources. In tandem, teachers must continue to address the issue of plagiarism including how to determine if sources are credible and having clear and consistent plagiarism policies regularly disseminated to students and parents. Classroom Strategies for the Inclusion of Social Media in Learning Research suggests that discussions and collaborations are the most common social media classroom strategies (Chen & Bryer, 2012). Frye, Trathen, and Koppenhaver (2010) proclaim that blogs offer students the ability to publish work and comment on others' writing, which increases motivation. At the middle level, Wilson, Wright, Inman, & Matherson (2011) provide examples demonstrating best practices of how students use blogs successfully to study current events and respond to textual material and a variety of other assignments. Manfra and Lee's (2011) qualitative case study used audio and video recordings of classroom sessions, student blog comments, and semi-structured interviews to demonstrate the potential of using blogs to differentiate instruction and meet learning goals of at-risk learners. Smith and Throne (2009) also speaks to the value of social media in serving as a tool for differentiation. Holcomb, Beal, and Lee (2011) present two instructional projects and two instructional tools as examples that suggest Web 2.0 tools can enhance and maximize curricula by giving students the means to "take on real world problems, engage in intensive research using methods suited to their style of learning and share their findings with their collaborators and colleagues" (p. 103). Carano and Stuckart's (2013) qualitative study examined the impact of social media activities between US students and Peace Corps Volunteers in Swaziland and between US students and Malaysian high school students. Findings demonstrate how social media sites can be used to connect classrooms and cultures across the globe while providing students with increased intercultural awareness and student learning. Cabiness, Donovan, and Green's (2013) middle school case study of students using wikis in a world history class demonstrated that a classroom wiki had many benefits. The flexible environment of the wiki supported collaborative learning allowing for extended learning and opportunities to go in-depth into concepts that may not have been allowed due to regular class time restrictions. Further, higher order thinking skills were evident in the student posts. Additionally, the wiki environment created a learning community that went beyond the regular classroom walls enabling students to collaborate with all six classes of students enrolled in the campus world history courses. Another classroom strategy has enabled students to instant-message (IM) teachers and peers with homework questions via smartphones (Davis, 2010). Twitter, an online social networking service, provides an IM outlet used to encourage students to engage in class activities through a variety of activities such as centering on primary documents or analytical questions and bringing in outside expert perspectives (Krutka & Milton, 2013). Krutka (2014b) and his 20 social studies methods students examined the pedagogical possibilities for social media use in middle and high school classrooms. Surveys, reflective journals, and field notes indicated that Twitter was the most beneficial social media site to use in the class because of its many possibilities. Dunlap and Lowenthal (2009) suggest that the medium is useful for encouraging concise writing. Further, Elavsky, Mislan, and Elavsky (2011) employed mixed-methods research to examine student outcomes produced by using Twitter. Using descriptive statistical analysis of tweets and surveys, Elavsky et al. found using Twitter to "back channel,'"—an activity that allows students to maintain a dialogue or ask questions about an activity that is happening concurrently—can expand students' understanding of key class concepts. Finally, the literature indicates that Twitter can also be used as a sharing resource (Matteson, 2010), as a means for historical perspective-taking and reenactment (Krutka & Milton, 2013; Lee, Shelton, Walker, Caswell, & Jensen, 2012), and even as a source for, and subject of, media study (Rinaldo, Tapp, & Laverie, 2011). Social media is an increasingly popular technology medium for educators and students alike. Research shows that social media can increase student learning and engage students who otherwise may be disinterested in the classroom (Darling-Hammond, Zielinski, & Goldman, 2014). Richardson (2011) states: Social media afford[s] the opportunity for all children with online access to contribute to the world in meaningful ways, do real work for real audiences for real purposes, find great teachers and collaborators from around the world, and become great teachers in their own right. (p. 3) This real-time communication can increase student accountability, build relationships, allow for differentiation, and expand understanding and skills. Of course, there are drawbacks for students including security risks or privacy concerns. Some students may find social media activities distracting and lack supervision from an administrator. Yet, these drawbacks can be addressed by thoughtful selection and expectations of activities, set-up, and monitoring of students, process, and outcomes. Used prudently, social media can be a valuable tool in educational settings so middle level learners are provided engaging, relevant, and interconnected learning opportunities (Connolly, 2011). Anderson, S. (n.d.). How to create social media guidelines for your school. Edutopia. Retrieved from http://www.edutopia.org/pdfs/edutopia-anderson-social-media-guidelines.pdf. Cabiness, C., Donovan, L., & Green, T. D. (2013). Integrating wikis in the support and practice of historical analysis skills. TechTrends, 57(6), 38-48. Boss, S., & Krauss, J. (2007). Real projects in a digital world. Principal Leadership, 8(4), p. 22-26. Carano, K. T., Stuckart, D. W. (2013). Blogging for global literacy and cross-cultural awareness. In L. Nganga, J. Kambutu, & W. B. Russell III (Eds.), Exploring globalization opportunities and challenges in social studies: Effective instructional approaches. (pp. 179-196). New York: Peter Lang. Chen, B. & Bryer, T. (2012). Investigating instructional strategies for using social media in formal and informal learning. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 13(1), 87-100. Connolly, M. (2011). Benefits and drawbacks of social media in education. Wisconsin Center for Education Research. Retrieved from http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/news/coverStories/2011/benefits_and_drawbacks.php. Darling-Hammond, L., Zielezinski, M. B., & Goldman, S. (2014). Using technology to support at-risk students' learning. Alliance for Excellence in Education. Retrieved from https://edpolicy.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/scope-pub-using-technology-report.pdf. Davis, M. (2010). Social networking goes to school. Education Week, 3(3). Retrieved from http://www.edweek.org/dd/articles/2010/06/16/03networking.h03.html/&cmp=clp-sbascd Downes, J.M., & Bishop, P.A. (2010). The intersection between the middle school concept and technology integration research in middle level research online. Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/2882051/The_Intersection_between_Technology_ Dunlap, J. C., & Lowenthal, P. R. (2009). Tweeting the night away: Using Twitter to enhance social presence. Journal of Information Systems Education, 20(2), 129-135. Elavsky, C. M, Mislan, C., & Elavsky, S. (2011). When talking less is more. Exploring outcomes of Twitter usage in the large-lecture hall. Learning, Media, and Technology, 36(3), 215-233. Frye, E. M., Trathen, W., & Koppenhaver, D. A. (2010). Internet workshop and blog publishing: Meeting student (and teacher) learning needs to achieve best practice in the twenty-first-century social studies classroom. The Social Studies, 101(2), 46-53. Fewkes, A. M., & McCabe, M. (2012). Facebook: Learning tool or distraction? Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 28(3), 92-98. Garrett, C., (2011). Defining, detecting, and promoting student engagement in college learning environments. Transformative Dialogues: Teaching & Learning Journal, 5(2), 1-12. Grinager, H. (2006). How education technology leads to improved student achievement. Education Issues. National Conference of State Legislatures. Retrieved from http://www.ncsl.org/portals/1/documents/educ/item013161.pdf. Holcomb, L., Beal, C., & Lee, J. K. (2011). Supersizing social studies through the use of Web 2.0 technologies. Social Studies Research and Practice, 6(3), 102-111. International Society for Technology in Education. (2014). Standards for students: Digital age learning. Retrieved from http://www.iste.org/standards/standards-for-students. Jackson, C. (2011). Your students love social media ... and so can you. Teaching Tolerance, 39, 38-41. Retrieved from http://www.tolerance.org/magazine/number-39-spring-2011/ Kietzmann, J. H., & Hermkens, K. (2011). Social media? Get serious! Understanding the functional building blocks of social media. Business Horizons, 54, 241–251. Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M. (2010). Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of social media. Business Horizons, 53(1), 61. Kepple, M., Campbell, L.O., Hartshorne, R. & Herlihy, C. (2015). An introductory examination of factors influencing K-12 teachers' perceptions and use of emerging technological tools in the classroom. In D. Slykhuis & G. Marks (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2015 (pp. 2414-2416). Chesapeake, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). Kessler, S. (2010). A case for social media in schools. Mashable. Retrieved from http://mashable.com/2010/09/29/social-media-in-school/. Krutka, D. G. (2014a). Democratic twittering: Microblogging for a more participatory social studies. Social Education, 78(2), 86-89. Krutka, D. G. (2014b). Social media as a catalyst for convergence culture: Immersing pre-service social studies teachers in the social media terrain. In W. B. Russell (Ed.), Digital social studies (pp. 271-302). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Krutka, D., & Milton, M. K. (2013). The enlightenment meets twitter: Using social media in the social studies classroom. Ohio Social Studies Review, 50(2), 22-29. Lamb, A., & Johnson, L. (2010). Bring back the joy: Creative teaching, learning, and librarianship. Teacher Librarian, 38(2), 61-66. Lamphere, N. (2012). Introduction to social media. Retrieved from http://prezi.com/xjetcvfh-chj/introduction-to-social-media/. Lee, V. R., Shelton, B. R., Walker, A., Caswell, T., & Jensen, M. (2012). Retweeting history: Exploring the intersection of microblogging and problem-based learning for historical reenactments. In K. K. Seo & D. A. Pellegrino (Eds.) Designing problem-driven instruction with online social media, (pp. 23-40). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Lenhart, A., Purcell, K., Aaron, S., & Zickuhr, K. (2010). Social media & mobile Internet use among teens and young adults. Pew Internet & American Life Project. Retrieved from http://pewinternet.org/Reports/2010/Social-Media-and-Young-Adults.aspx Liu, C. C., Liu, K. P., Chen, W. H., Lin, C. P., & Chen, G. D. (2011). Collaborative storytelling experiences in social media: Influence of peer-assistance mechanisms. Computers & Education, 57, 1544-1556. Manfra, M. M., & Lee, J. K. (2011). Leveraging the affordances of educational blogs to teach low-achieving students United States history. Social Studies Research and Practice, 6(2), 95-106. Matteson, A. (2010). Tweacher(n): The Twitter enhanced teacher. School Library Monthly, 27(1), 22-23. National Middle School Association. (2010). This we believe: Keys to educating young adolescents. Westerville, OH:Author. U.S. Department of Education. (2010). Transforming American education: Powered by technology. Office of Educational Technology, Retrieved from http://www.ed.gov/sites/default/files/NETP-2010-final-report.pdf. Ramsay, J. (2011). Can we skip lunch and keep writing? United States of America: Stenhouse. Richardson, W. (2011). Publishers, participants all. Educational Leadership, 68(5), 22-26. Rinaldo, S. B., Tapp, S., & Laverie, D. A. (2011). Learning by tweeting: Using Twitter as a pedagogical tool. Journal of Marketing Education, 33(2), 194-204. Schmitz, M., Sigler Hoffmann, M., & Bickford, J.H. (2012). Identifying cyberbullying, connecting with students: The promising possibilities of teacher-student social networking . Eastern Education Journal. 41(1), 16 – 30. Shi, Z., Rui, H., & Whinston, A. B. (2014). Content sharing in a social broadcasting environment: Evidence from Twitter. MIS Quarterly. 38(1), 123-142. Shoshani, Y., & Rose Braun, H. (2007). The use of the Internet environment for enhancing creativity. Educational Media International, 44(1), 17-32. Simpson, E. & Clem, F. (2008). Video games in the middle school classroom. Middle School Journal, 39(4), 4-11. Storz, M. G. &. Hoffman, A. R. (2013). Examining response to a one-to-one computer initiative: Student and teacher voices. Research in Middle Level Education Online. Retrieved from http://www.amle.org/portals/0/pdf/rmle/rmle_vol36_no6.pdf Varlas, L. (2011). Can social media and school policies be "friends"? Policy Priorities- An information brief from ASCD, 17(4). Vise, D. D. (2011, May 5). "Study: 8 top sites for potential plagiarism." The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/college-inc/post/study-8-top-sites-for-potential-plagiarism/2011/05/03/AFA6IcgF_blog.html Weathersbee, J. C. (2008). Impact of technology integration on academic performance of Texas school children. Applied Research Projects, Texas State University-San Marcos. Paper 272. Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/1195646/Impact_of_Technology_Integration_ Wilson, E. K., Wright, V. H., Inman, C. T., & Matherson, L. H. (2011). Retooling the social studies classroom for the current generation. Social Studies, 102(2), 65-72. Yu, A. Y., Tian, S. W., Vogel, D., & Kwok, R. C. (2010). Can learning be virtually boosted?: An investigation of online social networking impacts. Computers & Education, 55, 1494-1503. Annotated Reference List Lamphere, N. (2012). Introduction to social media. Retrieved from http://prezi.com/xjetcvfh-chj/introduction-to-social-media/ This hands-on workshop provides an introduction to the social web and current, popular tools and topics. Definition of terms with related videos are presented as well as resources for publishing, communicating, and sharing images, videos, and bookmarks. Schmitz, M., Sigler Hoffmann, M., & Bickford, J.H. (2012). Identifying cyberbullying, connecting with students: The promising possibilities of teacher-student social networking. Eastern Education Journal, 41 (1), p. 16–30. This article provides suggestions of how teachers can productively use social networking to connect with students socially and to identify and supervise cyberbullying. Additionally, a range of school districts' policies on social networking sites are examined with many addressing teacher and student abuses and misuses. Also included are reflections on social media use and cyberbullying as well as implications for providing a safe, inclusive, and supportive school environment. Smith, G. E. & Throne, S. (2009). Differentiating instruction with technology in middle school classrooms. Eugene, OR: International Society for Technology in Education This book explains the benefits of combining differentiated instruction (DI) with technology, encouraging teachers to "re-engage students by bringing lessons out of the past and into the student-centered reality of digital-age learning." Resources are offered that can help make DI a reality in the middle school classroom. Also included are sample activities for incorporating DI in a variety of core subjects and areas. Commoncraft, (https://www.commoncraft.com/) is a website that contains engaging, informative short videos for introducing various topics to teachers and students. The topics include money, politics, history, society, safety, with a majority of topics on technology. Specifically, there are videos addressing social media that include Twitter, online photosharing, social bookmarking, wikis, and many others that would be of interest and use to middle school students and teachers. Traffikd, (http://traffikd.com/social-media-websites/) contains a list of social media and social networking sites that is updated frequently. The range of categories shows the potential in a wide variety of classes and learning experiences for middle level learners. Onlineuniversities.com offers 100 ways to use social media in classrooms, http://www.onlineuniversities.com/blog/2010/05/100-inspiring-ways-to-use-social-media-in-the-classroom/. Ideas for the K-12 classroom and university level are provided including class projects and ways to increase collaboration and communication between peers and between students and teachers and for preparing students for life outside of the classroom. Edudemic: Edudemic, http://www.edudemic.com/guides/, connects education and technology providing many useful and popular resources and teaching guides for using "some of the best and most popular resources available today" including Twitter, flipping classrooms, keeping students safe online, choosing the best digital content for students, and others added frequently. Edudemic offers dozens of articles with resources and "how to" information for using social media in ways that foster student learning. Edmodo: Located at https://www.edmodo.com/, Edmodo is a free social networking platform that has been referred to as the Facebook for schools and is a safe and teacher-controlled environment in which students must be provided an access code to join and anonymous posting is not possible. Edmodo is primarily a tool for within-class communication, but it also provides several ways for classrooms to connect with other classrooms. There are many features and ways to use Edmodo. A few classroom examples include sharing files and resources with students and other classrooms in real time, creating polls for students to vote online, writing short summaries of lessons for absent students, and posting homework information. #edchat: An ongoing Twitter (https://twitter.com/) discussion that serves as informal professional development for educators by allowing participants to join to discuss and learn about current teaching trends, how to integrate technology, transform their teaching, and connect with inspiring educators worldwide. Moderated topical chats are held at noon and 7 p.m. (EST) each Tuesday with different topics. Alicia Wenzel is an associate professor of education specializing in curriculum, instruction, and assessment at Western Oregon University. Much of her research has focused on curriculum, assessment, and middle level education. Kenneth T. Carano is an associate professor of social studies education at Western Oregon University. His research interests include using technology to teach from a social justice framework in an increasingly interconnected world. Wenzel, A., & Carano, K.T. (2015). Research summary: Social media for middle level classrooms. Retrieved [date] from http://www.amle.org/TabId/270/artmid/888/articleid/553/Social-Media-for-Middle-Level-Classrooms.aspx

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|Native to||Hawaiian Islands| |Region||Hawai?i and Ni?ihau| |Hawai?i Sign Language (HSL)| Official language in | United States| Hawaiian (Hawaiian: ʻ?lelo Hawaiʻi, pronounced [?o:'l?lo h?'v?j?i]) is a Polynesian language of the Austronesian language family that takes its name from Hawaiʻi, the largest island in the tropical North Pacific archipelago where it developed. Hawaiian, along with English, is an official language of the State of Hawaii.King Kamehameha III established the first Hawaiian-language constitution in 1839 and 1840. For various reasons, including territorial legislation establishing English as the official language in schools, the number of native speakers of Hawaiian gradually decreased during the period from the 1830s to the 1950s. Hawaiian was essentially displaced by English on six of seven inhabited islands. In 2001, native speakers of Hawaiian amounted to less than 0.1% of the statewide population. Linguists were unsure if Hawaiian and other endangered languages would survive.[failed verification] Nevertheless, from around 1949 to the present day, there has been a gradual increase in attention to and promotion of the language. Public Hawaiian-language immersion preschools called P?nana Leo were established in 1984; other immersion schools followed soon after that. The first students to start in immersion preschool have now graduated from college and many are fluent Hawaiian speakers. The federal government has acknowledged this development. For example, the Hawaiian National Park Language Correction Act of 2000 changed the names of several national parks in Hawaiʻi, observing the Hawaiian spelling. However, the language is still classified as critically endangered by UNESCO. A creole language, Hawaiian Pidgin (or Hawaii Creole English, HCE), is more commonly spoken in Hawaiʻi than Hawaiian. Some linguists, as well as many locals, argue that Hawaiian Pidgin is a dialect of American English. The Hawaiian language takes its name from the largest island in the Hawaiian state, Hawaii (Hawaiʻi in the Hawaiian language). The island name was first written in English in 1778 by British explorer James Cook and his crew members. They wrote it as "Owhyhee" or "Owhyee". It is written "Oh-Why-hee" on the first map of Sandwich Islands engraved by Tobias Conrad Lotter in 1781. Explorers Mortimer (1791) and Otto von Kotzebue (1821) used that spelling. The initial "O" in the name is a reflection of the fact that Hawaiian predicates unique identity by using a copula form, o, immediately before a proper noun. Thus, in Hawaiian, the name of the island is expressed by saying O Hawaiʻi, which means "[This] is Hawaiʻi." The Cook expedition also wrote "Otaheite" rather than "Tahiti." The spelling "why" in the name reflects the [hw] pronunciation of wh in 18th-century English (still used in parts of the English-speaking world). Why was pronounced [hwai]. The spelling "hee" or "ee" in the name represents the sounds [hi], or [i]. Putting the parts together, O-why-(h)ee reflects [o-hwai-i], a reasonable approximation of the native pronunciation, [o h?w?i?i]. American missionaries bound for Hawaiʻi used the phrases "Owhihe Language" and "Owhyhee language" in Boston prior to their departure in October 1819 and during their five-month voyage to Hawaiʻi. They still used such phrases as late as March 1822. However, by July 1823, they had begun using the phrase "Hawaiian Language." In Hawaiian, ʻ?lelo Hawaiʻi means "language: Hawaiian", since adjectives follow nouns. Hawaiian is a Polynesian member of the Austronesian language family. It is closely related to other Polynesian languages, such as Samoan, Marquesan, Tahitian, M?ori, Rapa Nui (the language of Easter Island) and Tongan. According to Schütz (1994), the Marquesans colonized the archipelago in roughly 300 CE followed by later waves of immigration from the Society Islands and Samoa-Tonga. Their languages, over time, became the Hawaiian language within the Hawaiian Islands. Kimura and Wilson (1983) also state: Linguists agree that Hawaiian is closely related to Eastern Polynesian, with a particularly strong link in the Southern Marquesas, and a secondary link in Tahiti, which may be explained by voyaging between the Hawaiian and Society Islands. The genetic history of the Hawaiian language is demonstrated primarily through the application of lexicostatistics, which involves quantitative comparison of lexical cognates, and the comparative method. Both the number of cognates and the phonological similarity of cognates are measures of language relationship. The following table provides a limited lexicostatistical data set for ten numbers. The asterisk (*) is used to show that these are hypothetical, reconstructed forms. In the table, the year date of the modern forms is rounded off to 2000 CE to emphasize the 6000-year time lapse since the PAN era. |PAN, c. 4000 BCE||*isa||*DuSa||*telu||*Sepat||*lima||*enem||*pitu||*walu||*Siwa||*puluq| |Fijian||dua||rua||tolu||v?||lima||ono||vitu||walu||ciwa||tini (archaic: sagavulu)| |M?ori||tahi||rua||toru||wh?||rima||ono||whitu||waru||iwa||tekau (archaic: ngahuru)| |Leeward Islands dialect||tahi||rua||toru||f?||rima||ono||fitu||varu||iva||'ahuru| |Cook Islands M?ori||ta'i||rua||toru||?||rima||ono||itu||varu||iva||ta'ingaoru| Note: For the number "10", the Tongan form in the table is part of the word /ho?o-fulu/ ('ten'). The Hawaiian cognate is part of the word /ana-hulu/ ('ten days'); however, the more common word for "10" used in counting and quantifying is /?umi/, a different root. Application of the lexicostatistical method to the data in the table will show the four languages to be related to one another, with Tagalog having 100% cognacy with PAN, while Hawaiian and Tongan have 100% cognacy with each other, but 90% with Tagalog and PAN. This is because the forms for each number are cognates, except the Hawaiian and Tongan words for the number "1", which are cognate with each other, but not with Tagalog and PAN. When the full set of 200 meanings is used, the percentages will be much lower. For example, Elbert found Hawaiian and Tongan to have 49% (98 ÷ 200) shared cognacy. This points out the importance of data-set size for this method, where less data leads to cruder results, while more data leads to better results. This method will recognize sound change #1 as a shared innovation of Hawaiian and Tongan. It will also take the Hawaiian and Tongan cognates for "1" as another shared innovation. Due to these exclusively shared features, Hawaiian and Tongan are found to be more closely related to one another than either is to Tagalog or Amis. The forms in the table show that the Austronesian vowels tend to be relatively stable, while the consonants are relatively volatile. It is also apparent that the Hawaiian words for "3", "5", and "8" have remained essentially unchanged for 6000 years. Jack H. Ward (1962) conducted a study using basic words and short utterances to determine the level of comprehension between different Polynesian languages. The mutual intelligibility of Hawaiian was found to be 41.2% with Marquesan, 37.5% with Tahitian, 25.5% with Samoan and 6.4% with Tongan. In 1778, British explorer James Cook made Europe's initial, recorded first contact with Hawai?i, beginning a new phase in the development of Hawaiian. During the next forty years, the sounds of Spanish (1789), Russian (1804), French (1816), and German (1816) arrived in Hawaiʻi via other explorers and businessmen. Hawaiian began to be written for the first time, largely restricted to isolated names and words, and word lists collected by explorers and travelers. The early explorers and merchants who first brought European languages to the Hawaiian islands also took on a few native crew members who brought the Hawaiian language into new territory. Hawaiians took these nautical jobs because their traditional way of life changed due to plantations, and although there were not enough of these Hawaiian-speaking explorers to establish any viable speech communities abroad, they still had a noticeable presence. One of them, a boy in his teens known as Obookiah (ʻ?p?kahaʻia), had a major impact on the future of the language. He sailed to New England, where he eventually became a student at the Foreign Mission School in Cornwall, Connecticut. He inspired New Englanders to support a Christian mission to Hawaiʻi, and provided information on the Hawaiian language to the American missionaries there prior to their departure for Hawaiʻi in 1819.Adelbert von Chamisso too might have consulted with a native speaker of Hawaiian in Berlin, Germany, before publishing his grammar of Hawaiian (Über die Hawaiische Sprache) in 1837. Like all natural spoken languages, the Hawaiian language was originally just an oral language. The native people of the Hawaiian language relayed religion, traditions, history, and views of their world through stories that were handed down from generation to generation. One form of storytelling most commonly associated with the Hawaiian islands is hula. Nathaniel B. Emerson notes that "It kept the communal imagination in living touch with the nation's legendary past". The islanders' connection with their stories is argued to be one reason why Captain James Cook received a pleasant welcome. Marshall Sahlins has observed that Hawaiian folktales began bearing similar content to those of the Western world in the eighteenth century. He argues this was caused by the timing of Captain Cook's arrival, which was coincidentally when the indigenous Hawaiians were celebrating the Makahiki festival. The islanders' story foretold of the god Lono's return at the time of the Makahiki festival. In 1820, Protestant missionaries from New England arrived in Hawaiʻi, and in a few years converted the chiefs to Congregational Protestantism, who in turn converted their subjects. To the missionaries, the thorough Christianization of the kingdom necessitated a complete translation of the Bible to Hawaiian, a previously unwritten language, and therefore the creation of a standard spelling that should be as easy to master as possible. The orthography created by the missionaries was so straightforward that literacy spread very quickly among the adult population; at the same time, the Mission set more and more schools for children. In 1834, the first Hawaiian-language newspapers were published by missionaries working with locals. The missionaries also played a significant role in publishing a vocabulary (1836) grammar (1854) and dictionary (1865) of Hawaiian. The Hawaiian Bible was fully completed in 1839; by then, the Mission had such a wide-reaching school network that, when in 1840 it handed it over to the Hawaiian government, the Hawaiian Legislature mandated compulsory state-funded education for all children under 14 years of age, including girls, twelve years before any similar compulsory education law was enacted for the first time in any of the United States. Literacy in Hawaiian was so widespread that in 1842 a law mandated that people born after 1819 had to be literate to be allowed to marry. In his Report to the Legislature for the year 1853 Richard Armstrong, the minister of Public Instruction, bragged that 75% of the adult population could read. Use of the language among the general population might have peaked around 1881. Even so, some people worried, as early as 1854, that the language was "soon destined to extinction." When Hawaiian King David Kal?kaua took a trip around the world, he brought his native language with him. When his wife, Queen Kapiʻolani, and his sister, Princess (later Queen) Liliʻuokalani, took a trip across North America and on to the British Islands, in 1887, Liliʻuokalani's composition Aloha ʻOe was already a famous song in the U.S. The decline of the Hawaiian language was accelerated by the coup that overthrew the Hawaiian monarchy and dethroned the existing Hawaiian queen. Thereafter, a law was instituted that required English as the main language of school instruction. The law cited is identified as Act 57, sec. 30 of the 1896 Laws of the Republic of Hawaiʻi: The English Language shall be the medium and basis of instruction in all public and private schools, provided that where it is desired that another language shall be taught in addition to the English language, such instruction may be authorized by the Department, either by its rules, the curriculum of the school, or by direct order in any particular instance. Any schools that shall not conform to the provisions of this section shall not be recognized by the Department.-- The Laws of Hawaii, Chapter 10, Section 123 This law established English as the medium of instruction for the government-recognized schools both "public and private". While it did not ban or make illegal the Hawaiian language in other contexts, its implementation in the schools had far-reaching effects. Those who had been pushing for English-only schools took this law as licence to extinguish the native language at the early education level. While the law did not make Hawaiian illegal (it was still commonly spoken at the time), many children who spoke Hawaiian at school, including on the playground, were disciplined. This included corporal punishment and going to the home of the offending child to advise them strongly to stop speaking it in their home. Moreover, the law specifically provided for teaching languages "in addition to the English language," reducing Hawaiian to the status of an extra language, subject to approval by the Department. Hawaiian was not taught initially in any school, including the all-Hawaiian Kamehameha Schools. This is largely because when these schools were founded, like Kamehameha Schools founded in 1887 (nine years before this law), Hawaiian was being spoken in the home. Once this law was enacted, individuals at these institutions took it upon themselves to enforce a ban on Hawaiian. Beginning in 1900, Mary Kawena Pukui, who was later the co-author of the Hawaiian-English Dictionary, was punished for speaking Hawaiian by being rapped on the forehead, allowed to eat only bread and water for lunch, and denied home visits on holidays.Winona Beamer was expelled from Kamehameha Schools in 1937 for chanting Hawaiian. However, informal coercion to drop Hawaiian wouldn't have worked by itself. Just as important was the fact that, in the same period, native Hawaiians were becoming a minority in their own land on account of the growing influx of foreign labourers and their children. Whereas in 1890 pure Hawaiian students made 56% of school enrollment, in 1900 their numbers were down to 32% and, in 1910, to 16.9%. At the same time, Hawaiians were very prone to intermarriage: the number of "Part-Hawaiian" students (i.e., children of mixed Caucasian-Hawaiian marriages) grew from 1573 in 1890 to 3718 in 1910. In such mixed households, the low prestige of Hawaiian lead to the adoption of English as the family language. Moreover, Hawaiians lived mostly in the cities or scattered across the countryside, in direct contact with other ethnic groups and without any stronghold (with the exception of Ni?ihau). Thus, even pure Hawaiian children would converse daily with their schoolmates of diverse mother tongues in English, which was now not just the teachers' language but also the common language needed for everyday communication among friends and neighbours out of school as well. In only a generation English (or rather Pidgin) would become the primary and dominant language of all children, despite the efforts of Hawaiian and immigrant parents to maintain their ancestral languages within the family. In 1949, the legislature of the Territory of Hawaiʻi commissioned Mary Pukui and Samuel Elbert to write a new dictionary of Hawaiian, either revising the Andrews-Parker work or starting from scratch. Pukui and Elbert took a middle course, using what they could from the Andrews dictionary, but making certain improvements and additions that were more significant than a minor revision. The dictionary they produced, in 1957, introduced an era of gradual increase in attention to the language and culture. Efforts to promote the language have increased in recent decades. Hawaiian-language "immersion" schools are now open to children whose families want to reintroduce Hawaiian language for future generations. The ʻAha P?nana Leo's Hawaiian language preschools in Hilo, Hawaii, have received international recognition. The local National Public Radio station features a short segment titled "Hawaiian word of the day" and a Hawaiian language news broadcast. Honolulu television station KGMB ran a weekly Hawaiian language program, ʻ?haʻi ʻ?lelo Ola, as recently as 2010. Additionally, the Sunday editions of the Honolulu Star-Advertiser, the largest newspaper in Hawaii, feature a brief article called Kauakukalahale written entirely in Hawaiian by teachers, students, and community members. Today, the number of native speakers of Hawaiian, which was under 0.1% of the statewide population in 1997, has risen to 2,000, out of 24,000 total who are fluent in the language, according to the US 2011 census. On six of the seven permanently inhabited islands, Hawaiian has been largely displaced by English, but on Niʻihau, native speakers of Hawaiian have remained fairly isolated and have continued to use Hawaiian almost exclusively. Ni?ihau is the only area in the world where Hawaiian is the first language and English is a foreign language.-- Samuel Elbert and Mary Pukui, Hawaiian Grammar (1979) The isolated island of Ni?ihau, located off the southwest coast of Kauai, is the one island where Hawaiian (more specifically a local dialect of Hawaiian known as Niihau dialect) is still spoken as the language of daily life.Elbert & Pukui (1979:23) states that "[v]ariations in Hawaiian dialects have not been systematically studied", and that "[t]he dialect of Ni?ihau is the most aberrant and the one most in need of study". They recognized that Ni?ihauans can speak Hawaiian in substantially different ways. Their statements are based in part on some specific observations made by Newbrand (1951). (See Hawaiian phonological processes) Friction has developed between those on Ni?ihau that speak Hawaiian as a first language, and those who speak Hawaiian as a second language, especially those educated by the College of Hawaiian Language at the University of Hawai?i at Hilo. The University sponsors a Hawaiian Language Lexicon Committee (K?mike Hualelo Hou) which coins words for concepts that historically have not existed in the language, like "computer" and "cell phone". These words are generally not incorporated into the Ni?ihau dialect, which often coins its own words organically. Some new words are Hawaiianized versions of English words, and some are composed of Hawaiian roots and unrelated to English sounds. Hawaiians had no written language prior to Western contact, except for petroglyph symbols. The modern Hawaiian alphabet, ka p?ʻ?p? Hawaiʻi, is based on the Latin script. Hawaiian words end only in vowels, and every consonant must be followed by a vowel. The Hawaiian alphabetical order has all of the vowels before the consonants, as in the following chart. This writing system was developed by American Protestant missionaries during 1820-1826. It was the first thing they ever printed in Hawaiʻi, on January 7, 1822, and it originally included the consonants B, D, R, T, and V, in addition to the current ones (H, K, L, M, N, P, W), and it had F, G, S, Y and Z for "spelling foreign words". The initial printing also showed the five vowel letters (A, E, I, O, U) and seven of the short diphthongs (AE, AI, AO, AU, EI, EU, OU). In 1826, the developers voted to eliminate some of the letters which represented functionally redundant allophones (called "interchangeable letters"), enabling the Hawaiian alphabet to approach the ideal state of one-symbol-one-phoneme, and thereby optimizing the ease with which people could teach and learn the reading and writing of Hawaiian. For example, instead of spelling one and the same word as pule, bule, pure, and bure (because of interchangeable p/b and l/r), the word is spelled only as pule. However, hundreds of words were very rapidly borrowed into Hawaiian from English, Greek, Hebrew, Latin, and Syriac. Although these loan words were necessarily Hawaiianized, they often retained some of their "non-Hawaiian letters" in their published forms. For example, Brazil fully Hawaiianized is Palakila, but retaining "foreign letters" it is Barazila. Another example is Gibraltar, written as Kipalaleka or Gibaraleta. While [z] and [?] are not regarded as Hawaiian sounds, [b], [?], and [t] were represented in the original alphabet, so the letters (b, r, and t) for the latter are not truly "non-Hawaiian" or "foreign", even though their post-1826 use in published matter generally marked words of foreign origin. For examples of the ʻokina, consider the Hawaiian words Hawaiʻi and Oʻahu (often simply Hawaii and Oahu in English orthography). In Hawaiian, these words are pronounced [h?'i.?i] and [o'.hu], and are written with an ʻokina where the glottal stop is pronounced. Elbert & Pukui's Hawaiian Grammar says "The glottal stop, ', is made by closing the glottis or space between the vocal cords, the result being something like the hiatus in English oh-oh." As early as 1823, the missionaries made some limited use of the apostrophe to represent the glottal stop, but they did not make it a letter of the alphabet. In publishing the Hawaiian Bible, they used it to distinguish koʻu ('my') from kou ('your'). In 1864, William DeWitt Alexander published a grammar of Hawaiian in which he made it clear that the glottal stop (calling it "guttural break") is definitely a true consonant of the Hawaiian language. He wrote it using an apostrophe. In 1922, the Andrews-Parker dictionary of Hawaiian made limited use of the opening single quote symbol, then called "reversed apostrophe" or "inverse comma", to represent the glottal stop. Subsequent dictionaries and written material associated with the Hawaiian language revitalization have preferred to use this symbol, the ʻokina, to better represent spoken Hawaiian. Nonetheless, excluding the ʻokina may facilitate interface with English-oriented media, or even be preferred stylistically by some Hawaiian speakers, in homage to 19th century written texts. So there is variation today in the use of this symbol. The ʻokina is written in various ways for electronic uses: Because many people who want to write the ?okina are not familiar with these specific characters and/or do not have access to the appropriate fonts and input and display systems, it is sometimes written with more familiar and readily available characters: A modern Hawaiian name for the macron symbol is kahak? (kaha 'mark' + k? 'long'). It was formerly known as mekona (Hawaiianization of macron). It can be written as a diacritical mark which looks like a hyphen or dash written above a vowel, i.e., ? ? ? ? ? and ? ? ? ? ?. It is used to show that the marked vowel is a "double", or "geminate", or "long" vowel, in phonological terms. (See: Vowel length) As early as 1821, at least one of the missionaries, Hiram Bingham, was using macrons (and breves) in making handwritten transcriptions of Hawaiian vowels. The missionaries specifically requested their sponsor in Boston to send them some type (fonts) with accented vowel characters, including vowels with macrons, but the sponsor made only one response and sent the wrong font size (pica instead of small pica). Thus, they could not print ?, ?, ?, ?, nor ? (at the right size), even though they wanted to. Due to extensive allophony, Hawaiian has more than 13 phones. Although vowel length is phonemic, long vowels are not always pronounced as such, even though under the rules for assigning stress in Hawaiian, a long vowel will always receive stress. |Plosive||p||t ~ k||?| |Sonorant||w ~ v||l ~ ?| Hawaiian is known for having very few consonant phonemes - eight: /p, k ~ t, ?, h, m, n, l, w ~ v/. It is notable that Hawaiian has allophonic variation of [t] with [k],[w] with [v], and (in some dialects) [l] with [n]. The [t]-[k] variation is quite unusual among the world's languages, and is likely a product both of the small number of consonants in Hawaiian, and the recent shift of historical *t to modern [t]-[k], after historical *k had shifted to [?]. In some dialects, /?/ remains as [k] in some words. These variations are largely free, though there are conditioning factors. /l/ tends to [n] especially in words with both /l/ and /n/, such as in the island name L?naʻi ([la:'ni]-[na:'ni]), though this is not always the case: ʻeleʻele or ʻeneʻene "black". The [k] allophone is almost universal at the beginnings of words, whereas [t] is most common before the vowel /i/. [v] is also the norm after /i/ and /e/, whereas [w] is usual after /u/ and /o/. After /a/ and initially, however, [w] and [v] are in free variation. Hawaiian has five pure vowels. The short vowels are /u, i, o, e, a/, and the long vowels, if they are considered separate phonemes rather than simply sequences of like vowels, are /u:, i:, o:, e:, a:/. When stressed, short /e/ and /a/ have been described as becoming [?] and [?], while when unstressed they are [e] and [?]. Parker Jones (2017), however, did not find a reduction of /a/ to [?] in the phonetic analysis of a young speaker from Hilo, Hawai?i; so there is at least some variation in how /a/ is realised./e/ also tends to become [?] next to /l/, /n/, and another [?], as in Pele [p?l?]. Some grammatical particles vary between short and long vowels. These include a and o "of", ma "at", na and no "for". Between a back vowel /o/ or /u/ and a following non-back vowel (/a e i/), there is an epenthetic [w], which is generally not written. Between a front vowel /e/ or /i/ and a following non-front vowel (/a o u/), there is an epenthetic [j] (a y sound), which is never written. |Ending with /u/||Ending with /i/||Ending with /o/||Ending with /e/| |Starting with /i/||iu| |Starting with /o/||ou||oi| |Starting with /e/||eu||ei| |Starting with /a/||au||ai||ao||ae| The short-vowel diphthongs are /iu, ou, oi, eu, ei, au, ai, ao, ae/. In all except perhaps /iu/, these are falling diphthongs. However, they are not as tightly bound as the diphthongs of English, and may be considered vowel sequences. (The second vowel in such sequences may receive the stress, but in such cases it is not counted as a diphthong.) In fast speech, /ai/ tends to [ei] and /au/ tends to [ou], conflating these diphthongs with /ei/ and /ou/. There are only a limited number of vowels which may follow long vowels, and some authors treat these sequences as diphthongs as well: /o:u, e:i, a:u, a:i, a:o, a:e/. |Ending with /u/||Ending with /i/||Ending with /o/||Ending with /e/| |Starting with /o/||o:u| |Starting with /e/||e:i| |Starting with /a/||a:u||a:i||a:o||a:e| Hawaiian syllable structure is (C)V. All CV syllables occur except for w?;wu occurs only in two words borrowed from English. As shown by Schütz,Hawaiian word-stress is predictable in words of one to four syllables, but not in words of five or more syllables. Hawaiian phonological processes include palatalization and deletion of consonants, as well as raising, diphthongization, deletion, and compensatory lengthening of vowels. Hawaiian is an analytic language with verb-subject-object word order. While there is no use of inflection for verbs, in Hawaiian, like other Austronesian personal pronouns, declension is found in the differentiation between a- and o-class genitive case personal pronouns in order to indicate inalienable possession in a binary possessive class system. Also like many Austronesian languages, Hawaiian pronouns employ separate words for inclusive and exclusive we (clusivity), and distinguish singular, dual, and plural. The grammatical function of verbs is marked by adjacent particles (short words) and by their relative positions, that indicate tense-aspect-mood. Some examples of verb phrase patterns: Nouns can be marked with articles: ka and ke are singular definite articles. ke is used before words beginning with a-, e-, o- and k-, and with some words beginning ʻ- and p-. ka is used in all other cases. n? is the plural definite article. To show part of a group, the word kekahi is used. To show a bigger part, mau is inserted to pluralize the subject. This site was designed to provide quick and easy access to real property tax assessment records and maps for properties located in the County of Hawai?i and related general information about real property tax procedures. Over the last decade, there has been an attempt by many well-meaning locals (Hawaiian and non-Hawaiian) to use substitute characters when true diacriticals aren't available. ... This brings me to one of my pet peeves and the purpose of this post: misuse of the backtick (`) character. Many of the previously-mentioned well-intentioned folks mistakenly use a backtick to represent an ?okina, and it drives me absolutely bonkers. La?akea Community formed in 2005 when a group of six people purchased La?akea Gardens. |journal=(help) Memoir 19 of the International Journal of American Linguistics.

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Identity designates the attempt to differentiate and integrate a sense of self along different social and personal dimensions such as gender, age, race, occupation, gangs, socio-economic status, ethnicity, class, nation states, or regional territory. Any claim of identity faces three dilemmas: (a) sameness of a sense of self over time in the face of constant change; (b) uniqueness of the individual vis-à-vis others faced with being the same as everyone else; and (c) the construction of agency as constituted by self (with a self-to-world direction of fit) and world (with a world-to-self direction of fit). Claims to identity begin with the continuity/change dilemma and from there venture into issues of uniqueness and agency; self and sense of self begin by constructing agency and differentiating self from others and then go on to navigate the waters of continuity and change. Engaging in any activity requires acts of self-identification by relying on repertoires that identify and contextualize speakers/writers along varying socio-cultural categories, often compared to mental or linguistic representations (Emmott & Alexander → Schemata) that are less fixed depending on context and function. Narrating, a speech activity that involves ordering characters in space and time, is a privileged genre for identity construction because it requires situating characters in time and space through gesture, posture, facial cues, and gaze in coordination with speech. In addition, narrating, whether in the form of fictional or factual narration (Schaeffer → Fictional vs. Factual Narration), tends toward “human life”—something more than what is reportable or tellable (Baroni → Tellability), something that is life- and live-worthy (Taylor 1989). Thus, narrating enables speakers/writers to disassociate the speaking/writing self from the act of speaking, to take a reflective position vis-à-vis self as character (Jannidis → Character). Taking a reflective position on self as character has been elaborated in the narratological differentiation between author (Schönert → Author), narrator (Margolin → Narrator), and character. The reflective process takes place in the present but refers to past or fictitious time-space, making past (or imagined) events relevant for the act of telling, pointing toward the meaningfulness of relationships and worthwhile lives, and exemplifying “the human good” (Aristotle 1996: 1461a). It is against this backdrop that narrating in recent decades has established itself as a privileged site for identity analysis—a new territory for inquiry (cf. Ricœur 1992; Strawson 2004). Designing characters in fictitious timespace has the potential of opening up territory for exploring identity, reaching beyond traditional boundaries, and testing out novel identities. Narratives rooted in factual past-time events, by contrast, are dominated by an opposite orientation. The delineation of what happened, whose agency was involved, and the potential transformation of characters from one state to another serve to demarcate the identity of the reflective self under investigation. If past-time narration is triggered by the question “Who am I?,” having the narrator’s quest for identity or sense of self as its goal, the leeway for ambiguity, transgression of boundaries, or exploration of novel identities is more restricted: the goal is rather to condense and unite, to resolve ambiguity, and to deliver answers that lay further inquiry into past and identity to rest. However, the reduction of identity to the depiction of characters and their development in a story leaves out the communicative space within which identities are negotiated in interaction with others. Limiting narratives to what they are about restricts identity to the referential or cognitive level of speech activities and disregards real life, where identities are under construction, formed, performed, and change over time. It is within the space of everyday talk in interaction with others that narration plays its constitutive role in the formation and navigation of identities as part of everyday practices and that the potential for orientation toward human values takes form. When considering the emergence of identity, the narrating subject must be regarded: (a) as neither locked into stability nor drifting through constant change, but rather as something that is multiple, contradictory, and distributed over time and place, held together contextually and locally; (b) in terms of membership positions vis-à-vis others that help to trace the narrator’s identity within the context of social relationships, groups, and institutions; and (c) as the active and agentive locus of control, though simultaneously attributing agency to outside forces that are situated in a broader socio-historical context. Along these lines, identity is not confined by just one societal discourse but open to change. Identity is able to transform itself and adapt to the challenges of growing cultural multiplicities in increasingly globalizing environments. Based on the assumption that narration at its origin was a verbal act performed locally in interactional contexts and from there evolved toward other, differently constituted and contextualized media (writing, electronic, and digital media, etc.; cf. Ryan 2006), the function of narration in identity formation processes cannot be reduced to the verbal means used or to the messages conveyed. Rather, the local interactional environments in which narrative units emerge form the foundation for inquiry into identity formation and the sense of self. While transformations from oral to written forms of expression have been studied (e.g. Ong 1982) and text-critical analysis has been undertaken from the perspective of the hermeneutic circle, work with transcripts from audio recordings is relatively new. More recent are concerted efforts to record narratives audio-visually and to analyze the way they emerge in interaction, including the sophisticated ways in which they are performed. Audio-visual material, of course, can be more fully (micro-analytically) scrutinized in terms of the contextualized coordination of narrative form, content, and performance features (Berns → Performativity) in the service of identity formation processes. Recently, this type of micro-analytic analysis has been applied to identity as achieved in narration under the heading of “positioning analysis” (Bamberg 1997, 2003; Bamberg & Georgakopoulou 2008) in order to focus more effectively on the situated nature of identification processes that emerge from the three identity dilemmas mentioned above. Navigating and connecting temporal continuity and discontinuity, self and other differentiation, and the direction of fit between person and world, take place in the small stories told on everyday occasions in which tellers affirm a sense of who they are. It is precisely this sense of self and identity grounded in sequential, moment-by-moment interactive engagements, largely undertheorized and often dismissed in traditional identity inquiry, that operates on verbal texts or cognitive representations (Herman → Cognitive Narratology). Self and identity are traditionally bound up with what is taken to be the essence of the individual person which continues over time and space in phylo- as well as in socio- and onto-genetic terms. However, this overlooks how conceptions of self and identity have evolved historically and culturally and also how each individual’s personal ontogenesis undergoes continuous change. In addition, essentialist views of self and identity camouflage the links between these concepts and their counterparts in narration and narrative practices. Section 3.1 will further explore the connection between self and identity dilemmas (b) and (c), while section 3.2 will be devoted to identity and dilemma (a). Although self, like “I” and “me,” are highly specific morphological items of the English lexicon, they are commonly assumed to refer universally to corresponding concepts in other languages—an assumption that has been contested, however. A closer look reveals that these concepts most often have a history of their own that varies in illuminating ways (cf. Heelas & Lock eds. 1981; Triandis 1989). Modern notions of self and individuality (cf. Elias 1991; Gergen 1991) are taken to be closely intertwined with the emergence of local communities, nation states, new forms of knowledge and reflection (“rationalization”), feeling, and perception—all in conjunction with increasing interiorization and psychologization. In this process of becoming individualized, self-narration (autobiography, life-writing, autofiction) springs to the fore as the basic practice-ground for marking the self off from “I” as speaker/agent and “me” as character/actor (cf. the narratological distinctions between “narrating self” and “narrated self” and between narrator and protagonist). Acts of thematizing and displacing the self as character in past time and space become the basis for other self-related actions such as self-disclosure, self-reflection and self-criticism, potentially leading to self-control, self-constraint, and self-discipline. What further comes to light in this process is an increasing differentiation between (and integration of) “I” and “me” (James 1989), and simultaneously between “I-we-us” and “them-other” (Elias 1991). Thus, self, apparently, is the product of an “I” that manages three processes of differentiation and integration: (a) it can posit a “me” (as distinct from “I”); (b) it can posit and balance this “I-me” distinction with “we”; and (c) it can differentiate this “we” as “us” from “them” as “other.” This process of differentiation must be taken into account when talking about “self” as different from “other” and viewing self “in relation to self” (as in self-reflection and self-control). Self, as differentiated from other by developing the ability to account for itself (as agent or as undergoer), to self-reflect, and to self-augment, can now begin to look for something like temporal continuity, unity, and coherence, i.e. identity across a life (cf. Ricœur 1992). The ability to conceive of life as an integrated narrative forms the cornerstone for what Erikson ( 1963) called “ego identity.” The underlying assumption here is that life begins to co-jell into building blocks that, when placed in the right order, cohere: important moments tie into important events, events into episodes, and episodes into a life story. It is this analogy between life and story—or better: the metaphoric process of seeing life as storied (in narratological terms: story and discourse) that has given substantive fuel to the narrative turn. The strength of how scholars (and laypeople) in the past have made use of this connection, though, varies: on the one hand, there is a relatively loose connection according to which we tell stories of lives by using particular narrative formats. Lives can be told as following an epic script or as if consisting of unconnected patches. Most often, though, lives are told by depicting characters and how they develop. Character, particularly in modern times, rests on an internal and an external form of organization. The former is typically a complex interiority, a set of traits organizing underlying actions and the course of events as outcomes of motives that spring from this interiority. The latter, an external condition of character development, takes plot as the overarching principle that lends order to human action in response to the threat of a discontinuous and seemingly meaningless life by a set of possible continuities (often referred to by cognitive narratologists as “schemata” or “scripts”; cf. Herman 2002: chap. 3). This interplay of human (and humane) interiority and culturally available models of continuity (plots) gives narrative a powerful role in the process of seeing life as narrative. It also should be noted that the arrangement of interiority as governed by the availability of plots gives answers—at least to a degree—to the “direction-of-fit” or “agency” identity dilemma. With narration thus defined, life transcends the animalistic and unruly body so that narration gains the power to organize “human temporality” (Punday 2003; see also Ricœur 1990): the answer to non-human, a-temporal, and discontinuous chaos. Another, and probably stronger reason for employing the narrative metaphor for life starts with the assumption of a “narrative mode of thinking.” Bruner (1986) and Polkinghorne (1988) similarly vie for the argument that there is a particular cognitive mode of making sense of the (social) world which is organized “narratively” (an important theme in cognitive psychology; cf. Herman 2002, 2009). Freeman’s (1993) and Mishler’s (1986) work with autobiographical memories focuses particularly on the interrelationship between memory, autobiographical memory, and narrative. Mishler early on propagated the use of autobiographic narrative interview data in the form of a “contextual approach” which is not limited to recording data about human experience or to looking “behind” the author, but that focuses on interaction and relationships. McAdams (1985), building on narrative theorists such as Bruner, Polkinghorne, and Sarbin, has turned the assumption of selves plotting themselves in and across time into a life-story model of identity. His model clearly states that life stories are more than recapitulations of past events and episodes, that they have a defining character: “our narrative identities are the stories we live by” (McAdams et al. 2006: 4). McAdams’ efforts to connect the study of lives to life stories is paralleled in a wider turn to biographic methods in the social sciences, leading to Lieblich & Josselson’s eleven-volume series titled The Narrative Study of Lives. The origins of these efforts stretch across a wide range of disciplines including psychology, sociology, and anthropology. Goodson & Sikes (2001: 129) date the origins of life history methods in the form of autobiographies back to the beginning of the 20th century. Since then, life history methods have spread from the study of attitudes in social psychology to community studies in sociology, particularly within the Chicago School, and forty years later back into psychology. Retrospectively, it can be argued that the early studies by the members of the Chicago School, and in particular “oral history” popularized by the works of Studs Terkel, lacked the analytic component of modern day narrative inquiry. However, without these origins and the works of Bertaux (1981) and Plummer (1983), the foundation of the Research Committee on Biography and Society (within the International Sociological Association) would have been unthinkable. The methodological principles were laid out in the early work by Schütze (1977) and later picked up and refined in current narrative interview approaches by Fischer-Rosenthal & Rosenthal (1997). Thanks to these developments, it is clearer how the relatively massive turn in the social sciences toward biography and life writing was able to gain ground as a new approach to identity research. It emerged as a concerted attempt to wed self-differentiation (self that can reflect upon itself) and narration (plotting a sense of characterhood across time)—in narratological terms: “narrating self” and “narrated self”—into an answer that addresses the three dilemmas of identity laid out earlier. A teller accounts for how s/he (a) has emerged (as character) over time, (b) as different from others (but same), and simultaneously (c) how s/he views her-/himself as a (responsible) agent. Managing these three dilemmas in concert is taken to establish what is essential to identity. Consequently, life-writing and biography, preferably as autobiography or life story, become privileged arenas for identity research. The link between life and narration and the exploration of lives (including selves and identity) through the exploration of narratives have traditions going back to Freud ( 1913), Allport (1937), and Murray (1938). However, this close connection between life and narrative is said to require a particular retrospectiveness that values “life as reflected” and discredits “life as lived.” Sartwell (2000) has questioned (a) whether life really has the purpose and meaningfulness that narrative theorists metaphorically attempt to attribute to it and (b) whether narratives themselves have the kind of coherence (Toolan → Coherence) and telic quality that narrative theorists often assume. The problem Sartwell sees in this kind of approach is that the lived moment, the way it is “sensed” and experienced, is said to gain its life-worthy quality only in light of its surrounding moments. Rather than empowering the subject with meaning in life, Sartwell argues, narrative, conceived this way, drains and blocks him or her from finding pleasure and joy in the here-and-now. The subject is overpowered by narrative as a normalizing machine. Another difficulty resulting from the close linkage between life, narration, and identity consists in what Lejeune ( 1989) termed “the autobiographical pact.” According to Lejeune, what counts as autobiography is somewhat blurry, since it is based on a “pact” between author and reader that is not directly traceable down into the textual qualities. Thus, while a life story can employ the first-person pronoun to feign the identity of author, narrator, and character, use of the third-person pronoun may serve to camouflage this identity (cf. narrative unreliability; Shen → Unreliability). Autobiographical fiction thrives on the blurring of these boundaries. Of interest here are “the perennial theoretical questions of authenticity and reference” (Porter 2008: 25) leading up to the larger issue of the connection between referentiality and narration (cf. Genette’s 1990 distinction between fictional narrative and factual narrative). While most research on biography has been quite aware of the situated and locally occasioned nature of people’s accounts (often in institutional settings) and the problems this poses for claims with regard to the speaker/narrator’s sense of self or identity, a number of researchers have launched a large-scale critique of the biographic turn as reducing language to its referential and ideational functions and thereby overextending (and simplifying) narration as the root metaphor for the person, (sense of) self, and identity. At the core of these voices is the call for a much “needed antidote to the longstanding tradition of ‘big stories’ which, be they in the form of life stories or of stories of landmark events, have monopolized the inquiry into tellers’ representations of past events and themselves in light of these events” (Georgakopoulou 2007: 147; cf. Strawson 2004). Attempts to transport interactional context and performance-oriented aspects of narration into the analysis of identities reach back to Burke (1945) and Goffman (1959) and have been reiterated repeatedly by others in the field of biography research (e.g. Mishler 1986; Riessman 2008). More recent attempts to integrate this acknowledgment into empirical analysis center around a number of key positions. First is the proposal to resituate narration as performative moves (cf. Langellier & Peterson 2004), calling for the analysis of embodied practices and material conditions of narrative productions. Similarly, Gubrium & Holstein (2008) argue for a narrative ethnography—one that is able to analyze the complex interplay between “experience, storying practices, descriptive resources, purposes at hand, audiences, and the environments that condition storytelling” (250). Georgakopoulou (2006, 2007) and Bamberg (1997, 2003; Bamberg & Georgakopoulou 2008) have tried to develop an alternative approach to big story narrative research that takes “narratives-in-interaction,” i.e. the way stories surface in everyday conversation (small stories), as the locus where identities are continuously practiced and tested out. This approach allows for exploring self at the level of the talked-about and at the level of tellership in the here-and-now of a storytelling situation. Both of these levels feed into the larger project at work in the global situatedness within which selves are already positioned, i.e. with more or less implicit and indirect referencing and orientation to social positions and discourses above and beyond the here-and-now. Placing emphasis on small stories allows for the study of how people as agentive actors position themselves—and in doing so become positioned. This model of positioning affords the possibility of viewing identity constructions as two-fold: analyzing the way the referential world is constructed, with characters (self and others) emerging in time and space as protagonists and antagonists. Simultaneously, it is possible to show how the referential world (what the story is about) is constructed as a function of interactive engagement, i.e. the way the referential world is put together points to how tellers “want to be understood,” how they index their sense of self. Consequently, it is the action orientation of the participants in small story events that forms the basic point of departure for this functionalist-informed approach to narration and, to a lesser degree, what is represented or reflected upon in the stories told. This seems to be what makes this type of work with small stories crucially different from work with big stories: the aim is to analyze how people use small stories in their interactive engagements to construct a sense of who they are, while big story research analyzes the stories as representations of world and identities within them. Behind this way of approaching and working with stories is an action orientation that urges the analyst to look at constructions of self and identity as necessarily dialogical and relational, fashioned and refashioned in local interactive practices (cf. Antaki & Widdicombe eds. 1998; Shepherd → Dialogism). At the same time, it recognizes that small story participants generally attune their stories to various local, interpersonal purposes, sequentially gauging themselves to prior and upcoming talk, continuously challenging and confirming each others’ positions. It is in and through this type of relational activity that representations in the form of content, i.e. what the talk is intended to be about, are brought off and come into existence. By contrast, story analyses that remain fixated on the represented contents of the story in order to conclude from there how the teller reflects on him-/herself miss out on the very interactive and relational constructedness of content and reflection. Furthermore, this kind of analysis aims at scrutinizing the inconsistencies, ambiguities, contradictions, moments of trouble and tension, and the tellers’ constant navigation and finessing between different versions of selfhood and identity in local interactional contexts. However well-established the line of identities-in-interaction may be in the context of the analysis of conversational data, this emphasis still contrasts with the longstanding privileging of coherence by traditional approaches to narrative theory. Through the scrutiny of small stories in a variety of sites and contexts, the aim becomes to legitimize the management of different and often competing and contradictory positions as the mainstay of identity through narrative. A final aim is to advance a project of documenting identity as a process of constant change that, when practiced over and over again, has the potential to result in a sense of constancy and sameness, i.e. big stories that can be elicited under certain conditions. (a) Whether narratives actually constitute a privileged territory for inquiry into life and identity requires further theoretical and empirical inquiry. Usually, this question is decided on the basis of a pre-theoretical, epistemological (if not ontological) stance. But the question itself may be open to different interpretations. (b) The use of narrative methods in the exploration of hybrid or hyphenated identities constitutes an interesting new development in recent trends of social science research in a turn to questions of citizenship, cultural exclusion, imagined communities, symbolic representations of belonging, and even general processes of globalization. (c) Illness and traumatic experiences are typically viewed as disruptions of continuity and coherence, posing challenges to the formation of a sense of self and (biographic) identity as well as to our sense of agency. Recent discussions about the plot-types employed in illness narratives and how patients’ narrative accounts can be made use of more productively in narrative medicine bring up interesting questions with regard to the construction of paths and trajectories of experiences, their inherent action potential, and the relationship to mapping out possible reconstructions from being re-active to becoming pro-active in the construction of patients’ “healing dramas.” (d) The increasing diversification into different narrative methods and approaches (content/thematic vs. structural/formal methods, now joined by discursive/performative approaches) has led to the question whether there is still a common core to the original “narrative approach” as an alternative to the study of subjectivity, self, and identity—the way, in retrospect, it seemed to have begun about thirty-five years ago.

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All strong writers have something in common: they understand the value of word choice in writing. Strong word choice uses vocabulary and language to maximum effect, creating clear moods and images and making your stories and poems more powerful and vivid. The meaning of “word choice” may seem self-explanatory, but to truly transform your style and writing, we need to dissect the elements of choosing the right word. This article will explore what word choice is, and offer some examples of effective word choice, before giving you 5 word choice exercises to try for yourself. Word Choice Definition: The Four Elements of Word Choice The definition of word choice extends far beyond the simplicity of “choosing the right words.” Choosing the right word takes into consideration many different factors, and finding the word that packs the most punch requires both a great vocabulary and a great understanding of the nuances in English. Choosing the right word involves the following four considerations, with word choice examples. Words can be chosen for one of two meanings: the denotative meaning or the connotative meaning. Denotation refers to the word’s basic, literal dictionary definition and usage. By contrast, connotation refers to how the word is being used in its given context: which of that word’s many uses, associations, and connections are being employed. A word’s denotative meaning is its literal dictionary definition, while its connotative meaning is the web of uses and associations it carries in context. We play with denotations and connotations all the time in colloquial English. As a simple example, when someone says “greaaaaaat” sarcastically, we know that what they’re referring to isn’t “great” at all. In context, the word “great” connotes its opposite: something so bad that calling it “great” is intentionally ridiculous. When we use words connotatively, we’re letting context drive the meaning of the sentence. The rich web of connotations in language are crucial to all writing, and perhaps especially so to poetry, as in the following lines from Derek Walcott’s Nobel-prize-winning epic poem Omeros: In hill-towns, from San Fernando to Mayagüez, the same sunrise stirred the feathered lances of cane down the archipelago’s highways. The first breeze rattled the spears and their noise was like distant rain marching down from the hills, like a shell at your ears. Sugar cane isn’t, literally, made of “feathered lances,” which would literally denote “long metal spears adorned with bird feathers”; but feathered connotes “branching out,” the way sugar cane does, and lances connotes something tall, straight, and pointy, as sugar cane is. Together, those two words create a powerfully true visual image of sugar cane—in addition to establishing the martial language (“spears,” “marching”) used elsewhere in the passage. Whether in poetry or prose, strong word choice can unlock images, emotions, and more in the reader, and the associations and connotations that words bring with them play a crucial role in this. Use words that are both correct in meaning and specific in description. In the sprawling English language, one word can have dozens of synonyms. That’s why it’s important to use words that are both correct in meaning and specific in description. Words like “good,” “average,” and “awful” are far less descriptive and specific than words like “liberating” (not just good but good and freeing), “C student” (not just average but academically average), and “despicable” (not just awful but morally awful). These latter words pack more meaning than their blander counterparts. Since more precise words give the reader added context, specificity also opens the door for more poetic opportunities. Take the short poem “[You Fit Into Me]” by Margaret Atwood. You fit into me like a hook into an eye A fish hook An open eye The first stanza feels almost romantic until we read the second stanza. By clarifying her language, Atwood creates a simple yet highly emotive duality. This is also why writers like Stephen King advocate against the use of adverbs (adjectives that modify verbs or other adjectives, like “very”). If your language is precise, you don’t need adverbs to modify the verbs or adjectives, as those words are already doing enough work. Consider the following comparison: Weak description with adverbs: He cooks quite badly; the food is almost always extremely overdone. Strong description, no adverbs: He incinerates food. Of course, non-specific words are sometimes the best word, too! These words are often colloquially used, so they’re great for writing description, writing through a first-person narrative, or for transitional passages of prose. Good word choice takes the reader into consideration. You probably wouldn’t use words like “lugubrious” or “luculent” in a young adult novel, nor would you use words like “silly” or “wonky” in a legal document. This is another way of saying that word choice conveys not only direct meaning, but also a web of associations and feelings that contribute to building the reader’s world. What world does the word “wonky” help build for your reader, and what world does the word “seditious” help build? Depending on the overall environment you’re working to create for the reader, either word could be perfect—or way out of place. Consider your word choice to be the fingerprint of your writing. Consider your word choice to be the fingerprint of your writing. Every writer uses words differently, and as those words come to form poems, stories, and books, your unique grasp on the English language will be recognizable by all your readers. Style isn’t something you can point to, but rather a way of describing how a writer writes. Ernest Hemingway, for example, is known for his terse, no-nonsense, to-the-point styles of description. Virginia Woolf, by contrast, is known for writing that’s poetic, intense, and melodramatic, and James Joyce for his lofty, superfluous writing style. Here’s a paragraph from Joyce: Had Pyrrhus not fallen by a beldam’s hand in Argos or Julius Caesar not been knifed to death. They are not to be thought away. Time has branded them and fettered they are lodged in the room of the infinite possibilities they have ousted. And here’s one from Hemingway: Bill had gone into the bar. He was standing talking with Brett, who was sitting on a high stool, her legs crossed. She had no stockings on. Style is best observed and developed through a portfolio of writing. As you write more and form an identity as a writer, the bits of style in your writing will form constellations. Word Choice in Writing: The Importance of Verbs Before we offer some word choice exercises to expand your writing horizons, we first want to mention the importance of verbs. Verbs, as you may recall, are the “action” of the sentence—they describe what the subject of the sentence actually does. Unless you are intentionally breaking grammar rules, all sentences must have a verb, otherwise they don’t communicate much to the reader. Because verbs are the most important part of the sentence, they are something you must focus on when expanding the reaches of your word choice. Verbs are the most widely variegated units of language; the more “things” you can do in the world, the more verbs there are to describe them, making them great vehicles for both figurative language and vivid description. Consider the following three sentences: - The road runs through the hills. - The road curves through the hills. - The road meanders through the hills. Which sentence is the most descriptive? Though each of them has the same subject, object, and number of words, the third sentence creates the clearest image. The reader can visualize a road curving left and right through a hilly terrain, whereas the first two sentences require more thought to see clearly. Finally, this resource on verb usage does a great job at highlighting how to invent and expand your verb choice. Word Choice in Writing: Economy and Concision Strong word choice means that every word you write packs a punch. As we’ve seen with adverbs above, you may find that your writing becomes more concise and economical—delivering more impact per word. Above all, you may find that you omit needless words. Omit needless words is, in fact, a general order issued by Strunk and White in their classic Elements of Style. As they explain it: Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short, or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but that every word tell. It’s worth repeating that this doesn’t mean your writing becomes clipped or terse, but simply that “every word tell.” As our word choice improves—as we omit needless words and express ourselves more precisely—our writing becomes richer, whether we write in long or short sentences. As an example, here’s the opening sentence of a random personal essay from a high school test preparation handbook: The world is filled with a numerous amount of student athletes that could somewhere down the road have a bright future. Most words in this sentence are needless. It could be edited down to: Many student athletes could have a bright future. Now let’s take some famous lines from Shakespeare’s Macbeth. Can you remove a single word without sacrificing an enormous richness of meaning? Out, out, brief candle! Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player, That struts and frets his hour upon the stage, And then is heard no more. It is a tale Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, In strong writing, every single word is chosen for maximum impact. This is the true meaning of concise or economical writing. 5 Word Choice Exercises to Sharpen Your Writing With our word choice definition in mind, as well as our discussions of verb use and concision, let’s explore the following exercises to put theory into practice. As you play around with words in the following word choice exercises, be sure to consider meaning, specificity, style, and (if applicable) audience. 1. Build Moods With Word Choice Writers fine-tune their words because the right vocabulary will build lush, emotive worlds. As you expand your word choice and consider the weight of each word, focus on targeting precise emotions in your descriptions and figurative language. This kind of point is best illustrated through word choice examples. An example of magnificent language is the poem “In Defense of Small Towns” by Oliver de la Paz. The poem’s ambivalent feelings toward small hometowns presents itself through the mood of the writing. The poem is filled with tense descriptions, like “animal deaths and toughened hay” and “breeches speared with oil and diesel,” which present the small town as stoic and masculine. This, reinforced by the terse stanzas and the rare “chances for forgiveness,” offers us a bleak view of the town; yet it’s still a town where everything is important, from “the outline of every leaf” to the weightless flight of cattail seeds. The writing’s terse, heavy mood exists because of the poem’s juxtaposition of masculine and feminine words. The challenge of building a mood produces this poem’s gravity and sincerity. Try to write a poem, or even a sentence, that evokes a particular mood through words that bring that word to mind. Here’s an example: - What mood do you want to evoke? flighty - What words feel like they evoke that mood? not sure, whatever, maybe, perhaps, tomorrow, sometimes, sigh - Try it in a sentence: “Maybe tomorrow we could see about looking at the lab results.” She sighed. “Perhaps.” 2. Invent New Words and Terms A common question writers ask is, What is one way to revise for word choice? One trick to try is to make up new language in your revisions. If you create language at a crucial moment, you might be able to highlight something that our current language can’t. In the same way that unusual verbs highlight the action and style of your story, inventing words that don’t exist can also create powerful diction. Of course, your writing shouldn’t overflow with made-up words and pretentious portmanteaus, but if you create language at a crucial moment, you might be able to highlight something that our current language can’t. A great example of an invented word is the phrase “wine-dark sea.” Understanding this invention requires a bit of history; in short, Homer describes the sea as “οἶνοψ πόντος”, or “wine-faced.” “Wine-dark,” then, is a poetic translation, a kind of kenning for the sea’s mystery. Why “wine-dark” specifically? Perhaps because, like the sea, wine changes us; maybe the eyes of the sea are dark, as eyes often darken with wine; perhaps the sea is like a face, an inversion, a reflection of the self. In its endlessness, we see what we normally cannot. Thus, “wine-dark” is a poetic combination of words that leads to intensive literary analysis. For a less historical example, I’m currently working on my poetry thesis, with pop culture monsters being the central theme of the poems. In one poem, I describe love as being “frankensteined.” By using this monstrous made-up verb in place of “stitched,” the poem’s attitude toward love is much clearer. Try inventing a word or phrase whose meaning will be as clear to the reader as “wine-dark sea.” Here’s an example: - What do you want to describe? feeling sorry for yourself because you’ve been stressed out for a long time - What are some words that this feeling brings up? self-pity, sympathy, sadness, stress, compassion, busyness, love, anxiety, pity party, feeling sorry for yourself - What are some fun ways to combine these words? sadxiety, stresslove - Try it in a sentence: As all-nighter wore on, my anxiety softened into sadxiety: still edgy, but soft in the middle. 3. Only Use Words of Certain Etymologies One of the reasons that the English language is so large and inconsistent is that it borrows words from every language. When you dig back into the history of loanwords, the English language is incredibly interesting! (For example, many of our legal terms, such as judge, jury, and plaintiff, come from French. When the Normans [old French-speakers from Northern France] conquered England, their language became the language of power and nobility, so we retained many of our legal terms from when the French ruled the British Isles.) Nerdy linguistics aside, etymologies also make for a fun word choice exercise. Try forcing yourself to write a poem or a story only using words of certain etymologies and avoiding others. For example, if you’re only allowed to use nouns and verbs that we borrowed from the French, then you can’t use Anglo-Saxon nouns like “cow,” “swine,” or “chicken,” but you can use French loanwords like “beef,” “pork,” and “poultry.” Experiment with word etymologies and see how they affect the mood of your writing. You might find this to be an impactful facet of your word choice. You can Google “__ etymology” for any word to see its origin, and “__ synonym” to see synonyms. Try writing a sentence only with roots from a single origin. (You can ignore common words like “the,” “a,” “of,” and so on.) - What do you want to write? The apple rolled off the table. - Try a first etymology: German: The apple wobbled off the bench. - Try a second: Latin: The russet fruit rolled off the table. 4. Write in E-Prime E-Prime Writing describes a writing style where you only write using the active voice. By eschewing all forms of the verb “to be”—using words such as “is,” “am,” “are,” “was,” and other “being” verbs—your writing should feel more clear, active, and precise! E-Prime not only removes the passive voice (“The bottle was picked up by James”), but it gets at the reality that many sentences using to be are weakly constructed, even if they’re technically in the active voice. Of course, E-Prime writing isn’t the best type of writing for every project. The above paragraph is written in E-Prime, but stretching it out across this entire article would be tricky. The intent of E-Prime writing is to make all of your subjects active and to make your verbs more impactful. While this is a fun word choice exercise and a great way to create memorable language, it probably isn’t sustainable for a long writing project. Try writing a paragraph in E-Prime: - What do you want to write? Of course, E-Prime writing isn’t the best type of writing for every project. The above paragraph is written in E-Prime, but stretching it out across this entire article would be tricky. The intent of E-Prime writing is to make all of your subjects active and to make your verbs more impactful. While this is a fun word choice exercise and a great way to create memorable language, it probably isn’t sustainable for a long writing project. - Converted to E-Prime: Of course, E-Prime writing won’t best suit every project. The above paragraph uses E-Prime, but stretching it out across this entire article would carry challenges. E-Prime writing endeavors to make all of your subjects active, and your verbs more impactful. While this word choice exercise can bring enjoyment and create memorable language, you probably can’t sustain it over a long writing project. 5. Write Blackout Poetry Blackout poetry, also known as Found Poetry, is a visual creative writing project. You take a page from a published source and create a poem by blacking out other words until your circled words create a new poem. The challenge is that you’re limited to the words on a page, so you need a charged use of both space and language to make a compelling blackout poem. Blackout poetry bottoms out our list of great word choice exercises because it forces you to consider the elements of word choice. With blackout poems, certain words might be read connotatively rather than denotatively, or you might change the meaning and specificity of a word by using other words nearby. Language is at its most fluid and interpretive in blackout poems! For a great word choice example using blackout poetry, read “The Author Writes the First Draft of His Wedding Vows” by Hanif Willis-Abdurraqib. Here it is visually: Pick a favorite poem of your own and make something completely new out of it using blackout poetry. How to Expand Your Vocabulary Vocabulary is a last topic in word choice. The more words in your arsenal, the better. Great word choice doesn’t rely on a large vocabulary, but knowing more words will always help! So, how do you expand your vocabulary? The simplest way to expand your vocabulary is by reading. The simplest answer, and the one you’ll hear the most often, is by reading. The more literature you consume, the more examples you’ll see of great words using the four elements of word choice. Of course, there are also some great programs for expanding your vocabulary as well. If you’re looking to use words like “lachrymose” in a sentence, take a look at the following vocab builders: Improve Your Word Choice With Writers.com’s Online Writing Courses Looking for more writing exercises? Need more help choosing the right words? The instructors at Writers.com are masters of the craft. Take a look at our upcoming course offerings and join our community! Take your next online writing course with our award-winning instructors! Browse our upcoming courses by category: - Online Fiction Writing Courses - Online Creative Nonfiction Writing Courses - Online Poetry Writing Courses - Online Lifestyle and Wellness Writing Courses

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Butch is an LGBTQ+ masculine gender expression or gender identity. While many people who identify as butch use the term in reference to their gender expression, others claim it as a nonbinary identity in itself, notably Leslie Feinberg, who defined butch as a gender neither male nor female. Butch is an identity that emerged in lesbian and bisexual culture in the 1940s, before there was a stark distinction in the community between types of women who were attracted to other women. Many lesbians have complicated relationships with gender, and may identify as simply butch. Butch is an identity that can be held by people of various queer sexual orientations and can belong to both cisgender and trans individuals. Traditionally, the identity and term butch has been used by individuals who are attracted to femmes. For some butches, this attraction to femmes represents a strong part of their own identity. Because of this, you will often see the dyadic term "butch/femme," or referrals to a butch/femme dynamic. However, some butches are attracted to other butches (this was already a topic in Leslie Feinberg's seminal novel Stone Butch Blues). The phenomenon of butches attracted to other butches is commonly called "masc-for-masc". Depending on the community in question, butch people may call themselves by different terms. In LGBT communities of people of color, there may be a preference for the words aggressive (ag for short) or stud, with much the same meaning as butch. White people should use "butch" rather than "stud". The origin of the word "butch" is uncertain. The word butch, meaning "masculine", may have been coined by abbreviating the word butcher, as first noted in George Cassidy's nickname, Butch Cassidy. "Butch" can be used as an adjective or a noun to describe an individual's gender or gender performance. A masculine person of any gender can be described as butch, even though it is more common to use the term towards females with more masculine traits. The term butch tends to denote a degree of masculinity displayed by a female individual beyond what would be considered typical of a tomboy. It is not uncommon for women with a butch appearance to face harassment or violence. A 1990s survey of butches showed that 50% were primarily attracted to femmes, while 25% reported being usually attracted to other butches. There is debate about to whom the terms butch and femme can apply, and particularly whether transgender individuals can be identified in this way. For example, queer theorist Jack Halberstam argues that transgender men cannot be considered butch, since it constitutes a conflation of maleness with butchness. He further argues that butch–femme is uniquely geared to work in lesbian relationships. Stereotypes and definitions of butch and femme vary greatly, even within tight-knit LGBT communities. On the other hand, the writer Jewelle Gomez muses that butch and femme women in the earlier twentieth century may have been expressing their closeted transgender identity. Antipathy toward female butches and male femmes has been interpreted by some commentators as transphobia, although female butches and male femmes are not always transgender, and indeed some heterosexuals of both genders display these attributes. Scholars such as Judith Butler and Anne Fausto-Sterling suggest that butch and femme are not attempts to take up "traditional" gender roles. Instead, they argue that gender is socially and historically constructed, rather than essential, "natural", or biological. The historian Joan Nestle argues that femme and butch may be seen as distinct genders in and of themselves. Difference between butch and maleEdit Although butch is a masculine identity, it isn't the same thing as conventional manhood or masculinity. There are differences, particularly in how conventional manhood and masculinity involve conformity, whereas the MOGII qualities of butch make it subversive. Butch gender expression through clothing doesn't follow the rules for how to dress conventionally as male or masculine, and in some ways is intentionally different. Butch clothing doesn't look the same as conventional men's wear. See the main article about these clothing differences. Masculinity is different than maleness. Butches are different than transgender men. Although transgender men were assigned female at birth (or sometimes intersex), and some identified as lesbian before recognizing that they were trans men, the difference is that butch lesbians generally identify as women, and feel attracted to women, whereas trans men identify as men, and may or may not feel attracted to women. While the term "transgender butch" could apply to a masculine trans person, regardless of gender assigned at birth, the term is often used in a more specific sense to describe a person who was assigned female at birth, has a masculine gender expression, and experiences gender dysphoria while identifying as butch rather than male or another gender. Transgender butches may identify as genderqueer or nonbinary; some claim butch as a specific nonbinary identity. Transgender butches may also identify as lesbians or dykes independently of their gender identity. A similar term is "stone butch", which describes a butch who prefers to avoid genital stimulation in sexual settings, sometimes due to gender dysphoria. Some women in lesbian communities eschew butch or femme classifications, believing that they are inadequate to describe an individual, or that labels are limiting in and of themselves. Other people within the LGBT community have tailored the common labels to be more descriptive, such as "soft stud," "hard butch," "gym queen," or "tomboy femme." Comedian Elvira Kurt contributed the term "fellagirly" as a description for LGBT women who are not strictly either femme or butch, but a combination. In the 1950s and 1960s, the term chi-chi was used to mean the same thing. Those who identify as butch and femme today often use the words to define their presentation and gender identity rather than strictly the role they play in a relationship, and that not all butches are attracted exclusively to femmes and not all femmes are exclusively attracted to butches, a departure from the historic norm. Besides the terms "butch" and "femme", there are a number of other terms used to describe the dress codes, the sexual behaviours, and/or the gender identities of the sexual subcultures who use them. The meanings of these terms vary and can evolve over time. A butch woman may be described as a "stone butch", "diesel dyke" "bulldyke", "bull bitch" or "bulldagger" or simply just as a "dyke". The term "boi" is typically used by younger LGBT women. Defining the difference between a butch and a boi, one boi told a reporter: "that sense of play - that's a big difference from being a butch. To me, butch is like an adult...You're the man of the house." There is also an emerging usage of the terms soft butch "stem" (stud-femme), "futch" (feminine butch) or "chapstick lesbian" as terms for women who have characteristics of both butch and femme. Lesbians who are unisex and neither butch nor femme are called "androgynous" or "andros". Another common term is "stud". A stud is a dominant lesbian, usually butch. They tend to be influenced by urban and hip-hop cultures and are often, but not always, Afro-American. In the New York City lesbian community, a butch may identify herself as AG (aggressive) or as a stud. In 2005, filmmaker Eric Daniel Peddle chronicled the lives of AGs in his documentary The Aggressives, following six women who went to lengths like binding their breasts to pass as men. But Peddle says that today, very young lesbians of color in New York are creating a new, insular scene that's largely cut off from the rest of the gay and lesbian community. "A lot of it has to do with this kind of pressure to articulate and express your masculinity within the confines of the hip-hop paradigm..." The AG culture has also been represented on film by Black lesbian filmmaker Dee Rees' 2011 work, Pariah. Going back to at least the 1960s or 50s, a "stone butch" refers a masculine lesbian, and in contemporary use is associated with impenetrability. The "stone" sexual role describes a preference for bringing pleasure to one's partner, without being touched oneself. Being "stone" in this way can be connected with sexual trauma, gender dysphoria, or the asexual spectrum. In relation to gender, a femme lesbian named Rachel Tessler wrote in 1996 that "some stone butches are almost beyond butch. They're almost in a kind of territory between genders, beyond being women. I think some stone butches aren't really women, in the way that they think about people." A 2001 dictionary of sex and gender terminology by linguist Philip Herbst noted that |«||Bigendered or transgendered lesbians—individuals with [ AFAB] bodies who identify as masculine and may be attracted to other women— may call themselves stone butch [...] Stone may mean "very" in slang, but it also implies "untouchable" in a sexual sense—not wanting to be touched during sexual relations.||»| A soft butch, or stem (stud-fem), is a lesbian who exhibits some stereotypical butch traits without fitting the masculine stereotype associated with butch lesbians. Soft butch is on the spectrum of butch, as are stone butch and masculine, whereas on the contrary, ultra fem, high femme, and lipstick lesbian are some labels on the spectrum of lesbians with a more prominent expression of femininity, also known as femmes. Soft butches have gender identities of women, but primarily display masculine characteristics; soft butches predominantly express masculinity with a touch of femininity. The "hardness", or label depicting one's level of masculine expression as a butch is dependent upon the fluidity of her gender expression. Soft butches might want to express themselves through their clothing and hairstyle in a more masculine way, but their behavior in a more traditionally feminine way. For example, these traits of a soft butch may or may not include short hair, clothing that was designed for men, and masculine mannerisms and behaviors. Soft butches generally appear androgynous, rather than adhering to strictly feminine or masculine norms and gender identities. Soft butches generally physically, sexually, and romantically express themselves in more masculine than feminine ways in the majority of those categories. In addition to a soft butch's gender expression through her outward appearance, she also has a distinctive way of sexually expressing herself. Soft butch women might want to have a more passive role sexually or romantically in their relationships, which is generally associated with feminine sexual behavior. This is an example of how a soft butch's sexuality and outward appearance are not completely masculine, but have some feminine traits. Conversely, stone butches are less fluid in their sexuality and do not want to receive sexual contact from their sexual partners. This desire to express both masculinity and femininity through one's gender and sexuality is clearly seen in soft butch women, but also across many people of a variety of sexual orientations. There is no universally-accepted flag for the butch identity, but several have been proposed. Below are some of them. Notable butch peopleEdit There are many more notable people who have a gender identity outside of the binary. The following are only some of those notable people who specifically use the word "butch" (or a close analog to it) for themselves as a gender identity outside of the binary. - The author Corey Alexander, who wrote under the pen name Xan West, identified as genderqueer, queer, trans, stone butch, demiromantic, and demigraysexual. - Ivan E. Coyote (b. 1969) is a Canadian author who has written extensively about being transgender and being butch. They have made significant contributions to the representation of queerness in literature. They have won the ReLit Award for Best Fiction (2007), and the Stonewall Honor Book Award (2017). They describe themself as "a trans person who doesn't fit neatly into the gender binary," and they identify as butch. - American comedian, writer, and nurse Kelli Dunham describes herself as a genderqueer woman/nonbinary transmasc butch. - Leslie Feinberg (1949 - 2014) was a revolutionary communist and activist for transgender rights. Feinberg identified as a butch lesbian, in the sense of a queer masculine transgender identity neither female nor male. Feinberg's novel, Stone Butch Blues (1993) won the prestigious American Library Association Award for Gay and Lesbian Literature and a LAMBDA Literary Award (Leslie Feinberg). - American musician and comedian Maxine Feldman (1945 - 2007) identified as a transgender butch lesbian, went by a variety of pronouns, was described as having a "both/and" gender identity, and was comfortable with being labeled as a man or woman. - Sonalee Rashatwar is an American Licensed Clinical Social Worker who has given talks internationally about sexuality, fat positivity, disability justice, racism, and more. They identify as a soft butch enby. - Sinclair Sexsmith is a writer and performer. They identify as a "White non-binary butch feminist dominant". Their short story collection, Sweet & Rough: Queer Kink Erotica, was a 2016 finalist for the Lambda Literary Award. Butch characters in fictionEdit See main article: Nonbinary gender in fiction There are many more nonbinary characters in fiction who have a gender identity outside of the binary. The following are only some of those characters who are specifically called by the word "butch" (or a close analog to it) as a gender identity, either in their canon, or by their creators. - Stone Butch Blues by Leslie Feinberg, a semi-autobiographical historical fiction novel about a butch named Jess Goldberg. The story focuses on the trials and tribulations she faces growing up in the United States before the Stonewall riots. Feinberg defines butch as a gender identity neither female nor male. - Orange is the New Black included a main character, Carrie Black, who is a butch lesbian. The word "butch" is tattooed on her arm. - An Unkindness of Ghosts, by Rivers Solomon. The author has said, "Aster is an intersex butch lesbian, but maybe agender. Theo is a nonbinary trans woman. These are my interpretations, but arguments could certainly be made for other classifiers." - Butchtastic: Butch, Genderqueer, Genderfluid, Genderfuck and Trans Blogs to watch out for - Debonair Geek's Blog: Deep Thoughts - Stone Butch Blues by Leslie Feinberg - Susan's Place Transgender Resource Wiki: Butch and Femme - Susan's Place Transgender Resource Wiki: Soft Butch - Susan's Place Transgender Resources Wiki: Stone Butch - Butch Voices, "a grassroots organization dedicated to all self-identified Masculine of Center people and our Allies" - Urquhart, Evan (24 April 2015). "A Dispatch From the Shifting, Porous Border Between Butch and Trans". Slate Magazine. - What Is Stone? by Xan West - Is Butch/Femme a Transgender Thang? by Lisa Lees - Bashan, Frankie (2020). "What Does It Mean To Be Butch?". Little Gay Book. Retrieved 29 September 2020. - Green, Eli R.; Peterson, Eric N. (2006). "LGBTTSQI Terminology" (PDF). Trans-Academics.org. - "HER - Stud Lesbian Meaning". Her. 29 February 2020. Retrieved 11 November 2020. - "Happy Butch Appreciation Day – here's to all the butches!". Stonewall. 16 August 2019. Retrieved 22 June 2020. - "Lesbian Culture & Visibility". QueerEvents.ca. Retrieved 22 June 2020. - "2015 U.S. Transgender Survey Complete Report" (PDF). p. 44. Retrieved 23 October 2020. - Walker, Ja'nina (March 2012). "Butch Bottom–Femme Top? An Exploration of Lesbian Stereotypes". Journal of Lesbian Studies. 16 (1): 90–107. doi:10.1080/10894160.2011.557646. PMID 22239455. - Bergman, S. Bear (2006). Butch is a noun. San Francisco: Suspect Thoughts Press. ISBN 978-0-9771582-5-6. - Smith, Christine A.; Konik, Julie A.; Tuve, Melanie V. (2011). "In Search of Looks, Status, or Something Else? Partner Preferences Among Butch and Femme Lesbians and Heterosexual Men and Women". Sex Roles. 64 (9–10): 658–668. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9861-8. ISSN 0360-0025. Retrieved May 1, 2016. - "2014 National Street Harassment Report - Stop Street Harassment". stopstreetharassment.org. Retrieved 31 March 2018. - Caramagno, Thomas C. (2002). Irreconcilable Differences? Intellectual Stalemate in the Gay Rights Debate. ABC-CLIO. p. 138. ISBN 978-0275977214. - "About". BUTCH Voices. April 9, 2009. Archived from the original on December 19, 2018. Retrieved 11 September 2019. - "BUTCH Voices Conference Makes Masculine Of Center Womyn Heard". Curve. May 8, 2017. Retrieved 11 September 2019. - Caramagno, Thomas C. (2002). Irreconcilable Differences? Intellectual Stalemate in the Gay Rights Debate. ABC-CLIO. pp. 137–8. ISBN 978-0275977214. - Munt, Sally (1998). Butch/Femme: Inside Lesbian Gender. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 229. ISBN 978-0304339594. - Coyote, Ivan E.; Sharman, Zena, eds. (2011). "Femme Butch Feminist, by Jewelle Gomez". Persistence: All Ways Butch and Femme. Vancouver, B.C., Canada: Arsenal Pulp Press. pp. 67–78. ISBN 978-1551523972. - Tyler, Carol-Ann (2003). Female Impersonation. Routledge. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-415-91688-2. - O'Hara, Kate (7 January 2015). "There's No Other Georgy Deep Inside – Coming Out As A Butch Straight Woman". The Vagenda. Archived from the original on 31 July 2019. - Hunt, James (14 May 2015). "Confessions Of A Feminine Straight Guy". thoughtcatalog.com. Retrieved 20 September 2020. - Nestle, Joan (1992). The Persistent Desire: A Femme–Butch Reader. Alyson Publications. ISBN 978-1555831905. - Nash, Tammye (3 March 2011). "COVER STORY: Butch Voices". Dallas Voice. Retrieved 29 September 2020. - Factora, James (10 October 2019). "Being Butch Does Not Mean I Experience Masculine Privilege". refinery29.com. Retrieved 29 September 2020. - Lee, Atticus. "The Role of Butch/Femme Relationships in Transgender Activism: A Codependent Mutualism" (PDF). Butch lesbians debunk the gender binary with their mere existence; they embody masculine gender presentations without possessing male privilege or participating in the dominant patriarchy. - "Common lesbian slang and terminology". The Other Team. Archived from the original on 7 February 2020. - Haggerty, George E. (2000). Encyclopedia of Lesbian And Gay Histories and Cultures, Vol 1. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0815333548. - Levy, Ariel. "Where the Bois Are". New York News and Features. Retrieved November 29, 2016. - Belge, Kathy (2011). Queer: The Ultimate LGBT Guide for Teens. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 10. ISBN 9780547687322. - Hilliard, Chloe. "Girls to Men". The Village Voice. - George, Nelson (December 23, 2011). "New Directors Flesh Out Black America, All Of It". New York Times. Retrieved November 29, 2016. - Halberstam, Judith (1998). "Lesbian Masculinity: Even Stone Butches Get the Blues". Female Masculinity (1st ed.). Duke University Press. p. 111. ISBN 0822322269. - Zimmerman, Bonnie, ed. (1999). Lesbian Histories and Cultures (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 140. ISBN 978-0815319207. - Myers, JoAnne, ed. (2013). Historical Dictionary of the Lesbian and Gay Liberation Movements (1st ed.). Scarecrow Press. p. 346. ISBN 0810874687. - Render Me, Gender Me: Lesbians Talk Sex, Class, Color, Nation, Studmuffins..., p. 104-105, Columbia University Press, 1996 - Herbst, Philip (2001). Wimmin, Wimps & Wallflowers: An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Gender and Sexual Orientation Bias in the United States. p. 41. - Smith, Christine A.; Stillman, Shannon (2003). "Do Butch and Femme Still Attract?". The Gay & Lesbian Review Worldwide. X (4). - Rose, Dawn; Plaskow, Judith (2009). "Yusuf Come Home: Parashat Miketz (genesis 41:1-44:17)". Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible: 62. - Halberstam, Judith (1998). Female Masculinity (5page=123 ed.). Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-2243-6. - Rosario, Margaret; Schrimshaw, Eric W.; Hunter, Joyce; Levy-Warren, Anna (2007-09-26). "The Coming-Out Process of Young Lesbian and Bisexual Women: Are There Butch/Femme Differences in Sexual Identity Development?". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 38 (1): 34–49. doi:10.1007/s10508-007-9221-0. ISSN 0004-0002. PMC 3189348. PMID 17896173. - Carpenter, Karen; McKenzie, Matthew (2011). "Love on a Continuum". Social and Economic Studies. 60 (1): 118. - Simkiss, Ceillie. "Author Interview: Xan West". Let's Fox About It. Retrieved 5 October 2020. - Black, Eleanor (August 20, 2016). "Ivan Coyote: 'I always knew I was not the same as other little girls'". Stuff.co.nz. Retrieved July 26, 2017. https://www.stuff.co.nz/entertainment/books/83178100/ivan-coyote-i-always-knew-i-was-not-the-same-as-other-little-girls - Why we need gender-neutral bathrooms, Ivan Coyote, November 2015 - "THE STORY". kellidunham.com. Retrieved 24 July 2020. - Wood, Erin (15 May 2017). "Q&A: Comedian Kelli Dunham on Storytelling as a Radical, Transformative Act". Ms. Magazine. Retrieved 3 June 2020. - Guerrero, Desirée (21 April 2020). "Genderqueer Comic Kelli Dunham On Getting (Thee) Away From a Nunnery". The Advocate. Retrieved 3 June 2020. - Village Voice - "Maxine Feldman, 1945 - 2007". Jewish Women's Archive. Retrieved 8 October 2020. - Kiritsy, Laura (August 30, 2007). "Lesbian trail blazer Maxine Feldman dies". Edge Providence. - Owens, Cassie (3 July 2019). "To end fatphobia, we need to dismantle Western civilization, says Philly therapist Sonalee Rashatwar". The Inquirer. Retrieved 16 June 2020. - Fabello, Melissa A. (21 May 2019). "Sonalee Rashatwar Is Returning Body Positivity to Its Political Roots". Bitch Media. Retrieved 16 June 2020. - "Sinclair Sexsmith profile". Medium. Retrieved 9 April 2020. - Falck, Alex (10 October 2018). "An Interview with Author Rivers Solomon". Archived from the original on 25 June 2019.

