Parent Involvement as a Predictor of Teacher–Child Relationship Quality in Third Grade

Research Findings: Research on teacher–child relationships is important, as the quality of this relationship is linked to numerous child outcomes in the areas of academic and social functioning. In addition, parent involvement has been identified as a significant factor in the successful development of a child. This study attempted to join these two lines of research by assessing the extent to which teacher–child relationship quality varies as a function of parent involvement. We used a sample of 894 third-grade children, mothers, and teachers from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Study of Early Child Care. Regression analyses were conducted to examine the relation between teacher–child relationships and parent involvement while controlling for known determinants of teacher–child relationship quality (i.e., gender and income). All variables were significantly related to teacher–child relationship quality. Parent involvement was negatively related to conflict. Furthermore, more parent involvement predicted less teacher– child conflict, but only for children from low-income families. Practice or Policy: The results are discussed in terms of the importance of parent involvement to children’s school adjustment, with specific importance for parents of low-income children. A critical aspect of a child’s healthy development is the formation of positive relationships with others. One relationship that can significantly enhance a child’s school and social functioning is the teacher–child relationship (Baker, 2006; Hamre & Pianta, 2005; Ladd, Birch, & Buhs, 1999; Pianta & Stuhlman, 2004). The quality of this relationship is influenced by both biologically based characteristics (Baker, 2006; Kesner, 2000; Rudasill, Rimm-Kaufman, Justice, & 846 Wy r i c k & rud as i ll i n Ea r l y Edu c a t i on & dE vE l o pm E nt 20 (2009) Pence, 2006) and environmental characteristics (O’Connor & McCartney, 2006; Pianta et al., 2005). One environmental characteristic that has been rarely examined in regard to the teacher–child relationship is level of parent involvement. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which parent involvement contributes to the quality of the teacher–child relationship. For the purposes of this study, parent involvement refers to a combination of a parent’s actions, such as attendance at school meetings, and interactions with teachers, school personnel, and other parents (Barton, Drake, Perez, St. Louis, & George, 2004). The importance of teacher–child relationships and the contributions of parent involvement to the quality of these relationships can be better understood when placed in the larger context of a bioecological model of development (Bronfenbrenner& Morris, 1998). This model emphasizes a set of nested structures with the child at the center. The microsystem comprises the activities, social roles, and interpersonal relationships directly experienced by the developing child and encompasses the child’s relationships both at home and at school. Together, characteristics of the child (e.g., gender and socioeconomic status) and the environment (e.g., quality of parent relationship) influence development, and the quality of interactions between the child and the environment (e.g., teacher) can either buffer or exacerbate the child’s risks for maladjustment. The child is also affected indirectly by elements of the mesosystem, which comprises the interactions between two or more settings of the microsystem. Just as a child’s relationships at home and at school are important to development, the interactions between home and school contribute to healthy development (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998). Thus, the bioecological model illustrates the importance of considering interactions within and between systems when understanding positive outcomes for children. The current study is an examination of relationships between two microsystems. That is, we investigate the quality of the relationship between a child’s home and school microsystems. Specifically, we investigate how one aspect of the home microsystem (parent involvement) contributes to one aspect of the school microsystem (the teacher–child relationship). The quality of the teacher–child relationship has been identified as critical to academic and social outcomes of children (Hamre & Pianta, 2005; Hughes, Cavell, & Willson, 2001; Murray & Greenberg, 2000; Pianta, Nimetz, & Bennett, 1997). For example, Pianta et al. (1997) found that more positive teacher– child relationships are associated with children’s higher scores on a test of ageappropriate concepts and language and higher teacher ratings of competence and work habits among 4-year-olds. Murray and Greenberg found that highquality teacher–child relationships (i.e., those in which children perceived their teachers as being emotionally supportive and responsive) promote children’s positive social and