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Question ID:PT90 S1 Q7 Passage:A major problem facing industrial societies is their exponentially increasing production of toxic waste. Environmental regulations and expenses for landfills and incinerators have increased significantly in recent years. In an effort to save time and money, many industries have turned to alternative methods of hazardous-waste disposal, including increased use of deep-well injection. In this method, wells are drilled into porous and permeable rock strata that are already saturated with salt water. Liquid wastes are then injected into the rock strata. Most of these wells are drilled to a depth of at least 300 meters‚ the minimum depth that generally puts the injected waste at a safe distance below any aquifer, in this case a rock stratum containing drinkable water. Such wells are rarely deeper than 1,800 meters, because below this depth it is more cost-effective to consider an alternative method of disposal. Deep-well injection, which has been used to some extent since the 1930s, has become a matter of controversy as growing numbers of communities come to rely on underground sources of drinking water. The controversy arises because there are three serious problems with this method of waste disposal.Under the best conditions, wastes are injected into rock strata saturated with salt water and separated by impermeable rock strata from aquifers containing drinkable water. However, injection wells may leak, allowing significant amounts of noxious chemicals to mix with supplies of drinking water. In other cases, mistakes by personnel working on the wells may lead to the pollution of aquifers. In one such case, workers installing a 500-meter-deep well left a gap along approximately 30 meters of its steel casing. This allowed waste to escape at a depth of only 200 meters, threatening a regional aquifer supplying water to 100,000 people. Because such accidents take place deep within the earth, people may be exposed to dangerous levels of waste materials for long periods of time before the problem is even discovered.The third problem associated with deep-well injection arises from the fact that it is nearly impossible to predict how the injected wastes will be acted on by the geological features of the injection area. Unlike surface water, the water in underground rock strata does not flow entirely under the influence of gravity. Moving along subterranean pressure gradients, it can flow in any direction and, in some cases, can be transported thousands of meters per year through geologic faults, porous rock, or other geologic formations.The significant uncertainty about where injected wastes will flow, along with the possibilities of mechanical failure and human error, makes deep-well injection a risky means of managing hazardous wastes. Unfortunately, as societies produce more toxic waste, industry will rely increasingly upon this relatively cheap, efficient means of disposal. Stem:Based on the passage, which one of the following most accurately describes the ideal characteristics of an underground area suitable for the deep-well injection of hazardous wastes? Correct Answer Choice:BChoice A:At 300 meters or more below the surface, the area contains a layer of impermeable rock below which there are no permeable layers. Choice B:At 300 meters or more below the surface, the area contains a layer of permeable rock above which there is a layer of impermeable rock. Choice C:The area contains one or more layers of impermeable rock extending from near the surface to a depth of at least 300 meters. Choice D:At a depth of 300 meters or less, the area contains an aquifer into which water flows. Choice E:The area contains a layer of impermeable rock overlain by a layer of permeable rock at a depth of 1,800 meters or more.

PT90 S1 Q7

Question ID:PT90 S1 Q8 Passage:Native American stories often feature a character called the trickster, a comic figure who has both mortal weaknesses and supernatural powers. Recently, the term "trickster" has also appeared in criticism of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century European literature, particularly in reference to the picaresque novel and its central character, the picaro (Spanish for "rogue"): both the picaro and the trickster are heroes of episodic adventures, and both live on the peripheries of society and are morally flawed.Yet closer examination reveals that applying the term "trickster" to both characters obscures essential differences between them. The picaro‚ typically a male character‚ operates primarily as an agent of satire. Most commonly, the picaro's adventures begin when he spontaneously yields to his own roguish, though innocent, impulses. The picaro indulges in vices and follies with relish and freedom, much to the outrage of other members of society, who often secretly indulge in similar pastimes out of a habitual compulsion. Thus the picaro's authenticity serves as a foil to the perceived hypocrisy of conventional society. To such a society, the picaro can represent a dangerous, disruptive freedom, and it reacts by marginalizing him. It is in that distance‚ between the ostensibly disreputable freedom of the picaro and the hypocrisy of the safely ensconced social being‚ that the satire occurs.But the trickster, usually an animal acting as a human agent, does not serve a satiric function. For while the picaresque novel takes place in and satirizes human society, the trickster operates in the ahistorical world of myth; where the targets of the picaresque novel are the idiosyncrasies and inconsistencies of a historical human society, trickster stories seek, using the trickster's negative example, to instruct listeners about moral behavior of individuals. In fact, whatever flaws the trickster reveals are thoroughly the trickster's own. They are not a foil to a corrupt society; they are instead essential to who the trickster is. The trickster is a comic figure precisely because of these somewhat irrational, compulsive, and foolish‚ in short, mortal‚ actions. Similarly, the trickster is a socially peripheral character not by being forced to the periphery by a hypocritical society, but rather because the trickster's thoroughly flawed character makes the trickster fundamentally antisocial, even anarchic, all the while helping listeners to avoid these flaws.It is this combination of mythic setting and mortal weakness that determines the particular targets of the trickster's comic high jinks: the eternal and unchanging foibles of mortal beings. In one story, for example, a coyote trickster falls in love with a star. The trickster is quite tenacious and human, even though the object of desire is beyond reasonable mortal possibility. In the end the star takes the trickster up into the sky, only to let the trickster fall back to Earth; the story's listeners realize that the trickster has gotten a comeuppance for reaching beyond proper limits, but all the while they recognize in themselves the trickster's extravagant hopes. Stem:The passage provides the most support for inferring that conventional society as portrayed in picaresque novels perceives the picaro as representing a dangerous, disruptive freedom for which one of the following reasons? Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:The picaro has the potential to inflict physical injury on society members. Choice B:The picaro threatens to upset long-standing political structures. Choice C:The picaro has been marginalized by conventional society. Choice D:The picaro threatens to force society to face its hypocrisy. Choice E:The picaro suffers no consequences for indulging in his vices.

PT90 S1 Q8

Question ID:PT90 S1 Q9 Passage:Native American stories often feature a character called the trickster, a comic figure who has both mortal weaknesses and supernatural powers. Recently, the term "trickster" has also appeared in criticism of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century European literature, particularly in reference to the picaresque novel and its central character, the picaro (Spanish for "rogue"): both the picaro and the trickster are heroes of episodic adventures, and both live on the peripheries of society and are morally flawed.Yet closer examination reveals that applying the term "trickster" to both characters obscures essential differences between them. The picaro‚ typically a male character‚ operates primarily as an agent of satire. Most commonly, the picaro's adventures begin when he spontaneously yields to his own roguish, though innocent, impulses. The picaro indulges in vices and follies with relish and freedom, much to the outrage of other members of society, who often secretly indulge in similar pastimes out of a habitual compulsion. Thus the picaro's authenticity serves as a foil to the perceived hypocrisy of conventional society. To such a society, the picaro can represent a dangerous, disruptive freedom, and it reacts by marginalizing him. It is in that distance‚ between the ostensibly disreputable freedom of the picaro and the hypocrisy of the safely ensconced social being‚ that the satire occurs.But the trickster, usually an animal acting as a human agent, does not serve a satiric function. For while the picaresque novel takes place in and satirizes human society, the trickster operates in the ahistorical world of myth; where the targets of the picaresque novel are the idiosyncrasies and inconsistencies of a historical human society, trickster stories seek, using the trickster's negative example, to instruct listeners about moral behavior of individuals. In fact, whatever flaws the trickster reveals are thoroughly the trickster's own. They are not a foil to a corrupt society; they are instead essential to who the trickster is. The trickster is a comic figure precisely because of these somewhat irrational, compulsive, and foolish‚ in short, mortal‚ actions. Similarly, the trickster is a socially peripheral character not by being forced to the periphery by a hypocritical society, but rather because the trickster's thoroughly flawed character makes the trickster fundamentally antisocial, even anarchic, all the while helping listeners to avoid these flaws.It is this combination of mythic setting and mortal weakness that determines the particular targets of the trickster's comic high jinks: the eternal and unchanging foibles of mortal beings. In one story, for example, a coyote trickster falls in love with a star. The trickster is quite tenacious and human, even though the object of desire is beyond reasonable mortal possibility. In the end the star takes the trickster up into the sky, only to let the trickster fall back to Earth; the story's listeners realize that the trickster has gotten a comeuppance for reaching beyond proper limits, but all the while they recognize in themselves the trickster's extravagant hopes. Stem:Based on the author's view in the passage, applying the term "trickster" to the character of the picaro is most similar to which one of the following? Correct Answer Choice:BChoice A:claiming that someone supports an extreme political view when it is clear that the person supports a centrist view Choice B:characterizing the panda as a bear based on superficial similarities when a deeper understanding shows it to be related instead to the raccoon Choice C:calling a court decision a milestone as a way of suggesting metaphorically that the decision is significant Choice D:classifying a species of pine tree as an evergreen even though many of its needles turn brown and fall off during certain seasons Choice E:describing a common weed as aggressive because it outcompetes certain garden flowers for sun and water

PT90 S1 Q9

Question ID:PT90 S1 Q10 Passage:Native American stories often feature a character called the trickster, a comic figure who has both mortal weaknesses and supernatural powers. Recently, the term "trickster" has also appeared in criticism of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century European literature, particularly in reference to the picaresque novel and its central character, the picaro (Spanish for "rogue"): both the picaro and the trickster are heroes of episodic adventures, and both live on the peripheries of society and are morally flawed.Yet closer examination reveals that applying the term "trickster" to both characters obscures essential differences between them. The picaro‚ typically a male character‚ operates primarily as an agent of satire. Most commonly, the picaro's adventures begin when he spontaneously yields to his own roguish, though innocent, impulses. The picaro indulges in vices and follies with relish and freedom, much to the outrage of other members of society, who often secretly indulge in similar pastimes out of a habitual compulsion. Thus the picaro's authenticity serves as a foil to the perceived hypocrisy of conventional society. To such a society, the picaro can represent a dangerous, disruptive freedom, and it reacts by marginalizing him. It is in that distance‚ between the ostensibly disreputable freedom of the picaro and the hypocrisy of the safely ensconced social being‚ that the satire occurs.But the trickster, usually an animal acting as a human agent, does not serve a satiric function. For while the picaresque novel takes place in and satirizes human society, the trickster operates in the ahistorical world of myth; where the targets of the picaresque novel are the idiosyncrasies and inconsistencies of a historical human society, trickster stories seek, using the trickster's negative example, to instruct listeners about moral behavior of individuals. In fact, whatever flaws the trickster reveals are thoroughly the trickster's own. They are not a foil to a corrupt society; they are instead essential to who the trickster is. The trickster is a comic figure precisely because of these somewhat irrational, compulsive, and foolish‚ in short, mortal‚ actions. Similarly, the trickster is a socially peripheral character not by being forced to the periphery by a hypocritical society, but rather because the trickster's thoroughly flawed character makes the trickster fundamentally antisocial, even anarchic, all the while helping listeners to avoid these flaws.It is this combination of mythic setting and mortal weakness that determines the particular targets of the trickster's comic high jinks: the eternal and unchanging foibles of mortal beings. In one story, for example, a coyote trickster falls in love with a star. The trickster is quite tenacious and human, even though the object of desire is beyond reasonable mortal possibility. In the end the star takes the trickster up into the sky, only to let the trickster fall back to Earth; the story's listeners realize that the trickster has gotten a comeuppance for reaching beyond proper limits, but all the while they recognize in themselves the trickster's extravagant hopes. Stem:The author of the passage states that the flaws of the trickster are not a foil to a corrupt society (middle of the third paragraph) primarily in order to Correct Answer Choice:CChoice A:demonstrate that the trickster is a comic figure with supernatural powers Choice B:allude to the functional similarities between the trickster and the picaro Choice C:contrast the role of the trickster with that of the picaro Choice D:illustrate how the trickster is used to engage in social commentary Choice E:emphasize the disruptive, anarchic character of the trickster