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The island is east-northeast of the mainland with its northern and western coasts fronting on the Gulf of Saint Lawrence ; its western coast also forms the eastern limits of the Northumberland Strait. The eastern and southern coasts front the Atlantic Ocean; its eastern coast also forms the western limits of the Cabot Strait. Its landmass slopes upward from south to north, culminating in the highlands of its northern cape. One of the world's larger saltwater lakes, Bras d'Or "Arm of Gold" in French , dominates the island's centre. Eskasoni is the largest in both population and land area. Its name may derive from Capbreton near Bayonne , or more probably from Cape and the word Breton , the French demonym for Bretagne , the French historical region. The eastern and southern coasts front the Atlantic Ocean; its eastern coast also forms the western limits of the Cabot Strait. Its landmass slopes upward from south to north, culminating in the highlands of its northern cape. One of the world's larger saltwater lakes, Bras d'Or "Arm of Gold" in Frenchdominates the island's centre. Eskasoni is the largest in both population and land area. Its name may derive from Capbreton near Bayonneor more probably from Cape and the word Bretonthe French demonym for Bretagnethe French historical region. Cape Breton Island's first residents were likely Archaic maritime nativesancestors of the Mi'kmaq. These peoples and their progeny inhabited the island known as Unama'ki for several thousand years and continue to live there to this day. Their traditional lifestyle centred around hunting and fishing because of the unfavourable agricultural conditions of their maritime home. This ocean-centric lifestyle did, however, make them among the first indigenous peoples to discover European explorers and sailors fishing in the St Lawrence Estuary. Postcards From Cape Breton Island, documentary John Cabot reportedly visited the island in The local Mi'kmaq peoples began trading with European fishermen when the fishermen began landing in their territories as early as the s. As many as two hundred settlers lived in a village, the name of which is not known, located according to some historians at what is now Ingonish on the island's northeastern peninsula. These fishermen traded with the local population but did not maintain a permanent settlement. This Portuguese colony's fate is unknown, but it is mentioned as late as These claims, and larger European ideals of native conquest were the first time the island was incorporated as European territory, though it would be several decades later that treaties would actually be signed no copies of these treaties exist. Peter's These settlements lasted only one generation, until Nicolas Denys left in The island did not have any European settlers for another fifty years before those communities along with Louisbourg were re-established inafter which point European settlement was permanently established on the island. As the harbour at Sainte Anne experienced icing problems, it was decided to build a much larger fortification at Louisbourg to improve defences at the entrance to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and to defend France's fishing fleet on the Grand Banks. Louisbourg itself was one of the most important commercial and military centres in New France. Louisbourg was captured by New Englanders with British naval assistance in and by British forces in Some of the first British-sanctioned settlers on the island following the Seven Years' War were Irish, although upon settlement they merged with local French communities to form a culture rich in music and tradition. From tothe island was administratively part of the colony of Nova Scotia and was governed from Halifax. He spent his first winter using his upside-down boat for shelter, which is reflected in the architecture of the village's Community Centre. During the American Revolutionon 1 NovemberJohn Paul Jones - the father of the American Navy - set sail in command of Alfred to free hundreds of American prisoners working in the area's coal mines. Although winter conditions prevented the freeing of the prisoners, the mission did result in the capture of Mellisha vessel carrying a vital supply of winter clothing intended for John Burgoyne 's troops in Canada. The British began developing the mining site at Sydney Mines in While there, Hierlihy reported that he "beat off many piratical attacks, killed some and took other prisoners. Six French sailors were killed and 17 British, with many more wounded. He succeeded Macarmick as head of the colony and served from to From tothe military commandant was John Despar brother of Edward. An order forbidding the granting of land in Cape Breton, issued inwas removed in The mineral rights to the island were given over to the Duke of York by an order-in-council. The British government had intended that the Crown take over the operation of the mines when Cape Breton was made a colony, but this was never done, probably because of the rehabilitation cost of the mines. The mines were in a neglected state, caused by careless operations dating back at least to the time of the final fall of Louisbourg in Large-scale shipbuilding began in the s, beginning with schooners for local trade moving in the s to larger brigs and brigantinesmostly built for British shipowners. Shipbuilding peaked in the s, marked in by the full-rigged ship Lord Clarendonthe largest wooden ship ever built in Cape Breton. Cape breton dating This development is one of the factors which led to large-scale industrial development in the Sydney Coal Field of eastern Cape Breton County. By the late 19th century, as a result of the faster shipping, expanding fishery and industrialization of the island, exchanges of people between the island of Newfoundland and Cape Breton increased, beginning a cultural exchange that continues to this day. The s were some of the most violent times in Cape Breton. They were marked by several severe labour disputes. The famous murder of William Davis by strike breakers, and the seizing of the New Waterford power plant by striking miners led to a major union sentiment that persists to this day in some circles. The Cape Breton Post was founded in and is based in Sydney. It has the largest readership of any publication based in Cape Breton. Cape Breton is full of single men and women like you looking for dates, lovers, friendship, and fun. Finding them is easy with our totally FREE Cape Breton dating service. Sign up today to browse the FREE personal ads of available Nova Scotia singles, and hook up online using our completely free Cape Breton online dating service! Online Dating in CAPE BRETON for Free Meet thousands of local CAPE BRETON singles, as the worlds largest dating site we make dating in CAPE BRETON easy! Plentyoffish is Free, unlike paid dating sites. You will get more interest and responses here than all paid dating . William Davis Miners' Memorial Day is celebrated in coal mining towns to commemorate the deaths of miners at the hands of the coal companies. The turn of the 20th century saw Cape Breton Island at the forefront of scientific achievement with the now-famous activities launched by inventors Alexander Graham Bell and Guglielmo Marconi. Following his successful invention of the telephone and being relatively wealthy, Bell acquired land near Baddeck inlargely due to surroundings reminiscent of his early years in Scotland. He established a summer estate complete with research laboratories, working with deaf people-including Helen Keller -and continued to invent. Baddeck would be the site of his experiments with hydrofoil technologies as well as the Aerial Experiment Associationfinanced by his wife, which saw the first powered flight in Canada when the AEA Silver Dart took off from the ice-covered waters of Bras d'Or Lake. Consider, that cape breton dating consider Bell also built the forerunner to the iron lung and experimented with breeding sheep. Marconi's contributions to Cape Breton Island were also quite significant, as he used the island's geography to his advantage in transmitting the first North American trans-Atlantic radio message from a station constructed at Table Head in Glace Bay to a receiving station at Poldhu in Cornwall, England. Marconi's pioneering work in Cape Breton marked the beginning of modern radio technology. Promotions for tourism beginning in the s recognized the importance of the Scottish culture to the province, and the provincial government started encouraging the use of Gaelic once again. The establishment of funding for the Gaelic College of Celtic Arts and Crafts and formal Gaelic language courses in public schools are intended to address the near-loss of this culture to English assimilation. In the s, the Fortress of Louisbourg was partially reconstructed by Parks Canada. Gaelic speakers in Cape Breton, as elsewhere in Nova Scotia, furnished a large proportion of the local population from the 18th century on. Congratulate, cape breton dating thanks for the They brought with them a common culture of poetry, traditional songs and tales, music and dance, and used this to develop distinctive local traditions. Such emigration was facilitated by changes in Gaelic society and the economy, with sharp increases in rents, confiscation of land and disruption of local customs and rights. In Nova Scotia, poetry and song in Gaelic flourished. George Emmerson argues that an "ancient and rich" tradition of storytelling, song, and Gaelic poetry emerged during the 18th century and was transplanted from the Highlands of Scotland to Nova Scotia, where the language similarly took root there. It was reinforced in Cape Breton in the first half of the 19th century with an influx of Highland Scots numbering approximately 50, as a result of the Highland Clearances. Gaelic speakers, however, tended to be poor; they were largely illiterate and had little access to education. This situation still obtained in the early twentieth century. In Gaelic was approved as an optional subject in the curriculum of Nova Scotia, but few teachers could be found and children were discouraged from using the language in schools. By the number of Gaelic speakers in Nova Scotia had fallen to approximately 25, mostly in discrete pockets. In Cape Breton it was still a majority language, but the proportion was falling. Children were no longer being raised with Gaelic. From on, attempts were made to strengthen its position in the public school system in Nova Scotia, but funding, official commitment and the availability of teachers continued to be a problem. By the s the number of speakers was less than 7, The advent of multiculturalism in Canada in the s meant that new educational opportunities became available, with a gradual strengthening of the language at secondary and tertiary level. The Canadian Census shows that there are only 40 reported speakers of Gaelic as a mother tongue in Cape Breton. They include fluent speakers from Gaelic-speaking areas of Scotland and speakers who became fluent in Nova Scotia and who in some cases studied in Scotland. Other revitalization activities include adult education, community cultural events and publishing. Cape Breton Island is composed mainly of rocky shores, rolling farmland, glacial valleys, barren headlands, mountains, woods and plateaus. Geological evidence suggests at least part of the island was joined with present-day Scotland and Norway, now separated by millions of years of plate tectonics. Cape Breton Island's northern portion is dominated by the Cape Breton Highlandscommonly shortened to simply the "Highlands", which are an extension of the Appalachian mountain chain. The Highlands comprise the northern portions of Inverness and Victoria counties. The Cabot Trail scenic highway also encircles the plateau's coastal perimeter. Cape Breton Island's hydrological features include the Bras d'Or Lake system, a salt-water fjord at the heart of the island, and freshwater features including Lake Ainsliethe Margaree River system, and the Mira River. Innumerable smaller rivers and streams drain into the Bras d'Or Lake estuary and on to the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Atlantic coasts. Cape Breton Island is joined to the mainland by the Canso Causewaywhich was completed inenabling direct road and rail traffic to and from the island, but requiring marine traffic to pass through the Canso Canal at the eastern end of the causeway. The climate is one of mild, often pleasantly warm summers and cold winters, although the proximity to the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf Stream moderates the extreme winter cold found on the mainland, especially on the east side that faces the Atlantic. Precipitation is abundant year round, with annual totals up to 60 inches on the eastern side facing the Atlantic storms. Considerable snowfall occurs in winter, especially in the highlands. The island's residents can be grouped into five main cultures: ScottishMi'kmaqAcadianIrish, English, with respective languages Scottish GaelicMi'kmaqFrenchand English. English is now the primary language, including a locally distinctive Cape Breton accentwhile Mi'kmaq, Scottish Gaelic and Acadian French are still spoken in some communities. Later migrations of Black LoyalistsItalians, and Eastern Europeans mostly settled in the island's eastern part around the industrial Cape Breton region. Cape Breton Island's population has been in decline two decades with an increasing exodus in recent years due to economic conditions. Statistics Canada in reported a "religion" total offor Cape Breton, including 5, with "no religious affiliation. Sydney has traditionally been the main port, with facilities in a large, sheltered, natural harbour. The Marine Atlantic terminal at North Sydney is the terminal for large ferries traveling to Channel-Port aux Basques and seasonally to Argentiaboth on the island of Newfoundland. Petroleum, bulk coal, and cruise ship facilities are also in Sydney Harbour. Glace Baythe second largest urban community in population, was the island's main coal mining centre until its last mine closed in the s. Cape Breton Personals is part of the dating network, which includes many other general dating sites. As a member of Cape Breton Personals, your profile will automatically be shown on related general dating sites or to related users in the network at no additional charge. CAPE BRETON Local Singles interested in Online Dating On mcauctionservicellc.com you message thousands of other local singles. Online dating via plentyoffish doesn't cost you a dime. Paid dating sites can end up costing you hundreds of dollars a year without a single date. More than 50 women in the Cape Breton Regional Municipality are asking themselves one question: Where are all the single men? Kim MacDonald, owner of the Queen of All Hearts Dating Services, had. At one time, Glace Bay was known as the largest town in Nova Scotia, based on population. Port Hawkesbury has risen to prominence since the completion of the Canso Causeway and Canso Canal created an artificial deep-water port, allowing extensive petrochemical, pulp and paper, and gypsum handling facilities to be established. The Strait of Canso is completely navigable to Seawaymax vessels, and Port Hawkesbury is open to the deepest-draught vessels on the world's oceans. Peters Canal. While commercial shipping no longer uses the St. Congratulate, cape breton dating consider, that you Peters Canal, it remains an important waterway for recreational vessels. In recent years, the Island's residents have tried to diversify the area economy by investing in tourism developments, call centresand small businesses, as well as manufacturing ventures in fields such as auto parts, pharmaceuticals, and window glazings. While the Cape Breton Regional Municipality is in transition from an industrial to a service-based economy, the rest of Cape Breton Island outside the industrial area surrounding Sydney-Glace Bay has been more stable, with a mixture of fishing, forestry, small-scale agriculture, and tourism. Tourism in particular has grown throughout the post-Second World War era, especially the growth in vehicle-based touring, which was furthered by the creation of the Cabot Trail scenic drive. The scenery of the island is rivalled in northeastern North America by only Newfoundland ; [ citation needed ] and Cape Breton Island tourism marketing places a heavy emphasis on its Scottish Gaelic heritage through events such as the Celtic Colours Festival, held each October, as well as promotions through the Gaelic College of Celtic Arts and Crafts. Whale-watching is a popular attraction for tourists. Whale-watching cruises are operated by vendors from Baddeck to Cheticamp. The most popular species of whale found in Cape Breton's waters is the Pilot whale. The island's primary east-west road is Highwaythe Trans-Canada Highwayalthough Trunk 4 is also heavily used. The Cabot Trailcircling the Cape Breton Highlands, and Trunk 19along the island's western coast, are important secondary roads. The Cabot Trail is a scenic road circuit around and over the Cape Breton Highlands with spectacular coastal vistas; overvisitors drive the Cabot Trail each summer and fall. Coupled with the Fortress of Louisbourgit has driven the growth of the tourism industry on the island in recent decades. Cape Breton is well known for its traditional fiddle music, which was brought to North America by Scottish immigrants during the Highland Clearances. Inverness County in particular has a heavy concentration of musical activity, with regular performances in communities such as Mabou and Judique. The Margaree's of Cape Breton also serve as a large contributor of fiddle music celebrated throughout the island. This traditional fiddle music of Cape Breton is studied by musicians around the world, where its global recognition continues to rise. The Men of the Deeps are a male choral group of current and former miners from the industrial Cape Breton area. People from Cape Breton have also achieved a number of firsts in Canadian politics and governance. He accurately predicted a magnitude 7 earthquake in New Zealand in November Director Ashley McKenzie 's film Werewolf is set on the island and features local actors; McKenzie grew up on the island. Bruce Guthro ; Lead singer and guitarist of the former Scottish Celtic band Runrigwhich disbanded in after 46 years. Guthro resides in Hammonds Plains, Nova Scotia. Dylan Guthro ; musician. Son of Bruce Guthro. Cabot's Landing, Victoria County, commemorating the "first land seen" by explorer John Cabot in Cape Breton Highlands National Park. Smelt Brook on the northern shore. There are plenty of people eager to make new connections on Plenty of Fish. Online Dating in CAPE BRETON for Free The only Free Online Dating site for dating, love, relationships and friendship. Register HERE and chat with other CAPE BRETON . A lot of people live in Cape Breton, and a lot of those are in unhappy marriages, longing to meet somebody new to break the boredom and have an illicit affair with. Start meeting new people in CAPE BRETON with POF! Start browsing and messaging more singles by registering to POF, the largest dating site in the world. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For other uses, see Cape Breton disambiguation. Island in Nova Scotia. This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. January Learn how and when to remove this template message. Can cape breton dating congratulate, your idea Want to see more of our members in Cape Breton? Vew Horny Womenor Horny Men. It's all to do with preference, but it helps to find sex near you and in your own age group, then go from there. Our members are either married or looking for married palymates in the Cape Breton area. 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Throughout history, societal taboos or events have often placed restrictions on the public expression or professional activities of certain groups, requiring writers to use a name other than their own. However, for James Redpath and many others in the 19th century, the different identity was a necessity. This veil of secrecy had been a ploy to safeguard their lives or to establish credibility for themselves while affording them the opportunity to speak out during blacks' struggles for freedom and equal rights. This study examines the role of Redpath, who not only wrote as a white abolitionist, but also assumed the persona of a black male in order to address a black audience and offer a voice during the antislavery movement. To Liberator and National Anti-Slavery Standard readers he would be John Ball Jr., a young, free-born black man from Iowa. To readers of the Boston Daily Traveller, the New York Tribune, and numerous other mainstream newspapers, he was “Jacobius,” “James Redpath,” or several other pen names. Redpath established his goal as one to "aid the slaves," no matter what. He declared that if he found the slaves to be contented with their condition, he would spend his time in the South “disseminating discontentment.” But if the slaves were “ripe for a rebellion,” he resolved to prepare the way for it. He would become one of the first journalists to practice the brand of participatory journalism so prevalent 100 years later. His plan: to make several forays into slaveholding states to talk to the slaves himself; and to provide an eyewitness perspective on their condition. However, the correspondence he would send to the abolitionist and mainstream newspapers would be representative of white, as well as black, perspectives. When the Associated Press severed its telegraph lines to the South six days after the surrender of Fort Sumter, the newspapers of the Confederacy were left without any cooperative arrangement for news gathering and distribution. Southern editors immediately recognized that a new system had to be devised if journals were going to provide readers with timely news of the Civil War. After several failed attempts, editors established the Confederate Press Association in March 1863. The PA, as it often was known, was beset with problems, including an uncooperative Richmond press and the loss of key newspapers over the course of the war. Still, thanks to an aggressive superintendent and a core group of dedicated members, the Association managed to serve the basic needs of the South's readers for news of the Civil War. The persistence of Southern editors in finding a mutual arrangement for sending and receiving telegraphic news from the war was a clear signal that the journalism practiced in the region was changing from the old partisan practices that had dominated newspapers for so long. News was beginning to replace opinion as the main emphasis of the South's newspapers, just as it had decades earlier in the North. Moreover, the organization and practices that guided the work of the Confederate Press Association for two years foretold the shape of cooperative news reporting after the Civil War. In the post-Civil War South, freedmen who could read cringed when newspapers described them as inferior and editorialized about whites’ God-given duty to hold blacks down, even by the most violent means. Bitter whites commonly wrote about the need to kill blacks to keep them in their place. At the same time, the Ku Klux Klan and other terrorist groups began functioning as military arms of the Democratic Party. This paper looks at the role Democratic editors played in inflaming this terrorism. Racist whites feared “herrenvolk democracy” – black suffrage, equality, farm ownership, insolence, armed blacks, and mostly the perceived threat black men posed to white women. The Klan and their editor allies also attacked “scalawags” – white Southern Republicans – and “carpetbaggers” – white Northerners come south to befriend freedmen. Many supported Klan terrorism and even the murder of blacks. Assaults were commonplace. Newspaper-sanctioned riots in Memphis and New Orleans ended with scores of blacks murdered. Editorials also supported economic sanctions against voting blacks and their white allies. A few newspapers adopted new names, aligning themselves officially with the KKK, and some used their pages to issue violent threats. Early historians supported the Klan, blaming Reconstruction violence on the Union Leagues, organizations seeking black suffrage. In the 1930s scholars began taking a more realistic look at violence. Officially the war had ended, but in fact it continued. Newspaper responsibility for the crimes is clear. Had Democratic editors acted more responsibly, hundreds of lynchings might not have occurred, the South would not have remained an economic, political, and social backwater for another century, and black progress would have come much sooner. Rarely in American history has the power of the pen been greater; never did it have more tragic consequences. This paper, about censorship in one city during the Civil War, is part of a larger study that asks how the First Amendment right of freedom of press and speech has been treated in relation to "hated" ideas at given times in history. What have journalists defined and sought as press and speech freedom rights? What limits have they said were appropriate? Have those changed over time? With special interest in what free expression principles might have been articulated, especially for "hated" ideas, in any such discussion among journalists surrounding the most suppressed newspapers during the Civil War, coverage in eleven newspapers of three censorship episodes in Baltimore, MD--September of 1861 and February and June-July of 1862--were examined as a case study. It was expected that, because Northern journalists would support the Union government and Southern journalists would support the Confederacy—as functionalist theory suggests--press rights of the opposition would likely be subordinated, ignored,or denied. Findings show that, while a few journalists from both sections referred to a press freedom that seemed broad and robust, press freedom was hardly treated as universal or broadly applicable. The six Southern newspapers reflected the strongest disapproval of censorship—almost always about Northern suppression--and, while the Northern journalists gave less attention to censorship issues, journalists of both sections showed little tolerance for ideas they "hated." This paper looks at press coverage in the U.S. and in England of the controversial trial and punishment of Florence Maybrick, with a view to discovering whether unease about the ongoing renegotiation of women's rights in marriage at the end of the nineteenth century hardened male attitudes against her. The tremendous news value of the Battle of the Little Bighorn and the magical allure of the name Custer make the topic an excellent vehicle for studying the state of the American press in the mid-1870s. This paper attempts to add to the existing body of knowledge of this era by examining a source that has hardly been studied in depth in the voluminous scholarly and popular writing on Custer and the Little Bighorn: Kansas newspapers. Previous research has suggested the American press was moving toward political independence during the 1870s. This study concluded Kansas newspapers split along party lines in their coverage of the battle. Most Kansas newspapers were Republican and tended to attribute Custer’s defeat to his own rashness. Democratic Kansas newspapers tended to blame the Grant administration for stationing troops on Reconstruction duty in the South instead of on the Frontier. The study also compared coverage in the Kansas press to that in the Texas press and found that Kansas newspapers, while partisan, were generally less vehement than their Texas colleagues in their written attacks on both their political opponents and Native Americans. A number of Kansas editorials expressed sympathy for the treatment of Native Americans at the hands of the government and argued that the battle could have been avoided if not for the greed of white miners. As a portion of a larger study about media coverage of U.S. First Ladies, the purpose of this paper is to discuss how the amount of press coverage of First Ladies has changed across history. The focus of the research was to compare the 19th Century and 20th Century coverage amounts to locate any commonalties between and amongst these time periods. While the research indicated there was more newspaper coverage of each of the First Ladies in the 20th Century, a few in the 19th Century received substantial amounts for the times as well. Counts were taken from the New York Times Index to obtain the coverage amounts each president‚s wife had received from 1853 (Jane Pierce) through 1997 (Hillary Rodham Clinton). The primary research question posed for this study was: How much newspaper coverage did each president‚s wife receive? From there 19th-century coverage amounts were compared to those of the 20th Century to discern coverage amount norms for each of these time periods and identify which First Ladies deviated from these norms. The main hypotheses investigated in this paper are -- a) The amount of coverage that First Ladies receive will increase across the history of the position. b) Of the coverage given a First Lady, most will occur during the years that she is in the White House functioning as the wife of the president while he is president. c) There is a correlation between the number of years that a woman holds the position of First Lady and the amount of press coverage she receives. In general, the amount of coverage of First Ladies increased across history, and most of the women received the most coverage when they were in the White House. Most cases show a correlation between the number of years a woman held the position of First Lady and the amount of press coverage she received, but there were exceptions. It is generally accepted that toward the end of the 19th century many newspapers became increasingly sensationalistic to attract readers in a fiercely competitive market. However, this is not the whole story. This study analyzes the attitudes and worldviews of 19th century newsmen toward death. It argues that early in the century some journalists interpreted fatal events in a theological and philosophical context that allowed them to make moral assessments about the deceased and their conduct and to draw from the events lessons about right and wrong. These newsmen did not shy away from gory detail; on the contrary, such details only strengthened the message. This tendency was still apparent in a few of the large independent dailies that arose in the middle of the century, but by 1900 many journalists had largely abandoned the theological framework of their predecessors. Without a context that provided meaning to death, the bloody red “particulars” turned yellow on the page. When the Civil War began, South Carolinian William Gilmore Simms (1806-1870) lost access to his New York publisher. However, he revised two old manuscripts, placing them in 1863 in Richmond weeklies--the Southern Illustrated News and the Magnolia Weekly. Both were up-dated by allusion to military, historical or social events of 1863. Simms understood the effective use of serialization and was able to maintain his audience's loyalty by using allusions to war events and descriptions of the superior Southern culture. Benedict Arnold is important for revisiting Simms's theories of dramatic license and the relationship between history and art. More interested in dramatic effect than in wrenching the history to the polemics of the day, still Simms pointed out that Southerners have lost "faith in Northern Historians. . . . their Arnolds, and their Putnams were traitors . . . . Their historians are of a piece with their generals." Paddy McGann is significant for its social commentary on North and South and its well developed Southwestern humor format. Its theme of Southern Nationhood has three segments: man's inability to fathom God's will; comparison of North and South; and the assumptions of Southern home life. Paddy McGann "chronicles the disintegration of the idealized Southern social order," according to critic Dye. Besides dashing his region's hope for independence, Simms's personal catastrophes during the war were so frequent and so grave that he believed that Fate was chastising him, but he held fast to his faith that God and endurance in public work would make him stronger. Simms's only new war-time publications were overlooked for more than a century--and one remains unpublished except for its ephemeral periodical appearance. As South Carolina struggled to overcome the destruction caused during and after the Civil War and to regain law and order, Francis W. Dawson traded his Confederate sword for a pen at the News and Courier in Charleston, S.C., where he began a new battle against the state’s most debilitating sins: whiskey, gambling, dueling, lynching and hip-pocket justice. Dawson, who once wrote that he “could wait a century patiently to have one more blow at them (Yankees) before I die,” did not move seamlessly into his new role as the state’s champion of law and order. Described as a man who still “had the smell of battle about him,” Dawson served as a “best friend” for Henry Rivers Pollard, editor and publisher of The (Richmond, Va.) Examiner, in various duels and fistfights and had challenged others to duels before moving to Charleston, S.C., in 1866. This paper is a study of the practice of dueling in South Carolina, particularly as it affected editors in the 19th Century, and Dawson’s anti-dueling editorial campaign which culminated with the passage by the General Assembly of a tough anti-dueling law in 1880. As a result, murder charges were brought against a duelist for only the second time in South Carolina’s history. Even though the duelist was found not guilty, Dawson’s efforts moved Pope Leo XIII to confer knighthood on the Charleston editor for his anti-dueling campaign. Dawson is believed to be the only newspaper editor ever so honored. The honor was ironic considering the tragic and bizarre circumstances in 1889 that led to the murder of the unarmed Dawson by a doctor, who was found not guilty by reason of self-defense. This is a discussion of the ultimate and ironic final effect of Dawson’s editorials when the mob who gathered to lynch his killer voluntarily disbanded after they were reminded of Dawson’s anti-lynching editorials. This paper is a case study of the reporting of the 1831-32 cholera pandemic by four Virginia newspapers. The pandemic was a major event of these years in which this disease, almost unknown in Europe and the United States before that time, killed about 100,000 people in the two continents, at times killing 5 to 10 percent of the population of large cities in a few weeks. This study examines the breadth, quality, timeliness and sources of the cholera coverage, as an example of the communications network that informed people about the world outside their local communities. The case study details how these newspapers used the newspaper exchange, letters from correspondents, direct reports from health offices around the country, advise from physicians, and the editors’ own reporting to inform their readers of the approaching catastrophe, and to provide public services to help their communities and individuals prepare for the disease. These “modern” newspaper functions occurred after the expansion of the Post Office in carrying newspapers but before the communications revolutions of railroads and the telegraph. These newspapers were what I have termed the “pre-penny press,” i.e. relatively expensive, small, semi-weekly newspapers that had changed little in style and format since the early National period. The four sample newspapers are the Richmond Enquirer, the Norfolk American Beacon (the Beacon), the Lynchburg Virginian and the Fredericksburg Virginia Herald (the Herald). The Enquirer and its editor, Thomas Ritchie, were well known nationally, and the paper was considered an example of the political party press (representing Jackson’s Democracy). The Beacon was a commercial paper in the only port of the state—Norfolk—and it explicitly eschewed partisan coverage. The Virginian was also a political paper (representing Whigs) whose editor, Richard Toler, was an important Whig booster and later politician, in the relatively new, small, and expanding town of Lynchburg. The Herald was the oldest paper of the group in a town that was long settled and losing population. These four towns represent a cross-section of the settled parts of mid-Atlantic states in terms of size, economy, political status, and growth, and their newspapers’ approach to covering the pandemic was similar to other newspapers outside the four major Eastern cities. This research proposed that editors of the south prior to and during the Civil War were more than mere fire eaters, partisans and defenders of state’s rights. In researching a community of small papers in southern Virginia, this paper uncovered a side to southern editors mostly overlooked in traditional journalism history. Editors in Danville, Virginia were concerned about the relocation of Union prisoners to their town, the effect of prisons on their town and its citizens, and the fate of 6,000 Yankees who suffered through horrid conditions, hundreds of whom perished and were buried in what is now a national cemetery. Further, Danville editors were interested in public policy regarding the prisoners and encouraged negotiations between the governments for prisoner exchange. The Civil War profoundly changed American newspapers. On the one hand, shortages of both supplies and workers, with the related increase in costs, forced many newspapers to shrink editions or close up entirely. On the other hand, the war created an unprecedented demand for news and those owners who found a way to continue publishing often realized great financial rewards. But which newspapers benefited the most and what was the key to their success? This paper looks particularly at New York City, the center of America's newspaper industry, and argues that the largest dailies, because of the financial structures they developed in the years leading up to the war, were able to dominate the industry like never before. Significantly, their access to capital during this key period helped make dailies, rather than weekly or monthly papers, the main source for news. In the Pulitzer Prize winning novel of historical fiction, The Killer Angels (1974), Michael Shaara provides a stirring blend of fact and fiction in which the events and key figures at the Battle of Gettysburg are stunningly brought to life. With the license of the novelist, Shaara the historian views the events through the eyes of the characters and allows the reader to see into the hearts and minds of these real human beings whose actions are recorded in history. I will include many passages from the work to illustrate the powerful portrayals of these characters. While I have attempted to edit and consolidate for brevity, admittedly many are rather lengthy based on my desire that you appreciate the literary skill inherent in these portrayals. Wealthy South Carolinian Mary Boykin Chesnut provides an opportunity to examine from a practical standpoint theoretical assertions made by several historians recently regarding the reasons Southern women, particularly those of the planter class, turned to novels and other reading materials during the Civil War. In this case study, it appears that the model reader suggested by Cathy N. Davidson -- young, unmarried, middle or lower class, from New England -- does not fit Chesnut. However, models Elizabeth Fox-Genovese and Drew Gilpin Faust do accurately describe Mary Boykin Chesnut and her reading habits. Fox-Genovese and Faust suggest that women turned to novels to help them understand their societies, their places within their societies and to help them prepare to cope with coming challenges. Shortly after the Civil War, journalists began revisiting sites of battle and reporting on conditions. These reports comprise a curious, hard-to-classify literary genre of war remembrance and reportage. This research compares three contemporary personal narratives about the Civil War: Emory Thomas, Travels to Hallowed Ground (1987) Jerry Ellis, Marching Through Georgia: My Walk with Sherman (1995) Tony Horwitz, Confederates in the Attic: Dispatches from the Unfinished Civil War (1998) Encountering history is a central objective in each work. The writers tell their stories within the narrative structure of journeys. Their journeys are undertaken quickly, leading to impressionistic drive-by history. Although each book is journalistic in nature, the writers bring different perspectives to their projects. Horwitz, a journalist, has won a Pulitzer Prize for national reporting. Thomas is a distinguished historian, and Ellis is a travel writer and adventurer. The books become journeys of self discovery as well as reports about the modern South. Wherever the Civil War has left “ghost marks on the landscape,” the war still has a significant impact on culture, ethnicity, politics, regionalism, education, and tourism. History, in these reports, is something more than a journalistic gloss on contemporary affairs; history matters. The writers struggle to explain the complex mythology of Southern identity. School of Journalism Coverage of lynchings became a "staple of journalism" in the 1890s. Newspapers regularly ran stories of mobs who executed those allegedly guilty crimes, mostly African American men. Ida B. Wells of the Free Speech, a black newspaper in Memphis, investigated mainstream newspaper coverage of lynchings. Through her inquiries, she found that newspaper accounts often conveyed inaccurate or misleading information. Following her investigation, she launched an anti-lynching campaign and determined to influence U.S. press coverage of lynching. According to Wells, the lack of debate and condemnation of lynching by white newspapers only supported and encouraged the practice of lynching. She intended to undermine society's justification of lynching by seeking to alter how the press covered lynching. Though Wells readily reached readers of black newspapers about the horrors of lynching, she initially was barred from conveying this message to the audience of mainstream newspapers. After accepting invitations to lecture in England, she ultimately sparked coverage in white newspapers in the United States of the debate about lynching. While much of that coverage of her antilynching efforts tended to be negative, nonetheless Wells managed to attain a forum in general circulation newspapers. This study examined lynching articles in selected mainstream newspapers during the initial years of Ida B. Wells's anti-lynching campaign from March 1892 through 1894, after she had returned to the United States from her second lecture tour in England. Analysis of reported lynching incidents and antilynching efforts in the selected mainstream newspapers revealed a subtle shift in press coverage and public attitudes about mob violence. Coverage expanded beyond merely reporting lynching incidents to including articles that covered controversy fueled by Wells's antilynching efforts. From the election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860 to the meeting of the Secession Convention in January 1861, Mississippians participated in a debate over the wisdom of secession. South Carolina left the Union on December 20, 1860, so the sense of urgency in Mississippi became even more strongly felt. As the only mass medium of the day, newspapers carried the burden of arguing the merits of secession for readers throughou t the state. At least three of the thirty newspapers being published at the time took strong anti-secession positions. Their writings help historians understand the depth of anti-secession sentiments, whether they were strictly pro-Union or were advocates of delaying secession until all Southern states seceded en masse. The anti-secessionist newspaper writings also demonstrate a strong degree of courage since they were far outnumbered by pro-secession organs and were frequently attacked for their views. Though the secessionists prevailed and Mississippi left the Union, the anti-secessionist newspapers proved to be prescient in their forecasts of doom. They had predicted civil war, and war came. They had predicted economic hardships for Mississippians, and the hardships came. They sensed that the secession decision was a defining moment for the state, and indeed it was. The Rev. Dr. Charles M. Sheldon, a Congregationalist minister, wrote In His Steps, a best-selling novel in 1887, and gained international recognition. This novel depicted ordinary people who were inspired to change radically by asking themselves, "What would Jesus do." In the novel, a newspaper editor applied that question to his business and altered his advertising and editorial policies to conform to standards he believed Jesus would practice. In 1900 Sheldon was invited to become that fictional newspaper editor and edit a daily newspaper from March 13 to March 17, 1900. This research examines the way Sheldon's approach to journalism formed a web of meaning for his audience that reflected his worldview. For six issues, Sheldon spread his vision of good, evil, and the path to restore the world to a heaven on earth. His six signed editorials are used to explore Sheldon's vision of the world during a time in America when the social gospel was popularized in melodramatic novels such as In His Steps. While Sheldon's work is often seen as amateurish, his newspaper pioneered some conventions that are commonly used by the modern American press.

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Picture books are a popular book format for youth. They generally combine visual and language elements. In some cases, they depend entirely on pictures to tell the story. Crossing genres, they may include prose or poetry. Wartenberg (2013, 2) notes that "writers of great picture books are well attuned to the features of the world that baffle young children. Since many of these bewildering puzzles also befuddle philosophers, picture books frequently focus on philosophical issues... Many of the essential problems of philosophy are made tangible by picture books." The Charlotte Zolotow Award recognizes the best picture book of the year. Past winners include: - The Dark (2013) by Lemony Snicket - Each Kindess (2012) by Jacqueline Woodson - Me... Jane (2011) by Patrick McDonnell - Big Red Lollipop (2010) by Rukhsana Khan The image below right is from The Dark by Lemony Snicket. Click the image to read the page. Go to the Picture Book Database. Browse their collection. Some of the earliest, illustrated books for children were alphabet books. In most cases, each page presents a letter along with a word and photo illustrating use of the letter. These books were designed to teach the letters of the alphabet. However, they’re actually not the best way to teach the alphabet. Many alphabet books are simply used as a way to organize information about the world in a visual way. For instance, Gone Wild: An Endangered Animal Alphabet (2006) (shown below) by David McLimans presents a different endangered animal for each letter of the alphabet. Alphabet City (1995) by Stephen Johnson created paintings that feature letters of the alphabet formed by objects in the urban areas. When selecting an alphabet book, think about the intended audience and their vocabulary. For instance, Alphabet Rescue (2006) by Audrey Wood is useful to introducing lowercase letters of the alphabet. Farm Alphabet Book (1981) by Jane Miller uses the alphabet book format to introduce children to all aspects of farm life. Keep in mind that not all alphabet books are warm and fuzzy. The Z Was Zapped: A Play in Twenty-Six Acts (1987) by Chris Van Allsburg shows letters of the alphabet caught in bad situations. For instance, the "B was badly bitten" and the "C was cut to ribbons". Older children enjoy guessing what heinous act will befall each letter. However the book may be disturbing to younger children. The book has even been challenged in some primary schools. Sleeping Bear Press is known for their alphabet books on a range of topics including states, parks, landforms, animals, and other topics. Titles include A is for Arches, B is for Blue Crab, and C is for Cowboy. Jerry Pallotta is known for his alphabet books on a wide range of topics that appeal to youth including airplanes, boats, and deserts. Some alphabet books focus on science topics such as the The Butterfly Alphabet (1996) by Kjell Sandved. The photographer spent several decades collecting the images of these magnificent creatures. The author’s website even contains an online set of images and descriptions called Nature’s Own Alphabet. Not all alphabet books take a traditional letter with matching object approach. For instance, Chicka Chicka Boom Boom (1989) by Bill Martin Jr. uses rhyme to introduce multiple letters at a time. Z is for Moose (2012) by Kelly Bingham takes mixed up approach to an alphabet book that children will find hilarious. Watch the trailer for Z is for Moose by Kelly Bingham. Notice that this is not your usual alphabet book! Many alphabet books are published as board books. Think about the users of the books and whether a board book will be appropriate. If the library has a large preschool following, a board book makes sense. When reading alphabet books with children, talk about the format of the book in additional to the letters. Consider the following ideas: - How is this book organized? Do you see a pattern? - What’s the same and different on each page? - What do you notice about the words? What do you notice about the illustrations? - What pages do you like and dislike? Why? Want to have some fun? Think about an alphabet book theme. Then, create your own alphabet book using the Alphabet Organizer. Like alphabet books, counting books were some of the earliest books designed specifically for children. While some of these books simply provide the numeral along with the matching number of objects, others introduce basic additional and subtraction too. For instance, the tactile element of punched out eyes makes counting fun and easy with Fish Eyes: A Book You Can Count On by Lois Ehlert. Tunnell (2012) notes that Anno’s Counting Book (1977) by Mitsumasa Anno is an outstanding example and one of the few that doesn’t ignore the number 0. For very young children, the topic of shapes, colors, opposites, transportation, and animals are popular. As children grow older, their informational interests change. Concept books introduce children to a single idea such as weather or seasons. Rather than covering many topics, concept books take a focused approach. Concept books are particularly popular with children, parents, and teachers. For some examples of seasonal books, go to Allen County Public Library’s Seasonal Books page. Many authors specialize in writing concept books for children. For instance, Gail Gibbons is known for her short, easy-to-read concept books on topics such as ladybugs, apples, and emergency. Many of her books focus on cycles or processes such as From Seed to Plant (1993). Informational Picture Books Picture books are a wonderful way to introduce young people to a wide range of topics. Books about friendship, school, and social issues are common themes. However, these books are also a wonderful way to introduce science and history topics. The Locomotive (2013) by Brian Floca explores the history of the train. Click the image below to read a page from this book. Parrots Over Puerto Rico (2013) by Susan L. Roth focuses on endangered parrots in Puerto Rico. Click the image below to read a page from this book. While concept books introduce topics to youth, informational picture books provide additional depth and detail. Although these two categories overlap, concept books are generally associated with younger readers and basic information. Some informational books picture book may be very detailed and focused toward older readers. For instance, How Much is a Million (1985) by David Schwartz helps children understand understand large numbers. A popular category of informational picture books is biographies. Diane Stanley is known for her beautiful picture book biographies including Michelangelo (1997), Saladin: Noble Prince of Islam (2002), and Mozart: The Wonder Child (2009). Read Lambert, Megan (July/August 2011). Dave the Potter and Stevie the Reader. Horn Book. Many series such as The Magic School Bus books (1985+ series) by Joanna Cole fall into this category. Authors like Seymour Simon, Nic Bishop, and Sy Mongomery are well-known for their informational books on science related topics. Picture storybooks for children emerged in the 19th century with authors such as Randolph Caldecott and Kate Greenaway. In the early 20th century, authors like Beatrix Potter extended the popularity of books designed specifically for c hildren with her books featuring Peter Rabbit and other animal characters. By the mid 20th century, authors like Dr. Seuss (The 500 Hats of Bartholomew Cubbins, 1938) and Robert McCloskey (Blueberries for Sal, 1948), and later Maurice Sendak (The Nutshell Library, 1962) became well-respected for their work for children. There are many ways to tell a story. While some stories are told as prose, others use elements of poetry. Read Yolen, Jane (January/February 2014). Owl Moon Redux. HornBook, 46-50. Angela M. Wiseman (2013, 11) notes that picture books can help youth deal with a wide range of experiences including death and grieving. "Children’s picturebooks can provide a way to address and support children as they experience trauma and begin to understand the emotions surrounding their grief." During the 1970s, Mercer Mayer became popular with this lovable monsters. These books dealt with the everyday problems that young children face including new siblings, friendship, and fear of the dark. Back in the early 1990s, Broderbund's Living Books produced the first computer-based interactive, multimedia, animated books. One of my favorites was Just Grandma and Me by Mercer Mayer. These books were distributed on CD-ROM. Students could read the story, listen to the story read aloud, or play with the story. Today, this doesn't seem like a big deal. However 20+ years ago this was a major jump in sophistication and marked a shift from text to graphical interfaces for children's computer-based materials. Many of these original interactive books have now been converted to the app format. Some of these books may seem like light bedtime reads, but others have much deeper meanings. The Lorax (1971) by Dr. Seuss is about preserving the environment and the cost of not taking a stand. In the Night Kitchen (1970) by Maurice Sendak may seem like a whimsical bakery dream, but on closer analysis readers can find elements of the Holocaust represented. Many of these books use imagery and metaphor to help young children deal with difficult subjects. Read Connolly, Paula T. (2013). ‘‘Texts Like a Patchwork Quilt’’: Reading Picturebooks About Slavery. Children’s Literature in Education, 44, 29–43. When parents first begin reading to their children at bedtime, picture storybooks are often their choice. Children enjoy the bonding that occurs when books are read aloud over and over again. These early literacy experiences are critical for developing a passion for reading. Kitten’s First Full Moon (2004) by Kevin Henkes is an example of a beautiful picture book focusing on two things young children find fascinating: kittens and the moon. From humorous books to serious historical topics, picture storybooks cover a wide range of topics. Seek out books that will appeal to the interests of children. Jon Scieszka is known for his Trucktown picture books like Smash! Crash! (2008) that are geared to the interests of active children, particularly boys. Look for humorous books that will attract reluctant readers such as the Super Fly Guy (2005+ series) by Tedd Arnold. Look for fun that connects with topics meaningful for youth. Shark vs Train (2010) by Chris Barton focuses on not one, but two favorite topics! Seek out stories that children can connect to their own lives. Blackout (2011) by John Rocco tells the story of a family dealing with a summer blackout in their city. Actively engaging children in individual book pages an effective way to help young children become accustomed to analyzing images and text. Children love to play I Spy through Scholastic’s well-known series including I Spy Animals (2012) by Jean Marzollo and I Spy Colors in Art (2007) by Lucy Micklethwaite. Tunnell (2012, 66) defines a participation book as those “designed to involve children in a physical activity that goes beyond the reading of the text, such as finding hidden objects in an illustration (Where’s Waldo The Great Picture Hunt by Martin Handford, 2006), manipulating the flaps and tabs of a pop-up book (The Wheels on the Bus by Paul Zelinsky, 1990), or chiming in with a refrain (“Hundreds of cats, Thousands of cats, Millions and billions and trillions of cats” from Millions of Cats by Wanda Gag, 1928).” Graeme Base is well-known for adding participatory elements to his books. Many of his books such as Animalia and Waterhole are now available as apps. Click on the image below right. Can you find all the P words? Five little monkeys jumping on the bed… can you finish this rhyme? If not, it’s time to do some predictable reading and before long you won’t be able to get it out of your head. Predictable books are loved by young readers. Their repetitive nature makes them easy to read and encourages young readers. They often contain repeated story elements, language patterns, and narrative sequences. The Napping House (1996) by Audrey and Don Wood includes repetitive passages and rhyming language. Young children enjoy the cadence of language as each creature is added to napping grandmother. Effective predictable books draw children into the story. Youth naturally repeat the refrains. Tunnell (2012) notes that these are sometimes called pattern books and can serve as a bridge to independent reading. Cumulative repetition, repeated patterns, and circular plotlines are popular in many predictable books. Cumulative stories repeat the story numerous times adding new elements with each retelling. Examples include A Fly Went By (page below left) (1958) by Mike McClintock and There Was an Old Lady Who Swallowed a Fly (page below right) (1997) by Simms Taback. Click the images below to read a page from these books. The best predictable books stick in your head. I remember reading A Fly Went By (1958) by Mike McClintock as a child. To this day, I can hear the cadence in my head. As a teacher librarian, I enjoyed reading predictable books to children because they so easily engaged a young audience. Even the squirmiest child could sit still long enough to help recite the repetitive story. These stories also work well for storytelling activities because they are easy to remember. I had a "librarian apron" with many pockets where I could store lots of props for invented stories. I would show and hide the props over and over as the story progressed. Bill Martin Jr.’s book use a repeated pattern that children easily recognize. The visuals lend support and encourage children to chime in even if they don’t know how to read. Laura Numeroff’s books like If You Give a Mouse a Cookie (1985) are examples of predictable books that apply a circular plotline. One event causes the next event. The story ultimately ends where it begins. Click the images below to view three pages from If You Give a Mouse a Cookie. Books without words are an engaging category of picture book for all ages. Young children learn to “read” by telling stories they see on the pages. Older children invent stories or use their experiences to retell stories they know using the images provided. The Snowman (1978) by Raymond Briggs is a classic example. While many wordless books like The Lion & the Mouse (2009) (shown above) by Jerry Pinkney are intended to tell a visual story, others focus on teaching concepts using only visuals. Tana Hoban is known for her simple concept books that teach about colors, shapes, and opposites through the use of pictures rather than words. Many parents, teachers, and librarians use wordless books as part of activities that include writing and discussion activities. Wordless books provide many opportunities to teach children visual literacy including reading the faces of characters, interpreting the action through still images, describing the setting, and predicting the plot based on visual elements. For instance, ask youth to read the visual story of Journey (2013) by Aaron Becker. David Wiesner has won numerous awards for his wordless books like Flotsam (2006). The visuals make the story so clear that some people forget they're actually wordless. Click the images below for a couple sample pages. Read the short essay David Wiesner and Flotsam by Dinah Stevenson. Think about how editing process for wordless books might be the same and different from other picture books. Keep in mind that not all wordless books are designed for young children. The Arrival (2006) by Shaun Tan is a wordless graphic novel that explores an immigrant's life in an imaginary world. Using photographs from places like Ellis Island as inspiration, Tan is able to tell the universal story of arriving in a new world. Click the images below for a larger view. From board books for infants to pop-up books for older children, novelty children’s books have been popular for over two centuries. Often called engineered books because of their physical structure, these book involve unusual elements such as flaps, folds, and objects that readers manipulate. These elements reveal story elements, help explain concepts, and engage readers in the experience. Some books contain just basic elements. For instance, Dinosaurology: The Search for a Lost World (2013) by Jack Fawcett contains hidden windows and tabs. However, others have very intricate elements. Cinderella: A 3-Dimensional Fairy Tale Theater (2012) by Jane Ray contains three-layer images to provide the feeling of a stage production. David Carter is known for his pop-up books for very young children such as Bed Bugs (1998). Jan Pienkowski is best-known for his pop-up book Haunted House (1979). Read Boyce, Lisa Boggiss (2011). Pop Into My Place: An Exploration of the Narrative and Physical Space in Jan Pienkowski’s Haunted House. Children’s Literature in Education, 42, 243–255. Some novelty books rely on manipulating paper, such as flaps, shapes, and folds. For instance, die-cut books can be created in various shapes such as animal figures, geometric shapes, and transportation. Others novelty books involve tactile elements. For instance, Sandra Boynton’s books contain pieces of fabric and other materials that children can touch. Everyone wants to pet Pat the Bunny by Dorothy Kunhardt. Many pop-up books have been adapted from other popular books such as The Wheels on the Bus (1990) by Paul O. Zelinsky. Pop-up books related to movie tie-ins such as Transformers: The Ultimate Pop-Up Universe (2013) by Matthew Reinhart and Emiliano Santalucia have become popular. Other titles relate to movies like Star Wars. Science topics are popular for popup books such as Bugs (2013) by George McGavin and Jim Kay. This book includes a wide range of approaches including slide-out panels, tabs, foldouts, mini-books, and pop-ups (shown on the right). In some cases, youth can remove and manipulate elements of the books. How Cars Work: The Interactive Guide to Mechanisms that Make a Car Move (2013) by Nick Arnold and Allan Sanders provides "build-you-own" cardboard elements for creating hands-on projects. Electronic elements are also being embedded into books. From simple sound effects buttons to books that read-aloud each page, there are many options available. Eric Carle has incorporated simple elements into his books. In The Very Lonely Firefly (1995), a small battery-powered light is used to represent the firefly’s light and in The Very Clumsy Click Beetle (1999), a sound chip is used to make a click sound. Watch a video trailer for The Little Mermaid (2013) by Robert Sabuda. Think about the pros and cons of pop-up books in the library. Evaluating Picture Books 1. Read the book straight through. 2. Read only the text, ignoring illustrations. 3. Read only the illustrations, ignoring the text. 4. Read aloud listening to the sound of the text. 5. Read to notice where the text breaks. 6. Read to notice the illustrator’s choices. 7. Read the colors. 8. Read for the page layout. While some people think of picture books as only for young children, many of these works are enjoyed by people of all ages. Many middle school teachers enjoy sharing the works of Jon Scieszka with both elementary and middle school youth. Book like The True Story of the Three Little Pigs (1989), The Stinky Cheese Man and other Fairly Stupid Tales (1992), and Squids with be Squids (1998) contain satirical elements that are great for jumpstarting creative writing activities and group discussions at all ages. Watch a few of the video interviews with Jon Scieszka from Reading Rockets. Visit the Picture Book Month website for lots of ideas for using picturebooks with children. Irwin, Marilyn (2013). Materials for Youth. Lecture notes. Lamb, Annette (2013). Book History. Unusual Book Forms. Available: http://eduscapes.com/bookhistory/artifact/5.htm Tunnell, Michael O., Jacobs, James S., Young, Terrell A., & Bryan, Gregory (2012). Children’s Literature, Briefly. Fifth Edition. Pearson. Wartenberg, Thomas (2013). Sneetch is a Sneetch and Other Philosophical Discoveries: Finding Wisdom in Children's Literature. Wiley-Blackwell. Available as an e-Book through IUPUI. Wiseman, Angela M. (2013). Summer’s End and Sad Goodbyes: Children’s Picturebooks About Death and Dying. Children’s Literature in Education, 44, 1–14.

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Islamic art encompasses the arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally Islamic populations. It includes fields as varied as Architecture, Calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others. Typically, though not entirely, Islamic art has focused on the depiction of patterns and Arabic calligraphy, rather than on figures, because it is feared by many Muslims that the depiction of the human form is idolatry and thereby a sin against Allah, forbidden in the Qur'an. fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffdhdhdhdhdhdhdhdhdhdhdhdhdhdhdh;asssriope Islamic art is not, speaking, an art pertaining to religion only. The term "Islamic" refers not only to the religion, but to the rich and varied Islamic culture as well. Islamic art frequently adopts secular elements and elements that are frowned upon, if not forbidden, by some Islamic theologians. According to the Encarta "Islamic art is developed from many sources: Roman, Early Christian, and Byzantine styles were taken over in early Islamic architecture; the influence of Sassanian art—the architecture and decorative art of pre-Islamic Persia was of paramount significance; Central Asian styles were brought in with various nomadic incursions; and Chinese influences had an important effect on Islamic painting, pottery, and textiles." There are repeating elements in Islamic art, such as the use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as the Arabesque. The arabesque in Islamic art is often used to symbolize the transcendent, indivisible and infinite nature of Allah. Most Sunni and Shia Muslims believe that visual depictions of any living beings generally should be prohibited. Nonetheless, human portrayals can be found in all eras of Islamic art. Human representation for the purpose of worship is considered idolatry and is duly forbidden in Islamic law, known as Sharia law. There are also many Depictions of Muhammad, Islam's chief prophet, in historical Islamic art. Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic art is architecture, particularly that of the mosque (four-iwan and hypostyle). Through the edifices, the effect of varying cultures within Islamic civilization can be illustrated. The North African and Spanish Islamic architecture, for example, has Roman-Byzantine elements, as seen in the Alhambra palace at Granada, or in the Great Mosque of Cordoba. The role of domes in Islamic architecture has been considerable. Domes have been used in Islamic architecture for centuries. The earliest surviving dome is part of the Dome of the Rock mosque, built in 691 CE. Another prominent dome was added to the Taj Mahal, constructed in the 17th century with the Taj Mahal. And as late as the 19th century, Islamic domes were incorporated into Western architecture. Calligraphic design is omnipresent in Islamic art, and is usually expressed in a mix of Qur'anic verses and historical proclamations. Two of the main scripts involved are the symbolic kufic and naskh scripts, which can be found adorning and enhancing the visual appeal of the walls and domes of buildings, the sides of minbars, and so on. All Arabian fantasy tales were often called "Arabian Nights" when translated into English, regardless of whether they appeared in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights, in any version, and a number of tales are known in Europe as "Arabian Nights" despite existing in no Arabic manuscript. Many imitations were written, especially in France. Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, the national epic of Iran, is a mythical and heroic retelling of Persian history. Amir Arsalan was also a popular mythical Persian story, which has influenced some modern works of fantasy fiction, such as The Heroic Legend of Arslan. A famous example of Arabic poetry and Persian poetry on romance (love) is Layla and Majnun, dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century. It is a tragic story of undying love much like the later Romeo and Juliet, which was itself said to have been inspired by a Latin version of Layli and Majnun to an extent. Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) and Ibn al-Nafis were pioneers of the philosophical novel. Ibn Tufail wrote the first fictional Arabic novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus) as a response to Al-Ghazali's The Incoherence of the Philosophers, and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a fictional novel Theologus Autodidactus as a response to Ibn Tufail's Philosophus Autodidactus. Both of these narratives had protagonists (Hayy in Philosophus Autodidactus and Kamil in Theologus Autodidactus) who were autodidactic feral children living in seclusion on a Desert island, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on the desert island for the rest of the story in Philosophus Autodidactus, the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in Theologus Autodidactus, developing into the earliest known Coming of age plot and eventually becoming the first example of a science fiction novel. A Latin translation of Ibn Tufail's work, Philosophus Autodidactus, first appeared in 1671, prepared by Edward Pococke the Younger, followed by an English translation by Simon Ockley in 1708, as well as German and Dutch translations. These translations later inspired Daniel Defoe to write Robinson Crusoe, regarded as the first novel in English. Philosophus Autodidactus also inspired Robert Boyle to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, The Aspiring Naturalist. The story also anticipated Rousseau's Emile: or, On Education in some ways, and is also similar to Mowgli's story in Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book as well as Tarzan's story, in that a baby is abandoned but taken care of and fed by a mother wolf. Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, considered the greatest epic of Italian literature, derived many features of and episodes about the hereafter directly or indirectly from Arabic works on Islamic eschatology: the Hadith and the Kitab al-Miraj (translated into Latin in 1264 or shortly before as Liber Scale Machometi, "The Book of Muhammad's Ladder") concerning Muhammad's ascension to Heaven, and the spiritual writings of Ibn Arabi. The Moors also had a noticeable influence on the works of George Peele and William Shakespeare. Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such as Peele's The Battle of Alcazar and Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, Titus Andronicus, and Othello, which featured a Moorish Othello as its title character. These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorish Delegations from Morocco to Elizabethan England at the beginning of the 17th century. No Islamic artistic concept has become better known outside its original home than the pile carpet, more commonly referred to as the Oriental carpet (oriental rug). Their versatility is utilized in everyday Islamic and Muslim life, from floor coverings to architectural enrichment, from cushions to bolsters to bags and sacks of all shapes and sizes, and to religious objects (such as a prayer rug, which would provide a clean place to pray). Carpet weaving is a rich and deeply embedded tradition in Islamic societies, and the practice is seen in cities as well as in rural communities and nomadic encampments. In older times, special establishments and workshops were in existence that functioned directly under court patronage in Islamic lands. From the eighth to eighteenth centuries, the use of ceramics was prevalent in Islamic art, usually assuming the form of elaborate pottery. Tin-opacified glazing was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in Basra, dating to around the 8th century. Another significant contribution was the development of stonepaste ceramics, originating from 9th century Iraq. The first industrial complex for glass and pottery production was built in Ar-Raqqah, Syria, in the 8th century. Other centers for innovative ceramic pottery in the Islamic world included Fustat (from 975 to 1075), Damascus (from 1100 to around 1600) and Tabriz (from 1470 to 1550). Lustreware was invented in Iraq by the persian chemist Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) in the 8th century during the Abbasid Caliphate. Another innovation was the Albarello, a type of maiolica earthenware jar originally designed to hold apothecaries' ointments and dry drugs. The development of this type of pharmacy jar had its roots in the Islamic Middle East. Brought to Italy by Hispano-Moresque traders, the earliest Italian examples were produced in Florence in the 15th century. The Hispano-Moresque style emerged in Andalusia in the 8th century, under the Fatimids. This was a style of Islamic pottery created in Islamic Spain, after the Moors had introduced two ceramics techniques to Europe: ceramics with an opaque white tin-glaze, and painting in metallic lusters. Hispano-Moresque ware was distinguished from the pottery of Christendom by the Islamic character of it decoration. In the performing arts, the most popular forms of theater in the medieval Islamic world were puppet theatre (which included hand puppets, shadow plays and marionette productions) and live passion plays known as ta'ziya, where actors re-enact episodes from Muslim history. In particular, Shia Islamic plays revolved around the shaheed (martyrdom) of Ali's sons Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali. Live secular plays were known as akhraja, recorded in medieval Adab (behavior) literature, though they were less common than puppetry and ta'zieh theater. Karagoz, the Turkish Shadow Theatre has influenced puppetry widely in the region. It is thought to have passed from Chinese by way of India. Later it was taken by the Mongols from the Chinese and transmitted to the Turkish peoples of Central Asia. Thus the art of Shadow Theater was brought to Anatolia by the Turkish people emigrating from Central Asia. Other scholars claim that shadow theater came to Anatolia in the 16th century from Egypt. The advocates of this view claim that when Yavuz Sultan Selim conquered Egypt in 1517, he saw shadow theatre performed during a party put on in his honour. Yavuz Sultan Selim was so impressed with it that he took the puppeteer back to his palace in Istanbul. There his 21 year old son, later Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent, developed an interest in the plays and watched them a great deal. Thus shadow theatre found its way into the Ottoman palaces. In other areas the style of shadow puppetry known as khayal al-zill – an intentionally metaphorical term whose meaning is best translated as ‘shadows of the imagination’ or ‘shadow of fancy' survives. This is a shadow play with live music ..”the accompaniment of drums, tambourines and flutes...also...“special effects” – smoke, fire, thunder, rattles, squeaks, thumps, and whatever else might elicit a laugh or a shudder from his audience” In Iran puppets are known to have existed much earlier than 1000 CE, but initially only glove and string puppets were popular in Iran. Other genres of puppetry emerged during the Qajar era (18th-19th century BCE) as influences from Turkey spead to the region. Kheimeh Shab-Bazi is a Persian traditional puppet show which is performed in a small chamber by a musical performer and a storyteller called a morshed or naghal. These shows often take place alongside storytelling in traditional tea and coffee-houses (Ghahve-Khave). The dialogue takes place between the morshed and the puppets. Puppetry remains very popular in Iran, the touring opera Rostam and Sohrab puppet opera being a recent example. From the eighth to the eighteenth centuries, the use of ceramics was prevalent in Islamic art, usually assuming the form of pottery. Although the art of sculpture was hardly practiced at all, work in metal and ivory was often developed to a high degree of technical accomplishment. It is also necessary to mention the importance of painting, and particularly of the illumination of both sacred and secular texts. History of Islamic art Edit The Beginnings of Islamic art Edit Before the Dynasties Edit The period of rapid expansion of the Islamic era forms a reasonably accurate beginning for the label of Islamic art. Early geographical boundaries of the Islamic culture were in present-day Syria. It is quite difficult to distinguish the earliest Islamic objects from their predecessors in Persian or Sassanid art and Byzantine. There was, notably, a significant production of unglazed ceramics, witnessed by a famous small bowl preserved in the Louvre, whose inscription assures its attribution to the Islamic period. Vegetal motifs were the most important these early productions. Influences from the Sassanian artistic tradition include the image of the king as a warrior and the lion as a symbol of nobility and virility. The Bedouin tribal tradition represented the geographically "native" artistic hegemony. Byzantine influence from the Christian west was not received without reluctance. Coinage and metalwork were imported and used for trade with the Byzantines. Umayyad Art Edit Religious and civic architecture were developed under the Umayyads, when new concepts and new plans were put into practice. Thus, the “Arab plan,” with court and hypostyle prayer hall, truly became a functional type with the construction of the Umayyad Mosque, or the Great Mosque of Damascus (completed in 715 by caliph Al-Walid I) on top of the ancient temple of Jupiter and in place of the basilica of St. John the Baptist, the most sacred site in the city. This building served as a point of reference for builders (and for art historians) for the birth of the Arab plan, as Byzantine Christian. The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem is one of the most important buildings in all of Islamic architecture, marked by a strong Byzantine influence (mosaic against a gold background, and a central plan that recalls that of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre), but already bearing purely Islamic elements, such as the great epigraphic frieze. The desert palaces in Jordan and Syria (for example, Mshatta, Qasr Amra, and Khirbat al-Mafjar) served the caliphs as living quarters, reception halls, and baths, and were decorated to promote an image of royal luxury. Work in ceramic was still somewhat primitive (unglazed) during this period. Some metal objects have survived from this time, but it remains rather difficult to distinguish these objects from those of the pre-Islamic period. 'Abd al-Malik introduced standard coinage that featured Arabic inscriptions. The quick development of a localized coinage around the time of the Dome of the Rock's construction demonstrates the reorientation of Umayyad acculturation. This period saw the genesis of a particularly Islamic art. In this period, Umayyad artists and artisans did not invent a new vocabulary, but began to prefer those received from Mediterranean and Iranian late antiquity, which they adapted to their own artistic conceptions. For example, the mosaics in the Great Mosque of Damascus are based on Byzantine models, but replace the figurative elements with images of trees and cities. The desert palaces also bear witness to these influences. By combining the various traditions that they had inherited, and by readapting motifs and architectural elements, artists created little by little a typically Muslim art, particularly discernible in the aesthetic of the Arabesque, which appears both on monuments and in illuminated Qur'ān. Abbasid art Edit The Abbasid (750 A.D.- 1258) witnessed the movement of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, and then from Baghdad to Samarra. The shift to Baghdad influenced politics, culture, and art. Art historian Robert Hillenbrand (1999) likens the movement to the foundation of an "Islamic Rome", because the meeting of Eastern influences from Iranian, Eurasian steppe, Chinese, and Indian sources created a new paradigm for Islamic art. Classical forms inherited from Byzantine Europe and Greco-Roman sources were discarded in favor of those drawn from the new Islamic hub. Even the design of the city of Baghdad placed it in the "navel of the world," as 9th-century historian al-Ya'qubi wrote. The ancient city of Baghdad cannot be excavated, as it lies beneath the modern city. However, Samarra has been well studied, and is known for its extensive cultivation of the art of stucco. Motifs known from the stucco at Samarra permit the dating of structures built elsewhere, and are furthermore found on portable objects, particular in wood, from Egypt through to Iran. Abbasid architecture in Iraq as exemplified in the palace of Ukhaidir (c.775-6) demonstrated the "despotic and the pleasure-loving character of the dynasty" in its grand size but cramped living quarters. Samarra witnessed the "coming of age" of Islamic art. Polychrome painted stucco allowed for experimentation in new styles of moulding and carving. The Great Mosque of Samarra, once the largest in the world, was built for the new capital. The Abbasid period also coincided with two major innovations in the ceramic arts: the invention of faience, and of metallic lusterware. Hadithic prohibition of the use of golden or silver pottery led to the development of metallic lusterware, which was made by mixing sulphur and metallic oxides to ochre and vinegar, painted onto an already glazed vessel and then fired a second time. It was expensive, and difficult to manage the second round through the kiln, but the need to replace fine Chinese pottery led to the development of this technique.. Though the common perception of Abbasid artistic production focuses largely on pottery, the greatest development of the Abbasid period was in textiles. Government-run workshops known as tiraz produced silks bearing the name of the monarch, allowing for aristocrats to demonstrate their loyalty to the ruler. Other silks were pictorial. The utility of silk-ware in wall decor, entrance adornment, and room separation were not as important as their cash value along the "silk route." Calligraphy began to be used in surface decoration on pottery during this period. Illuminated Qur'ans gained attention, letter-forms now more complex and stylized to the point of slowing down the recognition of the words themselves. The medieval period (9th-15th centuries) Edit Beginning in the 9th century, Abbasid sovereignty was contested in the provinces furthest removed from the Iraqi center. The creation of a Shi'a dynasty, that of the north African Fatimids, followed by the Umayyads in Spain, gave force to this opposition, as well as small dynasties and autonomous governors in Iran. Spain and the Maghreb Edit The first Islamic dynasty to establish itself in Spain (or Islamic Spain) was that of the Spanish Umayyads. As their name indicates, they were descended from the great Umayyads of Syria. After their fall, the Spanish Umayyads were replaced by various autonomous kingdoms, the taifas (1031-91), but the artistic production from this period does not differ significantly from that of the Umayyads. At the end of the 11th centuy, two Berber tribes, the Almoravids and the Almohads, captured the head of the Maghreb and Spain, successively, bringing Magrhebi influences into art. A series of military victories by Christian monarchs had reduced Islamic Spain by the end of the 14th century to the city of Granada, ruled by the Nasirid dynasty, who managed to maintain their hold until 1492. al-Andalus was a great cultural center of the Middle Ages. Besides the great universities, which taught philosophies and sciences yet unknown in Christendom (such as those of Averroes), the territory was an equally vital center for art. One thinks immediately, in architecture, of the Great Mosque of Cordoba, but other, smaller, monuments should not be forgotten, such as the Bab Mardum in Toledo, or the caliphal city of Medina Azahara. In the later period one finds notably the palace of the Alhambra, in Granada. Many techniques were employed in the manufacture of objects. Ivory was used extensively for the manufacture of boxes and caskets. The pyxis of al-Mughira is a masterwork of the genre. In metalwork, large sculptures in the round, normally rather scarce in the Islamic world, served as elaborate receptacles for water or as fountain spouts. A great number of textiles, most notably silks, were exported: many are found in the church treasuries of Christendom, where they served as covering for saints’ ossuaries. From the periods of Maghrebi rule one may also note a taste for painted and sculpted woodwork. The art of north Africa is not as well studied. The Almoravid and Almohad dynasties are characterized by a tendency toward austerity, for example in mosques with bare walls. Nevertheless, luxury arts continued to be produced in great quantity. The Marinid and Hafsid dynasties developed an important, but poorly understood, architecture, and a significant amount of painted and sculpted woodwork. Egypt and Syria Edit The Fatimid dynasty, which reigned in Egypt between 909 and 1171, was At the same time in Syria, the Atabegs (Arab governors of Seljuq princes) assumed power. Quite independent, they capitalized on conflicts between the Turkish princes, and in large part supported the installation of the Frankish crusaders. In 1171, Saladin seized Fatimid Egypt, and installed the transitory Ayyubid dynasty on the throne. This period is not terribly notable for architecture, but the production of luxury objects continued apace. Ceramics and metalwork of a high quality were produced without interruption, and enameled glass became another important craft. In 1250 the Mamluks seized control of Egypt from the Ayyubids, and by 1261 had managed to assert themselves in Syria as well. The Mamluks were not, strictly speaking, a dynasty, as they did not maintain a patrilineal mode of succession; in fact, Mamluks were freed Turkish slaves, who (in theory) passed the power to others of like station. This mode of government persevered for three centuries, until 1517, and gave rise to abundant architectural projects (many thousands of buildings were constructed during this period), while patronage of luxury arts favored primarily enameled glass and metalwork. The Baptistery of Saint Louis, one of the most famous Islamic objects, dates to this period. Iran and Central Asia Edit In Iran and the north of India, the Tahirids, Samanids, Ghaznavids, and Ghurids struggled for power in the 10th century, and art was a vital element of this competition. Great cities were built, such as Nishapur and Ghazni, and the construction of the Great Mosque of Isfahan (which would continue, in fits and starts, over several centuries) was initiated. Funerary architecture was also cultivated, while potters developed quite individual styles: kaleidoscopic ornament on a yellow ground; or marbled decorations created by allowing colored glazes to run; or painting with multiple layers of slip under the glaze. The Seljuqs, nomads of Turkic origin from present-day Mongolia, appeared on the stage of Islamic history toward the end of the 10th century. They seized Baghdad in 1048, before dying out in 1194 in Iran, although the production of “Seljuq” works continued through the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th century under the auspices of smaller, independent sovereigns and patrons. During their time, the center of culture, politics and art production shifted from Damascus and Baghdad to Merv, Nishapur, Rayy, and Isfahan, all in Iran . Popular patronage expanded because of a growing economy and new urban wealth. Inscriptions in architecture tended to focus more on the patrons of the piece. For example, sultans, viziers or lower ranking officials would receive often mention in inscriptions on mosques. Meanwhile, growth in mass market production and sale of art made it more commonplace and accessible to merchants and professionals . Because of increased production, many relics have survived from the Seljuk era and can be easily dated. In contrast, the dating of earlier works is more ambiguous. It is, therefore, easy to mistake Seljuk art as new developments rather than inheritance from classical Iranian and Turkic sources. Under the Seljuqs the “Iranian plan” of mosque construction appears for the first time. Lodging places called khans, or Caravanserai, for travellers and their animals, or caravansarais, generally displayed utilitarian rather than ornamental architecture, with rubble masonry, strong fortifications, and minimal comfort . Another important architectural trend to arise in the Seljuk era is the development of mausolea including the tomb tower such as the Gunbad-i-qabus (circa 1006-7) (showcasing a Zoroastrian motif) and the domed square, an example of which is the tomb of the Samanids in the city of Bukhara (circa 943) . Innovations in the ceramic arts that date to this period include the production of minai ware and the manufacture of vessels, not out of clay, but out of a silicon paste (“frit-ware”), while metalworkers began to encrust bronze with precious metals. Across the Seljuk era, from Iran to Iraq, a unification of book painting can be seen. These paintings have animalistic figures that convey strong symbolic meaning of fidelity, treachery, and courage . In the 13th century the Mongols, under the leadership of Genghis Khan, swept through the Islamic world. Upon the death of Genghis Khan, his empire was divided among his sons and many dynasties were thus formed: the Yuan in China, the Ilkhanids in Iran, and the Golden Horde in northern Iran and southern Russia. The Ilkhanids Edit A rich civilization developed under these “little khans,” who were originally subservient to the Yuan emperor, but rapidly became independent. Architectural activity intensified as the Mongols became sedentary, and retained traces of their nomadic origins, such as the north-south orientation of the buildings. At the same time a process of “iranisation” took place, and construction according to previously established types, such as the “Iranian plan” mosques, was resumed. The tomb of Öljeitü in Soltaniyeh is one of the greatest and most impressive monuments in Iran, despite many later depredations. The art of the Persian book was also born under this dynasty, and was encouraged by aristocratic patronage of large manuscripts such as the Jami al-tawarikh by Rashid al-Din. New techniques in ceramics appeared, such as the lajvardina (a variation on luster-ware), and Chinese influence is perceptible in all arts. The Golden Horde and the Timurids Edit The early arts of the nomads of the Golden Horde are poorly understood. Research is only beginning, and evidence for town planning and architecture has been discovered. There was also a significant production of works in gold, which often show a strong Chinese influence. Much of this work is preserved today in the Hermitage. The beginning of the third great period of medieval Iranian art, that of the Timurids , was marked by the invasion of a third group of nomads, under the direction of Timur. During the 15th century this dynasty gave rise to a golden age in Persian manuscript painting, including renowned painters such as Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād, but also a multitude of workshops and patrons. Iranian architecture and city planning also reached an apogee, in particular with the monuments of Samarkand, and are marked by extensive use of exterior ceramic tiles and muqarnas vaulting within. Syria, Iraq, and Anatolia Edit The Seljuq Turks pushed beyond Iran into Anatolia, winning a victory over the Byzantine in the Battle of Manzikert (1071), and setting up a sultanate independent of the Iranian branch of the dynasty. Their power seems largely to have waned following the Mongol invasions in 1243, but coins were struck under their name until 1304. Architecture and objects synthesized various styles, both Iranian and Syrian, sometimes rendering precise attributions difficult. The art of woodworking was cultivated, and at least one illustrated manuscript dates to this period. Caravanserais dotted the major trade routes across the region, placed at intervals of a day's travel. The construction of these caravanserai inns improved in scale, fortification, and replicability. Also, they began to contain central mosques. The Turkmen, nomads who settled in the area of Lake Van, were responsible for a number of mosques, such as the Blue Mosque in Tabriz, and they had a decisive influence after the fall of the Anatolian Seljuqs. Starting in the 13th century, Anatolia was dominated by small Turkmen dynasties, which progressively chipped away at Byzantine territory. Little by little a major dynasty emerged, that of the Ottomans, who, after 1450, are referred to as the “first Ottomans.” Patronage was exercised primarilyso be seen as the forerunners of Ottoman art, in particular the “Milet” ceramics and the first blue-and-white Anatolian works. Islamic book painting witnessed its first golden age in the thirteenth century, mostly from Syria and Iraq. Influence from Byzantine visual vocabulary (blue and gold coloring, angelic and victorious motifs, symbology of drapery) combined with Mongoloid facial types in 12th-century book frontispieces. Earlier coinage necessarily featured Arabic epigraphs, but as Ayyubid society became more cosmopolitan and multi-ethnic, coinage began to feature astrological, figural (featuring a variety of Greek, Seleucid, Byzantine, Sasanian, and comtemporary Turkish rulers' busts), and animal images. Hillenbrand suggests that the medieval Islamic texts called Maqamat, copied and illustrated by Yahya b. Mahmud al-Wasiti were some of the earliest "Coffee table books." They were among the first texts to hold up a mirror to daily life in Islamic art, portraying humorous stories and showing little to no inheritance of pictorial tradition. India, conquered by the Ghaznavids and Ghurids in the 9th century, did not become autonomous until 1206, when the Muizzi, or slave-kings, seized power, marking the birth of the Delhi Sultanate. Later other competing sultanates were founded in Bengal, Kashmir, Gujarat, Jaunpur, Malwa, and in the north Deccan (the Bahmanids). They separated themselves little by little from Persian traditions, giving birth to an original approach to architecture and urbanism, marked in particular by interaction with Hindu art. Study of the production of objects has hardly begun, but a lively art of manuscript illumination is known. The period of the sultanates ended with the arrival of the Mughals, who progressively seized their territories. The Taj Mahal was ordered to be built by Shah Jahan, a Muslim king. The Three Empires Edit The Ottoman Empire, whose origins lie in the 14th century, continued in existence until shortly after World War I. This impressive longevity, combined with an immense territory (stretching from Anatolia to Tunisia), led naturally to a vital and distinctive art, including plentiful architecture, mass production of ceramics (most notably Iznik ware), an important jeweler’s art, Turkish paper marbling Ebru, Turkish carpets as well as tapestries and an exceptional art of manuscript illumination, with multiple influences The standard plan of Ottoman architecture was inspired in part by the example of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople/Istanbul, Ilkhanid works like Oljeitu Tomb and earlier Seljuks of Rum and Anatolian Beylik monumental buildings and their own original innovations. The most famous of Ottoman architects was (and remains) Sinan, who lived for approximately one hundred years and designed several hundreds of buildings, of which two of the more important are Süleymaniye Camii in Istanbul and Selimiye Camii in Edirne. Apprentaces of Sinan later built the famous Blue Mosque in Istanbul and the Taj Mahal in India. Masterpieces of Ottoman manuscript illumination include the two “books of festivals,” one dating from the end of the 16th century, and the other from the era of Sultan Murad III. These books contain numerous illustrations and exhibit a strong Safavid influence; thus they may have been inspired by books captured in the course of the Ottoman-Safavid wars of the 16th century. The Ottomans are also known for their development of a bright red pigment, “Iznik red,” in ceramics. The Mughal reign in India lasted from 1526 until 1828, when the English seized the country and created their protectorate. Architecture was accorded a place of honor within Mughal art, with the development of a distinctive plan and the creation of the Taj Mahal. The arts of jewelry and the carving of hard stones, such as jade, were also cultivated; the series of hard stone daggers in the form of horses’ heads is particularly impressive. The Mughals also gave rise to a magnificent art of manuscript illumination, in which a strong European influence may be perceived, both through the utilization of perspective and the use of European engravings as models. Nevertheless a strong Persian influence remains, as Persian painters founded the Mughal art of the book under the reign of Humayun. This latter had taken refuge among the Safavids after being temporarily dethroned, and upon his return brought with him certain Persian painters. The influence of Hindu art may also be perceived, particularly in provincial production (the so-called “sub-imperial” paintings). Also of note is the invention of “bidri,” a technique of metalwork in which silver motifs are set against a black background. Safavids and Qajars Edit The Iranian Safavids, a dynasty stretching from 1501 to 1786, is distinguished from the Mughal and Ottoman Empires in part through the Shi'a faith of its shahs. Ceramic arts are marked by the strong influence of Chinese porcelain, executed in blue and white. Architecture flourished, attaining a high point with the building program of Shah Abbas in Isfahan, which included numerous gardens, palaces (such as Ali), an immense bazaar, and a large imperial mosque. The art of manuscript illumination also achieved new heights, in particular in the Shah Tahmasp Shahnameh, an immense copy of Ferdowsi’s poem containing more than 250 paintings. In the 17th century a new type of painting develops, based around the album (muhaqqa). The albums were the creations of conoisseurs who bound together single sheets containing paintings, drawings, or calligraphy by various artists, sometimes excised from earlier books, and other times created as independent works. The paintings of Reza Abbasi figure largely in this new art of the book. After the fall of the Safavids, the Qajars, a Turkmen tribe established from centuries on the banks of the Caspian Sea, assumed power. Qajar art displays an increasing European influence, as in the large oil paintings portraying the Qajar shahs. Steelwork also assumed a new importance. Like the Ottomans, the Qajar dynasty survived until the First World War. Books and journals - Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Art and Architecture, Thames & Hudson World of Art series; 1999, London. ISBN 978050020305. See also Edit - Christian art - Islamic pottery - Iranian art - Festival of Muslim Cultures - Visual Dhikr - Museum With No Frontiers: extensive site on Islamic art - ArchNet: extensive site on Islamic architecture - Muslim Heritage - CalligraphyIslamic: Extensive site on Islamic Visual Art - Art of Islamic: Examples of Great Islamic Artwork Throughout History - BBC Four documentary on art in Islamic Spain - Palace and Mosque: Islamic Art from the Victoria and Albert Museum at the National Gallery of Art, Washington - Artistic Exchange: Europe and the Islamic World Selections from the Permanent Collection at the National Gallery of Art - Islamic Art Network - Thesaurus Islamicus Foundation - Islamic Art Review - What is Islamic Art? an article by Lucien de Guise - Art and architecture module at NITLE - Islamic Art in India

