Self-Efficacy for Reading and Writing : Influence of Modeling , Goal Setting , and Self-Evaluation

Perceived self-efficacy, or students’ personal beliefs about their capabilities to learn or perform behaviors at designated levels, plays an important role in their motivation and learning. Self-efficacy is a key mechanism in social cognitive theory, which postulates that achievement depends on interactions between behaviors, personal factors, and environmental conditions. Self-efficacy affects choice of tasks, effort, persistence, and achievement. Sources of self-efficacy information include personal accomplishments, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and physiological indicators. At the outset of learning activities, students have goals and a sense of self-efficacy for attaining them. Self-evaluations of learning progress sustain self-efficacy and motivation. Research on academic learning is summarized, showing how modeling, goal setting, and selfevaluation affect self-efficacy, motivation, and learning. Suggestions for applying these ideas to teaching are provided. Article: Researchers and practitioners interested in student motivation and learning in academic settings are focusing increasingly on the role of students’ thoughts and beliefs during learning. This focus contrasts with prior views stressing students’ pre-existing skills and abilities. Although these factors are important, by themselves they are insufficient to explain the variations in motivation and learning among students with comparable skills and abilities. In this article I discuss theory, research, and applications relevant to one type of personal belief: perceived selfefficacy. Self-efficacy refers to beliefs about one’s capabilities to learn or perform behaviors at designated levels (Bandura, 1986, 1997). Research shows that self-efficacy predicts students’ academic motivation and learning (Pajares, 1996; Schunk, 1995, 1996). Within this context, I present research evidence showing how social models, goal setting, and self-evaluation affect self-efficacy, motivation, and learning. Modeling refers to patterning one’s thoughts, beliefs, actions, strategies, and behaviors after those displayed by one or more models. A goal, or what one is consciously trying to accomplish, provides a standard against which people can gauge their progress (Schunk, 1990). Selfevaluation comprises (a) self judgments of present performance through comparisons with one’s goal and (b) self-reactions to those judgments by deeming performance noteworthy, unacceptable, and so forth (Schunk, 1996). Research has demonstrated the effects of these processes on students’ academic achievement in various domains (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1998). The article concludes with implications of the theory and research for educational practice. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND Social Cognitive Theory Self-efficacy is part of a larger theoretical framework known as social cognitive theory, which postulates that human achievement depends on interactions between one’s behaviors, personal factors (e.g., thoughts and beliefs), and environmental conditions (Bandura, 1986, 1997). With respect to the link between personal factors and behaviors, much research shows that students’ self-efficacy beliefs influence such achievement behaviors as choice of tasks, effort, persistence, and achievement (Schunk, 1995). Conversely, students’ behaviors can alter efficacy beliefs. As students work on tasks, they note their progress toward their goals. Goal progress and accomplishment convey to students that they are capable of performing well, which enhances self-efficacy for continued learning. Students’ behaviors and classroom environments also are related. Consider a teacher who directs students’ attention by stating, “Look at this.” Environmental influence on behavior occurs when students direct their attention without conscious deliberation. Students’ behaviors also can alter their environments. When students answer questions incorrectly, the teacher may reteach the lesson differently rather than continue with the original material. Personal and environmental factors affect one another. As an example of how beliefs can affect the environment, consider students with high and low self-efficacy for learning. Those with high efficacy may view the task as a challenge and work diligently to master it, thereby creating a productive classroom environment. Those with low efficacy may attempt to avoid the task, which can disrupt the classroom. The influence of environment on thought is evident when teachers give students feedback (e.g., “That’s right, you really are good at this.”), which raises self-efficacy and sustains motivation for learning.