PT90 S1 Q10

Question ID:PT90 S1 Q11 Passage:Native American stories often feature a character called the trickster, a comic figure who has both mortal weaknesses and supernatural powers. Recently, the term "trickster" has also appeared in criticism of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century European literature, particularly in reference to the picaresque novel and its central character, the picaro (Spanish for "rogue"): both the picaro and the trickster are heroes of episodic adventures, and both live on the peripheries of society and are morally flawed.Yet closer examination reveals that applying the term "trickster" to both characters obscures essential differences between them. The picaro‚ typically a male character‚ operates primarily as an agent of satire. Most commonly, the picaro's adventures begin when he spontaneously yields to his own roguish, though innocent, impulses. The picaro indulges in vices and follies with relish and freedom, much to the outrage of other members of society, who often secretly indulge in similar pastimes out of a habitual compulsion. Thus the picaro's authenticity serves as a foil to the perceived hypocrisy of conventional society. To such a society, the picaro can represent a dangerous, disruptive freedom, and it reacts by marginalizing him. It is in that distance‚ between the ostensibly disreputable freedom of the picaro and the hypocrisy of the safely ensconced social being‚ that the satire occurs.But the trickster, usually an animal acting as a human agent, does not serve a satiric function. For while the picaresque novel takes place in and satirizes human society, the trickster operates in the ahistorical world of myth; where the targets of the picaresque novel are the idiosyncrasies and inconsistencies of a historical human society, trickster stories seek, using the trickster's negative example, to instruct listeners about moral behavior of individuals. In fact, whatever flaws the trickster reveals are thoroughly the trickster's own. They are not a foil to a corrupt society; they are instead essential to who the trickster is. The trickster is a comic figure precisely because of these somewhat irrational, compulsive, and foolish‚ in short, mortal‚ actions. Similarly, the trickster is a socially peripheral character not by being forced to the periphery by a hypocritical society, but rather because the trickster's thoroughly flawed character makes the trickster fundamentally antisocial, even anarchic, all the while helping listeners to avoid these flaws.It is this combination of mythic setting and mortal weakness that determines the particular targets of the trickster's comic high jinks: the eternal and unchanging foibles of mortal beings. In one story, for example, a coyote trickster falls in love with a star. The trickster is quite tenacious and human, even though the object of desire is beyond reasonable mortal possibility. In the end the star takes the trickster up into the sky, only to let the trickster fall back to Earth; the story's listeners realize that the trickster has gotten a comeuppance for reaching beyond proper limits, but all the while they recognize in themselves the trickster's extravagant hopes. Stem:Based on the passage, the author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements about the literary criticism mentioned in the second sentence of the first paragraph? Correct Answer Choice:EChoice A:It has systematically denigrated the literary traditions of Native Americans. Choice B:Its use of the trickster appellation has nothing to do with the Native American trickster character. Choice C:Its reading of picaresque novels is at odds with its reading of Native American trickster stories. Choice D:It reflects an attempt to be precise in the use of literary terminology. Choice E:It bases its analysis on an incomplete understanding of trickster stories.

PT90 S1 Q11

Question ID:PT90 S1 Q12 Passage:Native American stories often feature a character called the trickster, a comic figure who has both mortal weaknesses and supernatural powers. Recently, the term "trickster" has also appeared in criticism of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century European literature, particularly in reference to the picaresque novel and its central character, the picaro (Spanish for "rogue"): both the picaro and the trickster are heroes of episodic adventures, and both live on the peripheries of society and are morally flawed.Yet closer examination reveals that applying the term "trickster" to both characters obscures essential differences between them. The picaro‚ typically a male character‚ operates primarily as an agent of satire. Most commonly, the picaro's adventures begin when he spontaneously yields to his own roguish, though innocent, impulses. The picaro indulges in vices and follies with relish and freedom, much to the outrage of other members of society, who often secretly indulge in similar pastimes out of a habitual compulsion. Thus the picaro's authenticity serves as a foil to the perceived hypocrisy of conventional society. To such a society, the picaro can represent a dangerous, disruptive freedom, and it reacts by marginalizing him. It is in that distance‚ between the ostensibly disreputable freedom of the picaro and the hypocrisy of the safely ensconced social being‚ that the satire occurs.But the trickster, usually an animal acting as a human agent, does not serve a satiric function. For while the picaresque novel takes place in and satirizes human society, the trickster operates in the ahistorical world of myth; where the targets of the picaresque novel are the idiosyncrasies and inconsistencies of a historical human society, trickster stories seek, using the trickster's negative example, to instruct listeners about moral behavior of individuals. In fact, whatever flaws the trickster reveals are thoroughly the trickster's own. They are not a foil to a corrupt society; they are instead essential to who the trickster is. The trickster is a comic figure precisely because of these somewhat irrational, compulsive, and foolish‚ in short, mortal‚ actions. Similarly, the trickster is a socially peripheral character not by being forced to the periphery by a hypocritical society, but rather because the trickster's thoroughly flawed character makes the trickster fundamentally antisocial, even anarchic, all the while helping listeners to avoid these flaws.It is this combination of mythic setting and mortal weakness that determines the particular targets of the trickster's comic high jinks: the eternal and unchanging foibles of mortal beings. In one story, for example, a coyote trickster falls in love with a star. The trickster is quite tenacious and human, even though the object of desire is beyond reasonable mortal possibility. In the end the star takes the trickster up into the sky, only to let the trickster fall back to Earth; the story's listeners realize that the trickster has gotten a comeuppance for reaching beyond proper limits, but all the while they recognize in themselves the trickster's extravagant hopes. Stem:In the context of the passage, which one of the following most accurately captures the meaning of the term "authenticity" in the middle of the second paragraph? Correct Answer Choice:EChoice A:conforming to an original Choice B:having certain essential features Choice C:behaving as others do Choice D:inspiring absolute trust Choice E:following one's natural inclinations

PT90 S1 Q12

Question ID:PT90 S1 Q13 Passage:Native American stories often feature a character called the trickster, a comic figure who has both mortal weaknesses and supernatural powers. Recently, the term "trickster" has also appeared in criticism of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century European literature, particularly in reference to the picaresque novel and its central character, the picaro (Spanish for "rogue"): both the picaro and the trickster are heroes of episodic adventures, and both live on the peripheries of society and are morally flawed.Yet closer examination reveals that applying the term "trickster" to both characters obscures essential differences between them. The picaro‚ typically a male character‚ operates primarily as an agent of satire. Most commonly, the picaro's adventures begin when he spontaneously yields to his own roguish, though innocent, impulses. The picaro indulges in vices and follies with relish and freedom, much to the outrage of other members of society, who often secretly indulge in similar pastimes out of a habitual compulsion. Thus the picaro's authenticity serves as a foil to the perceived hypocrisy of conventional society. To such a society, the picaro can represent a dangerous, disruptive freedom, and it reacts by marginalizing him. It is in that distance‚ between the ostensibly disreputable freedom of the picaro and the hypocrisy of the safely ensconced social being‚ that the satire occurs.But the trickster, usually an animal acting as a human agent, does not serve a satiric function. For while the picaresque novel takes place in and satirizes human society, the trickster operates in the ahistorical world of myth; where the targets of the picaresque novel are the idiosyncrasies and inconsistencies of a historical human society, trickster stories seek, using the trickster's negative example, to instruct listeners about moral behavior of individuals. In fact, whatever flaws the trickster reveals are thoroughly the trickster's own. They are not a foil to a corrupt society; they are instead essential to who the trickster is. The trickster is a comic figure precisely because of these somewhat irrational, compulsive, and foolish‚ in short, mortal‚ actions. Similarly, the trickster is a socially peripheral character not by being forced to the periphery by a hypocritical society, but rather because the trickster's thoroughly flawed character makes the trickster fundamentally antisocial, even anarchic, all the while helping listeners to avoid these flaws.It is this combination of mythic setting and mortal weakness that determines the particular targets of the trickster's comic high jinks: the eternal and unchanging foibles of mortal beings. In one story, for example, a coyote trickster falls in love with a star. The trickster is quite tenacious and human, even though the object of desire is beyond reasonable mortal possibility. In the end the star takes the trickster up into the sky, only to let the trickster fall back to Earth; the story's listeners realize that the trickster has gotten a comeuppance for reaching beyond proper limits, but all the while they recognize in themselves the trickster's extravagant hopes. Stem:The author refers to the story concerning the coyote trickster and the star for each of the following reasons EXCEPT: Correct Answer Choice:AChoice A:It provides evidence showing why coyotes make particularly poignant trickster characters. Choice B:It illustrates the claim that the targets of trickster stories are human foibles. Choice C:It supports the assertion that tricksters are comic figures. Choice D:It illustrates a way in which human listeners can identify with the trickster figure. Choice E:It indicates that one typically human trait tricksters can have is extravagant desire.

PT90 S1 Q13

Question ID:PT90 S1 Q14 Passage:Passage A is adapted from an essay by historian Christopher Ricks; passage B is from the introduction, by historian Paulina Kewes, to a book in which Ricks's essay appears.Passage AIn her 1996 history of plagiarism in English Renaissance drama, Laura J. Rosenthal tells us that her purpose is to "question differences between plagiarism, imitation, adaptation, repetition, and originality." But such rhetorical questioning invariably leads to the required postmodern answer: that there is no difference between these things‚ other than that those in power use the opprobrious term "plagiarism" when the work in question emanates from those whom they dislike. Though the book is animated by a political fervor that is clearly moral, the author writes as if a political approach has to extirpate all moral considerations from any discussion of plagiarism. What in moral terms is a matter of honesty or dishonesty‚ plagiarism being dishonest‚ is instead reduced to "the cultural location of the text and the position of the author." The consequence of a historical approach that seeks to "delegitimize" the distinction between imitation and plagiarism is that it demeans and degrades moral thought. That no moral standard is universal does not of itself entail that moral standards are nothing but expressions of power. Moral conventions, though not universal, may be valuable, indispensable, worthy of respect. The extirpation of moral considerations from political histories such as this one is a sad loss to political history.Passage BThe idea of plagiarism, like all ideas, has a history. To earlier generations it had semantic inflections and resonances different from those we recognize today. The varied impulses behind these varying views‚ which have themselves evolved in response to commercial circumstances, new theories of artistic creation, and developments in copyright law‚ have repeatedly complicated judgments of plagiarism. Despite an abiding sense that plagiarism is morally wrong, there has been much fluidity in the way the charge has been applied, and virtually identical acts of illicit appropriation have been sometimes denounced, sometimes excused, and sometimes praised.Christopher Ricks is suspicious of historical approaches to ethical issues; to him, emphasis on change across generations produces an extenuating moral relativism that shields the evil of plagiarism from its due obloquy. But there are historical approaches, and there are historical approaches. Ricks is rightly dismissive of the postmodern reduction of moral standards to expressions of power. And it is also true that there has been some shoddy scholarship that anachronistically projects modern-day ideologies having to do with gender, race, or class onto historically remote controversies. Yet bad history is no argument against history itself. To reconstruct the attitudes of the past is not necessarily to vindicate them. It is merely to acknowledge that whatever we might think is the correct way of apprehending plagiarism‚ and there is hardly a consensus on the matter even today‚ our predecessors may not, and often did not, share our perspectives. Stem:Both passages are concerned with answering which one of the following questions? Correct Answer Choice:EChoice A:How did the modern concept of the author develop in previous centuries? Choice B:During what historical period did moral strictures against plagiarism originate? Choice C:How has the relationship between moral standards and power changed over time? Choice D:What are the significant differences between plagiarism and simple imitation? Choice E:How is the moral dimension of plagiarism to be understood historically?