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Time4Learning is an online, student-paced learning system covering preschool through high school. It is popular as a fifth grade homeschool curriculum, as an afterschool tutorial and as a summer study or enrichment program. For fifth graders, Time4Learning provides language arts, math, science and social studies. Students also get access to an online playground. This page provides: - An Overview of Fifth Grade Learning Objectives - Language Arts Lesson Descriptions - Fifth Grade Reading List - Math Lesson Descriptions - Science Lesson Descriptions - Social Studies Lesson Descriptions - Structure of the Fifth Grade Program - The Time 4 Art program is included after the first month. Overview of Fifth Grade Learning Objectives This section provides a summary of the key fifth grade learning objectives for reading, language arts, and math. A more detailed description of each subject is provided below, including links with more information on the hundreds of learning activities. The Time4Learning language arts and math curriculum correlate to state standards. Fifth grade is a year of highly visible progress in reading and language arts. By the end of fifth grade students should be able to: - Use grade appropriate vocabulary - Apply comprehension strategies to a variety of literary genres - Write and punctuate appropriately in research and composition assignments - Speak and listen with grade appropriate skill Fifth grade is also a year of development and skill building in mathematics. By the end of fifth grade students should be able to: - Be proficient using the four math operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division - Use basic algebraic functions such as exponents and order of operations - Apply geometric concepts to solve problems - Use various methods of measurement with skill - Understand data analysis and basic statistical terms Below, there is a more in-depth description of the fifth grade curriculum for language arts, math, science and social studies as well as information about the online playground. Do you have homeschool portfolio questions? Get tips and advice about different organization methods, what to include and how Time4Learning can be used as part of your fifth grade homeschool portfolio. As a homeschool mom with an education degree, I didn’t think there was a way to do math manipulatives on the computer, but Time4Learning accomplished it! In fifth grade math, students learn how to divide 2-digit divisors by 3-digit dividends. Fifth Grade Language Arts – Lesson Overview The language arts section contains learning activities that are primarily based on vocabulary skills, fluency, and comprehension. Many lessons are taught using exciting animation and interactive assignments. Reading and writing exercises within each chapter apply the skills that are taught throughout. Homeschoolers use it as it constitutes a solid fifth grade language arts program, correlated to state standards. Non homeschoolers use it as a 5th grade language arts tutorial, for test preparation, or summer enrichment. The lessons are organized into different chapters that introduce and cover: - Vocabulary skills – Teaches an application and expansion of grade level appropriate vocabulary incorporating the use of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, prefixes, suffixes, homophones, idioms, and Greek and Latin roots. Lessons include interactive guided instruction, an interactive practice session, and quizzes over each topic. - Process Skills – Students are challenged to summarize, predict, visualize, clarify, and understand scaffolding to enhance reading comprehension. Lessons use the Think Aloud format to introduce literary and expository texts to students. - Comprehension – Teaches the student how to apply comprehension strategies to literary and expository texts. Students explore the use of summarizing, plot identification, main idea, theme, cause and effect, inferences, compare and contrast fact vs. opinion, making inferences, and the author’s purpose through the use of interactive exercises and quizzes. - State Simulation Assessments – Students go through a mock assessment that teaches them how to apply reading comprehension strategies to standardized tests. - An American Safari ILA – Students apply their knowledge by engaging in a series of activities that enhance reading, writing, and thinking skills. This Independent Learning Activity builds comprehension strategies through the use of a narrative about animals in the wild. Students learn how to write the four types of sentences (declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory) through the use of learning activities. - The Birchbark House – ILA – ILA that teaches students about human and animal relationships. Students apply their knowledge by engaging in a series of activities that enhance reading, writing, and thinking skills. Students learn how to use adverbs and construct singular and plural nouns through direct instruction and interactive practice. - The Giver ILA – Teaches comprehension strategies through the use of a literature based chapter on knowledge and life choices. Lessons give the student opportunity to apply their knowledge through interactive activities enhancing reading, writing, and thinking skills. Students use recognition and application of language arts skills to identify common, proper, and irregular plural nouns. - Mother and Daughter ILA – Students use pre reading, during reading, and post reading activities to explore a chapter on mother-daughter relationships and adolescence. Lessons give opportunity to apply knowledge through language arts activities such as reading and writing. In the final two lessons, students learn how to properly use commas and synonyms in sentence construction. - The Black Stallion ILA – Teaches reading, writing, and thinking skills through the use of an integrated literature based chapter on survival and trust. Students are asked to recognize and apply language arts skills to reading comprehension. The chapter ends with the students learning how to correctly use subject-verb agreement and adjectives within sentences through the creation of a travel brochure. Click for lesson by lesson details on the Time4learning 5th grade language arts lesson plans. Fifth Grade Reading List Many parents have expressed interest in purchasing the full versions of the authentic literature excerpted in the fifth grade language arts section. They can be purchased at the links below but they DO NOT need to be purchased in order to use Time4Learning. - An American Safari by: Jim Brandeburg - The Birchbark House by: Louise Erdrich - The Giver by: Lois Lowry - Mother and Daughter (from the book: Baseball in April and Other Stories) by: Gary Soto - The Black Stallion by: Walter Farley In fifth grade language arts, students practice reading comprehension strategies in the lesson An American Safari. In this lesson, students are asked to read the selection and answer questions. New vocabulary is highlighted in the text and defined in the story. Fifth Grade Language Extensions – Lesson Overview Language arts extensions is a component of the complete language arts curriculum. It contains a series of chapters made up of activities, quizzes and chapter tests. Many parents have their students work through the language arts section and feel that their children have mastered the material. Other parents use sections of the language arts extensions for review and reinforcement of specific areas where their children have difficulty. Many homeschooling parents have their children complete both sections in their entirety as it is part of a state standard aligned curriculum. Non homeschoolers use the language arts extensions lessons for 5th grade online tutoring, extra practice, or test preparation. Each chapter starts using a variety of exercises designed to develop reading proficiency, vocabulary skills, and fluency.Through a series of learning activities focused on discovery, recognition, and application, fifth graders will learn to generate ideas, demonstrate comprehension of a theme, create graphic organizers and write creatively. The language arts extensions chapters include: - Reading Strategies – Teaches students competency in reading skills through the use of text organizers, structure of words, text elements, and interpretation. Students are asked to summarize and paraphrase passages, identify the cause and effect relationship within a story, identify the meaning of affixes, and set purposes or goals as a reading strategy. In the last several lessons of this chapter grade level appropriate vocabulary are taught to enhance language use. - Grammar – Teaches the punctuation rules, comma rules, and the use of quotation marks. In the grammar lessons, students are asked to determine the correct tense of verbs, indentify linking verbs, identify indirect and direct objects, use predicate adjectives within a sentence, use comparative and superlative adverbs within a sentence, correctly identify homophones and homographs, and correctly write hyphenated words within a sentence. - Literature – Students will learn how to read and respond to various types of literature. Lessons will focus on the elements of a story such as plot, style, onomatopoeia, alliteration, and character development. Students will use traditional tales, historical fiction, fables, poetry, Greek mythology, and historical documents to recognize and experience the fact that literature is used as a record of human experience. - Elements of Writing – Lessons focus on paragraph writing, letter writing, research reports, and composition writing. Students are asked to write a paragraph using topic and supporting sentences, create an outline to organize information, write a persuasive letter and cite sources in a research report. They will use story elements to write a composition in literal and figurative language and distinguish between first and third person point of view. Finally, they will be taught how to edit and revise their work. - Tools for Learning – Students are asked to read poetry and prose aloud, demonstrate control of expression while speaking publicly, express their opinions respectfully, demonstrate effective listening skills through summarizing speeches or lectures, and give and follow detailed directions. Students develop proficiency in speaking and listening through interactive assignments. - Conventions of Spelling – Teaches spelling and proofreading guidelines through the application of spelling rules and exceptions. Students are asked to consistently apply the given rules in nine spelling lessons covering words that include specific prefixes and suffixes. For details about fifth grade writing standards, please visit Time4Writing.com. Fifth Grade Vocabulary The fifth grade vocabulary focuses on synonyms, antonyms, affixes, homophones, and figurative language. Multiple lessons on literature characteristics of different genres develop understanding and application for fifth grade readers and writers. Tools for learning such as effective listening, expressing opinions, public speaking elements, and prose and poetry are highlighted throughout the 5th grade curriculum. In fifth grade language arts extensions, students learn new vocabulary in the lesson Vocabulary – Eponyms. In this lesson, students are asked to complete the puzzle using vocabulary words they learned in the story. Fifth Grade Math The fifth grade math curriculum contains a number of online math lessons, as well as printable worksheets. It constitutes a solid fifth grade math program correlated to state standards, which is important to many homeschooling families. Non homeschoolers use the program for 5th grade math tutoring, online test preparation, math practice, or summer review. Interesting animation presents the fifth grade math lessons in bite sized pieces, at the student’s pace. Each chapter builds on the last. Fifth graders are guided through fractions, order of operations, basic algebra, metrics, spatial sense, and graphing and probability using interactive prompts and funny stories that bring the lessons to life. Lessons are organized into several chapters that introduce and cover: - Whole Numbers – Students learn how to apply concepts of place value and estimation through the use of Arabic and Roman numerals. Interactive assignments ask students to convert Roman numerals to Arabic numerals, expand numbers to the billion’s place, and estimate sums and differences with reasonableness in mind. - Operations with whole numbers – Students develop an understanding of operations using addition and subtraction of whole numbers, multiplication using 3 by 2, and division with 2 digit divisors and 3 digit dividends. Students are asked to solve problems using exponents and order of operations. They will also identify prime numbers through factorization and apply problem solving strategies to real life situations. - Decimals – Students apply their knowledge of adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing using decimals. They are asked to read and write numbers to the thousandths place, use decimals in conjunction with the number line, add and subtract decimals with estimating sums and differences, multiplying and dividing decimals with estimating products and quotients, and identifying and converting decimals to percents. - Fractions – Students develop their ability to add and subtract using fractions and mixed numbers through the use of interactive lessons. Exercises help students to apply this knowledge to multiplying and dividing with improper fractions, simplifying fractions, making equivalent fractions, working with mixed numbers, estimating fractions, and developing relationships between fractions, decimals, and percents. - Algebra – Students identify the connection between algebraic patterns, equations and addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division through direct instruction, activities, and worksheets involving integer patterns, algebraic patterns, and equations. - Measurement – Teaches units of measurement and conversions. Students are asked to apply formulas to customary and metric measures of length, weight, capacity, and temperature. Lessons on time will enable students to determine elapsed time in real life situations. Finally, students will learn formulas and apply them to calculate measures of area, perimeter, and volume. - Geometry – Students will discover various geometric concepts that apply to real situations. Students will explore geometric terms and learn their proper application, learn about three dimensional figures, learn and use surface net and scale drawing to build their own figures, determine the measurement of angles, graph using ordered pairs, and use symmetry and transformation to identify shapes. - Probability – Teaches the concept of probability. Students are asked to predict outcomes by using methods of probability and applying this to simulated situations. - Data Analysis – Students are taught the many kinds of graphs such as bar graphs, line graphs, histograms, Venn diagrams, and pictographs. Students are asked to use basic statistics and terms such as mean, median, mode, and range to organize data. They are also taught the purpose and use of the stem and leaf plot. - Practice – Students will apply previous knowledge through interactive lessons on reading and writing numbers, expanded form, roman numerals, rounding off, exponents, greatest common factor, prime factorization, algebraic properties, mental computation, estimation, complex division, comparing fractions, performing operations with mixed numbers and fractions, decimals and the number line, percents, a basic review of geometry, ratios and proportions, measurement, and problem solving. This chapter consists of a comprehensive cumulative review of the course. For a more detailed description of the fifth grade math lessons, please visit our fifth grade math scope and sequence page. In fifth grade math, R. Eddie teaches about percentages in the lesson Identifying Percents. In this lesson, fifth graders learn how to calculate percent using a 10 by 10 grid. Fifth Grade Science The fifth grade science curriculum contains numerous lessons, quizzes and chapter tests, all organized into a variety of chapters. Most members use it as a 5th grade science tutorial, for fifth grade science practice or as a supplement to their homeschooling approach. - Scientific Investigation – Students will learn the process of completing scientific investigations. Lessons reinforce the steps in the scientific method through assignments on research, investigation, conducting experiments, collecting data, recording observations, using control groups, and creating time lines. - Changes in Matter – Teaches the relating of matter changes to atoms and molecules. Students identify the components of atoms, the construction of matter, and the organization of elements. The Periodic Table is presented and explained in detail. - Electricity and Matter – Lessons include in-depth study into characteristics, measurement, resistance, and safety issues of electricity. Students will also learn about the various electrical inventors. - Light – Teaches the basic characteristics of light through examining characteristics, measurement, reflections, refractions, optics, and magnifiers of light. Students are asked to experiment with the reflection and refraction of light. - Organisms – Students learn about cells and their characteristics, organisms, plants and animals, the use and parts of a microscope, and the famous cell biologist Ernest Just. - Classifying Living Things – The five major kingdoms are presented along with the methods used in classifying living things. Students are asked to identify and describe each of the five major kingdoms. A lesson on Carolus Linnaeus is also presented. - Life Cycle & Reproduction – Students examine the life cycle of a plant, the circle of life, the various parts of a plant, seeds and pollination, and the reproduction of a non-seed plant. - Weather – Teaches the various characteristics of earth’s atmosphere and weather conditions. Lessons present weather and climate, the water cycle, the layers of the atmosphere, classification of clouds, instruments used to collect weather data, developing forecasts, and a description of meteorology. - Forever Changing Earth – The Earth’s ever changing surface is examined in detail through lessons on the layers of the earth, plate tectonics, earthquakes, major fault zones, volcanology, mountains, oceans, measuring geologic time, fossils, ice cores and tree rings, and a description of the study of geology. - Human Body – Students are taught how to identify personal interests, capabilities, and values. Lesson will also teach the student how to identify personal strengths and weaknesses in order to develop ways to maximize their strengths. Interactive lessons also teach how to recognize conditions that contribute to disease, poor nutrition, safety, poor hygiene, recognizing and dealing with stress, and how to make and keep friends. For a more detailed description of the fifth grade science lessons, please visit our fifth grade science scope and sequence page. In fifth grade science, Lucas learns about the characteristics of cells in the chapter Organisms. In this lesson, students are learn about the different parts of the cell and the functions of each. Fifth Grade Social Studies The fifth grade social studies curriculum contains hundreds of lessons, as well as worksheets, quizzes and tests, organized into a number of chapters. Many homeschoolers use the social studies lessons as a supplement to their homeschooling approach. Non homeschoolers use the lessons as a fifth grade social studies tutorial, for 5th grade online tutoring, for extra practice, or summer enrichment. Although the materials are extensive, social studies is included as an added bonus. It does not correlate to all state standards and is not animated. - Olmec – The Olmec Civilization and its location, means of travel, dwellings, food production, art and religion, writing, counting, and calendar are discussed. Interactive assignments require the students to identify important facts. - Phoenicians – Students learn about the Phoenician Civilization and its location, role of city-states, identification of important cities, influence of Egyptian trade, trade routes, culture in terms of clothing and hieroglyphics, manufacturing, navigation and seafaring, and the development of an alphabet and its basis for our current alphabet. - Shang/Zhou Dynasty – Teaches students about the Shang and Zhou Dynasties. Students are asked to point out the location of these dynasties on a map, describe the use of bronze and the creation of silk textiles, explain their use of a sophisticated writing system, explain the roles of art and religion, identify the various rulers and influential people, describe the period known as China’s Golden Age, explain the Confucian Philosophy, Lao-tsu and Daoism. - Nubian Kingdom –The Nubian Civilization is taught through lessons on its location, important cities, conflicts with other nations, similar surrounding cultures, and natural resources. - Ancient Greece – Students learn about Ancient Greece through lessons that require them to locate the Ancient Greek civilization’s location on a map, explain their city-states, define tyrants, describe the roles of the Greek gods and goddesses, describe the Greek alphabet and how it was developed, explain the contributions of the Greek scholars, and define the role that art, architecture, music, athletics, drama, and literature played in the development of Greek culture. - U.S. Politics 1801-1840 – Students learn about the early presidents and politics of the United States during the period of 1801-1840. Assignments require students to describe the life of Thomas Jefferson, the importance of the Louisiana Purchase and the Lewis and Clark Expedition, the Zebulon Pike Expedition, the presidency of James Madison, the events that led to the War of 1812 and the battles of that war, the presidency of James Monroe, the Missouri Compromise, the presidency of Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act, the Trail of Tears, and the Seminole Wars. - U.S. History 1820-1850 – Teaches the students an overview of the history of the states by examining the influence of Westward Expansion, the means of travel, the Santa Fe Trail, the Texas War for Independence, the Battle of the Alamo and the important men who fought there, The Oregon Trail, the Mormons migration West, the Mexican –American war, and the California Gold Rush. - U.S. Economy in the mid-1800s – Students learn about the differences in the economies of the north and the south through exploration of industrial development. Lessons include the invention of rubber, the sewing machine, the telegraph, whaling, clipper and trade ships, the reaper, the railroad expansion, growing cotton in the south, slavery and the fight to free them, women who made a difference, and reformers for schools, prisons, and mental hospitals. - Leading to American Civil War – The events that led to the Civil War are examined and students are asked to summarize the Compromise of 1850, the effect Harriet Beecher Stowe had on the slavery debate, The Dred Scott decision and the formation of the Republican Party, the Raid at Harper’s Ferry, John Brown, and the outbreak of the Civil War. - The American Civil War – Teaches about the Civil War through a comparison of the Blue and the Grey and the Yankees and the Rebels. Lessons require the student to explain the differences between each side as the war began, describe the Battle of Bull Run and the battles at sea, explain the fight for control of the Mississippi River, describe the Peninsular Campaign and the Second Bull Run, describe the effect the Emancipation Proclamation had on African Americans, describe General Sherman’s march to the sea and explain why he did this, depict the events that led up to the surrender at Appomattox and the costs of the Civil War. - Reconstruction 1865-1877 – Students learn about the reconstruction of the U.S. after the Civil War. Topics of interest include: the death of President Lincoln, the Johnson Reconstruction Plan, the carpetbaggers, amendments to the constitution, racism during reconstruction, and the Compromise of 1877. - Geography of the United States – Teaches states and capitals and their location on a map, major cities, major regions, Midwest and Great Plains, major rivers, and the various time zones. - World Geography – Students learn geography of the world through the study of time zones, the tropic of cancer and Capricorn, climate zones, polar and mountain regions, islands and rain forests, deserts and grasslands, archaeologists, artifacts and ruins, and how archaeologists can reconstruct the past. - Political Science – Teaches about the purpose of government, the various terms of office for governmental positions, the line of succession for the presidency, democratic laws, civil rights, public policy, resolving conflicts, the role of the U.S. in the world, and the responsibility of citizenship. - Economic System – Students are asked to describe the law of supply and demand, how economic systems produce and distribute goods, factors that affect how consumers make their choices, given examples of competition in the economy, the economic role of government, the national defense plan, productivity, exchange of goods and services, entrepreneurship, and the influence of income on education and career choices. - 19th Century Individuals – Notable individuals and accomplishments are examined. Students are asked to identify the accomplishments of The Wright Brothers, Samuel F. Morse, Louis Braille, Elijah McCoy, Madame CJ Walker, and Alexander Graham Bell. For a more detailed description of the fifth grade social studies lessons, please visit our fifth grade social studies scope and sequence page. In fifth grade social studies, students learn about changes in latitude in the World Geography chapter. In this lesson, students are asked to identify the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn and the time zones of the world. Fifth Grade Lessons – The Time4Learning Program Structure Time4Learning has been refined through years of feedback from educators, parents, and students. Fifth grade subjects are organized into chapters composed of interactive lessons, printable worksheets, quizzes and tests. Fifth graders are guided through the activities at their own pace by an automated system. When students log in, they choose a subject, select a chapter, pick a lesson and complete the activities. A bright green arrow tells them where they left off, and completed work is clearly labeled with a check-mark or a gold star. Visual and auditory prompts guide fifth graders through the lessons making them easy for young learners to follow, and an online playground (controlled by parents) rewards and motivates them to finish their lessons. Parents get access to printable lesson plans, teaching tools, detailed reporting and parental support through our online Parent Forum. Does your child have different achievement levels for math and language arts? No problem. Time4Learning lets you set each individual subject at the appropriate graded level, making this program great for special needs and gifted students. Fifth Grade Curriculum for Homeschool, Afterschool and Summer Use For fifth graders, math, language arts, science and social studies concepts build upon those taught in the fourth grade.Time4Learning can be used for homeschool, afterschool or summer learning and is a great way to start fifth graders off on the right foot. Time4Learning presents fifth grade curriculum in a style that is both engaging and effective. Kids love the funny sound effects and quirky cartoon characters delivering the material. Animated, interactive lessons feel more like video games than learning exercises. For homeschool and summer usage, the student-paced nature of the program teaches them how to work independently, giving them a sense of ownership over their progress which is a great motivator. As an afterschool tutorial, Time4Learning’s fifth grade program provides children with lessons, tutorials and games that match the work they are completing in school. Learning the material by way of multimedia lessons provides a visual, audio and tactile approach to the concept being taught, so students of all learning modalities can benefit. Students who already have an understanding of the material can use the tutoring lessons provided by Time4Learning for extra reinforcement. Time4Learning is entirely web based, so there is no software to download, no CDs and nothing additional to purchase. Your kids will be able to access the program 24/7 from any computer with an internet connection. It has a low monthly price, requires no contracts and offers a 14 day money-back guarantee. Time4Learning has helped thousands of families. Why not yours? – Sign up now.

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While Waldorf education places heavy emphasis on the formation of value systems, students and parents at the Santa Cruz Waldorf School are not indoctrinated to any particular way of thinking, world-view or religion. On the contrary, a variety of perspectives are presented so each student has a basis from which to make up his or her own mind. The curriculum gives a diverse and well-rounded view of history, government models, religions, gender, and social forms. Every elementary school grade has a theme for literature. 1st grade’s literature theme is fairy tales. These stories are filled with rich language and strong archetypes which nourish the child’s feeling life, and also provides the images from which the letters and sounds of the alphabet are introduced. As the year progresses, the students become familiar with all of the consonants and vowel sounds. Then they move on to words and sentences, all of which come from a familiar context such as a story or poem the children already know. In this way, the children develop the decoding skills they will need when they begin to read. They practice copying words and sentences written by the teacher on the chalkboard, with the emphasis at this point in their development placed on translating what they see into motor activity and forming beautiful shapes rather than on reading comprehension. Movement games and form drawing are integral parts of the 1st grade curriculum, especially during math blocks. First graders are introduced to all four processes (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) through stories and practice with manipulatives. In many ways, first grade provides the foundation for all the later grades. Painting, music, form drawing, and all of the elements of creating the main lesson book begin in the first grade. Waldorf schools place a great deal of attention on the importance of play in the child’s physical and social development. The children normally play outdoors for part of every day in all but the most severe weather. In addition to free time when they can play imaginatively, the class plays lots of games together. Most students are reading by the end of second grade. At this point, students have begun to feel more confident with addition, subtraction and multiplication. In second grade the pace of the day’s activities is accelerated compared to Grade 1. More advanced work in speech is presented. Cursive writing is often introduced in grade two. Timeless human qualities are celebrated through the telling of legends and fables from various cultures. Through these stories, the child of seven or eight can find ways to strive for moral behavior and also recognize that it is human nature to make mistakes. Main lesson books are created which give students the opportunity to draw pictures and copy texts about the lesson material. The sense of wonder and reverence for the natural world that was fostered in kindergarten and first grade is further nurtured by nature stories (teacher-developed stories in which natural scientific facts are personified). In this way, the children begin to develop a personal relationship to this material, which will continue to enrich their understanding as they learn more abstract aspects of these concepts in later grades. The teacher also is telling riddles, and relating Aesop’s fables which playfully highlight human foibles. The theme of the year is focused on Native American lore. Grade 2 students begin copying short stories from the board into their main lesson books, working on their tracking, handwriting, decoding, and reading skills. Later in the year, they begin to make up short stories in class and write them into their books. Throughout the year, children work with word families to help with their reading and spelling skills. [/one_half_last] The children deepen the knowledge they gained in Grade 1 of basic number facts and the four arithmetic processes. They often practice rhythmic counting with movement. This lays the foundation for mastering the multiplication table in the following school year. The children begin to explore additive number families such as 3-8-11 (where the first two combine to make the third, and the third minus either of the first two leaves the remaining one). The same principle is introduced for multiplicative number families (2-4-8, 3-8-24, etc.). Finally, the children begin to work with mathematical word problems and “number adventures”. The tasks given to the children in second grade are more complex than in the prior year. Form drawing is related to both writing and to math in its spatial designs, and it helps students develop their powers of observation, spatial orientation, and hand-eye coordination. Second graders use the wet-on-wet painting technique and extend their work with colors, eventually progressing to paintings representing scenes from one of the stories the teacher reads to them in main lesson. Because it requires a good deal of kneading before it can be shaped, beeswax is considered to be an excellent medium for developing the will forces in the children, as well as an introduction to visualizing and working in three dimensions. The children are now able to sing and play good notes on their pentatonic flutes (or sometimes recorders) at will, so the focus in second grade is on listening to the music, memorizing the sequence of notes, and reproducing that sequence as pleasant music. Chase games dominate the outdoor activities in second grade. Games of this kind develop speed, agility, and courage. At this age, the children first begin to develop a rudimentary appreciation for strategy. The third grade curriculum forms a transition between the early grades and the middle grades. It is the year of the nine-year-change, a significant milestone in the developmental path of individuation. The children are “coming down to earth”. The fertile and diffuse imagination of childhood is condensing toward observations and practical common sense applications; the sense of wonder turns more inward, directed toward a search for personal identity and a new feeling of separate selfhood. This phase of the human development is accompanied in the curriculum by the experience and traditions of the Hebrew people: The Creation, the Garden of Eden, the Fall from Paradise, the Exodus from Egypt, the Wandering in the Wilderness, the Ten Commandments, the Journey to the Promised Land, the Kings and Prophets. The children often learn the Hebrew alphabet, celebrate Jewish festivals, and learn traditional Hebrew songs and dances. Such content is complemented by an immersion in practical crafts associated with food, clothing, and shelter. The children take up gardening, they learn to cook and to work with wool (carding, spinning, weaving in handwork); they engage in building. At the same time there is also a distinct shift toward a more academic approach. In math the students concentrate on multiplication tables, while mastering carrying and borrowing, and learning about longer processes with larger numbers. They also study measurement and apply it in practical ways such as cooking, house building and setting up a shop. Writing in cursive and reading are supplemented by spelling and grammar (parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) and basic punctuation. The pages of their main lesson books become larger and more complex, and the students participate more actively in their composition. By the end of third grade most students are reading independently, many quite fluently, some at an advanced level. They are familiar with the times tables (up to 12) and are well on their way to mastering them. They understand the calendar and can tell time. They have acquired many new practical skills. They are enjoying singing in rounds and their mastery of rhythm extends to folk dancing. They are learning to compose their own poems and stories. They are ready for the middle grades. The spirit of the fourth graders is aptly reflected in the northern mythologies of the Edda and the Kalevala. Yggdrasil, Odin, Loki, Ragnarok, and then the saga of Vaianmoinen – a virile mixture of comic and dramatic, these stories are perfectly attuned to the child turning ten. The fourth grade experience is rich in vivid images and in academic challenges. In mathematics the goal is first to consolidate all that has gone before – the four processes, including their long forms, the multiplication tables through 12 and factoring. The children will strengthen their mastery of numbers by learning to estimate their answers, then derive the exact one, then prove it. Then, moving from the whole to the parts, they will take up a comprehensive study of fractions. They will learn to expand and reduce, add, subtract, multiply and divide like and unlike fractions. The English language work includes reading fluency, spelling, grammar (completing the parts of speech), punctuation, dictation, and composition. It leads to book reports and simple research projects. The children will be expected to compose a large proportion of their main lesson books themselves, together or individually. Through book reports and research projects, they will learn about rough drafts and final drafts. They also give oral reports. New main lesson material includes local/regional geography and history. The children will learn how California came to be, and about the people cultures that have lived there before them. Field trips will acquaint them with the life of the Ohlone, the Spanish missions, and the gold rush. They will also learn to make and to read maps, beginning with their own room, home, neighborhood, and extending finally to a physical, three-dimensional map of California. Special attention is paid to how human beings interact with the environment, and how the land and the climate affect their way of life, culture, and the choices they make. Towns and cities, rivers and mountains, agricultural land, travel routes, lumber mining, fishing, etc. are also studied. In the Human and Animal main lesson block(s) the children will learn about animals as archetypes and as living species. They will study the different broad types of animals, comparing them to each other in form and specialization, and then to a human being, in whom so many traits of the animals live on in a modified and balanced way, to create a being with remarkable new potential. Each child will choose a particular animal or two to study in detail. The fourth grade class may also receive main lesson on Musical Notation as they learn to read and write music, for it is during this year that they will take up serious instruction in stringed instruments – violin, cello, or viola. The language arts and history curriculum of Grade 5 is based on the ancient civilizations of India, Persia, Mesopotamia, Egypt and Greece. The creation stories and mythologies of these civilizations are told and explored. Students study the geography of these lands and how they shaped diverse cultures. The daily life, history, architecture, religion and spirituality, science and mathematics of these cultures are studied to give the children a sense of the roots of modern consciousness and how it has evolved, as well as the variety and richness of the family of humankind. For the first time, history is a separate lesson subject, apart from being presented only as story. The story of human deeds and strivings brings the child to a deeper experience of her/his own humanity. Historical studies trace development through the great ancient civilizations of the past, leading the child to see modern folk as heirs to an evolutionary process. The children as individuals will help this process carry forward, through a pictorial-artistic expression. Ancient Greece, where the human being achieved a balance between science and art, physical skill and the beautiful, life on earth and the life of the spirit, stands at the border between the study of mythology and history. The various Greek city-states are contrasted and compared, giving a picture of different human temperaments. Biographies of noble Greek philosophers, statesmen and leaders, from Solon to Alexander, are studied. The five pentathlon events, running, jumping, wrestling, discus and javelin, are practiced all year, in preparation for the Greek Olympics event held each spring, with children from other Waldorf schools. The Greek ideals of beauty and grace and truth are honored in these games. Geography now moves into North American geography, leading the child out into ever wider spaces. Aspects covered include the contrasting ways people in different regions lived through their customs, songs, folk dances, legends, history, architecture, crafts and cookery. Study of the great physical features in each region of the earth and the natural resources therein, help to build a vivid picture of our vast country and continent. Plant study is taught in relation to the whole earth organism. Starting with the form of the archetypal plant, first observed by Goethe, the principle of metamorphosis of plants is introduced. Familiar plants in our own environment, contrasted and compared, lead to a look at vegetation in other parts of the earth. Botany is taught including both scientific observations and the poetic/artistic interpretations. Arithmetic is a review and strengthening of Grade 4’s introduction to fractions and a further deepening into the world of decimals. Practical application of decimals, in work with money, the metric system and measurement are introduced. The wonders of number patterns and relationships are explored, mirroring many of the great discoveries first made in the ancient civilizations studied. The Egyptians worked with geometry, and the Greeks refined it much further, and thus begins our geometry work during form drawing class, with freehand constructions of various forms, as a preparation to next year’s use of compass. In the sixth grade, the theme is Rome and the Middle Ages. The teacher will also choose either the geography of Europe, which parallels the study of Rome and the Middle Ages, or that of Central and South America. In geography the students study the cultural, economic, and social aspects of each area presented. Through this study the children become more aware of social problems and start the recognize a feeling of social responsibility. The students learn that different people from different cultures have various ways of interpreting the world. In this way the children develop compassion and understanding for different cultures around the world. The students recite sophisticated poetry arising out of the curriculum. There is more emphasis on quality of speech and dramatic expression beginning in the sixth grade. In grammar, the children work with the subjunctive mood, and present and past perfect tenses. They continue to work with parts of speech with the continued emphasis on giving the students a feeling for the expressive qualities and possibilities of the English language. Math in the sixth grade consists of regular weekly practice of skills developed up to this point. In addition, two morning lesson blocks are taught in math: business math and geometry. In business math students enter into the economic realm and learn about the history and intricacies of the decimal system. The children are presented with the basics of banking and how to calculate different types of interest. Beginning in the sixth grade, the children learn to use the compass and ruler to create intricate geometric constructions. First the children learn basic geometric terminology and how to bisect a line. Then they learn to bisect angles and to construct parallel lines, angles, and triangles. Eventually the children learn to construct more complex geometric forms. Historical origins and uses of geometry are discussed in relation to the study of Rome and the Middle Ages. In history, students begin by learning the mythology of the founding of Rome, and its seven kings. They learn how Rome started as a small city-state, and its evolution into a great empire. Through hearing many famous stories and biographies, the students will come to understand how loyalty began to shift from the family to the state, and how the strength, courage and integrity of individuals gave rise to Rome’s greatness. Then they will come to know how wealth and abundance, and the desire for personal power led to its excesses and downfall. As a practical activity, sixth graders will recreate models of Roman architecture or daily life situations from materials of their choice. The students hear how Europe descends into the Dark Ages and learn about the rise of feudalism. In the sixth grade the children learn basic geology. They study the basic elements that make up the earth and how some of them were formed. They become familiar with the different layers of the planet and in this way are exposed to the different historical epochs. The study of the lime cycle illuminates for the students that lime, a mineral substance, actually originated from living creatures, shells, and corals. The origins of coal, slate, and marble are also studied and in this way the children are introduced to the idea that many mineral substances were actually formed out of living matter. They may also study the precious metals and gems. In physics, learning is accomplished through the observation of phenomena. Then from those observations they come to their own conclusions regarding the phenomenon being studied. The children study heat and simple aspects of warmth and cold. They explore optics studying the properties of light, darkness and color. The introduction to acoustics includes vibration, pitch, sound transmission, resonance, and intervals. Sometimes musicians are invited to perform for the class. Finally, magnetism is studied and electricity is presented as the phenomenon of attraction and repulsion. Some astronomy may be studied in the sixth grade though it is most often taken up in the seventh grade. Combining observation, legend, and historical fact the children learn to map the skies. They learn how the early astronomers viewed the heavens and how the first explorers relied on the stars to help them chart their way. They study the constellations, planets, meteors, celestial equator, meridians, and the path of the sun and the moon. A time honored ritual is the 6th grade performance of the Maypole dance at the annual May Fair. In the seventh grade students begin to focus on the path of discovery through outer explorations of world history and geography, a look inward through physiology, and a greater self- reflection of their own inner world. The creative writing block, for example, encourages students to look inward and work with the concepts of “Wish, Wonder, and Surprise”. First the children are asked to explore, in depth, the different qualities of these three states of being. They are asked to create poems, short stories, plays, etc. using wish, wonder, and surprise as the basis for their work. Often, a seventh grade produces a journal featuring the writings from the class. This inner awakening is mirrored in the History curriculum where the theme for the year is the Renaissance. Students study the Age of Exploration, the Italian Renaissance, inventions, discoveries in astronomy, and the Reformation. The history of this period is taught primarily through the biographies of famous individuals.”x”. There are many options for studying this Age of Exploration. Typically, teachers begin with the adventures of Marco Polo, continue with Prince Henry and the Portuguese explorers, move on to the great “discovery” of Columbus, and conclude with Magellan’s circumnavigation of the world. The Italian artists; Leonardo Da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael are studied. Often Lorenzo de Medici and other political figures of the time are included. Ptolemy’s geocentric view of the universe is contrasted with the discoveries of Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Kepler and Galileo. The impact of Johannes Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press is also studied. As the authority of the Church is challenged, the biography of Martin Luther becomes a study topic. In addition to those already mentioned, there are numerous other inspiring personalities of this period that may be selected by the teacher. Overall the children get a sense for the awakening of the consciousness of mankind in all areas of life.. The study of Geography is often interwoven with this Age of Discovery, focusing on the people, the land and how the land and climate shaped the culture of the inhabitants of the area. Following the paths of the great European explorers, it is common for the class to study South America and/or Africa. The children are able to learn about how perceptions of the world shifted with the discoveries by each explorer. In math, an introduction to the unknown continues with an introduction to the beginnings of Algebra. The rules for positive and negative integers, solving simple equations for “x,” learning the order of operations and working with ratios are some of the new skills that are discovered while practice and strengthening of arithmetic processes continues as well. Another focus is how to combine numbers on each side of an equation and then how to exchange information from one side to the other while maintaining the balance and truthfulness of the equation. The teacher will determine how far to proceed based on the capacity of the students. The study of various mathematicians helps to weave an historical context throughout the curriculum. In Geometry, students continue with what was learned in the sixth grade and are given more complex geometric constructions and proofs. They learn to measure the area of a circle and to construct a three dimensional triangle, square, rectangle, and a pentagon. In seventh grade science, students study human physiology, chemistry and physics. In physiology, topics covered include the respiratory, circulatory, digestive systems. The eye and ear may also be included. Bringing in poetry and artwork the teacher strives to balance the scientific detail with artistic offerings. The information presented during the physiology block provides the framework for many discussions on topics such as nutrition, disease, limits and boundaries, substance abuse, diet, exercise and basic hygiene. For the chemistry curriculum the teacher may chose from the following topics: the study of combustion, acids and bases, and the limestone cycle as well as alkaloids and metals. The children delight in the first presentations on combustible materials as the teacher burns various materials while the children record the results. The children are taught to make accurate observations before drawing their conclusion regarding a demonstration. Worldly examples and historical context are given for each demonstration. The physics curriculum in the seventh grade begins with a focus on basic mechanics and the six basic machines. The study of light, sound, magnetism and warmth is continued in a more sophisticated manner as are the study of optics, acoustics, electromagnetism, and thermodynamics. The children may work with reflections and learn to make a simple pinhole camera. They study the properties of frequency, amplitude, wavelength, resonance and the overtone series. Among other projects they learn to make a primitive battery and to construct a simple motor. The seventh grade play is usually a major production. The class teacher acts as the director and production manager. The specialty teachers along with parent volunteers rehearse the children, create and select costumes, build scenery, and do anything else that needs to be done to make the play a success for the children. The eighth grade brings a sense of culmination. The goal is to continue developing the capacity for an all-encompassing point of view accompanied by a mood of completion and accomplishment for all that has gone before. It is essential to continue leading the students towards developing the capacity for independent judgment. The students have nearly completed their passage through childhood and are entering the territory of youth, an attainment that gives them an enhanced perspective, sharper powers of observation, and growing critical facilities. From this vantage, with their expanding capacities, the students continue developing the scope and the perceptive abilities to recollect, to connect, and to see relationships. These abilities make it possible to build a more comprehensive picture within the curriculum, whether the subject is literature, history, math, or science. The students are taught the elements that are used in creating a story. They practice creative writing using the techniques of figurative and descriptive language. Numerous short stories are read and critiqued by the students. Students create their own short story. English practice periods are conducted two to three times a week where the students review the basic rules of grammar, usage, and mechanics. Algebra is reviewed and expanded. In addition students work with math word problems, ratios and proportions, and review positive and negative integers. Students review exponents and learn how to find the square root of a number. The use of grids and plotting equations are also presented. There is an expansion upon the plane geometry learned in the sixth and seventh grades. The students also focus on aspects of solid geometry. The five basic Platonic solids are taught and constructed. The students are taught to calculate the volume and surface area of different solid figures such as triangular prisms, cylinders, cones, and rectangular solids. The Fibonacci sequence and the golden ratio are presented or reviewed. Math practice periods are held three times a week. A review of the various math processes is conducted: working with decimals, fractions, percentages, graphs, and solving word problems. Strengthening geometry and algebra skills can also be accommodated during these periods. An eighth grade theme is the struggle for human rights, and how this desire has shaped our world. Much of this history is taught through the presentation of biographies. The starting point is the colonization of America followed by a study of the American, French and/or Industrial Revolutions. Immigration and the American Civil War are studied. The students then move on to the history of the twentieth century, looking at some of the people who have brought new ideas to life in the modern era, and identifying some of the questions and possibilities that currently face us. During these blocks the students are assigned historical novels to read, and may conduct interviews with grandparents or other “seniors”, and explore their own heritage, learning how their families came to the United States. Generally Eurasia is studied in the eighth grade. The physical and cultural geography of this vast continent is studied with special attention to three or four counties or regions such as Russia, India, China, Japan, or the Middle East. Historical references and biographies enliven the understanding of how people relate to their surroundings, and shape the cultural and political direction of a particular place. Students continue to develop their map skills, geographic vocabulary and terminology. Current events related to the regions studied are included in class discussions. In physiology students learn the composition, location, and function of bones and the interaction of the muscles, tendons, and ligaments. These are tied in with the action of the brain and central nervous system to provide students with an understanding of how these systems provide a strong, mobile, and sensitive framework for the human body. Human sexuality and reproductive system are covered in the eighth grade. Often an outside speaker, such as a midwife, comes to answer students’ questions. The curriculum in the eighth grade deals with organic chemistry, specifically sugars, starches, proteins, and fats and oils. It is discussed how these substances are created in plants through the process of photosynthesis and then are distributed throughout the food chain. Tests that are conducted include observing the behavior or these substances under the influence of water, fire, acid and base. More tests verify the presences of these substances in various types of food. Industrial application of these substances is discussed. The students are given the opportunity to make various products such as soap, cold cream, lollipops, paper, pudding, and cheese. The material presented in eighth grade physics may include acoustics, heat, optics, electro-magnetism, aerodynamics, and hydraulics. Generally two or three of these topics are chosen for presentation over the course of this three week block. Each topic taught includes a practical application such as building a telescope in optics, or an electrical motor, bell, or telegraph in electro-magnetism. A play is usually performed for two evening performances off campus in a public venue. The choice of this culminating class production is based on the teacher’s insight into the character of the particular class. The class teacher is usually supported by parents who will assist as drama coaches, in putting together props, costumes, program booklets etc. In eighth grade, students are asked to pick any subject that is of a particular interest to them as the focus of their eighth grade project. Using this subject, they spend several months researching and writing a research paper. They create a presentation board and prepare an oral presentation. Each student is asked to submit an artistic project to go along with his or her subject. Most all the work is done at home. Periodic meetings are scheduled with the class teacher. Students are encouraged to seek assistance outside the classroom from professionals in the particular field they are researching. Each eighth grade student makes a formal presentation of his/her project to the community: family, teachers, all other students, and friends as part of the course requirements. The eighth grade year culminates with a class trip of greater length than in previous years, usually with a rite of passage theme. The trip’s destination and focus is arrived at through discussions guided by the teacher with the students and parents.

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What is this resource about? Learn the Case-Based Method and see how this method was used when Applying UDL in Bridge STEM OERs. Explore an Example within a course and the accompanying Sample Media Case Segment. Lastly, learn how to Produce Your Own Media Case Segment. Why is this important for higher education? Cases are representations of real-world situations and often represent a step before learning by doing. This helps to support the development of knowledge, skills, and practices that can be applied in the workplace. Cases become more effective for all learners if they are designed according to the principles of multiple means of representation, action and expression, and engagement (Universal Design for Learning). The Case-Based Method Cases are representations of real-world situations, and have long been used in law, medical, and business schools. Cases capture our attention because they are a form of storytelling, and much of our learning comes through stories.1 They can be written out as stories with a set of discussion questions, or they can be multimedia presentations that provide rich visual and auditory representations of people in their work setting. They can present simple sets of problems, but they can also represent fairly complex problems that require students to read a substantial amount of information, examine artifacts, and use analytical thinking skills in order to meaningfully respond to key questions or issues about a case. 2 Cases simulate a situation that learners can experience independently or socially. When a group of learners analyzes a case together, they must tease apart the many factors that generated the situation and consider how they would respond if faced with the dilemma presented. Because cases offer the perspectives of different individuals, they allow learners to see that problems must be framed and resolved by people who often have different interests, values, and emotions around various issues.3 Cases are used to support critical thinking skills and produce professionals that have the knowledge they need to act. Applying UDL to STEM Bridge OERs This section refers to a STEM Bridge Open Educational Resource (OER), created by the National STEM Consortium in partnership with the Open Professionals Education Network (OPEN) — a collaborative effort between CAST, Creative Commons, the Open Learning Initiatives at Stanford and Carnegie Mellon, and the Washington State Board for Community & Technical Colleges. This work was funded by the Gates Foundation to support services to grantees of the United States Department of Labor Trade Adjustment Assistance Community College & Career Training (TAACCCT) program. As discussed in the example section below, visit the STEM Bridge Open Educational Resource (OER) for a full overview of the course, or enter the STEM Readiness course directly (choose to create a free account, or proceed without one). Multiple Means of Representation Dorothy Leonard, who teaches the case-based method at the Harvard Business School, suggests that cases are ways of hypothesizing, that hypothesizing helps memory, and that memories are usually visual.4 Developing multimedia cases that use visual media to show a workplace environment or how someone uses a skill in context seems a natural way to help individuals to incorporate visual memories into what they are learning about. In the National STEM Consortium OER development effort, video is often used to convey information instead of text. For example, algebra skills are taught using a case about Jay who is interning at an electric vehicle factory. The case uses videos and images of Jay using algebra to measure car parts and this allows the learner to visualize algebra in context and tangibly see its relevance for their course of study Since reading is not a targeted skill in the course, it makes sense to use video to lessen some of the demands on students with regard to decoding text. However, visual and audio media will not be optimal for all learners, such as those who are visually or hearing impaired, and therefore transcripts and closed captioning are provided for each multimedia case segment. Throughout the curriculum, any visual representation of information, such as an image, has an alt tag and/or a long description that a screenreader can use to voice what it depicts. Representation is not only about providing alternate media to make sure that all learners can engage with the materials; it is also about providing support for higher-level recognition tasks by providing options for comprehension. For example, learners need to able to perceive the relationship between information and their role as a student, as well as their future career choices or areas of future study. This kind of comprehension “depends not upon merely perceiving information, but upon active ‘information-processing skills’ like selective attending, integrating new information with prior knowledge, strategic categorization, and active memorization”.5 Well-designed representations of roles and practices can help learners connect new knowledge to their actual performance in the workplace. To aid comprehension, the STEM Bridge course showcases a wide range of people with different abilities, weaknesses, hopes for their careers, etc. This helps activate or supply background knowledge, guides information processing and visualization, and maximizes transfer and generalization across contexts, to allow a wide range of learners the opportunity to connect their learning with their career choices. Multiple Means of Action and Expression Bandura (1977) explains that the stronger our sense of self-efficacy, the more likely we are to endure the hardship of learning. Efficacy expectations, Bandura further explains, develop socially through performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and emotional arousal. He suggests that diverse models are better at improving self-efficacy because: “If people of widely differing characteristics can succeed, then observers have a reasonable basis for increasing their own sense of self-efficacy” (p.82).6 Ford’s (1992) principle of equifinality echoes Bandura. The equifinality principle claims that motivating humans is best done through demonstrating that there are a “variety of pathways to a goal in complexly organized systems” (p.257).7 The content of cases provide a great opportunity to illustrate various pathways for how individuals with different characteristics may accomplish their work tasks and their larger career goals. Similarly, interviews with people in an industry, profession, or particular work setting should reflect different perspectives on the work and how to be successful at it. In this way, students can learn that there is not one type of person that becomes a technician or engineer and this can be especially motivating for students that come from groups that are particularly underrepresented in a profession. In addition to problem sets on algebra skills in the STEM Bridge course, learners also solve real problems by completing formative assessment activities embedded into the case-based curriculum. In the screenshots below, note that there is some variety in the methods for responding to questions, and that hints and targeted feedback encourage the learner to develop fluency through graduated levels of support. Multiple Means of Engagement The use of cases in the STEM Bridge course provides a real-world representation of how math is used and encourages learners to operate on what they know in different ways. When cases are used alongside other pedagogical methods such as problem sets, written procedures, or lectures, they provide an alternate means of engaging with the content as well as with other students and instructors. Cases can provide ways of thinking about the context where new knowledge and skills will be used and in this way can help engage learners that need evidence of the real-world application of what they are learning. Teaching and learning through cases is an engaging method of knowledge transfer for many learners. It can also place heavy demands on learners to connect with other learners and with instructors in real time. Applying some of the strategies recommended under the multiple means of action and expression section above can help instructors address learner variability when leading case discussions and thereby engage more learners in the conversation. This multimedia case-based learning strategy applied to a developmental math course can provide new avenues for engagement, a critical factor for helping adult learners to enjoy learning math even when it seems challenging. The socratic “cold call” method is typically used in Business school case-based learning. Yet, in 2010, Harvard Business School, a pioneer of this method, began to reshape how students could demonstrate understanding and how faculty members monitored progress in case discussions. The goal was to address a gender gap in case participation where male students participated at far higher rates than did female students, a significant problem given that case participation could represent 50% of one’s grade. Business school faculty members began to raise issues of respect and civility in their teaching, provided hand-raising coaching to help female students ensure they could express their understanding, and added stenographers to case discussions so professors had a transcript of who added what to a case discussion, perhaps helping professors not just remember the most forcefully delivered points. The school also adopted new software that allowed professors to check on why they were calling on certain students, and their marking patterns by gender. The school also introduced alternatives to the case method with a new course where students were grouped into problem solving teams.8 Visit the STEM Bridge Open Educational Resource (OER), created by the Open Professionals Education Network (OPEN) — a collaborative effort between CAST, Creative Commons, the Open Learning Initiatives at Stanford and Carnegie Mellon, and the Washington State Board for Community & Technical Colleges, funded by the Gates Foundation to support services to grantees of the United States Department of Labor Trade Adjustment Assistance Community College & Career Training (TAACCCT) program. As part of this work, OPEN co-developed open educational resources with the National STEM Consortium, a 10-college consortium Round 1 TAACCCT grantee that is developing career pathways in five STEM fields. The STEM Bridge program provides an accelerated pathway to help students bring their math, reading/writing, computer and critical thinking skills to the level necessary to take full advantage of the technical curriculum in one of the five programs (National STEM Consortium, Anne Arundel Community College Guidance Memo 07-2012). For the STEM Bridge OERs, the OPEN team chose to integrate digital media, UDL, and artifacts from industry partners in a case-based approach to instruction that represents the ways STEM skills are used in real life and industry. Enter the STEM Readiness course and then choose to create a free account, or proceed without one. Sample Multimedia Case Segment Meet Jay -- a main character in the STEM bridge course who must solve the problem presented in the case. In this activity, the learner puts himself or herself in Jay’s role and solves the problem. In the segment below, Jay is interning at an electric vehicle plant and must use algebra to figure out how many battery cells can fit into an electric car. [A picture of a young man in coveralls is seen in the center of the screen. Below the picture is the title.] FEMALE VOICE: Jay and Electric Vehicles. [The screen changes to a close-up of Jay at work in an automotive shop. He is smiling and looking into the camera.] FEMALE NARRATOR: Jay is a student in an electric vehicle program who has recently gotten an internship at ElectAuto. [A picture of the inside of the ElectAuto Inc. factory warehouse. There are several levels, walkways, warning signs, monitors, equipment, and storage units in the factory.] FEMALE NARRATOR: If Jay performs well in the internship, he will likely be hired on full time when he finishes his program at the community college. [The screen transitions to a montage of pictures: a car motor, an assembly manual with diagrams, and a piece of machinery being worked on by two people.] FEMALE NARRATOR: Jay’s supervisor has informed him he needs to be able to test a wide variety of electric car parts. He needs to be thorough and accurate. [A picture of a blackboard with mathematical notations and expressions appears; then a measurement instrument fades into view.] FEMALE NARRATOR: Many of the tests require him to use algebra as he conducts the measurements to find out if the parts work correctly. [The screen transitions to show a section of complex machinery from an electric car, followed by a picture of a smiling young woman, in the same coveralls as Jay, who is in the background.] FEMALE NARRATOR: His supervisor knows that using algebra to do tests can be challenging, so she assigns an experienced worker, Janet, to work closely with Jay to make sure he succeeds in this internship. [A picture of Jay at work, smiling into the camera.] JAY: I know that I can do a great job in this internship. I’m excited to learn how to do these tests. I don’t know everything yet, but I’ll learn. [Text of the narration appears onscreen.] FEMALE NARRATOR: In this module, we will follow Jay as he learns to test the electric car parts by using algebraic equations, improves his skills, and works toward being hired at ElecAuto, Inc. [The screen returns to the opening frame with the title “Jay and Electric Vehicles” under an image of him at work. The following credits appear below:] [Background Music and Image Credits I will give you delicacies: by urmymuse on ccMixter Totyota Turnover, Santa’s Electric: juretson on Flickr ...licensed under Attribution (3.0). #88355074, #88354458, #88355797, #19081164, #88355830, #88355718: Clipart.com ©2012 Jupiterimages Corporation all rights reserved.] Below are additional examples of multimedia case segments that were part of the STEM Bridge course Math Unit: - Rusty and Sue's Budget: Basic Arithmetic - Bob and Composites: Measuring Systems - Karen and Water Safety: Quantifying Data Produce Your Own Multimedia Case Segment The video below describes how to plan, develop, and produce a universally designed multimedia case. [Text appears on a black background.] MALE VOICE: Instructional Design and Development Guide: 10 Easy Steps [Underneath the existing text, new text reading “How to Plan, Develop, and Produce a Case” scrolls on screen.] MALE NARRATOR: This video will provide an overview of how to plan, develop, and produce a case. [The screen goes black, and then the text associated with “Step 1” appears on screen. “Choose a topic” is highlighted in yellow.] MALE NARRATOR: Step 1: Choose a topic for your case and decide where it fits in your curriculum. [Text fades out, while two men engaged in discussion, dressed in business attire, fade into view.] MALE NARRATOR: With your industry partners, identify the most challenging aspects of practice found in the curriculum and decide how best to address them. [A screenshot of an online math course reads “Unit 2: Mathematics” at the top. Underneath, tabs listing course sections appear, labeled “Arithmetic Part I,” “Arithmetic Part II,” and “Measuring Systems.” The first tab is highlighted, and we see the title “Module 2, Arithmetic Part I” above five green squares. Each square contains a learning objective, such as “Define and recognize digits, place value, whole numbers, decimal points, and decimals.” The screen fades to a shot of several graphs, tables, and charts on a desk by a keyboard and a pen.] MALE NARRATOR: Here is an example from a community college math course. Industry experts have expressed that budgeting is a key administrative skill in the workplace. Learning arithmetic by providing a real world context, such as budgeting, helps students develop applicable skills, not merely theoretical knowledge. [The screen goes black, and then the text associated with “Step 2” appears on screen. “Set up a timeline” is highlighted in yellow.] MALE NARRATOR: Step 2: Set up a timeline for planning, development, and production, with UDL as the guiding framework. [The text remains on screen, while an arrow appears from below, pointing to “UDL.”] MALE NARRATOR: When developing a case, UDL should be considered from the outset when you create your development and production schedule. Make sure that the variety of media elements chosen to engage and support diverse learners can be integrated effectively and developed timely in the final product. [A color-coded tabular timeline appears on screen, with tasks enumerated in all the rows of the first column, and dates listed in the first row of all the columns.] MALE NARRATOR: Here is the timeline that was created for this community college math course. One thing to consider when creating your timeline is to block out time to review and revise your work. This includes testing your scenario with different students. [The screen goes black, and then the text associated with “Step 3” appears on screen. “An outline” is highlighted in yellow.] MALE NARRATOR: Step 3: Create an outline for your case story. [The screen zooms in to various sections on an example of an outline template that has been filled-in. For example, under Topic, someone has written: “calculating a budget with basic arithmetic skills;” under Setting, “a couple who needs to re-consider their expenses as they have...;” under Characters, “Rusty (husband), Sue (wife);” etc. After a few moments, an overlaid arrow appears, pointing to “Difficult Aspect of Practices.”] MALE NARRATOR: A case story outline includes a topic, setting, characters, a background story, practices, difficult aspects of practices, and the climax and resolution of the story. Each of these different components should be used to highlight the challenging aspects of the work in practice. For example, characters that are developed should be compelling as they confront challenges and learn lessons that are important for successful work in the field. [The screen goes black, and then the text associated with “Step 4” appears on screen. “A detailed case” and “storyboard” are highlighted in yellow.] MALE NARRATOR: Step 4: Write a detailed case and storyboard. [The frame cuts to an example of a storyboard in progress. The title is “Rusty and Sue’s Budget.” In the storyboarding table, the left-hand column is entitled “Voice Over/Dialogue” and the cells in this column are filled with text. The center column is entitled “Screen” and the cells in this column have both text and images of a couple. The right hand column is entitled “Notes (Animation, Background, etc.)” and the cells in this column have only a few words or phrases.] MALE NARRATOR: Now that you have finished your case story outline you are ready to fill in all the details. Keep in mind your limitations, such as your budget and time when deciding which media will best portray the most critical aspects of your case in a UDL way. [The screen goes black, and then the text associated with “Step 5” appears on screen. “Get feedback” is highlighted in yellow.] MALE NARRATOR: Step 5: Get feedback from all stakeholders. [The screen is filled with shots of people in a variety of professional garb and settings working in teams, examining materials and discussing together.] MALE NARRATOR: This includes curriculum developers, instructors, industry partners, and students. With all stakeholders, determine if the story components and chosen media are appropriate for the target audience. [The screen goes black, and then the text associated with “Step 5” appears on screen. “Revise and finalize” is highlighted with yellow text.] MALE NARRATOR: Step 6: Revise and finalize your storyboard. [The storyboard from Step 4 reappears, this time with arrows indicating where new text or images have been added under each column.] MALE NARRATOR: Apply the feedback from the stakeholders and make appropriate changes to all of the different storyboard elements. [The screen cuts to the same timeline from Step 2.] MALE NARRATOR: Additionally, make sure to revisit your timeline and adjust accordingly. [The screen goes black, and then the text associated with “Step 7” appears on screen. “Produce media segments” is highlighted with yellow text.] MALE NARRATOR: Step 7: Produce the case media segments. [Screenshots from various media editing software programs.] MALE NARRATOR: This entails collecting and editing all existing desired media, such as images, sounds, or video, as well as recording and editing all original audio and/or video elements. [A still from a video in YouTube’s media player, with closed captions visible.] MALE NARRATOR: Make sure to provide visual, audio and text alternatives, such as closed captions and audio descriptions. [Images of software error messages are collaged on screen.] MALE NARRATOR: Be mindful of any technical requirements or limitations in your target course platform that might impact media production. [The screen goes black, and then the text associated with “Step 8” appears on screen. “Test” is highlighted with yellow text.] MALE NARRATOR: Step 8: Test your case. [Icons representing various hardware, software, and network systems fill the screen. The screen then cuts to images of people using various technology hardware in different settings.] MALE NARRATOR: Check to see that all produced media works properly in all technical settings in your target hardware, software, and network infrastructure. Involve students, fellow curriculum designers, and industry partners in testing your case. [The screen goes black, and then the text associated with “Step 9” appears on screen. “Resolve any issues” is highlighted with yellow text.] MALE NARRATOR: Step 9: Resolve any issues discovered from testing. [Screenshots of audio and video editing software. The screen goes black, and then the text associated with “Step 10” appears on screen. “Embed” is highlighted with yellow text.] MALE NARRATOR: Step 10: Embed the case in your curriculum. [An image of a video nested within an online math course, with comprehension checking questions and other features of online learning systems discernible around it.] MALE NARRATOR: And you’re done! Good luck! [A black background appears with the following credits: Senior manager interview: Michael Kowalski College students sitting in a classroom: lightpoet Pen and business graph: jannoon028 Internet devices, Network connections, Sunplus series: jvectorlib.com Loading please wait: halimqd Group of business people, Group of industrial workers: Kurthan Group of students: Goodluz Group of happy business people: Jonstan Chagin All downloaded from Shutterstock.com. Used with Permission.] This resource provided ideas for how to improve a widely used pedagogical approach: case-based learning. Addressing the principles of UDL when designing cases and when teaching with cases allows a greater number of learners to benefit from this method of transferring knowledge and better illustrates what work practices look like in the real world and how individuals carry them out. The example application of the UDL framework to OERs that use case-based learning and the short instructional video on how to build a multimedia case segment were meant to illustrate that using the case-based approach with UDL does not need to be costly or time consuming for professors or instructional designers; however, the benefits can be significant. 1Herreid, C. (1998). What Makes a Good Case? Journal of College Science Teaching 27(2). 2Ellet, W. (2007). The Case Study Handbook. How to Read, Discuss, and Write Persuasively About Cases. Harvard Business Press. 3Leonard, D. Lecture Presentation. The Art and Craft of Discussion Leadership, November 5, 2010. Harvard Business School Publishing Seminar. 4Ibid., Herreid, C. F. (1997) 5CAST, 2011; for more information, see www.udlcenter.org/aboutudl/udlguidelines 6Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological review, 84(2), 191. 7Ford, M. E. (1992). Motivating humans: Goals, emotions, and personal agency beliefs. Sage Publications. 8Kantor, J. (2013, Sep. 7). Harvard Business School Case Study: Gender Equity. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/08/education/harvard-case-study-gender-equity.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 Multiple means of representation refers to the what of learning. Because learners vary in how they perceive and understand information, it is crucial to provide different ways of presenting content. UDL is an educational approach based on the learning sciences with three primary principles—multiple means of representation of information, multiple means of student action and expression, and multiple means of student engagement. Multimedia refers to the combination of several media (e.g., text, graphics, audio clips, video) to represent content concepts. Video is the recording, reproducing, or broadcasting of moving visual images. Audio, in this context, is a digital form or representation of sound. It is a format that stores, copies, and produces sound according to the data in its file(s). A transcript provides a written version of content that has been presented in an audio, visual, or audiovisual format. Alt text (alternative text) is a brief description of a single image designed to be read by a screenreader as an alternative to that image. A long description is a more extensive description of an image, typically a complex image, designed to be read by a screenreader as an alternative to that image. A screenreader is a software application that converts the text content of a computer display into speech in order to transmit the information primarily to blind or low vision users. Assessment is the process of gathering information about a learner’s performance using a variety of methods and materials in order to determine learners’ knowledge, skills, and motivation for the purpose of making informed educational decisions. Multiple means of action and expression refers to the how of learning. Because learners vary in how they express their knowledge, it is crucial to allow them to express what they know in different ways. Cases, in this context, are representations of real-life situations that simulate problem-solving experiences. Open educational resources (OERs) are any type of educational materials that are openly and freely available for use. Industry partners, in this context, are individual professionals, groups, or businesses with specialized knowledge about a particular area or field, who provide expertise and support. Captions are words that are displayed on a screen to describe audio content.

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Writing in Psychology Overview Psychology is based on the study of human behaviors. As a social science, experimental psychology uses empirical inquiry to help understand human behavior. According to Thrass and Sanford (2000), psychology writing has three elements: describing, explaining, and understanding concepts from a standpoint of empirical investigation. Discipline-specific writing, such as writing done in psychology, can be similar to other types of writing you have done in the use of the writing process, writing techniques, and in locating and integrating sources. However, the field of psychology also has its own rules and expectations for writing; not everything that you have learned in about writing in the past works for the field of psychology. Writing in psychology includes the following principles: - Using plain language: Psychology writing is formal scientific writing that is plain and straightforward. Literary devices such as metaphors, alliteration, or anecdotes are not appropriate for writing in psychology. - Conciseness and clarity of language: The field of psychology stresses clear, concise prose. You should be able to make connections between empirical evidence, theories, and conclusions. See our OWL handout on conciseness for more information. - Evidence-based reasoning: Psychology bases its arguments on empirical evidence. Personal examples, narratives, or opinions are not appropriate for psychology. - Use of APA format: Psychologists use the American Psychological Association (APA) format for publications. While most student writing follows this format, some instructors may provide you with specific formatting requirements that differ from APA format. Types of writing Most major writing assignments in psychology courses consists of one of the following two types. Experimental reports: Experimental reports detail the results of experimental research projects and are most often written in experimental psychology (lab) courses. Experimental reports are write-ups of your results after you have conducted research with participants. This handout provides a description of how to write an experimental report . Critical analyses or reviews of research: Often called "term papers," a critical analysis of research narrowly examines and draws conclusions from existing literature on a topic of interest. These are frequently written in upper-division survey courses. Our research paper handouts provide a detailed overview of how to write these types of research papers. Rhetorical Considerations and Style in Psychology Writing Knowing who you are writing for, why you are writing, and in what context is key to writing successfully within your psychology courses. Audience: Your audience is person or group of people you are writing for. In psychology courses, this is often your professor or teaching assistant, although you might also be asked to write for a "general audience of psychologists" or to your classmates. Your instructor may or may not indicate who your audience is for your paper, so it is always good to ask. In articles, it is more complex—a combination of reviewers, journal editors, and readers in your area of interest. Your audience's expectations about your writing determine: - Formatting and style - Tone of the piece - The amount of technical language or jargon used - The amount of information you assume the audience already knows Audience expectations aren't always straightforward. For example, if you are taking a course in psycholinguistics and you are writing a critical review of research on semantic priming, your primary audience for the course is your instructor. While your instructor knows what semantic priming is, you may still be required to define it in your paper so that your instructor knows that you know what it is. Part of the instructor's expectation in this case is that you can clearly define key vocabulary concepts discussed in class in your term paper. Purpose: While the overall purpose of your term paper or experimental report may be clear (to pass the course, to convey the results of your research) more specific purposes for writing your report are not always so. When you are prewriting and drafting, as yourself not only what your larger purpose is, but also what additional purposes you may have and want to achieve. Context: The context is the larger writing situation in which you find yourself. Are you writing for a class? Are you writing an internal report to your advisor? Are you writing an article in preparation for submission to a journal? The context in which you are writing is another important factor that helps you determine style, format, and content of your piece. For more information on audience, purpose, and context see the Rhetorical Situation PowerPoint resource. Formatting and style in psychology Your choice of format and style are dependent on the audience, purpose, and context of your piece. Most writing in psychology follows a strict format, developed by the American Psychological Association (APA). Some instructors or journals may have their own style guidelines that deviate from APA to varying degrees. You should always ask for clarification on the correct formatting and style from your instructor, advisor, journal editor or other primary audience member. As a social science, the style of writing is scientific. A good rule of thumb when writing in psychology is to be clear with your discussion, be concise in your writing, and minimize your use of first-person pronouns ("I think that…", "I believe that…"). See the Purdue OWL handout on Stylistic concerns in APA format for more information. Learning style in your field can be tricky and requires time and practice. You can benefit from analyzing examples of other pieces of writing from psychology. Look at published articles or ask the instructor for examples of previous papers written for the course. Prewriting and information collection Depending on the type of report you are writing, you will go through various stages of prewriting. The following list provides you with some options finding material to write from and beginning to prewrite. Prewriting note-taking and class notes: Notes from readings, class lectures, conferences and presentations, and other professional activities can help you formulate ideas. You can keep your thoughts, sources, and notes organized in a journal, text document, or on note cards before you write. - If you are writing a critical review, keep notes on topics of interest and sources that you encounter during your class (and related coursework) that can contribute to your topic. - If you are writing an experimental report, notes from your previous coursework can help you find sources of information. As you are planning and conducting your research, keep a notebook handy to record your thoughts and ideas. Creating an annotated bibliography of articles and books: Annotated bibliographies can be excellent ways to summarize and organize sources you are drawing upon when writing critical reviews or experimental reports. Please see our Annotated Bibliographies handout for more information. Additional Purdue OWL resources you may find helpful in writing for psychology Avoiding Plagiarism: Plagiarism is a major concern of any discipline. Be sure you are clear on what constitutes plagiarism. Writing Concisely: A strategy for eliminating wordiness and redundancy in your writing. Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing: Assists you in integrating sources into your paper with different techniques and avoiding plagiarism. Proofreading your writing: Every writer needs to develop good proofreading skills. Writing the Experimental Report: Overview, Introductions, and Literature Reviews Experimental reports (also known as "lab reports") are reports of empirical research conducted by their authors. You should think of an experimental report as a "story" of your research in which you lead your readers through your experiment. As you are telling this story, you are crafting an argument about both the validity and reliability of your research, what your results mean, and how they fit into other previous work. These next two sections provide an overview of the experimental report in APA format. Always check with your instructor, advisor, or journal editor for specific formatting guidelines. Experimental reports follow a general to specific to general pattern. Your report will start off broadly in your introduction and discussion of the literature; the report narrows as it leads up to your specific hypotheses, methods, and results. Your discussion transitions from talking about your specific results to more general ramifications, future work, and trends relating to your research. Experimental reports in APA format have a title page. Title page formatting is as follows: - A running head and page number in the upper right corner (right aligned) - A definition of running head in IN ALL CAPS below the running head (left aligned) - Vertically and horizontally centered paper title, followed by author and affiliation Please see our sample APA title page. Crafting your story Before you begin to write, carefully consider your purpose in writing: what is it that you discovered, would like to share, or would like to argue? You can see report writing as crafting a story about your research and your findings. Consider the following. - What is the story you would like to tell? - What literature best speaks to that story? - How do your results tell the story? - How can you discuss the story in broad terms? During each section of your paper, you should be focusing on your story. Consider how each sentence, each paragraph, and each section contributes to your overall purpose in writing. Here is a description of one student's process. Briel is writing an experimental report on her results from her experimental psychology lab class. She was interested in looking at the role gender plays in persuading individuals to take financial risks. After her data analysis, she finds that men are more easily persuaded by women to take financial risks and that men are generally willing to take more financial risks. When Briel begins to write, she focuses her introduction on financial risk taking and gender, focusing on male behaviors. She then presents relevant literature on financial risk taking and gender that help illuminate her own study, but also help demonstrate the need for her own work. Her introduction ends with a study overview that directly leads from the literature review. Because she has already broadly introduced her study through her introduction and literature review, her readers can anticipate where she is going when she gets to her study overview. Her methods and results continue that story. Finally, her discussion concludes that story, discussing her findings, implications of her work, and the need for more research in the area of gender and financial risk taking. The abstract gives a concise summary of the contents of the report. - Abstracts should be brief (about 100 words) - Abstracts should be self-contained and provide a complete picture of what the study is about - Abstracts should be organized just like your experimental report—introduction, literature review, methods, results and discussion - Abstracts should be written last during your drafting stage The introduction in an experimental article should follow a general to specific pattern, where you first introduce the problem generally and then provide a short overview of your own study. The introduction includes three parts: opening statements, literature review, and study overview. Opening statements: Define the problem broadly in plain English and then lead into the literature review (this is the "general" part of the introduction). Your opening statements should already be setting the stage for the story you are going to tell. Literature review: Discusses literature (previous studies) relevant to your current study in a concise manner. Keep your story in mind as you organize your lit review and as you choose what literature to include. The following are tips when writing your literature review. - You should discuss studies that are directly related to your problem at hand and that logically lead to your own hypotheses. - You do not need to provide a complete historical overview nor provide literature that is peripheral to your own study. - Studies should be presented based on themes or concepts relevant to your research, not in a chronological format. - You should also consider what gap in the literature your own research fills. What hasn't been examined? What does your work do that others have not? Study overview: The literature review should lead directly into the last section of the introduction—your study overview. Your short overview should provide your hypotheses and briefly describe your method. The study overview functions as a transition to your methods section. You should always give good, descriptive names to your hypotheses that you use consistently throughout your study. When you number hypotheses, readers must go back to your introduction to find them, which makes your piece more difficult to read. Using descriptive names reminds readers what your hypotheses were and allows for better overall flow. In our example above, Briel had three different hypotheses based on previous literature. Her first hypothesis, the "masculine risk-taking hypothesis" was that men would be more willing to take financial risks overall. She clearly named her hypothesis in the study overview, and then referred back to it in her results and discussion sections. Thais and Sanford (2000) recommend the following organization for introductions. - Provide an introduction to your topic - Provide a very concise overview of the literature - State your hypotheses and how they connect to the literature - Provide an overview of the methods for investigation used in your research Bem (2006) provides the following rules of thumb for writing introductions. - Write in plain English - Take the time and space to introduce readers to your problem step-by-step; do not plunge them into the middle of the problem without an introduction - Use examples to illustrate difficult or unfamiliar theories or concepts. The more complicated the concept or theory, the more important it is to have clear examples - Open with a discussion about people and their behavior, not about psychologists and their research Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion Your method section provides a detailed overview of how you conducted your research. Because your study methods form a large part of your credibility as a researcher and writer, it is imperative that you be clear about what you did to gather information from participants in your study. With your methods section, as with the sections above, you want to walk your readers through your study almost as if they were a participant. What happened first? What happened next? The method section includes the following sub-sections. I. Participants: Discuss who was enrolled in your experiment. Include major demographics that have an impact on the results of the experiment (i.e. if race is a factor, you should provide a breakdown by race). The accepted term for describing a person who participates in research studies is a participant not a subject. II. Apparatus and materials: The apparatus is any equipment used during data collection (such as computers or eye-tracking devices). Materials include scripts, surveys, or software used for data collection (not data analysis). It is sometimes necessary to provide specific examples of materials or prompts, depending on the nature of your study. III. Procedure: The procedure includes the step-by-step how of your experiment. The procedure should include: - A description of the experimental design and how participants were assigned conditions. - Identification of your independent variable(s) (IV), dependent variable(s) (DV), and control variables. Give your variables clear, meaningful names so that your readers are not confused. - Important instructions to participants. - A step-by-step listing in chronological order of what participants did during the experiment. The results section is where you present the results of your research-both narrated for the readers in plain English and accompanied by statistics. Note: Depending on the requirements or the projected length of your paper, sometimes the results are combined with the discussion section. Continue with your story in the results section. How do your results fit with the overall story you are telling? What results are the most compelling? You want to begin your discussion by reminding your readers once again what your hypotheses were and what your overall story is. Then provide each result as it relates to that story. The most important results should go first. Preliminary discussion: Sometimes it is necessary to provide a preliminary discussion in your results section about your participant groups. In order to convince your readers that your results are meaningful, you must first demonstrate that the conditions of the study were met. For example, if you randomly assigned subjects into groups, are these two groups comparable? You can't discuss the differences in the two groups until you establish that the two groups can be compared. Provide information on your data analysis: Be sure to describe the analysis you did. If you are using a non-conventional analysis, you also need to provide justification for why you are doing so. Presenting Results: Bem (2006) recommends the following pattern for presenting findings: - Remind readers of the conceptual hypotheses or questions you are asking - Remind readers of behaviors measured or operations performed - Provide the answer/result in plain English - Provide the statistic that supports your plain English answer - Elaborate or qualify the overall conclusion if necessary Writers new to psychology and writing with statistics often dump numbers at their readers without providing a clear narration of what those numbers mean. Please see our Writing with Statistics handout for more information on how to write with statistics. Your discussion section is where you talk about what your results mean and where you wrap up the overall story you are telling. This is where you interpret your findings, evaluate your hypotheses or research questions, discuss unexpected results, and tie your findings to the previous literature (discussed first in your literature review). Your discussion section should move from specific to general. Here are some tips for writing your discussion section. - Begin by providing an interpretation of your results: what is it that you have learned from your research? - Discuss each hypotheses or research question in more depth. - Do not repeat what you have already said in your results—instead, focus on adding new information and broadening the perspective of your results to you reader. - Discuss how your results compare to previous findings in the literature. If there are differences, discuss why you think these differences exist and what they could mean. - Briefly consider your study's limitations, but do not dwell on its flaws. - Consider also what new questions your study raises, what questions your study was not able to answer, and what avenues future research could take in this area. Example: Here is how this works. References should be in standard APA format. Please see our APA Formatting guide for specific instructions. Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes Appendices: When appendices might be necessary Appendices allow you to include detailed information in your paper that would be distracting in the main body of the paper. Examples of items you might have in an appendix include mathematical proofs, lists of words, the questionnaire used in the research, a detailed description of an apparatus used in the research, etc. Format of appendices Your paper may have more than one appendix. Usually, each distinct item has its own appendix. If your paper only has one appendix, label it "Appendix" (without quotes.) If there is more than one appendix, label them "Appendix A," "Appendix B," etc. (without quotes) in the order that each item appears in the paper. In the main text, you should refer to the Appendices by their labels. The actual format of the appendix will vary depending on the content; therefore, there is no single format. In general, the content of an appendix should conform to the appropriate APA style rules for formatting text. Footnotes and Endnotes: When footnotes/endnotes might be necessary Because APA style uses parenthetical citations, you do not need to use footnotes or endnotes to cite your sources. The only reasons you need to use footnotes are for explanatory (content) notes or copyright permission. Content footnotes contain information that supplements the text, but would be distracting or inappropriate to include in the body of the paper. In other words, content footnotes provide important information that is a tangent to what you are discussing in your paper. The footnote should only express one idea. If it is longer than a few sentences, then you should consider putting this information in an appendix. Most authors do not use footnotes because they tend to be distracting to the readers. If the information is important, authors find a way to incorporate it into the text itself or put it in an appendix. If you are including a quote that is longer than 500 words or a table or figure in your paper that was originally published elsewhere, then you need to include a footnote that acknowledges that you have permission from the owner of the copyright to use the material. See our APA guidelines on Footnotes and Endnotes for more information. When to use tables Tables enable you to show your data in an easy to read format. However, you do not need to present all of your data in tabular form. Tables are only necessary for large amounts of data that would be too complicated in the text. If you only need to present a few numbers, you should do so directly in the text, not in a table. How to use tables Each table should be identified by a number, in the order that they appear in the text (e.g., Table 1, Table 2, etc.). When using a table, you need to refer to the table in the text (e.g., "As shown in Table 1,…") and point out to the reader what they should be looking for in the table. Do not discuss every piece of data that is in the table or else there is no point in having the table. Only mention the most important pieces of information from the table. The table should also make sense on its own. Be sure to explain all abbreviations except standard abbreviations such as M, SD, and df. Don’t forget to identify the unit of measurement. APA style has a specific format for tables. Tables should appear at the end of your paper, after the reference list and before any appendixes. Every table needs a unique title after its label. The title should be brief but clearly explain what is in the table. References and Sources for More Information The following is a list of works consulted when creating this guide and recommendations for additional information. Bem, D. J. (2003). Writing the empirical journal article. In J.M. Darley, M. P. Zanna, & H. L. Roediger III (Eds), The Compleat Academic. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. An updated, online version of Bem's article is available. This article is often required reading for most new graduate students and is one of the best sources on writing empical articles. The article provides a thorough overview of how to write a successful empirical journal article. Bem presents information what to write about, specific details about format of paragraphs and sections, writing methods, results, discussions, on revision, and on style. Delvin, A. S (2006). Research Methods: Planning, Conducting, and Presenting Research. Thompson Wadsworth, Belmont, CA. Delvin's book provides an excellent introduction to all phases of the experimental research project, including an extensive section on writing and presenting results. This book is very easy to understand and is, therefore, an excellent introduction for undergraduate students new to writing and conducting research in psychology. Thaiss, C and Sanford, J (2000). Writing For Psychology. Allyn and Bacon, Needham Heights, MA. Thaiss and Sanford provide an excellent overview of both formatting and writing processes for psychology students. They include information on presentations, written exams, experimental reports, and critical reviews.