emotional adjustment during elementary school. Emotional support, such as being aware of and responsive to student needs and creating Parent involvement and teacher–child relationshiP Quality in third Grade 847 a positive classroom climate, also contributes to increased academic achievement and less conflict with teachers in later grades (Hamre & Pianta, 2005). In addition, high-quality teacher– child relationships further promote children’s positive social adjustment in third and fourth grades, because peers tend to show greater social preference for children who receive more support from the teacher (Hughes et al., 2001). Teacher–child relationship quality is often evaluated in terms of conflict and closeness. Conflict generally refers to the degree to which a teacher feels the relationship with the child is characterized by hostile and intense interactions. Closeness refers to the extent to which the relationship is felt to be warm, to be affectionate, and to contain open communication (Pianta, 1999; Pianta, Steinberg, & Rollins, 1995). Each of these characteristics contributes uniquely to a child’s academic and social development. Among children in elementary grades, relationships that are high in conflict contribute to school avoidance and less cooperative participation (Birch & Ladd, 1997), fewer positive work habits (e.g., listening, participation, and compliance) and more disciplinary infractions (Hamre & Pianta, 2001), lower academic performance (DiLalla, Marcus, & Wright-Phillips, 2004; Pianta & Stuhlman, 2004), increased externalizing and internalizing behavior problems, and lower social competence (Pianta & Stuhlman, 2004). A high level of conflict has been linked more strongly than the level of teacher– child closeness to school outcomes for children in elementary school (Baker, 2006; Ladd et al., 1999). For example, Baker found that compared to close relationships, conflictual teacher–child relationships account for more variance in academic achievement and positive work behaviors (e.g., adjustment to the norms, routines, and expectations of the classroom) for children in elementary school. Even so, teacher–child closeness has been linked to several positive outcomes for kindergarten children, such as increased visual and language scores and greater self-directedness (i.e., the extent of a child’s independent or self-directed behavior in the classroom; Birch & Ladd, 1997). The level of closeness is also related to higher academic ratings and social competence for children in preschool through first grade (Pianta & Stuhlman, 2004). Children in kindergarten who develop a close relationship with teachers are more likely to have independent and cooperative styles of classroom participation, such as complying with classroom rules and displaying independent behaviors in the classroom, which can lead to higher levels of achievement (Ladd et al., 1999). The level of closeness in relationships with teachers may also impact children differently depending on ethnicity and behavioral characteristics. Burchinal, Peisner-Feinberg, Pianta, and Howes (2002) found that, for preschool minority children only, a close relationship with the teacher predicts better reading skills. In another study related to behavioral characteristics, a close relationship with a teacher served as a protective factor by increasing academic and social performance for elementary school children with behavior problems (Baker, 2006). Taken together, this research indicates that children with positive, supportive, 848 Wy r i c k & rud as i ll i n Ea r l y Edu c a t i on & dE vE l o pm E nt 20 (2009) and nonconflictual relationships with teachers are more likely to experience greater academic and social success. Within the context of the bioecological theory of development, the teacher– child relationship can be conceptualized as developing from interactions between the child and the teacher. The nature of these interactions is affected by characteristics of the teacher and the child. Teachers bring various practices, perceptions, and beliefs to the classroom that can influence interactions with students. Indeed, teacher characteristics account for more variance than preschool children’s temperament characteristics in teacher–child conflict and dependency (Rudasill et al., 2006). Kindergarten and first-grade teachers who expressed negative affect toward students in narratives about their students are more likely to have negative encounters in the classroom (Stuhlman & Pianta, 2001). In addition, among preschool and kindergarten teachers, lower levels of stress, the selection of flexible and developmentally appropriate instructional activities, and higher levels of training (i.e., 4-year degree and teacher certificate) have all been found to contribute to higher levels of quality in teacher– child relationships (Mantzicopoulos, 2005; Pianta et al., 2005). Child characteristics also contribute to the quality of the teacher–child relationship. For example, results from many studies h