PT90 S1 Q14

Question ID:PT90 S1 Q15 Passage:Passage A is adapted from an essay by historian Christopher Ricks; passage B is from the introduction, by historian Paulina Kewes, to a book in which Ricks's essay appears.Passage AIn her 1996 history of plagiarism in English Renaissance drama, Laura J. Rosenthal tells us that her purpose is to "question differences between plagiarism, imitation, adaptation, repetition, and originality." But such rhetorical questioning invariably leads to the required postmodern answer: that there is no difference between these things‚ other than that those in power use the opprobrious term "plagiarism" when the work in question emanates from those whom they dislike. Though the book is animated by a political fervor that is clearly moral, the author writes as if a political approach has to extirpate all moral considerations from any discussion of plagiarism. What in moral terms is a matter of honesty or dishonesty‚ plagiarism being dishonest‚ is instead reduced to "the cultural location of the text and the position of the author." The consequence of a historical approach that seeks to "delegitimize" the distinction between imitation and plagiarism is that it demeans and degrades moral thought. That no moral standard is universal does not of itself entail that moral standards are nothing but expressions of power. Moral conventions, though not universal, may be valuable, indispensable, worthy of respect. The extirpation of moral considerations from political histories such as this one is a sad loss to political history.Passage BThe idea of plagiarism, like all ideas, has a history. To earlier generations it had semantic inflections and resonances different from those we recognize today. The varied impulses behind these varying views‚ which have themselves evolved in response to commercial circumstances, new theories of artistic creation, and developments in copyright law‚ have repeatedly complicated judgments of plagiarism. Despite an abiding sense that plagiarism is morally wrong, there has been much fluidity in the way the charge has been applied, and virtually identical acts of illicit appropriation have been sometimes denounced, sometimes excused, and sometimes praised.Christopher Ricks is suspicious of historical approaches to ethical issues; to him, emphasis on change across generations produces an extenuating moral relativism that shields the evil of plagiarism from its due obloquy. But there are historical approaches, and there are historical approaches. Ricks is rightly dismissive of the postmodern reduction of moral standards to expressions of power. And it is also true that there has been some shoddy scholarship that anachronistically projects modern-day ideologies having to do with gender, race, or class onto historically remote controversies. Yet bad history is no argument against history itself. To reconstruct the attitudes of the past is not necessarily to vindicate them. It is merely to acknowledge that whatever we might think is the correct way of apprehending plagiarism‚ and there is hardly a consensus on the matter even today‚ our predecessors may not, and often did not, share our perspectives. Stem:The authors of the two passages would be most likely to agree that Correct Answer Choice:EChoice A:despite widely held beliefs to the contrary, there is no significant difference between plagiarism and imitation Choice B:the fact that no moral position is universal suggests that moral standards are ultimately little more than manifestations of power Choice C:currently widespread views regarding plagiarism are more stringent than the views held by most of our predecessors Choice D:historical scholarship that focuses on changes in attitudes toward plagiarism ultimately absolves plagiarists of responsibility for their actions Choice E:an inferior kind of historical scholarship practiced today has a tendency to project current ideological preoccupations inappropriately onto the past

PT90 S1 Q15

Question ID:PT90 S1 Q16 Passage:Passage A is adapted from an essay by historian Christopher Ricks; passage B is from the introduction, by historian Paulina Kewes, to a book in which Ricks's essay appears.Passage AIn her 1996 history of plagiarism in English Renaissance drama, Laura J. Rosenthal tells us that her purpose is to "question differences between plagiarism, imitation, adaptation, repetition, and originality." But such rhetorical questioning invariably leads to the required postmodern answer: that there is no difference between these things‚ other than that those in power use the opprobrious term "plagiarism" when the work in question emanates from those whom they dislike. Though the book is animated by a political fervor that is clearly moral, the author writes as if a political approach has to extirpate all moral considerations from any discussion of plagiarism. What in moral terms is a matter of honesty or dishonesty‚ plagiarism being dishonest‚ is instead reduced to "the cultural location of the text and the position of the author." The consequence of a historical approach that seeks to "delegitimize" the distinction between imitation and plagiarism is that it demeans and degrades moral thought. That no moral standard is universal does not of itself entail that moral standards are nothing but expressions of power. Moral conventions, though not universal, may be valuable, indispensable, worthy of respect. The extirpation of moral considerations from political histories such as this one is a sad loss to political history.Passage BThe idea of plagiarism, like all ideas, has a history. To earlier generations it had semantic inflections and resonances different from those we recognize today. The varied impulses behind these varying views‚ which have themselves evolved in response to commercial circumstances, new theories of artistic creation, and developments in copyright law‚ have repeatedly complicated judgments of plagiarism. Despite an abiding sense that plagiarism is morally wrong, there has been much fluidity in the way the charge has been applied, and virtually identical acts of illicit appropriation have been sometimes denounced, sometimes excused, and sometimes praised.Christopher Ricks is suspicious of historical approaches to ethical issues; to him, emphasis on change across generations produces an extenuating moral relativism that shields the evil of plagiarism from its due obloquy. But there are historical approaches, and there are historical approaches. Ricks is rightly dismissive of the postmodern reduction of moral standards to expressions of power. And it is also true that there has been some shoddy scholarship that anachronistically projects modern-day ideologies having to do with gender, race, or class onto historically remote controversies. Yet bad history is no argument against history itself. To reconstruct the attitudes of the past is not necessarily to vindicate them. It is merely to acknowledge that whatever we might think is the correct way of apprehending plagiarism‚ and there is hardly a consensus on the matter even today‚ our predecessors may not, and often did not, share our perspectives. Stem:Which one of the following is a central purpose common to both passages? Correct Answer Choice:BChoice A:to trace the historical development of an important idea Choice B:to find fault with a way of approaching a scholarly topic Choice C:to examine shifting scholarly attitudes toward a particular topic Choice D:to explain why a type of scholarship has become dominant Choice E:to argue that a particular book is deeply problematic

PT90 S1 Q16

Question ID:PT90 S1 Q17 Passage:Passage A is adapted from an essay by historian Christopher Ricks; passage B is from the introduction, by historian Paulina Kewes, to a book in which Ricks's essay appears.Passage AIn her 1996 history of plagiarism in English Renaissance drama, Laura J. Rosenthal tells us that her purpose is to "question differences between plagiarism, imitation, adaptation, repetition, and originality." But such rhetorical questioning invariably leads to the required postmodern answer: that there is no difference between these things‚ other than that those in power use the opprobrious term "plagiarism" when the work in question emanates from those whom they dislike. Though the book is animated by a political fervor that is clearly moral, the author writes as if a political approach has to extirpate all moral considerations from any discussion of plagiarism. What in moral terms is a matter of honesty or dishonesty‚ plagiarism being dishonest‚ is instead reduced to "the cultural location of the text and the position of the author." The consequence of a historical approach that seeks to "delegitimize" the distinction between imitation and plagiarism is that it demeans and degrades moral thought. That no moral standard is universal does not of itself entail that moral standards are nothing but expressions of power. Moral conventions, though not universal, may be valuable, indispensable, worthy of respect. The extirpation of moral considerations from political histories such as this one is a sad loss to political history.Passage BThe idea of plagiarism, like all ideas, has a history. To earlier generations it had semantic inflections and resonances different from those we recognize today. The varied impulses behind these varying views‚ which have themselves evolved in response to commercial circumstances, new theories of artistic creation, and developments in copyright law‚ have repeatedly complicated judgments of plagiarism. Despite an abiding sense that plagiarism is morally wrong, there has been much fluidity in the way the charge has been applied, and virtually identical acts of illicit appropriation have been sometimes denounced, sometimes excused, and sometimes praised.Christopher Ricks is suspicious of historical approaches to ethical issues; to him, emphasis on change across generations produces an extenuating moral relativism that shields the evil of plagiarism from its due obloquy. But there are historical approaches, and there are historical approaches. Ricks is rightly dismissive of the postmodern reduction of moral standards to expressions of power. And it is also true that there has been some shoddy scholarship that anachronistically projects modern-day ideologies having to do with gender, race, or class onto historically remote controversies. Yet bad history is no argument against history itself. To reconstruct the attitudes of the past is not necessarily to vindicate them. It is merely to acknowledge that whatever we might think is the correct way of apprehending plagiarism‚ and there is hardly a consensus on the matter even today‚ our predecessors may not, and often did not, share our perspectives. Stem:By using the phrase "political fervor" (first sentence of the second paragraph of passage A), the author of passage A suggests that Rosenthal exhibits Correct Answer Choice:AChoice A:a zealous determination to transform traditional categories of thought Choice B:an intense ambition to exercise influence over public policy Choice C:a powerful desire to foster political revolution Choice D:a passionate eagerness to provoke heated debate Choice E:a heartfelt support for a political party

PT90 S1 Q17

Question ID:PT90 S1 Q18 Passage:Passage A is adapted from an essay by historian Christopher Ricks; passage B is from the introduction, by historian Paulina Kewes, to a book in which Ricks's essay appears.Passage AIn her 1996 history of plagiarism in English Renaissance drama, Laura J. Rosenthal tells us that her purpose is to "question differences between plagiarism, imitation, adaptation, repetition, and originality." But such rhetorical questioning invariably leads to the required postmodern answer: that there is no difference between these things‚ other than that those in power use the opprobrious term "plagiarism" when the work in question emanates from those whom they dislike. Though the book is animated by a political fervor that is clearly moral, the author writes as if a political approach has to extirpate all moral considerations from any discussion of plagiarism. What in moral terms is a matter of honesty or dishonesty‚ plagiarism being dishonest‚ is instead reduced to "the cultural location of the text and the position of the author." The consequence of a historical approach that seeks to "delegitimize" the distinction between imitation and plagiarism is that it demeans and degrades moral thought. That no moral standard is universal does not of itself entail that moral standards are nothing but expressions of power. Moral conventions, though not universal, may be valuable, indispensable, worthy of respect. The extirpation of moral considerations from political histories such as this one is a sad loss to political history.Passage BThe idea of plagiarism, like all ideas, has a history. To earlier generations it had semantic inflections and resonances different from those we recognize today. The varied impulses behind these varying views‚ which have themselves evolved in response to commercial circumstances, new theories of artistic creation, and developments in copyright law‚ have repeatedly complicated judgments of plagiarism. Despite an abiding sense that plagiarism is morally wrong, there has been much fluidity in the way the charge has been applied, and virtually identical acts of illicit appropriation have been sometimes denounced, sometimes excused, and sometimes praised.Christopher Ricks is suspicious of historical approaches to ethical issues; to him, emphasis on change across generations produces an extenuating moral relativism that shields the evil of plagiarism from its due obloquy. But there are historical approaches, and there are historical approaches. Ricks is rightly dismissive of the postmodern reduction of moral standards to expressions of power. And it is also true that there has been some shoddy scholarship that anachronistically projects modern-day ideologies having to do with gender, race, or class onto historically remote controversies. Yet bad history is no argument against history itself. To reconstruct the attitudes of the past is not necessarily to vindicate them. It is merely to acknowledge that whatever we might think is the correct way of apprehending plagiarism‚ and there is hardly a consensus on the matter even today‚ our predecessors may not, and often did not, share our perspectives. Stem:It can be inferred that the author of passage B regards the historical approach of the author of passage A as Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:irresponsible Choice B:incomprehensible Choice C:deceitful Choice D:simplistic Choice E:reprehensible