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Culture of Puerto Rico The culture of Puerto Rico is the result of a number of international and indigenous influences, both past and present. Modern cultural manifestations showcase the island's rich history and help to create an identity which is a melting pot of cultures - Taíno (Aboriginal/First Nation/Indigenous), European (Spanish, Canary Island, Corsican and Irish), African(West African), Anglo American (U.S.A.), Latin/Caribbean, Asian especially Japanese and Chinese,Hawaiian, and other influences. |This section needs additional citations for verification. (November 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)| A subgroup of the Arawakan aboriginals (a group of Native Americans in northeastern South America), inhabited the Greater Antilles (comprising Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola [Haiti and the Dominican Republic],. The Taíno culture impressed both the Spanish Europeans (who observed it) and modern sociologists. The Arawakan achievements included construction of ceremonial ball parks whose boundaries were marked by upright stone dolmens, development of a universal language, and creation of a complicated religious cosmology. There was a hierarchy of deities who inhabited the sky; Yocahu was the supreme Creator. Another god, Jurakán, was perpetually angry and ruled the power of the hurricane. Other mythological figures were the gods Zemi and Maboya. The zemis, a god of both sexes, were represented by icons in the form of human and animal figures, and collars made of wood, stone, bones, and human remains. Taíno Indians believed that being in the good graces of their zemis protected them from disease, hurricanes, or disaster in war. They therefore served cassava (manioc) bread as well as beverages and tobacco to their zemis as propitiatory offerings. Maboyas, on the other hand, was a nocturnal deity who destroyed the crops and was feared by all the natives, to the extent that elaborate sacrifices were offered to placate him. Myths and traditions were perpetuated through ceremonial dances (areytos), drumbeats, oral traditions, and a ceremonial ball game played between opposing teams (of 10 to 30 players per team) with a rubber ball; winning this game was thought to bring a good harvest and strong, healthy children. The Taíno aboriginals lived in theocratic kingdoms and had a hierarchically arranged chiefs or caciques. The Taínos were divided in three social classes: the naborias (work class), the nitaínos or sub-chiefs and noblemen which includes the bohiques or priests and medicine men and the caciques or chiefs, each village or yucayeque had one. At the time Juan Ponce de León took possession of the Island, there were about twenty villages or yucayeques, Cacique Agüeybana, was chief of the Taínos. He lived at Guánica, the largest Indian village in the island, on the Guayanilla River. The rank of each cacique apparently was established along democratic lines; his importance in the tribe being determined by the size of his clan, rather than its war-making strength. There was no aristocracy of lineage, nor were their titles other than those given to individuals to distinguish their services to the clan. Their complexion were bronze-colored, average stature, dark, flowing, coarse hair, and large and slightly oblique dark eyes. Men generally went naked or wore a breech cloth, called nagua, while single women went naked and married women wore an nagua to over their genitals, made of cotton or palm fibers, the length of which was a sign of rank. Both sexes painted themselves on special occasions; they wore earrings, nose rings, and necklaces, which were sometimes made of gold. Taíno crafts were few; some pottery and baskets were made, and stone, marble and wood were worked skillfully. Skilled at agriculture and hunting, then Taínos were also good sailors, fishermen, canoe makers, and navigators. Their main crops were cassava, garlic, potatoes, yautías, mamey, guava, and anón. They had no calendar or writing system. Their personal possessions consisted of wooden stools with four legs and carved backs, hammocks made of cotton cloth or string for sleeping, clay and wooden bowls for mixing and serving food, calabashes or gourds for drinking water and bailing out boats, and their most prized possessions, large dugout canoes, for transportation, fishing, and water sports. Caciques lived in rectangular huts, called caneyes, located in the center of the village facing the batey. The naborias lived in round huts, called bohios. The construction of both types of building was the same: wooden frames, topped by straw, with earthen floor, and scant interior furnishing. But the buildings were strong enough to resist hurricanes. It is believed that Taíno settlements ranged from single families to groups of 3,000 people. About 100 years before the Spanish invasion, the Taínos were challenged by an invading South American tribe - the Caribs [Glos.]. Fierce, warlike, sadistic, and adept at using poison-tipped arrows, they raided Taíno settlements for slaves (especially females) and bodies for the completion of their rites of cannibalism. Some ethnologists argue that the preeminence of the Taínos, shaken by the attacks of the Caribs, was already jeopardized by the time of the Spanish occupation. In fact, it was Caribs who fought the most effectively against the Europeans, their behavior probably led the Europeans to unfairly attribute warlike tendencies to all of the island's tribes. A dynamic tension between the Taínos and the Caribs certainly existed when the Christopher Columbus landed on Puerto Rico. When the Spanish European settlers first came in 1508, since there is no reliable documentation, anthropologists estimate their numbers to have been between 20,000 and 50,000, but maltreatment, disease, flight, and unsuccessful rebellion had diminished their number to 4,000 by 1515; in 1544 a bishop counted only 60, but these too were soon lost. At their arrival the Spaniards expected the Taíno Indians to acknowledge the sovereignty of the king of Spain by payment of gold tribute, to work and supply provisions of food and to observe Christian ways. The Taínos rebelled most notably in 1511, when several caciques (Indian leaders) conspired to oust the Spaniards. They were joined in this uprising by their traditional enemies, the Caribs. Their weapons, however, were no match against Spanish horses and firearms and the revolt was soon ended brutally by the Spanish forces of Governor Juan Ponce de León. As a result, Taíno culture, language, and traditions were generally decimated, and were claimed to have "vanished" 50 years after Christopher Columbus arrived. Since the early 21st century, efforts have been made to revive and rebuild Taíno culture. In order to understand Puerto Rico's prehistoric era, it is important to know that the Taínos, far more than the Caribs, contributed greatly to the everyday life and language that evolved during the Spanish occupation. Taíno place names are still used for such towns as Utuado, Mayagüez, Caguas, and Humacao, among others. Many Taíno implements and techniques were copied directly by the Europeans, including the bohío (straw hut) and the hamaca (hammock), the musical instrument known as the maracas, and the method of making cassava bread. Many Taino words persist in the Puerto Rican vocabulary of today. Names of plants, trees and fruits includes: maní, leren, ají, yuca, mamey, pajuil, pitajaya, cupey, tabonuco and ceiba. Names of fish, animals and birds includes: mucaro, guaraguao, iguana, cobo, carey, jicotea, guabina, manati, buruquena and juey. As well as other objects and instruments: güiro, bohío, batey, caney, hamaca, nasa, petate, coy, barbacoa, batea, cabuya, casabe and canoa. Other words were passed not only into Spanish, but also into English, such as huracan (hurricane) and hamaca (hammock). Also, many Taíno superstitions and legends were adopted and adapted by the Spanish and still influence the Puerto Rican imagination. The most profound European influence is that of Spain, the island's colonizer. Spanish influence is the most notable of all cultural influences in Puerto Rican culture. Spanish heritage has left an indelible mark on the island, and signs of this cultural exchange can be found everywhere, from the official language to the local culinary styles. The culture of European countries has also influenced the development of the performing arts on the island, especially in music. Many of the island's musical genres have their origins in the Spanish culture, which is responsible for such genres of music as decima, seis, danza, mambo, etc. With the introduction of slavery to the colony, the island experienced an influx of Africans who brought with them the cultural trappings of their own tribes. These influences are evident in the fields of dance and music, such as la bomba, la plena, and most recently in reggaeton ,which is an Afro-Caribbean based Puerto Rican genre, as well as influences in Puerto Rican Spanish, and Puerto Rican cuisine. The presence of African diasporic religions, such as Santeria, is due to African influence. More subtle ties also exist, such as those that connect Puerto Rico's literary history with the rich African tradition of oral storytelling. Also, all Afro-Caribbean, Afro-Latino, and African American cultural influences from the United States, neighboring Caribbean islands, and Puerto Rico itself, are largely African in origin. Caribbean and Latin America The shared African heritage of many Caribbean nations is reflected in cultural pursuits like dance, as well as in local culinary styles. Most regional influences are Latino and Afro-Caribbean. The neighboring islands that have had the most influence on Puerto Rico's dance and music are Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Jamaica. Panama has shared its great passion for Spanish Reggae with Puerto Rico, the Spanish language version of Jamaican Reggae. Eventually Reggaeton, a Puerto Rican break-off of original Spanish Reggae, became very popular throughout Latin America, the Caribbean, the US and Spain. Puerto Rican artists helped create Salsa music with Cuban artists, and also helped Dominican artists with the development of Merengue. Recent Haitian and Dominican immigration has been producing many new cultural influences. Significant cultural exchange has been evident between Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands, especially the islands of St. Croix, Vieques, and Culebra, such as Puerto Rican style Patois mixed with Spanish. A number of Latin American countries have also exerted influence on Puerto Rico, particularly in helping the island to develop its own distinct cultural identity. In the filmmaking community, co-productions between Puerto Rico and other Latin American countries have created an exchange of ideas and influenced their film conventions. For instance, the Latin sense of humor and fantastical elements are evident in Puerto Rican films. (ASIAN ESPECIALLY JAPANESE/CHINESE and also Hawaiian Influences) Large-scale Japanese and Chinese immigration to Puerto Rico and the Caribbean began during the 19th century. ASIAN immigrants had to face different obstacles that prohibited or restricted their entry in Puerto Rico. When Puerto Rico was a Spanish colony, the Spanish government did not encourage settlers of non-Hispanic origin. Although the Spanish government changed its policy with the passage of the Royal Decree of Graces (Real Cédula de Gracias) of 1815, the decree was intended to attract non-Hispanic Europeans who were willing to swear their allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church, not non-Christian Asians. After Spain ceded Puerto Rico to the United States in accordance to the Treaty of Paris of 1898, Chinese immigrants were confronted with the United States' passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), which forbade the entry and immigration of Chinese nationals to the United States and its territories. After 1943, when the Chinese Exclusion Act was repealed, and particularly in the 1950s, when hundreds of Cuban Chinese fled Cuba after Fidel Castro came to power, many more Chinese immigrants went to Puerto Rico. and present day Chinese Puerto Ricans are involved in operating Chinese restaurants, and others work in other sectors. Many members of Puerto Rico's Chinese minority have integrated both Puerto Rican and Chinese cultures into their daily lives. Some Chinese have intermarried with Puerto Ricans and many of today's Chinese-Puerto Ricans have Hispanic surnames and are of mixed Chinese and Puerto Rican descent, e.g., Wu-Trujillo. Various businesses are named Los Chinos (The Chinese) and a valley in Maunabo, Puerto Rico is called Quebrada Los Chinos (The Chinese Stream). The Padmasambhava Buddhist Center, whose followers practice Tibetan Buddhism, has a branch in Puerto Rico. Los Chinos de Ponce (English: "The Chinese from Ponce"), formally "King's [Ice] Cream", is an ice cream store whose owners are descendants of Chinese immigrants who arrived in Puerto Rico via Cuba in the early 1960s. The ice cream parlor, which is in front of the town square, Plaza Las Delicias, opposite the historic Parque de Bombas, opened in 1964. Illegal immigration of Chinese nationals has become a problem in Puerto Rico. On November 28, 2007, the United States Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) announced that 15 citizens of the People's Republic of China were arrested and indicted for human smuggling. According to the indictment, the defendants participated in an alien smuggling organization operating out of the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico. The organization was transporting, moving, concealing, harboring and shielding aliens. They arranged the transportation and moving of Chinese nationals from the Dominican Republic into the United States. but there are many great things Asians have brought to Puerto Rico including great culinary dishes such as fried rice and sushi that has mixed with Puerto Rican food. Culturally, Puerto Rican sentiment for the U.S. tends to vary between emulation and opposition, a result of the complicated socio-political relationship between the two. Since establishment as a United States Commonwealth in 1898, traditional economics, social structure, nationalism, and culture has been affected in Puerto Rico. Before the United States captured Puerto Rico from Spain in 1898, the colony was agriculture based. Most worked on sugar cane, tobacco, or coffee plantations. Through the beginning of the 20th century, Puerto Ricans remained agricultural. Operation Bootstrap, an operation of the United States and Puerto Rico's Economic Development Administration, began in 1942 and was put in place to transform Puerto Rico into an industrial colony. Government owned factories were built to shift development to industrial factory work and, eventually, education of the factory work force. The growth of Puerto Rican industry changed the outlook on familial social structure. Traditionally, the Puerto Rican family was a large, three generation family living in the same home or as neighbors. The family was built around a set of parents or a single mother, and the family was sustained through multiple wage earning jobs. As the industrial revolution progressed, women found factory jobs more easily than men, becoming the bread winners. The Puerto Rican family structure changed to a small, nuclear matriarchy consisting of only immediate family members. The United States ideal of small, patriarchal families also impacted the contemporary Puerto Rican family structure in policy. In an attempt to demolish poverty in shantytowns, the Puerto Rico Housing Authority established public housing by example of United States policy. The public housing further disenfranchised the large multi-generation family by dividing nuclear families into public, single-family dwellings. Links to extended family are still an important aspect to the culture of Puerto Rican family structure, however they have been significantly weakened. The relationship between the United States and Puerto Rico makes national identity complicated. Puerto Ricans maintain United States citizenship while aligning with a uniquely Puerto Rican heritage. Although the island's culture is not heterogeneous, Puerto Rico establishes several binary oppositions to the United States: American identity versus Puerto Rican identity, English language versus Spanish language, Protestant versus Catholic, and Anglo-Saxon heritage versus Hispanic heritage. Another issue splitting national identity is political ideals on Puerto Rico's national status. There are three primary positions: pro-Commonwealth, pro-statehood, and pro-independence. Basically, Puerto Rican identity has been developed in rejection to American cultural identity. Since United States citizenship was instated, about half of the pre-Commonwealth population of Puerto Rico has relocated to the continental United States. Generally, those who have relocated to the United States are not considered part of the Puerto Rican nation. This is probably due to the cultural identification that exists to the opposition of American culture. American influences such as jazz can be found in the development of the island's unique musical style, but there is also evidence of cultural antagonism, particularly in areas such as literature. This dichotomy also exists in cinema, which has been greatly influenced by the U.S. With its commonwealth status, Puerto Rico has always attracted U.S. studios to shoot in the commonwealth, and film genres popular in the States during specific periods were often mirrored in contemporary Puerto Rican productions. However, other films delve into issues springing from the complex relationship between the two countries. Much film produced in Puerto Rico focuses on the complicated national identity of Puerto Ricans. For example, in the film La Guague Aerea directed by Luis Molina Casanova, Puerto Rican identity is expressed as "one that expands beyond the islands geo-political boundaries...portrayed in a state of constant transit between island and mainland political, social and cultural sites." Aside from producing film for political commentary, Puerto Rico also is a large market for film landscape. The Puerto Rico film commission has instated incentives for film production on the island. Some major motion pictures filmed in Puerto Rico include The Men Who Stare at Goats and the Pirates of the Caribbean series. - Cinema of Puerto Rico - the island's own film industry, as well as its role in international cinema. - Cuisine of Puerto Rico - Puerto Rican literature - literary achievement has helped Puerto Rico gain international acclaim. - Music of Puerto Rico - music on the island blends diverse cultural influences. Performing arts such as dance are an integral part of cultural expression. - Art in Puerto Rico - Puerto Ricans have contributed a great deal to the world of visual arts. - Sports in Puerto Rico - Cultural diversity in Puerto Rico - Corsican immigration to Puerto Rico - French immigration to Puerto Rico - German immigration to Puerto Rico - Irish immigration to Puerto Rico - Spanish immigration to Puerto Rico - List of Puerto Rican slang words and phrases - African influence in Puerto Rican culture - Puerto Rican people - Puerto Rico Convention Center. "Puerto Rico: Culture". About Puerto Rico. - ""Puerto Rico: Culture", Puerto Rico Convention Center.". Archived from the original on January 2, 2007. Retrieved January 4, 2007. - Morales Carrión, Arturo (1983). Puerto Rico: A Political and Cultural History. New York: Norton & Co. - "Taino Tribal Census Registration: A Record of Hope and Survival". La Salita Cafe. Retrieved 28 November 2014. - •The Indigenous People of the Caribbean •In Defense of the Indians : The Defense of the Most Reverend Lord, Don Fray Bartolome de las Casas, of the Order of Preachers, Late Bishop of Chiapas •The Tainos: Rise & Decline of the People Who Greeted Columbus Other Resources •Arawaks •Cacicazgos del Siglo 16 •Caciques, Nobles, and their Regalia •Indigenous Puerto Rico: DNA evidence upsets established history •The Jatibonicu Taino Tribal Nation •The New Old World - Antilles: Living Beyond the Myth. •Tainos - Ayala, Cesar J. and Bernabe, Rafael. Puerto Rico in the American Century: A History Since 1898. The University of North Carolina Press, 2007, p. 14. - Mintz, Sidney W. "The People of Puerto Rico Half a Century Later: One Author's Recollections" in The Journal of Latin American Anthropology. Vol. 6, Issue 2, p. 76. - Cook, James. "Operation Bootstrap" in Forbes. Vol. 150, Issue 4, p. 50. - Safa, Helen. "The Transformation of Puerto Rico: The Impact of Modernization Ideology" in Transforming Anthropology. Vol. 19, Number 1, p. 47. - Safa, Helen. "The Transformation of Puerto Rico: The Impact of Modernization Ideology" in Transforming Anthropology. Vol. 19, Number 1, p. 46. - Safa, Helen. "The Transformation of Puerto Rico: The Impact of Modernization Ideology" in Transforming Anthropology. Vol. 19, Number 1, p. 48. - Dunay, Jorge. "Nation on the Move: The Construction of Cultural Identities in Puerto Rico and the Diaspora" in American Ethnologist. Vol. 27, Issue 1, p. 10. - Dunay, Jorge. "Nation on the Move: The Construction of Cultural Identities in Puerto Rico and the Disapora" in American Ethnologist. Vo. 27, Issue 1, p. 12. - Falcon, Angelo. "The Diaspora Factor: Stateside Boricuas and the Future of Puerto Rico" in NACLA Report on the Americas. Vol. 40, Issue 6, p. 40. - Dunay, Jorge. "Nation on the Move: The Construction of Cultural Identities in Puerto Rico and the Diaspora" in American Ethnologist. Vol. 27, Issue 1, p. 22. - Maldonado-DeOliveria, Debora. "Problematic Ideas of Puerto Rico in Puerto Rican Cinema: Luis Molina Casanova's La Guagua Aerea" in Centro Journal. Vol. 23, Issue 1, p. 163. - Maldonado-DeOliveria, Debora. "Problematic Ideas of Puerto Rico in Puerto Rican Cinema: Luis Molina Casanova's La Guagua Aerea" in Centro Journal. Vol. 23, Issue 1, p. 164. - "Menu." Puerto Rico Film Commission. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Dec. 2013. - Institute of Puerto Rican Culture, a government agency dedicated to the study, preservation, and development of Puerto Rican culture

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Baking is a sacred ritual, one that requires simple ingredients: water, salt, yeast, and flour. But there is another ingredient that is just as necessary: time. The time for seeds to be planted, for wheat stalks to grow tall and turn from green to golden brown, the time for threshing, for cleaning, for milling, for mixing, for kneading. Time for dough to ferment and rise. Time for dough to be rolled thin for tortillas. The story of White Sonora wheat is one of time, patience, and listening to the land. The history of White Sonora wheat in the Sonoran desert begins with the people who brought it here and the people who grew it. In the seventeenth century, Spanish and Italian missionaries brought White Sonora’s precursor, a candeal soft white wheat, to the desert. By 1640, Opata and Lowland Pima Indian farmers were growing the wheat near Tuape, Sonora. When Father Eusebio Francisco Kino arrived in Sonora in 1687, he brought the now well-established crop northward. Among the many crops the missionaries brought, White Sonora endured because it was drought-and disease-resistant, thriving in the arid Sonoran landscape. Maribel Alvarez, an anthropologist at the University of Arizona’s Southwest Center, has written extensively on White Sonora wheat. She found a reference to the grain in one of Father Kino’s journal entries from 1710 where he discusses bringing the grain to Pima and Yuma Indians: “I sent … grain and seed which had never been seen or known there, to see if it would yield as well as in those other fertile new lands; and it did yield and does yield very well.” Ethnobotanist Amadeo Rea says the introduction of wheat “completely altered the life of the Pimans. Before they had this winter crop, the Tohono O’odham were entirely dependent on the summer rains for agriculture, [and] could raise but a single crop a year—if everything went right.” White Sonora meant that Pima and Tohono O’odham now had a viable winter crop to sustain their communities. Dams were built of mesquite branches to direct water and nutrient-rich silt to fields and wheat was harvested using sickles. Threshing was done with horses or mules on circular threshing floors called eras in Spanish, and the cleaned wheat was made into flour on volcanic grindingstones called taunas. The Pima—along with Yaquis, Maricopas, Yumas, and Hispanics—adopted White Sonora wheat into their cuisine, making posole (poshol in Piman)—wheat berries soaked, cooked, and mixed with tepary beans—and huge flatbreads known as tortillas de las aguas (che’chemait in Piman). The White Sonora wheat was ideal because of the protein content that allowed dough to stretch very thin. Over time, Alvarez says wheat “became integrated into the social fabric of communities that grew it, harvested it and consumed it.” In public art, in home décor, in religious festivals and cuisine, she says, Sonorans began to incorporate wheat as an indelible part of life. For more than three centuries, White Sonora was one of the principal crops grown in the Sonoran desert. As industrialization of farming took root following World War II, cereal scientists and grain breeders began to think about how to stabilize and secure staple crops like wheat. Combining wheat bred to be high-yield and fertilizer-responsive with artificial fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation systems, farmers in arid climates were no longer dependent on drought-resistant grains. Farmers planted seed from short breeds to avoid rot and mold caused by stalks toppling from wind and rain. While these changes helped farmers increase yields, something was lost. We lost diversity in the grains we consume. We lost our connection to eating what was adapted to grow in our local ground. We lost our connection to the earth. Conservation scientist Gary Paul Nabhan, the co-founder of Native Seeds/SEARCH, first spotted some of the last remnants of White Sonora wheat when he worked with farmers in northern Mexico in 1976. By the 1980s, no one was growing White Sonora wheat in the larger valleys of Arizona or Sonora, says Nabhan. The Nobel Prize-winning plant breeder Norman Borlaug had developed one of the first Green Revolution wheat varieties, Sonora 64—a semidwarf, high-yield, disease-resistant variety—purportedly using White Sonora as breeding material. In addition to the advent of commercial farming, Nabhan attributes the demise of White Sonora to a series of droughts and freezes, as well as a generation of farmers dying out, and with them, the knowledge and infrastructure required for traditional wheat farming. According to Jeff Zimmerman of Hayden Flour Mills in Phoenix, there were 44 mills established in Arizona Territory between 1865 and 1912. Today, there are only two. In 2012, a coalition of local organizations was awarded a $50,000 USDA Western Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE) grant to bring White Sonora soft wheat and chapalote flint corn back into the local food chain. “There’s a lightbulb that goes off. Oh my gosh, this is what bread should taste like.” People were drawn to the grain for many reasons. For Native Seeds/SEARCH, bringing back White Sonora was aligned with its mission of preserving heritage seeds. Research and education program manager Joy Hought says, “For us, it’s about climate change and bringing back crops that don’t abuse or overuse our natural resource.” Grants and special project manager Chris Schmidt adds, “Twenty to 30 years from now, these crops are going to be more important than ever. We need to work to preserve genetics and build the infrastructure for production now.” In addition to the SARE grant, Glenn Roberts, founder of Anson Mills in South Carolina, donated 5,600 pounds of White Sonora wheat seed over a three-year period so farmers wouldn’t have to face the expense of seed in addition to more labor and less yield. While a variety of heirloom crops have been growing in popularity over the years, extra enthusiasm and effort was needed to bring back heirloom grains. “Harvesting wheat involves complicated and technical processes,” says Hought. “It’s not the same as other crops where you can just pluck the apple off the tree and get it to the consumer. You have to get the grain at the right time. You have to thresh and clean it. Jeff Zimmerman has spent the last few years learning how to mill it; it’s a craft.” Jeff Zimmerman grew up in North Dakota on a wheat farm; as the farm changed hands from his grandfather to his father, and now to his cousin, he witnessed the industrialization of the farm. A manager at an insurance company by day, Zimmerman has always prioritized food; so has his wife, a nutritionist, and their five children. Years ago, Zimmerman developed a passion for bread baking. But he found that even when he took the time to make bread from scratch, he was dissatisfied with the end result: “It tasted empty,” he says. Zimmerman began milling his own flour and became inspired to restart the well-known Phoenix-based Hayden Flour Mills, a mill that had closed in 1998 after a 15-year decline. That dream kicked into high gear after the 2010 Farmer+Chef Connection, where Jeff met Marco Bianco, baker for Pane Bianco and brother of Chris Bianco, restaurateur and James Beard award-winning chef. At his famous Pizzeria Bianco, Chris is committed to using the freshest ingredients and sourcing them locally; for years, he had been looking for a way to access locally grown and milled grain. Emma Zimmerman, Jeff’s second eldest and his business partner, had two degrees in bioengineering and was pursuing a Ph.D. in bioethics when she returned home to help her father with his passion project. “I don’t know if Chris and Marco thought that we were serious, that we were really going to do it,” says Emma, laughing. They were. Jeff Zimmerman ordered a stone mill from Austria and soon it was installed at the back of Pane Bianco. Although it was a tight fit, being housed in the kitchen of Pane Bianco had its perks. Marco Bianco could immediately experiment with the freshly milled flour and offer feedback. “If you work in a marble quarry, you don’t necessarily see the statues. But if you are a miller and you’re working next to my brother every day, it’s a pretty interesting relationship when you are working, vetting things out. How was the hydration of it? Was the protein too high or low? So that dialogue became beneficial,” Chris says. Bringing back White Sonora involved bringing back infrastructure for smaller crops—from farming and harvesting, to cleaning and milling—that no longer existed. At first, the Zimmermans were ordering the freshest grain they could find from out of state, but when Nabhan approached them about heritage grains, they immediately came on board. The first farmers they approached did not. Emma explains. “The whole reason industrialized farming works is they have bred these grains to be high yielding; they’re very short and dense. You plant an acre and you’ll get 5,000 pounds. You go back to heritage and you get 2,000 pounds.” But when the Zimmermans approached an old family friend, Steve Sossaman of Sossaman Farms, he agreed to grow their first crop of 10 acres of White Sonora in 2011 as a personal favor. But that first season made growing heritage grains a passion for him as well, Emma says; he recently renovated his old pole barn into a milling space complete with a tasting room. Hayden Flour Mills is now working with five farmers growing 20 varieties of heritage grains. In 2014, they grew 300 acres of grain. With 200 wholesale customers nationally, Hayden Flour Mills can barely keep up with demand. Tucsonans can pick up their flour at Whole Foods, Native Seeds /SEARCH, Time Market, and at some farmers’ markets, or taste it in local restaurants like Zona 78, Gallery of Food, Canyon Ranch, Agustín Kitchen, Proper, Food for Ascension, and Pizzeria Bianco. In 2014, Hayden Flour Mills was one of nine companies to win Martha Stewart’s American Made contest, showcasing American companies doing innovative work. The award included a $10,000 prize, a trip to New York, and a spread in Martha Stewart Living. “People just seem to react to eating Marco’s bread, or eating a really good bread,” Emma says. “There’s a lightbulb that goes off. Oh my gosh, this is what bread should taste like. Even me, starting out, I didn’t think about flour. It’s just powder in a bag. You don’t think about where it comes from. All of a sudden, you think: Why does this taste so good and what is it made of? And you realize, Oh, this is rye or barley; there’s all this amazing diversity behind it. I think it goes back to people tasting the food that is made with these really good ingredients.” At $10 to $12 for a one and a half pound bag, Hayden’s flour is two to three times as expensive as conventional all-purpose flour. “This used to be something I apologized for,” Emma says. “But now, I say: Isn’t it amazing that you now get this grain that didn’t even exist in this region five years ago at your Whole Foods? You treat it differently. This is the true cost of flour. We are so out of touch with what food costs.” Hayden Flour Mills offers educational discounts to schools to make their flour more accessible, and they hope that over time, as heritage grains grow in popularity and infrastructure is established, heritage flour will be available to everyone. Riding down a road in Marana, past the mid-century steel silos that signal arrival at BKW Farms, fourth-generation farmer Brian Wong points outside his window to the small field that has just been furrowed up, brown dirt piled alongside shallow ditches waiting for seeds to be planted. This was the very field BKW used to grow its first round of organic White Sonora wheat three years ago. BKW just celebrated its 75th anniversary but this was its first venture into organic farming and the first time it had grown heritage grains since the Green Revolution. BKW’s main crops are cotton and durum; the wheat is exported in its entirety to Spain. Not a part of the SARE grant, BKW Farms became involved after farmers Ron Wong and Karen Dotson attended the Native Seeds/SEARCH grain school and learned about heritage grains such as White Sonora wheat. They realized that more and more local restaurateurs, brewers, and bakers were becoming interested in local heritage grains, which gave them an opportunity to grow crops that would stay in the local foodshed. In 2012, they obtained 1,800 pounds of White Sonora seed from Native Seeds/SEARCH’s inventory and planted their first crop of certified organic White Sonora on 15 acres. For their conventionally grown wheat, they typically get 7,000 pounds an acre. With ideal weather that initial growing season, their first harvest yielded a total of 40,500 pounds, or 2,700 pounds per acre. Inside their climate-controlled storage room are the fruits of their harvest: huge white totes holding tons of the small tan berries. Because of their high yield, they were able to donate double the amount they borrowed back to the seed bank. This year, they will plant two new heritage grains: organic Red Spring and organic Durum White. (They’re also growing barley to be made into beer by local breweries.) “We know how to grow things,” Wong says. “The biggest problem is not growing but the selling and making sure people want what we are growing.” At Ramona Farms, Ramona and Terry Button are growing White Sonora wheat not only because of its growing market, but also because of its history. When Schmidt asked the couple to help bring back heritage grains by cleaning White Sonora wheat and Pima Club seed, and growing half of it, they immediately agreed. They planted 15 acres and returned double their yield. Growing White Sonora wheat fit with Ramona Farms’ commitment to honoring traditional farming done by the Pima Indians. Today, Ramona and her daughter Velvet do outreach on the reservation and teach the importance of reintroducing native crops into modern diets, hoping to instill pride in young people for what their ancestors did to develop agriculture in Arizona. Terry credits the work of organizations like Native Seeds/SEARCH and individuals like Nabhan and Rea for providing a market for place-based heritage grains. “Health-conscious people are wanting to improve their diets. Native foods are being introduced to high-end restaurants,” he says. “It’s gratifying for us because we think maybe there will be a market. Without a market, we can’t preserve seeds just with seed banks. Seeds have an expiration date. They have to be replotted and grown back and that seed stock needs to be replenished. If we do have a market, we can save these crops. Indian corns, tepary beans, heritage grains—they contain survival qualities we need. If we can preserve diversity in seed stock that have other traits, we could avert famine in the future.” A soft wheat, White Sonora, when ground, crumbles. The density of the flour makes it challenging when used on its own for bread, which requires more elasticity, but White Sonora is perfect for pastas and pastries. The taste is hearty, fresh, of the earth. Marco Bianco bakes with White Sonora for cookies, biscotti, and tarts. Barrio Bread’s Don Guerra uses 12 percent of the grain in his baguette mix because the soft flour adds contrast to the harder varieties he uses. In Marco’s kitchen, loaves made of Red Fife and soft wheat are set aside to proof while other oval loaves in the oven have begun to develop a dark brown crust. A historian in the guise of a baker, he knows not only every property of White Sonora wheat but also every detail of its history in the history of farming and milling in Arizona. Marco likens modern all-purpose flour to having one kind of red wine. While all-purpose flour has good baking properties, bakers have no idea what kinds of grain are being used. “The thing we eat the most, we know the least about,” he says. He now works with 12 varietals for the assortment of bread, tarts, and pastries he makes for the Bianco restaurants. “If you were growing your own wheat and making bread every day you would start to know the tendencies of that varietal. We lost that. We’re starting to get it back now,” he says. Bringing back local heritage grains farmed without the use of chemicals in growing or baking may allow for more people to have access to wheat. Marco says, “It’s really in the last 10 to 12 years that there’s been an explosion of people with gluten problems. When the bread is allowed to have a long fermentation, it breaks down the gluten so it is more digestible. In commercial baking, components are added to the bread to mimic the natural fermentation process but do it in less time. Commercial bakers making 10,000 loaves a day want bread to be done in three and half hours, start to finish. It takes 18 to 24 hours for one of my breads.” And, he says, “If you look at the back of the bread label, there are 25 ingredients you can’t pronounce,” Marco says. “My bread has four ingredients: a sourdough starter made from wild yeast, water, flour, salt.” No research exists that proves products made with heritage grains are better nutritionally or digestively. Joy Hought says, “There are too many variables: breeding, growing, processing baking.” But anecdotally, the feedback has been overwhelmingly positive. “People with nonceliac gluten sensitivity who buy our flour to go home and bake with, come back and tell us they didn’t have the reactions they typically have,” Emma Zimmerman says. Some argue that it is conventional farming techniques rather than fast-track baking that leads to potential allergic reactions in consumers. “My dad had a list of best practices for conventional farming methods for wheat,” Emma says. “It lists 30 chemicals that you spray on that crop. The last one is spraying Roundup so it all dries up uniformly. That [ends up] in the wheat head.” No one involved in the process of bringing back White Sonora wheat to the local foodshed will take credit. Conversations are filled with effusive storytelling about the others involved. Emma Zimmerman credits the Biancos for making space for their mill. Marco Bianco says Jeff Zimmerman was the spark that got the whole thing going. Chris Bianco praises Glenn Roberts for donating the initial seeds and Gary Nabhan and Chris Schmidt for connecting folks around the SARE grant, which provided much needed money and infrastructure to get the project going. BKW expressed gratitude for the bakers and local brewers, who have been vital in communicating both their support and what they need in their grains. But everyone is excited about the success of bringing back White Sonora wheat, not only because of its value to our palate and our pantry, but also because in doing so, they have developed a model for bringing back other wheat varieties. In our modern world, urgency is a part of daily life. We are always on our way somewhere, always checking our devices. We don’t sit still; we don’t have much patience. In a culture in which humans have often attempted to control the land rather than listen to it—where time is commodified rather than respected and honored—returning these heritage grains is a radical act. “A broken tradition is now revived,” Nabhan says. “We affirmed White Sonora’s value in the very place where Norman Bourlaug won a Nobel Prize for breeding high-yield wheat. It reminds us these things aren’t obsolete.” Chris Bianco says that everything is about communication and connection. “We’re in the relationship business. We are in relationship with each other, our consumers, our environment,” he says. “I’m just a little raindrop. For this thing to work it’s going to take a big puddle, a pond, and an ocean of change. We are all a part of change.” ✜ Hayden Flour Mills. 480.557.0031. HaydenFlourMills.com. Native Seeds/SEARCH. 3061 N. Campbell Ave. 520.622.5561. NativeSeeds.org. BKW Farms. Info@bkwazgrown.com. BKWAZGrown.com. Ramona Farms. Arizona 87. 520.418.3642. RamonaFarms.com. Pane Bianco. 4404 N. Central Ave. 602.234.2100. PizzeriaBianco.com. Lisa O’Neill originally hails from New Orleans but has made her second home in the desert, where she writes and teaches writing. Find her online at The Dictionary Project or at lisamoneill.com.

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SPEECH UNIT Part 2: Language & Mass Communication IB11 Language and Literature RESEARCH • Using your SMART phones, research: • Nelson Mandela (imprisonment and President of South Africa) • Springbok Rugby Team • Apartheid (what was this in South Africa? Groups involved?) • Movie, Invictus MORGAN FREEMAN PORTRAYING NELSON MANDELA IN THE MOVIE INVICTUS • Context: The National Sports Council has just voted to change the colors, emblem and name of South Africa’s National Rugby Team, the Springboks. Upon hearing the news, Nelson Mandela (portrayed by Morgan Freeman) rushes to the meeting to persuade the Council to reconsider its vote. • Audience: • Purpose: • Effects: WHAT DOES THE TEXT SAY? • Text: Brothers, sisters, comrades, I am here because I believe you have made a decision with insufficient information and foresight. I am aware of your earlier vote. I am aware that it was unanimous. Commentary: Mandela lets the Council know from the outset that he disagrees with them. However, he is respectful of their authority and explicitly recognizes their vote and the fact that the vote was unanimous. WHAT DOES THE TEXT SAY? • Text: Nonetheless, I believe we should restore the Springboks. Restore their name, their emblem and their colors, immediately. • Commentary: He states his position clearly, forcefully and at the outset. There is no room for doubt. He still has his work cut out for him, but everyone knows where he stands. Coming clean with his audience at the outset will not likely win much support – but it should earn him some respect for having the courage to state his convictions openly. WHAT DOES THE TEXT SAY? • Text: Let me tell you why. On Robben Island, in Pollsmoor Prison, all of my jailers were Afrikaners. For 27 years, I studied them. I learned their language, read their books, their poetry. I had to know my enemy before I could prevail against him. • Commentary: Here begins the argument. He immediately seeks common ground with his audience. And that ground is obvious – the years of oppression that they all suffered under Apartheid. Of course, Mandela had it worse than most; but he doesn’t pity himself. Instead, he talks about the effort he went through to understand the “enemy” – a strong word – in order to prevail against him. WHAT DOES THE TEXT SAY? • Text: And we did prevail, did we not? All of us here … we prevailed. #1 Commentary: ?? WHAT DOES THE TEXT SAY? • Commentary: Again, seeking common ground. And also letting the audience know, subtly, that they have already won. There is no need to continue to fight. WHAT DOES THE TEXT SAY? • Text: Our enemy is no longer the Afrikaner. They are our fellow South Africans, our partners in democracy. • #2 Commentary: ?? WHAT DOES THE TEXT SAY? • Commentary: This comes as a shock to many in the audience, but Mandela has to get his point out: times have changed; we need to work together to build the country. It is here that he starts to appeal to his audience to think about a higher ideal. • Text: And they treasure Springbok rugby. If we take that away, we lose them. We prove that we are what they feared we would be. • #3 Commentary: ?? WHAT DOES THE TEXT SAY? • Commentary: Emphasizing that rugby is something more than a sport for the Afrikaners; it is something that runs deep within them. Note the gesture with his fist. And note also the caution at the end that the Council risks becoming, in a sense, as oppressive as the Afrikaners had been in the past. This is a powerful rhetorical tool – showing the audience that their position is similar to something against which they are adamantly opposed. WHAT DOES THE TEXT SAY? • Text: We have to be better than that. We have to surprise them with compassion, with restraint, and generosity • #4 Commentary: ?? WHAT DOES THE TEXT SAY? • Commentary: Another call to a higher ideal. WHAT DOES THE TEXT SAY? • Text: I know. All of the things they denied us. • #5 Commentary: ?? WHAT DOES THE TEXT SAY? • Commentary: Again recognizing the suffering of the audience in the past. WHAT DOES THE TEXT SAY? • Text: But this is no time to celebrate petty revenge. This is the time to build our nation using every single brick available to us – even if that brick comes wrapped in green and gold. • Commentary: ?? WHAT DOES THE TEXT SAY? • Commentary: But immediately appealing once more to the higher ideal and the importance of using every available resource to build the country. WHAT DOES THE TEXT SAY? • Text: You elected me your leader. Let me lead you now. Who is with me on this? Who is with me? • #6 Commentary: ?? WHAT DOES THE TEXT SAY? • Commentary: Asserting his authority and ending with a call to action. ANY GIVEN SUNDAY • Get into groups • Watch movie trailer • Watch Al Pacino’s speech • Fill in Audience, Purpose, Effects (of speech) • For group assignments: What do you notice in the speech? What’s Pacino saying? What’s the effect of different elements that you notice? High light these elements and write down notes. --Write down notes ANY GIVEN SUNDAY • Get into combined groups and compare notes • Present notes to class. Class take notes. “WHAT’S IN YOUR BACK PACK?” • Get into groups • Watch movie trailer • Watch George Clooney’s speech • Fill in Audience, Purpose, Effects (of speech) • For group assignments: What do you notice in the speech? What’s Clooney saying? What’s the effect of different elements that you notice? High light these elements and write down notes. --Write down notes WHAT’S IN YOUR BACK PACK? • Get into combined groups and compare notes • Present notes to class. Class take notes. COMP. BOOK #6 • What makes a good speech? • What does a speaker need to do? • What have you noticed works well in Morgan Freeman’s speech as Nelson Mandela and Al Pacino/George Clooney’s speeches? ANALYZING SPEECHES WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPEECHES AND RHETORIC? • Greek philosopher Aristotle defined rhetoric as “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.” Basically, it is the study and the art of using language effectively to persuade an audience. Speakers use rhetoric to persuade or compel the audiences of their speeches. CONTEXT & PURPOSE • Rhetoric is always situational – it has a context – the occasion or the time and place it was written or spoken – and a purpose or goal that the speaker or writer wants to achieve. CONTEXT • When considering context – consider current events or cultural bias that the speaker must take into account. PURPOSE • When considering purpose – ask if the speaker is trying to win agreement, persuade us to take action, evoke sympathy, make someone laugh, inform, provoke, celebrate, repudiate, put forth a proposal, secure support, or bring about a favorable decision ARISTOTLE’S RHETORICAL TRIANGLE • Before looking at the construction of arguments, it is first necessary to look at their shape and form. To do this, we must recognize that arguments occur within a social context--they are the process/product of people interacting, and relating. Over the years, several scholars have mapped out these relations, much as you would a family tree. Aristotle was the first to notice the similarities of arguments and stories. For Aristotle, the act of storytelling consisted of three elements: a story, a storyteller, and an audience. ARISTOTLE’S RHETORICAL TRIANGLE Storyteller------------------------>Story----------------------------->Audience Similarly, arguments also required these three elements: Speaker/Writer--------------------->Message------------------->Audience ARISTOTLE’S RHETORICAL TRIANGLE • Aristotle defined these three elements as ETHOS, LOGOS, and PATHOS. Since then, different scholars have conceived of different models of rhetoric, but the model we are concerned with comes from Robert Scholes. Realizing the three elements, Scholes examined the relationship between the speaker/message, speaker/audience, and message/audience. These three relations make up the three sides of the rhetorical triangle. You may use this triangle to map out the overall effectiveness of an argument. ARISTOTLE’S RHETORICAL TRIANGLE Note how the equilateral triangle below would refelct an argument with a careful balance of ethos, logos, and pathos. HOW DO SPEAKERS USE RHETORIC TO PERSUADE AUDIENCES? • According to Aristotle, speakers use the three corners of the rhetorical triangle to persuade audiences. ETHOS • Ethos – represents the author's ability to reveal his or her credibility through the tone established, his/her reputation, or the type or thoroughness of the information being presented. (speaker) ETHOS PATHOS • Pathos - represents the author's ability to appeal to the audience through the use of figurative language, allusions, personal anecdotes, etc. to engage their emotions. (audience) http://www.storyboardthat.com/userboards/kated/pathos-in-action PATHOS LOGOS • Logos - represents the author's ability to reveal logic and reason through their offering of a clear claim (or main idea), specific details, examples, facts, statistical data, or expert testimony and support. (subject) http://www.storyboardthat.com/userboards/kated/logos-in-action LOGOS YOUR TURN • You are to write appeals based on ethos, pathos and logos. • Your appeals must all be based on the same product or idea. • Be creative. • Have fun. • We will share these with the class. WORKS CITED • Docimo, Katherine. "Ethos, Pathos, Logos." Storyboardthat.com. N.p., 13 June 13. Web. 19 Sept. 14. DICTION • How does diction play a role in rhetoric? DICTION • The words speakers use shape an audience’s impression. Understanding how diction works is paramount to understanding rhetoric. QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER WHEN ANALYZING DICTION: • Which of the important words in the passage (verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs) are general and abstract? Which are specific and concrete? What is the effect of abstract words? What is the effect of concrete words? • Are the important words used formal, informal, colloquial, or slang? What is the effect of using formal diction? What is the effect of using slang? • Are some words used non-literal or figurative (figures of speech such as a metaphor or simile)? What is the effect of using a metaphor or simile? SYNTAX • Another important aspect to consider is syntax, or the organization of words into sentences QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER WHEN ANALYZING SYNTAX: • What is the order of the parts of the sentence? Is it the usual (subject-verbobject), or is it inverted? What is the effect of an inverted sentence? • Which part of speech is more prominent – nouns or verbs? What is the effect of a noun-heavy sentence? • What are the sentences like? Are they periodic (moving toward something important at the end) or cumulative (adding details and support as important idea in the beginning of the sentence)? What is the effect of using a periodic sentence? • Are the sentences short, medium length, or long? What is the effect of the length of sentences? “THE GETTYSBURG ADDRESS” • Take out your phones or computers. • Research The Battle of Gettysburg RHETORICAL DEVICES • The speech is full of rhetorical devices. • Each of these devices was chosen by Lincoln for a specific effect. YOUR TASK • Rewrite the speech removing ALL rhetorical features from it. • You are to create a speech with the same meaning, but without any flourish. • You will do this with your tablemate. • While you do this, I will check off your speech terms set. ENUMERATIO • Figure of amplification in which a subject is divided into constituent parts or details, and may include a listing of causes, effects, problems, solutions, conditions, and consequences; the listing or detailing of the parts of something. WARM UP: ENUMERTIO • "Much will be said about my father the man, the storyteller, the lover of costume parties, a practical joker, the accomplished painter. He was a lover of everything French: cheese, wine, and women. He was a mountain climber, navigator, skipper, tactician, airplane pilot, rodeo rider, ski jumper, dog lover, and all-around adventurer. Our family vacations left us all injured and exhausted. He was a dinner table debater and devil's advocate. He was an Irishman, and a proud member of the Democratic Party." -- Ted Kennedy, Jr., Eulogy for Ted Kennedy, Sr. http://www.americanrhetoric.com/figures/enumeratio.htm WARM-UP: ENUMERATIO Kramer: "Who's gonna turn down a Junior Mint? It's chocolate; it's peppermint; it's delicious." Seinfeld: "That's true." Kramer: "It's very refreshing!“ -- from the TV sitcom Seinfeld http://www.americanrhetoric.com/mp3clips/figures/seinfeldenumeratio.mp3 COMP. BOOK #8: SPEECH TERM WARM-UP: ENUMERATIO • Write a series of sentences which employ enumeratio. BACKGROUND RESEARCH “THE GETTYSBURG ADDRESS” PRESENTATION • Group Work • #1: Abraham Lincoln • #2: “The Gettysburg Address” • #3: The Battle of Gettysburg Directions: 1) Label each piece of butcher paper with title of subject (e.g. Abraham Lincoln) 2) List at least 6 facts about your assigned topic 3) Present your poster C.A.P.E. • Context: • Audience: • Purpose: • Effect(s): LISTEN TO “THE GETTYSBURG ADDRESS” • Colin Powell https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mn4pUQmimOc • Ken Burns https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ndmcgAsA1aI DISCUSS “THE GETTYSBURG ADDRESS” • What do you notice? • What is Abraham Lincoln saying? PARALLELISM Parallelism: Figure of balance identified by a similarity in the syntactical structure of a set of words in successive phrases, clauses, sentences; successive words, phrases, clauses with the same or very similar grammatical structure. This figure often occurs in a public address with others such as antithesis, anaphora, asyndeton. WARM-UP: PARALLELISM • "Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty.“ -- John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address http://www.americanrhetoric.com/mp3clips/figures/jf kparallelism.mp3 WARM-UP: PARALLELISM • "I've tried to offer leadership to the Democratic Party and the Nation. If, in my high moments, I have done some good, offered some service,shed some light, healed some wounds, rekindled some hope, or stirred someone from apathy and indifference, or in any way along the way helped somebody, then this campaign has not been in vain." -- Jesse Jackson, 1984 Democratic National Convention Address http://www.americanrhetoric.com/mp3clips/figures/jessejacksonparallelism.mp3 WARM-UP: PARALLELISM • "We have seen the state of our Union in the endurance of rescuers, working past exhaustion. We've seen the unfurling of flags, the lighting of candles, the giving of blood, the saying of prayers -- in English, Hebrew, and Arabic." George W. Bush, 9-20-01 Address to the Nation on Terrorism http://www.americanrhetoric.com/mp3clips/figures/georgewbushparallelism. mp3 COMP. BOOK #8: SPEECH TERM WARM-UP: PARALLELISM • Write a series of sentences which employ parallelism. ANAPHORA • Anaphora (an-NAF-ruh): Figure of repetition that occurs when the first word or set of words in one sentence, clause, or phrase is/are repeated at or very near the beginning of successive sentences, clauses, or phrases; repetition of the initial word(s) over successive phrases or clauses. WARM-UP:ANAPHORA • "To raise a happy, healthy, and hopeful child, it takes a family; it takesteachers; it takes clergy; it takes business people; it takes community leaders; it takes those who protect our health and safety. It takes all of us."-- Hillary Clinton, 1996 Democratic National Convention Address Note: Can you spot the alliteration? http://www.americanrhetoric.com/mp3clips/figures/ hillaryclintonanaphora.mp3 WARM-UP: ANAPHORA • "That my heart has been troubled, that I have not sought this nomination, that I could not seek it in good conscience, that I would not seek it in honest self-appraisal, is not to say that I value it the less. Rather, it is that I revere the office of the Presidency of the United States."-- Adlai Stevenson, 1952 DNC Presidential Nomination Acceptance Address http://www.americanrhetoric.com/mp3clips/figures/adlaistevensonanaphora. mp3 WARM-UP: ANAPHORA • "What we need in the United States is not division. What we need in the United States is not hatred. What we need in the United States is not violence and lawlessness; but is love and wisdom and compassion toward one another, and a feeling of justice toward those who still suffer within our country whether they be white or whether they be black." -- Robert F. Kennedy, Announcing the death of Martin Luther King http://www.americanrhetoric.com/mp3clips/figures/rfkanaphora.mp3 “SECOND INAUGURAL” • Today we are going to start looking at Lincoln’s “Second Inaugural” speech. • What is an inaugural speech? INTRODUCTION • Write an introduction as if you were writing an analysis essay for “The Gettysburg Address” • Details • Begin with a “hook” • Consider the background research you’ve done --The Battle of Gettysburg (1/3) --”The Gettysburg Address” (2/3) • Include a claim as the last sentence • Must be 5-8 sentences in length INTRO. HOOK---FIVE STRATEGIES • Make a controversial statement • Ask a question • Define your subject • Compare your subject to something compelling • Quote someone else BACKGROUND RESEARCH “SECOND INAUGURAL” Directions: GOAL: Establish context and purpose of this speech 1) Research Lincoln’s speech 2) Write down at least 6 facts on the back of the speech that you found. 3) Walk around room and add your research to the hanging posters. Your contribution must be original ANALYZING A SPEECH •What should do after you have established the context for the speech? ANALYZING A SPEECH • Read for comprehension • Circle unknown or interesting words • Patterns DISTINCTIO • Distinctio: Figure of explication (full explanation) in which an introductory reference to a word's meaning is made (e.g., "by x I mean", "which is to say that", "that is") followed by a further elaboration of that word's meaning; explicit definition of or elaboration upon the meaning or meanings of a particular word or set of words. WHICH RHETORICAL DEVICE IS IT? • "Let me walk you through the five procedural errors that occurred in conjunction with that mission [the flying of 12 cruise missiles back to Barksdale AFB, Louisiana] that facilitated this serious and unprecedented incident. As you see here -- if we'll bring up slide 1, please -- on the morning of August 29th, a team of Minot airmen was dispatched to the base Weapons Storage Area to pick up and transport two pylons to a Barksdale B52 aircraft. For those of you unfamiliar with the term "pylon," for our purposes today, a pylon is a self-contained package of six cruise missiles that can be quickly mounted to the wing of a B-52."-- U.S. Department of Defense briefing on B-52 munitions and the "Bent Spear" incident, delivered 20 October 2007 by Major General Richard Y. Newton III, USAF http://www.americanrhetoric.com/figures/distinctio.htm WHICH RHETORICAL DEVICE IS IT? • "I've been in football all my life, really, and I want to say this -- that it's a great game, and it's a Spartan type of game. I mean by that it takes Spartan qualities in order to be a part of it, to play it. And I speak of the Spartan qualities of sacrifice and self-denial rather than that other Spartan quality of leaving the weak to die." -- Vince Lombardi http://www.americanrhetoric.com/mp3clips/figures/vincelombardidistinctio.m p3 DISTINCTIO • "It was the best of times, it was the -- I say -- worst of times -- andby worse I'm talkin' as bad -- I say -- as bad as my aunt Jenny's corn puddin'. That stuff will sink you like a stone."-- delivered by Foghorn Leghorn for GEICO http://www.americanrhetoric.com/figures/distinctio.htm COMP. BOOK # DR. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. “I Have a Dream” BACKGROUND RESEARCH “I HAVE A DREAM” Directions: GOAL: Establish context and purpose of this speech • Research King’s speech • Write down at least 10 facts for the following topics: 1. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. 2. Civil Rights Movement (1960s) 3. “I Have a Dream” Speech SHARE RESEARCH • Get together in larger group according to topic • Discuss research • Compile research and create word doc. with top 10 points to be shared with the class • Email doc. to Mrs. Milstead: [email protected] TIME DUE: 1:15 • Groups present their research to the class. • Audience to take notes ANALYZING A SPEECH •What should do after you have established the context for the speech? ANALYZING A SPEECH • Read for comprehension • Circle unknown or interesting words • Patterns “I HAVE A DREAM” • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=smEqnnklfYs ANALYZING A SPEECH •The Big 5 of textual analysis •Tone/ Mood Sheet ANTITHESIS • Antithesis (an-TIH-theh-sis): Figure of balance in which two contrasting ideas are intentionally juxtaposed, usually through parallel structure; a contrasting of opposing ideas in adjacent phrases, clauses, or sentences. Ex: "He is no fool who gives what he cannot keep to gain that which he cannot lose" -- Jim Elliot • Ex: Lloyd Braun: "Serenity now; insanity later." -from Seinfeld episode "The Serenity Now" WHICH RHETORICAL DEVICE IS IT? • "I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. I have a dream today!"-- Martin Luther King, Jr., I Have a Dream http://www.americanrhetoric.com/mp3clips/figures /martinlutherkingantithesis.mp3 WHICH RHETORICAL DEVICE IS IT? • "The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here."-Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address (delivered by Jeff Daniels) http://www.americanrhetoric.com/mp3clips/figures/abrahamlincolnantithesis. mp3 ANTITHESIS • "...although the surface appears to be...very, very fine-grained as you get close to it. It's almost like a powder...Okay, I'm going to step off the LEM now. That's one small step for [a] man; one giant leap for mankind."-- Neil Armstrong, Apollo 11 Moon Landing Speech http://www.americanrhetoric.com/mp3clips/figures/ neilarmstrongantithesis.mp3 ANNOTATE THE SPEECH • Individually annotate assigned section • With a partner: • Share annotations/ continue to annotate assigned section of the speech for rhetorical terms • Prepare a PowerPoint presentation • Read passage • Explain what passage is about • Present annotations & their effects • Submit to turnitin.com • PowerPoint should be clear and easy to understand and see MINI SPEECH ASSIGNMENT • Speech opening, position, and point • 500 words MLA format MINI SPEECH ASSIGNMENT— BRAINSTORM TOPIC Individually…. Choose topic 1. State position 2. What points are you going to cover * Complete this work beneath the rubric on the back of the assignment sheet. Table partners… Share what you brainstormed MINI SPEECH ASSIGNMENT— OUTLINE I. Outline due: Friday, Oct. 10th A. typed B. bring two copies to class **Reference Milstead sample outline from Mrs.

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Haiku in English This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)(Learn how and when to remove this template message) A haiku in English is a very short poem in the English language, following to a greater or lesser extent the form and style of the Japanese haiku. A typical haiku is a three-line observation about a fleeting moment involving nature. The first haiku written in English date from the early 20th century, influenced by English translations of traditional Japanese haiku, and the form has grown in popularity ever since. Many well-known English-language poets have written some haiku, though—perhaps because of their brevity—they are not often considered an important part of their work[by whom?]. Haiku has also proven popular in English-language schools as a way to encourage the appreciation and writing of poetry. - 1 Typical characteristics - 2 Haiku movement in North America - 3 Variant forms - 4 Publications in North America - 5 Publications in other English-speaking countries - 6 Notable English-language haiku poets - 7 See also - 8 Notes - 9 Further reading "Haiku" is a term sometimes loosely applied to any short, impressionistic poem, but there are certain characteristics that are commonly associated with the genre: - a focus on some aspect of nature or the seasons - division into two asymmetrical sections, usually with a cut at the end of the first or second section, creating a juxtaposition of two subjects (e.g. something large and something small, something natural and something human-made, two unexpectedly similar things, etc.) - a contemplative or wistful tone and an impressionistic brevity - elliptical "telegram style" syntax and no superfluous words - imagery predominates over ideas and statements, so that meaning is typically suggestive, requiring reader participation - avoidance of metaphor and similes - non-rhyming lines Some additional traits are especially associated with English-language haiku (as opposed to Japanese-language haiku): - a three-line format with 17 syllables arranged in a 5–7–5 pattern;[a] or about 10 to 14 syllables, which more nearly approximates the duration of a Japanese haiku with the second line usually the longest. Some poets want their haiku to be expressed in one breath - little or no punctuation or capitalization, except that cuts are sometimes marked with dashes or ellipses and proper nouns are usually capitalized Haiku movement in North America Arguably, the first successful haiku in English was "In a Station of the Metro" by Ezra Pound, published in 1913. During the Imagist period, a number of mainstream poets, including Pound, wrote what they called hokku, usually in a five-six-four syllable pattern. American poet Amy Lowell published several hokku in her book "What's O'Clock" (1925; winner of the Pulitzer Prize). Individualistic haiku-like verses by the innovative Buddhist poet and artist Paul Reps (1895–1990) appeared in print as early as 1939 (More Power to You—Poems everyone Can Make, Preview Publications, Montrose CA.). Inspired by R. H. Blyth's translations, other Westerners, including those of the Beat period, such as Gary Snyder, Jack Kerouac, Richard Wright and James W. Hackett, wrote original haiku in English. Snow in my shoe Sparrow's nest— Jack Kerouac, collected in Book of Haikus, 2003 African-American novelist Richard Wright, in his final years, composed some 4,000 haiku, 817 of which are collected in the volume Haiku: This Other World. Wright hewed to a 5-7-5 syllabic structure for most of these pieces. Whitecaps on the bay: A broken signboard banging In the April wind.— Richard Wright, collected in Haiku: This Other World, 1998 In 1966 Helen Stiles Chenoweth compiled Borrowed Water, an early anthology of American haiku featuring the work by the Los Altos Roundtable. The experimental work of Beat and minority haiku poets expanded the popularity of haiku in English. Despite claims that haiku has not had much impact on the literary scene, a number of mainstream poets, such as W. H. Auden, Richard Wilbur, James Merrill, Etheridge Knight, William Stafford, W. S. Merwin, John Ashbery, Donald Hall, Ruth Stone, Sonia Sanchez, Billy Collins, (as well as Seamus Heaney, Wendy Cope, and Paul Muldoon in Ireland and Britain) and others have tried their hand at haiku. In 1963 the journal American Haiku was founded in Platteville, Wisconsin, edited by the European-Americans James Bull and Donald Eulert. Among contributors to the first issue were poets James W. Hackett, O Mabson Southard (1911–2000), and Nick Virgilio. In the second issue of American Haiku Virgilio published his "lily" and "bass" haiku, which became models of brevity, breaking down the traditional 5-7-5 syllabic form, and pointing toward the leaner conception of haiku that would take hold in subsequent decades. out of the water out of itself off the moon— Nick Virgilio, Selected Haiku, 1988 American Haiku ended publication in 1968 and was succeeded by Modern Haiku in 1969, which remains an important English-language haiku journal. Other early journals included Haiku Highlights (founded 1965 by European-American writer Jean Calkins and later taken over by the European-American writer Lorraine Ellis Harr who changed the name to Dragonfly), Eric Amann's Haiku (founded 1967), and Haiku West (founded 1967). The first English-language haiku society in America, founded in 1956, was the Writers' Roundtable of Los Altos, California, under the direction of Helen Stiles Chenoweth. The Haiku Society of America was founded in 1968 and began publishing its journal Frogpond in 1978. Important resources for poets and scholars attempting to understand English-language haiku aesthetics and history include William J. Higginson's Haiku Handbook (McGraw-Hill, 1985) and Lee Gurga's Haiku: A Poet's Guide (Modern Haiku Press, 2003). Significant contributors to American haiku include Hackett, Virgilio, Charles B. Dickson (1915–1991), Elizabeth Searle Lamb (1917–2005), Raymond Roseliep (1917–1983), Robert Spiess (1921–2002), John Wills (1921–1993), Anita Virgil (b. 1931), and Peggy Willis Lyles (1939–2010). T-shirt— Raymond Roseliep, Rabbit in the Moon, Alembic Press, 1983 - an aging willow-- - its image unsteady - in the flowing stream - Robert Spiess (Red Moon Anthology, Red Moon Press, 1996) Other major figures still active in the American haiku community include Lee Gurga, Christopher Herold, Gary Hotham, Jim Kacian, Michael McClintock, Marlene Mountain, Marian Olson, Alan Pizzarelli, Alexis Rotella, John Stevenson, George Swede, vincent tripi, Michael Dylan Welch, and Ruth Yarrow. Examples: he watches my gauze dress blowing on the line.— Alexis Rotella, After an Affair, Merging Media, 1984 will you outlive me?— Cor van den Heuvel, Haiku Anthology, 3rd ed. 1999 a gentle wave wets our sandals— Michael Dylan Welch, HSA Newsletter XV:4, Autumn 2000 Pioneering haiku poet Cor van den Heuvel has edited the standard Haiku Anthology (1st ed., 1974; 2nd ed., 1986; 3rd ed. 1999). Since its most recent edition, another generation of American haiku poets has come to prominence. Among the most widely published and honored of these poets are John Barlow, Cherie Hunter Day, Carolyn Hall, paul m., John Martone, Chad Lee Robinson, Billie Wilson, and Peter Yovu. Newer poets exemplify divergent tendencies, from self-effacing nature-oriented haiku (Allan Burns) to Zen themes perpetuating the concepts of Blyth and Hackett (Stanford M. Forrester), poignant haiku-senryū hybrids in the manner of Rotella and Swede (Roberta Beary), the use of subjective, surreal, and mythic elements (Fay Aoyagi), emergent social and political consciousness (John J. Dunphy), and genre-bending structural and linguistic experimentation as well as "found haiku" (Scott Metz). The American Haiku Archives, the largest public archive of haiku-related material outside Japan, was founded in 1996. It is housed at the California State Library in Sacramento, California, and includes the official archives of the Haiku Society of America, along with significant donations from the libraries of Lorraine Ellis Harr, Jerry Kilbride, Elizabeth Searle Lamb, Francine Porad, Jane Reichhold, and many others. Although the vast majority of haiku published in English are three lines long, variants also occur. One line (monoku) The most common variation from the three-line standard is one line, sometimes called a monoku. It emerged from being more than an occasional exception during the late 1970s. The one-line form, based on an analogy with the one-line vertical column in which Japanese haiku are often printed, was lent legitimacy principally by three people: - Marlene Mountain was one of the first English-language haiku poets to write haiku regularly in a single horizontal line - Hiroaki Sato translated Japanese haiku into one line in English - Matsuo Allard wrote essays in its favor and published several magazines and chapbooks devoted to the form, in addition to practicing it Himyarites The single-line haiku usually contains fewer than seventeen syllables. A caesura (pause) may be appropriate, dictated by sense or speech rhythm (following the traditional Japanese tradition of a break, marked by the Kireji), and usually little or no punctuation. This form was used by John Wills and, more recently, has been practiced by poets such as M. Kettner, Janice Bostok, Jim Kacian, Chris Gordon, Scott Metz, Stuart Quine, John Barlow, and many others. an icicle the moon drifting through it— Matsuo Allard, Bird Day Afternoon, High/Coo Press, 1978 pig and i spring rain— Marlene Mountain, Frogpond 2.3-4, 1979 the thyme-scented morning lizard's tongue flicking out— Martin Lucas, Presence 39, 2009 i hope i'm right where the river ice ends— Jim Kacian, Frogpond 35.2, 2012 As the last two examples in particular illustrate, the one-line form can create a variety of ambiguities involving the perceived placement of cuts and the grammatical status of individual words, thereby allowing for multiple readings of the same haiku. A variation of the format breaks the line at the caesura or pause. At its most minimal, a single word may occasionally be claimed to be a haiku: tundra— Cor van den Heuvel, the window-washer's pail, 1963 core— John Stevenson, Live Again, 2009 The first was printed alone on an otherwise blank page and arguably only "works" in that context. The second example is an allusion to the first and also depends on its placement at the center of a haiku collection. Four or more lines Haiku of four lines (sometimes known as haiqua) or longer have been written, some of them "vertical haiku" with only a word or two per line. These poems mimic the vertical printed form of Japanese haiku. satisfied after love looking up at nothing— pw, Blithe Spirit, 10:4, 2000 stone— Marlene Wills, the old tin roof, 1976 The translator Nobuyuki Yuasa considered four lines more appropriate in his translations, being closest to the natural conversational rhythm of the colloquial language of haiku, also that three lines did not carry the weight of hokku and found it impossible to use 'three lines' consistently for his translations. The contemporary poet John Martone has written a vast number of vertical haiku. Haiku have also appeared in circular form (sometimes known as cirku) whereby the poem has no fixed start or end point. |buoyed up||on the rising tide| |a fleet of head boards||bang the wall| — John Carley, Magma No 19, 2001 Publications in North America The leading English-language haiku journals published in the U.S. include Modern Haiku, Frogpond (published by the Haiku Society of America), Mayfly (founded by Randy and Shirley Brooks in 1986), Acorn (founded by A. C. Missias in 1998), Bottle Rockets (founded by Stanford M. Forrester), The Heron's Nest (founded by Christopher Herold in 1999, published online with a print annual), and Tinywords (founded by Dylan F. Tweney in 2001). Some significant defunct publications include Brussels Sprout (edited from 1988 to 1995 by Francine Porad), Woodnotes (edited from 1989 to 1997 by Michael Dylan Welch), Hal Roth's Wind Chimes, Wisteria, and Moonset (edited from 2005 to 2009 by an'ya (Andja Petrović)). The largest publisher of haiku books in North America is Jim Kacian's Red Moon Press. Other notable American publishers of haiku books include Press Here, Bottle Rockets Press, Brooks Books, and Turtle Light Press. Publications in other English-speaking countries In the UK, the British Haiku Society publishes Blithe Spirit, and the World Haiku Club publishes The World Haiku Review. Another leading haiku magazine in the UK is Presence (formerly Haiku Presence), which was edited for many years by Martin Lucas (1962-2014). In Ireland, twenty issues of Haiku Spirit edited by Jim Norton were published between 1995 and 2000. Shamrock, the online journal of the Irish Haiku Society edited by Anatoly Kudryavitsky, has been publishing international haiku in English since 2007. In Australia, twenty issues of Yellow Moon, a literary magazine for writers of haiku and other verse, were published between 1997 and 2006 (issues 1-8 were edited by Patricia Kelsall; issues 9-20 by Beverley George). Nowadays Paper Wasp is published in Australia, Kokako in New Zealand and Chrysanthemum (bilingual German/English) in Germany and Austria. Two other online English-language haiku journals founded outside North America, A Hundred Gourds and Notes from the Gean, are now defunct. John Barlow's Snapshot Press is a notable UK-based publisher of haiku books. Notable English-language haiku poets - Lewis Grandison Alexander - John Brandi - Ross Clark - Billy Collins - Cid Corman - Tyler Knott Gregson - Lee Gurga - James William Hackett - William J. Higginson - Jim Kacian - Jack Kerouac - James Kirkup - Etheridge Knight - Anatoly Kudryavitsky - Lenard D. Moore - Alan Pizzarelli - Paul Reps - Kenneth Rexroth - Raymond Roseliep - Gabriel Rosenstock - Sonia Sanchez - Gary Snyder - George Swede - Wally Swist - Cor van den Heuvel - Nick Virgilio - Gerald Vizenor - Paul O. Williams - Richard Wright - Haiku—history and development of haiku in Japan - Haikai—genre of haiku-related forms - Hokku—opening verse of the renku, from which haiku derived - Renku—form of linked poetry from which haiku is derived - Senryū—satirical verse similar in form to haiku - Show, don't tell - Verbless poetry - Scifaiku—science fiction pseudo-haiku - Zappai—humorous verse similar in form to haiku - Matsuyama Declaration - Masaoka Shiki International Haiku Awards - Comprising 5 syllables on the first line, 7 on the second and 5 on the third - The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th edition. Houghton Mifflin Company. 2009. A Japanese lyric verse form having three unrhymed lines of five, seven, and five syllables, traditionally invoking an aspect of nature or the seasons. - Definition of haiku by the Haiku Society of America - Garrison, Denis M. Hidden River: Haiku. Modern English Tanka Press. p. iii. ISBN 978-0-615-13825-1. - Reichhold, 2002 p.21 - Gurga, 2003 p.105 - "How to Write a Haiku Poem: Haiku Examples and Tips". Creative Writing Now. William Victor, S.L. Retrieved 2013-05-14. Traditionally, haiku is written in three lines, with five syllables in the first line, seven syllables in the second line, and five syllables in the third line. - "Send your name & message to Mars!". Going to Mars with MAVEN. University of Colorado: Boulder. Retrieved 2013-05-14. For the MAVEN contest, we are defining a haiku as a poem made of three lines; the first and last lines must have exactly five syllables each and the middle line must have exactly seven syllables. - Shirane, Haruo. Love in the Four Seasons, in Acta Universitatis Carolinae, Orientalia Pragensia XV, 2005, p135 - Ross, Bruce; How to Haiku; Tuttle Publishing 2002 p.19 ISBN 0-8048-3232-3 - Gurga, Lee; Haiku - A Poet's Guide; Modern Haiku Press 2003 p.16 ISBN 0-9741894-0-5 - Higginson, William J., The Haiku Handbook, McGraw-Hill, 1985, pp. 101-102 ISBN 0-07-028786-4. - Spiess, Robert; Modern Haiku vol. XXXII No. 1 p. 57 "A haiku does not exceed a breath's length." ISSN 0026-7821 - Reichhold, Jane; Writing and Enjoying Haiku - A Hands-On Guide; Kodansha 2002 p.30 and p.75 ISBN 4-7700-2886-5 - Gurga, 2003, p.2 and p.15 - Haiku in English: The First Hundred Years, eds. Jim Kacian, Philip Rowland, and Allan Burns, W.W. Norton & Co, New York, 2013 - Richard Wright's haiku on Terebess Asia Online - Biography of Lorraine Ellis Harr on the Aha Poetry website - Van den Heuvel, Cor. The Haiku Anthology 2nd edition. Simon & Schuster 1986. ISBN 0671628372 p10 - Higginson, William, 'From One-line Poems to Haiku' Haiku Clinic #3 , Simply Haiku.com - William J. Higginson. From One-line Poems to One-line Haiku - "BROKEN MONOKU- haiku in one broken line". MONOKU. Retrieved 11 November 2015. - Gill, Stephen Henry et al., editors. Seasons of the Gods Hailstone Haiku Circle, Kansai, 2007. ISBN 978-4-9900822-3-9 p.2 - Yuasa, Nobuyuki, Introduction 'The Narrow Road and other Travel sketches' by Matsuo Basho, Penguin Classics, London 1966 ISBN 9780140441857 - Zip School on Carley's website - Zips in Magma No 19 - Winter 2001 - The Lune: The English Language Haiku by Holly Bliss at GoArticles.com - Lipson, Greta B. Poetry Writing Handbook: Definitions, Examples, Lessons. Lorenz Educational Press, 1998. ISBN 9781573101080 p53 - The Haiku Society of America. A Haiku Path. Haiku Society of America, Inc., 1994. - Henderson, Harold G. An Introduction to Haiku. Hokuseido Press, 1948. - Henderson, Harold G. Haiku in English. Charles E. Tuttle Co., 1967. - Higginson, William J. and Harter, Penny. The Haiku Handbook, How to Write, Share, and Teach Haiku. Kodansha, 1989. ISBN 4-7700-1430-9. - Higginson, William J. Haiku World: An International Poetry Almanac. Kodansha, 1996. ISBN 4-7700-2090-2. - Hirshfield, Jane. The Heart of Haiku (Kindle Single, 2011) - Sato, Hiroaki. One Hundred Frogs, from renga to haiku to English. Weatherhill, 1983. ISBN 0-8348-0176-0. - Suiter, John. Poets on the Peaks: Gary Snyder, Philip Whalen & Jack Kerouac in the Cascades. Counterpoint, 2002. ISBN 1-58243-148-5; ISBN 1-58243-294-5 (pbk). - Yasuda, Kenneth. Japanese Haiku: Its Essential Nature, History, and Possibilities in English. Tuttle, 1957. ISBN 0-8048-1096-6. - Global Haiku. Eds. George Swede and Randy Brooks. IRON Press, 2000. - Haiku 21. Eds. Lee Gurga and Scott Metz. Modern Haiku Press, 2011. - The Haiku Anthology. Ed. Cor van den Heuvel. Anchor Books, 1974 - The Haiku Anthology. 2nd ed. Ed. Cor van den Heuvel. Simon & Schuster, 1986. - The Haiku Anthology. 3rd ed. Ed. Cor van den Heuvel. W.W. Norton, 1999. - Haiku in English. Eds. Jim Kacian, Philip Rowland, and Allan Burns. W.W. Norton, 2013. - Haiku Moment. Ed. Bruce Ross. Charles E. Tuttle Co., 1993. - The San Francisco Haiku Anthology. Eds. Jerry Ball, Garry Gay, and Tom Tico. Smythe-Waithe Press, 1992. - The Unswept Path. Eds. John Brandi and Dennis Maloney. White Pine Press, 2005. - Where the River Goes: The Nature Tradition in English-Language Haiku. Ed. Allan Burns. Snapshot Press, 2013. - A Guide to Haiku Publications, 2008 from HSA Techniques and papers - Jane Reichhold on haiku techniques - English Haiku : A Composite View on the British Haiku Society website - Haiku Chronicles – a free educational podcast designed to provide a better understanding and appreciation of the art of haiku and its related forms. - "In The Moonlight a Worm..." - an educational site on haiku writing techniques.

