Temperament and Language Skills as Predictors of Teacher-Child Relationship Quality in Preschool

Current educational policy emphasizes “school readiness” of young children with a premium placed on preschool interventions that facilitate academic and social readiness for children who have had limited learning experiences prior to kindergarten (Rouse, Brooks–Gunn, & McLanahan, 2005). The teacher–child relationship is viewed as a critical mechanism for the effectiveness of interventions (Girolametto, Weitzman, & Greenberg, 2003; National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network, 2003). The purpose of this study was to determine how children’s temperament and language skills predict teacher– child relationship quality. The sample consisted of 99 at-risk preschool students. Three findings emerged: (a) bolder children with lower language complexity were more likely to have higher levels of conflict in their relationships with teachers, (b) shyer children with greater language complexity were more likely to have dependent relationships with their teachers, and (c) teacher effects accounted for more of the variance in conflictual and dependent teacher–child relationships compared to children’s behavioral inhibition and language complexity. This study shows that teacher–child relationships are multirelational. Individual differences in temperament and language skills affect teacher–child interactions, and ultimately, contribute to the effectiveness of classroom interventions. Such information helps to unpack the complexities of classroom quality by increasing awareness among practitioners of factors contributing to positive teacher–child relationships. The current context of educational policy emphasizes “school readiness” of young children. As such, a great premium is placed on designing preschool Rud as i ll et al. i n Ea r l y Edu c a t i on a nd dE vE l o pmE nt 17 (2006) 272 interventions that facilitate academic and social readiness for school, particularly for children who enter elementary school having had limited learning experiences (Rouse, Brooks–Gunn, & McLanahan, 2005). Most preschool intervention approaches emphasize language enhancement as an essential component to academic success. Considering the substantial individual differences among children in this developmental domain, language interventions have become prevalent mechanisms for “leveling the playing field” for children most at risk for school failure. Within “language-rich” or “language-focused” interventions, the teacher–child relationship is viewed by many experts as a critical conduit or mechanism for the effects of intervention (e.g., Girolametto, Weitzman, & Greenberg, 2003; National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network, 2003). Thus, it is critical to consider teacher–child relationship quality as a factor influencing the success of language interventions. To date, few studies have examined such mechanisms, specifically the quality of teacher–child relationships, through which these interventions influence change. Several factors combine to predict the quality of teacher–child relationships. As such, teacher–child relationships are bidirectional, with teacher and child characteristics functioning in concert to influence the quality of this relationship. Both teachers and children, then, bring certain attributes to their relationships. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of specific child attributes on teacher–child relationships. We sought to understand the unique contributions of the child characteristics of temperament (shyness) and language skills (operationalized as language complexity) to the quality of the teacher–child relationship. We address two questions. 1. To what extent do children’s temperament (shyness) and language skills (language complexity) predict the quality of the teacher–child relationship? 2. When controlling for individual differences among teachers, to what extent do children’s temperament (shyness) and language skills (language complexity) predict the quality of the teacher–child relationship? In the following sections, we summarize research in the areas of teacher– child relationships, temperament, and language skills, particularly in relation to the prekindergarten years. TEACHER–CHILD RELATIONSHIPS Positive teacher–child relationships are an important social resource for young children, with clear, positive contributions for child development and acquisition of social and academic skills. Children who have positive relaPR ed i c to R s o f te ac h eR–ch i l d Rel ati o n s h i P Qua li ty i n PR es c h o o l 273 tionships with their teachers are more likely to exhibit competent behavior in the classroom and show signs of readiness to learn (Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Pianta, 1999). This view of the importance of relationships is consistent with Vygotsky’s (1962) premise that learning is a social endeavor and occurs most effectively when interactions occur around a child’s zone of proximal development. In other words, when adults are sensitive, responsive, aware of a child’s growing cognitive abilities, and provide scaffolding to appropriately guide development, children learn best. Therefore, it follows that children who have good relationships with their teachers will experience more productive academic and social development than those children engaged in negative teacher–child relationships, an idea that has been supported both theoretically (Pianta, 1999) and empirically (Hamre & Pianta, 2001). Teachers perceive their relationships with children to be positive when there are low levels of conflict and dependency, and high levels of closeness. Specifically, positive relationships are those in which there is a mutual sense of respect and caring between teachers and children, and where children perceive their teachers as trustworthy and secure bases (Pianta, 1999). Research shows that preschool and early elementary age children who have positive relationships with their teachers perform better on achievement tests (Pianta, Nimetz, & Bennett, 1997), on visual and language measures (Lerner, Lerner, & Zabski, 1985), and have better work habits and grades than children with negative relationships (Hamre & Pianta, 2001). Negative relationships, on the other hand, are those where teachers perceive relationships with children to be overly dependent and conflictual. These are relationships where children and teachers experience regular discord or where children are clingy and demanding, showing excessive reliability on the teacher. Children who have negative relationships with their teachers have poor work habits, low frustration tolerance, low school competence, lower achievement test performance, and avoid school and report loneliness more than those who are in positive relationships (Birch & Ladd, 1997; Pianta et al., 1997). Furthermore, teacher– child relationships in kindergarten predict outcomes through middle school (Hamre & Pianta, 2001), indicating the long-term value of early teacher–child relationships. Teacher–child relationships are best considered in terms of bidirectionality, in that relationship quality reflects both teachers’ and children’s characteristics. This bidirectional influence can be viewed in terms of a “goodness-of-fit” paradigm, implying that both teachers and children contribute to the degree to which children are at ease in the classroom. Pianta’s (1999) model of the teacher–child relationship process represents the teacher and child as two separate entities, each with individual developmental history, biological factors, and experiences in relationships. Information exchange processes link the teacher and child and refer to the interactive behaviors between the two. All of these features are integrated within a relationship system between teacher and child (Rimm–Kaufman, 2003). When examining the teacher–child relationship, then, there are two aspects to underRud as i ll et al. i n Ea r l y Edu c a t i on a nd dE vE l o pmE nt 17 (2006) 274 stand: what the child brings to the relationship (child attributes such as behavioral inhibition and language complexity) and what the teacher brings (beliefs, perceptions). Attributes Contributing to Teacher–Child Relationships Teacher–child relationship quality is determined by both teacher characteristics and expectations and child characteristics. There is ample evidence suggesting that teachers’ perceptions of students influence the quality of the teacher–child relationship (Buss, Gingles, & Price, 1993; Evans, 1992, 1996; Saft & Pianta, 2001; Stuhlman & Pianta, 2002). Saft and Pianta found that teachers’ perceptions of their relationships with students are related to both child and teacher attributes. Combinations of attributes, such as child and teacher ethnicity, had the most predictive power over aspects of teacher–child relationship quality. When teacher and child ethnicity matched, teachers had more positive feelings toward students. Zeller (2004) found that teachers’ childhood attachment histories and depression levels were both related to teachers’ perceptions of teacher–child relationship quality when child attributes were also considered. Specifically, Zeller found that teachers expressing more feelings of depression were also more likely to feel close to their students, indicating that perceptions of relationship quality are colored in part by teachers’ emotional states. Taken together, this research suggests that teacher qualities and characteristics contribute to the quality of the teacher–child relationship. Child characteristics also contribute to teacher–child relationship quality. Certain child characteristics seem to facilitate successful adjustment to school, and teachers may unwittingly award greater academic confidence to those students who respond well to the demands of school (Buss et al., 1993; Keogh, 2003; Lerner et al., 1985). These child characteristics, as they are perceived by teachers, influence the nature of tea