PT90 S1 Q18

Question ID:PT90 S1 Q19 Passage:Passage A is adapted from an essay by historian Christopher Ricks; passage B is from the introduction, by historian Paulina Kewes, to a book in which Ricks's essay appears.Passage AIn her 1996 history of plagiarism in English Renaissance drama, Laura J. Rosenthal tells us that her purpose is to "question differences between plagiarism, imitation, adaptation, repetition, and originality." But such rhetorical questioning invariably leads to the required postmodern answer: that there is no difference between these things‚ other than that those in power use the opprobrious term "plagiarism" when the work in question emanates from those whom they dislike. Though the book is animated by a political fervor that is clearly moral, the author writes as if a political approach has to extirpate all moral considerations from any discussion of plagiarism. What in moral terms is a matter of honesty or dishonesty‚ plagiarism being dishonest‚ is instead reduced to "the cultural location of the text and the position of the author." The consequence of a historical approach that seeks to "delegitimize" the distinction between imitation and plagiarism is that it demeans and degrades moral thought. That no moral standard is universal does not of itself entail that moral standards are nothing but expressions of power. Moral conventions, though not universal, may be valuable, indispensable, worthy of respect. The extirpation of moral considerations from political histories such as this one is a sad loss to political history.Passage BThe idea of plagiarism, like all ideas, has a history. To earlier generations it had semantic inflections and resonances different from those we recognize today. The varied impulses behind these varying views‚ which have themselves evolved in response to commercial circumstances, new theories of artistic creation, and developments in copyright law‚ have repeatedly complicated judgments of plagiarism. Despite an abiding sense that plagiarism is morally wrong, there has been much fluidity in the way the charge has been applied, and virtually identical acts of illicit appropriation have been sometimes denounced, sometimes excused, and sometimes praised.Christopher Ricks is suspicious of historical approaches to ethical issues; to him, emphasis on change across generations produces an extenuating moral relativism that shields the evil of plagiarism from its due obloquy. But there are historical approaches, and there are historical approaches. Ricks is rightly dismissive of the postmodern reduction of moral standards to expressions of power. And it is also true that there has been some shoddy scholarship that anachronistically projects modern-day ideologies having to do with gender, race, or class onto historically remote controversies. Yet bad history is no argument against history itself. To reconstruct the attitudes of the past is not necessarily to vindicate them. It is merely to acknowledge that whatever we might think is the correct way of apprehending plagiarism‚ and there is hardly a consensus on the matter even today‚ our predecessors may not, and often did not, share our perspectives. Stem:Passage A asserts that the inevitable answer to the question raised in Rosenthal's book is that Correct Answer Choice:BChoice A:political history must avoid engaging in the consideration of moral issues Choice B:there is no difference between plagiarism, imitation, and adaptation Choice C:moral conventions are worthy of respect Choice D:there has been much fluidity in the way the charge of plagiarism has been applied Choice E:bad history is not an argument against history itself

PT90 S1 Q19

Question ID:PT90 S1 Q20 Passage:Passage A is adapted from an essay by historian Christopher Ricks; passage B is from the introduction, by historian Paulina Kewes, to a book in which Ricks's essay appears.Passage AIn her 1996 history of plagiarism in English Renaissance drama, Laura J. Rosenthal tells us that her purpose is to "question differences between plagiarism, imitation, adaptation, repetition, and originality." But such rhetorical questioning invariably leads to the required postmodern answer: that there is no difference between these things‚ other than that those in power use the opprobrious term "plagiarism" when the work in question emanates from those whom they dislike. Though the book is animated by a political fervor that is clearly moral, the author writes as if a political approach has to extirpate all moral considerations from any discussion of plagiarism. What in moral terms is a matter of honesty or dishonesty‚ plagiarism being dishonest‚ is instead reduced to "the cultural location of the text and the position of the author." The consequence of a historical approach that seeks to "delegitimize" the distinction between imitation and plagiarism is that it demeans and degrades moral thought. That no moral standard is universal does not of itself entail that moral standards are nothing but expressions of power. Moral conventions, though not universal, may be valuable, indispensable, worthy of respect. The extirpation of moral considerations from political histories such as this one is a sad loss to political history.Passage BThe idea of plagiarism, like all ideas, has a history. To earlier generations it had semantic inflections and resonances different from those we recognize today. The varied impulses behind these varying views‚ which have themselves evolved in response to commercial circumstances, new theories of artistic creation, and developments in copyright law‚ have repeatedly complicated judgments of plagiarism. Despite an abiding sense that plagiarism is morally wrong, there has been much fluidity in the way the charge has been applied, and virtually identical acts of illicit appropriation have been sometimes denounced, sometimes excused, and sometimes praised.Christopher Ricks is suspicious of historical approaches to ethical issues; to him, emphasis on change across generations produces an extenuating moral relativism that shields the evil of plagiarism from its due obloquy. But there are historical approaches, and there are historical approaches. Ricks is rightly dismissive of the postmodern reduction of moral standards to expressions of power. And it is also true that there has been some shoddy scholarship that anachronistically projects modern-day ideologies having to do with gender, race, or class onto historically remote controversies. Yet bad history is no argument against history itself. To reconstruct the attitudes of the past is not necessarily to vindicate them. It is merely to acknowledge that whatever we might think is the correct way of apprehending plagiarism‚ and there is hardly a consensus on the matter even today‚ our predecessors may not, and often did not, share our perspectives. Stem:Which one of the following most accurately characterizes the relationship between the two passages? Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:Passage B recommends an approach to historical scholarship, and the historical analysis in passage A conforms to that recommendation. Choice B:Passage B advances an argument that is undermined by the evidence offered in passage A. Choice C:Passage B supports the overall argument advanced in passage A but also indicates that passage A errs in some of its details. Choice D:Passage B concurs with certain views in passage A but also suggests that the author of passage A carries his position to an unjustifiable extreme. Choice E:Passage B implies that all of the assertions made by the author of passage A, though interesting, are misguided.

PT90 S1 Q20

Question ID:PT90 S1 Q21 Passage:The use of criminal sanctions against corporations is well established, but the practice has recently come under fire from legal theorists who maintain that corporations should be held civilly rather than criminally liable for wrongdoing. Civil liability, these theorists argue, shares important features with criminal liability: both impose punishment on a company, both aim at deterrence, and both degrade a company's reputation. Yet, they claim, civil liability is better able to determine appropriate levels of damages. Furthermore, because criminal liability causes a greater loss of reputation, its overall cost to corporations is far higher than that of civil liability; this additional cost is borne by society at large in the form of higher product prices. Finally, civil liability is also more cost-effective from the point of view of the government: the greater procedural protections of criminal law make deterrence through criminal prosecution extremely expensive.Even if it is less economical, however, criminal liability is a much stronger deterrent. The considerable enforcement powers involved, including the ability to detain and question corporate officials, are themselves significant deterrents. Furthermore, the fact that private civil litigation requires an identifiable victim with the necessary resources to commence litigation weakens its deterrent impact. Most importantly, the main function of criminal law is to censure wrongdoing and to emphasize that society forcefully rejects such conduct. Civil liability is ill suited for this purpose.Other legal theorists who do not object to criminal sanctions per se argue that individuals within corporations, rather than corporations themselves, are the appropriate target of criminal prosecution in cases involving corporate wrongdoing. They maintain that individuals within corporations are more responsive to deterrence because they generally fear prosecution and the loss of employment that can result from it. Additionally, they say, punishment of a corporation, in the form of a fine, essentially punishes shareholders, creditors, employees who may be laid off, and ultimately the public, which is forced to absorb higher prices.However, this approach is also misguided. Corporations often bury responsibility within complex hierarchies, with the result that no individual responsible for corporate misdeeds can be identified. Another problem is that under this approach, a corporation will often find it cheaper to designate and compensate an internal scapegoat to face prosecution than to refrain from wrongdoing. The most effective way to ensure that corporations improve their practices is to hold corporations themselves criminally liable for their conduct. Indeed, criminal liability works on shareholders as well as corporate officers and employees: because criminal punishment of corporations decreases their wealth, it can motivate shareholders to push for better corporate practices. Arguments that shareholders and employees need economic protection are outweighed by the greater societal interest in ensuring the safety of employees, the public, and the environment. Stem:Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage? Correct Answer Choice:AChoice A:Although the use of criminal sanctions against corporations has recently faced criticism, it remains the most effective way of deterring corporate wrongdoing. Choice B:While civil sanctions against corporations would be more cost-effective than criminal sanctions, it is difficult to identify victims of corporate wrongdoing who have the resources to file civil suits. Choice C:Neither civil sanctions against corporations nor criminal sanctions against individuals within corporations are capable of deterring corporate wrongdoing. Choice D:The best way to ensure that corporations improve their practices is to use criminal sanctions against both corporations and individuals within corporations. Choice E:The use of criminal sanctions against individuals within corporations is preferable to the use of civil sanctions because the latter fails to censure wrongdoing adequately.

PT90 S1 Q21

Question ID:PT90 S1 Q22 Passage:The use of criminal sanctions against corporations is well established, but the practice has recently come under fire from legal theorists who maintain that corporations should be held civilly rather than criminally liable for wrongdoing. Civil liability, these theorists argue, shares important features with criminal liability: both impose punishment on a company, both aim at deterrence, and both degrade a company's reputation. Yet, they claim, civil liability is better able to determine appropriate levels of damages. Furthermore, because criminal liability causes a greater loss of reputation, its overall cost to corporations is far higher than that of civil liability; this additional cost is borne by society at large in the form of higher product prices. Finally, civil liability is also more cost-effective from the point of view of the government: the greater procedural protections of criminal law make deterrence through criminal prosecution extremely expensive.Even if it is less economical, however, criminal liability is a much stronger deterrent. The considerable enforcement powers involved, including the ability to detain and question corporate officials, are themselves significant deterrents. Furthermore, the fact that private civil litigation requires an identifiable victim with the necessary resources to commence litigation weakens its deterrent impact. Most importantly, the main function of criminal law is to censure wrongdoing and to emphasize that society forcefully rejects such conduct. Civil liability is ill suited for this purpose.Other legal theorists who do not object to criminal sanctions per se argue that individuals within corporations, rather than corporations themselves, are the appropriate target of criminal prosecution in cases involving corporate wrongdoing. They maintain that individuals within corporations are more responsive to deterrence because they generally fear prosecution and the loss of employment that can result from it. Additionally, they say, punishment of a corporation, in the form of a fine, essentially punishes shareholders, creditors, employees who may be laid off, and ultimately the public, which is forced to absorb higher prices.However, this approach is also misguided. Corporations often bury responsibility within complex hierarchies, with the result that no individual responsible for corporate misdeeds can be identified. Another problem is that under this approach, a corporation will often find it cheaper to designate and compensate an internal scapegoat to face prosecution than to refrain from wrongdoing. The most effective way to ensure that corporations improve their practices is to hold corporations themselves criminally liable for their conduct. Indeed, criminal liability works on shareholders as well as corporate officers and employees: because criminal punishment of corporations decreases their wealth, it can motivate shareholders to push for better corporate practices. Arguments that shareholders and employees need economic protection are outweighed by the greater societal interest in ensuring the safety of employees, the public, and the environment. Stem:Which one of the following most accurately describes the author's purpose in saying that corporations often bury responsibility within complex hierarchies? Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:to explain why corporations might find it advantageous to appoint an internal scapegoat Choice B:to highlight the reasons why individuals are, according to critics of corporate criminal liability, more responsive to deterrence Choice C:to underscore the extent to which corporate criminal liability penalizes certain people unfairly Choice D:to indicate that the proposal that individuals be subject to criminal liability for corporate wrongdoing is likely to be impracticable Choice E:to suggest that critics of criminal corporate liability have misunderstood the legal definition of criminal liability