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Study Guide Literary Terms Study Guide Literary Terms AP Literary and Rhetorical Terms 1. 2. alliteration- Used for poetic effect, a repetition of the initial sounds of several words in a group. The following line from Robert Frost’s poem “Acquainted with the Night provides us with an example of alliteration,”: I have stood still and stopped the sound of feet. ” The repetition of the s sound creates a sense of quiet, reinforcing the meaning of the line 3. allegory – Where every aspect of a story is representative, usually symbolic, of something else, usually a larger abstract concept or important historical/geopolitical event. Lord of the Flies provides a compelling allegory of human nature, illustrating the three sides of the psyche through its sharply-defined main characters. A form of extended metaphor, in which objects, persons, and actions in a narrative, are equated with the meanings that lie outside the narrative itself. The underlying meaning has moral, social, religious, or political significance, and characters are often personifications of abstract ideas as charity, greed, or envy. Thus an allegory is a story with two meanings, a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning 4. Allusion- A reference in one literary work to a character or theme found in another literary work. T. S. Eliot, in “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” alludes (refers) to the biblical figure John the Baptist in the line Though I have seen my head (grown slightly bald) brought in upon a platter, . . . In the New Testament, John the Baptist’s head was presented to King Herod on a platter 5. ambiguity-A statement which can contain two or more meanings. For example, when the oracle at Delphi told Croesus that if he waged war on Cyrus he would destroy a great empire, Croesus thought the oracle meant his enemy’s empire. In fact, the empire Croesus destroyed by going to war was his own 6. analogy- A comparison of two different things that are alike in some way (see metaphor and simile). Analogy is the comparison of two pairs which have the same relationship. The key is to ascertain the relationship between the first so you can choose the correct second pair. Part to whole, opposites, results of are types of relationships you should find. Example: hot is to cold as fire is to ice OR hot:cold::fire:ice 7. antecedent- Grammar. A word, phrase, or clause, usually a substantive, that is replaced by a pronoun or other substitute later, or occasionally earlier, in the same or in another, usually subsequent, sentence. In Jane lost a glove and she can’t find it, Jane is the antecedent of she and glove is the antecedent of it. Logic. the conditional element in a proposition, as “Caesar conquered Gaul,” in “If Caesar conquered Gaul, he was a great general. ” 8. Anthropomorphism: Where animals or inanimate objects are portrayed in a story as people, such as by walking, talking, or being given arms, legs, facial features, human locomotion or other anthropoid form. (This technique is often incorrectly called personification. )The King and Queen of Hearts and their playing-card courtiers comprise only one example of Carroll’s extensive use of anthropomorphism in Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland 9. Aphorism-A brief statement which expresses an observation on life, usually intended as a wise observation. Benjamin Franklin’s “Poor Richard’s Almanac” contains numerous examples, one of which is Drive thy business; let it not drive thee. A brief saying embodying a moral, a concise statement of a principle or precept given in pointed words. Example: Hippocrates: Life is short, art is long, opportunity fleeting, experimenting dangerous, reasoning difficult. Pope: Some praise at morning what they blame at night. Emerson: Imitation is suicide Franklin: Lost Time is never Found again. 10. Apostrophe- A figure of speech wherein the speaker speaks directly to something nonhuman. In these lines from John Donne’s poem “The Sun Rising” the poet scolds the sun for interrupting his nighttime activities: Busy old fool, unruly sun, Why dost thou thus, Through windows, and through curtains call on us? An absent person, an abstract concept, or an important object is directly addressed. Example: With how sad steps, O moon, thou climbest the skies. Busy old fool, unruly sun. 11. archetype-something that serves as a model or a basis for making copies; “this painting is a copy of the original” [syn: original] 12. atmosphere- the dominant mood or emotional tone of a work of art, as of a play or novel: the chilly atmosphere of a ghost story. 13. antithesis- opposition, or contrast of ideas or words in a balanced or parallel construction. *Extremism in defense of liberty is no vice, moderation in the pursuit of justice is no virtue. Barry Goldwater *Brutus: Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more. Shakespeare, Julius Caesar 14. Anecdote A very short tale told by a character in a literary work. In Chaucer’s “Canterbury Tales,” “The Miller’s Tale” and “The Carpenter’s Tale” are examples a short account of a particular incident or event of an interesting or amusing nature, often biographical 15. antagonist- A person or force which opposes the protagonist in a literary work. In Stephen Vincent Benet’s “The Devil and Daniel Webster,” Mr. Scratch is Daniel Webster’s antagonist at the trial of Jabez Stone. The cold, in Jack London’s “To Build a Fire” is the antagonist that defeats the man on the trail 16. Anticlimax- an event, conclusion, statement that is far less important, powerful, or striking than expected. A disappointing, weak, or inglorious conclusion. A noticeable or ludicrous descent from lofty ideas or expressions. 17. argumentation writing-the process of developing or presenting an argument; reasoning. The setting forth of reasons together with the conclusion drawn from them. 18. assonance- The repetition of vowel sounds in a literary work, especially in a poem 19. attitude- manner, disposition, feeling, position, etc. , with regard to a person or thing; tendency or orientation, esp. of the mind: a negative attitude; group attitudes 20. audience- listeners or viewers collectively 21. caricature- a picture, description, etc. , ludicrously exaggerating the peculiarities or defects of persons or things: His caricature of the mayor in this morning’s paper is the best he’s ever drawn. any imitation or copy so distorted or inferior as to be ludicrous . a description of a person using exaggeration of some characteristics and oversimplification of others. 22. causal analysis writing- seeks to identify and understand the reasons why things are as they are and hence enabling focus of change activity. Causal analysis links actions or events along a time line, but it differs from process analysis in that it tells us why something happens, is happening, or will probably happen. Therefore, a causal analysis can serve one or more of four main purposes: to entertain, to inform, to speculate, and to argue. Cause/Effect Writing 23. clause-a syntactic construction containing a subject and predicate and forming part of a sentence or constituting a whole simple sentence 24. cliche-a trite, stereotyped expression. A sentence or phrase, usually expressing a popular or common thought or idea, that has lost originality, ingenuity, and impact by long overuse 25. colloquial- kuh-loh-kwee-uh[pic]l-characteristic of or appropriate to ordinary or familiar conversation rather than formal speech or writing; informal. 26. conceit- an elaborate, fanciful metaphor. A far-fetched metaphor when the speaker compares two highly dissimilar things. 27. connotation- the associated or secondary meaning of a word or expression in addition to its explicit or primary meaning: A possible connotation of “home” is “a place of warmth, comfort, and affection. ”Implied meaning of a word. The denotation of a word is its dictionary definition. In literary criticism, a word’s denotation is its primary or literal significance, whereas connotation is the range of secondary significance which a word commonly suggests. For instance, the word “sea” denotes a large body of water, but its connotative meaning includes the sense of overwhelming space, danger, instability; whereas “earth” connotes safety, fertility and stability. 28. claim-to assert or maintain as a fact: Ex. She claimed that he was telling the truth.29. classification and division- In a classification essay, a writer organizes, or sorts, things into categories. Division separates items into categories. 30. coherence- logical interconnection; overall sense or understandability. The property of unity in a written text or a segment of spoken discourse that stems from the links among its underlying ideas and from the logical organization and development of its thematic content 31. climax- The decisive moment in a drama, the climax is the turning point of the play to which the rising action leads. This is the crucial part of the drama, the part which determines the outcome of the conflict. In Shakespeare’s “Julius Caesar” the climax occurs at the end of Marc Antony’s speech to the Roman public. In the climax to the film “Star Wars,” the empire’s death star is ready to destroy the rebel base. Luke Skywalker and rebel pilots attack the base, and after the deaths of some rebel pilots, Skywalker successfully fires his missile into the death star’s vulnerable spot and destroys the death star, saving the rebel forces. 32.abstract- thought of apart from concrete realities, specific objects, or actual instances: an abstract idea. Expressing a quality or characteristic apart from any specific object or instance, as justice, poverty, and speed. 33. concrete- representing or applied to an actual substance or thing, as opposed to an abstract quality: The words “cat,” “water,” and “teacher” are concrete, whereas the words “truth,” “excellence,” and “adulthood” are abstract. 34. definition writing: A definition essay is writing that explains what a term means 35.denotation- In literary criticism, a word’s denotation is its primary or literal significance. The explicit or direct meaning or set of meanings of a word or expression, as distinguished from the ideas or meanings associated with it or suggested by it; the association or set of associations that a word usually elicits for most speakers of a language, as distinguished from those elicited for any individual speaker because of personal experience. For instance, the word “sea” denotes a large body of water 36. diction- An author’s choice of words. Since words have specific meanings, and since one’s choice of words can affect feelings, a writer’s choice of words can have great impact in a literary work. The writer, therefore, must choose his words carefully. Discussing his novel “A Farewell to Arms” during an interview, Ernest Hemingway stated that he had to rewrite the ending thirty-nine times. When asked what the most difficult thing about finishing the novel was, Hemingway answered, “Getting the words right. ” 37. didactic- Literature designed explicitly to instruct. Teaching or intending to teach a moral lesson. Ex. Fables (tortoise and hare) 38. details (choice of): the specific details used to support or illustrate a point 39. dialect: The way we speak. A regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, especially a variety of speech differing from the standard literary language or speech pattern of the culture in which it exists: Cockney is a dialect of English. She had a Southern dialect. 40. dialogue: a conversation between characters 41. dramatic monologue: the occurrence of a single speaker saying something to a silent audience. Robert Browning’s “My Last Duchess” is an example wherein the duke, speaking to a non-responding representative of the family of a prospective new duchess, reveals not only the reasons for his disapproval of the behavior of his former duchess, but aspects of his own personality as well. 42. digression from topic: a temporary departure from one subject to another more or less distantly related topic before the discussion of the first subject is resumed. A valuable technique in the art of storytelling, digression is also employed in many kinds of non?fictional writing and oratory. 43. discourse: communication of thought by words; talk; conversation: earnest and intelligent discourse. a formal discussion of a subject in speech or writing, as a dissertation, treatise, sermon. to communicate thoughts orally; talk; converse. to treat of a subject formally in speech or writing. 44. dominant impression: Dominant impression in descriptive writing is the principal effect the author wishes to create for the audience. a descriptive essay has one, clear dominant impression. If, for example you are describing a snowfall, it is important for you to decide and to let your reader know if it is threatening or lovely; in order to have one dominant impression it cannot be both. The dominant impression guides the author’s selection of detail and is thereby made clear to the reader in the thesis sentence. 45. editorializing: to set forth one’s position or opinion on some subject in, or as if in, an editorial. To inject personal interpretations or opinions into an otherwise factual account 46. emotive imagery: Imagery that is relating to emotion: the emotive aspect of symbols. Characterized by, expressing, or exciting emotion: 47. euphemism: is the use of roundabout language to replace colloquial terms that are considered too blunt or unpleasant. “Passed away” replaces “died, croaked, kicked the bucket”; Upset stomach replaces “puked, yakked, barfed” 48. extended metaphor: also called a conceit, is a metaphor that continues into the sentences that follows. An extended metaphor is also a metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work 49. evidence: that which tends to prove or disprove something; ground for belief; proof.something that makes plain or clear; an indication or sign: His flushed look was visible evidence of his fever. 50. epiphany: a sudden, intuitive perception of or insight into the reality or essential meaning of something, usually initiated by some simple, homely, or commonplace occurrence or experience. A literary work or section of a work presenting, usually symbolically, such a moment of revelation and insight. Ex. Rainsford has an epiphany in “The Most Dangerous Game” once he realizes that General Zaroff hunts humans, not animals. 51.epithet: a word which makes the reader see the object described in a clearer or sharper light. It is both exact and imaginative. Distinctive epithets are found in the ancient Greek classic, The Odyssey: wine-dark sea…… wave-girdled island,” blindfolding night. ” Our national flag is a star- spangled banner. ” In “Thanatopsis” Bryant (more poems) speaks of the ocean’s “gray and melancholy waste. In literature, a word of phrase preceding or following a name which serves to describe the character. Consider the following from Book 1 of Homer’s “The Iliad:” Zeus-loved Achilles, you bid me explain the wrath of far-smiting Apollo. 52. escape literature: Escape literature is written for entertainment. This type of work may still have some literary value, but its primary purpose is to help us pass the time or to escape into an alternate reality. Literature written purely for entertainment, with little or no attempt to provide insights into the true nature of human life or behavior Ex. Romance novels, science fiction, 53. exposition: In drama, the presentation of essential information regarding what has occurred prior to the beginning of the play. In the exposition to William Shakespeare’s “Romeo and Juliet,” two servants of the house of Capulet discuss the feud between their master and the house of Montague, thereby letting the audience know that such a feud exists and that it will play an important role in influencing the plot. 54. equivocation: the use of equivocal or ambiguous expressions, esp. in order to mislead or hedge; prevarication. a fallacy caused by the double meaning of a word. intentionally vague or ambiguous. Equivocation is the use in a syllogism (a logical chain of reasoning) of a term several times, but giving the term a different meaning each time. For example: A feather is light. What is light cannot be dark. Therefore, a feather cannot be dark. 55. Ethos: Ethos (Credibility), or ethical appeal, means convincing by the character of the author. We tend to believe people whom we respect. One of the central problems of argumentation is to project an impression to the reader that you are someone worth listening to, in other words making yourself as author into an authority on the subject of the paper, as well as someone who is likable and worthy of respect. A rhetoric technique used to directly appeal to an authority in order to strengthen your argument. It is important to notice that ethos does not belong to the speaker, but to the audience. If you are the speaker, your audience determines whether you are a high or low ethos speaker. Violations of ethos can entail some of the following: The speaker has a direct interest in the outcome of the debate (e. g. a person pleading innocence of a crime); The speaker has a vested interest or ulterior motive in the outcome of the debate;The speaker has no expertise (e. g.a lawyer giving a speech on space flight carries less gravity than an astronaut giving the same speech). The moral element in dramatic literature that determines a character’s action rather than his or her thought or emotion. Persuasion through convincing listeners of one’s moral competence 56. farce: A type of comedy based on a humorous situation such as a bank robber who mistakenly wanders into a police station to hide. It is the situation here which provides the humor, not the cleverness of plot or lines, nor the absurdities of the character, as in situational comedy. A light, humorous play in which the plot depends upon a skillfully exploited situation rather than upon the development of character. foolish show; mockery; a ridiculous sham. humor of the type displayed in such works. Mrs. Doubtfire 57. figurative language: A way of saying one thing and meaning something else. Take, for example, this line by Robert Burns, My luv is a red, red rose. Clearly Mr. Burns does not really mean that he has fallen in love with a red, aromatic, many-petalled, long, thorny-stemmed plant. He means that his love is as sweet and as delicate as a rose. Language enriched by word meanings and figures of speech (ie, similes, metaphors, personification, hyperbole). Words in figurative expressions connote additional layers of meaning 58. figure of speech: An example of figurative language that states something that is not literally true in order to create an effect. Similes, metaphors and personification are figures of speech which are based on comparisons. Metonymy, synecdoche, apostrophe, oxymoron, and hyperbole are other figures of speech. Literary device used to create a special effect or feeling, often by making some type of comparison. See Hyperbole, Metaphor, Simile, Understatemen 59. foil: A foil is a character that contrasts with another character, usually the protagonist and, in so doing, highlights various facets of the main character’s personality. A character in a play who sets off the main character or other characters by comparison. In Shakespeare’s “Hamlet” Hamlet and Laertes are young men who behave very differently. 60. foreshadowing: a method used to build suspense by providing hints of what is to come 61. ellipsis: the omission from a sentence or other construction of one or more words that would complete or clarify the construction, as the omission of who are, while I am, or while we are from I like to interview people sitting down. The omission of one or more items from a construction in order to avoid repeating the identical or equivalent items that are in a preceding or following construction, as the omission of been to Paris from the second clause of I’ve been to Paris, but they haven’t. 62. epigraph: A brief quotation which appears at the beginning of a literary work 63. genre: A literary type or form. Drama is a genre of literature 64. homily: a sermon, usually on a Biblical topic and usually of a nondoctrinal nature. an admonitory or moralizing discourse. an inspirational saying or cliche. n colloquial usage, homily often means a sermon concerning a practical matter, a moralizing lecture or admonition, or an inspirational saying or platitude 65. hyperbole: figure of speech in which an overstatement or exaggeration occurs. Ex. I’m so hungry I could eat a horse 66. imagery: A word or group of words in a literary work which appeal to one or more of the senses: sight, taste, touch, hearing, and smell. 67.infer(ence): A judgment based on reasoning rather than on direct or explicit statement. A conclusion based on facts or circumstances. For example, advised not to travel alone in temperatures exceeding fifty degrees below zero, the man in Jack London’s “To Build a Fire” sets out anyway. One may infer arrogance from such an action. the act or process of deriving a conclusion based solely on what one already knows 68. invective: vehement or violent denunciation, censure, or reproach. an insulting or abusive word or expression. Denunciatory or abusive language. 69. irony (verbal, situational, dramatic): Irony takes many forms. In irony of situation, the result of an action is the reverse of what the actor expected. Macbeth murders his king hoping that in becoming king he will achieve great happiness. Actually, Macbeth never knows another moment of peace, and finally is beheaded for his murderous act. In dramatic irony, the audience knows something that the characters in the drama do not. For example, the identity of the murderer in a crime thriller may be known to the audience long before the mystery is solved. In verbal irony, the contrast is between the literal meaning of what is said and what is meant. A character may refer to a plan as brilliant, while actually meaning that (s)he thinks the plan is foolish. Sarcasm is a form of verbal irony. 70. jargon: the terminology that relates to a specific activity, profession or group. Much like slang it develops as a kind of shorthand, to quickly express ideas that are frequently discussed between members of a group. In many cases a standard term may be given a more precise or specialized usage among practitioners of a field. Ex. Sailors-bow, stern, deck : Teachers-EOC, IGP, PEP: 71. juxtaposition: an act or instance of placing close together or side by side, esp. for comparison or contrast. A side-by-side position. 72. language devices: the variety of tools that writers use to express their thoughts. Ex. Figurative language such as simile, metaphor, personification; sound devices such as alliteration, onomatopoeia, assonance; rhetorical devices such as ethos, pathos, logos, etc. 73. loose sentence: A loose sentence opens with its subject, predicate, and object; the main part of the sentence comes first. As a result, the relationship of modifiers to this main part will become more tenuous as the sentence lengthens. The reader, having focused upon agent and action, will have increasing difficulty connecting the modifiers to them. Example: Root ideas: I ate the pizza. I ate the pizza that my sister baked. I ate the pizza that my sister baked after I got home from work. (Did your sister bake the pizza after you got home from work or did you only eat the pizza after you got home from work? ) Use loose sentences for dramatic and powerful brief statements, “I have a Dream! ” 74. logos: Logos (Logical) means persuading by the use of reasoning. Giving reasons is the heart of argumentation, and cannot be emphasized enough. An argument based on logos needs to be logical, and in fact the term logic derives from it. Logos normally implies numbers, polls, and other mathematical or scientific data. 75. metaphor: A figure of speech wherein a comparison is made between two unlike quantities without the use of the words “like” or “as. ” Jonathan Edwards, in his sermon “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,” has this to say about the moral condition of his parishioners: There are the black clouds of God’s wrath now hanging directly over your heads, full of the dreadful storm and big with thunder; 76. metonymy: A figure of speech in which a word represents something else which it suggests. For example in a herd of fifty cows, the herd might be referred to as fifty head of cattle. The word “head” is the word representing the herd. Substituting a word for another word closely associate with it. “Crown” for royalty. Metonymy is also the rhetorical strategy of describing something indirectly by referring to things around it: for instance, describing someone’s clothing in order to characterize the individual. The pen is mightier than the sword. ” (Edward Bulwer-Lytton} “Her voice is full of money. ” (F. Scott Fitzgerald, The Great Gatsby) 77. mood: the emotional attitude the author takes towards his subject. The atmosphere or feeling created by a literary work, partly by a description of the objects or by the style of the descriptions. A work may contain a mood of horror, mystery, holiness, or childlike simplicity 78. maxim: a saying that is widely accepted on its own merits. Ex. “A friend in need is a friend indeed. ” “Birds of a feather flock together. ” 79. monologue: A monologue is an extended, uninterrupted speech by one person only. The person may be speaking his or her thoughts aloud or directly addressing other persons, e. g. an audience, a character, or a reader 80. motif: In a narrative, such as a novel or a film, motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help to develop and inform the text’s major themes. The motif can be an idea, an object, a place, or a statement. The flute in Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman is a recurrent motif that conveys rural and idyllic notions. The green light in The Great Gatsby 81. narrative/narration writing: Tells a story 82. naturalistic detail: a manner or technique of treating subject matter that presents, through volume of detail, a deterministic view of human life and actions. deterministic theory of writing in which it is held that a writer should adopt an objective view toward the material written about, be free of preconceived ideas as to form and content, and represent with clinical accuracy and frankness the details of life. Factual or realistic representation, especially: The practice of describing precisely the actual circumstances of human life in literature. 83. inverted sentence-An inverted sentence is one in which the subject appears after the verb. This construction causes the subject to receive more emphasis. Ex. Never will I do that again! Rarely have I eaten better food. Hardly ever does he come to class on time 84. flashback-action that interrupts to show an event that happened at an earlier time which is necessary to better understanding 85. modes of discourse-Rhetorical modes (also known as modes of discourse) describe the variety, conventions, and purposes of the major kinds of writing. Four of the most common rhetorical modes and their purpose are exposition, argumentation, description, and narration. 86. onomatopoeia–A literary device wherein the sound of a word echoes the sound it represents. The words “splash. ” “knock,” and “roar” are examples. 87. oxymoron- A combination of contradictory terms, such as used by Romeo in Act 1, scene 1 of Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet: Why then, O brawling love! O loving hate! O heavy lightness, serious vanity; Misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms! Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health! 88. objective description- a descriptive essay can be objective or subjective, giving the author a wide choice of tone, diction and attitude. For instance, an objective description of one’s dog would mention such facts as height, weight, coloring and so forth. A subjective description would include the above details, but would also stress the author’s feeling toward the dog, as well as its personality and habits. 89. paradox-A situation or a statement that seems to contradict itself, but on closer inspection, does not. This line from John Donne’s “Holy Sonnet 14” provides an example: That I may rise, and stand, o’erthrow me, The poet paradoxically asks God to knock him down so that he may stand. What he means by this is for God to destroy his present self and remake him as a holier person. reveals a kind of truth which at first seems contradictory. Two opposing ideas. Example: Stone walls do not a prison make, Nor iron bars a cage. 90. parallelism-A repetition of sentences using the same structure. This line from Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address provides an example: a. The world will little not nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. 91. parody-A literary work that imitates the style of another literary work. A parody can be simply amusing or it can be mocking in tone, such as a poem which exaggerates the use of alliteration in order to show the ridiculous effect of overuse of alliteration 92. pathetic fallacy-The attribution of human traits to nature or inanimate objects. A fallacy of reason in suggesting that nonhuman phenomena act from human feelings, as suggested by the word “pathetic” from the Greek pathos; a literary device wherein something nonhuman found in nature-a beast, plant, stream, natural force, etc. -performs as though from human feeling or motivation. In Jack London’s To Build a Fire, “The cold of space,” London writes, “smote the unprotected tip of the planet, . . . ” The word “smote” suggests nature deliberately striking the northern tip of the earth with severe cold. The poetry of William Wordsworth is replete with instances of pathetic fallacy-weeping streams, etc 93. pedantic-overly concerned with minute details or formalisms, esp. in teaching. Characterized by a narrow, often ostentatious concern for book learning and formal rules: a pedantic attention to details. pedantic writing style; an academic insistence on precision; a bookish vocabulary 94. periodic sentence- A periodic sentence (also called a period) is a sentence that is not grammatically complete until its end. Periodicity is accomplished by the use of parallel phrases or clauses at the opening or by the use of dependent clauses preceding the independent clause; that is, the kernel of thought contained in the subject/verb group appears at the end of a succession of modifiers. It is the opposite of a nuclear sentence. The periodic sentence is effective when it is used to arouse interest and curiosity, to hold an idea in suspense before its final revelation. Ex. a. “Out of the bosom of the Air, Out of the cloud-folds of her garment shaken, Over the woodlands brown and bare, Over the harvest-fields forsaken, Silent and soft, and slow, Descends the snow. ” 95. personification-A figure of speech in which something nonhuman is given human characteristics. Ex. a. Stormy, husky, brawling, b. City of the big Shoulders: 96. persuasion writing: Persuasive writing is used to convince the reader of the writer’s argument. This may involve persuading the reader to perform an action, or simply consist of an argument convincing the reader of the writer’s point of view. 97. point of view (1st, 2nd, Third Limited, Third Omniscient)- A piece of literature contains a speaker who is speaking either in the first person, telling things from his or her own perspective, or in the third person, telling things from the perspective of an onlooker. The perspective used is called the Point of View, and is referred to either as first person or third person. If the speaker knows everything including the actions, motives, and thoughts of all the characters, the speaker is referred to as omniscient (all-knowing). If the speaker is unable to know what is in any character’s mind but his or her own, this is called limited omniscience. An even rarer, but stylish version of second person narration takes the form of a series of imperative statements with the implied subject “you” (Example: Edward’s “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God”) Choose Your Own Adventure books are also 2nd person point of you because the reader chooses how the text will read. 98. prose-the ordinary form of spoken or written language, without metrical structure, as distinguished from poetry or verse. Example: Essays, newspapers, articles, etc. 99. pedestrian-lacking in vitality, imagination, distinction, etc. ; com

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Historicity of Muhammad |This article's lead section may not adequately summarize key points of its contents. (January 2017)| |Part of a series on| The earliest Muslim sources of information for the life of Muhammad is the Qur'an, which gives very little information and whose historicity has been questioned. Next in importance is the sīra literature and Hadith, which survive in the historical works of writers from the second, third, and fourth centuries of the Muslim era (c. 700−1000 AD). There are also a relatively small number of contemporaneous or near-contemporaneous non-Muslim sources, which confirm the existence of Muhammad and are valuable both in themselves and for comparison with Muslim sources. Islamic sources for the historical Muhammad The main Islamic source on Muhammad's life are Muslim sources written in Arabic, which include the Qur'an and accounts of Muhammad's life written down by later Muslims, based on oral traditions. These sources are known as sīra and hadith. According to traditional Islamic scholarship, all of the Qur'an was written down by Muhammad's companions while he was alive (during AD 610-632), but it was primarily an orally related document. The written compilation of the whole Qur'an in its definite form as we have it now was not completed until many years after the death of Muhammad. Modern scholars differ in their assessment of Quran as a historical source about Muhammad's life. According to the Encyclopedia of Islam, the "Qur'an responds constantly and often candidly to Muhammad's changing historical circumstances and contains a wealth of hidden data that are relevant to the task of the quest for the historical Muhammad." In contrast, Solomon A. Nigosian writes that the Qur'an tells us very little about the life of Muhammad. F.E. Peters states, "Few have failed to be convinced that what is in our copy of the Quran is, in fact, what Muhammad taught, and is expressed in his own words... To sum this up: the Quran is convincingly the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation". Peters argues that "The search for variants in the partial versions extant before the Caliph Uthman’s alleged recension in the 640s (what can be called the 'sources' behind our text) has not yielded any differences of great significance." . Patricia Crone and Michael Cook challenge the traditional account of how the Qur'an was compiled writing that "there is no hard evidence for the existence of the Koran in any form before the last decade of the seventh century." They also question the accuracy of some the Qur'an's historical accounts. It was generally acknowledged that the work of Crone and Cook was a fresh approach in its reconstruction of early Islamic history, but their alternative account of early Islam had been almost universally rejected. Van Ess dismissed it stating that "a refutation is perhaps unnecessary since the authors make no effort to prove it in detail...Where they are only giving a new interpretation of well-known facts, this is not decisive. But where the accepted facts are consciously put upside down, their approach is disastrous." R. B. Serjeant stated: "Hagarism [the thesis of Crone and Cook]...is not only bitterly anti-Islamic in tone, but anti-Arabian. Its superficial fancies are so ridiculous that at first one wonders if it is just a ‘leg pull’, pure ’spoof’." In 2006 Fred Donner, a supporter of the revisionistschool of Islamic studies wrote that "Yet now more than 30 years later we can see that the publication of Hagarism was a milestone in the study of Islamic studies." Gerd R. Puin's initial study of ancient Qur'an manuscripts found in Yemen led him to conclude that the Qur'an is a "cocktail of texts", some of which may have been existent a hundred years before Muhammad. He later stated that "these Yemeni Qur'anic fragments do not differ from those found in museums and libraries elsewhere, with the exception of details that do not touch the Qur'an itself, but are rather differences in the way words are spelled." Puin has stated that he believes the Qur'an was an evolving text rather than simply the Word of God as revealed in its entirety to Muhammad in the seventh century A.D Karl-Heinz Ohlig comes to the conclusion that the person of Muhammed was not central to early Islam at all, and that at this very early stage Islam was in fact an Arabic Christian sect which had objections to the concept of the trinity, and that the later hadith and biographies are in large part legends, instrumental in severing Islam from its Christian roots and building a full-blown new religion.[page needed] John Wansbrough believes that the Qu’ran is a redaction in part of other sacred scriptures, in particular the Judaeo-Christian scriptures. Prof. Herbert Berg writes that "Despite John Wansbrough's very cautious and careful inclusion of qualifications such as "conjectural," and "tentative and emphatically provisional", his work is condemned by some. Some of the negative reaction is undoubtedly due to its radicalness...Wansbrough's work has been embraced wholeheartedly by few and has been employed in a piecemeal fashion by many. Many praise his insights and methods, if not all of his conclusions." There is considerable academic debate over the real chronology of the chapters of the Qur'an. Carole Hillenbrand holds that there are several remaining tasks for the Orientalist Qur'anic scholars: Few Qur'anic scholars have worked on the epigraphy of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem whose foundation inscription dates to 72/692 and the antique Qur'an recently discovered in the Yemen, the Sana'a manuscripts. The Carbon-14 tests applied to this Qur'an date its parchment to 645-690 AD with 95 percent accuracy. Their real age may be a good deal younger, since C-14 estimates the year of the death of an organism, and the process from that to the final writing on the parchment involves an unknown amount of time, and parchments were also re-used often. Paleography has dated the San'a manuscripts to 690-750 AD. Early Muslim scholars were concerned that some hadiths (and sīra reports) may have been fabricated, and thus they developed a science of hadith criticism (see Hadith studies) to distinguish between genuine sayings and those that were forged, recorded using different words, or were wrongly ascribed to Muhammad. In general, the majority of western academics view the hadith collections with caution. Bernard Lewis states that "The collection and recording of Hadith did not take place until several generations after the death of the Prophet. During that period the opportunities and motives for falsification were almost unlimited." The main feature of hadith is that of Isnad (chains of transmission), which are the basis of determining authenticity of the reports in traditional Islamic scholarship. According to Stephen Humphreys, while a number of "very capable" modern scholars defended the general authenticity of isnads, most modern scholars regard isnads with "deep suspicion". Professor Jonathan A. C. Brown points out, the Hadith Tradition is a "common sense science" or a "common sense tradition" and is "one of the biggest accomplishments in human intellectual history… in its breadth, in its depth, in its complexity and in its internal consistency." Prophetic biography (sīra) In the sīra literature, the most important extant biography are the two recensions of Ibn Ishaq's (d. 768), now known as Sīrat Rasūl Allah ("Biography/Life of the Messenger/Apostle of Allah"), which survive in the works of his editors, most notably Ibn Hisham (d. 834) and Yunus b. Bukayr (d.814-815), although not in its original form. According to Ibn Hisham, Ibn Ishaq wrote his biography some 120 to 130 years after Muhammad's death. Many, but not all, scholars accept the accuracy of these biographies, though their accuracy is unascertainable. After Ibn Ishaq, there are a number of shorter accounts (some of which are earlier than Ibn Ishaq) recorded in different forms (see List of earliest writers of sīra). Another biography of Muhammad is that of al-Waqidi's (d. 822) and then Ibn Sa'd's (d.844-5). Al-Waqidi is often criticized by early Muslim historians who state that the author is unreliable. These biographies are hardly biographies in the modern sense. The writers did not wish to record the life of Muhammad, but rather to describe Muhammad's military expeditions and to preserve stories about Muhammad, his sayings and the reasons of revelations and interpretations of verses in the Qur'an. In addition to sīra, the biographical dictionaries of Ali ibn al-Athir and Ibn Hajar provide much detail about the contemporaries of Muhammad but add little to our information about Muhammad himself. According to Wim Raven, it is often noted that a coherent image of Muhammad cannot be formed from the literature of sīra, whose authenticity and factual value have been questioned on a number of different grounds. He lists the following arguments against the authenticity of sīra, followed here by counter arguments: - Hardly any sīra work was compiled during the first century of Islam. Fred Donner points out that the earliest historical writings about the origins of Islam first emerged in 60-70 AH, well within the first century of Hijra (see also List of biographies of Muhammad). Furthermore, the sources now extant, dating from the second, third, and fourth centuries AH, are according to Donner mostly compilations of material derived from earlier sources. - The many discrepancies exhibited in different narrations found in sīra works. Yet, despite the lack of a single orthodoxy in Islam, there is still a marked agreement on the most general features of the traditional origins story. - Later sources claiming to know more about the time of Muhammad than earlier ones (to add embellishments and exaggeration common to an oral storytelling tradition). - Discrepancies compared to non-Muslim sources. But there are also similarities and agreements both in information specific to Muhammad, and concerning Muslim tradition at large. - Some parts or genres of sīra, namely those dealing with miracles, are not fit as sources for scientific historiographical information about Muhammad, except for showing the beliefs and doctrines of his community. Early Islamic history is also reflected in sources written in Greek, Syriac, Armenian, and Hebrew by Jewish and Christian communities, all of which are dated after 633 CE. These sources contain some essential differences with regard to Muslim sources, in particular regarding the chronology and Muhammad's attitude towards the Jews and Palestine. There is a reference recording the Arab conquest of Syria (known as Fragment on the Arab Conquests), that mentions Muhammed. This much faded note is preserved on folio 1 of BL Add. 14,461, a codex containing the Gospel according to Matthew and the Gospel according to Mark. This note appears to have been penned soon after the battle of Gabitha (636 CE) at which the Arabs inflicted crushing defeat of the Byzantines. Wright was first to draw the attention to the fragment and suggested that "it seems to be a nearly contemporary notice", a view which was also endorsed by Nöldeke. The purpose of jotting this note in the book of Gospels appears to be commemorative as the author appears to have realized how momentous the events of his time were. The words "we saw" are positive evidence that the author was a contemporary. The author also talks about olive oil, cattle, ruined villages, suggesting that he belonged to peasant stock, i.e., parish priest or a monk who could read and write. It is worthwhile cautioning that the condition of the text is fragmentary and many of the readings unclear or disputable. The lacunae are supplied in square brackets: The 8th century BL Add. 14,643 was published by Wright who first brought to attention the mention of an early date of 947 AG (635-6 CE). The contents of this manuscript has puzzled many scholars for their apparent lack of coherence as it contains an assembly of texts with diverse nature. In relation to Arabs of Mohamed, there are two important dates mentioned in this manuscript. AG 945, indiction VII: On Friday, 4 February, [i.e., 634 CE / Dhul Qa‘dah 12 AH] at the ninth hour, there was a battle between the Romans and the Arabs of Mụhammad [Syr. tayyāyē d-Ṃhmt] in Palestine twelve miles east of Gaza. The Romans fled, leaving behind the patrician YRDN (Syr. BRYRDN), whom the Arabs killed. Some 4000 poor villagers of Palestine were killed there, Christians, Jews and Samaritans. The Arabs ravaged the whole region. AG 947, indiction IX: The Arabs invaded the whole of Syria and went down to Persia and conquered it; the Arabs climbed mountain of Mardin and killed many monks there in [the monasteries of] Kedar and Benōthō. There died the blessed man Simon, doorkeeper of Qedar, brother of Thomas the priest. It is the first date above which is of great importance as it provides the first explicit reference to Muhammad in a non-Muslim source. The account is usually identified with the battle of Dathin. According to Hoyland, "its precise dating inspires confidence that it ultimately derives from first-hand knowledge". Another account of the early seventh century comes from Sebeos who was an Armenian bishop of the House of Bagratuni. From this chronicle, there are indications that he lived through many of the events he relates. He maintains that the account of Arab conquests derives from the fugitives who had been eyewitnesses thereof. He concludes with Mu‘awiya's ascendancy in the Arab civil war (656-61 CE), which suggests that he was writing soon after this date. Sebeos is the first non-Muslim author to present us with a theory for the rise of Islam that pays attention to what the Muslims themselves thought they were doing. Concerning Muhammad, he says: At that time a certain man from along those same sons of Ismael, whose name was Mahmet [i.e., Mụhammad], a merchant, as if by God's command appeared to them as a preacher [and] the path of truth. He taught them to recognize the God of Abraham, especially because he was learnt and informed in the history of Moses. Now because the command was from on high, at a single order they all came together in unity of religion. Abandoning their vain cults, they turned to the living God who had appeared to their father Abraham. So, Mahmet legislated for them: not to eat carrion, not to drink wine, not to speak falsely, and not to engage in fornication. He said: 'With an oath God promised this land to Abraham and his seed after him for ever. And he brought about as he promised during that time while he loved Ismael. But now you are the sons of Abraham and God is accomplishing his promise to Abraham and his seed for you. Love sincerely only the God of Abraham, and go and seize the land which God gave to your father Abraham. No one will be able to resist you in battle, because God is with you. Sebeos was writing the chronicle at a time when memories of sudden eruption of the Arabs was fresh. He knows Muhammad's name and that he was a merchant by profession. He hints that his life was suddenly changed by a divinely inspired revelation. Views of modern historians As early as 1930, the question for the existence of Muhammad was raised by Soviet orientalist Klimovich, yet his thesis found no resonance in Islamic Studies. The question for the historicity of Muhammad was put on the agenda, when in the 1970s the so-called Revisionist School of Islamic Studies raised fundamental doubts about the reliability of traditional Islamic sources and applied the historical-critical methods to the early Islamic period. After the first provocative theses, the revisionist approach differentiated and moderated and spread in Islamic Studies with various intensity. Today, only a minority of historians of early Islam doubt the historicity of Muhammad. Attempts to distinguish between the historical elements and the unhistorical elements of many of the reports of Muhammad have not been very successful. A major source of difficulty in the quest for the historical Muhammad is the modern lack of knowledge about pre-Islamic Arabia. According to Harald Motzki, "On the one hand, it is not possible to write a historical biography of the Prophet without being accused of using the sources uncritically, while on the other hand, when using the sources critically, it is simply not possible to write such a biography." Historian Michael Cook takes the view that evidence independent of Islamic tradition "precludes any doubts as to whether Muhammad was a real person" and clearly shows that he became the central figure of a new religion in the decades following his death. He reports, though, that this evidence conflicts with the Islamic view in some aspects, associating Muhammad with Israel rather than Inner Arabia, complicating the question of his sole authorship or transmission of the Qur'an, and suggesting that there were Jews as well as Arabs among his followers. For Patricia Crone, a single Greek text written at around the time of Muhammad's death provides "irrefutable proof" that he was a historical figure. There is also, she says, "exceptionally good" evidence that Muhammad was an Arab political leader and prophet. She says we can be "reasonably sure" in attributing all or most of the Qur'an to him. She takes a view that Muhammad's traditional association with the Arabian Peninsula may be "doctrinally inspired", and is put in doubt by the Qur'an itself, which describes agricultural activity that could not have taken place there, as well as making a reference to the site of Sodom which appears to place Muhammad's community close to the Dead Sea. In their 2003 book Crossroads to Islam, Yehuda D. Nevo and Judith Koren advanced a thesis, based on an extensive examination of archaeological evidence from the early Islamic period, that Muhammad may never have existed, with monotheistic Islam only coming into existence some time after he is supposed to have lived. This has been described as "plausible or at least arguable" and employing a "very rigorous historical methodology" by David Cook of Rice University, but has also been compared to Holocaust denial by historian Colin Wells, who suggests that the authors deal with some of the evidence illogically. Muhammad Sven Kalisch, a Muslim convert and Germany's first professor of Islamic theology, has expressed the view that the Prophet Muhammad probably never existed. Similar views were also held by other scholars too as Professor Muhammad Sven Kalisch quotes in his conclusions. There are many such views doubting the historicity of Muhammed. Another example is the case of Hans Jansen, a Dutch scholar, who too has the opinion that the evidences supporting the historicity of Muhammad are lacking. Popp (2004/5) proposed that both Muḥammad and ‘Alī originated as titles given to Jesus Christ by Syriac Christians in the Sassanid Empire (i.e. muḥammad "blessed" being the equivalent of the benedictus (ευλογηµένος) of the New Testament). In a numismatic study, Popp identified coins dated to AH 16 inscribed with mḥmd but lacking the rasūl allāh that later became common. Popp adduced Arabo-Sassanid and Syrian coins inscribed with MHMT in Pahlavi script, and also partly with mḥmd in Arabic script, in some cases combined with Christian symbolism. Heger (2008) argues that Muḥammad "the blessed one" being a title of Christ does not necessarily preclude the historicity of the prophet of Islam. It rather opens up a scale of possibilities summarised in three alternatives to the default assumption of the historicity of a Muhammad recognizably similar to the hadith accounts, - the Islamic tradition on the life of Muhammad is entirely legendary, - Muhammad is historical, but was active roughly a century later than suggested by Islamic tradition, - there were two distinct people, both given the epithet Muhammad or "blessed", one active in the early 7th century, and author of the Meccan suras, and the other the Mamed of Johannes Damascenus, author of the Medinian suras. - Achtiname of Muhammad - Reliability of the Quran - Historiography of early Islam - Islam: The Untold Story - Muhammad's letters to the Heads-of-State - Relics of Muhammad - Soviet Orientalist studies in Islam - Seeing Islam as Others Saw It - Encyclopaedia of Islam, Muhammad - Nigosian 2004, p. 6. - Donner 1998, p. 125. - William Montgomery Watt, Muhammad in Mecca, 1953, Oxford University Press, p.xi - William Montgomery Watt in The Cambridge History of Islam, p.32 - F. E. Peters (1991) - Patricia Crone, Michael Cook, and Gerd R. Puin as quoted in Toby Lester (January 1999). "What Is the Koran?". The Atlantic Monthly. - David Waines(1995), p. 273-274 - van Ess, "The Making Of Islam", Times Literary Supplement, September 8, 1978, p. 998 - R. B. Serjeant, Journal of Royal Asiatic Society (1978) p. 78 - Middle East Studies Association Bulletin, Vol. 40, No. 2 (December 2006), pp. 197-199 - THE HISTORY OF THE QUR’ANIC TEXT FROM REVELATION TO COMPILATION: A COMPARATIVE STUDY WITH THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS by Muhammad Mustafa Al-A’zami, Leicester: UK, page 12; Al-A’zami quotes a letter that was published in the Yemeni newspaper ath-Thawra, 11 March 1999 - Querying the Koran, by Abul Taher, The Guardian, 8 August 2000 - Karl-Heinz Ohlig, Der frühe Islam, 2007, ISBN 3-89930-090-4 - Quranic Studies: Sources and Methods of Scriptural Interpretation (1977) and The Sectarian Milieu: Content and Composition of Islamic Salvation History (1978) by Wansbrough. - http://www.derafsh-kaviyani.com/english/quran3.html (Discusses Wansbrough) - Herbert Berg(2000), p.83 - Carole Hillenbrand in The New Cambridge Medieval History, p.329 - Lewis 1967, p. 37. - Humphreys, R. Stephen (1991). Islamic History: A framework for Inquiry (Revised ed.). Princeton University Press. p. 82. ISBN 0-691-00856-6. - ilmisfree (2012-03-04), Dr. Jonathan A.C. Brown - An Introduction to Hadith, retrieved 2016-12-11 (see from 0:01:13) - William Montgomery Watt, Muhammad at Mecca, Oxford University Press, p.xii - Raven, W. (1997). "SĪRA". Encyclopaedia of Islam. 9 (2nd ed.). Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 660–3. ISBN 90-04-10422-4. - Donner 1998, pp. 26-27. - Crone and Cook, Patricia and Michael (1980). Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 277. ISBN 0-521-29754-0. - Cook, Michael (1983-01-26). Muhammad. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 73–74. ISBN 0192876058. - Hoyland, Robert G (1998). Seeing Islam as Others Saw It: A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam. Darwin. p. 591. ISBN 0878501258. - W. Wright, Catalogue Of Syriac Manuscripts In The British Museum Acquired Since The Year 1838, 1870, Part I, Printed by order of the Trustees: London, No. XCIV, pp. 65-66. This book was republished in 2002 by Gorgias Press. - Th. Nöldeke, "Zur Geschichte Der Araber Im 1, Jahrh. d.H. Aus Syrischen Quellen", Zeitschrift Der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, 1876, Volume 29, p. 76. - W. Wright, Catalogue Of Syriac Manuscripts In The British Museum Acquired Since The Year 1838, 1872, Part III, Printed by order of the Trustees: London, No. DCCCCXIII, pp. 1040-1041 - A. Palmer (with contributions from S. P. Brock and R. G. Hoyland), The Seventh Century In The West-Syrian Chronicles Including Two Seventh-Century Syriac Apocalyptic Texts, 1993, op. cit., pp. 5-6; R. G. Hoyland, Seeing Islam As Others Saw It: A Survey And Evaluation Of Christian, Jewish And Zoroastrian Writings On Early Islam, 1997, op. cit., pp. 118-119 - A. Palmer (with contributions from S. Brock and R. G. Hoyland), The Seventh Century In The West-Syrian Chronicles Including Two Seventh-Century Syriac Apocalyptic Texts, 1993, op. cit., pp. 18-19; Also see R. G. Hoyland, Seeing Islam As Others Saw It: A Survey And Evaluation Of Christian, Jewish And Zoroastrian Writings On Early Islam, 1997, op. cit., p. 119 and p. 120 - A. Palmer (with contributions from S. P. Brock and R. G. Hoyland), The Seventh Century In The West-Syrian Chronicles Including Two Seventh-Century Syriac Apocalyptic Texts, 1993, op. cit., p. 19, note 119; Also see R. G. Hoyland, Seeing Islam As Others Saw It: A Survey And Evaluation Of Christian, Jewish And Zoroastrian Writings On Early Islam, 1997, op. cit., p. 120, note 14 - R. G. Hoyland, Seeing Islam As Others Saw It: A Survey And Evaluation Of Christian, Jewish And Zoroastrian Writings On Early Islam, 1997, op. cit., p. 120 - R. G. Hoyland, Seeing Islam As Others Saw It: A Survey And Evaluation Of Christian, Jewish And Zoroastrian Writings On Early Islam, 1997, op. cit., p. 128 - R. W. Thomson (with contributions from J. Howard-Johnson & T. Greenwood), The Armenian History Attributed To Sebeos Part - I: Translation and Notes, 1999, Translated Texts For Historians - Volume 31, Liverpool University Press, pp. 95-96. Other translations can also be seen in P. Crone & M. Cook, Hagarism: The Making Of The Islamic World, 1977, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, pp. 6-7; R. G. Hoyland, Seeing Islam As Others Saw It: A Survey And Evaluation Of Christian, Jewish And Zoroastrian Writings On Early Islam, 1997, op. cit., p. 129; idem., "Sebeos, The Jews And The Rise Of Islam" in R. L. Nettler (Ed.), Medieval And Modern Perspectives On Muslim-Jewish Relations, 1995, Harwood Academic Publishers GmbH in cooperation with the Oxford Centre for Postgraduate Hebrew Studies, p. 89 - R. W. Thomson (with contributions from J. Howard-Johnson & T. Greenwood), The Armenian History Attributed To Sebeos Part - II: Historical Commentary, 1999, Translated Texts For Historians - Volume 31, Liverpool University Press, p. 238 - Toby Lester: What Is the Koran? in: The Atlantic issue January 1999. Alexander Stille: Scholars Are Quietly Offering New Theories of the Koran, New York Times 02 March 2002. François de Blois, Islam in its Arabian Context, S. 615, in: The Qur'an in Context, ed. by Angelika Neuwirth etc., 2010. Judith Herrin, Patricia Crone: memoir of a superb Islamic Scholar, openDemocracy 12 July 2015. Patricia Crone: What do we actually know about Mohammed?, openDemocracy 10 June 2008 - Wim Raven, Introduction on a translation of Islamic texts into Dutch by Ibn Ishaq, Het leven van Muhammad (The life of Muhammad), ISBN 90-5460-056-X. - Cook, Michael (1996). Muhammad. Oxford University Press. pp. 73–76. ISBN 0192876058. - Crone, Patricia (10 June 2008). "What do we actually know about Mohammed?". Open Democracy. - Wells, Colin (February 2004). "Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2004.02.33". Bryn Mawr Classical Review. Retrieved 22 March 2011. - Cook, David (Fall 2006). "Review of Crossroads to Islam". Middle East Quarterly. Retrieved 22 March 2011. - Andrew Higgins (16 November 2008). "Islamic Theologian Says Prophet Muhammad Likely Never Existed - WSJ". WSJ. - "The historicity of Muhammad, Aisha and who knows who else". trykkefrihed.dk. - Volker Popp, "Bildliche Darstellungen aus der Frühzeit des Islam (IV)" imprimatur 5+6/2004. Voker Popp, "Die frühe Islamgeschichte nach inschriftlichen und numismatischen Zeugnissen" in Ohlig (ed.), Die dunklen Anfänge. Neue Forschungen zur Entstehung und frühen Geschichte des Islam, Berlin 2005, 16–123 (here pp. 63ff). - Christoph Heger, 'yā muhammad ̣ – kein „o MOHAMMED“, und wer ist ‛alī?', in Groß and Ohlig (eds.), Schlaglichter: Die beiden ersten islamischen Jahrhunderte, Berlin (Verlag Hans Schiler) 2008, pp. 278-292. - Donner, Fred McGraw (May 1998). Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writing. Darwin Press, Incorporated. ISBN 0878501274. - Berg, Herbert; Sarah Rollens (2008). "The Historical Muhammad and the Historical Jesus: A Comparison of Scholarly Reinventions and Reinterpretations". Studies in Religion / Sciences Religieuses. - Fouracre, Paul (2006). The New Cambridge Medieval History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36291-1. - Nigosian, Solomon Alexander (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-21627-3. - Peters, F. E. (1991). "The Quest for Historical Muhammad". International Journal of Middle East Studies. - Waines, David (1995). Introduction to Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42929-3. - Lewis, Bernard (1967). The Arabs in history. Harper & Row. ISBN 9780061310294. - Hoyland, Robert G (1998). Seeing Islam as Others Saw It: A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam. Darwin. ISBN 0-87850-125-8. - Crone, Patricia; Cook, Michael (1977). Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29754-0.

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Language Arts in a Charlotte Mason Education A good place to begin understanding this is by reading pages 199-247 from Home Education (volume 1) by Charlotte Mason, herself. Under Language Arts, in a Charlotte Mason curriculum you find: Reading Instruction: Charlotte Mason's method included sight-recognition as well as phonics. AO mentions a few programs that have worked with Advisory members, but use whatever you like. Once children are able to read, they should be reading many or most of their schoolbooks for themselves. Transcription: We tend to call this copywork. This means practicing the physical skills of learning to write, first by perfectly forming each letter, and later by copying sentences or paragraphs. Narration: Another word for this is "oral composition." Each time your child narrates, he is mentally composing his thoughts and communicating through words. Written narration begins around age 10, and if you allow a year or two for fluency to develop, then anything like "creative writing" begins about that time. Creative writing will be an extension of written narration. Grammar: Charlotte Mason didn't have children doing grammar until Form II, so AO places it in year 4. You can use Charlotte Mason's own Simply Grammar, or one of the other grammar programs mentioned on the AO site. As far as what is included in English for the Thoughtful Child--you can probably incorporate that information into your copywork/transcription. Scope and Sequence for Language Arts? In grammar there's only a small body of knowledge to learn--it doesn't need to take years and years to learn it, and it doesn't need to start in first grade. Students will pick up grammar concepts without years and years of formal training if they read books. Trust the process! By the end of elementary school, students only really need to know two rules: (1) Capitalize sentences and proper nouns. (2) End sentences with punctuation (a period, question mark, or exclamation point). It's also useful (but not vitally necessary) to be familiar with thefollowing so that, when grammar is learned later, these concepts aren't totally new. This is only a suggestion. Don't worry if you haven't covered these, and don't feel pressured to rush out and buy a curriculum to teach them. They can be introduced naturally during routine school reading. All your child needs is to be able to identify these in a sentence: The four kinds of sentences (question, statement, command, exclamatory) and the eight parts of speech (conjunction, noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, interjection, exclamation). When you begin written narrations, you can introduce more punctuation. Don't teach the mechanics of writing before students actually writing! This might be around year 5 or later. Two years after beginning written narrations, you can begin to focus on style. The most effective way to teach language arts is to get your child reading their school books themselves as soon as possible. When reading aloud, your child's mind may wander. Also, he isn't seeing the words on the page, so he's not seeing the spelling, sentence structure, punctuation, and he isn't being challenged to push his reading levels. When you read all your child's school books to him, he isn't learning to spell, you are. So read aloud a fun story to enjoy together, but your student should be doing his own reading for school. Read Karen Glass's full Language Arts Scope and Sequence Spelling and Dictation I took an hour or two to search the archives for what has been said before about spelling and writing Charlotte Mason style. I compiled the information below from my posts, but there were lots of other good ones by other people. If anyone has time, you might try to search the archives to see what else is there. First of all: Charlotte Mason differentiates between spelling and reading--and I think she's right to some degree. Phonics rules help immensely with reading (and she does talk about this a little in the pages that lead up to her discussion of spelling in volume 1). They help a lot, but not quite as much, with spelling. Think of words like There and their--and is there really any reason why they shouldn't be spelt thair or thare? Think of the 'r-controlled vowels,' er, ir, and sometimes 'or' (word, work)--phonics gets you to a point with those, but a little memorization is necessary after that. In general, what Charlotte Mason suggested for spelling is that the spelling word be written properly where the child can study it. He doesn't copy it ten times, he simply looks at it with all the focused attention he can muster up. When he thinks he has memorized the way the word looks, ask him to close his eyes and picture it. Then have him spell aloud. When he can do this properly, you might ask him to write it correctly. We use a whiteboard to do this. Of my four children who 'do school' currently, the oldest was a natural speller. The other three have varying levels of spelling incompetence.=) I nearly despaired of the second girl ever learning to spell. She misspelled words she copied. I began using Miss Mason's method with her when she was about twelve. I do not know if it was the method or the age, but she did begin spelling better, and I now am not embarrassed for us both over her spelling. The 11 and 12 y.o. Still need to work on their spelling, but I figure it will improve by high school. You could also use a good word processing program, one that automatically underlines misspelled words (in case you can't tell, I am not using one in this post and since I am typing on a laptop, I have many errors). Then have him use his right click mouse button--this brings up a box with suggested corrections. He then would instantly have the properly spelled word before him (albeit with several other options, but they would all be spelled correctly) and could choose that. He might take a moment to visualize the word carefully before going on. Here is what she suggests regarding dictation. I think it's possible that the child selects the passage from his reading (I know that she says this for younger children doing copywork). Oh, and she says children of 8 or 9 should do a paragraph, older children 'a page or two or three!' I assume then that the younger children are not doing this at all (I think I know what they do, and it would require a whole other post to explain). Frankly, none of mine have been ready to write a paragraph at 8 or 9, but I'm just passing on what I understand of Miss Mason's suggestions. Then the child 'prepares' the passage himself (this is onpage 242 of volume one). This preparation involves having the child slowly look through the passage and anytime he comes to a word he thinks he can't spell he is to look at it attentively, then close his eyes and picture it with his eyes shut. After a bit of this, the teacher or mother asks him what passages he is still unsure of, and at this time may point out others that she thinks might give him trouble. He looks these over again, using the same method--just trying to look at the word carefully enough that when he closes his eyes he can picture it accurately. If there are any words still worrying him, the teacher writes them one by one on a chalkboard or whiteboard (this could work in a classroom, but the whole class would be suggesting words, so some words would be covered that some of the children are not worried about). Again, the child looks at the word writ largely on the board, looks until he has a picture of it, and then she erases the word and moves on. The child decides when he is ready for dictation. Now, where I am very skeptical is that this whole process, she says, should take only five to ten minutes! Finally, the teacher starts giving dictation. She enunciates clearly, reads a clause at a time, never repeating herself. She does not say 'comma' or give any other indication of punctuation except for her voice inflection. At this point she is ready with her stick it note or masking tape or label with which to quickly cover any misspelled word. At any rate, this is dictation Charlotte Mason style, or at least, how she recommended at the time she wrote volume one. She may have changed her practices later, as she did in other areas. However, it's a very important part of Charlotte Mason that Handwriting is the preliminary step in copywork or dictation. Until a child knows how to make each letter and make it well, with little mental effort or decision (in other words, habit) letter practice is pretty much all that copywork encompasses. So dictation isn't begun until copywork is mastered, and copywork actually begins as handwriting and letter form practice. Once these are mastered, it is for exposure to the best in writing. Copywork done properly forces a child to slow down and absorb the punctuation details, notice capitalization, and internalize sparkling prose (For this reason, a child's own stories are not the most ideal source for copywork a la CM). Finely crafted, well written sentences are the best sources. In our home we have a different selection each day of the week. One day is poetry, another Bible, another from their history, another from Science, and one from their literature selection. A copywork selection from the foreign language being studied is also good. Hymns may also be used. Until you are sure a child can form all his letters correctly, you would not give him a selection to copy, and at first you would still watch carefully to see that he formed them properly--shaping them properly, starting at the right point on the paper, holding his pencil properly. You could still practice spelling (by the way, Miss Mason recommends spelling practice be based on word families) but with letter tiles instead. You could use magnetic letters, scrabble tiles, whatever--and the child can rather painlessly practice spelling this way (spell the word you dictate, using the tiles, then picture it in his head clearly). From volume 1 of Charlotte Mason: No work should be given to a child that he cannot execute perfectly, and then perfection should be required of him as a matter of course. For instance, he is set to do a copy of strokes, and is allowed to show a slateful of all sorts of slopes and all sorts of intervals; his moral sense is vitiated, his eye is injured. Set him six strokes to copy; let him, not bring a slateful, but six perfect strokes, at regular distances and at regular slopes. If he produces a faulty pair, get him to point out the fault, and persevere until he hasproduced his task; if he does not do it to-day, let him go on tomorrow and the next day, and when the six perfect strokes appear, let it be an occasion of triumph. So with the little tasks of of painting , drawing, or construction he sets himself--let everything he does be well done. An unsteady house of cards is a thing to be ashamed of. Closely connected with this habit of 'perfect work' is that of finishing whatever is taken in hand. The child should rarely be allowed to set his hand to a new understaking until the last is finished." Page 160 Value of Transcription--The earliest practice in writing proper for children of seven or eight should be, not letter-writing or dictation, but transcription, slow and beautiful work, for which the New Handwriting [a handwriting text] is to be preferred, though perhaps some of the more ornate characters may be omitted with advantage. Transcription should be an introduction to spelling. Children should be encouraged to look at the word, see a pciture of it with their eyes shut, and then write from memory. Children shold transcribe favorite passages--A certain sense of possession and delight may be added to this exercise if children are allowed to choose for transcription their favourite verse in one poem and another. This is better than to write a favourite poem, an exercise which stales on the little people before it is finished. But a book of their own, made up of their own chosen verse, should give them pleasure. Small Text-hand--Double-ruled lines--should be used at first, as children are eager to write very minute 'small hand' and once they have fallen into this habit it is not easy to get good writing. A sense of beauty in their writing and in the lines they copy should carry them over this stage of their work with pleasure. Not more than ten minutes or a quarter of an hour should be given to the early writing-lessons. If they are longer the children get tired and slovenly.) 238, 239 (this section of volume 1 in the six volume series is especially useful for the language arts. Pages that follow cover dictation, spelling, composition and more). Copywork is a very different thing from composition (although the material you use for copywork should also be a model of good writing). Charlotte Mason's approach to composition begins in the primary years with the skills developed through oral narration (thus one reason for using the most excellent books you can find). The child learns to express himself clearly, to pay attention to detail and sequence, to use appropriate vocabulary, etc. Rather than having to contrive a subject for composition, the subject and material is provided. Original writing (diaries, letters, stories, poems) should certainly be encouraged if the child is interested, but it is not taught formally at this stage. Older children transition into writing their narrations, and at that point (the junior grades) Charlotte Mason mentioned having them write occasional compositions on such topics as current events and things they had observed in nature. This process (developing writing through narration--which can take many forms, including journal entries, putting something into verse, writing a new scene between fictional characters, writing a news item) continues through the school years. I've also heard that in at least one PNEU school, the reading of Shakespeare on Friday was followed up with a period on Monday when the students (of around 12 and up) wrote out what they remembered and understood from the reading. The high school students of CharlotteMason's day did study composition more formally as well. The ability to write well was certainly never downplayed by Charlotte Mason; but she did believe that it could be developed in a more natural way than by requiring much original work at too early an age. This is my own experience with a reluctant writer, poor speller, auditory learner boy of similar age. We did nothing but copywork up through age nine. My son misspelled words during copywork. When he wrote something (on his own--I never assigned it), his spelling was truly appalling. At age 10, we began writtennarrations, and I tried working on a few basic spelling rules. They didn't stick. I remember we spent two weeks on one rule. In a written narration soon after, he correctly some big word, but misspelled three words that should have followed the rule he supposedly knew. I was never consistent with dictation--we rarely did it--because it was a frustration to both of us. A year or so ago, Donna-Jean wrote about dictation being the antidote to bad spelling (or something like that). It really stuck in my mind, and I think she is right. I should have been doing dictation from age 8 or so. I kept waiting for that natural improvement, and I admit that there was some of that. This child is 11 now. He does written narration several times per week, and we still have spelling issues. We do dictation twice per week (last term it was just once per week), and I am again introducing some basic spelling rules. His spelling will probably never be great--he more auditory than visual, by far, and tells me cannot picture a word in his mind. (He mis-pronounces words to himself in order to remember how they are spelled. I used to do that!) At least you know you're not alone! I would begin dictation with him. I think it is very important to take dication from the books your child is reading for himself. Those are the words he is "seeing" again and again, and he will have more success with that than with dictation from a harder, read-aloud book. When Charlotte Mason said that children "prepare" a paragraph, or whatever, I think she meant that they looked it over and were prepared to write any part of it. But, I still think only a few sentences were dictated. When we do dictation, I have my son read over the paragraph, look at the words, punctuation, etc. . . . but then, I only dictate one or two sentences. For older children "preparing" 2-3 pages, maybe a paragraph would be dictated. Correct me if I'm wrong, but I don't think they really wrote that much. The mental exercise of looking at the words intently beforehand was half the point of the practice. Oh--one more thing that I have done with my son is let him learn how to type. He types his written narration, and so the physical act of writing is not a burden to him. I believe that Charlotte Mason would say that narration is oral composition. So, in effect, every time you ask your child to narrate they are composing on a selected subject. When an AmblesideOnline student starts to write narrations, starting about year 4, we hope that they will be able to transfer their oral skills to the written page. We hope that their developing sophistication with oral storytelling will also transfer, though from what I have observed from my own children, it takes a while because they tend to simplify and shorten their storytelling if they know they have to write the story down. Copywork or transcription is a method of teaching handwriting and reinforcing spelling and grammar usage. It does not really teach composition, though it should provide good examples. I don't have any experience with Writing in Excellence, so I can't comment from my own experience with the curriculum. It does sound like it could be quite compatible (possibly with modifications) with the Charlotte Mason methods of teaching, and may also provide some valuable input to the teacher. I do have some comments on what was shared, however. Ihave a concern that requiring that children to select words from some material they are about to narrate from, and then requiring that they narrate using these words or covering those topics may direct the attention away from the flow and meaning of the story as a whole. It may also serve to squash a child's enthusiasm about telling a story about a particular reading. Enthusiasm is precious, and in storytelling it gives our words power and style that really is very difficult to teach. I believe that Charlotte wanted to harness enthusiasm and use it to help teach good habits of composition. Children more readily provide detail and color their stories through careful word selection when they have some enthusiasm for telling the story and an attentive and appreciative listener. However, not every child narrates enthusiastically (though I dare to say that they can narrate about something enthusiastically), and some children and teachers may profit from more guidelines or structure. I just don't know enough about this particular curriculum to say any more. Question: "I know that Charlotte Mason states in Book 6 that narration in Form IA and B was mostly oral, however she also says that children in Form IA from ages 7-9 have more copious composition, implying that she gradually added composition in the:form of written narrations." Just a point of clarification here--Charlotte Mason was still talking about oral "composition." Just beyond the note about "more copious," she says, "All their work lends itself to oral composition and the power of such composition is innate in children and is note the result of instruction.": Question: "At what point should we expect our children to make:the transition from mostly oral to mostly written compositions?" Compositions begin to be written somewhere between 9 and 12. That's not much of a guideline, and probably most children will be ready between these ages--at 10 or 11. But even at this age, "composition" is simply written narration, and does not involve instruction about paragraphs, etc, . . . Not until Form III--jr. high level--does composition become a matter for direct attention. Written narration never completely replaces oral narration, and I'm not even sure it ever surpasses oral narration in quantity. Common sense tells us that children cannot write as much or as fast as they can tell. Also, as you move into the high-school level, the pupil's written narrations become more complex and thoughtful, not just factual re-tellings, and no one can write like that for several subjects every day. I really think there are no hard and fast rules for this. There are no doubt children of 8 and 9 who are truly ready to write narrations (in fact, I remember one AmblesideOnline child of 6 who did so voluntarily). And there is no reason to hold them back if they can do this. The average child will be ready by 10 or 11, anyway. I began written narration last year with my then 10yo son. By the end of the year, he was doing one written narration per week, plus one longer, more focused written narration once per month. This year, he is typing well enough to use the computer for his narrations, and he writes about 3 times per week, plus does the occasional, longer narration. Most of this work is not spectacular, and at this point, he is still building his skills and getting into the habit of getting his thoughts "on to paper." "Composition" is not taught as a subject; well-taught children compose as well-bred children behave--by the light of nature; it is probable that few considerable writers have been taught the art of "composition." [from a Parents' Review article by Charlotte Mason] Here are a few tips (just my own opinion, not wanting to sound like an expert here) for being the Mom when your children do their written narrations--especially early ones! 1) Don't read them. Let me repeat this one: DON'T read them. Have your child read them to you! My editing-eye catches every misspelled word, I sigh (even if not out loud, I sigh inwardly) and go off on a mental tangent about why this child can't spell and what I'm doing wrong and what she's doing wrong and how they'll never succeed in life if they can't spell and how bad this makes us both look if she can't spell--and meantime, my astute child is reading my face for reaction and knows I am disappointed in something she has worked on with diligence, enthusiasm, and eagerness. So my second point is like the first, just said positively: 2) Have your child read aloud their written narration to you! I can't tell you the number of times my dd has read her narrations aloud to me and suddenly said, "Oh, wait! I spelled that wrong!" or "Oh--wait! That didn't make sense--I forgot to put this word in . . ." It doesn't mean that her then-self-edited version is perfect by any means . . . but our relationship is preserved for yet another day! :-) Here's an important point--what is narration for? Narration is your child/student connecting with the material, getting in touch with the facts clothed in literary language, getting to know an artist, a poet, a general, a mythological story, a brave young girl, a foolish animal, a truth . . . and then relating those ideas articulately. The articulate part will develop and grow (though it is often evident in beginning narrations . . . I think I mean the articulate part will get more "polished"), because this is teaching composition skills! Do you remember writing a first draft? Well, written narrations are like that--they are written with the intent of writing, of expressing . . . with one exception--they are not meant to be re-written over and over and over. That would kill the spirit of the child to have to correct and re-write every narration (assuming you are requiring somewhat frequent narrations). I have read of some parents really doing this to death, missing the point of narration entirely. They go over a written narration, have the child re-write it again and again (in some perceived lesson on penmanship), then they use that same narration for dictation and for copywork. That is not how CM teaches! Narration is about the art of writing--and by writing, I mean 'composing' if you will, not spelling and handwriting, etc. (They will learn that better from copying works that are already established as great!:-) To me, listening to my child's written narration is listening to their heart. I can "hear" what they understood and valued--and I can offer respect to their composition by listening. Two added things--1) I do then look at the written narration. I make gentle comments like "Next time, you might want to remember to make breaks to show where the paragraphs go." I also note (sometimes mentally) the misspelled words--to use in dictation of other material, and to watch to see when they improve. 2) There are written narrations that we correct and do over. These are ones my child wants to save in particular, or ones that reflect a larger 'project.' (My 16 yod is at this moment writing a narration of a book assigned to her on the Cycle of American Literature. She is writing lengthy narrations on two American writers discussed in the book, Emerson and Poe. She typed one up and e-mailed it to me--she no longer reads them aloud to me!--and I noted right away that she misspelled the writer's name in every instance. Of course, she was required to re-do this correctly--but I still read her work and gave her my evaluation of it, despite the misspelling.) Writing a narration is hard work (for all who think it is not, stop andnarrate orally a chapter you have just read in a book. And try to write on it. It is very difficult!) Love in Christ, Transitioning from oral to written narration should be taken slowly: "I do think this improves with time. I also choose one problem area at a time and work on that. It might be run-on sentences, or it might be passive sentences. Use your word processor to help you. I have mine type with the spell check and grammar check on. With the grammar check, they are supposed to ask me before they make changes, as this is more prone to computer error than the spellcheck. My 17 y.o. was a terrible speller when she was 11. She started to improve at about 14 or so. That's when I started really implementing Charlotte Mason's method of having the child just look at a word from a spelling list, trying to visualize the way it looks. I think that practice helped her develop her own skills and start paying some attention to what she was writing (prior to this she would mispell words she was copying). My 11y.o. is also a very poor spelling. Recently she's been motivated to exchange e-mails and letters with a friend in another state who is a fellow Lord of the Rings nut. She's been using the spellcheck and she commented to me today that she thought her spelling was improving because of this. I know the word processor may not seem very CM, but I think it fits with Miss Mason's principles perfectly. Writing Strands is one good program. Children around 11 or 12 are about the age Charlotte Mason recommends beginning some more formal grammar and composition instruction. The Elements of Style, by Strunk and White, is also useful for composition. How much time should be spent on each facet (penmanship, copywork, phonics, grammar) of language arts? We're less specific partly because so much of this depends on the needs and abilities of the student, and because we DON'T want to have to say "do this, do ten pages, use this book." The original sample PUS programs (from the 1920's) were not always very specific either; the how-to's came from CM's books and from the Parents' Review magazine, and the sample programs would simply state that Form II children should do pages 40 to 50 in the grammar book over the term, and that they should both work on their handwriting program plus copy two lines of Shakespeare perfectly per day. Re language arts/English, I'd suggest looking at the goals that you want each of these components (penmanship, copywork, phonics, grammar) to accomplish, and see whether there is in fact some overlap. (Don't forget the across-the-curriculum work that's accomplished by written and oral narration, too.) I haven't used ILL (Intermediate Language Lessons), for instance; but if you already have a grammar program, plus they're doing copywork and regular dictations (say once a week), plus narrating from their history/literature/science, plus reading poetry, then do you really need ILL? Again, I haven't yet had the opportunity to see the Imitations books, but how does that overlap with work you could be doing with the AmblesideOnline books? Would you use the Imitations books mostly for a resource, for suggestions to enrich the narrations; or would it be a whole extra course? You might also look at the time each child will be spending on school. Of course this will vary, but, for instance, my 9yo is up to about 3 hours per morning and she often has some extra reading. How do you break down your time?--say roughly, 30 minutes for math, 1 hour for reading (together or alone), 30 minutes for miscellaneous subjects like picture study and languages--that might leave you an hour, a third of your morning program, to devote to English subjects (spaced throughout the morning, not all in a block, probably). So that hour might be broken down into 10 minutes copywork, 20 minutes grammar lesson or something of that sort, 15 minutes working on spelling if needed, 15 minutes misc. . . . my point is that you have a limited amount of time, and you want to spend it carefully, on the things that are most needed and most productive. If you and your child are feeling burdened by having to fit in a lot of misc. English lessons on top of the good books that should be the core of the program, then yes, I would think you should probably cut it down some. Keep your goals for your own children in mind--do you want them to produce neater copywork, to master adverbial phrases, to write good business letters, to narrate clearly?--what are your goals for the next few weeks or months? Ruth's Beechick's advice has always worked well for us--we have to teach the child, not the book. Writing CM style I think dictation is the area I have seen the most growth in my very reluctant 9 1/2 year old boy . . . (we've had tears too) I would encourage you to try again because it is the stepping stone to his written narrations. I used Robert Louis Stevenson poems, one stanza only at first and found them very simple, rhyming and manageabe. Take it in really small steps and be very encouraging. I also let my son copy his own narrations that I had transcribed from his oral narrations before he ever began writing on his own. It was rewarding for him to see his own thoughts on paper without having to trouble over the spelling etc . . . He is writing some of his own narrations now and I don't worry too much about the spelling. I hope that helps. The Charlotte Mason way works, but it is very different with each child, and definitely takes patience. Narration is recommended for children of about 6 and up. I have an almost-5-yo who sometimes narrates to me, but I don't pressure her to do so. It's an acquired skill (not an easy one!), and it's best to start out short. A whole Bible chapter is probably too much, for example; one episode, one Aesop's fable, one part of a fairy tale or history lesson, would be enough at a reading if they're just getting their feet wet. It's also fun to use alternate forms of narration, such as acting out a story or drawing a picture, or having the child pretend they are the main character and tell about what happened. Often a discussion question or two can follow narration, and if the books touch their imaginations, the children may ask the questions themselves. (A sure sign of comprehension!) You'll find that many specific comprehension skills are learned through narration--sequencing, main idea, details--and it's also good practice in listening, in speaking skills, vocabulary, and the more general idea of putting words together and telling a story. To get down to the nitty-gritty skills such as where to put a period, you can teach those as they do copywork (you can also have them use a handwriting curriculum along with copywork--Charlotte Mason did), and dictation (you can let them "study" for it first). Or have lessons in those things when you feel it's time to teach them. (Example: my 10yo has mastered most of the mechanics such as punctuation, but I've noticed in her own writing that she rarely uses paragraphs. Mental note to spend some time working on that this fall.) You'll see other things on scope and sequence lists for primary grades, such as homonyms and rules for dividing words into syllables. Again, you can teach those in a few short lessons--we like Ruth Heller's picture books about types of words. (Fred Gwynne wrote a couple of books about The King Who Rained, but I found those went over my daughter's head. Five in a Row uses a picture book called Truman's Aunt Farm.) It's easy to make up word games with things like homonyms--just make it the day or week's challenge to come up with the most interesting examples. Re syllables-my personal feeling is that too many rules about that are irrelevant at this age, except if it's a particular spelling problem that needs to be explained; I did teach my dd what syllables were, and we related them to music, such as counting the number of hand claps as we chanted lines of nursery rhymes. It's something to do while waiting for the bus. But if you want to teach syllables, go ahead. Hope this helps some. I hesitate to respond because my children do not have good handwriting, and because I am not very diligent about doing what I ought to do. So, please, don't look upon this as advice from one qualified to give it, but rather as a report. I will report what I understand of Charlotte Mason's suggestions for handwriting. This is not to be taken as an indication that I have done very well with implementing her ideas in this area. On the rare occasions where I have implemented them, I have seen improvement. I use the feminine pronoun throughout because my letter writers are all girls. Charlotte Mason suggests that copywork begin with a single letter of the alphabet, and you do not move on until the child is able to form about six copies of that letter perfectly. The key seems to be for the parent/teacher to watch while the child writes, stopping her from forming a letter improperly (bottom to top rather than top to bottom, for example). Then have her compare her work to the model and together you look for errors. Have her notice that her 'a' is open at the top rather than closed--you may need to direct her attention to the areas she needs to notice (Look at how the letters sit on the lines--what's the difference between yours and the model?) If I had done this from teh start, and we had only worked on single letters of the alphabet until the child could form them with nearly perfect execution, and I had been diligent to sit and watch them write--well, I think my girls would have legible handwriting. As it is, three of them write exactly like their father.=/ Too Much Grammar? article by Ruth Beechick Copyright © 2002-2013 AmblesideOnline. All rights reserved. Use of this curriculum subject to the terms of our License Agreement.

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Attention and Concentration Tegan finds the other students in the class very annoying and distracting, and isn’t getting her work done. Points to note • Students with ASD tend to be easily distracted. The student might find it hard to concentrate because of background noise, flickering lights or the movement of others about the room. Classrooms that are very bright and colourful can overload the student with visual information. Many students find it particularly hard to ‘filter out’ background noise and visual information. • Stress and anxiety will affect concentration levels. See the Behaviour Management section for more information. • The student may have another condition such as ADHD that affects their ability to concentrate. • Strong perfume, deodorant or other smells may be overwhelming to the student, causing irritation and an inability to concentrate. • The student may have trouble understanding what to focus on; and may be unaware of the ‘big picture’, concentrating instead on small, irrelevant details. • The student is likely to have an obsessive interest that can intrude on thoughts. The student may pay little attention to an activity that does not fall into their particular area of interest. • Students with ASD may ignore group instructions because they don’t think they are part of the group. • Attention may be poor where there is a receptive language difficulty. The student may not take in what is being said; and may just ‘tune out’. • The student with ASD can have difficulty predicting how long an activity will last; this uncertainty may cause anxiety which will affect concentration. • During an activity the student may get stuck but won’t ask for help and starts doing something else. Teachers may interpret this as poor concentration. • It is common for people with ASD to be very rigid and selective in their choice of food, i.e. choosing to eat foods of a certain texture, taste or colour. A diet that is nutritionally inadequate will affect ability to concentrate and behaviour. • You will find that the student is far better at absorbing information from a documentary program or using educational software than listening to a teacher in class. What you can do • If appropriate, play background music to mask out unwanted noise. • When demonstrating an activity you’ll need to remind the student what to focus on. Visual cue cards may be more effective than verbal prompts because words ‘disappear’ quickly. • Try to incorporate the student’s particular topic of interest into activities to increase attention and motivation. This could be as simple as placing a sticker related to the student’s interest in the corner of a worksheet. • Use the student’s name frequently when addressing the class as a whole. This will help the person recognise they are part of the group. If the student has an aide, ask them to repeat the instruction individually if necessary. • Keep your language clear and uncomplicated, giving one instruction at a time. Give the student sufficient time to process the instruction, then check understanding. • Try to keep tasks as relevant and functional as possible. The students might have little motivation to complete a task that has little relevance or personal meaning. • Make sure the student understands the activity, knows how to start and when to finish. Use a kitchen timer or clock to show how long the activity will last; this will help the student develop a concept of time. • If concentration deteriorates throughout the day, it could be due to low energy or a poor diet. The student may need a consult with a dietician or doctor to check if they are receiving adequate nutrition. • If all else fails and the student just won’t pay attention, some time out to let off steam may help. Creative Writing and Literacy Points to note • Students with ASD are often fantastic readers but struggle to write coherent structured pieces or creative pieces of writing. • Students with ASD are often very good at reading because they have terrific visual learning skills. Some can decode words beyond the level of their comprehension. This is known as hyperlexia. • Comprehension can be difficult for students with ASD because they have ‘theory of mind’ deficits. They can have difficulty understanding the motivations and intentions of others (and therefore, the characters in story books). They may have an understanding of the story but are unable to answer questions about it. ‘Why’ questions are particularly difficult as they require the ability to reason. • Some students refuse to read anything but non-fiction; this allows the gathering of facts and knowledge on preferred interests. • Most students with ASD are visual learners. When learning new words, it is best to take a ‘whole word’ approach rather than a phonetic approach, as this may teach the student only to sound out the word, not the word itself. • In creative writing, the student might lack imagination, have difficulty getting started and organising thoughts in sequence. The student may not provide enough information to ensure reader understanding, assuming that the reader knows as much about the plot and characters. The student may only write on a limited range of topics and may be unable to write about anything outside personal experience. What you can do • If the student is stuck reading books on one topic, encourage books on related topics. • If the student has an impaired imagination, may have difficulty relating to fantasy stories and prefer to read about things that are real and of interest. • Computer programs that teach comprehension and creative writing will be of great benefit to the student and encourage him to work independently. • Encourage the student to make his or her own story using computer images – photos, pictures and drawings. Encourage the student to describe what is on each page to develop the story. • Practice sequencing using images that show a series of events. Ask the student to retell the events in their own words. This will help develop an understanding of questions such as “What happened before …?” and “What happens next …?” • After reading a story ask the student ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘when’, ‘where’ and ‘how’ questions. Many will find these questions confusing, so it may help to provide two alternative answers to prompt the correct response. Move on to ‘why’ questions as verbal ability and comprehension improves, again providing prompts. • In creative writing, allow the student to write about personal experiences. Then, to develop creativity, pose questions like, “What would have happened if…” and have the student write an alternate version. • If the student has difficulty starting a creative writing task, try using pictures or cartoons first to aid organisation of thoughts. Effective Rewards and Motivators Points to note It is important to reward positive and desired behaviour in young people with ASD. This helps motivate the person to repeat the preffered behaviours and to take pride in their achievements. Finding out what rewards and motivates an individual with ASD is very important to ensure success when teaching new skills and encouraging positive behaviour. Motivators are important because: • Students with ASD lack an inbuilt desire to please others. • The student may become anxious when asked to do something that is unfamiliar, preferring familiar activities and routines that help the student feel safe and secure. It’s important to identify and use appropriate rewards and motivators to encourage development of new skills. • The rewards that motivate other students may not appeal to a young person with ASD. • The usual things we say or do to praise a student for a job well done may have no real meaning to the student with ASD. For example, “Nice job” or a pat on the back. • Rewarding positive behaviour helps the student understand what is acceptable behaviour What you can do • Assess the student’s interests to establish what will be the most effective rewards and motivators. This information can be listed on the Student Summary. Conduct regular reviews as interests can change over a period of time. • Creative teachers can work the student’s preferred interest into lessons and activities. • Allow the student free time at preferred interest if work is completed before the other students. Reading, drawing, playing a computer game or visiting the library are all good activities. • Give the student ‘Behaviour Bucks’ as a reward for good behaviour. Photocopy dollar ‘notes’ that can be used to buy a larger reward. A great method for teaching money maths. • A student that particularly dislikes homework may be motivated to improve behaviour or complete class work if excused from homework for a day. • An extension of the pass card, is a reward system with positive reinforcers printed on cards. The cards are given out at random for good work/behaviour. The student can then trade these in at appropriate times. • Another tangible reward system is a sticker card with a grid of squares. The student earns one sticker for good behaviour. When the grid is full it can be traded in for a reward. Use stickers that relate to the student’s interest. • When the student is working toward a reward have a picture or photo of it as a visual reminder. Make sure the student understands exactly how many points he needs to earn rewards. A social story can help the student understand the reward system. See Social Stories. • Use a communication book between home and school to report on progress, skills learnt, behaviour etc. This will give parents the opportunity to learn about and praise their child for good behaviour. • Initially offer the student frequent rewards to improve motivation – you can be more selective later. • Change the reward system regularly to keep up the student’s interest and motivation. • A student with challenging behaviour may hear nothing but negative comments, so be quick to praise even minor improvements in behaviour. This will help improve self-esteem. • Make your praise meaningful. Instead of ‘Good job’ or ‘Well done’ try these phrases; You’ve certainly worked hard. You must have been practicing. You’re really learning a lot. Now you’ve worked it out. You’re doing much better today. That’s a real improvement. I’m happy to see you enjoy working. You’re getting better at it every day. You remembered everything! You’re very good at that now. Handwriting Difficulties and Note Taking Brody is reluctant to take notes – he hates making mistakes that are permanent, but is more co-operative when he can use a computer. Points to note • The student with ASD may have fine motor difficulties that it make it hard to write neatly. it may be difficult for the student to a pen properly. • The student may be a perfectionist who insists on always forming letters perfectly. Activities may never be completed because the student does them over and over to make them perfect. The student may be an extremely slow writer, or may write well at the beginning of an activity but gets tired quickly. • Some students with ASD insist on writing in capital letters. • The student’s handwriting may suffer if anxious about writing well or stressed by some other issue. • The student may have difficulty taking notes from the blackboard, as this involves reading the words, keeping them in memory momentarily, writing them down, often while listening to verbal instructions from a teacher or the chatter of peers! It is very difficult for students with ASD to attend to more than one stimulus at a time. • Sometimes a student is so self-conscious about poor handwriting that written work may not be handed in. • The student with autism may suffer a condition called Dysgraphia, where the persons writing skills are much lower than their age, IQ and education level. What you can do • Some students may need to use paper with larger lines to keep letters even and uniform. • Students who insist on writing in capitals may have learnt to write this way prior to school entry and have become ‘stuck’. Individual teachers can decide whether to tackle this issue. There are many other ways of recording information. • Show the student how you handle mistakes when you are writing. • Some students write better if their writing surface is raised to a 15-degree angle. • While handwriting difficulties need to be addressed, consider alternative methods of recording such as using a laptop or mini tape recorder. These can be useful when the student needs to record a lot of information. • Give the student advance warning that they will need to write in the session and how much is expected. • Assign a note taking buddy – have another student photocopy his notes to ensure the student with autism has a complete set. Summarise key points in a handout. Note also that some students with autism have great difficulty reading the handwriting of others. • For those with anxiety about making mistakes social stories can help. • Allow the student to type written work. Ask the student’s parents if they can transcribe the work if the student is not a competent typist. More information on Dysgraphia can be obtained from http://suelarkey.com.au/media/Tip_Sheet_-_Dysgraphia_and_Typing.pdf and http://www.autism-help.org/comorbid-dysgraphia-autism.htm Improving Organisational Skills Points to note • People with ASD tend to have poor executive functioning skills. This means the student might have difficulty with organisation, task sequencing, planning, prioritising and getting started. • A student with ASD can easily become overloaded and confused coping with the social demands of school life. This added stress affects the ability organise themselves and their belongings. • The student may not see the point of being well organised and may have little motivation to please others or master new skills. • The student can have particular difficulty remembering which items to bring from home and what to take home each day, the materials required for certain classes, knowing where to put answers on a work sheet and finding their way around school. What you can do • The student will benefit from having a map of the school. Use highlighters to colour code classrooms, home room, canteen, etc. • Use a homework assignment book or sheet. This should clearly state what is expected as well as listing the books and resources needed to fulfil the requirements. Have the student’s parents check and sign the book and copy important dates on to a calendar. • Encourage the student to use a calendar at home (preferably one related to a special interest) as a constant visual reminder of important dates, assignments due etc. • Talk to the student’s parents about providing a suitable place at home to complete homework. It is essential this space is free from distractions. • It is important the student has time to ‘unwind’ at the end of the day so traditional forms of homework may be off the agenda. A home work assignment that meets the unit requirements but can be completed relating to a topic of interest, using a computer and multi media resources, may be far more motivating for the student to complete. • Use different coloured plastic tubs or trays to organise workspace. • Suggest the student use a colour coding system for notebooks, text books and folders for each subject. • Use a visual or written timetable that shows the items that are required for each lesson. • Allocate a time each week for ‘housekeeping’ and a general tidy up of the student’s work area, locker etc. The student may also benefit from having a larger locker if this is possible. • Enlarge worksheets onto A3 size paper and using a highlighter, mark the spaces for each answer. • The student may need some help getting started with an activity. A physical prompt may be necessary. Try providing a list, sequencing the tasks to reach the goal of the activity. Learning To Ask For Help Points to note • The student may have difficulty asking for help and will work on something until their frustration is very high or they have a meltdown. The young person may not know that other people may be able to help them. • Even a student with good language skills may not recognise the need to tell someone about feeling frustrated, or that something is troubling them. • A student who is being harassed or bullied may not complain about or report incidents unaware that teaching staff actually need this information in order to take action. • A student who appears lazy or avoids work may in fact be unable to get on with the task. • Young people with ASD are often worried about appearing different and will be reluctant to seek help from aides and teachers in case they get teased or called stupid. What you can do • The student with ASD needs help to understand emotions and how to convey them. • If you ask an open question, the student may say ‘no’ when meaning ‘yes’. For example, instead of saying “Are you too hot?” you might say, “If you are feeling too hot then you need to take off your jumper.” Instead of saying “Do you need help?” say “If it’s hard then you need to say ‘I need help’”. • The young person with ASD might be very insecure about appearing stupid so have an agreed code or signal to encourage them to ask for help. • Be aware of the tasks that cause the most difficulty. Work alongside the student and help recognise when he is having difficulty. Teach a standard phrase to use, such as “I’m stuck” or “I can’t do this.” Older children who don’t want to draw attention to themselves could use an agreed signal to alert their teacher that they need assistance. • Appoint an understanding peer or staff member to counsel and debrief the student following an incident. Make sure they have private 1:1 time to discuss the situation in detail. • There may be a tendency for the student to apply one problem solving strategy and apply this rigidly. The student will need assistance to think ‘outside the square’. • When the student has completed a task, talk through the sequence of steps and reflect on what has been learnt from the exercise. Memory, Recalling and Reflecting on Learning Points to note • Many people with autism have excellent memories and can recall events or information in intricate detail, particularly facts, dates and information on their topic of interest. Many people with autism have excellent rote memories. • According to some theories, many learning difficulties experienced by people with ASD arise from a failure to develop an experience ‘of self’. It is as if they have difficulty experiencing events as happening to themselves, rather it is like they are watching a video of life. This lack of experiencing self has a profound effect on the student’s ability to process information. • When you ask the student with ASD a question, responding may take some time as the person has to stop thinking present thoughts, process the meaning of the question, come up with an answer and then respond. • The students might have difficulty accessing and retrieving memories without a specific cue. It is not that the information is not there, but the student may not have a meaningful framework in which to link events and personal memories. • The student may have difficulty responding to an open question, such as “What did you do on the weekend?’ but he may be able to answer questions when given alternatives, such as, “Did you go the park or the beach on the weekend?” This type of questioning gives a prompt to retrieve the information from memory. What you can do • Be aware of the student’s difficulties with open questions, only use these if you feel the student can give an appropriate response. Otherwise, ask questions that give a cue as to the correct response. • Be patient when asking questions. Try not to interrupt or finish sentences for the student as this may interrupt thought processes and they will have to start over again. • There are several strategies to try that may help the student to memorise specific information. • when talking about experiences, discuss the student’s personal response, feelings and thoughts. • Students might need assistance to identify these feelings, – working the information into a diagram or picture form, – helping the student to establish links between new information and information already known. Use visuals wherever possible. • When a new skill has been learnt it is helpful to reflect on this learning before moving on. This can be done by; – identifying key points, – asking the student to clearly state what they have learnt, – making connections between what has been learnt and prior knowledge in the subject, – making judgments about how this new skill or information will be useful in the future. When Gary tries to play football with the other kids at lunchtime he ends up in a fight, he doesn’t understand the rules of the game and runs away with the ball. Points to note • Many people with Autism have some degree of motor clumsiness. Some have an odd gait when walking or running. There may be a lack of co-ordination between the upper and lower limbs or left and right sides of the body. • This motor clumsiness may cause the young person with ASD to have poor ball handling skills, particularly if visual perception is a problem. For example, to the inability to anticipate and catch a ball being thrown in their direction. • Poor ball handling skills can lead to ridicule by peers and exclusion from games. Unfortunately, when this occurs, the student has limited opportunities to practise skills and enjoy the social aspects of sporting activities. • Many of the rules of team sport are invisible and complicated, free flowing and very difficult to for a person with autism to follow. • A student who is tactile defensive will dislike the physical contact of team sports. • People with autism sometimes have poor core strength, muscle tone, hyper mobile joints and may tire easily, all of which make physical activity difficult. • The young person with autism might have a very strong sense of justice; and will get very upset if someone has cheated in a game. Young people with ASD often expect to win and become very upset when beaten as they like to know there is a predictable outcome to an event, i.e. they expect to win. • Proprioceptive difficulty leads to an inability to judge the position of one’s body in space. The student may not be very good at imitating others and balance may also be affected. • The student may have auditory sensitivities and the acoustics of a gymnasium can be unbearable. The sound of whistles, bouncing balls and voices echoing off the walls can be painful. What you can do • A physiotherapist or occupational therapist can put together a program to assist with co-ordination, core strength and stability. • Individual activities may be more suited to a person with ASD. Gym programs, swimming, karate, tennis are all more solitary physical activities that people with ASD tend to be able to participate in better than team activities. These activities can also help build coordination and skills. • Ball handling skills can greatly improve the student’s acceptance by peers. The young person may never be an outstanding player but ball skills can be improved through a regular physical education program. Ball handling skill can be practiced 1;1. • If auditory sensitivity is a problem, the student may like to wear ear protectors. Have an agreement that the student can leave the gym if feeling overloaded. • Use a social story to teach rules of games and develop an understanding of fair play. • Teachers may need to pick class teams to ensure the young person with ASD is not left out or picked last for team sports. • If the young person is not able to participate well in team games they may like to be score keeper or umpire. Transfer of Learned Skills Points to note • People with ASD can be very rigid in their way of thinking. They can have great difficulty transferring the skills learnt in one setting to another, similar setting. • Problems with memory recall lead to difficulty searching the memory for useful information. Unless they are specifically cued, the student can lack the ability to spontaneously search for knowledge that can be transferred to a new situation. • Sometimes a student can display certain skills at school but cannot perform them independently at home, or vice versa. • This inability to generalise skills can be a big problem if the student’s teacher is unaware of just how rigid the child can be. What you can do • It is important to always generalise what is being taught with a range of examples and situations. The student needs an opportunity to learn the same thing in different situations to encourage flexible thinking. • Practice each new skill with a range of practical examples in different settings. Then move on to more complex ideas. • There needs to be good communication between home and school. Keep a record of skill development in a Communication Book and send it home with the student each day. Newly acquired skills can then be practiced at home. • When a new skill has been learnt, reflect on the learning experience by talking about what has been learnt and how this skill might be used in the future. • The student should also be given the opportunity to enjoy what was learnt. Reflect on the achievement, pointing out to the student their feelings of pride. Homework is a contentious issue for students with ASD. Many students have a strong resistance to the very idea and have great difficulty completing any homework tasks at all. School is very stressful and often students with ASD need their downtime afterschool to cope. - Students with autism have poor functioning in the areas of goal setting, planning, organising and prioritising tasks, managing time effectively, solving problems and staying on task. These issues can make homework very difficult. - Assigning homework to a student struggling with the stress of school may be more than he or she can cope with. - The student may see no point in doing school work at home if they have already covered the topic in class- in their mind it is done and there is no reason to go back over it again. - The student may see school work is done only at school and may not want to do it at home, as home is the domain for other things. Common problems and strategies The student spends hours on a task when it was only intended to take a few minutes. Be explicit with task requirements. Define specific tasks and the expected duration of each. Encourage the student to use a timer or stopwatch to manage time effectively. Poor time management; student leaves assignments to the ‘last minute’. Give an expected start date as well as a completion date for large assignments. Review progress regularly. Memory problems, forgetting homework instructions and resources required. Use a homework diary. Assign a responsible peer to act as a ‘homework buddy’ for the student to telephone if he has difficulty or forgets what to do. Fax or email a copy of homework to parents. Refuses set homework or does not complete tasks satisfactorily. The student is likely to have difficulty getting started and figuring out where to begin. Close supervision is needed. Speak to the student’s parents about providing assistance and guidance or hiring a homework tutor. If this is not possible, homework tasks could be completed at school during breaks under supervision of a teacher or integration aide. Strategies used for students with ADD or ADHD can also be useful. Poor handwriting. The student may refuse to hand in work for assessment because he is self-conscious of his poor spelling or messy writing. Allow student to use a computer for written assignments. Student has difficulty with homework format, eg. essays. Allow alternative assignment formats, eg. oral reports, demonstration, use of a video or audio tape recorder or computer presentation. Where sequencing and structuring of written language is a problem, permit students to submit assignments written in ‘dot point’ rather than essay format. Student is not able to explain the formula or reasoning they used to reach a correct answer. The strategies and thought processes used by the student may be based on intuition rather than conventional thinking. They may be unable to demonstrate or verbalise the steps they used to reach a conclusion however these do tend to be accurate. You may have to accept their reasoning at face value, even if it seems illogical to the neuro-typical mind. Close communication between home and school is important to ensure the support of parents to get homework done, but also for schools to understand when tasks need to be modified or when the student is experiencing significant stress and will not be able to complete tasks. How can I help my son develop his independence? • Teens with autism are like their typically developing peers, often seeking independence and to get away from parents and carers on their own. • Teens with autism will mature physically at the same rate as their peers, but will take longer to develop social, sexual and emotional maturity. • Parents often worry about the ability of their teen with autism to look after themselves in the real world and want to shield them. • To be able to be as successful and as independent as possible in the world as adults, the teen with ASD must build skills and understand their rights and responsibilities. • Preparing the young person for independence will ensure they are more likely to be able to care for themselves in the future when a parent or carer is no longer able to care for them. • Teaching basic skills and expecting the young person to participate in their share of household activities increases the sense of fairness in the family and lessens the burden on siblings and parents. Things you can do to increase independence • Often young adults with autism will struggle with hygiene and self-care if not prompted to shower. The young person with ASD needs to master these tasks and understand why it is important to be clean and well groomed each day. • Teach and reinforce the basics of hygiene and self-care; toileting, showering, bathing, dressing and grooming • Visual schedules and sequences or electronic reminders can help prompt these tasks. Caring for belongings • Teach the young person to care for their belongings appropriately and to have a special place to put important things such as keys, wallets, watches etc. • People with autism can sometimes be messy, disorganised and lose belongings if they do not have defined spaces to put things. • Some people with ASD are big collectors or hoarders and have difficulty letting go of things they no longer need. • Ensure the young person has an organised way to keep their collections and make regular bedroom cleaning part of the schedule at home. Cooking and meal preparation Involve the teen in basic cooking to build food preparation skills and basic kitchen safety concepts. There are many great photographic step by step cook books available for people with disabilities/autism that can help. Social stories of visual prompts/reminders may be needed to support kitchen safety concepts. • Practice preparing breakfasts and school lunches (can be done the night before) • Practice making basic packet cake or muffin mixes- this helps develop basic skills such as mixing, pouring, breaking eggs, and with following step by step directions. • Get the young person with autism to take responsibility for one meal a week- planning, shopping for ingredients, cooking and cleaning up. • Remember that practice makes perfect and sometimes mum or day may need to get out of the way to let the person make a mess, experience failure and success in their own way. Household chores/pet care • Get the teen to assist with chores such as washing clothes, vacuuming, yard work and gardening. Give them responsibility for specific tasks such as feeding and walking pets or bringing washing in from the line. • Often teens with autism will pick these skills up easily if they repeated often and visual aids are provided. • Shopping- involve the teen in food shopping – shopping provides a great opportunity to practice maths skills such as weighing and measuring, counting and calculating prices. • Changing sheets and making beds is also an important skill to learn. The young person with ASD may have difficulty with this task due to motor coordination difficulties, but it is important to keep practicing and for the person to do as much of the task as they can. • It is important the young person has some concept of responsibility for their own money, including their pension/part of their pension to manage savings and paying for their own expenses. • Open a bank account and teach the young adult how to make deposits and or withdrawals, and save up money for something they want. Reward money for helping with tasks can be banked. • Internet banking may be a great skill for young people with high functioning autism to learn, but they will also need to know how to go into a branch, fill in a deposit or withdrawal slip and line up in a queue. Using the Library Ensure the young adult has their own library card and knows how to borrow, care for and return books or resources. Having your own library card, borrow books and caring for them teaches responsibility and develops a sense of self. Start teaching the teen about public transport including which bus or train to get to school or into the city if needed, how much it costs, how to read the timetable and which stop to get on and off at. What to do if the bus or train is late or isn’t coming, the best places to sit when using public transport and who and how to ask for help. Using a phone Often people with autism are not good at using a phone. This may be because they can’t see the person they are talking to and miss out on the visual cues needed for understanding. They may also find operating a phone /mobile difficult. Practice using a phone and calling the parent/carer, program in the numbers, identify situations when they may need to call. It is important the young person understands • The role of the emergency services • Who they are • What they do • Emergency situations and when to call 000. • Practice what they may need to say or do. • Use a social story or visual reminder or script – have it on the wall near the phone • Keep name, address and phone number details also by the phone It is important to practice an emergency evacuation of your home with and identify a meeting place. The person with autism may not know what the beep of the smoke detector means or automatically know to get out of the house if there is smoke or a fire. A visual strip or social story may be needed. The young person needs to know to get out of the house and not to hide if the smoke detector goes off. Teach road safety in a variety of settings- as a pedestrian, as a passenger. Ensure the teen can use the traffic lights or pedestrian crossings and knows where to cross safely. Being able to safely ride a bike, scooter or skateboard with their peers is also important for a teen with ASD. Teach and enforce the importance of helmets and seatbelts. • Some teens with autism may aspire to get their licence like their typically developing friends. Some people with high functioning autism can successfully gain their L plates/ P plates and learn to drive. • This may not be a goal for all young people with autism but parents need to keep an open mind to the possibilities. • Many young people with ASD pass the initial L plate theory based test quite successfully, but have issues with the coordination and concentration required to drive and gain a full licence. • Understanding and keeping within rules and lines and obeying signals is easy for people with autism, dealing with sudden change in road conditions and the intentions and actions of other road users are not. • See Vic Roads for further information relating to driving and people with disabilities or impairments. Health and medical care The teen with autism may want to take on some of the responsibility for their own health, well being and medical appointments. Arranging appointments, attending an appointment (or part of the appointment) on their own, having their own Medicare /health care cards is part of growing up and taking responsibility for their health. Knowing where to seek health services is also important. Sexuality and relationships It is important the person with autism has a reasonable and factual understanding of sex, masturbation and a concept of what their rights and responsibilities are in a relationship. The young person with autism will also need to understand how to know when someone is taking advantage of them to avoid being exploited sexually, physically emotionally or financially. For more information on sexuality see Sexuality health and hygiene. Cigarettes, Drugs and Alcohol A young person with autism may have many questions about cigarettes, drugs and alcohol and may even want to experiment with these substances. It is important that the young person with autism learns about • What these substances are • What they do • What they look like • Legal issues with using these substances • Health issues that arise from using these substances. It is critical the young person learns; • NEVER EVER to take any pills, powders or liquids from people at school or in the community. • They also need to know to tell someone if they are offered a substance or alcohol. • Remember that young people with autism are easily set up by others and may not know they are in a dangerous situation and who they can trust. Key reminders for teaching skills for independence - Patience is critical. It can be exhausting at times but worthwhile. - Break tasks down into steps. - Use visual prompts for each step if needed. - Repetition is key. - Encourage and reward desired behaviour. - Get out of the way and let the young person make mistakes and learn from them. - Let the person make a mess and clean it up again as part of the learning experience. - It does not have to be perfect. It is the attempt that counts. - Make participation in these tasks and learning part of the daily/weekly routine.

