Computers and 2D geometric learning of Turkish fourth and fifth graders

This research investigated the possible impacts of computers on Turkish fourth-grade students’ geometry scores and further geometric learning. The study used a pretest–intervention–posttest experimental design. Results showed that students who did not have computers at home initially had lower geometry scores. However, these differences were minimised with an appropriate intervention containing computer-based Tangram puzzles. This suggests that at schools, it seems more effective to integrate mathematical content and technology in a manner that enables students to do playful mathematical discoveries. Introduction Social disadvantage may be an educational handicap, which may lead to further social disadvantages. Students living in poor socio-economic areas usually have limited access to some educational resources such as computers (Olkun & Altun, 2003; Webster & Fisher, 2000). The visual nature of computers can help students develop skills useful in learning subjects with visual content such as geometry. Therefore, the current study aimed at investigating the differences a computer made on students’ geometry scores and their further learning of two-dimensional (2D) geometry. Background literature Mathematics, computers, and future success In many countries, achievement in mathematics is an important factor for students’ career development. For example, mathematics is one of the subject areas with a high proportion of items on the University Entrance Examination in Turkey. Furthermore, geometry questions occupy nearly 40% of the mathematics section in this exam. There318 British Journal of Educational Technology Vol 36 No 2 2005 © British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 2005. fore, students need a good score in math to be admitted to colleges. Similarly, Fetto (2002) reports that in the USA, half of the students who scored in the upper quartile of their class in eight-grade mathematics went on to earn bachelor’s degrees, and 9% received master’s degrees. By comparison, only 23% of those who had average eightgrade mathematics scores now have a bachelor’s degree, and just 2% have a master’s degree. Literacy and numeracy have long been recognised as a qualification in both schools and workplaces (FitzSimons, 2001). Recently, however, equally strong emphasis has been placed on visual literacy, especially with the prominence of computer technologies. An important dimension in visual literacy is spatial thinking, which supports numerical reasoning and visual judgments (Battista et al , 1998). For example, Wheatley and Reynolds (1996) found close parallels between student tiling and numerical activity. Similarly, Battista and Clements (1998) claimed that there was a synergistic effect between numerical and spatial thinking. Given the importance of mathematics, geometry, and spatial thinking on educational success, it is important to find better ways to teach them. There is ample evidence that real and virtual manipulatives can help elementary school children learn mathematics better (Clements, 1999). Yet computers are still rarely used in the classroom to teach mathematics even in so-called developed countries, such as the USA (Flores et al , 2002). On the other hand, many students in the USA have at least one computer at home. Although we do not know the exact percentages in the wider population, in one study whilst 98% of the US 10-year-olds had computers at home, only 25% of the Turkish students had them (Authors, unpublished manuscript). In another survey, Facer et al (forthcoming) found that 70% of the children in the UK reported ownership of a home computer. These cross-cultural differences of computer ownership further widen the gap amongst countries as well as amongst social classes. Certain household materials are important socio-economic status (SES) indicators for exploring both individual and school-level educational effects (Yang, 2003). Olkun and Altun (2003) found striking differences amongst schools located in different socioeconomic areas within a province in Turkey in terms of student computer ownership. In one school located in a poor socio-economic rural area, only 4% of the students had computers at home. Seventeen per cent of the students in the other school, located in middle-low socio-economic area, had computers at home. In still another school located in a middle socio-economic area, 27% of the students had computers at home. As the difference in computer ownership is apparent, it seems necessary to investigate the impact of computers on students’ geometry learning. The positive relationship between the SES and student achievement is very well known (see, Yang, 2003). For example, Webster and Fisher (2000) found a strong negative effect of rurality on student mathematics and science achievement. However, they found that in Australia, contrary to common belief, rural schools had more resources than urban schools. They concluded that availability of school resources alone did not Computers and 2D geometric learning of Turkish pupils 319 © British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 2005. significantly effect student achievement in mathematics and science. Similarly, Wenglinsky (1998) claimed that the greatest inequities in computer use were not in how often they were used, but in the ways in which they were used. He further reports that poor, urban, and rural students are less likely to be exposed to higher order uses of computers than nonpoor and suburban students because teachers of urban and rural students are less likely to have had professional development in technology than suburban teachers. Still, one might argue about the other reasons for the relationship between SES and achievement. Breznitz and Norman (1998), for instance, found differences in concentration and academic achievement between low and high SES first grade students. The difference persisted in part to the fourth grade. They attributed the differences in comprehension and arithmetic scores, between the low SES and high SES children, to their concentration abilities. They reported that aggressive–impulsive behaviours, often seen in low SES children, hindered concentration, accentuating learning problems (Breznitz & Norman, 1998). However, using certain educational or otherwise recreational tools such as computers may increase students’ level of engagement in learning because the computer is a key item that provides students with many educational (Clements, 1999; Flores et al , 2002) and interactive recreational opportunities. Attewell and Battle (1998), for example, found a high correlation between home computers and eighth graders’ mathematical achievement. Similarly, the recent Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS, 1999) reports that on average internationally, students from homes with a high level of educational resources such as computers, had higher mathematics achievement than students from homes with fewer resources. However, it remains to be investigated how having a computer at home and certain computer experiences affect students’ mathematics learning. As Wenglinsky (1998) argued, technology may matter, but it depends on how it was used. Therefore, it is particularly important what purposes computers, whether at home or school, are used for. Computers and geometry learning One of the most cited uses of computers at home is game playing (ie, Selwyn, 1998). A recent research by Facer et al (2003) investigated the ways both elementary and secondary school children use home computers. According to the findings, about 75% students, especially younger ones, use computers for playing games (at least once a week). Rapid developments in hardware technology, increasing capacity of affordable hardware, and increasingly realistic computer graphics also make game playing more attractive. Computer games can improve spatial skills important for geometry learning (Battista, 1990) and other academic areas (Humphreys, Lubinski & Yao, 1993; Mcgee, 1978; Pallrand & Seeber, 1984; Pearson & Ferguson, 1989; Pribyl & Bodner, 1987; Smith, 320 British Journal of Educational Technology Vol 36 No 2 2005 © British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 2005. 1964). Computer games can improve mental rotation and spatial visualisation (Gagnon, 1985; Greenfield, 1994; Okagaki & Frensch, 1994), but intermittent results indicate that prior experience and other factors mediate such improvements. Computers can facilitate improvements in spatial skills that may in turn bring more success in geometry. Therefore, the complex relationships between computer ownership, computer treatment, and student geometry learning as part of mathematical achievement bear more investigation.