PT90 S1 Q22

Question ID:PT90 S1 Q23 Passage:The use of criminal sanctions against corporations is well established, but the practice has recently come under fire from legal theorists who maintain that corporations should be held civilly rather than criminally liable for wrongdoing. Civil liability, these theorists argue, shares important features with criminal liability: both impose punishment on a company, both aim at deterrence, and both degrade a company's reputation. Yet, they claim, civil liability is better able to determine appropriate levels of damages. Furthermore, because criminal liability causes a greater loss of reputation, its overall cost to corporations is far higher than that of civil liability; this additional cost is borne by society at large in the form of higher product prices. Finally, civil liability is also more cost-effective from the point of view of the government: the greater procedural protections of criminal law make deterrence through criminal prosecution extremely expensive.Even if it is less economical, however, criminal liability is a much stronger deterrent. The considerable enforcement powers involved, including the ability to detain and question corporate officials, are themselves significant deterrents. Furthermore, the fact that private civil litigation requires an identifiable victim with the necessary resources to commence litigation weakens its deterrent impact. Most importantly, the main function of criminal law is to censure wrongdoing and to emphasize that society forcefully rejects such conduct. Civil liability is ill suited for this purpose.Other legal theorists who do not object to criminal sanctions per se argue that individuals within corporations, rather than corporations themselves, are the appropriate target of criminal prosecution in cases involving corporate wrongdoing. They maintain that individuals within corporations are more responsive to deterrence because they generally fear prosecution and the loss of employment that can result from it. Additionally, they say, punishment of a corporation, in the form of a fine, essentially punishes shareholders, creditors, employees who may be laid off, and ultimately the public, which is forced to absorb higher prices.However, this approach is also misguided. Corporations often bury responsibility within complex hierarchies, with the result that no individual responsible for corporate misdeeds can be identified. Another problem is that under this approach, a corporation will often find it cheaper to designate and compensate an internal scapegoat to face prosecution than to refrain from wrongdoing. The most effective way to ensure that corporations improve their practices is to hold corporations themselves criminally liable for their conduct. Indeed, criminal liability works on shareholders as well as corporate officers and employees: because criminal punishment of corporations decreases their wealth, it can motivate shareholders to push for better corporate practices. Arguments that shareholders and employees need economic protection are outweighed by the greater societal interest in ensuring the safety of employees, the public, and the environment. Stem:It can be inferred from the passage that legal theorists who recommend the use of civil rather than criminal sanctions to combat corporate wrongdoing believe that Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:corporate criminal liability provides no incentive for individual corporate employees to refrain from wrongdoing Choice B:there are more procedural protections in criminal law than there should be Choice C:censuring wrongdoing is not the main function of criminal law Choice D:the costs inflicted on corporations by criminal convictions are inappropriately high in most cases Choice E:in most cases civil sanctions against a corporation do not harm that corporation's reputation

PT90 S1 Q23

Question ID:PT90 S1 Q24 Passage:The use of criminal sanctions against corporations is well established, but the practice has recently come under fire from legal theorists who maintain that corporations should be held civilly rather than criminally liable for wrongdoing. Civil liability, these theorists argue, shares important features with criminal liability: both impose punishment on a company, both aim at deterrence, and both degrade a company's reputation. Yet, they claim, civil liability is better able to determine appropriate levels of damages. Furthermore, because criminal liability causes a greater loss of reputation, its overall cost to corporations is far higher than that of civil liability; this additional cost is borne by society at large in the form of higher product prices. Finally, civil liability is also more cost-effective from the point of view of the government: the greater procedural protections of criminal law make deterrence through criminal prosecution extremely expensive.Even if it is less economical, however, criminal liability is a much stronger deterrent. The considerable enforcement powers involved, including the ability to detain and question corporate officials, are themselves significant deterrents. Furthermore, the fact that private civil litigation requires an identifiable victim with the necessary resources to commence litigation weakens its deterrent impact. Most importantly, the main function of criminal law is to censure wrongdoing and to emphasize that society forcefully rejects such conduct. Civil liability is ill suited for this purpose.Other legal theorists who do not object to criminal sanctions per se argue that individuals within corporations, rather than corporations themselves, are the appropriate target of criminal prosecution in cases involving corporate wrongdoing. They maintain that individuals within corporations are more responsive to deterrence because they generally fear prosecution and the loss of employment that can result from it. Additionally, they say, punishment of a corporation, in the form of a fine, essentially punishes shareholders, creditors, employees who may be laid off, and ultimately the public, which is forced to absorb higher prices.However, this approach is also misguided. Corporations often bury responsibility within complex hierarchies, with the result that no individual responsible for corporate misdeeds can be identified. Another problem is that under this approach, a corporation will often find it cheaper to designate and compensate an internal scapegoat to face prosecution than to refrain from wrongdoing. The most effective way to ensure that corporations improve their practices is to hold corporations themselves criminally liable for their conduct. Indeed, criminal liability works on shareholders as well as corporate officers and employees: because criminal punishment of corporations decreases their wealth, it can motivate shareholders to push for better corporate practices. Arguments that shareholders and employees need economic protection are outweighed by the greater societal interest in ensuring the safety of employees, the public, and the environment. Stem:Which one of the following does the author of the passage assert to be true? Correct Answer Choice:EChoice A:Civil liability is better able to assess appropriate levels of damages. Choice B:Employees are just as likely to be harmed by civil sanctions against a corporation as by criminal sanctions. Choice C:Deterrence is the main aim of both criminal and civil liability. Choice D:Individuals within corporations are more easily deterred from wrongdoing than are corporations themselves. Choice E:Private civil litigation against a corporation cannot occur without an identifiable victim.

PT90 S1 Q24

Question ID:PT90 S1 Q25 Passage:The use of criminal sanctions against corporations is well established, but the practice has recently come under fire from legal theorists who maintain that corporations should be held civilly rather than criminally liable for wrongdoing. Civil liability, these theorists argue, shares important features with criminal liability: both impose punishment on a company, both aim at deterrence, and both degrade a company's reputation. Yet, they claim, civil liability is better able to determine appropriate levels of damages. Furthermore, because criminal liability causes a greater loss of reputation, its overall cost to corporations is far higher than that of civil liability; this additional cost is borne by society at large in the form of higher product prices. Finally, civil liability is also more cost-effective from the point of view of the government: the greater procedural protections of criminal law make deterrence through criminal prosecution extremely expensive.Even if it is less economical, however, criminal liability is a much stronger deterrent. The considerable enforcement powers involved, including the ability to detain and question corporate officials, are themselves significant deterrents. Furthermore, the fact that private civil litigation requires an identifiable victim with the necessary resources to commence litigation weakens its deterrent impact. Most importantly, the main function of criminal law is to censure wrongdoing and to emphasize that society forcefully rejects such conduct. Civil liability is ill suited for this purpose.Other legal theorists who do not object to criminal sanctions per se argue that individuals within corporations, rather than corporations themselves, are the appropriate target of criminal prosecution in cases involving corporate wrongdoing. They maintain that individuals within corporations are more responsive to deterrence because they generally fear prosecution and the loss of employment that can result from it. Additionally, they say, punishment of a corporation, in the form of a fine, essentially punishes shareholders, creditors, employees who may be laid off, and ultimately the public, which is forced to absorb higher prices.However, this approach is also misguided. Corporations often bury responsibility within complex hierarchies, with the result that no individual responsible for corporate misdeeds can be identified. Another problem is that under this approach, a corporation will often find it cheaper to designate and compensate an internal scapegoat to face prosecution than to refrain from wrongdoing. The most effective way to ensure that corporations improve their practices is to hold corporations themselves criminally liable for their conduct. Indeed, criminal liability works on shareholders as well as corporate officers and employees: because criminal punishment of corporations decreases their wealth, it can motivate shareholders to push for better corporate practices. Arguments that shareholders and employees need economic protection are outweighed by the greater societal interest in ensuring the safety of employees, the public, and the environment. Stem:It can be inferred from the passage that those who support the criminal prosecution of individuals within corporations rather than the criminal prosecution of corporations believe that Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:shareholders generally do not have the power to influence a corporation to refrain from wrongdoing Choice B:corporate employees have incentive to refrain from wrongdoing only if they are subject to individual criminal prosecution Choice C:it is more difficult to prosecute a corporation for wrongdoing than it is to prosecute an individual within that corporation Choice D:it is unjust for the public to have to pay, through higher product prices, the costs incurred by a corporation as a result of criminal prosecution Choice E:corporate wrongdoing rarely harms an identifiable victim with the resources necessary to sue

PT90 S1 Q25

Question ID:PT90 S1 Q26 Passage:The use of criminal sanctions against corporations is well established, but the practice has recently come under fire from legal theorists who maintain that corporations should be held civilly rather than criminally liable for wrongdoing. Civil liability, these theorists argue, shares important features with criminal liability: both impose punishment on a company, both aim at deterrence, and both degrade a company's reputation. Yet, they claim, civil liability is better able to determine appropriate levels of damages. Furthermore, because criminal liability causes a greater loss of reputation, its overall cost to corporations is far higher than that of civil liability; this additional cost is borne by society at large in the form of higher product prices. Finally, civil liability is also more cost-effective from the point of view of the government: the greater procedural protections of criminal law make deterrence through criminal prosecution extremely expensive.Even if it is less economical, however, criminal liability is a much stronger deterrent. The considerable enforcement powers involved, including the ability to detain and question corporate officials, are themselves significant deterrents. Furthermore, the fact that private civil litigation requires an identifiable victim with the necessary resources to commence litigation weakens its deterrent impact. Most importantly, the main function of criminal law is to censure wrongdoing and to emphasize that society forcefully rejects such conduct. Civil liability is ill suited for this purpose.Other legal theorists who do not object to criminal sanctions per se argue that individuals within corporations, rather than corporations themselves, are the appropriate target of criminal prosecution in cases involving corporate wrongdoing. They maintain that individuals within corporations are more responsive to deterrence because they generally fear prosecution and the loss of employment that can result from it. Additionally, they say, punishment of a corporation, in the form of a fine, essentially punishes shareholders, creditors, employees who may be laid off, and ultimately the public, which is forced to absorb higher prices.However, this approach is also misguided. Corporations often bury responsibility within complex hierarchies, with the result that no individual responsible for corporate misdeeds can be identified. Another problem is that under this approach, a corporation will often find it cheaper to designate and compensate an internal scapegoat to face prosecution than to refrain from wrongdoing. The most effective way to ensure that corporations improve their practices is to hold corporations themselves criminally liable for their conduct. Indeed, criminal liability works on shareholders as well as corporate officers and employees: because criminal punishment of corporations decreases their wealth, it can motivate shareholders to push for better corporate practices. Arguments that shareholders and employees need economic protection are outweighed by the greater societal interest in ensuring the safety of employees, the public, and the environment. Stem:Suppose a corporation has for decades polluted a river on which a major city is located with toxic waste known to increase the incidence of certain forms of cancer. Which one of the following scenarios would most closely conform to the author's views regarding how corporate wrongdoing is most effectively addressed? Correct Answer Choice:AChoice A:In response to criminal prosecution of the corporation, several of the corporation's shareholders put pressure on the corporation's board of directors to ensure that the corporation will dispose of waste in an environmentally sound manner. Choice B:In order to assist in civil litigation against the corporation, the federal government moves to expand the use of enforcement powers traditionally reserved for criminal prosecution. Choice C:The corporation's largest shareholders are sued by several residents of the city who suffer from a form of cancer associated with the toxic waste dumped by the corporation. Choice D:The city prosecutes the corporation's top executives for violating several city ordinances when they ordered the dumping of toxic waste into the river. Choice E:The city government and several residents of the city hold a press conference in which they attempt to undermine the reputation of the corporation and thereby pressure the corporation to change its practices.