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GMU- TEA PROGRAM INSTRUCTOR: CARA BREMER Before, during and after Reading… CAROLINA BARRERA VALENZUELA Lori Daly, Key MS 1 “Before” Reading: Strategies Before reading, teachers might consider one of the following activities: This activity may be used as a before, during, or after reading strategy. It can be used before reading for students to brainstorm their knowledge, during reading to collect key vocabulary, or after reading as a review. Students are given a chart with all of the letters of the alphabet and asked to write down specific words or phrases about one particular topic that begin with each letter. This activity can be done individually, with partners, or in a group. If a teacher is short on time, it might also be modified by asking students to use only their personal initials for the brainstorm. An ABC chart used during or after reading might also be a valuable vocabulary resource for students when studying for a test or quiz. Admit slips are used before students read a selection. On a sheet of paper or index card, students are asked to respond to a specific prompt. The slip may be used as a homework assignment or as a warm up. One variation of this strategy would be asking students to respond to a question they developed the previous class period. The anticipation guide can be used before, during, and after reading a passage. In this strategy, the teacher provides general statements about a topic. The students are asked to agree or disagree with the statements, encouraging critical thinking and building student interest. In addition to agreeing or disagreeing, students may be asked to defend their opinions through written or oral communication. During or after reading, students may revisit and revise their anticipation guide based on the reading and class discussion. *This strategy could be adapted into the Back to Back activity. Back to Back In this activity, the teacher develops five to ten general statements about a topic or concept. Students partner up and stand with their backs to one another. While students are back to back, the teacher reads a statement aloud. The students then give a thumbs up or thumbs down, showing whether they agree or disagree with the statement. Next, the teacher asks the students who are back to back to turn and face one another. If both of the students Lori Daly, Key MS 2 agreed or both disagreed, they give one another a high five. Students are then given about a minute to explain their reasons. The process is then repeated with the remaining statements. This before and after reading activity allows students to express their opinions on a particular topic. Before reading about a specific issue, the teacher would propose a question or problem to the class. Students would then write down their feelings about the situation. Next, students might read an opinion piece on the issue. Following the reading, they would again write down their viewpoint, explaining whether or not it had changed from their original stance and why. This would be an excellent activity to use to prepare for a class debate. Graphic organizers are important because they visually represent a student’s thinking and learning. They specifically help students better understand abstract concepts, categorize and organize information, and determine relationships between ideas. This organizer works well with a general concept. Students are asked to define the idea, explain its characteristics, and give both examples and non-examples of the This classic strategy helps students activate background knowledge, while also giving the teacher a more concrete idea of what students know. Before reading, students brainstorm what they Know about the topic. This could be done as a class, in groups, in pairs, or individually. Next, students fill out what they Want to Know about the topic. Finally, after reading they write down what they Learned from the reading. Teachers may use this as a preliminary comparison activity prior to reading a piece of text. The activity will encourage students to think about and discuss similarities and differences between two topics before diving into a selection. A Jigsaw is a valuable activity where students can gain a great deal of knowledge without taking the time for each student to read every piece of text. This activity can be used before or during reading. Before reading a main article or chapter, the teacher breaks the students into smaller groups. Each group receives their own short reading that is different from the other groups. The students then read their paragraphs together in groups, identifying two or three main points from the text. Each group can then share the information to the whole class, or the teacher can have the original groups redistribute into new groups. The new groups consist of one student from each of the original groups. Each student in the new group shares the information from his or her short reading. By doing this, the students hear about five or six new topics in addition to the one they read with their group. The teacher is able to introduce Lori Daly, Key MS 3 the students to many different pieces of background knowledge before reading, rather than just one topic as a whole class. The same procedure may be repeated as a during reading strategy. When completed during reading, the teacher may differentiate the text being read by the students, or have the students read the same text, but then have each group focus on a different skill or strategy that correlates to the text. Possible Sentences allows students to use key vocabulary terms while also making predictions. The teacher chooses ten to twelve words directly from the text. It is important to choose some terms the students know, and some with which they are unfamiliar. The students then use the vocabulary words to make “possible sentences” that might be found in the upcoming reading. Students are expected to use at least two vocabulary words in each sentence, which forces them to think about how the words are related to one another. In addition to this, students will then read the text with anticipation, wondering whether or not their sentences will appear in the selection. After reading, the teacher might have the students assess which of their sentences were similar to ones in the text, which were not, Possible Questions is similar to Possible Sentences, but instead of using the words to develop sentences, the students use the words to create questions that might be answered in the text. This activity raises student curiosity prior to reading and encourages students to read more carefully, looking for the answers to their questions. It is important for teachers to carefully choose vocabulary terms from the reading so students will be focusing in on the information the teacher wants the students to take from the text. This activity may also be used after reading if the teacher wants the students to answer, or modify and answer, their A Predict-o-gram is used to activate a student’s background and vocabulary knowledge before reading a piece of text. The teacher gives students words from the text and a chart with categories, such as setting, characters, action, problem, and resolution. The students then put the words into the categories, making predictions about how the terms will be used in the reading. This strategy can be easily adapted for expository text by using content specific categories. A history teacher might include groups such as battles, northern generals, southern generals, treaties, and cities. After the students place the words into categories but before reading, the teacher may also ask the students to write a summary statement with the words. Preview the Text Previewing the Text is a simple strategy where students look through a chapter, section, or article before reading. At the beginning of the year, teachers should model this Lori Daly, Key MS 4 strategy, pointing out the headings, subheadings, pictures, picture captions, and other text features. As teachers show students how to identify and to use key parts of the text, they should also model making predictions and developing inferences based those features. Later in the year, students may complete this strategy independently or with a group, and then use their findings to participate in a brief class discussion about the text before reading. It is important that teachers of all content areas use this strategy because students need to recognize that the helpful features in a history article might be different than those found in a math text. Problematic Situations is also used as a before reading strategy. The teacher proposes a problem to the students and in groups they try to find a solution to fix the dilemma. This strategy works well with a reading where a problem is evident and a solution is found. After reading, students can compare their possible solutions with the one decided on in the text. In this activity, the instructor pulls five or six quotes out of the text before reading. The teacher then groups students and without telling them, gives each group a different quote. The students discuss the quote, predict what the reading will be about, and then share out to the entire class. They begin to realize that each group has a different quote, yet somehow they all fit together in the same reading. This helps students read with anticipation, wondering how all of the pieces will fit together in the text. This strategy may also be adapted into a Jigsaw activity, where one member from each original group joins together in a new group to share his or her quote and explain what his or her group predicted about the reading. Quote and Comment Quote and comment is used as a before reading strategy. The teacher chooses five to eight pictures, sentences from the reading, diagrams, equations, famous quotes, or graphs to post around the room. The students then walk around, responding with a comment, reaction, or question about each of the figures or words on the walls. The teacher can next facilitate a discussion about the items, or allow students to discuss their reactions and questions in small groups. For management reasons, the teacher will want to number each sheet and may want to post more than one of each item so students do not crowd around one paper on the wall. Similar to Quote and Comment, this activity is used to gain vocabulary knowledge prior to reading a piece of text. The teacher selects eight to twelve key vocabulary terms or words from the text to post around the room. The terms are displayed with the word on the front and the definition on the back. Students “raid” the room to collect the definitions and/or words. The teacher can then discuss the words as a whole class, ask the students to highlight key parts of the definitions, have them make connections to the words, or allow the Lori Daly, Key MS 5 students to make predictions about the upcoming reading based on the terms. Teachers might also consider posting a picture with each term, or asking the students to draw a picture that associates with each word. This activity encourages students to develop questions prior to reading a piece of text, and is also used as a during reading strategy. Before reading, students Survey the text, looking at pictures, headings, graphs, and other key text features. Next, students turn headings and subheadings into Questions that might be answered in the text. Finally, students complete 3R’s: read, recite, and review. The students Read to find the answers to their questions, then Recite the information orally and write it down to answer the question, and finally Review the text and the information they wrote down to make sure they did not miss any key facts. This activity works well when reading the textbook or an article with subheadings and empowers students because they are finding answers to their own questions, rather than ones the teacher or textbook created. Before hosting a Tea Party, the teacher chooses eight to ten important quotes from the reading. Each student then receives one quote (some students may have the same quote) and is invited to “socialize” at the party. The teacher explains that the one rule, though, for the party is that the only words they are allowed to speak are the ones written down on their paper. The teacher also explains that they need to be good detectives and not only read from their paper, but listen to what others have to say and gather as much information as possible. Students then “mingle” for three or four minutes, reading their quotes aloud to their classmates. Finally, the students sit back down and the teacher compiles a list of the “gossip” from the party. The one rule is that the students may not reveal the quote that was on their own slip. Viewing a five minute video clip before reading can build student background knowledge and provide visual images for unusual topics. While watching a video should not replace reading a textbook chapter or interesting article, it may serve as a valuable tool to enhance an upcoming reading. Short video clips may also be used during and after reading for similar reasons. Similar to Possible Sentences and Predict-o-Gram, the teacher chooses eight to ten important vocabulary words from the reading. The teacher posts the words for the students, and then has the students write a one or two paragraph prediction on what they think the text will be about. Students try to use as many of the vocabulary words as possible in their prediction. This activity may also be used as an after reading strategy because students may revisit their predictions after reading, determining how their prediction is similar to or different from the actual text. History “During” Reading Strategies Lori Daly, Key MS 6 Teachers might consider using one of the following strategies: Double Entry Journal (Cornell Notes) Double Entry Journals, also termed Cornell Notes, can be used in a variety of ways. Before assigning reading, the teacher develops a double column note sheet. On the left hand side of the sheet, the teacher writes down key terms or main ideas in the text. The right hand side of the note sheet is used for details or facts found in the reading. Teachers may choose to give students the details ahead of time and have them develop the main ideas as they read, or vice versa. Eventually with practice, students will be able to determine both the main ideas and important details from the text. Teachers may also differentiate, giving some students more support on the guide than others. Students should also know that the journal naturally lends itself to being used as a study guide after reading. Having students practice a comprehension strategy during reading encourages them to be actively engaged in the text and thinking while reading. Teachers need to be careful to model the strategies before expecting students to use the methods themselves and should initially use one strategy at a time. Students may try the strategies by marking in the text or writing on post-it notes as they read. Practice with these skills will help students use them more naturally when they are reading independently or faced with difficult pieces of text. The following list has been adapted from the book, Strategies That Work, by Stephanie Harvey and Ann Goudvis. Readers make connections by activating prior knowledge before, during, and after reading text. Students learn to use prior knowledge to make connections between the reading and what they have experienced, what they have read, or what they know about the world. Readers determine the most important ideas and themes in a text according to their purpose for reading. Students learn to use their conclusions about important ideas to focus their reading to exclude peripheral or unimportant details. Readers ask questions of themselves, the authors, and the texts they read. Students learn to use their questions to clarify and guide their reading. Readers create visual and other sensory images from text during and after reading. Students learn to use the sensory connections they make to text to deepen understanding of the text. Lori Daly, Key MS 7 Readers draw inferences from text by using their prior knowledge and textual information to draw conclusions, make critical judgments, and form interpretations from the text. Readers retell or summarize what has been read. Students learn to synthesize in order to better understand and remember. Readers use a variety of “fix-it” strategies to repair comprehension when it breaks Useful during or after reading, this organizer has students identify which facts are important to the text and which are trivial. As they read, students write facts onto one column or another. Teachers might consider giving students the main topic of the reading and having them write down details that connect to the topic in one column and details that are not directly related in another. This organizer also works well when reading math story problems. Students are able to identify relevant and irrelevant information in the text. For this strategy, students read the text and try to remember as many important facts as possible. After they have read, they put away the text and write down every fact they can remember. Next, students go back into the text to look for things they missed. They add the additional facts to their list. Finally students categorize, or organize the information they took from the text. This strategy helps students read more critically and shows them the importance of looking back in the text when they need additional information. It also allows students to think more deeply about what they read by creating their own categories, or main ideas found in the text. This strategy may be used during and after reading. It can also be adapted to include a summary piece after categorizing the information from the reading. Key Sentences forces students to identify the most important information in the text. As students read, they mark sentences they think are important to the text. After reading, they choose the one sentence they believe is most important, write it down on a post-it note, and then explain why they think it is important. Finally, students discuss their sentences with a group of students, explaining their reasoning and listening to others’ thoughts. Another variation of this activity would be to allow students to write the most important sentence on one sticky note, and their favorite sentence on a different colored post-it. This activity encourages students to think critically while reading, determine important information in the text, and give evidence to support their thinking. Lori Daly, Key MS 8 Marking in Text As students read, they can mark in the text using a variety of different strategies. They might write questions they have as they read, highlight four main ideas, circle key vocabulary words, mark areas in which they are confused, write one key word that sums up every paragraph, or write connections they have to the text. This strategy can be adapted to best fit any text the students are reading for class. Selective Reading Guide / Reading Road Map Using a Selective Reading Guide is a classic comprehension activity. As students read, they answer questions, write definitions for key vocabulary words, fill out charts, or draw pictures to help them increase their understanding of the text. Reading Guides can be adapted to fit a teacher’s needs for a piece of text. For example, they might instruct students to read a certain range of pages, and then complete an activity before moving forward in the text. They can also be developed for pairs of students. Paired Reading Guides might ask one student to read a section aloud, answer questions together, and then have the second student read the next part of the text. This might be useful as a differentiated activity, where one student is given a longer piece of text than another, though both students are responsible for reading parts of the story or nonfiction piece. Text Structure Organizers These organizers are helpful when using nonfiction pieces of text. Before reading, teachers determine the type of structure found in the text (compare and contrast, cause and effect, problem and solution, etc). As the students read, they take notes in the organizer. This helps to show them the format of the text, which in turn increases their understanding of the reading. After students are familiar with the various text patterns and graphic organizers, teachers may have students choose or draw their own charts to use for notes If we expect our students to use comprehension strategies, it is important that we model our own thinking as we read. This strategy can be used to model many of the “during” reading strategies. Teachers generally choose a short piece of text to use when “thinking” aloud. The teacher would read a few sentences in the text or word problem, “think” out loud, and show the students what they are thinking as they read or work out the problem. This helps students realize adults, or “good” readers think as they read, as well as learn some of the strategies that might be useful when approaching certain pieces of text. This is an important piece in having our students learn to be better readers. Three Leveled Guide Three Leveled Guides force students to think more critically about the text during and after reading. In order to develop one, teachers must think about various levels of thinking, Lori Daly, Key MS 9 such as applied, interpretive, and literal. This strategy lends itself to small group discussions about the text and forces students to make judgments about various topics. The structure and format of the guide may be altered to best fit a teacher’s needs. “After” Reading Strategies After reading, teachers might consider one of the A 3 – 2 – 1 is a simple way for students to show what they have learned or ask questions about a topic. It can be used after reading, at the end of class, or toward the end of a unit as review. Teachers can adapt the 3 – 2 - 1 organizer to best meet their needs. They might have three facts the students learned from a reading, two questions they had as they read, and one thing in an article that they found interesting. Teachers might also be more specific and ask for students to write three facts they learned about weapons during WWII, two battles that were fought during the war, and one way the war impacted the home front. 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 organizers might also be used if reviewing an entire unit or a long article. Cartoons / Cartoon Strip Single cartoons or cartoon strips are a wonderful way for students to show their ideas through art. After reading, allow students to draw a cartoon strip showing an event from a story, or a process, such as how a bill becomes a law or how a cell transforms during mitosis. Drawing can be a simple way for students to prove their understanding while also being Lori Daly, Key MS 10 Useful during or after reading, this organizer has students identify which facts are important to the text and which are trivial. As they read, students write facts onto one column or another. Teachers might consider giving students the main topic from the reading and having them write down details that connect to the issue in one column and details that are not directly related in another. By mapping out the relevant and irrelevant details, this will help guide student discussions. Teachers might also adapt the organizer to also show two sides of an issue prior to a classroom debate, such as the beliefs of Democrats versus Republicans, or whether or not a character should have made a certain choice in a story. Writing down their ideas will help them form better arguments for a debate. Similar to “Admit Slips”, this strategy is a quick, easy way for teachers to monitor student understanding. At the end of class, the teacher asks students to write down information about what was learned that day. Exit slips can follow a variety of formats. Teachers may ask students questions on the slips, have them write down three facts they learned, have students fill in a small graphic organizer, or draw a picture about what they learned. It is a quick, formative way for teachers to track student progress and After reading, graphic organizers are an easy way to have students reflect on what they read and synthesize their thinking. A variety of organizers can be used based on the format of the text. If reading a story, students might complete a plot diagram. For nonfiction text, students may fill out an organizer based on the text structure used in the reading. If the information is written in chronological order, students might take notes on a timeline, whereas if it was written using a problem and solution format, students can identify the issues and possible solutions. Teachers might also create their own organizers to best fit the format of the text. GRASP (Guided Reading and Summarizing Procedure) For this strategy, students read the text and try to remember as many important facts as possible. After they have read, they put the text away and write down every fact they can remember from the reading. Next, students go back into the text to look for things they missed and add the additional facts to their list. Then students categorize, or organize the list of information they took from the text. Finally, after categorizing, students write a summary of the text based on their personal notes. This strategy may be used both during and after reading. This activity is used both during and after reading. Once a teacher has selected a piece of text, he or she chooses four or five key concepts from the reading. Before reading, the students receive those concepts on index cards. Then, as the students read, they write Lori Daly, Key MS 11 down details on the index cards that relate to the main ideas on the cards. After reading, these cards serve as the basis for a summary of their reading. Photo captions help to show student understanding of a certain subject or concept. After reading, the teacher gives the class four to eight photographs, illustrations, and / or drawings. The students write picture “captions” to show their understanding of the subject matter. This activity might also be done by allowing the students to draw something from the unit of study and then asking pairs to write captions for each other’s pictures. Poetry can be a fantastic alternative to completing a full length piece of writing. It is less time consuming, yet the students are still given the chance to be creative. Bio Poem / “I Am” Poem Bio Poems can be used for a variety of topics, such as famous inventors, scientists, athletes, or story characters. Teachers may use a template to help guide students in their writing and may adapt any bio poem format to best meet the needs of the given A cinquain is a five line poem that generally describes one specific subject or concept. It uses the following format: line one: one word / subject line two: two adjectives that describe line one line three: three action verbs that relate to line one line four: four feelings or a four word sentence that relates to line one line five: one word that is a synonym of line one A cross between a cinquain and a poem for two voices, diamantes use words to describe two opposing sides. Students may contrast two subjects such as a predator and its prey or varying concepts such as discrimination and tolerance. line one: one word opposite of line seven line two: two words describing line one line three: three action verbs that relate to line one line four: four words – two relating to line one / two relating to line seven line five: three action verbs that relate to line seven line six: two words describing line seven line seven: one word contrasting line one “How – To” Poem Instead of listing directions, have students write a “how to” poem. Students might write on subjects such as “How to be a Tornado” or “How to Clean Your Instrument.” Lori Daly, Key MS 12 Poems for Two Voices Poems for two voices help students recognize the similarities and differences between two sides. Possible opposing voices might be fiction / nonfiction or chemical and physical reactions. An example might include: I am fiction. I am nonfiction. I include stories, folk tales, I include essays, biographies, novels, and fables. almanacs, and travel guides. I use opinions, creativity, I use facts. I tell stories. I tell the truth. I am fake. I am real. Shape poems may be used for nearly any subject matter! Students decide on an object, brainstorm words related to that subject, and then use the words to make the shape of the object. Report cards allow students to judge an object’s features or characteristics. Before completing the activity, teachers need to prepare the report cards by deciding on a subject, such as one of Van Gogh’s paintings, and its characteristics, such as dull, simple, and imaginative. Students will give Van Gogh “grades” based on the given features. For example, if the painting is very bright, then they would give him a poor grade for dullness and then explain their thinking. When done in pairs, this strategy activates thoughtful discussion and forces students to provide support for their thinking. In addition to using critical thinking skills, students are often introduced to new vocabulary terms. Byron’s Report Card Subject Grade Comments (give evidence) Lori Daly, Key MS 13 Semantic Feature Analysis This activity may be used as a before, during, or after reading strategy. It allows students to compare features of various topics being studied. FDR JFK Nixon Reagan Clinton Democrat + + - - + War Time President + - + - - Congress of Same Party -/+ + - -/+ -/+ Re-Elected + - + + + Served in Congress - + + - - Top Ten Lists Top Ten lists are a fun way for students to use their knowledge but also be creative! Students should first list facts about a subject matter. Next they decide on items they believe to be interesting or unusual, which become the basis for their lists. Possible topics include “Top Ten Reasons Why You Should Stay Away from Drugs” or “Top Ten Reasons Why We Should Study Probability”. If the students struggle to identify ten reasons, have them write a “Fab Five” list instead! Students may create WANTED posters for subjects in which they are studying. Posters should include pictures, facts, and “silly statements” to keep the posters interesting. Brief phrases may be used instead of complete sentences. The posters allow students to be creative while still showing their subject area knowledge. Writing activities are useful as both before and after reading strategies. When utilized after reading, students can show their newfound knowledge and understanding of the subject A Day in the Life… After researching or learning about a subject, students can write a “day in the life” account of various items, such as a white blood cell, a crayfish, or a drop of water. Conversations / Dialogue In this creative writing assignment, students write an imaginary conversation between two things, such as a solid and a gas or a current and a past president. Diary / Journal Diary and journal entries generally show a student / object / person’s feelings on a day to day basis. Students might right diary entries in unusual perspectives. Lori Daly, Key MS 14 Directions / “How – To” Students write directions explaining “how to” do something related to daily class work or a topic they have been studying. Guess Who / What? After reading or learning key terms in a unit, students may write “Guess Who / What” statements. The students will make a list of characteristics describing an object, person, or term. Once the statements have been written, students can share them with a neighbor and use this as a tool for review. This strategy will help teachers assess student knowledge of key terms and topics without actually “testing.” Ask students to write an imaginary interview. They might consider questioning an atom about its daily life, a person from another time period in history, or an object used often in class, such as a paintbrush. This activity not only allows students to think critically about questions to ask, but also lets them show their knowledge of the Letters can be used in a variety of ways in the classroom. Students might write letters back and forth about people from different periods in history or characters from different stories. Teachers might also direct students to write letters to local businesses, famous athletes, well-known authors, or other persons relevant to the topic at hand. RAFT stands for Role, Audience, Format, and Topic. When students complete this writing assignment, they generally take on the role of an unusual object or person. The following chart shows possible RAFT writing combinations: Role Audience Format Topic scientist the president inventor the principal brochure reporter your parents news article jury / judge fictional cartoon to a historical adventurer character(s) video artist self interview journalist jury / judge After using story problems in science or math class, students may write some of their own! Teachers should make sure to model the writing process for students and give them templates / examples to follow to help guide their thinking. Lori Daly, Key MS 15 Take a Stand / Editorial Ask students to stand up for their beliefs and write an editorial for a newspaper on something they would like to see changed. Teachers may have students focus on a school-related topic or something they have been studying in class. Lori Daly, Key MS 16

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Skip to main content Create interactive lessons using any digital content including wikis with our free sister product . Get it on the Pages and Files 4th Grade Science Unit A Hybrid Approach to Content Area Literacy A Set of Unit Plans A Tale Told With Tangrams by Zania Adolescent Literature and Second Life An Interdisciplinary Revolutionary War Unit Anime Music Videos Building a Greenhouse Community Activism and Service-Learning Curriculum Unit - Discovering and Presenting World Photos within Google Maps by Jessica & Christin Digi-Pop - New Literacies Need New Learning Digital Storytelling with Photo Story Exploring Our Town’s Cultural Heritage Extreme Reading in the Middle Grades Fanfiction and Mythology Unit Fanfiction Unit for Grade 4 Classroom by Donna & Nicole Add "All Pages" Cite strong and thorough textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. Write informative/explanatory texts to examine and convey complex ideas, concepts, and information clearly and accurately through the effective selection, organization, and analysis of content. ntroduce a topic; organize complex ideas, concepts, and information to make important connections and distinctions; include formatting (e.g., headings), graphics (e.g., figures, tables), and multimedia when useful to aiding comprehension. Develop the topic with well-chosen, relevant, and sufficient facts, extended definitions, concrete details, quotations, or other information and examples appropriate to the audience’s knowledge of the topic. Use technology, including the Internet, to produce, publish, and update individual or shared writing products, taking advantage of technology’s capacity to link to other information and to display information flexibly and dynamically. Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects to answer a question (including a self-generated question) or solve a problem; narrow or broaden the inquiry when appropriate; synthesize multiple sources on the subject, demonstrating understanding of the subject under investigation. Gather relevant information from multiple authoritative print and digital sources, using advanced searches effectively; assess the usefulness of each source in answering the research question; integrate information into the text selectively to maintain the flow of ideas, avoiding plagiarism and following a standard format for citation. Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research. Students will be able to define the characteristics of a utopia and a dystopia by researching and providing evidence to support their claims. Students will be able to describe characteristics of a dystopia in written and media forms. These characteristics include: Propaganda is used to control the citizens of society. Information, independent thought, and freedom are restricted. A figurehead or concept is worshipped by the citizens of the society. Citizens are perceived to be under constant surveillance. Citizens have a fear of the outside world. Citizens live in a dehumanized state. The natural world is banished and distrusted. Citizens conform to uniform expectations. Individuality and dissent are bad. The society is an illusion of a perfect utopian world. Students will be able to compare and contrast dystopias in media and print form. Students will be able to gather and analyze information about a dystopian film and novel to provide different views of dystopian societies. Students will construct Wikispaces to clearly inform their peers and other viewers of the meaning of dystopians. Students will use a variety of sources to conclude reasons why dystopias have remained in popular culture since the 1920s. Students will be able to explain how dystopias criticize contemporary trends, societal norms, or political systems. Dystopia, Dystopian Societies, Film, Literature, Research, Wikispaces, Wiki, Popular Culture. Web-based Learning, Collaborative learning, Scoop It, Web 2.0 The purpose of this unit is to familiarize students with the characteristics of dystopian societies. Authors and film directors have been creating examples of dystopias since the 1920s ( directed by Fritz Lang). Students will be responsible for creating a Wikispace that displays an overview of dystopias and an educated explanation for the popularity of dystopias in society. Students will read a variety of print and electronic sources and watch video clips in order to summarize key points about dystopias. However, the focus of this lesson is for students to understand the connection between dystopian plots and society today. The protagonists in dystopian films and literature often portray the resilience of humankind. In most cases, the protagonist displays that individuals need to continuously question societal norms and advocate for their rights. They will work in groups to create Wikispaces that will explore the characteristics of dystopian societies. Each group will choose a dystopian movie and a dystopian novel to analyze through their Wikispaces. Students will be responsible for organizing their Wikispace with proper headers, graphics, video clips, and explanatory text. This process empowers students by allowing them the autonomy of creating their own unique that will be available for others to view. While students will be researching different films and pieces of literature, they will all be responsible for carrying out a similar process and presenting similar components. At the end of the unit, each group will present their WIkispaces to their peers. Computers with Internet access Access to Gmail to create a Google Doc Projector to display video clips Projector to display final products for presentations Resources for Teachers and Students: Top 10 Dystopian Movie Futures 60 Second Recap - Dystopian definition Definition & Characteristics of Utopias and Dystopias Definition, Characteristics, and Examples of Dystopias Article about Dystopian Films Tutorial for using features of Wikispaces “Harrison Bergeron” by Kurt Vonnegut Jr. The class will brainstorm ideas for the characteristics of a dystopian society after watching a short video clip that display portions of dystopian movies. The video clip is a hook to introduce students to the unit and provide a glimpse of various utopian societies. The video clip also displays dystopian films starting in 1927 and going through 2012, which allows students to see that dystopian films have been produced for over 80 years. Students will watch the YouTube video “Top Ten Dystopian Movie Futures”: The instructor will ask students to individually generate a list of some of the similarities between the video clips, such as: they all take place in the future, there are advancements in technology (that often have too much control), all societies do not seem like a pleasant place to live, there are tyrannical leaders, and the police are ever-present. Students will share their responses in a class discussion. Based on this video and other dystopian videos they find online, students will work in groups to come up with characteristics of a dystopia. These should include things like: a dehumanized society, citizens who fear the world outside their boundaries, restricted freedom, the past or old ways are distrusted and severely punished, conforming citizens. Before students begin researching information about dystopias, the instructor will provide a mini-lesson to explain how to properly cite information on their pages as well as a list of resources to help students carry out this process on their own. All students are required to properly cite information on their pages in order to avoid plagiarism. This would also be a good time for the instructor to discuss website credibility because the rubric indicates that students will need to locate credible sources to support their claims. Students will begin by brainstorming their ideas in groups. They must create a Google Document to share with their group members as well as with the instructor. All students will spend the first day exploring dystopias and adding their findings to their Google Doc. Each group will receive a grade for adding information about dystopias and dystopian characteristics on their Google Doc during the first two class periods. The instructor can provide feedback in the document regarding the students’ explanation of dystopian societies. Students will view the tutorial ( ) for how to sign in and navigate some of the features of a Wikispace. Students will locate and read through their rubric on the Wikispace. They can begin setting up their Wikispaces or continue researching and exploring the definition and characteristics of dystopias. Each group will receive a list of websites that will help them to determine the definitions and characteristics of a dystopian society. Students will explore the resources provided as well as conduct their own research. They will use this information to provide their own definition and characteristics on their Wiki. Information on the page must be properly cited as stated in the rubric. The list of websites that that students receive will be a starting point for their research. However, students must locate additional sources to support their claims. Students will read the short story “Harrison Bergeron” by Kurt Vonnegut Jr. in small groups. They will determine dystopian characteristics of the short story. The class will discuss their results as well as the theme of the story or the message that the author is trying to send to his audience. Next, students will make connections between Harrison Bergeron and the protagonists from other dystopian literature and films. By making the protagonist either the hero or the victim of the story, the author or director is attempting to show the power that the government can have over its citizens if the population does nothing to prevent it. Students will review the definitions and characteristics of dystopian societies by sharing the results from the searches. Based on the discussion, students will work in groups to revise their lists. Each group will log in to their Wikispace and locate the handouts with the lists of dystopian films and dystopian literature. Students will watch movie trailers and read movie summaries in order to determine one movie to watch and use as an example on their page. Once the group determines the film that they would like to use for their project, they must tell their instructor. Every group will need to choose a different movie to research and discuss during their presentation. In addition, each student will choose a dystopian piece of literature to read independently. Students will revisit their Wikispaces after they read the independent reading book in order to add and edit information. Students will watch their dystopian movie and write a summary in their own words to bring in to class. Students will receive a grade for this assignment. Once students have obtained and understand of dystopian societies and viewed some examples, the groups will begin to focus on how this information is relevant to society today. Students will begin to explore the reasons why authors and directors create dystopian societies and why audiences find these stories entertaining. This might be a good time for the instructor to present some ideas of dictatorships in history that have resulted in societies that are similar to some of the ones that are depicted in dystopian literature and films. The instructor will invite students to provide examples of current or past societies that might have influenced an author to write a piece of dystopian literature. Groups will either determine certain events that did prompt authors to write a piece of literature, such as the events of the Holocaust being reflected in George Orwell’s , or locate an article about the NSA or another current event that could influence an author to predict a controlled or bleak future. Students will use their summaries to conduct a movie discussion with their group members. Using the summaries they wrote over the weekend, they will create a summary on their Wikispaces. Students need to properly cite all of the sources that they use to create this summary. Students will locate a blog, wiki, discussion board, or other forum on their movie through the use of the website Scoop It. Scoop It allows individuals to search for a specific topic and receive results from a variety of different sites. The instructor will ask students to sign up for a Scoop It account and explain some of the features. Students can begin by exploring the Dystopian page created by their instructor. They will look for something new or interesting that they can incorporate in their Wiki about the movie or dystopian societies in general. This information can be directly from the source to which they reply or from research they conduct as a result of what they read on the blog or discussion forum. They must reply to at least two blogs, forums, or posts on Scoop It. This assignment will be graded. Students will present their Wikis to their peers. After the presentations, the class will generate ideas about how dystopian societies criticize contemporary trends, societal norms, and political systems. The instructor will ask for a volunteer to record ideas on a separate page on the Wikispace. The class will discuss the process of working together on a Wiki and the benefits/flaws of using this type of medium to gather information. Students will add to Wiki with information about their novels at the end of the month. Wikispaces : Exploring Dystopias in Literature and Film The site has a well-developed definition of dystopian societies as well as examples from film & literature. There is a clear explanation as to why dystopias are relevant to society today. The site has a definition of dystopian societies as well as examples from film or literature. The connection between dystopias and society today is not clear or other concepts are not fully developed. The ideas displayed on site are not clear or developed. There is a lack of research to support claims. Components are missing or the information is not credible or accurate. Presentation of Material The presentation displays that the group has an exceptional understanding of the material included in the site and where to find additional information. The group is able to elaborate beyond the text provided in their Wikispace. The presentation displays that the group has a good understanding of the material included in the site, but may not have fully explored the concepts. The presentation displays that the group has a fair understanding of the material included in the site, but may be unclear about various topics. The presentation displays that the group did not appear to learn much from this project. Cannot answer most questions about the content and the procedures used to make the web site. Most or all of the facts are from sources that have experience or expertise in the area of study Many of the facts are supported by sources that have experience or expertise in the area of study Few of the facts are supported by research or by sources that have experience or expertise in the area of study Little research has been conducted to provide evidence for claims Appropriate citation of sources for facts and images/videos effectively linked to a reference section at the end of the Wikispace. Appropriate citation of sources for facts and images/videos. Citations are lacking or some are improperly cited. Some citations are provided but others are missing or citations listed do not match up with citations in reference section. Little or no citations of sources and images/videos. The Wikispace has an exceptionally attractive and usable layout. It is easy to locate all important elements. White space, graphic elements and/or alignment are used effectively to organize material. The Wikispace has an attractive and usable layout. It is easy to locate all important elements. The Wikispace has a usable layout, but may appear busy or boring. It is easy to locate most of the important elements. The Wikispace is cluttered looking or confusing. It is difficult to locate important element.s. Graphics are related to the theme/purpose of the site, are thoughtfully cropped, are of high quality and enhance reader interest or understanding. Graphics are related to the theme/purpose of the site, are of good quality and enhance reader interest or understanding. Graphics are related to the theme/purpose of the site, and are of good quality. Graphics seem randomly chosen, are of low quality, OR distract the reader. Spelling and Grammar There are little to no errors in spelling, punctuation or grammar in the final draft of the Web site. There are 1-3 errors in spelling, punctuation or grammar in the final draft of the Web site. There are 4-5 errors in spelling, punctuation or grammar in the final draft of the Web site. There are more than 5 errors in spelling, punctuation or grammar in the final draft of the Web site. With the amount of information being shared through social networking websites, it would be a disservice to students in the classroom if they were unable to access this content in order to further their understanding of various topics. In addition to the wealth of information available, students are constantly engaging in literacy practices on a daily basis through the use of social media. For example, students are using Twitter to discuss the latest fashion trends or carrying out complex conversations regarding their current position in the game Call of Duty. Individuals in today’s society have the opportunity to be members of a worldwide learning community. Thus, educators should acknowledge the new way that students are learning and incorporate these skills into the classroom. This unit plan allows students to collaborate with their peers to acquire an understanding of dystopian societies and to determine reasons why this information is relevant. The intentions of this unit plan are to engage students in a learning experience incorporating new literacies that will prepare students to acquire information in a digital culture. Regardless of the path that students choose to pursue, they will be immersed in a new media culture and a variety of participatory cultures. Henry Jenkins (2007) describes a participatory culture as “one where there are relatively low barriers to artistic expression and civic engagement, where there is strong support for creating and sharing what you create with others, where there is some kind of informal mentorship whereby what is known by the most experienced gets passed along to newbies and novices, where members feel that their contributions matter, where members feel some degree of social connection with each other at least to the degree to which they care what other people think about what they have created” (Jenkins, 2007). Based on this definition, participatory cultures have shifted the way that learning takes place outside of the classroom. Wikispaces “utilize the power of student-to-student interaction, community knowledge, and structure” (Ferris & Wilder, 2006). Wikispaces are an example of a participatory culture where communities of people are able to gather information, alter or enhance that information, and circulate it through to the masses. This concept of this unit is inspired by teaching the novel by George Orwell, a staple of classic literature often found in a school’s curriculum. The topics discussed in have reached far beyond Orwell’s time and crept into today’s society. Dystopian Literature has become popular especially for young adults. In a recent discussion board posted on the New York Times website, various authors of dystopian novels provide their insight as to why dystopian literature has become popular for adolescents today. One author, Maggie Stiefvater (2011), suggests that the bleak societies displayed in dystopian novels provide adolescents with a clear choice of right and wrong. “If only the evil in the world was named Voldemort, we could get down to the business of slaying it. And with the dystopian novels, we know just what we're fighting for” (Stiefvater, 2011). Thus, adolescents are intrigued by the ability of dystopian protagonists who are often able to enact a change by carrying out a just action. This plot setup is not only appealing to young adults, but also an applicable lesson in ethics and self-advocacy. The unit on exploring dystopias is designed to place students in participatory cultures where they will attempt to come to an understanding as to why dystopias are relevant to their lives. Instead of the mundane task of learning about the characteristics of a dystopian society, reading works of dystopian literature, and writing about the two, students are collaborating to determine the answers on their own. In addition, students are creating Wikispaces which they can share with their peers as well as publicly with other curious individuals. According to Jenkins (2011), “Wikipedia empowers students to take seriously what they have learned in other classes, to see their own research as having potential value in a larger enterprise, and to take greater responsibility over the accuracy of what they have produced.” In addition to creating the Wikispace, students will need to conduct research, locate credible sources to support their claims, and properly cite their sources. These skills are all present on the Common Core Standards (2012) and will be necessary to prepare students who plan on attending college. Teaching students about dystopias in this unit moves away from the traditional “push” method of teaching and moves towards student “pull” learning (Brown & Hagel, 2005). Through a “pull” model, students gain autonomy by pulling in information in order to create their own unique understanding of a concept. According to Brown and Hagel (2005), the pull model differs from the push model because Rather than seeking to dictate the actions of participants, pull models given even more people on the periphery the tools and resources (including connections to other people) needed to take the initiative and to address opportunities creatively as they arise. Rather than treating producers as passive consumers whose needs can be anticipated and shaped by centralized decision makers, pull models treat people as networked creators...Pull platforms harness their participants’ passion, commitment, and desire to learn, thereby creating communities that can improvise and innovate rapidly. (p. 88) Therefore, this model fosters the types of learning that educators should be promoting in the classroom: collaborative, autonomous, creative, passion-based learning. In conclusion, this unit is intended to display the shifts in teaching that should follow the shifts in student learning in the 21st century. Henry Jenkins (2007) states that “Participation in these online communities constitutes a new hidden curriculum which shapes how young people perform in school and impacts the kinds of opportunities they will enjoy in the future.” Hopefully, participatory cultures will come out from hiding and be a more prevalent way for students to conduct research in the classroom. Brown, John Seely, & Hagel, John (2005). From Push to Pull: The Next Frontier The McKinsey Quarterly . Retrieved from Common Core Standard Initiative. (2012). English Language Arts Standards. Ferris, S. Pixy, & Wilder, Hilary (2006). Uses and Potentials of Wikis in the 2 (5). Retrieved from Jenkins, Henry (2007, June 26). What Wikipedia Can Teach Us About the New Media Literacies (Part One). Message posted to Stiefvater, Maggie (2011). Pure Escapism. The New York Times . Retrieved from : Choose one of the movies below to watch and explore through your Wikispace. Each group must choose a different film. Please sign up with me when you decide what movie you are using. A.I. Artificial Intelligence War of the Worlds (1953) or (2005) PG-13 Planet of the Apes The Omega Man The Hunger Games I Am Legend by George Orwell by Ray Bradbury The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins by Lauren Oliver by Veronica Roth Blood Red Road by Moira Young by Stephenie Meyer by Ally Condie Brave New World by Aldous Huxley by Marie Lu by Isaac Marion The Maze Runner by James Dashner by Kiera Cass by Orson Scott Card City of Bones by Cassandra Clare V for Vendetta by Alan Moore The Running Man by Stephen King by Alan Moore by David Mitchell by Scott Westerfeld by Koushun Takami Oryx and Crake by Margaret Atwood help on how to format text Turn off "Getting Started"

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Write well. Write often. Edit wisely. In this article we’ll focus on the specifics of first-, second-, and third-person POVs. First person is the easiest to understand although it may not be the easiest to use or the best choice to convey your character’s story. In first person, one character (or one at a time) narrates the story. This point of view reports what I—the character and not the author—saw, experienced, heard, said, thought, and felt. I fled the scene, tripping over fallen bodies as I did so. The first-person narrator is almost always a character in the story. The exception is when a narrator claims to have been told the story he is now telling. However, once this narrator begins telling the actual story, he typically reverts to a third-person narration. That is, he may frame the story with sections of himself as a first-person narrator telling you that he’s going to tell you a story—he might present details of where he got his story and so forth—but once he tells the story, he reverts to a third-person narration. If he actually wasn’t there, he can’t relate a story in the first person as if he had been there. I is often the protagonist of his or her story, reciting what happens in some adventure of his or her life. But the I telling the story doesn’t have to be the protagonist. A first-person narrator who isn’t the protagonist but who tells the protagonist’s story is called a peripheral narrator. Think Nick Carraway in The Great Gatsby and Dr. John Watson in the Sherlock Holmes stories. Peripheral narrators have a part in the story, but they are not the focal character. But if they tell the story, then their reports, like those of the typical first-person narrator, will be limited to what they know or experience. The peripheral narrator may have a different view of events than a typical first-person narrator would, but he can only have his own viewpoint—he can’t see the full story any more than any other single character can. One story could feature the first-person POVs of two characters—dual protagonists, protagonist and antagonist, or protagonist and antagonist who each consider themselves the protagonist and the other the antagonist. Readers can learn the character’s thoughts and feelings, but they can’t know anything he doesn’t experience for himself or have reported to him. The character may be in the dark about certain events, and therefore readers are also in the dark. If there is only one viewpoint character in a story, and he’s a first-person narrator, readers can’t ever know more than he knows. They may have more accurate insight, but they can’t know different facts. First-person narration takes on the personality of the narrator: word choices reflect his personality and education level; what he notices reflects his interests and concerns; what he tells, or what he withholds, drives the story. His concerns become the concerns of the story. Strengths of first-person narration— It’s a POV easy to maintain. It works well for humor and allows the narrator’s personality to shine through. All word choices will be in the narrator’s voice, so there’s no need to worry about switching between character voices or between one character’s voice and a neutral narrator’s voice. Weaknesses of first-person narration— It may come across as report-like—I did this, then I did that. The narrator could sound like a braggart. It may be difficult for readers to slip into the story, feeling as if they were the character, when a strong first-person narrator won’t relinquish that spot. As with every POV option outside of the omniscient third person, the writer must make sure the narrator can’t report what he doesn’t know, especially what he looks like—My face took on the mask of the indifferent to hide my true feelings. The narrator’s thoughts can make the read feel claustrophobic for readers. The fix for this is to step outside the narrator’s thoughts often to report action and dialogue. If the first-person narrator is crazy or evil, the read may be difficult for readers. All words must be in the character’s voice and experience; he can’t talk eloquently about subjects he knows nothing about or use words he wouldn’t know. It’s pretty much impossible to kill off the first-person narrator, so there’s little suspense regarding that possibility. First-person narration often reads as if events truly happened in the past, making it difficult for readers to project themselves into story events. While past tense events in third-person narration can feel as if they’re unfolding in the present (wow, I hope that made sense), that’s sometimes not the case with first-person narration, which can make events feel truly over with. Readers know the first-person narrator is talking about something that’s already happened and is looking back at those events. This may be one reason much of today’s Y/A fiction uses present-tense narration with first-person narrators—to try to create a sense of immediacy. Writers sometimes project the first-person narrator into the future, interrupting the story’s timeline. As soon as a writer does this, he’s drawn attention to the artificiality of a story. Most of the time we’re working to keep the underpinnings of story hidden from the reader. If we want readers lost in story, we don’t remind them that they’re actually reading fiction. Consider this sentence— I would understand what he meant a week later when I unearthed my aunt’s diary. This sentence, with a slight adjustment—I understood a week later when I unearthed my aunt’s diary—can work great as a scene opener. Without the change and as the final line of a scene or chapter, however, it explodes the myth that story events are unfolding in a linear way. If a character knows what happens in the future, then he knows the whole future and he could just as easily skip to the end of the story, not make us follow each step in the story. This kind of sentence interferes with—ruins—the suspension of disbelief. This wording may be more familiar; it also interferes with a story’s time element— How was I to know that the choice I’d just made would lead to murder? Could you do this, mess with your story time in this way? You can try anything. But is what you gain from this wording worth jarring the reader out of the fiction? Could you instead foreshadow in some other way that didn’t interfere with time? As we can see, first person, which seems a fairly straightforward point of view, does have pitfalls to be aware of. Second person is the rarest of the viewpoints. As a matter of fact, two sources I checked out didn’t mention second-person narration at all, at least not as we’d recognize it. One simply ignored it. Another source, a book over 20 years old, called what we know as third-person narration, second person, with no reference to the you narration at all. It’s no wonder that point of view choices are confusing. Second person pulls the reader into the story by artificially telling him what he has done or felt or will do. You frantically searched the market for your daughter before calling the police. When Detective Larson accused you of harming Tina, you slapped him. In second person, the reader, you, becomes a character in the story. This you doesn’t truly know the characters and events, but the writer acts as if he, the reader, does. While not used much in fiction, the second person is often used in non-fiction articles, in recipes, and in marketing. Will you use this POV in a novel? You could. You might try it just to see what you could do with it, maybe with a short story. But it’s not likely you’ll publish a second-person POV novel. Strengths of second-person narration It’s still novel, so it can keep the reader’s attention. Weaknesses of second-person narration The major weakness of this POV is that it’s unfamiliar and unnatural. Readers aren’t familiar with it, so it seems odd. And if it seems odd, then readers are thinking about the mechanics and underpinnings of the story rather than the events of the story itself. Also, once a reader disagrees with an assertion—You are a fool in your choices of women—the reader can start resisting other assertions. If the you personality doesn’t fit the reader, the reader remains uncomfortable. Readers often don’t like being told what they are going to do, as happens with this point of view. It reads as accusatory. It may always feel fictional since the reader knows he didn’t do these things the story is saying he did. It feels gimmicky, so readers are always aware of the structure of the story rather than the plot. Note: This second person narration is not the same as a first-person narrator addressing the reader with a generic, non-specific you—You should never cry in public. That’s a lesson my daddy taught me young. Note: Unless you’re doing so for a specific purpose, don’t allow your first-person narrator to inadvertently address this non-specific you. It’s akin to breaking down the fourth wall, and it disrupts the fiction. Third person is the most common and the most versatile point of view. At its most basic, it reports story events using he or she. But beyond using he or she rather than I or you, third-person narration has other differences and multiple options. Third person may show the story through the eyes of a character or through the eyes of a narrator who plays no part in the story. This means a character may report what’s going on or those duties may fall to a narrator who has nothing to do with the story at all. Some examples of third-person narration— Mary reached for her husband’s hand. He pulled it away. Mary, face stricken, reached out for her husband. But he turned away. She reached for his hand. Damn them both, she thought, if he turned away. She reached for his hand, but damn if he didn’t snatch it away. These are all third-person narration, though each has a different emphasis. You don’t need to get caught up in the names for the options of the third-person narration, especially since one option could be called several names. But do check out the options; see how they affect the tone of the story. See how distance is affected. This POV shows what a single character hears and sees but doesn’t report what he thinks or feels. He can only report what he experiences or what’s been made known to him. He cannot see his own face nor know what happens across the world (not without someone telling him). In this POV, readers would never read Terrified, she felt the hot iron sear her skin. But they could read The iron scored a thin line down her arm from elbow to wrist. This is very much a showing, reporting, point of view. Word choices and syntax (sentence construction) can reflect the character’s personality or they can be neutral. If neutral, we’ve moved toward an omniscient narrator, one who doesn’t want to reveal his presence. Either is acceptable; just be consistent. Note: You can use the word choices of any viewpoint character to tighten ties to other parts of the story. As an example of the effects of word choice, consider these words concerning Detective Larson, an amateur sculptor, as the viewpoint character in third-person objective— Deep inside the prison, Larson interrogated Maxwell Prime. (Neutral) Deep inside the prison, Larson hammered at Maxwell Prime, chipping away his excuses until the truth was exposed. (Not neutral, but still fitting for the POV and a link to Larson’s hobby) If readers are presented with the third-person objective for multiple characters—perhaps dual protagonists or protagonist and antagonist—this is sometimes called the cinematic, sometimes the dramatic, point of view. It’s the same as third-person objective, but it’s not limited to one character—the narrative consistently takes into account multiple characters. Think of this as the camera view. For both options—single or multiple characters—what is revealed is only what can be seen and heard. This is a distancing viewpoint because readers can’t get inside a character’s thoughts or feelings. The reader can guess what a character is thinking or feeling, but he can’t know. And even if a character says what he feels, he could be lying. While this point of view might work for specific scenes or sections of a novel, a full novel presented in this viewpoint might seem cold and read like a report. Third-person Limited Subjective Much the same as third-person objective, but this point of view adds in reports of what the single character feels and thinks. This is the POV that allows readers to see not only through the eyes of a character, but to feel the character’s emotions and know the character’s thoughts. (It’s sometimes called third-person limited or third-person subjective. Sometimes third-person limited subjective.) Characters with storytelling duties in this POV can only use words they would know and speak on subjects they’re familiar with. When a story or scene is told in this POV, readers can only know what this character knows and thinks and feels. This character can feel, but he still can’t see his own face, so he can’t report that His eyes narrowed until only the barest glimmer of light shone out of them. In this POV, the viewpoint character will not, except in rare instances, refer to himself as the doctor or the husband or Gen. P. Thomlinson McGillicutty. Since the story is being told through this character’s eyes and emotions and thoughts, he wouldn’t refer to himself in such distancing terms. We can go even deeper into the character’s viewpoint by using deep POV. Deep POV does for third-person narration what first person naturally does—puts the reader into the head and heart of the character. Rather than a character reporting what he thinks or feels, he simply thinks and feels. So, for regular third-person subjective, you might say— He felt winded, so he slowed as he approached the corner. He wondered if they waited on the other side of the wall. He held his breath and listened. And then he heard softly, so very softly, the sound of one of them wheezing. For deep POV you could say— Winded, he slowed as he approached the corner. They probably waited on the other side of the wall. He held his breath and listened. A faint wheeze, human, eased around the brick wall. There is nothing wrong with the first approach, but it does set the reader at some distance from the action. It also emphasizes the character’s name or the pronoun (he) more than in the deep POV version. Removing some of the pronouns and names—focusing on the action and dialogue of others—allows readers to imagine themselves as the character. I need that money, he thought. It was his. It’ll buy me a chance at happiness. With deep POV, you don’t need the italics or the thought tag. If readers know they’re in the character’s head, simply write the thoughts: He needed that money; it was his. It would buy him a chance at happiness. But you could use the italics and write: I need that money; it’s mine. It’ll buy me a chance at happiness. Note: I have very recently seen, in a third-person POV, thoughts rendered in first person without italics. I admit that the practice threw me, but this was done in a traditionally published contemporary novel. And I did adjust to the style. All I can advise is that you stay abreast of options. Deep POV allows writers to do away with report words—he saw, thought, felt, heard, wondered, guessed, and so forth. The reader can experience story events as if he were the one going through them, without having actions and thoughts and emotions filtered through the character’s report of them. Deep POV has come into fashion in a big way over the last 20 or so years. It allows readers to draw so close to characters that they can imagine themselves as the character or in the story. This narration expresses the character’s words and his attitude without filters. Strengths of third-person limited subjective— This POV puts readers into the thick of the story. It’s very familiar to today’s readers. Third-person subjective, whether deep POV is used or not, feels less like a report than first person or omniscient POVs do. Rather than readers feeling as though they’re reading about events happening to someone, they can feel they’re part of the unfolding of those events as they happen. This POV produces a feel of intimacy rather than distance. Weaknesses of third-person subjective Writers must take care to not slip into a different character’s head mid-paragraph or scene. As with first person, deep POV may get claustrophobic for readers, giving readers no relief from a character’s thoughts. But narrative distance can be achieved by stepping back and moving out of the character’s thoughts and emotions. Note: Distance can be achieved for all third-person POVs by using an impartial omniscient POV to introduce new scenes and settings. Staying too long with the omniscient narrator would require a switch to the omniscient POV, but the omniscient can be used briefly with other third-person POVs. Readers are used to such a practice—many books or chapters open with the omniscient POV before pushing in toward a specific character’s POV. Note: Some definitions use the limited part of third-person limited to mean limiting the entire story to a single viewpoint character while others use it to refer to being limited to a single character’s point of view per scene or chapter. (Thus there could be multiple viewpoint characters, but only one per scene.) Some use the term unlimited to refer to the POV that switches between multiple characters who share viewpoint duties, each from the third-person subjective viewpoint, while others call that third-person multiple POV. Again, not everyone applies identical terms to the points of view. The third-person subjective POV is the one used most often for today’s genre fiction, and deep POV is finding its way into a lot of that fiction, even though there are some who don’t agree with its frequent use. But you are welcome to use either. Or try first person—it may be just what your story needs. In the final article in this series, we’ll look at the omniscient narrator.

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It is quite evident that digital learning games are a dawning educational technology. The idea is to utilize the rich and appealing potential of modern computer games and their immense intrinsic motivational potential for educational purposes [ 1 ]. The vision that at least a small portion of time spend on playing computer games can be used for learning is fascinating and desirable and, consequently, there is a rapidly increasing body of research and development in this field. The core strength of game-based learning is that such games—in a very natural way—are capable of making learning and knowledge appealing and important to the learner. Moreover, learning games serve the educational needs of the “Nintendo generation” and the “digital natives,” who grew up with “twitch speed” computer games, MTV, action movies, and the Internet [ 2 ]. Authors like Mark Prensky argue that this context has emphasized certain cognitive aspects and deemphasized others, thus, the demands on education have changed [ 2 ]. Although there is an ongoing debate about such ideas, computer games can be considered as powerful tools children and adolescents are familiar with. We nevertheless have to note that the educational potential of computer games depends on the learner's motivation to play and, therefore, also to learn. A number of authors accomplished pioneering work in terms of selecting game genres and game design for successful learning games (e.g., [ 3 ], [ 4 ], [ 5 ]). Additionally, it is of vital importance to tailor the concrete game play and gaming experience to the individual learners and to provide them with didactically meaningful and individualized guidance and support. Moreover, it is necessary to find an appropriate balance between gaming and learning and, maybe more importantly, between the challenges through the game and the abilities of the learner. The underlying idea is the following: If the player is bored by a too easy game play, or the challenges are too difficult to be accomplished, the player will quit playing the game very soon. This idea is common to most entertainment games. In a learning game, however, we need to establish the same principle from a learning perspective. Ideally, the increase in challenge should match individual abilities and individual learning progress. Essentially, this idea matches the foundations of adaptive or intelligent tutorial systems (cf. [ 6 An intelligent adaptation to preferences, motivational and emotional states, to learning progress, learning objectives and interests, and, above all, to the learner's abilities is crucial for being educationally effective and for retaining the user's motivation to play and to learn. This adaptation is not trivial, however. It requires a subtle balance between the challenges through the game and the abilities of the learner. Unfortunately, such balance is very fragile and, due to the coexistence of gaming and learning aspects, likely more complex than adaptation and personalization in conventional educational settings. Research on adaptive and intelligent tutoring basically focussed on adaptive presentation and adaptive navigation support [ 7 ]. The data basis for adaptation is most often querying the learner, asking for preferences, or providing typical test items for assessing the user's knowledge and learning progress. This strategy is not feasible in an immersive learning game, however. In contrast to conventional adaptive tutoring and knowledge testing, the adaptive knowledge assessment within such games is massively restricted by the game play, the game's narrative, and the game's progress. Typical methods of knowledge assessment would suddenly and seriously destroy immersion and, consequently, also the gaming and learning process. What is required is an assessment procedure that is strictly embedded in the game's story and covered by game play activities. In some sense, this is similar to work in the area of embedded assessment and student tracking [ 8 ]. Those methods and theories, however, are predominantly driven by human (i.e., the teacher's) interpretation and evaluation of knowledge, understanding, and learning progress. In the present paper, we introduce a method for a “machine-driven” assessment of knowledge and learning progress in a noninvasive and embedded way. The core idea is to avoid any queries or interruptions but to monitor and interpret the learner's behavior in gaming situations. Subsequently, psychopedagogical interventions (e.g., providing the learner with appropriate guidance, feedback, cheer, or hints) can be triggered on the basis of probabilistic conclusions drawn by the system. The present approach has been developed in two projects focusing on game-based learning: ELEKTRA ( www.elektra-project.org) and 80Days ( www.eightydays.eu). Both projects have the ambitious and visionary goal to utilize the advantages of computer games and their design fundamentals for educational purposes, and to address the disadvantages of game-based learning as far as possible. A group of interdisciplinary European partners contribute to the development of a sound methodology for designing educational games and to the development of a comprehensive game demonstrator based on a state-of-the-art 3D adventure game. To illustrate our approach, we refer to a concrete example from the ELEKTRA demonstrator game, which is a typical first person adventure game (cf. Fig. 1 ). The aim is to save Lisa and her uncle Leo, a researcher, who have been kidnapped by the evil Black Galileans. During this journey, the learner needs to acquire specific concepts from a eighth grade physics course. Learning occurs in different ways, ranging from hearing or reading to freely experimenting. After finding a magic hour glass, the learner is in company of the ghost of Galileo Galilei ( Fig. 1 a), who is the learner's (hidden) teacher. Fig. 1. Screenshots from the ELEKTRA demonstrator game on physics. (a) The ghost of Galileo Galilei, who is the learner's (hidden) teacher; (b) the slope device. To learn about the straight propagation of light, for instance, the learner experiments with a torch and blinds on a table in the basement of uncle Leo's villa, or with a device that allows balls of different materials rolling down a slope ( Fig. 1 b). These skills are important to understand that light propagates straight, as opposed to the curved trajectories of other objects. This, in turn, is important for the game play, because to continue in the game, the learner has to unlock a door by exactly hitting a small light sensor with a laser beam. The experimenting is accompanied and observed by Galileo who, if necessary, can also provide feedback or guidance. The goal of using the slope device is to make the various balls (of wood, plastic, hollow, or solid iron, etc.) fall into a given hole. As shown in Fig. 1 b, the learner can adjust a magnet and a fan to alter the trajectories of the balls. On the contrary, a laser beam cannot be influenced by such external forces. The important point is that by continuously interpreting the learner's actions in terms of his or her knowledge, the system gathers information about the learner's learning progress. If, as an example, the learner continuously tries to affect the trajectory of a plastic ball by increasing the magnetic force, the system eventually concludes that the learner lacks the knowledge that plastic is not affected by magnetic force. If, at the same time, the fan is adjusted properly, the system can also conclude that the related knowledge is available. Since, usually, a single observation cannot provide reliable evidence, we are relying on a probabilistic approach, which means that with each observation we are updating the probabilities that certain knowledge is available. Although this is a rather simple example, it illustrates the underlying ideas of our assessment method. The following parts of the manuscript will specify these ideas in more detail, including the basics definitions and the mathematical formalism of the assessment procedure. Subsequently, we will illustrate the approach with an exact walk-through, using the well known and suitably limited problem space of the Tower of Hanoi. Finally, we will provide a conclusion on the hand of more realistic examples and give an outlook to future work. Imagine a certain situation in a digital learning game with an educational intention, for example the aforementioned slope device or the experimenting with a torch and blinds. To describe such a virtual scenario in a formal way, let be the set of (educationally relevant) and manipulable objects, no matter if torch, fan, slider control, or even space ship. These objects can be used to define all possible gaming situations a user can be confronted with. For simplicity of notation, we assume that . Furthermore, for be the set of all possible “states” of the . These states can be of quite different character, like for instance, a multidimensional vector describing position and orientation of an object in the (virtual) space, or simply two values (“on” and “off”) for a switch. This allows us to describe each gaming situation as an . For the sake of simplicity, let us agree on the following convention: If , then the th object does not appear in the situation. If, on the other hand, , then the appears in the gaming situation and can be manipulated by the user. It is important to note here that not every represents a meaningful gaming situation. If, for instance, the aim of the game is to teach optics (e.g., by conducting virtual experiments like, for instance, in the ELEKTRA demonstrator game), then it would be pointless to present two blinds, a mounting rail, and a screen, but no torch. In order to exclude such meaningless situations, let be the set of all “meaningful” gaming situations. Furthermore, a problem situation is assumed to be a tuple with the following interpretations in mind: 1) is the initial state, a user is confronted with; and 2) is the set of solution states. If one of the solution states in is accomplished by the user, then the task is completed successfully. Finally, the set of different problem situations (tasks) is denoted by To master a certain problem situation, a person can perform different actions to modify the gaming situation. In the ELEKTRA blinds problem, for example, the learner might turn on the torch, vary the torch's orientation, or move a blind. With the slope device, they can change the position of the sliders for the strength of the fan or the magnet (see Fig. 1 b). Additionally, we assume that any problem can be solved in a finite number of steps. Note that, within the context of game-based learning, this is quite plausible to assume since, in general, a person can only proceed with the next level of difficulty, if all the problems of a given level are successfully solved. This general idea is formalized as follows: Let be a nonempty set of actions a user can perform. The element stands for that action that quits the current task. Furthermore, let denote a “compatibility relation” with the following interpretation in mind: if and only if action is performable in the gaming situation . Finally, let be a “transition function” in the following sense: If a user performs action in the gaming situation , then the gaming situation results. In the following, let us consider a fixed problem situation . Then, a finite sequence is called a solution process if and only if the following conditions are satisfied: Note that, if , then the task is completed successfully. If, on the other hand, , then the user quits the task before completion. To interpret the learner's actions in terms of his or her knowledge, we have to link the observed actions to the underlying skills. There are a lot of definitions of the terms “knowledge,” “competence,” or “skill.” As a working definition, we refer to “skill” as an atomic and well-defined entity of knowledge or ability, which ideally can be formalized as a proposition of two related concepts. This view is in accordance with definitions articulated by [ 9 ] and [ 10 ]. Although it is a rather low-level and limited view, it is suitable, even necessary, for the aim of a fine-grained knowledge assessment. This, in turn, is a prerequisite for providing the learner with fine-grained guidance and feedback. To proceed successfully through the game, we assume that a set (in the following also referred to as elementary competencies ) is required. Following the assumptions of Knowledge Space Theory (e.g., [ 11 ], [ 12 ], or [ 13 ]) and Competence-based Knowledge Space Theory (e.g., [ 9 ], [ 14 ], [ 15 ], [ 16 ], or [ 17 ]), we assume prerequisite relations between the skills in . This means that some skills are prerequisites to other skills. To give a very simple example, to “know that the distance between blind aperture and light source is in inverse proportion to the diameter of the resulting light spot,” it is necessary to “know what light is” or to “know what an inverse proportion is.” For a more realistic example, which is adopted from the 80Days project on game-based learning in geography, see Fig. 5 According to these relationships, not every collection of skills provides a well-defined “competence state.” For this reason, let be a family of subsets of , containing at least , and the empty set . The elements in are referred to as competence states , and the tuple is denoted as competence structure (cf. [ 17 ], [ 18 According to Competence-based Knowledge Space Theory, we assume that at a certain point in time, any person is in a specific, yet not directly observable, competence state in . The present approach attempts to specify the learner's competence state by interpreting his or her actions. Formally, we assume that for any problem solution process , there exists a conditional probability distribution with the following interpretation in mind: is the conditional probability that a person has all the elementary competencies in but none of the competencies in , given that the solution process has been observed. In the following, let us consider a fixed problem situation , and an associated problem solution process . Then, without loss of generality, we can assume that, for a fixed number . Furthermore, let us assume that, subsequent to action , the user performs action in the gaming situation . If the resulting problem solution process is denoted as then we are confronted with the problem of computing the conditional probability distribution from the given probability distribution and the observation that the user performed action To solve this problem, the multiplicative updating rule by Falmagne and Doignon [ 19 ] is adapted to our needs: This means that we have to assign to each possible action an interpretation with respect to required and/or missing skills, i.e., if a learner performs a certain action we can assume that s/he has certain required skills while some others are apparently missing (otherwise we would have observed a better suited action). In the ELEKTRA slope device, e.g., observing a learner selecting full fan speed for a plastic ball rolling down the slope would show that this learner knows that the plastic ball's flight is influenced by the fan. However, s/he apparently does not know that a plastic ball is very light and, therefore, a much lower fan speed is needed. To formalize this general idea, let 1 denote those elementary competencies in which are necessary to understand and solve the problem situation . Furthermore, let us assume two “skill assignment” functions with the following interpretations in mind: If action is performed in the gaming situation , then we can surmise that the user has all the elementary competencies in (“supported skills”), but none of the competencies in (“unsupported skills”). Furthermore, to compute from the given probability distribution , let us fix two parameters . Then, for a competence state with the parameter function It is important to note here that is set to 1 if . Furthermore, if , then we postulate that is the initial distribution at the beginning of the task, that is, before action is observed. Note that, at the beginning of the game (i.e., prior to the first problem situation), either the initial distribution is estimated from an entry test, or the competence states are assumed to be uniformly distributed: Alternatively, let us assume that the user has already solved some of the problem situations in . If the final problem solution process is denoted as , then the conditional probability distribution is used as initial distribution for the next problem situation 4. Partitioning Competence Structures In realistic applications, we are confronted with the problem that, in general, the number of competence states is huge, and that, consequently, the probability updates (in the sense of (1) and (3)) cannot be realized in real time as it is necessary to keep an undisturbed game experience. If, as an example, we have a relatively small set of 50 skills, then the resulting competence structure can have up to different competence states. If, in order to consider a more realistic example, the number of elementary competencies in is doubled, then there can be up to competence states, which is far beyond the number of stars in the observable universe (about 3 to ). In order to reduce the computational demand of the updating process, the present paper proposes a modified update by restricting the underlying competence structure to a smaller set of elementary competencies.To this end, let us consider the set of those elementary competencies in which are necessary to understand and solve the problem situation (cf. Section 3). Then, a trivial consideration shows that the competence states in can be restricted to the elementary competencies in : If we define then the tuple is referred to as -restricted competence structure. Furthermore, in order to restrict the conditional probability distributions -restricted competence structure Then, a mathematical argument shows that are probability distributions on . For a formal proof, see [ 20 Furthermore, by applying the multiplicative updating rule (1) to the restricted probability distribution , we obtain that with the parameter function defined according to (2). It is noteworthy and of central importance for the rest of this paper that an update of the (unrestricted) probability distribution can be accomplished by updating the restricted distribution . The following theorem specifies the relationship between the (unrestricted) distribution and its restricted counterpart Theorem 1. For every competence state , and every problem solution process , For a mathematical proof of Theorem 1, see [ 20 ]. It is important to note that the initial distributions are given by definition (cf. Section 3). Furthermore, we have to note that, in general, the restricted competence structure is much smaller than the original structure . If, for instance, , then the number of competence states in is bounded by Even if the number of elementary competencies in is increased to 15, then the maximum number of competence states is relatively small (as compared to the original competence structure): This shows that, in general, an update of the restricted probability distribution is less CPU-intensive than a (direct) update of the unrestricted distribution Thus, in order to reduce the computational load of the updating process, the following strategy is advisable: 5. The Adaptive Problem Selection Process Let us assume that a user has successfully completed a given problem situation . Furthermore, let denote the observed problem solution process. Then, the problem is to tailor the next problem situation to the competence state of the user. To this end, let us assume an “assignment-function” with the following interpretation in mind: If a person is in competence state , then one of the problem situations in is presented to the user. In order to ensure that there is an adequate problem situation for every competence state, we assume that for every A problem arises from the fact that the given probability distribution provides only probabilistic information on the user's competence state. To solve this problem, we combine the probability distribution with the (deterministic) assignment function in a straightforward way: Finally, if at the outset, no information on the competence state of a user is available, then one of the problem situations in is chosen at random. If, on the other hand, an initial distribution on is derived from an entry test, then the initial distribution is combined with the deterministic assignment function as stated above. The following section provides a hypothetical application to the Tower of Hanoi, which should illustrate the basic concepts of the presented model. It is important to note, however, that this example is not representative for realistic applications in that the number of competencies and problem situations is quite small. Despite its limited applicability to realistic digital games, it has the didactic advantage that all the computations can easily be carried out, even without any programming skills while a real example from a game-based learning application like ELEKTRA would be too large to be presented in a paper in such detail. 6. The Tower of Hanoi: A Walk-Through Demonstration To provide a walk-through demonstration of the outlined approach, we refer to the problem-oriented game of the Tower of Hanoi, invented by the French mathematician Edouard Lucas in 1883. We exemplify our approach with the simple problem scenario of the Tower of Hanoi for several reasons: On the one hand, this “game” offers an illustrative field of application since it provides a well known and easy to understand problem scenario. On the other hand, the Tower of Hanoi perfectly matches the nature of many game-based problem scenarios and can easily be extended toward more complex and difficult settings. Finally, this type of game covers the very nature of our approach, that is, melding competence structures and problem spaces to enable the system to assess and—to a certain degree—understand a learner's behavior in the game. The Tower of Hanoi consists of three pegs in a row, and a stack of disks of differing size. At the start, all the disks are on the first peg, from the largest disk at the bottom to the smallest disk at the top. A player is only allowed to move one disk at a time from one peg to another, and at no time may a larger disk be placed on a smaller disk. The aim of the puzzle is to move the disks from the starting peg 1 to the destination peg 3. In the following, we concentrate on three different puzzles, referred to as (three-disk puzzle), and (four-disk puzzle), respectively. Consequently, In diagnosing the competence state of a person, we assume that a person can have one or more of the following elementary competencies in To demonstrate the basic concepts of the presented model, we assume that the ability to solve problem (i.e., the elementary competency ) can be surmised from the ability to reduce problem (i.e., the elementary competency ). Similarly, we assume that the elementary competency can be surmised from the elementary competency . By these assumptions, we derive at the following four competence states: (cf. Fig. 2 Fig. 2. Graphical representation of the competence structure . To make sure that the selected problem situations are tailored to the competence state of a user, we specify the following assignment function Note that, by these definitions, a user is either confronted with the most complex problem situation he or she is capable of solving, or the next more complicated one. Additionally, let us assume a player, who is in the (unknown) competence state Since, at the outset, no information on the user's competence state is available, a problem situation is chosen at random. Assume that, at first, the player is confronted with the three-disk puzzle: Furthermore, the initial distribution is assumed to be the uniform distribution: Then, according to (5), the restricted initial distribution on is equal to In order to demonstrate the multiplicative updating rule, let us assume that the player solves the three-disk puzzle in seven steps (the minimal number of steps to solve ) (cf. Fig. 3 Fig. 3. The solution behavior of a fictive person dealing with the three-disk puzzle . provides evidence in favor of the elementary competency . Furthermore, according to the competence structure , the elementary competency is a prerequisite for , that is, a person who has the elementary competency has also the elementary competency . Thus, we conclude that . Finally, to update the restricted initial distribution . Then, according to (2), Thus, (6) yields which provides the following update of the initial distribution provides evidence in favor of the elementary competencies . Consequently, it is , which shows that the restricted probability distribution can be updated as follows: (cf. (6)). Furthermore, if the multiplicative updating rule is consecutively applied to Actions , then the following conditional probabilities result: Finally, in order to tailor the next problem situation to the competence state of the user, we have to specify the unrestricted distribution . This can be done according to Theorem 1: If we assume that, based on these probabilities, the competence state is selected (cf. Section 5), then the player is confronted with the four-disk puzzle . Note that, by definition, , the restricted competence structure is equal to the original structure: Different from the previously discussed three-disk problem, let us now assume that the player is on the wrong track (cf. Fig. 4 Fig. 4. The solution behavior of a fictive person dealing with the four-disk puzzle . indicates that the user is incapable of reducing the four-disk problem to the three-disk problem . Therefore, the definition of (cf. (2)). Thus, by taking into account that the initial distribution is equal to , the multiplicative updating rule yields (cf. (3)). Finally, let us consider Action : similar to Action , we conclude that . Consequently, we obtain strong evidence that the learner is in the competence state 7. Conclusion and Outlook The present paper provides a theoretical model to assess knowledge and learning progress in an embedded, noninvasive way. The approach was developed in the context of digital learning games, within which conventional assessment procedures are not appropriate or possible. The outlined approach is based on a mathematical framework describing a person's problem-solving behavior in an explorative and problem-oriented gaming situation. A gaming situation is assumed to be a tuple is the initial state a user is confronted with, and is the set of possible solution states. If one of the solution states in is accomplished by the user, then the task is completed successfully. One might, as an example, think of a virtual room with a table, a torch, blinds, a screen, and a mounting rail in it. The learner's task might be to reduce the torch's light cone into a narrow beam of light on the screen, using the mounting rail and the two blinds. To master a problem situation , a person can perform different actions to modify the gaming situation. The learner might, for instance, turn on the torch, vary the torch's orientation, or move a blind. The central idea of the presented model is to interpret these actions regarding its correctness or appropriateness for accomplishing the task (e.g., narrowing the light cone). To formalize this general idea, we introduced the conditional probability that a person is in the competence state given that the solution process has been observed. Additionally, we adapted the multiplicative updating rule [ 19 ] to our needs: Let us assume that for a fixed solution process , the conditional probability distribution is given. Then, the multiplicative updating rule formalizes the following intuitive idea: If action in gaming situation provides evidence in favor of the elementary competency , then increase the probability of all competence states containing , and decrease the probability of all competence states not containing . Similarly, if action in gaming situation provides evidence against the elementary competency , then decrease the probability of all competence states containing , and increase the probability of all competence states not containing . For a formalization of this general idea see (1). It is important to note here that a single observation might not be considered “meaningful.” However, with an increasing number of observations, and therefore also an increasing number of probability updates, the picture is gradually becoming clearer. In realistic applications, we might be confronted with very large competence structures with millions of competence states, which might lead to the problem that the probability updates cannot be realized at runtime. To address this problem, we have introduced restricted probability distributions defined on a restricted set of elementary competencies (cf. (4) and (5)). The main result of the paper shows that an update of the (unrestricted) probability distribution can be accomplished by updating the restricted analogue (cf. Theorem 1). Consequently, in order to reduce the computational load of the updating process, the following strategies are advisable: 1) Within a given problem situation , the restricted is updated according to (6). 2) The unrestricted probabilities are updated only after task completion. This is done according to Theorem 1. 3) The final probability distribution is used as initial distribution for the next problem situation A major advantage of the outlined approach is that it can be easily integrated in educational applications like, for instance, digital learning games, for which conventional knowledge testing is not suitable or possible. The mathematical framework of our model enables the system to monitor the learner's behavior and draw probabilistic conclusions about the user's competence state. The above-mentioned examples—the slope device or the Tower of Hanoi—might be considered as simplifications. However, we want to emphasize that those examples are typical for the explorative, problem-oriented characteristic of (learning) games. It is important to note that our approach is not restricted to these examples, but is universally applicable to all kinds of actions or observable behavior. In principle, the approach can be applied to all kinds of (educational) games that on the one hand have an identifiable goal and on the other hand that allow a quantification of the approach to this goal. Of course, games that are based on the solution of more or less complex problems, which, in turn, enables the formalization of nontrivial problem spaces, are particularly suitable for the presented approach. Examples might be task-oriented adventure games, simulation games, or strategic games. In the 80Days demonstrator game, for instance, the learner is flying with a space ship over the Earth aiming at discovering certain places (cf. Fig. 5 ). In this example, the flying directions provide information about the learner's geography skills. A concrete application beyond the gaming context, namely a training based on a haptic simulator device in the medical domain (MedCAP; www.medcap.eu), was described by [ 21 Fig. 5. (a) A screenshot from the 80Days demonstrator game on geography. The learner's task is to discover major European capitals by flying with a space ship. (b) The prerequisite structure for the underlying skill set. The outlined approach was developed in the area of game-based learning and is a core component of microadaptivity, that is, the system's capability to interpret a learner's actions with respect to his or her knowledge and to respond adaptively in real time and on an individual basis [ 1 ]. The aim is to provide the learner with appropriate and tailored guidance, support, information, and feedback. The concept was developed in the context of the ELEKTRA project and is taken up and extended in the course of the direct successor 80Days. While ELEKTRA predominantly focussed on assessment and interventions in an educational sense, 80Days incorporates broader aspects such as the assessment and adaptation in terms of motivational states as well as implementing aspects of adaptive, interactive storytelling. In the context of both projects, we developed demonstrator applications (cf. [ 22 ], [ 23 ]), which were empirically evaluated. First, results indicate the usefulness and supportive quality of the microadaptive approach in general, as well as the validity of the noninvasive assessment in comparison to conventional knowledge tests [ 24 ]. The conceptual work, however, continues and will extend the “multidimensional vector approach” presented in this paper. Future work will focus, in the first instance, on simulation studies aiming at the precision and efficiency of the multiplicative updating rule. Moreover, we will address the problem of further reducing the computational demands of the updating process, as well as the integration of further “assessment axes,” like for instance, motivational or emotional states of the learner. Finally, enabling the computer system to draw autonomously meaningful conclusions from a learner's problem-solving behavior in the virtual environment of games requires a categorization of actions, problem states, or competence states. Although this categorization limits the system's understanding of what is potentially going on, it does not limit the degrees of freedom in terms of gaming and learning. Future work will address this limitation by taking up ideas of emergent game design. 2 The authors are grateful to Eric Hamilton, Wolfgang Nejdl, and three anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on earlier drafts of this paper. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Community's Sixth and Seventh Framework Programmes (FP6/2003-2006 and FP7/2007-2013) under Grant Agreement No. IST-027986 (ELEKTRA project) and ICT-215918 (80Days project). T. Augustin is with Joanneum Research, Institute of Biomedicine and Health Sciences, Elisabethstrasse 11a, 8010 Graz, Austria. C. Hockemeyer, M.D. Kickmeier-Rust, and D. Albert are with the Department of Psychology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2/III, 8010 Graz, Austria. E-mail: email@example.com. Manuscript received 15 Jan. 2009; revised 1 Sept. 2009; accepted 27 July 2010; published online 12 Aug. 2010. For information on obtaining reprints of this article, please send e-mail to: firstname.lastname@example.org, and reference IEEECS Log Number TLT-2009-01-0006. Digital Object Identifier no. 10.1109/TLT.2010.21. 1. In real applications, it is important to specify the problem situation in such a way that the “restricted” skill set is much smaller than the overall skill set (cf. Section 4). 2. Emergent behavior occurs due to a nontrivial interaction of system components with each other and with the player, which gives rise to behavior that was not specifically intended by the developer [ 25]. received a diploma in mathematics and the PhD degree in psychology from the University of Regensburg, Germany, in 1999 and 2002, respectively. In 2002, he started working as a university assistant in the Department of Psychology, University of Graz, Austria. Currently, he is working at the Institute of Biomedicine and Health Sciences at Joanneum Research, Graz. His main research interests are mathematical models of human behavior, experimental psychology, and applied statistics. received a diploma in computer science from the Braunschweig University of Technology, Germany, in 1993. He is currently working as project manager and researcher for the Department of Psychology at the University of Graz, Germany, and for the Knowledge Management Institute at the Graz University of Technology. His research focus is on efficient procedures for personalized training and assessment of competences. He is a member of the IEEE, the IEEE Computer Society, and the IEEE Education Society. Michael D. Kickmeier-Rust received a diploma in psychology from the University of Graz, Austria, in 2005. Currently, he is working as a project coordinator in the Department of Psychology at the University of Graz. His research and development focus is on personalization in technology-enhanced learning, especially in the area of game-based learning. received a diploma in psychology from the University of Göttingen, Germany, in 1966 and the DSc degree in psychology from the University of Marburg, Germany, in 1972. Since 1993, he has been working as a professor of psychology and head of the Cognitive Science Section in the Department of Psychology at the University of Graz, Austria. Since 2008, he has also worked as a key researcher in the Know-Center, Austria's competence center for knowledge management, and since 2009, as a senior scientist in the Knowledge Management Institute at the Graz University of Technology. His actual focus in research and development is on knowledge and competence structures, their applications, and empirical research.

