COMPARISON OF TEACHER EFFICACY AMONG TRADITIONALLY AND ALTERNATIVELY CERTIFIED AGRICULTURE TEACHERS

The shortage of qualified teachers in agricultural education has led to the hiring of uncertified teachers to fill vacancies. Many states have resorted to alternative certification routes to fill the need for teachers. In Florida, alternatively certified teachers represent over half of all new teachers in agricultural education. This situation has created uncertainty about the status of agricultural education in Florida and provided the motivation for this study. The purpose of this study was to describe traditionally and alternatively certified Florida agriculture teachers, compare their perceptions of teacher efficacy, and examine the relationship between teaching experience and teacher efficacy. Data analysis found that traditionally and alternatively certified teachers differed in age, education level, agricultural occupational experience, and gender and ethnic proportions. Comparison of teachers’ self-efficacy found no notable difference between the two groups. Results also showed a low positive association existed between agriculture teaching experience and teacher efficacy. Suggestions for future research include the need for replication of the study with other beginning teachers, increased recruitment of underrepresented populations into teacher preparation programs, and investigation of the curriculum and teaching practices of traditionally and alternatively certified teachers as they may impact teachers’ perceptions of efficacy and student achievement. Introduction/Theoretical Framework Agricultural education faces an ongoing shortage of qualified teachers to accept positions in the profession (Camp, Broyles, & Skelton, 2002). This dilemma is no more apparent than in Florida, where in 2002, 11 agricultural education students completed undergraduate requirements for certification and entered the teaching profession. In the meantime, the number of agricultural teaching openings grew to approximately 40 statewide (J. Dyer, personal communication, September 23, 2003). Due to this lack of sufficient university-prepared teacher candidates, school administrators hired uncertified teachers to fill vacancies that might otherwise go unfilled (Roberts & Dyer, 2003). This phenomenon is not unique to agricultural education in Florida where in 2001, 20 percent of newly hired vocational teachers were not certified in the field to which they were assigned to teach. This represents a significant increase from prior years as this percentage has nearly doubled in the past decade (Florida Department of Education, 2002). This situation has created uncertainty about the state of agricultural education in Florida, particularly in regard to uncertified teachers’ abilities to effectively deliver curricula, supervise agricultural experience programs, and advise FFA leadership programs and events (McLean & Camp, 2000). Unfortunately, agricultural education is not unique in facing this challenge. The Florida Department of Education (2002) reported critical secondary teacher shortages existed in the subjects of mathematics, science, special education, English for speakers of other languages (ESOL), foreign language, and technology education/industrial arts. To meet the demand for teachers, many states have resorted to alternative means of teacher certification in hopes of recruiting Rocca & Washburn Comparison of Teacher Efficacy... Journal of Agricultural Education 59 Volume 47, Number 3, 2006 more teachers into the field. In 2005, 47 states and the District of Columbia reported having some type of alternative certification process for elementary and secondary teachers. These states reported approximately 538 certification programs other than traditional university teacher education programs exist in the United States (National Center for Education Information, 2005). The influx of alternatively certified teachers entering the teaching profession has stimulated researchers to investigate possible implications, with many studies reflecting better performance from traditionally certified teachers (Nakai & Turley, 2003). In their study of 3,000 beginning teachers, Darling-Hammond, Chung, and Frelow (2002) found that traditionally prepared teachers were more successful and more highly rated than teachers who entered teaching through alternative programs or without preparation. Furthermore, traditionally prepared teachers were found to be superior to alternatively prepared teachers in nearly every dimension of teaching, classroom management, curriculum and assessment development, use of teaching strategies, awareness of differing learning styles, and their knowledge of students. Ashton (1996) came to a similar conclusion finding that state certified teachers received higher supervisor ratings and had higher student achievement than those who did not meet state certification standards. Conversely, Miller, McKenna, and McKenna (1998) concluded from their comparison of traditionally and alternatively