PT90 S1 Q26

Question ID:PT90 S1 Q27 Passage:The use of criminal sanctions against corporations is well established, but the practice has recently come under fire from legal theorists who maintain that corporations should be held civilly rather than criminally liable for wrongdoing. Civil liability, these theorists argue, shares important features with criminal liability: both impose punishment on a company, both aim at deterrence, and both degrade a company's reputation. Yet, they claim, civil liability is better able to determine appropriate levels of damages. Furthermore, because criminal liability causes a greater loss of reputation, its overall cost to corporations is far higher than that of civil liability; this additional cost is borne by society at large in the form of higher product prices. Finally, civil liability is also more cost-effective from the point of view of the government: the greater procedural protections of criminal law make deterrence through criminal prosecution extremely expensive.Even if it is less economical, however, criminal liability is a much stronger deterrent. The considerable enforcement powers involved, including the ability to detain and question corporate officials, are themselves significant deterrents. Furthermore, the fact that private civil litigation requires an identifiable victim with the necessary resources to commence litigation weakens its deterrent impact. Most importantly, the main function of criminal law is to censure wrongdoing and to emphasize that society forcefully rejects such conduct. Civil liability is ill suited for this purpose.Other legal theorists who do not object to criminal sanctions per se argue that individuals within corporations, rather than corporations themselves, are the appropriate target of criminal prosecution in cases involving corporate wrongdoing. They maintain that individuals within corporations are more responsive to deterrence because they generally fear prosecution and the loss of employment that can result from it. Additionally, they say, punishment of a corporation, in the form of a fine, essentially punishes shareholders, creditors, employees who may be laid off, and ultimately the public, which is forced to absorb higher prices.However, this approach is also misguided. Corporations often bury responsibility within complex hierarchies, with the result that no individual responsible for corporate misdeeds can be identified. Another problem is that under this approach, a corporation will often find it cheaper to designate and compensate an internal scapegoat to face prosecution than to refrain from wrongdoing. The most effective way to ensure that corporations improve their practices is to hold corporations themselves criminally liable for their conduct. Indeed, criminal liability works on shareholders as well as corporate officers and employees: because criminal punishment of corporations decreases their wealth, it can motivate shareholders to push for better corporate practices. Arguments that shareholders and employees need economic protection are outweighed by the greater societal interest in ensuring the safety of employees, the public, and the environment. Stem:The author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements? Correct Answer Choice:EChoice A:In many instances, corporations that are not deterred by the threat of criminal sanctions would be deterred by the threat of civil sanctions. Choice B:The main function of civil liability is to punish harmful acts in cases where no individual responsible for corporate misdeeds can be identified. Choice C:Currently, corporations are more often subject to civil litigation than to criminal prosecution. Choice D:Many people who criticize the use of criminal sanctions to deter corporate wrongdoing believe that such wrongdoing seldom causes harm to individuals. Choice E:In a significant number of cases, corporations engage in wrongdoing that does not harm anyone with sufficient resources to sue.

PT90 S1 Q27

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q1 Passage:Many people who simply enjoy listening to popular music do not realize that it has been used to express religious and political messages. After all, popular music has repeatedly been adopted by social movements to express their viewpoints, since it has the potential to contribute to the "conversion" of nonmembers to the movement's position, as well as to raise the morale and to express the solidarity of the movement's participants. Stem:Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument? Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:Popular music accounts for the success of social movements. Choice B:Popular music's entertainment value has been overemphasized. Choice C:Popular music is the most effective way of converting people to social movements. Choice D:Popular music has purposes other than mere entertainment. Choice E:Popular music has a profound emotional impact on its listeners.

PT90 S2 Q1

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q2 Passage:Council president: Councilmember Smith has proposed a new city ordinance prohibiting the use of the "bait-and-switch" sales tactic. Smith must have amnesia. Four years ago he owned an appliance store that was famous for its use of bait-and-switch. Clearly, Smith's proposed ordinance does not even merit consideration. Stem:The council president's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the president Correct Answer Choice:AChoice A:dismisses the proposed ordinance because of its source rather than because of its content Choice B:takes a single fact that is incompatible with a claim as enough to show that claim to be false Choice C:fails to make a needed distinction between deceptive sales tactics and legitimate methods of increasing sales Choice D:draws a conclusion that simply restates a claim presented in support of that conclusion Choice E:generalizes from a limited number of instances of a certain kind to all instances of that kind

PT90 S2 Q2

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q3 Passage:Bovine remains found in a certain region of Africa date back to a time when the climate was arid. While there were people in the region at this time, there were no other large mammals there. Any natural sources of water available to these bovines would have brought other large mammals to the area. Thus, these bovines had been domesticated and the people living in the region were no longer exclusively hunter-gatherers. Stem:Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? Correct Answer Choice:AChoice A:Unless they are domesticated, bovines are unlikely to exist in a region where there are no natural sources of water available to them. Choice B:Domesticating animals is one of the first practices that a society must adopt in order to change from hunting and gathering to agriculture. Choice C:With the help of humans, other large mammals would have been able to inhabit this arid region. Choice D:No human culture obtains food both through agriculture and through hunting and gathering. Choice E:Domesticated animals of a given size do not need as much water as do wild animals of comparable size.

PT90 S2 Q3

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q4 Passage:Cerrato: Economists argue both that the higher turnover rate of part-time workers shows them to be much more likely to be dissatisfied with their jobs than full-time workers are and that lower-paid, part-time workers threaten to take jobs from full-time employees. But because job efficiency is positively correlated with job satisfaction, companies are unlikely to replace satisfied employees with dissatisfied ones. Therefore, _______. Stem:Which one of the following most logically completes Cerrato's argument? Correct Answer Choice:CChoice A:full-time workers are likely to lose jobs to part-time workers Choice B:the companies earning the greatest profits tend to be those that pay their workers the highest wages Choice C:dissatisfied part-time workers are unlikely to threaten the jobs of full-time workers Choice D:the higher turnover rate of part-time workers is only partly caused by their greater job dissatisfaction Choice E:companies generally hire part-time workers only when they are unable to hire full-time ones

PT90 S2 Q4

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q5 Passage:On the plains where it lives, an individual zebra stands out because of its black-and-white stripes, which contrast with the green or brown of the surrounding vegetation. Yet zebras are a prey species, and the lions that hunt them can see stripes clearly. It seems surprising that zebras would survive with such vivid markings. Stem:Which one of the following, if true, most adequately resolves the problem raised above? Correct Answer Choice:EChoice A:Because the vegetation on the open plains changes from green to brown as the season changes from wet to dry, true camouflage coloring for a prey species would have to change according to the seasons. Choice B:Zebras are able to judge from the demeanor of lions they see in the vicinity whether or not those lions are preparing to hunt, and the zebras ignore the lions that are not. Choice C:Lions that hunt zebras are themselves colored in a way that blends in with the brown color of dry vegetation, so that in the dry season, when prey is scarce, the lions can creep up on their prey to within a distance from which the lions have a favorable chance of succeeding in the hunt. Choice D:When lions hunt, the whole pride shares in the food obtained when a prey animal is successfully brought down by one of the hunting lions. Choice E:When zebras run in a group, as they generally do in response to danger, the stripe markings make it difficult for a predator pursuing a single individual to discern its outline.

PT90 S2 Q5

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q6 Passage:Dark honey tends to have a higher antioxidant content than light-colored honey, and the most healthful strains of honey are all unusually high in antioxidants. However, certain strains of honey produced by bees harvesting primarily sage nectar are among the most healthful strains of honey, even though they are also among the lightest-colored strains of honey. Stem:Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? Correct Answer Choice:AChoice A:Some strains of honey produced by bees harvesting sage nectar are unusually high in antioxidants. Choice B:Most plants produce nectar that, when harvested by bees, results in light-colored honey. Choice C:Light-colored honey tends to be more healthful than dark honey. Choice D:Certain strains of honey produced by bees harvesting primarily sage nectar are unusually low in antioxidants. Choice E:The strain of honey that has the highest antioxidant content is a light-colored honey.

PT90 S2 Q6

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q7 Passage:Researcher: In a recent study of elementary school computers, we found that all keyboards and most monitors were positioned higher than recommended for children. Consequently, children were seated in ways that encouraged craned necks, awkwardly placed wrists, and other unhealthy postures. Evidently, most elementary school computers are installed without consideration of their effect on posture, and thus put children at the same risk for repetitive stress injuries as office workers. Stem:Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the researcher's argument? Correct Answer Choice:CChoice A:The recommended height for computers is different for children than for adults. Choice B:Children spend more time working with computers at home than at school. Choice C:The greater suppleness of children's bodies makes them less susceptible than adults to repetitive stress injuries. Choice D:Office workers' keyboards and monitors are usually not at the recommended heights for healthy postures for adults. Choice E:Office workers are more likely to report injuries than children are.

PT90 S2 Q7

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q8 Passage:Sociologist: Some anthropologists claim that cultures can most effectively respond to the threat of cultural decay by replacing or abandoning many of their traditions so that other traditions may endure. But since each of its traditions is essential to a culture's identity, this strategy _______. Stem:Which one of the following most logically completes the sociologist's argument? Correct Answer Choice:BChoice A:can save those cultures capable of reflecting on their customs and envisioning alternatives Choice B:will ensure the elimination of a culture rather than prevent its decay Choice C:can be implemented by all and only those cultures studied by anthropologists Choice D:constitutes the most effective response to the threat of cultural decay Choice E:can succeed if adopted by cultures whose traditions have been adopted only recently

PT90 S2 Q8

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q9 Passage:Scholar: The purpose of a law is to deter certain actions by threatening to punish those performing the actions. This threat works only if potential violators believe that they are likely to be punished. But the likelihood that someone will be apprehended and punished for committing a prohibited act decreases as the number of types of prohibited actions increases. Therefore, a successful legal system prohibits only those few behaviors that citizens find absolutely intolerable. Stem:Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the scholar's argument by the statement that the purpose of a law is to deter certain actions by threatening to punish those performing the actions? Correct Answer Choice:CChoice A:It is offered in support of the implicit conclusion that a legal system needs a significant number of police officers. Choice B:It is the conclusion of the argument. Choice C:It is a premise of the argument. Choice D:It is an intermediate conclusion. Choice E:It is the view that the argument as a whole is designed to discredit.

PT90 S2 Q9

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q10 Passage:Historian: In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the Swahili civilization of East Africa built tombs with large pillars and paneled facades. Such structures are widespread among the Oromo people of Somalia and Kenya, but are unknown among any other people with whom the Swahili civilization had contact. This indicates that Swahili culture was, to some extent, influenced by Oromo culture. Stem:The historian's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it Correct Answer Choice:EChoice A:fails to address adequately the possibility that the Oromo people did not use the structures as tombs Choice B:concludes, simply because one event occurred earlier than another event, that the first event caused the second event Choice C:draws a restricted conclusion from premises that provide strong support for a much broader conclusion Choice D:takes for granted that there was no third civilization responsible for creating the first tombs of the kind found in both the Oromo and Swahili cultures Choice E:takes for granted that the Oromo people began constructing tombs with large pillars and paneled facades earlier than the Swahili civilization did

PT90 S2 Q10

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q11 Passage:The chorus in a play, like a narrator in a novel, introduces a point of view not tied to any of the characters, and both chorus and narrator allow the author to comment on the characters' actions and to introduce information about the context in which these actions take place. However, since the information introduced by the chorus in a play is sometimes not consistent with the rest of the information in the play, the chorus in a play is not equivalent to the narrator in a novel. Stem:Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:The narrator in a novel is never deceptive. Choice B:The voice of a narrator is sometimes necessary in plays that employ a chorus. Choice C:Information necessary for the audience to understand events in a play is sometimes introduced by the chorus. Choice D:Information introduced by a narrator in a novel can never be inconsistent with the rest of the information in the novel. Choice E:Authors sometimes use choruses in plays to mislead audiences about events in the plays.

PT90 S2 Q11

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q12 Passage:Some of the rare pygmy bears should be moved from their native island to the neighboring island. The bears risk extinction from the loss of habitat on their native island, and since the neighboring island is the only place that has a similar habitat, this move represents the only viable chance of saving these valuable animals. Stem:Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning above? Correct Answer Choice:CChoice A:Some species are more deserving of protection than are other species. Choice B:Rare animals should not be moved from one habitat to another unless these habitats are similar to one another. Choice C:If a species is in danger of extinction, whatever is most likely to prevent the extinction should be undertaken. Choice D:The rarer a species of plant or animal is, the more that should be done to protect that species. Choice E:If an animal's original habitat is in danger of being lost, it is permissible to try to find a new habitat for the animal.