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Tweens are at a great age to begin learning how to become critical consumers. They have the ability to think about things from someone else’s perspective and they’re growing in their desire to become more independent thinkers. Both of these are important skills in learning to think critically. To be a critical consumer, tweens need to understand that advertisements and marketing are about selling them something. Even their favorite TV shows and computer games are filled with persuasive messages to either keep them interested in that particular form of entertainment or to get them interested in something else that the same company is promoting. Any form of media is also promoting the worldview of the creator. This doesn’t make marketers and media producers evil, but it does mean that whenever we’re engaging with their content, we have to understand that they are trying to persuade us to adopt their point of view and value system. A good way to help your tween understand this is to talk about specific examples in their own life when they have tried to get you, a sibling, or a friend to do something. Ask them questions like how they went about convincing that person, what arguments they used, did they appeal to their emotions? Once you’ve been able to identify a few specific strategies that they’ve used to try to get someone to do something, then you can start drawing parallels with how marketers work. Marketers want us to buy their product or watch their show. How do they go about convincing us that we should? They try to appeal to our desires to be cool, to look good, to have friends or do fun things. Ready to try it? Watch this cereal commercial together and ask the following questions: 1. What words do we hear? What are the people in the ads, the songs, and the words on the screen saying? Jot down the words and put a check by them if you hear them more than one time. 2. What are we seeing? What visual images are being used to sell the product? What activities are the people/cartoons/animals on screen doing? 3. What is the theme of the advertisements for this product? What is the overall message that a child would walk away with? Come up with one sentence that starts with “If I buy _____________, then I will ______________” This activity gives you and your tween the chance to critically deconstruct an advertisement. Instead of just mindlessly watching, they now have the skills to critique. And, once you’ve done this a few times with your tween, they’ll begin to think of media and marketing from a new perspective. They will be empowered to really think about the meaning behind messages sent by advertisers. This is the heart of being a critical consumer! It’s also important to help your child to learn to deconstruct and critique the media that they consumer, from TV shows to movies to songs. Like commercials, media is created from a certain worldview, not in a vacuum. The person who created our child’s favorite TV show may have a vastly different worldview than you and your family. It’s fine to explore those worldviews, as long as both you and your child understand that this is what you’re doing. For example, the gender stereotypes that are presented in entertainment targeting your tween may promote very different ideas about what it means to be a boy or girl than you do in your own home. It’s important for your tween to be able to notice that, think about it critically, and then make a decision about what they themselves believe. In an activity similar to the one that we discussed above, you can watch a TV show or movie with your child and practice being critical consumers together. 1. First, ask yourself a few questions about the target audience: Who does this message come from? Who is the target audience according to the developer? It’s important to really understand whom the target audience is in order to determine if the product/program is appropriate for you or your child. 2. What message is being sent through words, music, images and stories? What about the unspoken messages? Are there impressions that you get very clearly whether they are or are not spoken? In many TV shows aimed at tweens there is an unspoken message that parents are stupid or sometimes basically absent. How are different types of people depicted? Are there messages about how to get what you want? How to be in relationship with others? How to deal with friendship problems? 3. What values are presented? What positive and negative messages come through? How do these compare to your own value system? Another fun activity that can really open both your and your child’s eyes to the messages being sent through different media and marketing campaigns is making word clouds. You and your child can use Wordle to create word clouds from groups of words that you gather from different advertisements, TV shows, music, etc. Here are some specific ways that you might use word clouds with your tween: 1. Work with your tween to develop a word cloud of the characteristics that they think are most valuable in a girl or boy and compare it to those they see presented in media portrayals. For example, after you help them make theirs, you might look through magazines together, watch advertisements, or TV shows and collect words and themes that you both agree are being used to promote value in a person. 2. Watch a TV show or movie that you and your tween are considering and record the words or themes that you notice. Use Wordle to develop a picture of the overwhelming themes within that show. This will help you decide if the overall worldview presented by the program is one that you want to support 3. Record the words used in music that you and/or your tween consider sexualizing or negative to make a word cloud and compare it to one for music that you both find positive. The visual of the word cloud really allows you to compare and contrast the different messages being sent. If you’re comfortable with it, it’s okay for your tween to engage with media that promotes a different value system than your own. What’s important is that both of you are able to think and talk about it together. This is a good way to jumpstart a conversation about why your family has certain values in the first place. These activities will give you a good opportunity to start practicing being a critical consumer of media and marketing with your child. This will lead both of you to feel more empowered to choose your response to media and marketing. Is your family’s budget tight? Do vacations seem like a luxury of the past? If so, consider planning a “staycation” – a vacation at home or close to home. Being a tourist with your preteen is a great way to rediscover your city. What better place to start than Chinatown? Start your day with a Chinatown photo scavenger hunt. Challenge another family for extra fun. The family with the most photos of found objects wins the hunt, and the losers buy dinner! Your scavenger hunt list might include: - A Hello Kitty t-shirt (a popular Japanese character – but should be easy to find in Chinatown) - Live eels/turtles/crabs (eek!) - A golden cat figurine (a symbol of good luck) - Green guava candy (delicious!) - Dragon fruit (hint: it’s hot pink with green tips) - A Chinese magazine (bonus points if you recognize any Chinese celebrities) - Dried squid (a pantry essential) - A hand-painted scroll (China has a rich tradition of symbolism – locate a scroll with a black dragon for luck and wealth) - A kung-fu video (an ancient meditation and art) - The number 8 (on a storefront – 8 is lucky in Chinese culture) - A bamboo shoot (boil or braise for a stir-fry or a hearty side dish) - A historical landmark (bonus points if you uncover some of the history behind it) Exploring the winding streets of Manhattan’s Chinatown is a vibrant and delicious journey. Chinatown is bustling with crowds and energy and is well suited for tweens, who find the liveliness exciting. If it’s food you’re interested in, you’re in the right place. Within Chinatown is an array of seemingly endless markets and restaurants. If you and your tween are game for something different, try the beef tripe or oxtail – many restaurants and street vendors offer these Chinatown menu staples. There are a few streets (and treats) that shouldn’t be missed. - Mulberry Street is home to Lung Moon Bakery (83 Mulberry, South of Canal); with classic Chinatown treats such as elegant moon cakes, buns, and sticky rice balls that are too good to pass up. - Bayard Street will bring out the kid in you. At UiUi Bubble Tea (49 Bayard) Homer Simpson greets you with a smile, and at The Original Chinatown Ice Cream Factory (65 Bayard) flavors like Red Bean, Lychee and Peanut Butter and Jelly will pique your youthful curiosity. Find a street vendor for some fish balls – a favorite snack of many Chinatown kids. - Mott Street is the soul of Chinatown, with amazing restaurants, bakeries and shops, all worth exploring. If you’re in the market for a set of chopsticks with a back-story, then you can’t miss Yunhong Chopsticks (50 Mott). Off Mott Street is Pell Street, and off Pell Street is the narrow Doyers Street…a secret passageway that will lead you to Chatham Square, the heart of Chinatown. - From Chatham Square, wander along East Broadway and check out the offerings at the East Broadway Mall. If you are on the scavenger hunt, you’ll find many of the items here under one roof. - Don’t miss Aji Ichiban (23 East Broadway; another location at 37 Mott Street) for endless snacking fun. From wasabi peas to spicy dried shrimp, try as many new munchies as you dare. - Dim sum, Chinese cuisine with a wide range of light dishes served with tea, is a good option for sampling. There are great dim sum places all over Chinatown; try The Golden Unicorn (18 East Broadway) where most of the dim sum dishes and desserts are $3.75 each. - When you reach Allen Street coming from East Broadway, head North to make your way back to Canal, but before you do, take a Lower East Side detour over to Hester Street (off of Allen; North of Canal) and head East to 63 Hester Street. There you’ll find The Sweet Life, an adorable candy store with a whimsical Wonka-like feel. So if your tween wasn’t thrilled by the assortment at Aji Ichiban, some familiar treats from The Sweet Life might be a nice break. - When you finally make your way back onto Canal Street, take one last detour up Bowery, where you can pick up a carbon steel wok at one of the many restaurant supply stores, and then go East on Grand Street. Turn South on Elizabeth Street to find one of Chinatown’s hidden gastronomic gems, Malaysian Beef Jerky (95 Elizabeth). - One last stop at the new Hong Kong Supermarket on the corner of Hester and Elizabeth, for some fresh fish to take home for dinner, concludes your Far East Side adventure. To get to Chinatown, take the N, R, W, J, M, Z or 6 trains to Canal Street, and head East on Canal to Mulberry Street. On your way, you can stop at the intersection of Canal and Baxter, cross over to the big information booth in the middle of Canal to pick up a map for more highlights of Chinatown. Newbery Award winning author, Gail Carson Levine, talked to TweenParent.com about her experiences as a young adult novelist and shared advice for aspiring writers. As well as penning Ella Enchanted, Fairest, Dave at Night, The Wish, The Two Princesses of Bamarre and the Princess Tales among others, Gail also wrote Writing Magic: Creating Stories That Fly to help young authors avoid writer’s block and develop a process. If your tween is interested in creative writing or is a fan of Gail’s books, we highly recommend sharing this article with them. How did you start writing? Did you always want to be a writer? I wrote as a kid, but I never wanted to be a writer particularly. I had been drawing and painting for years and loved that. And, I meditate. One time when I was meditating, I started thinking, “Gee, Gail, you love stories – you read all the time. How come you never tell yourself a story?” While I should have been saying my mantra to myself, I started telling myself a story. It turned out to be an art appreciation book for kids with reproductions of famous artworks and pencil drawings that I did. I tried to get it published and was rejected wholesale. That book led me to a class on writing and illustrating for kids, and when I went into it I thought that I would be more interested in illustrating. But I found that I was much more interested in writing and that I didn’t like the illustrating at all. I had always been the hardest on myself when I drew and painted. I am not hard on myself when I write. I like what I write, so it is a much happier process. That’s how I got started. And then everything I wrote was rejected for nine years. Wow, that must have been difficult. What was the process of rejection like? Were you able to glean any positive lessons from rejection? I belonged to critique groups and took classes, and my teachers and fellow students liked my work. It was a happy time for me – I felt supported, so rejections didn’t sting as much as they might have in other circumstances. Some of the rejections were actually quite encouraging, when editors would write little notes to me that they liked my work. Form rejection letters give you no help and are just discouraging, but if an editor writes you a note, it means they believe in you even if they happen to be rejecting that specific piece of yours. Is rejection something you still have to deal with today? I just got rejected from an adult poetry class! Getting rejected is not easy no matter when it happens or what circumstance it is. What is your favorite part about being a writer? I love it all. I love having written. Sometimes I love writing. I love to revise. Revising is my favorite part of writing. I love working with kids and seeing kids over a real span of time. I am very interested in seeing who they turn into. Getting to know these great kids has been a joy. Is there anything that the kids you work with have taught you, or ways that working with kids has enriched your writing life? One of the things that has helped me a lot, and that kind of stunned me when I started teaching kids is how they just leap into writing. I give the kids a writing prompt and they just start. They don’t agonize over it. I find this very freeing. Some of the kids I’ve known for ten years. I’ve gotten to watch them grow up and fulfill themselves, which is very rewarding. Besides, working with kids is just fun! What is your most important piece of advice for young writers? Save everything you write. I think kids abandon stories all the time. They start stories and get frustrated or get a different, better idea. I think that it is more worthwhile to stick with a story and revise it and try to finish it than to abandon ship. Revision, for any writer, is the name of the game. On your blog you said that revision is your favorite part of the writing process. Do you revise as you go along, or do you write the first draft straight through and then revise later? My method isn’t methodical. Many, many, many, and more scenes that I start with vanish and new ones take their place. I write notes first. Sometimes I write some of the scene in my notes. Then I copy what I’ve written into my manuscript, which is just story, not a mix of story and notes. If I’m beginning a book, I write notes and then, when I figure out my beginning, I write it in a separate document (the clean page). This isn’t particularly the right way; it’s just my method. What is your daily writing routine like? I don’t have much of a daily schedule, to be honest. I have a computer on the kitchen table and I always write while I eat breakfast. But my daily schedule varies depending on what I’m working on at the time. Today, for example, I worked on a speech I am giving in a couple weeks. I am also taking physical therapy because I strained my neck, so I did those exercises. Then I ate lunch, and then I revised my latest manuscript, a fantasy mystery for kids, until I started talking to you! So it varies every day. The point for me is I have to get the work done, and so I get it done. Your books are so imaginative. How do you come up with your ideas? I don’t think of myself as someone who has a lot of ideas. I have to work for them. When I get to a point in the story where I don’t know what’s going to happen next, I list all the possibilities that I can think of. Eventually, something pops up. I write a lot of notes – through writing notes, ideas come. When I’m really in the grove, I’m thinking about what I’m doing a great deal. Taking a shower is a good place to get ideas; doing something very repetitive and boring is a good place to get ideas. Your mind is freed through repetition, so new ideas tend to pop up. What are some of your favorite books for tweens? The Moorchild by Eloise McGraw Make Lemonade by Virginia Euwer Wolff The Birthday Room by Kevin Henkes The Ear, The Eye and The Arm by Nancy Farmer What was it like to see Ella Enchanted made into a movie? It was great! It brought the book to a lot of new readers, which was very fun. I also got to go to Ireland to watch three days of the shooting! The movie is very different from the book. I had very little to do with making of the movie, though they did talk to me a bit and listened to things I said, about the dialogue for example. What are some of your favorite moments in your books? In The Wish, I loved the parts with the dogs – I am especially proud of the dialogue. In Ella Enchanted, I loved the letters between Prince Char and Ella. In Princess Tales, the humor – I always am delighted when I write something funny. And Dave at Night is a very important book to me. The character of Solly in Dave at Night is one of my favorite characters. (Editor’s note: Dave at Night is based upon the childhood experiences of Gail’s father spent in the Hebrew Orphan Asylum in New York City; it was named an ALA Notable Book and Best Book for Young Adults.) Thank you, Gail! It was a pleasure to speak with you. For more advice from Gail Carson Levine about creative writing, you can visit her blog or you can contact Tony Hirt at HarperCollins Children’s Books (email@example.com) to arrange for her to speak at an event. Tweens and teens will be flocking to the theater this weekend to see the movie New Moon. The Twilight Saga books, the movie is based on is the second, have become a national phenomenon making fans of preteen girls to women in their fifties. So, what is all the fuss about? Kristine Gasbarre, author and celebrity editor of LimeLife.com says, “The relationship between Bella and Edward is the epitome of young romance. They ignore all obstacles in their way because their longing for each other is so overpowering.” Add Edward’s masculine strength and his desire to protect Bella and you have the formula for a thrilling romance. Many girls fantasize about being completely desired and adored in a romantic relationship. One of the most compelling aspects of Twilight is that Edward cannot fight his urge to be with Bella even though he knows that as a vampire everything about their relationship is unnatural and fraught with risk. According to Sari Cooper, a New York City Sex Therapist, this type of fantasy is normal. “The experience of being desired is a huge turn on for women and Edward can’t get enough of Bella.” However, understanding the difference between fantasy and reality is key. Sari points out that the wonderful thing about daydreaming is that the person fantasizing is in control, which makes it safe. “No one is going to get hurt.” In Twilight, Edward saves Bella from a gang of men about to attack her. He is so furious that it takes all of his will power not to avenge Bella by killing them. In a book this may seem romantic, but in real life it would be terrifying. Sari recommends that parents not only read the books or see the movies, but also ask their daughters how they would feel if the situations described happened in reality. “It’s exciting to watch someone get rescued in a movie, but we would not necessarily want to experience it in real life.” Critics of the Twilight series have raised concerns about girls confusing the fantasies of romantic love in the books with the realities of abusive relationships. Gina R. Dalfonzo writes in her essay for National Review: He [Edward] spies on Bella while she sleeps, eavesdrops on her conversations, reads her classmates’ minds, forges her signature, tries to dictate her choice of friends, encourages her to deceive her father, disables her truck, has his family hold her at his house against her will, and enters her house when no one’s there — all because, he explains, he wants her to be safe. He warns Bella how dangerous he is, but gets “furious” at anyone else who tries to warn or protect her. He even drags her to the prom against her expressed wishes. He is, in short, one of modern fiction’s best candidates for a restraining order. By romanticizing Edward and Bella’s relationship, girls run the risk of not recognizing signs of abuse in boyfriends once they start dating. The Twilight Saga offers an important opportunity for parents to have an ongoing dialogue about the series with their daughters. In an age-appropriate way, parents can discuss thepositive and negative attributes in different types of romantic relationships. So, what can parents do to help their daughter’s develop healthy relationships? Rachel Simmons, author of The Curse of the Good Girl, says that girls first need to focus on establishing positive relationships with each other. “Girls first learn how to be emotionally intimate with their friends. Through their experience of love between best friends, girls can experience profoundly attached intimacy. Other than the lack of physical attraction, the mechanics are no different.” Friendships give girls the opportunity to develop positive communication skills, have respectful disagreements, be interdependent, and share mutual empathy. Girls need to gain an understanding of themselves, their feelings and their boundaries in order to achieve these skills. To have a positive sense of self, girls need both self-respect and the respect of their friends. They need believe that their needs and interests are integral to the friendship. This involves the ability to be simultaneously proactive about their wishes while also respecting their friends’ boundaries. Inevitably, girls will “break up” with some of their friends. Rachel Simmons points out, “Heartbreak happens in all friendships. When a girl looses her best friend she is entitled to be devastated, write bad poetry, listen to sad music, and eat ice cream. After awhile it is important for her to get back into the world and “friend-date” again.” By realizing that they have the resilience to get through the ups and downs of these early relationships, girls gain the confidence they need to expect appropriate boundaries in their romantic lives. By asserting their needs in both friendship and love, girls are more likely to find someone who fulfills their inner desire to be adored for their true selves.

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(June 19, 1861 – December 30, 1896), was a Filipino polymath, patriot and the most prominent advocate for reform in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial era. He is regarded as the foremost Filipino patriot and is listed as one of the national heroes of the Philippines by the National Heroes Committee. His execution day in 1896, now known as Rizal Day, is a national holiday in the Philippines. Rizal was born to a rich family in Calamba, Laguna and was the seventh of eleven children. He attended the Ateneo Municipal de Manila, earning a Bachelor of Arts, and enrolled in medicine at the University of Santo Tomas. He continued his studies at the Universidad Central de Madrid in Madrid, Spain, earning the degree of Licentiate in Medicine. He also attended the University of Paris and earned a second doctorate at the University of Heidelberg. Rizal was a polyglot, conversant in twenty-two languages. He was a prolific poet, essayist, diarist, correspondent, and novelist whose most famous works were his two novels, Noli me Tangere and El filibusterismo. These social commentaries on Spanish rule formed the nucleus of literature that inspired peaceful reformists and armed revolutionaries alike. As a political figure, José Rizal was the founder of La Liga Filipina, a civic organization that subsequently gave birth to the Katipunanled by Andrés Bonifacio, which would start the Philippine Revolution against Spain, leading to the foundation of the First Philippine Republic under Emilio Aguinaldo. He was a proponent of achieving Philippine self-government peacefully through institutional reform rather than through violent revolution, although he would support “violent means” as a last resort. Rizal believed that the only justification for national liberation and self-government is the restoration of the dignity of the people, saying “Why independence, if the slaves of today will be the tyrants of tomorrow?” The general consensus among Rizal scholars is that his execution by the Spanish government ignited the Philippine Revolution. Family of Jose Rizal: He was born to Francisco Engracio Rizal Mercado (1818–1897) and Teodora Alonzo Realonda y Quintos, who were both prosperous farmers that were granted lease of a hacienda and an accompanying rice farm by the Dominicans. Rizal was the seventh child of their eleven children namely: Saturina (Neneng) (1850–1913), Paciano (1851–1930), Narcisa (Sisa) (1852–1939), Lucia (1857–1919), María (Biang) (1859–1945), José Protacio (1861–1896), Concepción (Concha) (1862–1865), Josefa (Panggoy) (1865–1945), Trinidad (1868–1951) and Soledad (Choleng) (1870–1929). José Rizal also had Spanish and Japanese ancestors. His grandfather and father of Teodora was a half Spaniard engineer named Lorenzo Alberto Alonzo. His maternal great-great-grandfather was Eugenio Ursua, a descendant of Japanese settlers. Lam-co changed his surname to the Spanish “Mercado” (market), possibly to indicate their Chinese merchant roots. In 1849, Governor-General of the Philippines Narciso Clavería, issued a Decree by which native Filipino and immigrant families were to adopt Spanish surnames from a list of Spanish family names (the Chino Mestizos were allowed to hold on to their Chinese surnames). José’s father Francisco Mercado now adopted the surname “Rizal” (originally Ricial, the green of young growth or green fields), which was suggested to him by a provincial governor, or as José had described him, “a friend of the family”. However, the name change caused confusion in the business affairs of Francisco, most of which were begun under the old name. After a few years, he settled on the name “Rizal Mercado” as a compromise, but usually just used the original surname “Mercado”. Education Jose Rizal as a student at the University of Santo Tomas. Rizal first studied under Justiniano Aquino Cruz in Biñan, Laguna before he was sent to Manila. As to his father’s request, he took the entrance examination in Colegio de San Juan de Letran and studied there for almost three months. The Dominican friars asked him to transfer to another school due to his radical and bold questions. He then enrolled at the Ateneo Municipal de Manila and graduated as one of the nine students in his class declared sobresaliente or outstanding. He continued his education at the Ateneo Municipal de Manila to obtain a land surveyor and assessor’s degree, and at the same time at theUniversity of Santo Tomas where he did take up a preparatory course in law. Upon learning that his mother was going blind, he decided to study medicine specializing in ophthalmology at the University of Santo Tomas Faculty of Medicine and Surgery. Without his parents’ knowledge and consent, but secretly supported by his brother Paciano, he traveled alone to Madrid, Spain in May 1882 and studied medicine at the Universidad Central de Madrid where he earned the degree, Licentiate in Medicine. His education continued at theUniversity of Paris and the University of Heidelberg where he earned a second doctorate. In Berlin he was inducted as a member of the Berlin Ethnological Society and the Berlin Anthropological Society under the patronage of the famous pathologist Rudolf Virchow. Following custom, he delivered an address in German in April 1887 before the Anthropological Society on the orthography and structure of the Tagalog language. He left Heidelberg a poem, “A las flores del Heidelberg,” which was both an evocation and a prayer for the welfare of his native land and the unification of common values between East and West. At Heidelberg, the 25-year-old Rizal, completed in 1887 his eye specialization under the renowned professor, Otto Becker. There he used the newly invented ophthalmoscope (invented by Hermann von Helmholtz) to later operate on his own mother’s eye. From Heidelberg, Rizal wrote his parents: “I spend half of the day in the study of German and the other half, in the diseases of the eye. Twice a week, I go to the bierbrauerie, or beerhall, to speak German with my student friends.” He lived in a Karlstraße boarding house then moved to Ludwigsplatz. There, he met Reverend Karl Ullmer and stayed with them in Wilhelmsfeld, where he wrote the last few chapters of “Noli Me Tangere” Rizal’s multifacetedness was described by his German friend, Dr. Adolf Meyer, as “stupendous.” Documented studies show him to be apolymath with the ability to master various skills and subjects. He was an ophthalmologist, sculptor, painter, educator, farmer, historian, playwright and journalist. Besides poetry and creative writing, he dabbled, with varying degrees of expertise, in architecture, cartography, economics, ethnology, anthropology, sociology, dramatics, martial arts, fencing and pistol shooting. He was also a Freemason, joining Acacia Lodge No. 9 during his time in Spain and becoming a Master Mason in 1884. José Rizal’s life is one of the most documented of the 19th century due to the vast and extensive records written by and about him. Almost everything in his short life is recorded somewhere, being himself a regular diarist and prolific letter writer, much of the material having survived. His biographers, however, have faced difficulty in translating his writings because of Rizal’s habit of switching from one language to another. They drew largely from his travel diaries with their insights of a young Asian encountering the West for the first time. They included his later trips, home and back again to Europe through Japan and the United States, and, finally, through his self-imposed exile in Hong Kong. During December 1891 to June 1892, Rizal lived with his family in Number 2 of Rednaxela Terrace, Midlevels, and Hong Kong Island. Rizal used 5 D’Aguilar Street, Central district, Hong Kong Island as his ophthalmologist clinic from 2 pm to 6 pm. This period of his education and his frenetic pursuit of life included his recorded affections. Historians write of Rizal’s “dozen women”, even if only nine were identified. They were Gertrude Becket of Chalcot Crescent (London), wealthy and high-minded Nelly Boustead of the English and Iberian merchant family, last descendant of a noble Japanese family Seiko Usui (affectionately called O-Sei-san), his earlier friendship with Segunda Katigbak, Leonor Valenzuela, and eight-year romantic relationship with a distant cousin, Leonor Rivera. Shortly after he graduated from the Ateneo Municipal de Manila (now Ateneo de Manila University), Rizal (who was then 16 years old) and a friend, Mariano Katigbak, came to visit Rizal’s maternal grandmother in Tondo, Manila. Mariano brought along his sister, Segunda Katigbak, a 14-year old Batangueña from Lipa, Batangas. It was the first time they met and Rizal described Segunda as “She was rather short, with eyes that were eloquent and ardent at times and languid at others, rosy–cheeked, with an enchanting and provocative smile that revealed very beautiful teeth, and the air of a sylph; her entire self diffused a mysterious charm.” His grandmother’s guests were mostly college students and they knew that Rizal had skills in painting. They suggested that Rizal should make a portrait of Segunda. He complied reluctantly and made a pencil sketch of her. Unfortunately, Katigbak was engaged to Manuel Luz. Leonor Rivera is thought to be the inspiration for the character of Maria Clara in Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo. Rivera and Rizal first met in Manila when Rivera was only 13 years old. When Rizal left for Europe on May 3, 1882, Rivera was 15 years of age. Their correspondence began when Rizal left a poem for Rivera saying farewell. Their letters to each other slowly became romantic. The correspondence between Rivera and Rizal kept Rizal focused on his studies in Europe. They employed codes in their letters because Rivera’s mother did not favor Rizal as a suitor for Rivera. A letter from Mariano Katigbak dated June 27, 1884 referred to Rivera as Rizal’s “betrothed”. Katigbak described Rivera as having been greatly affected by Rizal’s departure, frequently sick because of insomnia. When Rizal returned to the Philippines on August 5, 1887, Rivera was no longer living in Manila because she and her family had moved back to Dagupan, Pangasinan. Rizal wanted to meet Rivera and Rivera also wanted to see Rizal, but both were prohibited by their fathers. Rizal was forbidden by his father Francisco Mercado in order to avoid putting the Rivera family in danger because at the time Rizal was already labeled by the Spaniards as a filibustero or subversive because of the contents of his novel Noli Me Tangere. Rizal wanted to marry Rivera while he was still in the Philippines because of Rivera’s uncomplaining fidelity. Rizal asked permission from his father one more time before his second departure from the Philippines. The meeting never happened. In 1888, Rizal stopped receiving letters from Rivera for a year, although Rizal kept sending letters to Rivera. The reason for Rivera’s year of silence was the connivance between Rivera’s mother and the Englishman named Henry Kipping, a railway engineer who fell in love with Rivera and was favored by Rivera’s mother. The news of Leonor Rivera’s marriage to Kipping devastated Rizal. His European friends kept almost everything he gave them, including doodlings on pieces of paper. In the home of a Spanish liberal, Pedro Ortiga y Pérez, he left an impression that was to be remembered by his daughter, Consuelo. In her diary, she wrote of a day Rizal spent there and regaled them with his wit, social graces, and sleight-of-hand tricks. In London, during his research on Morga’s writings, he became a regular guest in the home of Dr. Reinhold Rost of the British Museum who referred to him as “a gem of a man.” The family of Karl Ullmer, pastor of Wilhelmsfeld, and the Blumentritts saved even buttonholes and napkins with sketches and notes. They were ultimately bequeathed to the Rizal family to form a treasure trove of memorabilia. In 1890, Rizal, 29, left Paris for Brussels as he was preparing for the publication of his annotations of Antonio de Morga’s “Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas.” There, he lived in the boarding house of the two Jacoby sisters, Catherina and Suzanna who had a niece also named Suzanna (“Thil”), 16. Historian Gregorio F. Zaide states that Rizal had “his romance with Suzanne Jacoby, 45, the petite niece of his landladies.” Belgian Pros Slachmuylders, however, believed that Rizal had a romance with the niece, Suzanna Thil, in 1890. Rizal’s Brussels’ stay was short-lived, as he moved to Madrid, leaving the young Suzanna a box of chocolates. Suzanna replied in French: “After your departure, I did not take the chocolate. The box is still intact as on the day of your parting. Don’t delay too long writing us because I wear out the soles of my for running to the mailbox to see if there is a letter from you. There will never be any home in which you are so loved as in that in Brussels, so, you little bad boy, hurry up and come back…” (Oct. 1, 1890 letter). Slachmuylders’ group in 2007 unveiled a historical marker commemorating Rizal’s stay in Brussels in 1890. The content of Rizal’s writings changed considerably in his two most famous novels, Noli me Tangere and El Filibusterismo. These writings angered both the Spanish colonial elite and many educated Filipinos due to their insulting symbolism. They are critical of Spanish friars and the power of the Church. Rizal’s friend Ferdinand Blumentritt, anAustria-Hungary born professor and historian wrote that the novel’s characters were drawn from real life and that every episode can be repeated on any day in the Philippines. Blumentritt was the grandson of the Imperial Treasurer at Vienna in the former Austro-Hungarian Empire and a staunch defender of the Catholic faith. This did not dissuade him however from writing the preface of El filibusterismo after he had translated Noli me Tangere into German. Noli was published in Berlin (1887) and Fili in Ghent (1891) with funds borrowed largely from Rizal’s friends. As Blumentritt had warned, these led to Rizal’s prosecution as the inciter of revolution and eventually, to a military trial and execution. The intended consequence of teaching the natives where they stood brought about an adverse reaction, as the Philippine Revolution of 1896 took off virulently thereafter. As leader of the reform movement of Filipino students in Spain, he contributed essays, allegories, poems, and editorials to the Spanish newspaper La Solidaridad in Barcelona (in this case Rizal used a pen name, Dimasalang). The core of his writings centers on liberal and progressive ideas of individual rights and freedom; specifically, rights for the Filipino people. He shared the same sentiments with members of the movement: that the Philippines is battling, in Rizal’s own words, “a double-faced Goliath”–corrupt friars and bad government. His commentaries reiterate the following agenda: •That the Philippines be a province of Spain •Representation in the Cortes •Filipino priests instead of Spanish friars–Augustinians, Dominicans, and Franciscans–in parishes and remote sitios •Freedom of assembly and speech •Equal rights before the law (for both Filipino and Spanish plaintiffs) The colonial authorities in the Philippines did not favor these reforms even if they were more openly endorsed by Spanish intellectuals like Morayta, Unamuno, Pi y Margall, and others. Persecution Upon his return to Manila in 1892, he formed a civic movement called La Liga Filipina. The league advocated these moderate social reforms through legal means, but was disbanded by the governor. At that time, he had already been declared an enemy of the state by the Spanish authorities because of the publication of his novel. Wenceslao Retana, a political commentator in Spain, had slighted Rizal by writing an insulting article in “La Epoca”, a newspaper in Madrid, in which he insinuated that the family and friends of Rizal were ejected from their lands in Calamba for not having paid their due rents. Upon reading the article, Rizal sent immediately a representative to challenge Retana to a duel. Retana published a public apology and later became one of Rizal’s biggest admirers, writing Rizal’s most important biography. The painful memories of his mother’s treatment (when he was ten) at the hands of the civil authorities explain his reaction to Retana. The incident stemmed from an accusation that Rizal’s mother, Teodora, tried to poison the wife of a cousin when she claimed she only intervened to help. With the approval of the Church prelates, and without a hearing, she was ordered to prison in Santa Cruz in 1871. She was made to walk the ten miles (16 km) from Calamba. She was released after two-and-a-half years of appeals to the highest court. In 1887 Rizal wrote a petition on behalf of the tenants of Calamba, and later that year led them to speak out against the friars’ attempts to raise rent. They initiated a litigation, which resulted in the Dominicans evicting them from their homes, including the Rizal family. General Valeriano Weyler had the buildings on the farm torn down. Rizal was implicated in the activities of the nascent rebellion and in July 1892, was deported to Dapitan in the province of Zamboanga, a peninsula ofMindanao. There he built a school, a hospital and a water supply system, and taught and engaged in farming and horticulture. Abaca, then the vital raw material for cordage and which Rizal and his students planted in the thousands, was a memorial. The boys’ school, which taught in Spanish, and included English as a foreign language (considered a prescient if unusual option then) was conceived by Rizal and antedated Gordonstoun with its aims of inculcating resourcefulness and self sufficiency in young men.They would later enjoy successful lives as farmers and honest government officials. One, a Muslim, became a datu, and another, José Aseniero, who was with Rizal throughout the life of the school, became Governor of Zamboanga. In Dapitan, the Jesuits mounted a great effort to secure his return to the fold led by Fray Sánchez, his former professor, who failed in his mission. Fray Pastells, a prominent member of the Order, resumed the task. In a letter to Pastells, Rizal sails close to the ecumenism familiar to us today. – “We are entirely in accord in admitting the existence of God. How can I doubt his when I am convinced of mine? Who so recognizes the effect recognizes the cause. To doubt God is to doubt one’s own conscience, and in consequence, it would be to doubt everything; and then what is life for? Now then, myfaith in God, if the result of ratiocination may be called faith, is blind, blind in the sense of knowing nothing. I neither believe nor disbelieve the qualities, which many attribute to him; before theologians’ and philosophers’ definitions and lucubrations of this ineffable and inscrutable being I find myself smiling. Faced with the conviction of seeing myself confronting the supreme Problem, which confused voices seek to explain to me, I cannot but reply: ‘It could be; but the God that I foreknow is far more grand, far more good: Plus Supra!…I believe in (revelation); but not in revelation or revelations which each religion or religions claim to possess. Examining them impartially, comparing them and scrutinizing them, one cannot avoid discerning the human ‘fingernail’ and the stamp of the time in which they were written… No, let us not make God in our image, poor inhabitants that we are of a distant planet lost in infinite space. However, brilliant and sublime our intelligence may be, it is scarcely more than a small spark which shines and in an instant is extinguished, and it alone can give us no idea of that blaze, that conflagration, that ocean of light. I believe in revelation, but in that living revelation which surrounds us on every side, in that voice, mighty, eternal, unceasing, incorruptible, clear, distinct, universal as is the being from whom it proceeds, in that revelation which speaks to us and penetrates us from the moment we are born until we die. What books can better reveal to us the goodness of God, his love, his providence, his eternity, his glory, his wisdom? ‘The heavens declare the glory of God, and the firmament showeth his handiwork’.” His best friend, professor Ferdinand Blumentritt, kept him in touch with European friends and fellow-scientists who wrote a stream of letters, which arrived in, Dutch, French, German and English and which baffled the censors, delaying their transmittal. Those four years of his exile coincided with the development of the Philippine Revolution from inception and to its final breakout, which, from the viewpoint of the court, which was to try him, suggested his complicity in it. He condemned the uprising, although all the members of the Katipunan had made him their honorary president and had used his name as a cry for war, unity, and liberty. Josephine Bracken Josephine Bracken was Rizal’scommon-law wife whom he reportedly married shortly before before his execution In February 1895, Rizal, 33, became acquainted with an Irish woman from Hong Kong named Josephine Bracken when she accompanied her blind adoptive father, George Taufer, to have his eye checked by Rizal. After frequent visits, Rizal and Bracken soon fell in love with each other and later applied for marriage, but because of his bad reputation from his own writings and political stance, the local priest Father Obach, only agreed to the hold the ceremony if Rizal could get permission from the Bishop of Cebu. He was unable to obtain an ecclesiastical marriage because he would not return to Catholicism. After accompanying his father to Manila on his return to Hong Kong and before heading back to Dapitan to live with Rizal, she introduced herself to members of his family in Manila. His mother suggested a civil marriage that believed it as a lesser sacrament, and would be less sinful to Rizal’s conscience than making any sort of political retraction in order to gain permission from the Bishop. He, nonetheless, considered Josephine to be his wife and the couple lived together in Talisay in Dapitan. The couple had a child who was born prematurely, Francísco Rizal y Bracken, who died after only a few hours.

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Character education is an umbrella term loosely used to describe the teaching of children in a manner that will help them develop variously as moral, civic, good, mannered, behaved, non-bullying, healthy, critical, successful, traditional, compliant or socially acceptable beings. Concepts that now and in the past have fallen under this term include social and emotional learning, moral reasoning and cognitive development, life skills education, health education, violence prevention, critical thinking, ethical reasoning, and conflict resolution and mediation. Many of these are now considered failed programs, i.e. "religious education", "moral education", "values clarification". Today, there are dozens of character education programs in, and vying for adoption by, schools and businesses. Some are commercial, some non-profit and many are uniquely devised by states, districts and schools, themselves. A common approach of these programs is to provide a list of principles, pillars, values or virtues, which are memorized or around which themed activities are planned. It is commonly claimed that the values included in any particular list are universally recognized. However, there is no agreement among the competing programs on core values (e.g., honesty, stewardship, kindness, generosity, courage, freedom, justice, equality, and respect) or even how many to list. There is also no common or standard means for assessing, implementing or evaluating programs. - 1 Terminology - 2 In-school programs - 3 History - 3.1 Understanding character - 3.2 Developing character - 3.3 History of character education in U.S. schools - 3.4 Modern scientific approaches - 4 Issues and controversies - 5 See also - 6 References - 7 External links and Bibliography Character as it relates to character education most often refers to how 'good' a person is. In other words, a person who exhibits personal qualities like those a society considers desirable might be considered to have good character—and developing such personal qualities is often seen as a purpose of education. However, the various proponents of character education are far from agreement as to what "good" is, or what qualities are desirable. Compounding this problem is that there is no scientific definition of character. Because such a concept blends personality and behavioral components, scientists have long since abandoned use of the term "character" and, instead, use the term psychological motivators to measure the behavioral predispositions of individuals. With no clinically defined meaning, there is virtually no way to measure if an individual has a deficit of character, or if a school program can improve it. The various terms in the lists of values that character education programs propose—even those few found in common among some programs—suffer from vague definitions. This makes the need and effectiveness of character education problematic to measure. There is no common practice in schools in relation to the formation of pupils' character or values education. This is partly due to the many competing programs and the lack of standards in character education, but also because of how and by whom the programs are executed. Programs are generally of four varieties: cheerleading, praise and reward, define and drill, and forced formality. They may be used alone or in combination. 1) Cheerleading involves multicolored posters, banners, and bulletin boards featuring a value or virtue of the month; lively morning public-address announcements; occasional motivational assemblies; and possibly a high-profile event such as a fund-raiser for a good cause. 2) Praise-and-reward approach seeks to make virtue into habit using "positive reinforcement". Elements include "catching students being good" and praising them or giving them chits that can be exchanged for privileges or prizes. In this approach, all too often, the real significance of the students' actions is lost, as the reward or award becomes the primary focus. 3) Define-and-drill calls on students to memorize a list of values and the definition of each. Students' simple memorization of definitions seems to be equated with their development of the far more complex capacity for making moral decisions. 4) Forced-formality focuses on strict, uniform compliance with specific rules of conduct, (i.e., walking in lines, arms at one's sides), or formal forms of address ("yes sir," "no ma'am"), or other procedures deemed to promote order or respect of adults. "These four approaches aim for quick behavioral results, rather than helping students better understand and commit to the values that are core to our society, or helping them develop the skills for putting those values into action in life's complex situations." Generally, the most common practitioners of character education in the United States are school counselors, although there is a growing tendency to include other professionals in schools and the wider community. Depending on the program, the means of implementation may be by teachers and/or any other adults (faculty, bus drivers, cafeteria workers, maintenance staff, etc.); by storytelling, which can be through books and media; or by embedding into the classroom curriculum. There are many theories about means, but no comparative data and no consensus in the industry as to what, if any, approach may be effective. It has been said that, "character education is as old as education itself". Indeed, the attempt to understand and develop character extends into prehistory. Since very early times, people have tried to access or "read" the pre-disposition (character) of self and others. Being able to predict and even manipulate human behavior, motivations, and reactions would bestow obvious advantages. Pre-scientific character assessment techniques have included, among others: anthropometry, astrology, palmistry, metoposcopy, and chiromancy. These approaches have been scientifically discredited although they continue to be widely practiced. The concept of inherited "race character" has long been used to characterize desirable versus undesirable qualities in members of groups as a whole along national, tribal, ethnic, religious and even class lines. Race character is predominantly used as a justification for the denigration and subsequent persecution of minority groups, most infamously, justifying European persecution of native Americans, the concept of slavery, and the Nazis' persecution of Jews. Though race character continues to be used as a justification for persecution of minorities worldwide, it has been scientifically discredited and is not overtly a component of modern character education in western societies. Particularly in modern liberal republics, social and economic change is rapid and can result in cognitive stress to older generations when each succeeding generation expands on and exhibits their own modes of expressing the freedoms such societies enjoy. America is a prime example. With few traditions, each generation exhibites attitudes and behaviors that conservative segments of preceding generations uneasily assimilate. Individual incidents can also produce a moral panic. Cries about loss of morals in the succeeding generation, overwhelmingly unsubstantiated, and calls for remediation have been constant in America since before its founding. (It should be expected that—in a free country that supports children's rights—this trend will continue apace.) Eastern philosophy views the nature of man as initially quiet and calm, but when affected by the external world, it develops desires. When the desires are not properly controlled and the conscious mind is distracted by the material world, we lose our true selves and the principle of reason in Nature is destroyed. From this arise rebellion, disobedience, cunning and deceit, and general immorality. This is the way of chaos. Confucianism stands with Taoism as two of the great religious/philosophical systems of China. A hallmark of the philosophy of Confucius is his emphasis on tradition and study. He disparages those who have faith in natural understanding or intuition and argues for long and careful study. Study, for Confucius, means finding a good teacher, who is familiar with the ways of the past and the practices of the ancients, imitating his words and deeds. The result is a heavy scheme of obligations and intricate duties throughout all of one's many social roles. Confucius is said to have sung his sayings and accompanied himself on a 'qin' (a kind of zither). According to Confucius, musical training is the most effective method for molding the moral character of man and keeping society in order. He said: "Let a man be stimulated by poetry, established by the rules of propriety, perfected by music." The theme of Taoism is one of harmony with nature. Zhuangzi was a central figure in Taoist philosophy. He wrote that people develop different moral attitudes from different natural upbringings, each feeling that his own views are obvious and natural, yet all are blinded by this socialization to their true nature. To Zhuangzi, pre-social desires are relatively few and easy to satisfy, but socialization creates a plethora of desires for "social goods" such as status, reputation, and pride. These conventional values, because of their comparative nature create attitudes of resentment and anger inciting competition and then violence. The way to social order is for people to eliminate these socialized ambitions through open-minded receptivity to all kinds of voices - particularly those who have run afoul of human authority or seem least authoritative. Each has insights. Indeed, in Taoist moral philosophy, perfection may well look like its opposite to us. One theme of Zhuangzi's that links Taoism to the Zen branch of Buddhism is the concept of flow, of losing oneself in activity, particularly the absorption in skilled execution of a highly cultivated way. His most famous example concerns a butcher who carves beef with the focus and absorption of a virtuoso dancer in an elegantly choreographed performance. The height of human satisfaction comes in achieving and exercising such skills with the focus and commitment that gets us "outside ourselves" and into such an intimate connection with our inborn nature. The early Greek philosophers felt that happiness requires virtue and hence that a happy person must have virtuous traits of character. Socrates identifies happiness with pleasure and explains the various virtues as instrumental means to pleasure. He teaches, however, that pleasure is to be understood in an overarching sense wherein fleeing battle is a momentary pleasure that detracts from the greater pleasure of acting bravely. Plato wrote that to be virtuous, we must both understand what contributes to our overall good and have our spirited and appetitive desires educated properly and guided by the rational part of the soul. The path he prescribes is that a potentially virtuous person should learn when young to love and take pleasure in virtuous actions, but he must wait until late in life to develop the understanding of why what he loves is good. An obvious problem is that this reasoning is circular. Aristotle is perhaps, even today, the most influential of all the early Western philosophers. His view is often summarized as 'moderation in all things'. For example, courage is worthy, for too little of it makes one defenseless. But too much courage can result in foolhardiness in the face of danger. To be clear, Aristotle emphasizes that the moderate state is not an arithmetic mean, but one relative to the situation: sometimes the mean course is to be angry at, say, injustice or mistreatment, at other times anger is wholly inappropriate. Additionally, because people are different, the mean for one person may be bravery, but for another it is recklessness. For Aristotle, the key to finding this balance is to enjoy and recognize the value of developing one’s rational powers, and then using this recognition to determine which actions are appropriate in which circumstances. The views of nineteenth-century philosophers were heavily indebted to these early Greeks. Two of them, Karl Marx and John Stuart Mill, had a major influence on approaches to developing character. Karl Marx applies Aristotle's conclusions in his understanding of work as a place where workers should be able to express their rational powers. But workers subject to capitalist values are characterized primarily by material self-interest. This makes them distrustful of others, viewing them primarily as competitors. Given these attitudes, workers become prone to a number of vices, including selfishness, cowardice, and intemperance. To correct these conditions, he proposes that workers perform tasks that are interesting and mentally challenging—and that each worker help decide how, and to what ends, their work should be directed. Marx believes that this, coupled with democratic conditions in the workplace, reduces competitive feelings among workers so they want to exhibit traditional virtues like generosity and trustfulness, and avoid the more traditional vices such as cowardice, stinginess, and self-indulgence. John Stuart Mill, like Marx, also highly regarded development of the rational mind. He argued that seriously unequal societies, by preventing individuals from developing their deliberative powers, affect individuals' character in unhealthy ways and impede their ability to live virtuous lives. In particular, Mill argued that societies that have systematically subordinated women have harmed men and women, and advised that the place of women in families and in societies be reconsidered. Because women and men today may not be well-positioned to fully develop the capacities Aristotle and others considered central to virtuous character, it continues to be a central issue not only in ethics, but also in feminist philosophy, political philosophy, philosophy of education, and philosophy of literature. Because moral character requires communities where citizens can fully realize their human powers and ties of friendship, there are hard questions of how educational, economic, political, and social institutions should be structured to make that development possible. Impressed by scientific experiments in social psychology, "situationist" philosophers argue that character traits are not stable or consistent and cannot be used to explain why people act as they do. Experimental data shows that much of human behavior is attributable to seemingly trivial features of the situations in which people find themselves. In a typical experiment, seminary students agreed to give a talk on the importance of helping those in need. On the way to the building where their talks were to be given, they encountered a confederate slumped over and groaning. Ironically, those who were told they were already late were much less likely to help than those who were told they had time to spare. Perhaps most damning to the traditional view of character are the results of the experiments conducted by Stanley Milgram in the 1960s and Philip G. Zimbardo in 1971. In the first of these experiments, the great majority of subjects, when politely though firmly requested by an experimenter, were willing to administer what they thought were increasingly severe electric shocks to a screaming "victim." In the second, the infamous Stanford prison experiment, the planned two-week investigation into the psychology of prison life had to be ended after only six days because the college students who were assigned to act as guards became sadistic and those who were the "prisoners" became depressed and showed signs of extreme stress. These and other experiments are taken to show that if humans do have noble tendencies, they are narrow, "local" traits that are not unified with other traits into a wider behavioral pattern of being. History of character education in U.S. schools The colonial period As common schools spread throughout the colonies, the moral education of children was taken for granted. Formal education had a distinctly moral and religion emphasis. In the Christian tradition, it is believed that humans are flawed at birth (original sin), requiring salvation through religious means: teaching, guidance and supernatural rituals. This belief in America, originally heavily populated by Protestant immigrants, creates a situation of a-priori assumption that humans are morally deficient by nature and that preemptive measures are needed to develop children into acceptable members of society: home, church and school. Character education in school in the United States began with the circulation of the New England Primer. Besides rudimentary instruction in reading, it was filled with Biblical quotes, prayers, catechisms and religiously charged moral exhortations. Typical is this short verse from the 1777 edition: Good children must, Fear God all day, Love Christ alway, Parents obey, In secret pray, No false thing say, Mind little play, By no sin stray, Make no delay, In doing good. As the young republic took shape, schooling was promoted for both secular and moral reasons. By the time of the nineteenth century, however, religion became a problem in the schools. In the United States, the overwhelming dominant religion was Protestantism. While not as prominent as during the Puritan era, the King James Bible was, nevertheless, a staple of U.S. public schools. Yet, as waves of immigrants from Ireland, Germany, and Italy came to the country from the mid-nineteenth century forward, they reacted to the Protestant tone and orthodoxy of the schools. Concerned that their children would be weaned from their faith, Catholics developed their own school system. Later in the twentieth century, other religious groups, such as Jews, Muslims, and even various Protestant denominations, formed their own schools. Each group desired, and continues to desire, that its moral education be rooted in its respective faith or code. Horace Mann, the nineteenth-century champion of the common schools, strongly advocated for moral education. He and his followers were worried by the widespread drunkenness, crime, and poverty during the Jacksonian period they lived in. No less troubling were the waves of immigrants flooding into cities, unprepared for urban life and particularly unprepared to participate in democratic civic life. The most successful textbooks during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were the famed McGuffey Readers, fostering virtues such as thrift honesty, piety, punctuality and industry. McGuffey was a theological and conservative teacher and attempted to give schools a curriculum that would instill Presbyterian Calvinist beliefs and manners in their students. During the late-nineteenth-century and twentieth-century period, intellectual leaders and writers were deeply influenced by the ideas of the English naturalist Charles Darwin, the German political philosopher Karl Marx, the Austrian neurologist and founder of psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud, and by a growing strict interpretation of the separation of church and state doctrine. This trend increased after World War II and was further intensified by what appeared to be changes in the nation's moral consensus in the late 1960s. Educators and others became wary of using the schools for moral education. More and more this was seen to be the province of the family and the church. Still, due to a perceived view of academic and moral decline, educators continued to receive mandates to address the moral concerns of students, which they did using primarily two approaches: values clarification and cognitive developmental moral education. Values clarification. Values change over time in response to changing life experiences. Recognizing these changes and understanding how they affect one's actions and behaviors is the goal of the values clarification process. Values clarification does not tell you what you should have, it simply provides the means to discover what your values are. This approach, although widely practiced, came under strong criticism for, among other things, promoting moral relativism among students. Cognitive-developmental theory of moral education and development sprang from the work of the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget and was further developed by Lawrence Kohlberg. Kohlberg rejected the focus on values and virtues, not only due to the lack of consensus on what virtues are to be taught, but also because of the complex nature of practicing such virtues. For example, people often make different decisions yet hold the same basic moral values. Kohlberg believed a better approach to affecting moral behavior should focus on stages of moral development. These stages are critical, as they consider the way a person organizes their understanding of virtues, rules, and norms, and integrates these into a moral choice. Character education movement of the 1980s The impetus and energy behind the return of a more didactic character education to American schools did not come from within the educational community. It has been fueled by desire from conservative and religious segments of the population for traditionally orderly schools where conformity to "standards" of behavior and good habits are stressed. State and national politicians, as well as local school districts, lobbied by character education organizations, have responded by supporting this sentiment. During his presidency, Bill Clinton hosted five conferences on character education. President George W. Bush expanded on the programs of the previous administration and made character education a major focus of his educational reform agenda. Modern scientific approaches Personality and social psychology is a scientific method used by health professionals for researching personal and social motivators in and between the individual and society, as well as applying them to the problems people have in the context of society. Personality and social psychologists study how people think about, influence, and relate to one another. By exploring forces within the person (such as traits, attitudes, and goals) as well as forces within the situation (such as social norms and incentives), they seek to provide insight into issues as wide-ranging as prejudice, romantic attraction, persuasion, friendship, helping, aggression, conformity, and group interaction. Neuropsychology addresses how brain regions associated with emotional processing are involved in moral cognition by studying the biological mechanisms that underlie human choices and behavior. Like social psychology, it seeks to determine, not how we should, but how we do behave - though neurologically. For instance, what happens in the brain when we favor one response over another, or when it is difficult to make any decision? Studies of clinical populations, including patients with VMPC (ventromedial prefrontal cortex) damage, reveal an association between impairments in emotional processing and impairments in moral judgement and behavior. These and other studies conclude that not only are emotions engaged during moral cognition, but that emotions, particularly those mediated by VMPC, are in fact critical for morality. Other neurological research is documenting how much the unconscious mind is involved in decision making. According to cognitive neuroscientists, we are conscious of only about 5 percent of our cognitive activity, so most of our decisions, actions, emotions, and behavior depends on the 95 percent of brain activity that goes beyond our conscious awareness. These studies show that actions come from preconscious brain activity patterns and not from people consciously thinking about what they are going to do. Evolutionary psychology, a new science, emerged in the 1990s to focus on explaining human behavior against the backdrop of Darwinian processes. This science considers how the biological forces of genetics and neurotransmissions in the brain influence unconscious strategies and conscious and proposes that these features of biology have developed through evolution processes. In this view, the cognitive programs of the human brain are adaptations. They exist because this behavior in our ancestors enabled them to survive and reproduce these same traits in their descendants, thereby equipping us with solutions to problems that our ancestors faced during our species' evolutionary history. Ethical topics addressed include altruistic behaviors, deceptive or harmful behaviors, an innate sense of fairness or unfairness, feelings of kindness or love, self-sacrifice, feelings related to competitiveness and moral punishment or retribution, and moral "cheating" or hypocrisy. Issues and controversies October 2010, the largest federal study yet found that schoolwide Character Education programs don’t produce any improvements in student behavior or academic performance. A 2010 report released under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Education also found that the vast majority of character education programs have failed to prove their effectiveness. Previous and current research on the subject fails to find one peer-reviewed study demonstrating any scientifically validated need for or result from character education programs. Typically, support is attested to by referring to "correlations" (e.g., grades, number of disciplinary referrals, subjective opinion, etc.). Functional and ideological problems 1) An assumption that "character" is deficient in some or all children 2) Lack of agreement on what constitutes effectiveness 5) Differing standards in methods and objectives. Differing standards for assessing need and evaluating results. Some attempts have been made. 9) There are few if any common goals among character education programs. The dissensions in the list of values among character education programs, itself, constitutes a major criticism that there is anything to character education that is either fundamental or universally relevant to students or society. 10) It might be said that there is agreement in as much as what values do not find inclusion on lists of core values. Not found, even though they are fundamental to the success of modern democratic societies, are such noted values as independence, inventiveness, curiosity, critical thinking, skepticism, and even moderation. "Take chances, make mistakes, get messy!" the famous saying by Ms. Frizzle on the much celebrated TV show, The Magic School Bus, embodies values that would be antithetical to those found on today’s character education lists. - "Character Education: An Historical Overview". - Wanda Robinson-Lee (2008). A Framework for Understanding Character Education in Middle Schools. ProQuest. pp. 32–. ISBN 978-0-549-51817-4. - "Character Education: Organizations and Initiatives". - "What's Right and Wrong In Character Education Today (" ...too many programs that say they are developing character and call themselves "character education" are aimed mostly at promoting good manners and compliance with rules, not at developing students of strong, independent character.")". - "Leading Children Beyond Good and Evil (Includes a list of conflicting "pillars" among competing character education programs.)". - "Character Education in Schools and the Education of Teachers ("There is no common practice in relation to the formation of pupils' character or values education in schools in relation to teacher training.")". - "What Work's Clearing House: Character Education" (PDF). - Howard Adelman (Editor), Astri Suhrke (Editor) (2000). The Path of Genocide. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 0-7658-0768-8. - "Character Education After the Bandwagon has Gone?" (PDF). - Confucius (473–373 BCE). Analects. pp. chapter 8, verse 8. Check date values in: - "Moral Character: Some ancient Greek views". - "Moral Character: Marx and Mill". - Thomas Blass (2004). The man who shocked the world: the life and legacy of Stanley Milgram. Basic Books. ISBN 0-7382-0399-8. - "Stanford Prison Experiment: A Simulation Study of the Psychology of Imprisonment Conducted at Stanford University". - "Moral Education - A Brief History of Moral Education, The Return of Character Education, Current Approaches to Moral Education("Evaluation and assessment in character and moral education is best described as a work in progress. The field is held back by the lack of an accepted battery of reliable instruments, a lack of wide agreement on individual or schoolwide outcomes, and by the short-term nature of most of the existent studies. Complicating these limitations is a larger one: the lack of theoretical agreement of what character is.")". - "The New England Primer: 1777 edition". - "Moral Development and Moral Education: An Overview". - Alfie Kohn ("Character education rests on three ideological legs: behaviorism, conservatism, and religion"). "How Not to Teach Values". - "CHARACTER COUNTS! Coalition (US) ("The focus on political lobbying has created state and national government imprimaturs that make the program look like a government initiative. The presidential declaration of a National CHARACTER COUNTS! Week is a triumph of marketing")" (PDF). - "George W, Bush, National Character Counts Week Proclamation, 2001 (A chilling document wherein the conservative ideologies and politics of militarism, retributive war, churches, patriotism, faith, morality and virtue - as opposed to evil- are all conflated with character education for Character Counts! week)". - "What is a Social/Personality Psychology?". - "Investigating emotion in moral cognition: a review of evidence from functional neuroimaging and neuropsychology". - "Unconscious Decisions: Scientific American". - "Evolutionary Psychology". - "Efficacy of Schoolwide Programs to Promote Social and Character Development and Reduce Problem Behavior in Elementary School Children" (PDF). The Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. October 2010. - Davis, Michael (2003). "What's Wrong with Character Education?". American Journal of Education. 110: 32. doi:10.1086/377672. - Fabes, Richard A.; et al. (1989). Effects of Rewards on Children's Prosocial Motivation: A Socialization Study ("In a troubling study conducted by Joan Grusec at the University of Toronto, young children who were frequently praised for displays of generosity tended to be slightly less generous on an everyday basis than other children were. Generosity became a means to an end."). 25. Developmental Psychology. - "Evaluating character education programs and missing the target: A critique of existing research". doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2006.08.001. - "An Exploratory Study of the Impact of the Character Education Program within the Dade County Public School System ("There was no measurable differences in character building between those students in the program and those not in it.")". - "A Critique of Character Counts! as a Curriculum Model for Explicit Moral Instruction in Public Schools" (PDF). - "Character Education Quality Standards" (PDF). - "Character Education (A 2007 report released under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Education found that the vast majority of character education programs have failed to prove their effectiveness.)". - "Evaluation: How It's Done". - "Review: In the Name of Morality: Character Education and Political Control. Yu, Tianlong. (2004) ("Yu finds unfavorable similarities between the current character education movement in America with his own experience of Chinese cultural education and re-education.")". - "Cult of Character: How the 'secular' Character Training Institute is working to build evangelist Bill Gothard's vision of a First-Century Kingdom of God—one city, one state, one school board, one police force and one mind at a time.". - "A Critique of Research Evaluating Moral Education Interventions ("The problem of confusing morality with social conformity cannot be ignored. Students in times of slavery, pogroms, or other prejudice would be emulating community values by participating in cruelty and social injustice. We can never assume that our society is free from such injustices, because we may be blinded ourselves by social acceptability. Therefore, true moral education must empower students with the ability to deconstruct social norms in terms of universal values of social justice -- in this way moral education can also gain a powerful ally in the multicultural education movement.")". Archived from the original on 2000-01-09. - "The Character Education Dilemma ("...the culture also inculcated a great variety of contrary values, norms, and customs in the young, such as hatred and intolerance for different ethnicities, faiths, and sexual orientations; it sanctioned - not to say glorified - murder, slavery, torture, and oppression. The social ethos in fact instilled and promoted a two-sided moral code whereby values could be readily converted into antivalues: the virtues of the individual, family, clan, group, or nation - the insiders - were seen as the vices of the other, the one or ones outside it. The same act as performed by me showed courage; by my enemy, cowardice. And so down the line, creating a jungle of contradictions.")". - "Reversing the Perceived Moral Decline in American Schools: A Critical Literature Review of America's Attempt at Character Education (Covers the range of critiques from lack of pre-assessment and no evidence of effectiveness, to the damages of rewarding behavior and flaws in implementation. "The entire character education movement is a knee-jerk reaction of conservatives in America to the economic situation of poor students in school")" (PDF). - The Discourse of Character Education ("...the movement lacks either a theoretical perspective or a common core of practice."). - "Magic School Bus Wins NEA Award". Arthur, J., (2003), Education with Character, New York: Routledge Falmer

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History of Christian missions According to the documents of the Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization, the Biblical authority for missions begins quite early in Genesis 12:1-3, in which Abraham is blessed so that through him and his descendants, all the “peoples” of the world would be blessed. Others point to God’s wish, often expressed in the Bible, that all peoples of the earth would worship Him. Therefore, Christian missions go where worship is not, in order to bring worship to God. In this view, the early historical Jewish mission is that of being a people placed in the midst of the other nations, situated so that they could proclaim the Creator God that blessed them. This view is confirmed in many OT scriptures, (cf. Exodus 19:4-6, Psalm 67) as well as the nature of the temple (its outer court was “the court of the gentiles”). Several teachers including John R. W. Stott believe that a prominent prophecy in the Old Testament often unfolds continually and is certainly manifested in three situations, an immediate historical situation following the prophecy, a church-based intermediate situation, and an eschatological, end-of-time situation. Of course, Gen. 12:1-3 is such a prominent passage. In the early Christian era, most missions were by monks. Monasteries followed disciplines and supported missions, libraries and practical research, all of which were perceived as works to reduce human misery and suffering, thus enhancing the reputation of God. For example, Nestorian communities evangelized much of N. Africa before Muhammad. Cistercians evangelized much of Northern Europe, as well as developing most of European agriculture’s classic techniques. In the 16th century the proselyization of Asia was linked to the Portuguese colonial policy. With the Papal bull Romanus Pontifex the patronage for the propagation of the Christian faith in Asia was given to the Portuguese, who were rewarded with the right of conquest. The Portuguese trade with Asia was profitable and as Jesuits came to India around 1540, the colonial government in Goa supported the mission with incentives for baptized Christians. Later, Jesuits were sent to China and further countries in Asia. With the decline of the Portuguese power other colonial powers and Christian organisations gain influence. After the Reformation, for nearly a hundred years, occupied by their struggle with the Roman Catholic Church, the Protestant churches were not missionary-sending churches. But in the centuries that followed, the Protestant churches began sending missionaries in increasing numbers, spreading the proclamation of the Christian message to previously unreached people. In North America, missionaries to the native Americans included Jonathan Edwards, the well known preacher of the Great Awakening, who in his later years retired from the very public life of his early career. He became a missionary to the Housatonic Native Americans and a staunch advocate for them against cultural imperialism. As European culture has been established in the midst of indigenous peoples, the cultural distance between Christians of differing cultures has been difficult to overcome. One early solution was the creation of segregated “praying towns” of Christian natives. This pattern of grudging acceptance of converts was repeated in Hawaii later when missionaries from that same New England culture went there. In Spanish colonization of the Americas, the Catholic missionaries selected and learned among the languages of the Amerindians and devised writing systems for them. Then they preached to them in those languages (Quechua, Guarani, Nahuatl) instead of Spanish, to keep Indians away from “sinful” whites. An extreme case were the Guarani Reductions, a theocratic semiindependent region established by the Jesuits. Around 1780, an indigent Baptist cobbler named William Carey began reading about James Cook‘s Polynesian journeys. His interest grew to a furious sort of “backwards homesickness,” inspiring him to obtain Baptist orders, and eventually write his famous 1792 pamphlet, “An Enquiry into the Obligation of Christians to use Means for the Conversion of Heathen.” Far from a dry book of theology, Carey’s work used the best available geographic and ethnographic data to map and count the number of people who had never heard the Gospel. It formed a movement that has grown with increasing speed from his day to ours. Carey’s example was followed by a number of missions to sea-side and port cities. The China Overseas Missionaries and Moravian Church are two of the more famous. Thomas Coke, the first bishop of the American Methodists, has been called “the Father of Methodist Missions”. After spending time in the young American republic strengthening the infant Methodist Church alongside episcopal colleague Francis Asbury, the British-born Coke left for mission work. During his time in America, Coke worked vigorously to increase Methodist support of Christian missions and raising up mission workers. Coke died while on a mission trip to India, but his legacy among Methodists – his passion for missions – continues. The next wave of missions, starting in the early 1850s, was to inland areas, led by Hudson Taylor with his China Inland Mission. Taylor was later supported by Henry Grattan Guinness who founded Cliff College which exists today for the purpose of training and equipping local and global mission. The new wave of missions inspired by Taylor and Guinness have collectively been called “faith missions” and owe much to the ideas and example of Anthony Norris Groves. Taylor was a thorough-going nativist, offending the missionaries of his era by wearing Chinese clothing and speaking Chinese at home. His books, speaking and examples led to the formation of numerous inland missions, and the Student Volunteer Movement (SVM), which from 1850 to about 1950 sent nearly 10,000 missionaries to inland areas, often at great personal sacrifice. Many early SVM missionaries to areas with endemic tropical diseases left with their belongings packed in a coffin, aware that 80% of them would die within two years. In 1910, the Edinburgh Missionary Conference was held in Scotland. Presided over by active SVM leader (and future Nobel Peace Prize recipient) John R. Mott, an American Methodist layperson, the conference reviewed the state of evangelism, Bible translation, mobilization of church support, and the training of indigenous leadership. Looking to the future, conferees worked on strategies for worldwide evangelism and cooperation. The conference not only established greater ecumenical cooperation in missions, but also essentially launched the modern ecumenical movement. The next wave of missions was started by two missionaries, Cameron Townsend and Donald McGavran, around 1935. These men realized that although earlier missionaries had reached geographic areas, there were numerous ethnographic groups that were isolated by language, or class from the groups that missionaries had reached. Cameron formed Wycliffe Bible Translators to translate the Bible into native languages. McGavran concentrated on finding bridges to cross the class and cultural barriers in places like India, which has upwards of 4,600 peoples, separated by a combination of language, culture and caste. Despite democratic reforms, caste and class differences are still fundamental in many cultures. An equally important dimension of missions strategy is the indigenous method of nationals reaching their own people. In Asia this wave of missions was pioneered by men like Dr G D James of Singapore, Rev Theodore Williams of India and Dr David Cho of Korea. The “two thirds Missions Movement” as it is referred to, is today a major force in missions. Most modern missionaries and missionary societies have repudiated cultural imperialism, and elected to focus on spreading the Gospel and translating the Bible. Sometimes, missionaries have been vital in preserving and documenting the culture of the peoples among whom they live. Often, missionaries provide welfare and health services, as a good deed or to make friends with the locals. Thousands of schools, orphanages, and hospitals have been established by missions. One of the quietest, yet most far-reaching services provided by missionaries started with the Each one, teach one literacy program begun by Dr. Frank Laubach in the Philippines in 1935. The program has since spread around the world and brought literacy to the least enabled members of many societies. The word “mission” was historically often applied to the building, the “mission station” in which the missionary lives or works. In some colonies, these mission stations became a focus of settlement of displaced or formerly nomadic people. Particularly in rural Australia, missions have become localities or ghettoes on the edges of towns which are home to many Indigenous Australians. The word may be seen as derogatory when used in this context in a derogatory or racist way. Modern missionary methods and doctrines A Christian missionary’s objective is to give an understandable presentation of their beliefs with the hope that people will choose to convert from other faiths to Christianity. As a matter of strategy, many evangelical Christians in Europe and North America now focus on what they call the “10/40 window,” a band of countries between 10 and 40 degrees north latitude and reaching from western Africa through Asia. Christian missions strategist Luis Bush pinpointed the need for a major focus of evangelism in the “10/40 Window,” a phrase he coined in his presentation at the missionary conference Lausanne 1989 in Manila. Sometimes referred to as the “Resistant Belt,” it is an area that includes 35% of the world’s land mass, 90% of the world’s poorest peoples and 95% of those who have yet to hear anything about Christianity. In modern missionary strategy, mission stations are deprecated, because they were historically ineffective. Mission stations normally created disaffected individual converts, often seen as an outcast by their family and culture. In many cases, the only source of converts to a mission station were the orphans raised in the station’s orphanage. Also, many mission station’s converts were so alienated from surrounding cultures that they were unable to get work outside the mission station, let alone act as cultural ambassadors for Christianity. In some cases, these paid “rice bowl Christians” actively impeded Christian conversion in the mission’s schools and orphanages so that their own incomes would not be reduced as more Christians came to depend on the mission station. Modern pioneering missionary doctrines now focus on inserting a culturally adapted seed of Christian doctrines into a self-selected, self-motivated group of native believers, without removing the natives from their culture in any way. Modern mission techniques are sufficiently refined that within ten to fifteen years, most native churches are natively pastored, managed, taught, self-supporting and evangelizing. The process can be substantially faster if a preexisting translation of the Bible and higher pastoral education are already available, perhaps left-over from earlier, less effective missions. A key approach is to let native cultural groups decide to adopt Christian doctrines and benefits, when (as in most cultures) such major decisions are normally made by groups. In this way, opinion leaders in the groups can persuade much or most of the groups to convert. When combined with training in church planting and other modern missionary doctrine, the result is an accelerating, self-propelled conversion of large portions of the culture. A typical modern mission is a co-operative effort by many different ministries, often including several coordinating ministries, often with separate funding sources. One typical effort proceeded as follows: - A missionary radio group recruits, trains and broadcasts in the main dialect of the target culture’s language. Broadcast content is carefully adapted to avoid syncretism yet help the Christian Gospel seem like a native, normal part of the target culture. Broadcast content often includes news, music, entertainment and education in the language, as well as purely Christian items. - Broadcasts might advertise programs, inexpensive radios (possibly spring-wound), and a literature ministry that sells a Christian mail-order correspondence course at nominal costs. The literature ministry is key, and is normally a separate organization from the radio ministry. Modern literature missions are shifting to web-based content where it makes sense (as in Western Europe and Japan). - When a person or group completes a correspondence course, they are invited to contact a church-planting missionary group from (if possible) a related cultural group. The church-planting ministry is usually a different ministry from either the literature or radio ministries. The church-planting ministry usually requires its missionaries to be fluent in the target language, and trained in modern church-planting techniques. - The missionary then leads the group to start a church. Churches planted by these groups are usually a group that meets in a house. The object is the minimum organization that can perform the required character development and spiritual growth. Buildings, complex ministries and other expensive items are mentioned, but deprecated until the group naturally achieves the size and budget to afford them. The crucial training is how to set up a church (meet to study the Bible, and perform communion and worship), and how to become a Christian (the finer points of obeying God), usually in that order. - A new generation of churches is created, and the growth begins to accelerate geometrically. Frequently, daughter churches are created only a few months after a church’s creation. In the fastest-growing Christian movements, the pastoral education is “pipelined”, flowing in a just-in-time fashion from the central churches to daughter churches. That is, planting of churches does not wait for the complete training of pastors. The most crucial part of church planting is selection and training of leadership. Classically, leadership training required an expensive stay at a seminary, a Bible college. Modern church planters deprecate this because it substantially slows the growth of the church without much immediate benefit. Modern mission doctrines replace the seminary with programmed curricula or (even less expensive) books of discussion questions, and access to real theological books. The materials are usually made available in a major trading language in which most native leaders are likely to be fluent. In some cases, the materials can be adapted for oral use. It turns out that new pastors’ practical needs for theology are well addressed by a combination of practical procedures for church planting, discussion in small groups, and motivated Bible-based study from diverse theological texts. As a culture’s church’s wealth increases, it will naturally form classic seminaries on its own. Another related mission is Bible translation. The above-mentioned literature has to be translated. Missionaries actively experiment with advanced linguistic techniques to speed translation and literacy. Bible translation not only speeds a church’s growth by aiding self-training, but it also assures that Christian information becomes a permanent part of the native culture and literature. Some ministries also use modern recording techniques to reach groups with audio that could not be soon reached with literature. Recently, there has been a movement in the United States called home school mission in which a Christian is encouraged to train their children in the faith. This has arisen in the development of secular education that has increasingly excluded the Christian message. As a result many groups have focused missionary effort within the home to ensure that the children remain Christian rather than becoming secular as a result of daily training in secular schools. Controversy and Christian missionaries Some governments (such as Islamic nations, Communist China and Russia), secular anthropologists and sociologists object to missionary work among isolated indigenous populations. Some consequences are claimed to have been apostasy from Islam, disloyalty to the Communist Party, cultural assimulation, reduction of native language speakers, and loss of native culture. In fact, Christian missionaries have been criticised for having a general lack of respect for native cultures throughout history, even actively working to undermine the religious customs and beliefs of many non-Christian countries. This has been called Ethnocide and Cultural genocide and Cultural Imperialism. The Christian missionary mindset is generally depicted as that of simple religious folk with a pure desire to peacefully spread their gospel and message of love. In reality, their methods of propagation are often anything but peaceful and usually leave behind a native population stripped of their culture and often decimated…. In the words of one resident of Thailand, “They [Christian missionaries] seemed that they did not show any interest for our culture. Why? They are just eager to build big churches in every village. It seems that they are having two faces; under the title of help they suppress us. To the world, they gained their reputations as benefactors of disappearing tribes. They built their reputations on us for many years. The way they behaved with us seemed as if we did not know about god before they arrived here. Why do missionaries think they are the only ones who can perceive God?” In India, it is charged by some that publicized persecution of Christians is, in fact, incited by the exclusivity and exceptionalism of Christian missionaries. These tensions have boiled over into violence. The governments of the affected states assert that most conversions undertaken by zealous evangelicals occur due to compulsion, inducement or fraud. In the Indian state of Tripura, the government has alleged financial and weapons-smuggling connections between Baptist missionaries and Christian terrorist groups like the Nagaland Rebels and the National Liberation Front of Tripura. Hindus have claimed that these organizations persecute and slaughter Hindus by the thousands. See also National Liberation Front of Tripura and . You are probably wondering what is the aggression caused by Christians in India. You may wonder how can a minority religion that is only 3% of the population cause aggression in a nation of over 1,000,000,000 people. In the press, the aggression and “persecution” of Christians is often publicized. However, it is never publicized how Christian Fundamentalists often incite this cycle of violence and aggression…. Christians believe that they have been commanded by Christ to go and “save” (convert) the people of this world. This is also supposed to give them special merit when it comes to the day of final judgment. While there are many Christians who today do not believe in this exclusivity, there are a still large number of misguided Christians who still believe in the exclusivity of Christianity and the concept of saving souls. It is this misguided belief that breeds a hatred and intolerance for other religions. and from this hatred, these Christian Fundamentalists begin their aggression to convert. And often they will go to any means to convert even if it means violence. This website seeks to educate the world about the atrocities that conversions bring and to bring this aggressive nature of Christianity to an end. Often, some assert, coercion comes in the form of a pressure to convert through the injecting of fear of dire consequences if they don’t. “Missionaries are actually in essence terrorists. Why? They come to us and say, ‘If you don’t do as we say, you are going to hell! You will die! You will be judged! You are not part of us! You are children of the Satan!’ etc.etc. Aren’t these sentences terrorising?” The Vatican, of late, is taking a somewhat different view toward proselytizing. “In mid-May, the Vatican was also co-sponsoring a meeting about how some religious groups abuse liberties by proselytizing, or by evangelizing in aggressive or deceptive ways. Iraq … has become an open field for foreigners looking for fresh converts. Some Catholic Church leaders and aid organizations have expressed concern about new Christian groups coming in and luring Iraqis to their churches with offers of cash, clothing, food or jobs…. Reports of aggressive proselytism and reportedly forced conversions in mostly Hindu India have fueled religious tensions and violence there and have prompted some regional governments to pass laws banning proselytism or religious conversion…. Sadhvi Vrnda Chaitanya, a Hindu monk from southern India, told CNS that India’s poor and uneducated are especially vulnerable to coercive or deceptive methods of evangelization…. Aid work must not hide any ulterior motives and avoid exploiting vulnerable people like children and the disabled, she said.” In an interview with Outlook Magazine, Sadhvi Vrnda Chaitanya said “If the Vatican could understand that every religious and spiritual tradition is as sacred as Christianity, and that they have a right to exist without being denigrated or extinguished, it will greatly serve the interests of dialogue, mutual respect, and peaceful coexistence.” The meeting of religious leaders from the Christian, Buddhist, Hindu, Islam, Judaism and Yoruba faiths resulted in an agreement on ten points about proseltyzation, notably that if done, it be with respect for other cultures The fictional movie The Mosquito Coast with Harrison Ford depicts this missionary mindset and the damage some feel it can wreak upon native peoples. Another movie, The Journals of Knud Rasmussen, which is factually based, tells of similar destruction brought upon the Inuit culture by missionaries. See also Siqqitiq and these reference works on the subject. Aid and Evangelism Another source of conflict regarding missionaries in the third world is the charge that the aid that comes in response to various world disasters comes with a condition: that assistance requires conversion. While there is a general agreement among most major aid organizations not to mix aid with proseltyzing, others see disasters as a means to spread the word. Innovative Minds, a Muslim software company “specialising in the application of internet and multimedia technology for promoting a better understanding of Islam in the west” has written a report about just such an occurrence, the tidal wave (tsunami) that devastated parts of Asia on December 26, 2004. - “This (disaster) is one of the greatest opportunities God has given us to share his love with people,” said K.P. Yohannan, president of the Texas-based Gospel for Asia. In an interview, Yohannan said his 14,500 “native missionaries” in India, Sri Lanka and the Andaman Islands are giving survivors Bibles and booklets about “how to find hope in this time through the word of God.” In Krabi, Thailand, a Southern Baptist church had been “praying for a way to make inroads” with a particular ethnic group of fishermen, according to Southern Baptist relief coordinator Pat Julian. Then came the tsunami, “a phenomenal opportunity” to provide ministry and care, Julian told the Baptist Press news service…. Not all evangelicals agree with these tactics. “It’s not appropriate in a crisis like this to take advantage of people who are hurting and suffering,” said the Rev. Franklin Graham, head of Samaritan’s Purse and son of evangelist Billy Graham.”. The Christian Science Monitor echoes these concerns… “‘I think evangelists do this out of the best intentions, but there is a responsibility to try to understand other faith groups and their culture,’ says Vince Isner, director of FaithfulAmerica.org, a program of the National Council of Churches USA”. The Bush administration has in fact recently made it easier for U.S. faith based groups and missionary societies to tie aid and church together. - For decades, US policy has sought to avoid intermingling government programs and religious proselytizing. The aim is both to abide by the Constitution’s prohibition against a state religion and to ensure that aid recipients don’t forgo assistance because they don’t share the religion of the provider…. But many of those restrictions were removed by Bush in a little-noticed series of executive orders — a policy change that cleared the way for religious groups to obtain hundreds of millions of dollars in additional government funding. It also helped change the message American aid workers bring to many corners of the world, from emphasizing religious neutrality to touting the healing powers of the Christian God. Christian counter-claims One Christian organization, Voice of the Martyrs, in contrast to reports of Christian aggression in India, claims that Christians are also recipients of violent aggression in India from “radical Hindus” (presumably Hindu Nationalists). One example is the brutal murder of Australian Graham Staines and his family who had been evangelizing and conducting aid work since 1965. The perpetrators say that it was the disrespect of Hindu religious tradition following such conversions, such as the eating of beef (cows are considered sacred to Hindus) which set them off. Missionaries, however, say that “false reports” of forced conversion are a key weapon in the Hindu Nationalist fight against both Christian missionaries and native-born Christian Indians (this despite the fact that Hindu Nationalists such as the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh frequently cooperate with Christian groups in times of natural disaster and have a good relationship with many Catholic organizations overall). The government in India has passed anti-conversion laws in several states that are supposedly meant to prevent conversions from “force or allurement”, but are primarily used, they say, to persecute and criminalize voluntary conversion due to the government’s broad definition of “force and allurement.” Any gift received from a Christian in exchange for, or with the intention of, conversion is considered allurement. V.O.M. reports that aid-workers claim that they are being hindered from reaching people with much needed services as a result of this persecution. Alan de Lastic, Roman Catholic archbishop of New Delhi states that claims of forced conversion are false “‘There are attacks practically every week, maybe not resulting in death, but still, violent attacks,’ Richard Howell, general secretary of the Evangelical Fellowship of India tells The Christian Science Monitor today. ‘They [India’s controlling BJP party] have created an atmosphere where minorities do feel insecure.'” According to Prakash Louis, director of the secular Indian Social Institute in New Delhi, “We are seeing a broad attempt to stifle religious minorities and their constitutional rights…Today, they say you have no right to convert, Tomorrow you have no right to worship in certain places.” Existing congregations, often during times of worship, are being persecuted. Properties are sometimes destroyed and burnt to the ground, while native pastors are sometimes beaten and left for dead. - ^ Daus, Ronald (1983). Die Erfindung des Kolonialismus. Wuppertal/Germany: Peter Hammer Verlag, p.33, 61-66. ISBN 3-87294-202-6. - ^ The Burning Cross. - ^ India: Concerns over more anti-conversion bills - ^ Niyogi Committee Report On Christian Missionary Activities, Government of Madhya Pradesh 1956 - ^ Subir Bhaumik. Church backing Tripura rebels. BBC News date=18 April, 2000. Retrieved on August 9, 2007. - ^ N.Krishna (April 10, 2005). Conversions with foreign fund. Retrieved on August 9, 2007. - ^ Thirteen Years of Killings in Tripura by the NLFT. Retrieved on August 9, 2007. - ^ christianaggression.org ChristianAggression.org. - ^ Christian Missionaries in West Papua. - ^ Carol Glatz (May 19, 2006). Legislating conversions: Weighing the message vs. the person. Catholic Online. Retrieved on August 7, 2007. - ^ Seema Sirohi (October 2, 2006). Father Complex. OutlookIndia.com. Retrieved on August 7, 2007. - ^ Report from inter-religious consultation on “Conversion – assessing the reality”. World Council of Churches (May 12-16, 2006). Retrieved on August 9, 2007. - ^ Missionaries Preying on Tsunami Survivors (January 24,2005). Retrieved on August 7, 2007. - ^ In Asia, some Christian groups spread supplies – and the word. Knight-Ridder Newspapers (January 12, 2005). Retrieved on August 7, 2007. - ^ Jane Lampman (January 31, 2005). Disaster Aid Furthers Fears of Proselytizing. Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved on August 7, 2007. - ^ Bush brings faith to foreign aid. The Boston Globe (October 8, 2006). Retrieved on August 7, 2007. - ^ Relief missions from Delhi. The Hindu (December 27, 2004). Retrieved on August 7, 2007. - ^ Country Map – India. Persecution.com. Retrieved on August 7, 2007. (website requires anonymous creation of a username and password account to be able to view) - ^ Hindus allege forced conversion. HinduNet.org. Retrieved on August 7, 2007. - ^ Ted Olsen (September 1, 2003). Weblog: Missionaries in India Concerned as Hindu Activists Break Up Prayer Meeting. Christianity Today. Retrieved on August 7, 2007. - ^ Ted Olsen. Weblog: Missionaries in India Concerned as Hindu Activists Break Up Prayer Meeting date=September 1, 2003. Christianity Today. Retrieved on August 7, 2007. - ^ Christian murdered in Kerala. Christian Today – India Edition (February 14, 2007). Retrieved on August 7, 2007. - ^ Two Nuns accused and held for trying to “convert” students. Evangelical Fellowship of India. Retrieved on August 7, 2007. - ^ Five arrested for assaulting trainee priests in Panvel. Evangelical Fellowship of India (March 7, 2007). Retrieved on August 7, 2007. - ^ Christians attacked in Jalampur, Dhamtari in Chhattisgarh. Evangelical Fellowship of India (January 10, 2006). Retrieved on August 7, 2007. - ^ Jacob Chaterjee (February 12, 2007). Hindu radicals attack believers in Karnataka. Christian Today – India Edition. Retrieved on August 7, 2007. - ^ Jacob Chaterjee (February 20, 2007). Hindu radicals attack Bible college students during outreach; two in critical condition. Christian Today – India Edition. Retrieved on August 7, 2007. - ^ Jacob Chaterjee (February 6, 2007). Hindu radicals attack Christian prayer meeting in Bihar. Retrieved on August 7, 2007. - ^ Jacob Chaterjee (February 18, 2007). Hindu fanatics oppose Christian-run orphanage and Bible center in Himachal Pradesh. Christian Today – India Edition. Retrieved on August 7, 2007.