certified teachers that after a three-year period, no distinguishable differences in observable teaching behaviors, student achievement, or self-perceived teacher competence were evident. In their examination of numerous teacher characteristics and student achievement studies, Wayne and Youngs (2003) found that while students learned more from teachers with certain characteristics, results for teacher certification were inconclusive in all subjects except mathematics. Goldhaber and Brewer found that students whose teachers had a bachelor’s degree in mathematics learned more than students whose teachers had bachelor’s degrees in nonmathematical subjects (as cited by Wayne & Youngs, 2003). Although the aforementioned studies have shown to be inconclusive in many fields of education, a review of the agricultural education literature revealed no such research. Agricultural education is a unique field requiring various competencies not typical in other academic areas (Harper, Weiser, & Armstrong, 1990). The comprehensive agricultural education program includes experiential learning and leadership development components not found in any other discipline (Phipps & Osborne, 1988). These additional program components provide unique challenges for agriculture teachers. The added expectations make agriculture teachers different from any population studied in other disciplines. Even with additional expectations and responsibilities, effective agricultural teachers feel capable of handling the challenges associated with teaching agriculture and they cope easily with the changing situations in the classroom environment (Miller, Kahler, & Rheault, 1989). Furthermore, Miller and colleagues reported that effective agriculture teachers were found to be older than the average agriculture teacher and possessed more teaching experience. Knobloch and Whittington (2002) found novice agriculture teachers who had teaching and student teaching experience were more confident than teachers with a lack of such experience. These findings were consistent with a 2003 analysis of the School and Staffing Survey (SASS) data, in which Ingersoll found that new teachers who had pedagogical preparation as well as more clinical practice before they began teaching were more likely to stay in teaching (as cited by Dow & Webb, 2003). Yet, Wilson, Floden, and Ferrini-Mundy (2001) reported that over twenty percent of new teachers in Florida had no student teaching experience, a component of preparation that most novice teachers rate as the most essential. What effect, if any, does a lack of teacher training and experience have on a teacher’s confidence and beliefs about their Rocca & Washburn Comparison of Teacher Efficacy... Journal of Agricultural Education 60 Volume 47, Number 3, 2006 teaching abilities and effectiveness? The educational theorist, Albert Bandura, has conducted extensive research in this area related to social learning theory and selfefficacy. This study used Bandura’s theory of teacher efficacy as its theoretical frame. The conceptual framework constructed in this study was based on the premise that teachers with higher levels of perceived teacher efficacy tend to be more motivated, effective, engaging, persistent, and remain in the profession longer than those with low levels of perceived teacher efficacy. Teacher efficacy is defined as a selfperceived belief of one’s capabilities to bring about desired outcomes, even with students who are unmotivated or present discipline problems (Bandura, 1977). Teacher efficacy has been found to be related to teacher behavior, effort, enthusiasm, innovation, planning, perseverance, resilience, willingness to work with difficult students, and their commitment to the teaching profession (Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy, & Hoy, 1998). Teacher efficacy has implications on learning environment management as well. Teachers who believe strongly in their teaching efficacy tend to rely on persuasory means rather than authoritarian control, and to support development of students’ intrinsic interest and academic self-directedness (Bandura, 1997). Miller et al. (1989) found motivated and confident teachers were more effective. Teacher efficacy has also been found to impact student performance. Students exhibited greater motivation, achieved more, and had a higher level of self-efficacy when their teacher possessed a higher level of teacher efficacy (Ashton & Webb, 1986; Guskey & Passaro, 1994). Bandura (1997) also found that teachers’ perceptions of the school environment and culture affected their beliefs about their ability to be effective in the classroom. Ashton and Webb (1986) found heavy workloads, bureaucratic practices, variable quality of leadership, insufficient resources and pay, lack of advancement opportunities, problematic students, and low occupational status are just some of the common problems faced by all educators. These challenging school conditions coupled with a lack of confidence may have detrimental effects on a te