PT90 S2 Q12

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q13 Passage:The widespread use of encryption software, which makes electronic documents accessible by password only, will bring the writing of biographical history virtually to an end. Public figures' private correspondence and diaries are intended to be confidential when written, but they later become biographers' principal sources. In the future, most such documents are likely to be stored as encrypted text, so the most interesting, revealing material will be unavailable to historians unless they have the necessary passwords. Stem:Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion drawn in the argument? Correct Answer Choice:BChoice A:In the future, most private correspondence and diaries of public figures will be stored as encrypted text. Choice B:The widespread use of encryption software will cause the writing of biographical history to decline significantly or cease. Choice C:Historians will probably not have access to much of the private correspondence and diaries of public figures in the future. Choice D:In the future, biographers' access to the most interesting, revealing material will be determined by their knowledge of the necessary passwords. Choice E:Public figures' private correspondence and diaries are the most interesting and revealing sources for the writing of biographical history.

PT90 S2 Q13

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q14 Passage:Unlike stars, planets do not generate light, but only reflect it. Besides stars, there are many other celestial objects in this galaxy that are not planets. Hence, there are celestial objects in this galaxy that generate light but are not stars. Stem:The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument fails to consider the possibility that Correct Answer Choice:EChoice A:this galaxy contains no celestial objects that reflect light other than planets Choice B:celestial objects in this galaxy comprise only a minute percentage of all the celestial objects in the universe Choice C:celestial objects in this galaxy are not the only celestial objects that generate light Choice D:there are numerous features that distinguish stars from planets besides the ability to generate light Choice E:planets are not the only celestial objects that do not generate light

PT90 S2 Q14

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q15 Passage:Psychologist: We measured the "cognitive plasticity," or the willingness to accept new ideas, of a group of people of both genders and of all ages. The first-born children in the study consistently exhibited less cognitive plasticity than did their siblings. It is reasonable to think that those who are open to new ideas will be adventurous in other ways. Hence, our study suggests that siblings of first-born children will tend to be more adventurous than will the first-borns. Stem:Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the psychologist's argument? Correct Answer Choice:CChoice A:Some of the great creative geniuses in history were first-born children. Choice B:In most cases, the more younger siblings one has, the greater one's cognitive plasticity. Choice C:Other studies have shown a correlation between cognitive plasticity and the willingness to take risks. Choice D:A study of business executives shows that several industry leaders have older siblings. Choice E:Most of the participants in the study had characterized themselves as more adaptable than other people.

PT90 S2 Q15

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q16 Passage:Historians have found that significant intellectual advances generally occur in cities or countries that have a stable political system. But these same historians acknowledge that in ancient Athens, Plato and Aristotle made unparalleled intellectual progress during a period of great political and social unrest. Stem:Which one of the following, if true, most helps to reconcile the historians' apparent counterexample with their general rule? Correct Answer Choice:CChoice A:The political systems that have emerged since the time of Plato and Aristotle have in various ways been different from the political system in ancient Athens. Choice B:The citizens of ancient Athens generally held in high esteem people who were accomplished intellectually. Choice C:Financial support for intellectual endeavors is typically unavailable in unstable political environments, but in ancient Athens such support was provided by wealthy citizens. Choice D:Significant intellectual advances sometimes, though not always, lead to stable political environments. Choice E:Many thinkers besides Plato and Aristotle contributed to the intellectual achievements of ancient Athens.

PT90 S2 Q16

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q17 Passage:To establish a human colony on Mars would involve assembling tremendous quantities of basic materials at the site of the colony. But because the costs of transporting such materials through space would be so high, it will not be economically feasible to colonize Mars. Stem:Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? Correct Answer Choice:EChoice A:Only if the cost of transporting materials from Earth to Mars decreases will human habitation be established on Mars. Choice B:The cost of transporting basic materials through space is not expected to decrease in the near future. Choice C:Earth is the only source of the basic materials that would be needed to establish human habitation on Mars. Choice D:No significant benefit would result from establishing human habitation on Mars. Choice E:Mars is not a practical source of the basic materials required for establishing human habitation there.

PT90 S2 Q17

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q18 Passage:Records reveal that of physical therapy patients who received less than six weeks of treatment, about 31 percent showed major improvement, regardless of whether they were treated by a general practitioner or by a specialist. Of patients who received physical therapy for a longer time, again regardless of whether they were treated by a general practitioner or by a specialist, about 50 percent showed major improvement. Therefore, the choice between seeing a specialist or a general practitioner for necessary physical therapy will not affect one's chances of major improvement. Stem:The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument Correct Answer Choice:EChoice A:presumes, without providing justification, that effectiveness of different practitioners in bringing about major improvement cannot differ at all if their effectiveness in bringing about any improvement does not differ Choice B:provides no information about the kinds of injuries that require short-term as opposed to long-term treatment Choice C:overlooks the possibility that patients are more strongly biased to report favorably on one of the two types of medical professionals than on the other Choice D:fails to indicate whether the number of patients surveyed who saw a general practitioner was equal to the number who saw a specialist Choice E:overlooks the possibility that specialists and general practitioners each tend to excel at treating a different type of injury

PT90 S2 Q18

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q19 Passage:The differences in distance from Earth between the stars in any one distant galaxy are negligible compared to the vast distance to the galaxy itself. Thus, if two stars are in the same distant galaxy, any significant difference in the apparent brightness of those stars results from differences in how brightly each is actually burning. Therefore, we should be able to determine how a star's relative actual brightness correlates with other characteristics by studying stars in the same distant galaxy. Stem:Which one of the following is an assumption the argument requires? Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:If two stars are in two different galaxies, it is not possible to determine whether or not they are approximately the same distance from Earth. Choice B:If any two stars are in the same distant galaxy, differences in the elements each is burning will be detectable from Earth. Choice C:The stars in our own galaxy are not all approximately the same distance from Earth. Choice D:There are stars in distant galaxies that have characteristics, other than brightness, discernible from Earth. Choice E:If there are significant differences in how far away two stars are from Earth, then those stars will differ significantly in apparent brightness.

PT90 S2 Q19

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q20 Passage:A research psychologist used a personality test to classify high school students as "repressors"‚ people who repress upsetting thoughts and feelings from conscious awareness‚ or as "sensitizers"‚ those especially attuned to internal states who freely express distress. The researcher found that, compared to sensitizers, the repressors were less shy and anxious, could better tolerate frustration, and had superior social skills, higher grades, and a greater sense of self-esteem. Stem:Each of the following, if true, contributes to an explanation of the repressors' characteristics mentioned above EXCEPT: Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:Repressors are better able than sensitizers to focus on their work and to avoid distractions. Choice B:Repressors are less apt than sensitizers to alienate people by expressing their emotions. Choice C:Parents and other caregivers tend to reward repressors more than they reward sensitizers for academic performance and social behavior deemed desirable. Choice D:Some psychologists have hypothesized that the desire to maintain social and academic success and self-esteem strengthens repressors' tendency to repress upsetting thoughts and feelings. Choice E:Sensitizers tend to focus more than repressors do on the difficulties of succeeding in their projects rather than on factors that are likely to contribute to success.

PT90 S2 Q20

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q21 Passage:A geologist recently claimed to have discovered in clay a previously unknown form of life: "nanobes," one-tenth the size of the smallest known bacteria. However, it is unlikely that nanobes truly are living things. They are probably inanimate artifacts of the clay's microscopic structure, because a nanobe is too small to contain a reproductive mechanism, a prerequisite for life. Stem:Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? Correct Answer Choice:BChoice A:No known form of bacteria is complicated enough in structure to engage in a sexual type of reproduction. Choice B:Single-celled creatures can combine to form a multicelled structure and then reproduce before they disband into separate single cells again. Choice C:The material phenomena that some scientists claim are the fossilized remains of bacteria in meteorites from Mars are approximately the same size as nanobes. Choice D:Previous definitions of life were based on research done with inferior microscopes no longer in use. Choice E:Animals such as cold-blooded lizards can be physiologically simpler, though still larger, than other animals.

PT90 S2 Q21

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q22 Passage:Devan has never bothered to be kind to me. Nor has he offered help or companionship. So, since he does not meet any of these basic criteria for friendship, he is my enemy. Stem:Which one of the following exhibits flawed reasoning most similar to the flawed reasoning exhibited in the argument above? Correct Answer Choice:CChoice A:Each officer of this club must be a member of two years standing, or be a committee member, or have special qualifications. Evelyn cannot be an officer, for she has only been a member for one year and is not a committee member. Choice B:In order to thrive, this plant needs to be located in a sunny spot and to be watered regularly. So, since this spot is not sunny, and since I did not water this plant regularly, that explains why this plant is not as healthy as it should be. Choice C:This book has been widely reviewed and hasn't received even one hostile review. Hence we can conclude that, so far, all the critics have loved this book. Choice D:A decision in favor of developing the northern border of the town logically implies that it would be equally acceptable to develop the southern, eastern, or western borders. So, it is possible that at least one of these other borders will also be developed. Choice E:If everyone were an author, poet, or academic, then society would come crashing to a halt. But most people are not poets or authors. Nor are there many academics in our society. Therefore, our society will not come crashing to a halt.

PT90 S2 Q22

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q23 Passage:Journalist: Drivers of sport utility vehicles correctly tend to believe that occupants of such vehicles carry lower risk of serious injury as a result of accidents, and such drivers therefore tend to drive less carefully than they would in more traditional vehicles. Thus, the discovery of powerful cures for certain high-incidence forms of cancer would probably trigger an increase in behaviors such as smoking and overexposure to sun that are known to increase the risks of such cancers. Stem:The journalist's reasoning most closely conforms to which one of the following principles? Correct Answer Choice:BChoice A:When people believe that there are several measures they could take to reduce the risk associated with a certain activity, generally they will take only the measure that they believe will most reduce that risk. Choice B:The development of ways to protect people from the consequences of behaviors that would normally harm them often makes people less careful to avoid such behaviors. Choice C:People generally take special care to avoid behaviors that they believe would likely lead to serious injury to them and generally do not take special care to avoid behaviors that they believe will not harm them at all. Choice D:People generally exercise more care when performing activities they know to have risky consequences than when performing activities of unknown risk. Choice E:Avoiding serious harm to themselves is given a high priority by people in their behavior, but avoiding lesser harms is frequently outweighed by various desires.

PT90 S2 Q23

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q24 Passage:Filmmaker: Many people feel that independent films have more integrity as works of art than films produced by major studios, since independent films are typically less conventional than major studio films. However, like major studios, all independent filmmakers need to make profits on their films, and this affects the artistic decisions made in creating most independent films. Thus, most independent films do not have absolute integrity as works of art. Stem:The filmmaker's conclusion is properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed? Correct Answer Choice:BChoice A:A creation has absolute integrity as a work of art if the artistic decisions made in creating it were unaffected by the need to make profits. Choice B:If any of the artistic decisions made in creating something were affected by the need to make profits, then that creation does not have absolute integrity as a work of art. Choice C:The creations of individuals have more integrity as works of art, on average, than those of groups. Choice D:The unconventionality of a creation has no bearing on its integrity as a work of art. Choice E:A creation has no integrity as a work of art unless the artistic decisions made in creating it were unaffected by views about what is conventional.

PT90 S2 Q24

Question ID:PT90 S2 Q25 Passage:If you complete 24 graduate credits and a thesis in our department, you are eligible to receive a master's degree. Roger has completed 24 graduate credits in our department, yet he is not eligible to receive a master's degree. So he must not have finished his thesis yet. Stem:The reasoning in the argument above is most similar to the reasoning in which one of the following? Correct Answer Choice:AChoice A:If the mayor and the city council had approved the proposed budget, the botanical gardens would be able to open this week. The botanical gardens cannot open this week even though the city council approved the proposed budget. Thus, the mayor must not have approved the proposed budget. Choice B:If I see a science fiction movie, I either love it or hate it. I do not hate the movie I am watching now. Therefore, I will probably end up loving the movie, since it is a science fiction movie. Choice C:If the government or some other party had bought the processing plant, the local economy would have improved. But the local economy did not improve. Therefore, neither the government nor any other party bought the processing plant. Choice D:Books at Falling Embers Bookshop are on sale only if they are either used books or paperbacks. The book I am looking for at Falling Embers is on sale. Therefore, if the book I am looking for is not a paperback, it is a used book. Choice E:If Doria owes more money than she can pay back, then she must either get a higher paying job or declare bankruptcy. Doria does in fact owe more than she can pay back, yet she does not want to declare bankruptcy. So, Doria must get a higher paying job.