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Jacob Ludwig Karl Grimm (1785-1863) Wilhelm Karl Grimm (1786-1859) German philologists and collectors of folk tales. Renowned for their collection of European fairy tales, entitled Kinder-und Hausmärchen (1812-1815; Grimms' Fairy Tales), the brothers Grimm are additionally celebrated for their study of the Germanic literary tradition. Distinguished philologists, they are credited with rediscovering the richness of Germany's medieval language, literature, and culture in the early nineteenth century. While both brothers individually produced significant works of scholarship, their most enduring literary efforts were produced in collaboration. These include the Deutsches Wörterbuch, a German dictionary, which is recognized as comparable in importance to the Oxford English Dictionary, and Grimms 'Fairy Tales, their world famous collection of folk tales. Transcribed from stories purportedly recounted by peasants in the German countryside, Grimms' Fairy Tales reflects the brothers' effort to preserve the oral tradition of folklore. Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm were born in Hanau, Germany. The death of their father in 1788 and consequent lack of family income required that they be placed in the care of an aunt in Kassel, where they were educated at the Lyceum Fridericianum. Throughout their lives the Grimms shared a close intellectual and emotional relationship. Both studied law at Marburg University in Kassel and both were distracted from their studies by their interest in medieval German literature. Beginning in about 1806 the brothers began collecting oral folklore, which they revised and published as Kinder-und Hausmärchen, a work that Wilhelm considered of minor importance but which proved to be among their finest contributions to literature. In 1816 Wilhelm and Jacob accepted positions in the Library of King Jerome in Kassel. Their duties as librarians allowed them significant time to devote to scholarship and to complete their early collection of essays on folklore, published as Deutsche Sagen (German Legends) in 1816. Both men further established their academic reputations in the ensuing years with the publication of individual works, including Jacob's Deutsche Grammatik (1819-37) and Wilhelm's Die deutschen Heldensage (1829). In 1930 Jacob was offered a position as professor of law and linguistics at the University of Göttingen, while Wilhelm became a lecturer in medieval literature at Göttingen in 1831, acceding to a full professorship in 1835. The brothers' formal protest of the restrictive civil policies imposed by Ernest August of Cumberland, the new King of Hanover, led to their discharge and exile in 1837. Their subsequent financial difficulties following a return to Kassel were ended in 1840, when the Grimms were offered posts at the Berlin Academy of Sciences by King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia. Both lectured on German politics, literature, and folklore, but their principal duty was the compilation of a German entymological dictionary, the Deutsches Wörterbuch, a sixteen-volume set that would not be completed until the mid-twentieth century. Jacob published the first volume of the Wörterbuch in 1854. Wilhelm's death in 1859 prevented him from completing his portion of the dictionary, though Jacob produced two more volumes before dying in 1863. The Grimms' two-volume Fairy Tales contains more than 200 folk stories transcribed from the oral tradition of the German peasantry. Among the best known of these tales are such recognizable stories as "The Frog Prince," "Hansel and Gretel," "Rumpelstiltskin," and "Snow-White." The stories generally feature medieval settings and concern a variety of characters easily familiar to any schoolchild—beautiful princesses, fools, tricksters, witches, naïve heroes, talking beasts, bumbling craftsmen, fearless boys, and clever girls. Their principal technique is one of exaggeration and dramatic contrast between representations of good and evil, though the tales generally lack the harsh tone of moral didacticism. In large part, these stories preserve the simple, unadorned style of the peasant storyteller. While the core of the works come from Germany, specifically the region of Hesse, many of the tales derive from geographically broader sources and others are literary rather than oral in origin. Upon publication, Grimms' Fairy Tales became immediately popular with children. First intended for the student of folklore rather than as entertainment, the tales reflect the brothers' efforts to define their literary heritage. Critics have acknowledged that the Grimms' statements regarding the Fairy Tales indicate their belief that these were authentic expressions of peasant speech. However, modern analysis of Grimms' Fairy Tales has questioned some of the Grimms' methods in collecting and recording these stories. Several critics, including Jack Zipes and John M. Ellis, have contended that Wilhelm's extensive revisions fundamentally contradicted the stated purpose of literary preservation by overlaying the peasant tales with a bourgeois sensibility. Other folklorists have countered that the Grimms' embellishments simply indicate the process of evolutionary change that is fundamental to the oral tradition. While scholars continue to study the appropriate literary and oral significance of the tales, others have sought to formally analyze the individual stories using the techniques of psychoanalysis and cultural criticism. Such interpretations have attributed an assortment of psychosexual and socio-historical themes to the works. Overall, the Grimms' Fairy Tales have provided folklore scholars with valuable information regarding the art of storytelling, and children of every age with fantasy and delight. Kinder-und Hausmärchen [Grimms' Fairy Tales', also published as Children's and Household Tales, Fairy Tales, and German Popular Stories] (fairy tales) 1812-15 Other Major Works Altdänische Heldenlieder [by Wilhelm Grimm] (songs) 1811 Über den altdeutschen Meistergesang [by Jacob Grimm] (essay) 1811 Deutsche Sagen [German Legends] (literary history) 1816 Deutsche Grammatik [by Jacob Grimm] (grammar) 1819-37 Über deutsche Runen [by Wilhelm Grimm] (folklore) 1821 Die deutschen Heldensage [by Wilhelm Grimm] (folklore) 1829 Deutsche Mythologie [Teutonic Mythology; by Jacob Grimm] (folklore) 1835-54 Geschichte der deutschen Sprache [by Jacob Grimm] (history) 1848 * Deutsches Wörterbuch [editors] (dictionary) 1854-1961 *This work was completed by Hildebrand, Wiegand, and others. SOURCE: "Sleeping Beauty: The Meaning and Form of Fairy Tales," in Once Upon a Time: On the Nature of Fairy Tales, Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1970, pp. 21-34. [In the following essay, Lüthi analyzes the Grimms' version of "Sleeping Beauty" and considers other variants of the tale.] Our attitude toward fairy tales (Märchen) is ambivalent. "Don't tell me any fairy tales," we say, in the derogatory sense. Here, the term is only a politer expression for cleverly contrived lies. On the other hand, when we admire something especially beautiful, the word märchenhaft (i.e., like a fairy tale) almost spontaneously comes to mind. Here, it does not mean unreal in the sense of untrue, but in the sense of unearthy or divine. Thus, even in everyday usage, our language suggests both rejection of, and fascination by, the fairy tale. For centuries, educated people have looked down on popular fairy tales as stories properly belonging in the nursery and the servants' quarters; yet great writers have repeatedly drawn inspiration from them. Great literature of all ages has borrowed from fairy-tale motifs and often exhibited an imaginativeness not unlike that of the fairy tale. In the life of the individual, there are periods when one is fascinated by fairy tales and periods of indifference. After the actual fairy-tale age (between five and ten), there follows a realistic stage during which one is ill-disposed toward fairy tales. Some people persist in this attitude all their lives. But in others, understanding and love for these once-coveted stories returns later in life, not only because now as mothers or grandfathers they themselves are called upon to tell fairy tales, but just as much because they again feel moved by their peculiar charm. When something has the ability both to attract and repel one so forcefully, one may assume that it deals with fundamentals. One is challenged to take sides, explicitly or implicitly. The role fairy tales play in the lives of children, and the role they played in the lives of adults in the millennia prior to the coming of the printed word, strengthens us in the belief that we are dealing with a peculiar form of literature, one which concerns man directly. When we speak of fairy tales today, we cannot help thinking of the collection by the Grimm brothers—and this applies not only to the region where German is spoken. Grimm's Fairy Tales, which first appeared in 1812 and 1815, is in many countries the most popular, the most oft-reprinted German book. Even among primitive folk they show their great effect: the Grimm tales missionaries have told to natives in some cases have the power to supplant indigenous tales. In the following passage from "Sleeping Beauty," one of the best-known tales in the Grimm collection, certain basic features of the fairy tale can be discovered. The introductory section reads as follows: Once upon a time there was a king and a queen and every day they said, "O, if we only had a child!" But they never had one. Now it happened one day while the queen was sitting in her bath that a frog came out of the water, crept ashore and said to the queen, "Your wish will be fulfilled; before a year goes by you will give birth to a daughter." This happened just as the frog had said it would and the queen gave birth to a girl so beautiful that the king was beside himself with joy and ordered a great feast. He invited not only his relatives, friends and acquaintances, but also the Wise Women, so that they would be well-disposed and feel kindly toward the child. There were in his realm thirteen of them, but because he had only twelve golden plates for them to eat from, one of them had to stay at home. The feast was celebrated with great splendor, and when it was over the Wise Women presented the child with their magic gifts. One gave virtue, the next beauty, the third wealth, and thus everything desirable that there is in the world. Just as the eleventh had announced her gift the thirteenth suddenly walked in. She wanted her revenge because she had not been invited, and without a greeting or even a glance at anyone she cried in a loud voice, "The princess shall in her fifteenth year be pricked by a spindle and fall down dead." And without saying another word she turned around and left the hall. Everyone was dismayed. Then the twelfth Wise Woman who still had her wish came forward, and because she could not break the spell but only modify it, she said, "But it will not be death. The princess will fall into a deep sleep that will last for one hundred years." Everyone knows how the tale goes on from here. The king's decree "that all spindles in the entire kingdom be burned" cannot save the child. When she is fifteen years old, she pricks herself with a spindle (which arouses her interest for the very reason that she has never seen one before), and at once falls asleep under the magic spell, together with the king, the queen, and the whole royal household. All around the palace there grows a dense hedge of thorns. The princes who try to force their way through are caught and held in the thorns, where they suffer greatly. After exactly 100 years, another prince ventures forth. Now, instead of thorns, there are only big, beautiful flowers which separate by themselves, permitting him to pass through unharmed, and then they close again behind him. The prince's kiss brings the sleeping princess back to life again, the whole household awakens with her, and a splendid wedding is celebrated. The Grimm brothers themselves wondered about the meaning of this fairy tale, which appears in a similar form among other peoples. What is its core, its essence? What does it stand for? Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm saw in fairy tales remnants of ancient myths, playful descendants of an ancient intuitive vision of life and the world. Sleeping Beauty, wonderously endowed and mysteriously threatened, suffers death or a sleep similar to death. But she is awakened again and begins to flourish—and with her, the world about her. Our fairy tale tells of death and resurrection. The flowering of the hedge of roses and the awakening of the sleeping maiden suggest the earth in lifeless repose which, touched by spring, begins to live anew and blossom as young and beautiful as ever. It suggests also the awakening of sleeping nature at the first glimmering of the new day. Processes which eternally recur have taken shape in "Sleeping Beauty"—processes in nature which surrounds man, but also processes in the human soul. Sleeping Beauty is fifteen years old when she comes under the spell: the time of transition from childhood to maidenhood. Every important turning point in development, every transition from one stage of life to another, is felt as a threat. At this age it is natural for the young man to be self-conscious and the young woman retiring, for both sexes to become for a period either shy and withdrawn or caustic, defiant, and unfriendly. A hedge of thorns seems to grow around young people and to shield them from the world. But in the protection such seclusion affords, the youth matures and will awaken to a new, larger, and brighter life. The characters of the fairy tale are not personally delineated; the fairy tale is not concerned with individual destinies. Nor is it the unique process of maturation that is reflected in the fairy tale. The story of Sleeping Beauty is more than an imaginatively stylized love story portraying the withdrawal of the girl and the breaking of the spell through the young lover. One instinctively conceives of the princess as an image for the human spirit: the story portrays the endowment, peril, paralysis, and redemption not of just one girl, but of all mankind. The soul of man again and again suffers convulsions and paralysis and, each time—with luck—it can be revived, healed, redeemed. With luck! The abnormal individual, of course, can also remain in the paralyzed condition, unable to rediscover the fountainhead of life in himself and to reestablish contact with his surroundings. But the fairy tale does not portray the abnormal case, but natural development, and it fills its hearers with the confidence that a new, larger life is to come after the deathlike sleep—that, after the isolation, a new form of contact and community will follow. This mercy and threat is depicted in a number of variations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale. The fairies are both a blessing and a curse for the child; the royal palace is for Sleeping Beauty both paradise and prison; the deathlike sleep both a spell cast upon her and a refuge. The hedge of thorns, which can kill but which finally bursts into bloom with magnificent flowers, expresses most vividly this all-pervading polarity of death and resurrection. In the dominant image just mentioned (palace and tower, thorns and roses, humans and fairies), there is revealed another peculiar capability of the fairy tale, not just in "Sleeping Beauty," but in the popular fairy tale in general. Despite its brevity, it embraces in its own way the world: nature both dead and living, man and the works of man, and the supernatural. In the beginning of "Sleeping Beauty," the world in its essential elements is already present: animal, man, and material objects all together. Only plants are missing. Not until the later episodes and the development of the tale will trees, thorns, and leaves also grow and flowers burst into bloom. Of the visible elements (the fairy tale clings to what is visible), water and earth are already mentioned in the introductory section. The third, fire, will flare up later on; and wind and breath will also be mentioned. The human world is represented by man, woman, and child. Objects of the workday and those of the festive day will appear: spindles and golden plates. The precious metal, the figures of the king and queen, and the festivities indicate that matters of significance are involved. Human feelings—like privation, longing, grief, joy, horror, hope, bitterness, irritability, vindictiveness, and compassion—are expressed. Loud talk and startled or threatening silence stand side by side, yet words of consolation are also not wanting. Sorrow, mistakes, and helplessness testify to the peril in which even royalty stands. In the figures of the prophetic frog and the fairies who give their blessings and imprecations, a supernatural world, again clearly visible, is joined to the world of man. The fairy tale is a universe in miniature; and since every good work of literature displays its peculiar characteristics even in its individual parts, the tendency of the fairy tale to embody the world is strongly evident even in this brief introduction to "Sleeping Beauty." We love the fairy tale not only for its wisdom, but the manner in which it is told; its external appearance, which varies from people to people and from narrator to narrator, also delights us. The Grimm brothers' genius for storytelling is likewise evident in the very first part of the fairy tale. The entire first section is based on the motif of prophecy. Once stated, the theme is varied and intensified. The birth of the little girl is heralded by a frog and the Wise Women bestow on her virtue, beauty, wealth, and other miraculous gifts, that is to say, they proclaim all this. But the thirteenth fairy—and here one anxiously holds his breath—prophesies that the princess will die in her fifteenth year. Following this climax—which is strongly underlined by the sudden bursting upon the scene of the fairy who had been neglected, by her short, loud words and her silent departure—the tension in the story gradually subsides. A final variation on the prophecy motif, the conversion of the death pronouncement into the proclamation of the 100-year sleep, relieves the inner tension, but at once gives rise to the question of how and whether the proclamation will come true and what will happen during and after the enchanted sleep. A truly dramatic exposition! A comparison of the Grimm brothers' original notations with the final version of "Sleeping Beauty" shows what their poetic imagination and genius for language has added. No one familiar with the tale can forget the humorous description of the palace as it sinks into sleep and reawakens. The passage reads: This sleep spread throughout the palace. The king and queen, who had returned home and had just entered the hall, began to fall asleep along with their entire royal household. The horses, too, fell asleep in their stables, as did the dogs in the courtyard, the pigeons on the roof, and the flies on the wall. Even... (The entire section is 5204 words.) SOURCE: "The Brothers Grimm and Their Collection of Kinder und Hausmärchen," in Theoria, Vol. XLV, October, 1975, pp. 41-54. [In the following essay, Ihms details the lives of the Grimm brothers and investigates the political and social dimensions of their fairy tales] The stories now known as Grimm's Fairy Tales appeared in English translation during the nineteenth century as Popular Stories1 or Household Tales.2 These titles correspond closely to the original German Kinder-und Hausmärchen. When nowadays we refer to the Fairy Tales, or in German to the Märchen, we use... (The entire section is 6145 words.) SOURCE: "Born Yesterday: Heroes in the Grimms' Fairy Tales," in Fairy Tales and Society: Illusion, Allusion, and Paradigm, edited by Ruth B. Bottigheimer, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986, pp. 95-114. [In the following essay, Tatar discusses the common traits of the Grimms' fairy tale heroes: naiveté, compassion, fearlessness, and humility.] There comes an old man with his three sons— I could match this beginning with an old tale. —Shakespeare, As You Like It Identifying fairy tale heroes by name is no mean feat. In the Grimms' collection, only one in every ten... (The entire section is 9509 words.) SOURCE: "Prohibitions, Transgressions, and Punishments," in Grimms' Bad Girls & Bold Boys: The Moral & Social Vision of the Tales,' Yale University Press, 1987, pp. 81-94. [In the following excerpt, Bottigheimer probes gender distinctions related to transgression and punishment in Grimms' Tales.] A general pattern of exculpating men and incriminating women permeates Grimms' Tales. This pattern is clearly evident in the post-1819 versions of "Hansel and Gretel" (no. 15), "Snow-White" (no. 53) and "Cinderella" (no. 21), each of which provides a stepmother who assumes the burden of blame while the father, virtually absent, shoulders no share of the... (The entire section is 6463 words.) SOURCE: "The Tales of the Brothers Grimm: In the Black Forest," in Touchstones: Reflections on the Best in Children's Literature. Volume Two: Fairy Tales, Fables, Myths, Legends, and Poetry, Children's Literature Association, 1987, pp. 104-17. [In the following essay, Thomas examines the nature and significance of the Grimms' fairy tales.] As the great-grandparent of children's literature, fairy tales occupy a privileged place as touchstones for that literature. Basic as the peasant's crusty black bread, they nourish us upon essential sustenance—the fare of elemental story. Especially do the volhmarchen or folk fairy tales—those stories that were once part... (The entire section is 6128 words.) SOURCE: "What Did the Grimm Brothers Give to and Take from the Folk?," in The Brothers Grimm and Folktale, edited by James M. McGlathery, University of Illinois Press, 1988, pp. 66-90. [In the following essay, Dégh assesses the influence of the Grimms' Kinder-und Hausmärchen.] Are oral and literary tradition two separate entities which can be studied independently from each other or must their interdependence be taken into consideration when looking at a folklore genre, the Märchen in particular, as it evolved and developed through the ages? This question touches upon essentials about the nature of folklore and its study. In view of a... (The entire section is 9841 words.) SOURCE: "New Misconceptions about Old Folktales: The Brothers Grimm," in The Brothers Grimm and Folktale, edited by James M. McGlathery, University of Illinois Press, 1988, pp. 91-100. [In the following essay, Ward decries the lack of an objective scholarly evaluation of the Grimms' fairy tales.] One occasionally encounters the contention that the Brothers Grimm were guilty of manipulative deception when they added elements of cruelty to the tale of Cinderella that were not in their sources. The reference is typically to the bloody scene of the stepsisters cutting off their heels and toes in the attempt to make the slipper fit. I find this contention to be somewhat... (The entire section is 3994 words.) SOURCE: "Exploring Historical Paths," in The Brothers Grimm: From Enchanted Forests to the Modern World, Routledge, Chapman and Hall, 1988, pp. 43-61. [In the following essay, Zipes offers a socio-historical perspective on the Grimms' Children's and Household Tales, examining the ways in which these stories depict the social customs and classes of the German people.] Inevitably [the characters of Grimm's tales] find their way into the forest. It is there that they lose and find themselves. It is there that they gain a sense of what is to be done. The forest is always large, immense, great, and mysterious. No one ever gains power over the forest, but the forest... (The entire section is 9395 words.) SOURCE: "Folktale Characters," in The Brothers Grimm and Their Critics: Folktales and the Quest for Meaning, Ohio University Press, 1992, pp. 81-97. [In the following essay, Kamenetsky describes folktale character types in the Grimms' tales and presents Wilhelm Grimm's view of the significance of folk stories.] MYTHICAL AND EPIC DIMENSIONS Mythical and epic origins determined not only the deeper meaning of folktales but also the nature and dimensions of their characters, according to the Brothers Grimm. Folktale characters appeared in many forms, some human, some super-human, some in the shape of birds, fish, animals, plants, trees, or even... (The entire section is 8087 words.) Michaelis-Jena, Ruth. The Brothers Grimm. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970, 212 p. Critical biography including an assessment of the Children's and Household Tales and its influence. Dundes, Alan. "The Psychoanalytic Study of the Grimms' Tales with Special Reference to 'The Maiden Without Hands' (AT 706)." The Germanic Review 62, No. 2 (Spring 1987): 50-65. Emphasizes the critical value of psychoanalytic readings of the Grimms' tales and offers a principally Freudian interpretation of "The Maiden Without Hands."... (The entire section is 660 words.)

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Glaciers, Water and Wind, Oh My! Activity What is erosion and how does it relate to math and engineering? In this hands-on, math-enriched activity designed for fifth graders, students learn about five types of erosion (chemical, water, wind, glacier and temperature) as they rotate through stations and model each type on rocks, soils and minerals. Students learn about the effects of each erosion type and discover that engineers study erosion in order to design ways to protect our environment, structures and people’s lives. In a series of real-world scenarios (math word problems), students make calculations about the effects of erosion, including calculating erosion damage on forest, personal property and mountains, as well as determining the cost of damage. This activity includes two student worksheets and is part of a nine-lesson and 16-activity elementary-level unit called “Engineering for the Earth.” The activity meets several state and national math standards including CCMS, and science and technology standards, including NGSS and ITEEA. "I love this curriculum. It’s scalable for middle and high school students, and it’s an important skill that is typically overlooked," said one of our partner teachers. While years of research have linked spatial visualization skills to success in engineering, NEW research shows that spatial visualization skills can be LEARNED. To begin this lesson, students complete a 12-question, multiple-choice spatial visualization practice quiz. Then, through four associated activities, students work through hands-on, interactive and tangible exercises on the topics of isometric drawings and coded plans, orthographic views, one-axis rotations and two-axis rotations. Finally, students take the quiz again to see how they've improved. This curriculum is the result of years of testing with first-year engineering college students, and has proved successful in improving student spatial visualization skills—thereby setting them up for success in engineering. Bring SV into your classroom today! How can engineers display data and results in an aesthetically pleasing, easy-to-understand way? In this high school lesson, students learn the value of—and connections between—art and writing in both science and engineering. They learn the principles of visual design (contrast, alignment, repetition and proximity) as well as the elements of visual design (line, color, texture, shape, size, value and space) to acquire the vocabulary to describe visual art and design. Engineers often need to convey their designs and ideas visually to create buy-in, appeal to clients or win research funding. So engineers must be able to creatively and clearly communicate their work and designs—often using art. Students also learn about the science and engineering research funding process and heat flow/thermal conductivity basics, which prepare them for the associated engineering design activity in which they create visual representations to communicate their collected experimental data. This lesson and activity meet many math, science and technology standards, including CCMS, NGSS and ITEEA. Just Breathe Activity Breathe in. Breathe out. What is happening to your lungs as you inhale and exhale? In this popular hands-on activity, students learn about the respiratory system and explore the inhalation/exhalation process of the lungs. Using everyday materials (2-liter plastic bottles and balloons), students act as engineers and create model lungs to analyze their function and the overall breathing process. They learn that during inhalation, the volume of the thoracic cavity increases while pressure in the lungs decreases, and that during exhalation, the volume of the thoracic cavity decreases while pressure in the lungs increases. By studying the respiratory system, engineers have been able to create life-saving technologies such as the heart-lung machine that keeps patients alive during heart transplant procedures. Students learn about the many engineering advancements that have helped people who have respiratory system difficulties. At activity end, student teams demonstrate their models and explore what happens to the respiratory system if punctured. This upper elementary-level activity meets science and technology standards, including NGSS and ITEEA. Can you improve the efficiency of a fast-food restaurant through engineering analysis and design? In this thought-provoking activity, students attempt to improve the efficiency of a fast-food restaurant that is financially struggling due to inefficient daily routines by considering trade-offs and constraints. Acting as engineers, students identify strengths and weaknesses in the existing system and generate a plan to improve efficiency—such as restructuring employee responsibilities, revising a floor plan and delegating tasks—while following requirements and limitations. Students culminate their analyses by writing argumentative essays summarizing and defending their suggested changes and improvements. This activity is especially engaging for students with workforce experience, helping them make meaningful connections between their everyday experiences and engineering. The activity is suitable for middle and high school students and meets science and technology standards, including NGSS and ITEEA. Alloy the Way to Mars Activity NASA needs your help! What alloy would you recommend they use for a new engine intended to transport astronauts to Mars? In this straightforward activity that requires few materials, students must think like real-world engineers to help NASA decide which material to use for its RS-25 engine and turbine design. Student groups work as engineering teams, taking various measurements and performing calculations to determine the specific strength of different alloys. Students test to look for a material that is both strong and lightweight and discover that a higher specific strength yields a stronger, more lightweight material. Students learn about the ultimate tensile strength, the maximum amount of stress a material can sustain before failing, and use that and the material density to calculate specific strength of the various alloys. The activity culminates in a creative writing project as students compose letters to the Deputy Program Manager at NASA outlining their recommendations. Geared towards middle school students, this activity meets science and technology standards including NGSS and ITEEA, and comes with a preparatory lesson. Imagine one day that you open your eyes and realize that you can only see a small portion of your surroundings—much of your range of vision is gone! Many people with glaucoma experience this every day. In this engaging activity, middle school students experience how engineers help people; they act as biomedical engineers to design pressure sensors that measure eye pressure and use 3D software to design and print 3D prototypes of their sensors (or modeling clay as an alternative). Presented with personal stories of two people with glaucoma, student teams are challenged to develop prototypes that can help them identify pressure changes in the eyes. Students learn about radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology and conduct research on pressure gauges. They are given project requirements: designs must use RFID technology, be lightweight and small, and measure eye pressure. Over seven days, teams determine an appropriate pressure gauge, design an intraocular pressor sensor prototype given constraints, 3D print the prototypes, and present them to the class. This activity meets many STEM standards, including CCMS, NGSS and ITEEA. Imagine you are a runner, but you lost a leg in an accident—how can you keep running? In this easy-to-prep informal learning "sprinkle," middle school students design, build and test prosthetic legs in two hours using ordinary household materials. First, students learn about prostheses, the importance of replacement legs for individuals who have lost their leg(s) to accident or injury, and are tasked to follow the steps of the engineering design process to make prosthetic leg prototypes. Student teams discuss important features of replacement legs and brainstorm design ideas. They choose fabrication materials from provided supplies, sketch their design plan and gain instructor design approval prior to constructing their prototypes. After building, students test the prosthetic limbs, making sure they can be used to walk successfully around the classroom (crude but functional!). Students improve their designs as necessary and present them to the class at the end. This engaging and fun "sprinkle" is also available in Spanish! Growing and Graphing Activity How tall are you? In this kindergarten activity, students get to meet older schoolmates and explore their schools while measuring the heights of the older students using large building blocks, which they later translate into pictorial bar graphs. This activity provides a fun and refreshing way to introduce young students to measurement and graphing at an early age; they learn how to take real-world measurements and then graph and examine the data. The kindergarteners visit second and fourth grade classes and work in pairs to make height measurements of students and adults by using large building blocks and keeping tallies. Back in their classroom, they glue pre-cut construction paper rectangles (~1-3 inches in size, representing the building blocks they used for measurement) onto lined chart paper to make bar graphs of the different height measurements. Then they compare the heights of second-graders, fourth-graders and adults—discussing the differences and patterns, sorting the heights from tallest to shortest and determining the median height. This activity meets many math, science and technology standards, including CCMS, NGSS and ITEEA. Right on Target: Catapult Game Activity Ready, set, catapult! In this hands-on activity, student groups are tasked with designing and constructing precise and accurate catapults using everyday materials and guidance from the engineering design process. With the goal to launch ping-pong balls to hit different targets, student teams experiment with different designs. Will the catapult shoot the ping-pong ball far enough to hit the target? Students must apply an understanding of projectile motion to determine the best launch angle to travel the farthest distance. They analyze the different forces acting on their catapults and make their structures robust enough to withstand them. After constructing their catapults, students test their structures and see how many targets they can successfully hit. Teams earn points for hitting targets and tally their scores to determine a winning team. Students present their designs to the class, suggest improvements and discuss the characteristics of successful catapults. This engaging and playful activity meets many math, science and technology standards, including CCMS, NGSS and ITEEA. Physics of Roller Coasters Lesson Ack! You are at the top of a roller coaster about to drop—then, thanks to physics and engineering, you make a safe landing despite all the jitters! In this lesson, middle school students learn about the physics behind roller coasters, investigating potential and kinetic energy as well as friction and gravity, and explore how engineers apply the basics of physics to roller coaster designs. They learn how the force of gravity drives roller coasters and that the conversion between potential and kinetic energy is essential to its motion. In addition, they learn how roller coasters slow down due to friction and the role that velocity and acceleration play in the motion of these exhilarating rides. This imaginative lesson provides the necessary background knowledge for its associated activity, "Building Roller Coasters," in which students design and build model roller coasters. This lesson geared towards upper middle school students meets many science and technology standards, including NGSS and ITEEA. Zero-Energy Housing Activity Brrr! It's a chilly March night—can you think of a way to heat your house without using an electric or gas heater? In this hands-on activity, teens design and construct one-bedroom model houses within specified constraints (and a variety of material options) and are challenged to warm up their houses as much as they can and maintain the heated temperatures for as long as possible using passive solar heating design techniques. Students learn about solar heating (including how insulation, window placement, thermal mass, surface colors and site orientation are all essential in design), and apply learned concepts to the design and construction of their model houses. After constructing, students test their model homes during simulated daytime and nighttime conditions to examine thermal gains and losses. Finally, students present and compare their designs and suggest improvements. This engaging high school activity meets multiple science and technology standards, and is NGSS and ITEEA aligned. Quick! The power is out, you're in the dark and immediately grab your flashlight. Ever wondered how flashlights work? What makes them light up so easily? In this easy-prep informal learning sprinkle, elementary students design, build and test their own flashlights. Student first learn and discuss the essential components of flashlights: the importance of a switch, how flashlights are composed of a simple series circuit, and that the batteries and switch must be correctly oriented to work. Given a list of available supplies, they sketch their own flashlight designs that incorporate a switch, a reflector-enhanced light (such as with foil) and batteries contained in a paper tube. After building, students test for reliability, checking to see if the light can be turned on three times in a row. Students improve their designs as necessary and present their flashlights to the class at the end. This is a great starter engineering project—good for afterschool clubs and rainy afternoons. Also available in Spanish! Engineering a Mountain Rescue Litter Activity Imagine hiking in the mountains, suddenly getting injured and being unable to walk. In this hands-on design challenge, elementary-age students consider this situation and act as engineers to create rescue litters/baskets for use in hard-to-get-to places such as mountainous terrain. Using a potato to model an injured person, teams build small-sized prototypes that meet given criteria and constraints: lightweight and inexpensive, break down to be small and portable, quick assembly and stable transport of an injured body. They learn about the human bodys nerves and spinal cord and the importance of protecting it. They "purchase" ordinary building materials such as toothpicks, paper towels, craft sticks, foil and sponges to design and build prototypes. Through timed tests, they assess their design success in assembly and transport of the injured person (potato). Then students compare statistics (litter mass, cost, stability and rescue time) and graph all team data, analyzing the results to determine which designs performed best. Part of a biomedical engineering unit, this engaging activity meets many science and technology standards, including NGSS and ITEEA. Clearing a Path to the Heart Activity Can you think of a way to unclog blood vessels? In this open-ended design project, student teams act as biomedical engineers to create and build devices capable of removing and/or flattening plaque build-up inside artery walls. They follow the steps of the engineering design process, apply their knowledge of the circulatory system and learn about existing methods to treat blocked arteries (angioplasty/stent and coronary bypass surgery). First they gain an understanding of the need (chest pain, heart attacks), then brainstorm ideas, design and plan, create and test a prototype, and then refine their designs. Students assess their success by first observing how two liters of water flows through model clogged arteries (tubes with play dough or peanut butter in them) and then timing how fast the water flows through the cleared arteries. Students present their designs to the class, explaining what worked and what improvements are needed. This middle school activity is part of a larger biomedical engineering unit and meets many math, science and technology standards, including CCMS, NGSS and ITEEA. Mars Rover App Creation Activity Did you know that the Mars Curiosity rover discovered water on Mars?! How do engineers develop such an intelligent vehicle capable of such vast exploration? In this activity, students explore the programming and technology realms to discover and create Android apps capable of controlling LEGO® MINDSTORMS® NXT robots to simulate a planetary rover remote sensing task. Using MIT's App Inventor software, student teams create their own mobile applications that they execute on Android devices to control specific aspects of an NXT robot. They might program actions such as driving the robot, moving an arm, detecting objects, applying a game or using a light sensor. Student teams follow the steps of the software/systems design process and gain programming design experience. Groups present their apps to the class and demonstrate how they control a robot. This middle/high school activity meets many science and technology standards, including NGSS and ITEEA. Most people take no notice of above-ground storage tanks in their communities! The tanks might contain water or petrochemicals in liquid or gas form, or other industrial explosive and toxic materials. What's important is that engineers design the tanks to be structurally sound—and hopefully strong enough to remain intact during major storms and hurricanes! In this activity, teens act as engineers in design teams tasked to examine the stability of certain above-ground storage tanks (and demonstrate their understanding of Archimedes' principle and Pascal's law). Guided by worksheets and during five class periods, they derive equations and make analyses to determine whether the storage tanks will displace or remain stationary in the event of flooding. Then they are challenged to think of improved designs to prevent displacement and buckling. They present their results and design ideas to the class. This high school activity concludes the Above-Ground Storage Tanks in the Houston Ship Channel lesson, which is part of The Physics of Fluid Mechanics unit, and meets many science, math and technology standards, including NGSS and Common Core Math. Youngsters know the foods they eat and the clothes they wear, but may have never made the connection to climate. In this elementary-level lesson, students learn the effects of climate on our food options and water sources, as well as on our clothing and shelter types. In small groups, students role-play families living in different regions around the globe and determine where they live based on their clothing and food (provided on notecards). They discuss factors that affect the climate such as latitude, elevation, land features and weather, and learn about different climates such as tropical, desert, alpine, oceanic. They also learn how engineers develop technologies to predict and be protected from weather and climate. In the associated activity, students learn the steps of the engineering design process as they explore ways to provide water to a (hypothetical) community facing a water crisis. This lesson is part of a nine-lesson unit, "Engineering for the Earth." What happens to trash when you throw it away? What does it mean to be "environmentally friendly"? Elementary school students build and then observe small model landfills over five days as a way to learn about biodegradability and the processes that engineers use to reduce solid waste. The simple model landfills are created in cut-apart two-liter plastic bottles with four garbage samples tested: paper, apple, lettuce and plastic. Students make predictions and then note how the different items biodegrade over time. From this, they learn that engineers optimize the composting process and improve landfills so food, animal and other waste are converted into high-nutrient soil. They experience modeling; a common engineering approach to understand and improve how things work. This fun activity meets many science, math and technology standards, including NGSS and Common Core Math. What is an anemometer? And how is it useful? In this easy-prep informal learning sprinkle (which takes less than an hour to conduct!) student pairs build and use simple paper-cup anemometers to measure wind speed as if they were engineers identifying good locations for wind turbines. Elementary students are able to determine relative speeds by counting rotations of the spinning paper cups. By measuring wind speed at five outside locations, students see how it varies and where it is strongest, which helps them understand how knowing wind speed at multiple locations is important. For wind turbines, stronger winds generate more electricity! Real-time wind speed data collected at airports helps pilots safely take off and land. Continuously measuring wind speed at uncountable locations around the planet provides essential data for weather prediction and public safety alerts. Animals and Engineering Lesson What do animals have to do with engineering? Some students might be surprised to hear that animals are directly related to engineering! In fact, some of the most remarkable engineering innovations were inspired by animals and nature. In this lesson, students learn the role of animals in engineering innovation, particularly how animal characteristics and features are mimicked in engineering design to create new technologies—otherwise known as biomimicry. Such examples of biomimicry include airplanes, boats, underwater sea vessels, and antibiotics and healing drugs. Additionally, students learn about animal interactions and the basic animal classifications to better understanding how animals live and to relate the natural world to engineering innovation. This informative and interesting lesson, targeted for elementary school students, meets both NGSS and Common Core Math standards. Image source: Dreamstime.com Ice, Ice, PV! Activity As the use of renewable energy grows, most teenagers have seen photovoltaic solar panels in their communities and on everyday items such as back packs, battery chargers and outdoor lighting devices. These photovoltaic (PV) solar panels generate power that can be used in many applications in their lives. In this activity, students explore variables that affect the power output of PV panels to answer the question: “If engineers installed the exact same power plant in Las Vegas, NV, and Fargo, ND, would it produce the exact same amount of power over the course of a year?” Student teams collect data in this engaging hands-on activity and apply mathematical equations based on electrical power and the temperature coefficient to learn how temperature and climate affect PV panels and to predict the power output of PV panels at different temperatures. This activity also meets NGSS and Common Core Math standards. Photo credit: Candice Nyando, Black Rock Solar. Imagine having to carry water dozens of miles, up and around mountains, just to be able to boil that water for cooking and cleaning! Students learn the important role engineers play in the management of groundwater, and the importance of clean, accessible water. The realities of how water is acquired, and subsequently used, for daily survival—especially in developing countries—can be a new concept for students, especially Americans used to readily available clean water. Creating a system to transport water, helps “water poor” populations whose water does not come directly from a faucet! Students learn exactly how such a water transportation system is developed and used. This middle school-level activity meets one NGSS design problem standard. Making solar ovens is a classic, fun and delicious engineering activity—and one with great potential to help others worldwide. Middle school students learn the value of solar ovens as they use cardboard, insulation, foil and Plexiglas to design, construct and test devices that apply their understanding of thermal energy transfer. Student teams devise solutions to meet problem criteria and constraints, as well as collect and analyze data to determine the effectiveness of their designs. Then, expand students' context for how a project like this can help others by showing them a video clip about Infinity Bakery—a low-cost solar oven design being prototyped in Burundi to enable smoke-free and fuel-free cooking and baking. This activity fits into many areas of study, including energy, social studies, planets and seasons, graphing and analysis—and meets many NGSS and Common Core Math standards. In this NGSS-aligned unit, high school students learn about environmental and biomedical engineering through the study of nanotechnology and its relationship to skin cancer. Through three lessons and three associated activities, students learn about the electromagnetic spectrum, wavelengths and how the ozone helps block ultraviolet radiation; how repeated exposure to ultraviolet radiation impacts our skin with harmful, long-lasting effects; and how persons with skin cancer are treated with nanoparticles, a result of modern technological advancements employed by engineers around the world. After this unit, students will have an understanding of the causes, diagnosis and treatment of skin cancer and an appreciation of the vital role biomedical engineers and nanoparticle research play in preventing humans from the (oftentimes life-threatening) condition of skin cancer. This unit requires approximately 12 days (60-minute periods) to complete. Sugar Spill! (for Informal Learning) Sprinkle Oh no! There has been a major pollutant spill, and environmental engineers must clean it up fast. How can it be done? What can be used to "soak up" the spill? In this informal learning sprinkle, students see how environmental spills are contained through "bioremediation"—a process that plays an important role for engineers to quickly and efficiently clean up toxic (or non-toxic, but messy) spills. Through the use of common household products—in this case sugar, yeast and vinegar—students learn that engineers do not actually "soak up" environmental spills, but use chemicals to safely degrade (or "eat up") harmful bacteria to restore balance to an area affected by a contaminant. Oil on the Ocean Activity Engineering design activities can play an important role in helping students make connections among the STEM subjects. This activity does that by engaging fifth-grade students in a fun, hands-on project to design, build, and re-design prototype oil booms to contain oil spills. This project weaves together a range of scientific concepts and topics, including ecosystems, material properties, density and pollution as well as considerations for the impact on wildlife, habitat and food supplies, related economic and political issues, and the use of technology by humans. Over three, hour-long class periods, student teams experience the full engineering design process, from understanding the problem and brainstorming solutions to drawing, prototyping, testing and redesigning solutions. Like real-world engineers, students work within given requirements and constraints, use assorted ordinary materials—duct tape, cotton balls, straws, sponges—and test their designs in miniature oil spill simulations. As a bonus, teaching this activity meets numerous NGSS (science) and ITEEA (technology) educational standards. Solar Water Heater Activity It is easy to take for granted the luxury of a hot shower or bath. An engineering mind wonders: How did the water get heated? How much energy is used? What types of energy are used? Could we use energy from the sun to heat it? Ask your high school students these questions to engage them in this NGSS- and Common Core Math-aligned activity to create miniature solar water heaters. In the process, they deepen their understanding of conduction, convection and radiation—each of which plays a role in the heater design. After the hands-on design/build projects are completed, students perform efficiency calculations, compare designs and think of improvements—just like engineers—thereby also experiencing the analysis phase of the engineering design process. This activity also passed the extensive review process of the Climate Literacy & Energy Network (CLEAN). Power, Work and the Waterwheel Activity Water is one of our world's most precious resources. Imagine if water could be put to work to make even another resource. Well it can! Water, on its own has a lot of power, but create a mechanism to harness that water power, and you can generate a lot of electrical energy. Why do we care about using water for creating energy? Well, energy is another precious resource for the inhabitants of our planet. This hands-on activity teaches middle school students about the power of water and why we care about harnessing water for energy use. Using simple supplies found at home or at a recycling center, students design and build their own water wheels, simulating hydroelectric power plants. They learn how engineers measure water power, and troubleshoot ways to increase that power. This activity is aligned to numerous standards, including NGSS, Common Core Math and ITEEA. After this activity, students will never forget how heart valves work as part of the circulatory system! Acting as biomedical engineers, middle school student teams experience the full engineering design process as they brainstorm, design, prototype, test and redesign replacement valves for a large-scale model heart. Simple cardboard boxes with middle dividers model the left atrium and left ventricle chambers. A gap in the divider awaits implanted prototypes for artificial one-way mitral valves that must permit blood cells, represented by marbles, to move from the left atrium to the left ventricle, but stop blood flow in the opposite direction. Part of work includes defining the criteria and constraints of the problem while taking into account the science of the human body and possible impacts on people. They use ordinary materials—cardboard, wooden sticks, string, foil, tape and glue—to create working valve prototypes. Students' work is deepened by systematically evaluating competing design solutions to gauge their effectiveness. A worksheet guides the test evaluation procedure and scoring point system for comparing designs and material usage. This activity is aligned to numerous science standards, including Common Core Math and Next Gen Science Standards.

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Oral literature, the standard forms (or genres) of literature found in societies without writing. The term oral literature is also used to describe the tradition in written civilizations in which certain genres are transmitted by word of mouth or are confined to the so-called folk (i.e., those who are “unlettered,” or do not use writing). Oral literature is, arguably, the best phrase available for describing these two senses. The term oral covers both, but these two meanings should be distinguished. While certain forms, such as the folktale, continue to exist, especially among the unlettered component of complex societies, what might also be called oral tradition (or folk literature) is inevitably influenced by the elite written culture. The term literature also poses problems because it is ultimately derived from the Latin littera, “letter,” essentially a written, indeed alphabetic, concept. Among scholars, the phrases standardized oral forms and oral genres have been suggested in place of oral literature, but, since the word literature is so widely used, it has to be reckoned with, even though it is essential to recall the major differences between the two registers, oral and written, as well as the way in which the latter influences the spoken word. The relation of speech to writing Because writing is an additional register to speech, writing’s advent has an important influence on speech. Writing’s effects have been dramatic on society generally, but, for much of the vast span of recorded history, writing and reading were confined to a small, elite minority of a population, while a large proportion of people continued to depend on oral communication alone. In many cases these two traditions existed side by side. Such a combination creates problems for the analysis of the various genres or oral literature, for there is a tendency today to read back the characteristics of literate literature (such as the use of a narrative structure) into purely oral genres. Written literature is never simply a matter of writing down what already exists; a myth or story is always changed in being “transcribed” and takes its place among a set of new genres as well as among modifications of old ones. The term folklore generally refers to certain of the spoken (or nonwritten) activities of complex literate cultures where only a minority can read and write and where the rest are illiterate, a frequent situation of the peasantry in the post-Bronze Age cultures of Europe and Asia especially. While these activities have some links with parallel ones in purely oral cultures, they are inevitably influenced by the always-dominant literary modes, especially those related to the major (written) religions. (Folklore is largely confined to the exposition of peripheral beliefs.) But even the forms taken by genres such as the epic can influence folklore. It is clear that, in societies with writing, a great deal of communication—including communication that takes literary forms—is still done by word of mouth. Not only is this an aspect of all human intercourse, but it was inevitably the case until near-universal literacy was achieved in Europe during the last quarter of the 19th century. Until that time, literature had to be oral for the large part of the population. That did not mean oral literature was uninfluenced by the written word. Indeed, some of the oral communication consisted in the repetition of written texts, as when lessons from the Bible were preached to an unlettered populace. A written epic, as was the case with the Hindu Vedas or the works of Homer, might be learned by heart and recited to the population at large, by priests in the former case and by the rhapsodes in the latter. Of course a society with writing might inherit some genres, such as folktales, largely unchanged from an earlier, purely oral culture whereas other genres, such as the epic, would undergo a sea change. Test Your Knowledge Cold Weather Games Part of the influence of the written word on speech consisted in the development not of oratory but of its formal counterpart, rhetoric, with its explicit body of rules. Specialists in the spoken word might achieve fame and be rewarded for their appearance in presenting a case at court. More directly in the field of the arts, specialist reciters, especially of praise songs but also of epics and other lengthy recitations, might be recompensed for their contributions, either as freelance performers or as professionals. Many early written forms, such as the Breton lays, draw their subject matter from spoken genres, though inevitably transformations take place in the face of the new media. There has also been a good deal of exchange between coexistent folk and written (elite) literature. Homer’s poems incorporated “popular” tales, for example, as did the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf, although these transfers are as much between genres as between the registers of speech and writing, akin to when popular melodies, such as the bourrée of rural France, were taken up by those composing elite music in the urban courts of 17th-century Europe. The example of the epic The Homeric poems are often viewed as oral epics that have been transposed into writing. Commentators have dwelt on the presence of certain features, such as the formulaic expressions (epithets and repeated verses) that they see as typical of oral forms. Yet, while the regular repetition of phrases is found in such forms, some have argued that the precise format of Homer’s formula—as defined by the American scholar Milman Parry, who in the 1930s recorded epics in Yugoslavia performed by guslari—is very likely an early literate device. The epic itself is a case in point. It is often assumed to be a typical product of oral cultures, being sung by bards at courts or in camps. However, records of epics in purely oral cultures are sparse. Epics tend to be found in early states with important warrior classes that enjoy hearing of the brave exploits of their predecessors. These societies already have writing, but the texts are often committed to memory and reproduced by the speaker rather than read aloud from a written version of the text. These oral texts are recited in gatherings of chiefs and warriors by specialist bards and, in fact, are the works that have been written down at some point. Indeed, only because they have been written down are they known at all. And it is a regular characteristic of early written works, such as Homer’s or the Vedas, that, although written versions exist, these are learned by heart, internalized, and reproduced through the spoken word alone, just as is often the case with religious texts such as the Qurʾān and the Bible. At the very moment in history when writing allows one to dispose of verbal memory as a means of recalling such works, the role of verbal memory is in fact enhanced—hence part of the difficulty in deciding whether these works are both orally composed and orally reproduced. They are typical of societies where only the few can read and where mnemonic skills and devices that encourage the perfect oral reproduction of written texts are therefore encouraged. The way that purely oral forms have been changed under the influence of written cultures is illustrated by the Kalevala, the Finnish national epic, a final version of which was published in 1849 by Elias Lönnrot. A systematic collector of folk poetry, Lönnrot concluded that what had been recorded as distinct poems could be conflated into a continuous folk epic. He joined a number of shorter compositions together with material of his own and imposed on the whole a unifying plot. Its publication had an enormous influence on Finnish culture. It has been suggested that the Gilgamesh epic may have been constructed in a similar way; other cases have been reported from Africa. In North America stories that centre on particular characters such as Coyote or Raven (see Raven cycle) are sometimes grouped together by scholars into cycles, but it seems doubtful whether these cycles represent a meaningful category for the Native Americans who created these tales. Differences between oral and written literatures Oral and written literatures differ in their authorship and audience. In oral cultures the memory of authorship, though never entirely absent, is of little general importance—occasionally with songs but not with myths, folktales, and, rarely, epics. That is not to say that these genres do not become the subjects of intellectual property rights. Songs may be associated with particular clans, recitations with specific groups or gatherings. But usually no individual author is traced. That absence, however, does not imply that there is a process of collective composition. Each reciter will introduce variations of his own, some of which will be taken up by succeeding speakers for whom the previous version will have been the (or a) model. In this way changes are constantly being introduced by individuals but anonymously, in a syntagmatic (contextual) chain, without looking back to any fixed original. Only with writing and with oral recitations in literate societies, as in the case of Homer or the Vedas, is the oral transmission of an original possible, partly because writing introduces a new dimension to verbal memory and partly because reference can then always be made back to the “correct” version. As a result, it seems to be in these early literate societies that the development of mnemonic skills and aide-mémoire is first found. Beyond the epic, the main oral genres include the folktale; song, including laments, praise songs, and work songs; folk drama; myth; and, closely related, legend and historical recitation. There are also the minor genres of the proverb and the riddle. While these genres are not necessarily always given separate designations in local languages, in scholarly practice they are distinguished because of their different forms, content, and functions, which relate partly to their audience. At the very broadest level, folktales are rarely seen as anything but fictional, whereas the other genres, apart from song, have quite a different relation to “truth.” In purely oral societies, recitations and songs encompass the whole of life’s experience, including cosmology and theology. In early societies with writing, the religious domain tends to be incorporated by way of texts associated with a religion’s canon (its most important scriptural works), leaving the oral literature to deal with the peripheral—with magic, charms, and fairy tales. With oral literature, as with any other literature, it is important to always consider not only the speaker but the audience and the situational context. Intention, form, and content make all the difference between recitations in a religious or ritual ceremony and the kind of story told at a veillée (a small private gathering for storytelling) in Europe. These differences mean that to incorporate all these genres in one holistic analysis of culture, symbolism, or myth runs the risk of mixing levels of communication that should be the subject of distinct interpretations. Folktales are virtually universal. These are short, occasionally in verse, sometimes with an ending that echoes the explanations embedded in Rudyard Kipling’s Just So Stories (e.g., “ How the Camel Got His Hump”), and possibly with an irrelevant coda. The personages consist of humans, animals, gods, and, more rarely, inventions such as giants and monsters, who interact with one another by speech and by other means. In this wide array of tales there is a place for the salacious, and some stories are apparently directed to adults (or at least to adolescents), but the bulk of folktales undoubtedly anticipate an audience of children. Grim as some of their contents can be, they are “nursery tales,” to use an English term equivalent to Charles Perrault’s “fairy stories” (contes des fées). Because the vast number of folktales are intended for children, it is quite mistaken for anthropologists to use them as evidence of the typical thoughts of primitive societies or for historians to do the same for, say, the rural population of 17th-century Europe. But just such an approach is sometimes taken by those who see culture holistically, with each item having the same representative status and value in characterizing mentalities, beliefs, and practices and with each item taken to exist within an undifferentiated cultural ensemble of artistic forms. In fact, the relationship of these stories to other aspects of culture is very particular. While their relationships to culture are very particular, the stories told within folktales also persist over long periods of time and have no very close relationship to a particular culture at a particular time; examples from English-speaking societies include children’s rhymes and songs such as “ Ring a Ring of Roses” and “ Three Blind Mice” and the story “ Jack and the Beanstalk.” Like the rhyme “ Frères Jacques” or the story of Cinderella, they cross sociopolitical and linguistic boundaries rather freely and are adapted by individual storytellers. Such movement across boundaries is encouraged by the relatively small size of individual oral cultures, and these stories may be transposed into other dialects and other languages; the ease with which that can happen emphasizes the transcultural character of their themes and expressions. It is this comparative insulation of children’s stories that, arguably, accounts for their relative homogeneity around the world, as does their frequent use of nonhuman animals and panhuman themes. Fables are a subcategory of the folktale, employing animals as well as humans as the main characters. In the form they are known today, either from ancient Greece and Rome (e.g., Aesop’s fables) or from India, they are in fact products of written cultures but are close in many respects to folktales more generally. Song plays a very general role in oral culture. A song’s words often resemble lyric poetry, having to be of a tight metrical structure because of the musical accompaniment. Equally, when epic and other recitations are accompanied by a musical instrument or a strong beat, the rhythmic verbal structure is always influenced. An important variety of song is the lament at the death of an individual, which may take the form of stressed speech or follow a more melodic line. Songs may be included in rituals and in folktales and other genres, but they are often performed solely for entertainment. The melodies themselves may be elaborated and expanded upon by way of musical instruments, leading to innumerable variations invented for the occasion, as with jazz. An important subcategory is the work song, the performance of which is likely to be gendered, as is the work itself. The ballad is a form of narrative song that arose in Europe during the Middle Ages and hence is arguably part of a mixed oral-literary tradition. The genre displays strong metrical forms associated with a melodic accompaniment; it is often concerned with conflict (especially in the Scottish-English border ballads of the 15th and 16th centuries), celebrating heroes and outlaws, and has held its popularity in the modern period, as exemplified in popular songs such as “ Frankie and Johnny.” Narrative songs of this kind are much less common in oral cultures, though varieties of the form mark early literate societies. Songs are distinguished from chant by being shorter and more melodic. Chant is a rhythmic manner of presenting speech that verges on recitation; while it may be accompanied, chant is carried out with a regular beat that does not interfere greatly with the words, which are deemed more important than the music. Chant may be used for shorter recitals and in such contexts as the Maori haka, and it is sometimes employed for epic poetry or for the long recitations typically categorized as myth. Theatre in the modern sense is an outcome of the written tradition in Greece, Europe, India, Japan, and elsewhere. It is sometimes difficult to draw a distinction between drama and ritual; indeed, the origins of drama in Europe lie in religious and ritual performances. The occurrence of secular drama in oral cultures is not well attested and, where it does occur, is peripheral. Nevertheless, (folk) plays of a more or less secular kind do occur in the popular culture of literate societies, such as the mumming plays of the European tradition, which stand in opposition to the written plays of the elite theatre. Myth is a particular form of oral literature, the subject of which is cosmological. It was earlier thought that many such stories were explanatory. A few undoubtedly are, including those of “that is why the camel has a hump” variety, but most are not, even though intellectual curiosity (sometimes expressed through the notion of the quest, for example) is often incorporated. For some commentators, myth was central to folktales: the meaning of folktales was seen to derive from their assumed status as broken-down myths that accounted for solar, meteorological, or other natural phenomena. Other commentators (such as representatives of the myth and ritual school at the beginning of the 20th century) have seen the explanation of myth as a function of ritual and of ritual as a function of myth. Such an explanation, however, does little to explain the content of myth or ritual. Others, such as Bronisław Malinowski and the functionalist school, have understood myth as a legitimizing “charter” of social institutions. Later in the 20th century there was a move to interpretations of myth that were dependent on a search for hidden meanings, some relying on psychoanalysis, others on different approaches to symbolic decoding, and yet others on structuralist analyses, especially in the work of Claude Lévi-Strauss, which sought in myths an underlying structure of abstract similarities (often binary in character) between a range of social institutions. Myth is often considered to be the highest achievement of oral literature. It has certainly proved to be the most interesting to outsiders and at the same time the most difficult to comprehend, because, even though it deals in cosmological matters, myth is in some ways the most localized of genres and the most embedded in cultural action (such as when it is recited in a very specific ceremonial context). The oral literature of the Australian Aborigines, for example, has an essential ceremonial function. The song cycles and narratives relate to the Dreaming, a mythological past in which the existing environment was shaped and humanized by ancestral beings. These performances may be open to the world at large (and hence akin to entertainment) or closed to all but initiates. It is important to distinguish between contributions to mythologies (i.e., accounts of worldviews constructed by observers) and myths in a narrower sense, which are actual recitations around a cosmological theme (for example, creation myths). The latter are relatively rare and unevenly distributed around the world, being recited in particular restricted circumstances. As such, the knowledge they contain is available not to all but only to certain individuals. Women in some groups, for example, may be excluded from certain ritual occasions. Yet these women, precluded from some knowledge, may also have parallel ceremonies from which men are excluded and during which women hand down different bodies of knowledge. Myths were earlier thought to have been transmitted verbatim from one generation to the next, partly because that is how those who conveyed the myths often understood the situation. As such, the myths were interpreted as “keys to culture,” throwing a privileged light on society as a whole. But the advent of the portable audio recorder and of air travel enabled investigators to return at intervals to record such recitations in the actual context of performance rather than with pencil and paper in a decontextualized situation. These new techniques showed that myths vary considerably over time, the exigencies of oral reproduction making such generative transmission a virtual necessity. In other words: people invent and fill in where they do not have perfect recall. The result is a plurality of versions spread over time (and space), but, arguably, no fixed text such as often found with written literature. Legends and historical recitations Legends and historical recitations—or “histories”—occur everywhere: chiefless societies might produce stories of clan migration, for instance, while chiefly societies might generate stories of the coming of rulers and of the establishment of kingdoms. Examples proliferate with writing and become more differentiated, but they exist in purely oral cultures as an important formal activity, to be told on ritual occasions. These genres may also be associated with totemism, telling how a particular animal helped a past ancestor in troubled times and so is taboo to his or her descendants. The term legend (derived from the Latin legenda, “to be read”) was especially applied to the stories of saints in Roman Catholic Europe, but similar kinds of narrative, believed to be true, are also characteristic of oral cultures and often later form the basis for the construction of written histories, as was the case in early Greece. Some formalized historical recitations in purely oral cultures retain earlier forms and content that have passed out of current usage. The speech of former generations can legitimize the material within a recitation, making that material more valuable and more sacred at the time of the recitation, but it can also make the material less comprehensible, more mysterious, and more prone to conflicting and ambiguous interpretations. More broadly, histories are often more concerned with legitimation, especially in providing a suggested link with the distant past, rather than with the story itself. Performance, content, and distribution In oral cultures the genres described above are not simply categories in a library catalog but are part of an ensemble of actions that constitute the setting, often the ritual, and sometimes the music and dance of the performers; these actions also guide the voice and gestures and the intentions of the performers, as well as the audience and its expectations. Each genre has its characteristic context of performance, its own place, its own time, its own performers, and its own aims. Myths, in the concrete sense, are unlikely to be recited by “ordinary” people but instead by specialists in special ritual contexts. Folktales may be told by adults who have built up a reputation for doing so, but they are more likely to make the rounds within families or among groups of children. Given the variety of genres of oral literature, it is difficult to generalize about their content as a whole, but it is (perhaps misleadingly) easy to generalize within each genre. Mythology deals with gods, deities, and supernatural agencies in their relationship—whether distant or close—with humankind. Epics often deal with human as well as half-divine heroes and monsters. Folktales show a nearly universal concern with animals, and they introduce as actors humans, gods, and sometimes monsters. The widespread inclusion of animals, in turn, may indicate a recognition of a continuity between living things; animals often reenact the lives of humans, not only by speaking but in their roles and actions. A continuity between living things is also expressed in tales of humans born of animals, being cared for by them (as in the case of Romulus and Remus, the legendary founders of Rome), or being looked after by them in a more mystical sense (as with the North American Indian notion of the guardian spirit or in versions of totemism where humankind is aided by or even descended from an animal). Yet animals recur across many of the genres that can be classed as oral literature, where they take on multiple meanings and stand for many concepts. It is, again, difficult to generalize in good faith about the content of oral literature. While similar genres are found widely distributed in oral cultures and in oral traditions, they do not occur equally in all contexts. Long recitations defined above as myths are very unequally distributed even in neighbouring societies that otherwise display rather similar practices and beliefs, for they occur only under very restricted conditions. Epics and histories tend to be associated with warrior and chiefly societies, respectively. Some researchers have argued that there appears to be little use of proverbs and riddles in America, a situation they contrast with Africa, where collections of proverbs (such as those made in Asante by the Swiss missionary J.G. Christaller) were considered very common. (Other researchers disagree and question the historical and geographical generalizations embodied in such characterizations of “America” and “Africa.”) The content of myths and legends is considered by many in oral societies to be true; by contrast, the content of folktales and fables is believed to be fictional. While the first are often tied to particular societies (and later to written religions), the latter travel relatively freely between groups, including linguistic groups. That ability to travel reaffirms the fact that both have a different “truth” status, with folktales rarely tied to specific cosmologies but instead showing a more universal appeal, especially to children. Märchen (folktales with an element of the magical or supernatural) and ghost stories have a wider appeal and are widespread features of both oral literature and written literature told orally; monsters are found in many societies, and even specific types, such as dragons, turn up over large areas. Fairies and trolls are found yet more frequently as characters in folktales and cosmologies, operating as intermediaries between humankind and the higher deities and either helping or hindering their activities. Attempts to explain “rationally” and “historically” (which are nothing but speculation) the contents of oral literature have led the enquiry down false paths. As with oral literature in general, it is essential, wherever possible, to consider the context of performance and of transmission.

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Battle Of The Alamo Facts, information and articles about Battle Of The Alamo, an event of Westward Expansion from the Wild West Battle Of The Alamo Facts February 23, 1836 – March 6, 1836 San Antonio de Bexar, Texas Republic, now: San Antonio, Texas William Travis, Texas James Bowie, Texas President General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, Mexico 189 United States 1,800 – 6,000 Mexico Texas decided it wanted to be independent from Mexico. Battle Of The Alamo Articles Explore articles from the History Net archives about Battle Of The Alamo » See all Battle Of The Alamo Articles Battle Of The Alamo summary: The Mission San Antonio de Valero, established in the early 18th century, was situated along the San Antonio River. By 1800, the Missionaries were displaced and their land was seized for military purposes. Occupying soldiers called the Mission-turned-garrison El Alamo after the cottonwood trees surrounding it. Eventually the mission was officially renamed The Alamo. First Spanish soldiers, then Mexican soldiers occupied The Alamo. Mexico had gained independence from Spain by the early 1820s. Settlers from other states began flocking toward Texas. In December of the mid-1830s, a fight for independence from Mexico developed between Texans and Mexicans. By the middle of February in 1836, things became heated and two volunteers, George Collinsworth and Benjamin Milam, led a group of people to overtake the garrison at The Alamo. At that time, Colonel James Bowie and Lieutenant Colonel William B. Travis prepared to defend the Alamo from the Mexicans who were going to take it back. David Crockett arrived in February 1836 to participate in the battle. Texan forces were never more than 200 strong. The Mexicans were estimated to number between 1800 and 6000. Texans held Gen. Santa Anna off for thirteen days. On March 6th, the Texans were beaten. Santa Anna slaughtered everyone except a few, among which was Susannah Dickinson, wife of captain Almaron Dickinson who perished in the battle. Articles Featuring Battle Of The Alamo From History Net Magazines The Alamo: 13 Days of Glory February 23, 1836, began the siege of the Alamo, a 13-day moment in history that turned a ruined Spanish mission in the heart of downtown San Antonio, Texas, into a shrine known and revered the world over. But what is it that makes this one battle so different from any other battle fought in the name of freedom? The people involved? Yes, that’s part of it. The issues at hand? Yes, that’s another part. Or can it be that the mysteries, myths and legends surrounding it are still tantalizing minds even today? Yes. Yes. Yes. All of these things have made the battle stand apart and have caused it to be so well remembered throughout the nation 160 years later. Yet, as historian Walter Lord said in 1960, ‘It is…a rash man indeed who claims he has the final answer to everything that happened at the Alamo. History records three revolutions that led to the Battle of the Alamo. The first, the Spanish revolt against French occupation of Spain, occurred in 1808. Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Spain, and it took six years for Spanish resistance forces to oust the French emperor and restore Ferdinand VII to the throne. The fires of the Spanish revolt crossed the ocean, and in Mexico Father Miguel Hidalgo rang the bells of his small church in Dolores at midnight on September 15, 1810, to herald the beginning of the second revolution. This Mexican revolt against Spanish occupation traveled quickly across Mexico and into the northern frontier of the Mexican territory of Texas. San Antonio de Béxar, the capital of Texas, became a center of revolutionary activity and a haven for resistance fighters. One revolutionary, Captain Jose Menchaca, was captured by Spanish troops, shot and beheaded. His head was then stuck on a pole in front of the Alamo. Instead of setting an example for the other insurgents, however, Menchaca’s execution only added fuel to the revolt. After an 11-year struggle, Mexico gained its freedom in 1821. Within that same year, Agustin de Iturbide, a Spanish general turned rebel and a hero of the revolution, became emperor of the new nation. But his regime was too extravagant for some tastes, and in no time a revolt led by General Antonio López de Santa Anna brought about Iturbide’s downfall and established a Mexican republic. Under Iturbide, American colonists had been allowed to settle in Texas. About the only condition to owning land was that all immigrant landowners had to be Catholic, an easy enough problem to overcome for non-Catholics. William Travis, for instance, became Catholic to purchase land, but remained a staunch Methodist until the day he died at the Alamo. Unfortunately, the fledgling Republic of Mexico was born bankrupt and ill-prepared for self-government. In fact, during its first 15 years of independence, it had 13 presidents. All of them struggled for power, shifting between the liberal-leaning Federalists and the dictatorial Centralists. The first president was a Federalist, General Guadalupe Victoria, a hero of the revolution who had changed his name from Miguel Felix Hernandez to honor Our Lady of Guadalupe, patroness of the Americas, for his victory. It was he who established the liberal Constitution of 1824 that so infuriated Santa Anna and that would lead to the Battle of the Alamo 12 years later. It was also during this tumultuous struggle for control of Mexico’s presidency that the northern territory of Texas was mostly neglected. When Mexico redefined its territories in 1824, Texas was the only separate territory to lose its independence. It was joined to Coahuila and the capital was moved from San Antonio de Béxar to Saltillo. Armed citizens gathered in protest. In September 1835, they petitioned for statehood separate from Coahuila. They wrote out their needs and their complaints in The Declaration of Causes. This document was designed to convince the Federalists that the Texans desired only to preserve the 1824 Constitution, which guaranteed the rights of everyone living on Mexican soil. But by this time, Santa Anna was in power, having seized control in 1833, and he advocated the removal of all foreigners. His answer was to send his crack troops, commanded by his brother-in-law, General Martín Perfecto de Cós, to San Antonio to disarm the Texans. October 1835 found San Antonio de Béxar under military rule, with 1,200 Mexican troops under General Cós’ command. When Cós ordered the small community of Gonzales, about 50 miles east of San Antonio, to return a cannon loaned to the town for defense against Indian attack–rightfully fearing that the citizens might use the cannon against his own troops–the Gonzales residents refused. Come and take it! they taunted, setting off a charge of old chains and scrap iron, shot from the mouth of the tiny cannon mounted on ox-cart wheels. Although the only casualty was one Mexican soldier, Gonzales became enshrined in history as the Lexington of Texas. The Texas Revolution was on. On December 5, 200 Texan volunteers commanded by Ben Milam attacked Cós’ troops in San Antonio de Béxar, which was about 400 yards from the Alamo compound. The fighting in Béxar raged with a house-to-house assault unlike anything the Mexican army had ever before experienced. Cós finally flew the white flag of surrender from the Alamo on December 9. More than 200 of his men lay dead, and as many more were wounded. He signed papers of capitulation, giving the Texans all public property, money, arms and ammunition in San Antonio, and by Christmas Day, the Mexican army was back across the Rio Grande. To the Texans, who lost about 20 men, including Ben Milam, the victory seemed cheap and easy. The siege of Béxar and Cós’ surrender brought immediate retaliation from Santa Anna. He whipped together a force of 8,000 men, many of them foreign adventurers from Europe and America. One of his deadliest snipers was an Illinois man named Johnson! Santa Anna, the self-styled Napoleon of the West, marched at the head of the massive army; he was determined to stamp out all opposition and teach the Texans a lesson. The word went out to his generals: In this war, you understand, there are no prisoners. Although it was midwinter, Santa Anna pushed his army mercilessly toward Texas. The frigid, wind-battered deserts of northern Mexico took their toll. Men and animals died by the hundreds and were left on the trail, and the brigades strung out for uncounted miles. When the big siege guns bogged down in one of the many quagmires, Santa Anna pushed on without them. Nothing would stop him. Meanwhile, after the defeated Mexican force under General Cós had left San Antonio, Colonel James C. Neill had assumed command of the Alamo garrison, which consisted of about 80 poorly equipped men in several small companies, including the volunteers. The rest of the soldiers had returned home to their families and farm chores. In this command were an artillery company under Captain William R. Carey known as the Invincibles, two small infantry companies known as the New Orleans Greys under Captain William Blazeby, and the Béxar Guards under Captain Robert White. On January 17, 1836, Sam Houston, the commander of the revolutionary troops, sent Colonel Jim Bowie and 25 men to San Antonio with orders to destroy the Alamo fortifications and retire eastward with the artillery. But Bowie and Neill agreed that it would be impossible to remove the 24 captured cannons without oxen, mules or horses. And they deemed it foolhardy to abandon that much firepower–by far the most concentrated at any location during the Texas Revolution. Bowie also had a keen eye for logistics, terrain, and avenues of assault. Knowing that General Houston needed time to raise a sizable army to repel Santa Anna, Bowie set about reinforcing the Alamo after Neill was forced to leave because of sickness in his family. Colonel William Travis arrived in San Antonio on February 2 with a small cavalry company, bringing the total number of Alamo defenders to about 130. Although spies told him that Santa Anna had crossed the Rio Grande, Travis did not expect the dictator before early spring. He sent letter after letter, pleading for supplies and more men. He and Bowie also competed for command of the garrison before it was decided that Bowie would command the volunteers and Travis the regular army. On February 9, David Crockett and the 14 other Tennessee Mounted Volunteers (only three were actually from Tennessee) rode into San Antonio. Alarmed by the Mexican army on the outskirts of town, Travis vigorously renewed his pleas for help. His February 24 letter, To the People of Texas and All Americans in the World….I shall never surrender or retreat….Victory or Death! is considered one of the most heart-wrenching pleas ever written. Travis sent the message out with Captain Albert Martin. The day before, February 23, Santa Anna had reclaimed San Antonio. To the triumphant music of a military band, he took possession of the town, set up headquarters on the main plaza, and began the siege. He had his standard-bearers climb to the top of the bell tower of San Fernando Church and unfurl the scarlet flag of no quarter. Inside the Alamo, Travis and the Texans fired their message to Santa Anna with a blast from their 18-pounder. They had their music, too, with Davy Crockett’s fiddle and John McGregor’s bagpipes. In fact, Davy’s fiddle-playing and outlandish storytelling kept up the spirits of the besieged defenders. Santa Anna ordered his men to pound the fortifications with cannon and rifle fire for 12 days and nights. His idea was to wear out the defenders inside, giving them no chance for rest or sleep. He reasoned that a weary army would be an easy one to defeat. But the noise worked on his own army, too. Unable to hear clearly through the din, they allowed courier after courier to escape from the Alamo. On March 2, racing through the enemy’s lines, the last group to reinforce the Alamo arrived. These men were the relief force from Gonzales, the only town to answer Travis’ pleas to send help. The total number of Alamo defenders now stood at between 180 and 190. At 4 o’clock on the morning of March 6, 1836, Santa Anna advanced his men to within 200 yards of the Alamo’s walls. Just as dawn was breaking, the Mexican bloodcurdling bugle call of the Deguello echoed the meaning of the scarlet flag above San Fernando: no quarter. It was Captain Juan Seguin’s Tejanos, the native-born Mexicans fighting in the Texan army, who interpreted the chilling music for the other defenders. Santa Anna’s first charge was repulsed, as was the second, by the deadly fire of Travis’ artillery. At the third charge, one Mexican column attacked near a breach in the north wall, another in the area of the chapel, and a third, the Toluca Battalion, commenced to scale the walls. All suffered severely. Out of 800 men in the Toluca Battalion, only 130 were left alive. Fighting was hand to hand with knives, pistols, clubbed rifles, lances, pikes, knees and fists. The dead lay everywhere. Blood spilled in the convent, the barracks, the entrance to the church, and finally in the rubble-strewn church interior itself. Ninety minutes after it began, it was over. All the Texans died. Santa Anna’s loss was 1,544 men. More than 500 Mexicans lay wounded, their groans mingling with the haunting strains of the distant bugle calls. Santa Anna airily dismissed the Alamo conquest as a small affair, but one of his officers commented, Another such victory will ruin us. As many of the Mexican dead as possible were given the rites of the church and buried, but there were so many that there was not sufficient room in the cemetery. Santa Anna ordered all the bodies of the Texans to be contemptuously stacked like cord wood in three heaps, mixed with fuel, wood and dry branches from the neighboring forest, and set on fire–except one. Jose Gregorio Esparza was given a Christian burial because his brother Francisco was a member of General Cós’ presidio guards. Six weeks after the Alamo, while the Mexican wounded still languished in San Antonio, Santa Anna met his Waterloo at San Jacinto. The men who died inside the walls of the Alamo had bought with their lives the time needed for General Sam Houston to weld a force that won Texas its independence. The great sacrifice would not be forgotten by history, nor would the Alamo’s many legends and stories, most of which can never be proved or disproved because all the defenders died. One of the most enduring questions is whether Travis really did draw a line in the earth, the grand canyon of Texas, and ask all to step over who were willing to die for the cause. It is probably based on fact. Travis anticipated a battle to the death. Since he was also one for fairness, it’s logical to believe that he would give the men an opportunity to leave the ill-fated garrison. It is a fact that one man did leave. Louis Rose was from France, and he had already served in one bloody war as a noncommissioned officer in Napoleon Bonaparte’s army. Before the final assault on the Alamo he left, sustaining many leg wounds from cactuses and thorns during his escape that plagued him the remainder of his life. Asked why he chose not to stay with the rest, he replied, By God, I wasn’t ready to die. It is Rose’s tale of the line in the dust that has become legend. Two of Santa Anna’s earliest opponents were Erasmo Seguin and his son Juan, of San Antonio. In fact, it was Juan who became one of the staunchest fighters for Texas freedom, forming his own band of Tejanos to stand alongside his Anglo counterparts. Juan Seguin was on a courier mission for Travis when the Alamo fell, but he vowed to one day honor the Alamo dead in a church ceremony, a ceremony that had been denied by Santa Anna. Legend claims that Seguin collected the ashes and placed them in a casket covered with black. Inside the lid, he had the names of Travis, Bowie and Crockett engraved. He then buried the casket. Where? No one knows. Shortly before his death, when he was in his 80s, Juan Seguin stated that he had buried the casket outside the sanctuary railing, near the steps in the old San Fernando Church. In 1936, repair work on the altar railing of the cathedral led to the unearthing of a box containing charred bones, rusty nails, shreds of uniforms and buttons, particles of coal, and crushed skulls. From that discovery arose a controversy that continues to this day. Are they the bones of the Alamo defenders? Many believe yes, but since the defenders did not wear uniforms, many others think not. Questions also still remain about the death of David Crockett, who, without doubt, was the most famous defender of the siege. Shortly after the capture of Santa Anna at the Battle of San Jacinto, rumors began to circulate that 49-year-old Crockett had not died alongside his men in the final moments of the Alamo. Conflicting testimony claimed that Crockett and a handful of others–including Lieutenant James Butler Bonham, who rode back into the Alamo on March 3 knowing full well that it was a death trap–survived the siege, only to be destroyed on the orders of an enraged Santa Anna a few minutes later. True…or not? No one may ever really know. But most people prefer to believe that Crockett died a heroic death inside the Alamo. Davy Crockett was a national folk hero long before the events of the Alamo. Born August 17, 1786, in an East Tennessee wilderness cabin in what is now Greene County, he struck out on his own at the tender age of 12 to help drive a herd of cattle to Virginia. By 1813, he was serving as one of General Andrew Jackson’s scouts in the Creek War. He apparently did not enjoy fighting Indians and returned home as soon as his 90-day enlistment was up. In 1821, he was elected to the Tennessee Legislature for the first time, representing a district of 11 western counties in the state. He later served two terms in the United States Congress. Crockett was always one for adventure. When defeated at the polls for a third term in Congress in 1835, he turned in typical Crockett fashion to the cause of Texan freedom as a way to completely cut off one phase of his life and begin another. Before leaving for Texas, however, he gave his constituents one last speech. He concluded …by telling them that I was done with politics for the present, and that they might all go to hell, and I would go to Texas. After arriving in San Antonio in early February 1836, Crockett and the other Tennessee Mounted Volunteers eventually retreated into the Alamo. The old fortress spread over three acres as it surrounded a rough rectangle of bare ground, about the size of a gigantic city block, called the plaza. On the south side of this plaza and detached from the church by a distance of some 10 feet was a long one-story building called the low barracks. Adobe huts spread along the west side, which was protected by a 12-foot-high stone wall. A similar wall ran across the north side. A two-story building called the long barracks/convent/hospital covered the east side, along with the church, which sat in the southeast corner, facing west. Crockett and his men defended a low wooden palisade erected to breach the gap between the church and the low barracks of the south wall. The position of the low barracks was in front of, and perpendicular to, the right side of the church–an area that is now covered in flagstone. This palisade consisted of two rows of pointed wooden stakes with rocks and earth between the rows. All combatants considered the position to be the most vulnerable and hardest to defend area of the fortress. But Crockett and the other Tennesseans were expert marksmen, the best the small Texan army had. They most likely held their position until death. As news of Crockett’s death swept across America, some stories portrayed him as standing in the thickest of the fighting, using his trusty flintlock rifle Old Betsy like a club, until being cut down by Mexican bayonets and bullets. Well…maybe that’s the way it really happened. Then again…maybe not. Minutes after the fighting ceased, Santa Anna instructed Alcalde Francisco Ruiz to identify the bodies of the dead Texans, especially those of the leaders. According to the alcalde, Toward the west and in a small fort opposite the city, we found the body of Colonel Crockett…and we may infer that he either commanded that point or was stationed there as a sharpshooter. The only logical explanation is that the small courtyard bounded by the palisade on the south, the church on the east and the hospital on the north, where Crockett and the Tennesseans were stationed, was considered a small fort all its own. But one month later, the imprisoned General Cós told Dr. George Patrick that Davy Crockett had survived the battle. According to Cós, Crockett had locked himself in one of the rooms of the barracks. When the Mexican soldiers discovered him, Crockett explained that he was on a visit and had accidentally got caught in the Alamo after it was too late to escape. Cós further said that Crockett wanted him to intercede with Santa Anna, asking for mercy, which Cós agreed to do–only Santa Anna had ordered no quarter and was incensed at such a request. The Mexican leader refused to spare Crockett’s life. In 1878, writer Josephus Conn Guild offered a similar version in which Crockett and five others survived the siege. When overrun by the Mexican soldiers, the Alamo survivors surrendered to General Manuel Castrillón under promise of his protection, …but being taken before Santa Anna, they were by his orders instantly put to death. Colonel Crockett fell with a dozen swords sheathed in his breast. Actually, much of the same story had appeared as far back as 1836, when the diary of Lt. Col. José Enrique de la Peña was published in Mexico City. When the diary was finally published in English in the 1970s, it stirred up those Americans who felt the heroic Crockett never would have surrendered. Another account, from Mexican Sergeant Felix Nunez, related details of the death of a Texan on the palisade: He was a tall American of rather dark complexion and had a long buckskin coat and a round cap without any bill, made of fox skin with the long tail hanging down his back. This man apparently had a charmed life. Of the many soldiers who took deliberate aim at him and fired, not one ever hit him. On the contrary, he never missed a shot. He may not have been describing Davy Crockett, but who else dressed in that fashion? Susanna Dickinson (sometimes spelled Dickerson), one of the noncombatant survivors of the battle, stated in her memoirs that she saw Crockett and a handful of others lying mangled and mutilated between the church and the two-story barrack building, and even remembered seeing his peculiar cap laying by his side, as she was led from the scene by a Mexican officer. Perhaps she had seen Crockett after his execution, which supposedly occurred near the front of the church. But some people just won’t buy a capture-execution scenario. And perhaps Reuben Marmaduke Potter had it right all along when he wrote, David Crockett never surrendered to bear or tiger, Indian or Mexican. There is also a controversial story about the Alamo’s secondmost legendary figure. That story, which has never been proved one way or the other, says that Bowie was the last to die in the fighting at the Alamo. Jim Bowie, whose exploits made his name familiar in almost every American home during his lifetime, was born about 1796 (in either Tennessee, Kentucky, or Georgia–sources vary). When Jim was in his teens, the family settled at Bayou Boeuf, Rapides Parish, La., where he later operated a sugar plantation with his brother Rezin. It was his involvement with the pirate Jean Lafitte in the slave trade, though, that earned him a measure of notoriety. In September 1827, he killed a man with his huge knife during a brawl on a Mississippi sandbar just above Natchez. It was the Vidalia sandbar fight that firmly established him as a legendary fighter throughout the South. Bowie left for Texas in 1828 to settle in San Antonio de Béxar, where his land dealings made him modestly wealthy almost overnight. Bowie also became a Mexican citizen and married into the Mexican aristocracy, which, more than anything else, gained him the friendship, confidence and support of the Mexican population. By 1831, he was fluent in Spanish. Since he had been a colonel in a Texas Ranger company in 1830, he carried this title and authority when he answered the call for Texan volunteers. The 40-year-old frontiersman and Indian fighter was described as a normally calm, mild man until his temper was aroused. Absolutely fearless, he gave orders to the volunteers at the Alamo while 26-year-old Colonel Travis, a disciplinarian, took charge of the regulars and cavalry. The difference in their personalities, coupled with the difference in their ages, resulted in the two men sharing a somewhat antagonistic competition for command of the entire garrison. On one point they did agree: The Alamo was the most important stronghold of Texas. Sometime around February 21, 1836, Bowie decided to help construct a lookout post or gun garrison along one of the walls. Although there are conflicting opinions on what actually happened, most accounts think that he lost his balance on the scaffold and fell 8 feet to the ground, breaking either his hip or his leg. This incident has also been called hogwash by other historians, who claim that Bowie never suffered any accident while at the Alamo. Whether or not he also suffered from tuberculosis, diphtheria, or the dreaded typhoid pneumonia is also a matter of conjecture. In any event, Bowie’s incapacitation left Travis with full authority from that point onward. Bowie took to his sick bed in the low barracks on or about the second day of the siege, and there’s little doubt that he would have succumbed to his illness in a matter of days had not the Mexican soldiers dispatched him when they did. On the final day of the 13-day siege, legend claims that it was Crockett who stole into Bowie’s room and gave the sick man two pistols to be used for defense. Most accounts agree that Bowie was found dead on his cot, but since his nurse, Madame Candelaria, never told the exact same story twice about the sequence of events, who really knows what happened that day? Bowie probably participated in the battle, dying in the fall of the Alamo with the other defenders. But was he the last to fall? Everyone agrees that the last position to fall was the church, and Bowie wasn’t even close to the church. As the Mexican soldiers stormed over the walls of the compound, the defenders raced to the long barracks, where there was no exit, and to the church. None of them ferried a sick man on a cot. Still, the Mexican soldiers could have taken pity on Bowie when they saw him more dead than alive, prostrate on his cot in his room in the low barracks. In fact, an odd report claims that as the funeral pyres blazed high and soldiers heaped dead Texans on the pile, some soldiers carried out a man on a cot, a man the captain of the detail identified as no other than the infamous Bowie. Although the man was still alive, Santa Anna ordered him thrown into the fire along with the rest. Would Santa Anna be so cruel? Yes, especially if the man were a Mexican citizen fighting in the Texan army. Although the fact remains that no one knows why some 188 men chose to die on the plains of Texas in a ruined Spanish mission that required at least 1,200 men to adequately defend all its acreage, their sacrifice brought Texas independence, which paved the way for expansion to the Pacific and added more than a million square miles to the American nation at that time. And because of their sacrifice, the Alamo is now a shrine respected and revered throughout the world. Remember the Alamo became the battle cry that broke Santa Anna’s back. This article was written by Lee Paul and originally appeared in the February 1996 issue of Wild West. For more great articles be sure to subscribe to Wild West magazine today!

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