PT90 S2 Q25

Question ID:PT90 S3 Q1 Passage:An investigator is trying to determine the order in which five successive phone calls were made‚ one call each to Quinn, Roth, Smith, Teng, and Vitt. Each call was of one of two types‚ local or nonlocal. The following facts have been established thus far:Quinn's call was immediately before Vitt's but at some time after Smith's.Smith's call was of a different type than Vitt's.Quinn's call and Teng's call were both local.The third call was nonlocal. Stem:Which one of the following could be an accurate matching of the calls to their types, listed in order from the first call to the last? Correct Answer Choice:BChoice A:Smith's: local; Quinn's: local; Roth's: nonlocal; Teng's: local; Vitt's: nonlocal Choice B:Smith's: local; Quinn's: local; Vitt's: nonlocal; Teng's: local; Roth's: local Choice C:Smith's: local; Teng's: local; Roth's: nonlocal; Quinn's: local; Vitt's: local Choice D:Teng's: local; Smith's: local; Quinn's: local; Vitt's: nonlocal; Roth's: nonlocal Choice E:Teng's: local; Smith's: local; Roth's: nonlocal; Quinn's: nonlocal; Vitt's: nonlocal

PT90 S3 Q1

Question ID:PT90 S3 Q2 Passage:An investigator is trying to determine the order in which five successive phone calls were made‚ one call each to Quinn, Roth, Smith, Teng, and Vitt. Each call was of one of two types‚ local or nonlocal. The following facts have been established thus far:Quinn's call was immediately before Vitt's but at some time after Smith's.Smith's call was of a different type than Vitt's.Quinn's call and Teng's call were both local.The third call was nonlocal. Stem:If Roth's call was second, then which one of the following must be true? Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:The first call was nonlocal. Choice B:The second call was nonlocal. Choice C:The fourth call was nonlocal. Choice D:The first call was local. Choice E:The second call was local.

PT90 S3 Q2

Question ID:PT90 S3 Q3 Passage:An investigator is trying to determine the order in which five successive phone calls were made‚ one call each to Quinn, Roth, Smith, Teng, and Vitt. Each call was of one of two types‚ local or nonlocal. The following facts have been established thus far:Quinn's call was immediately before Vitt's but at some time after Smith's.Smith's call was of a different type than Vitt's.Quinn's call and Teng's call were both local.The third call was nonlocal. Stem:If Teng's call was fifth, then which one of the following could be true? Correct Answer Choice:AChoice A:The fourth call was nonlocal. Choice B:The second call was nonlocal. Choice C:The first call was nonlocal. Choice D:Smith's call was third. Choice E:Roth's call was first.

PT90 S3 Q3

Question ID:PT90 S3 Q4 Passage:An investigator is trying to determine the order in which five successive phone calls were made‚ one call each to Quinn, Roth, Smith, Teng, and Vitt. Each call was of one of two types‚ local or nonlocal. The following facts have been established thus far:Quinn's call was immediately before Vitt's but at some time after Smith's.Smith's call was of a different type than Vitt's.Quinn's call and Teng's call were both local.The third call was nonlocal. Stem:If Roth's call was local, then which one of the following must be false? Correct Answer Choice:CChoice A:Quinn's call was fourth. Choice B:Roth's call was second. Choice C:Smith's call was second. Choice D:Teng's call was first. Choice E:Vitt's call was fifth.

PT90 S3 Q4

Question ID:PT90 S3 Q5 Passage:An investigator is trying to determine the order in which five successive phone calls were made‚ one call each to Quinn, Roth, Smith, Teng, and Vitt. Each call was of one of two types‚ local or nonlocal. The following facts have been established thus far:Quinn's call was immediately before Vitt's but at some time after Smith's.Smith's call was of a different type than Vitt's.Quinn's call and Teng's call were both local.The third call was nonlocal. Stem:If the first call was nonlocal, then for exactly how many of the recipients' calls can their positions in the order of calls be determined? Correct Answer Choice:CChoice A:one Choice B:two Choice C:three Choice D:four Choice E:five

PT90 S3 Q5

Question ID:PT90 S3 Q6 Passage:Six coworkers‚ Faye, Gary, Henry, Jasmine, Luis, and Martha‚ are planning to play table tennis during lunch. There will be a total of three games of table tennis, each involving exactly two of the six coworkers. Each coworker will play in exactly one game. The three games take place one after the other. The following conditions govern who plays in which game:Neither Faye nor Gary can play in the first game.Neither Jasmine nor Luis can play in the third game.Faye must play against either Gary or Henry.Gary cannot play against Jasmine. Stem:Which one of the following could be the three games, listed in the order in which they occur? Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:Faye against Henry; Jasmine against Luis; Gary against Martha Choice B:Henry against Jasmine; Faye against Gary; Luis against Martha Choice C:Henry against Luis; Faye against Jasmine; Gary against Martha Choice D:Jasmine against Martha; Henry against Luis; Faye against Gary Choice E:Luis against Martha; Gary against Jasmine; Faye against Henry

PT90 S3 Q6

Question ID:PT90 S3 Q7 Passage:Six coworkers‚ Faye, Gary, Henry, Jasmine, Luis, and Martha‚ are planning to play table tennis during lunch. There will be a total of three games of table tennis, each involving exactly two of the six coworkers. Each coworker will play in exactly one game. The three games take place one after the other. The following conditions govern who plays in which game:Neither Faye nor Gary can play in the first game.Neither Jasmine nor Luis can play in the third game.Faye must play against either Gary or Henry.Gary cannot play against Jasmine. Stem:If Martha plays in the third game, Luis must play against Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:Faye Choice B:Gary Choice C:Henry Choice D:Jasmine Choice E:Martha

PT90 S3 Q7

Question ID:PT90 S3 Q8 Passage:Six coworkers‚ Faye, Gary, Henry, Jasmine, Luis, and Martha‚ are planning to play table tennis during lunch. There will be a total of three games of table tennis, each involving exactly two of the six coworkers. Each coworker will play in exactly one game. The three games take place one after the other. The following conditions govern who plays in which game:Neither Faye nor Gary can play in the first game.Neither Jasmine nor Luis can play in the third game.Faye must play against either Gary or Henry.Gary cannot play against Jasmine. Stem:If Jasmine plays in the second game, which one of the following could be one of the three games? Correct Answer Choice:EChoice A:Faye against Henry Choice B:Faye against Martha Choice C:Gary against Luis Choice D:Gary against Martha Choice E:Henry against Luis

PT90 S3 Q8

Question ID:PT90 S3 Q9 Passage:Six coworkers‚ Faye, Gary, Henry, Jasmine, Luis, and Martha‚ are planning to play table tennis during lunch. There will be a total of three games of table tennis, each involving exactly two of the six coworkers. Each coworker will play in exactly one game. The three games take place one after the other. The following conditions govern who plays in which game:Neither Faye nor Gary can play in the first game.Neither Jasmine nor Luis can play in the third game.Faye must play against either Gary or Henry.Gary cannot play against Jasmine. Stem:If Faye plays against Henry in one of the games, which one of the following must be true? Correct Answer Choice:CChoice A:Faye plays in the second game. Choice B:Henry plays in the third game. Choice C:Jasmine plays in the first game. Choice D:Luis plays in the first game. Choice E:Martha plays in the third game.

PT90 S3 Q9

Question ID:PT90 S3 Q10 Passage:Six coworkers‚ Faye, Gary, Henry, Jasmine, Luis, and Martha‚ are planning to play table tennis during lunch. There will be a total of three games of table tennis, each involving exactly two of the six coworkers. Each coworker will play in exactly one game. The three games take place one after the other. The following conditions govern who plays in which game:Neither Faye nor Gary can play in the first game.Neither Jasmine nor Luis can play in the third game.Faye must play against either Gary or Henry.Gary cannot play against Jasmine. Stem:Exactly how many of the coworkers are there any one of whom could play in the second game? Correct Answer Choice:EChoice A:two Choice B:three Choice C:four Choice D:five Choice E:six

PT90 S3 Q10

Question ID:PT90 S3 Q11 Passage:Six coworkers‚ Faye, Gary, Henry, Jasmine, Luis, and Martha‚ are planning to play table tennis during lunch. There will be a total of three games of table tennis, each involving exactly two of the six coworkers. Each coworker will play in exactly one game. The three games take place one after the other. The following conditions govern who plays in which game:Neither Faye nor Gary can play in the first game.Neither Jasmine nor Luis can play in the third game.Faye must play against either Gary or Henry.Gary cannot play against Jasmine. Stem:Which one of the following, if substituted for the condition that Gary cannot play against Jasmine, would have the same effect in determining who plays in which game? Correct Answer Choice:BChoice A:If Henry plays in the first game, Gary must play in the third game. Choice B:If Jasmine plays in the second game, Gary must play in the third game. Choice C:Jasmine must play in the game immediately before Faye's. Choice D:Jasmine must play in the game immediately before Gary's. Choice E:Gary cannot play against Luis.

PT90 S3 Q11

Question ID:PT90 S3 Q12 Passage:An academic society will hold exactly six meetings during the next school year: three in the fall semester and three in the spring semester. Each meeting will be hosted by one of five cities‚ Honolulu, Montreal, Omaha, Tampa, and Vancouver‚ with each city hosting at least one meeting. No city will host more than one meeting per semester. The following constraints hold:If Honolulu hosts a meeting in the fall, then Montreal must also host a meeting in the fall.If Vancouver hosts a meeting in the spring, then Tampa must also host a meeting in the spring.In each semester, either Montreal or Vancouver or both must host a meeting. Stem:If the only meeting that Montreal hosts is in the spring, which one of the following could be true? Correct Answer Choice:BChoice A:Honolulu hosts meetings in both semesters. Choice B:Tampa hosts meetings in both semesters. Choice C:Honolulu hosts a meeting in the fall only. Choice D:Omaha hosts a meeting in the spring only. Choice E:Tampa hosts a meeting in the spring only.

PT90 S3 Q12

Question ID:PT90 S3 Q13 Passage:An academic society will hold exactly six meetings during the next school year: three in the fall semester and three in the spring semester. Each meeting will be hosted by one of five cities‚ Honolulu, Montreal, Omaha, Tampa, and Vancouver‚ with each city hosting at least one meeting. No city will host more than one meeting per semester. The following constraints hold:If Honolulu hosts a meeting in the fall, then Montreal must also host a meeting in the fall.If Vancouver hosts a meeting in the spring, then Tampa must also host a meeting in the spring.In each semester, either Montreal or Vancouver or both must host a meeting. Stem:If Omaha hosts two of the meetings, which one of the following must be true? Correct Answer Choice:EChoice A:Honolulu hosts a meeting in the fall. Choice B:Tampa hosts a meeting in the fall. Choice C:Montreal hosts a meeting in the spring. Choice D:Honolulu and Vancouver host meetings in the same semester as each other. Choice E:Tampa and Vancouver host meetings in the same semester as each other.

PT90 S3 Q13

Question ID:PT90 S3 Q14 Passage:An academic society will hold exactly six meetings during the next school year: three in the fall semester and three in the spring semester. Each meeting will be hosted by one of five cities‚ Honolulu, Montreal, Omaha, Tampa, and Vancouver‚ with each city hosting at least one meeting. No city will host more than one meeting per semester. The following constraints hold:If Honolulu hosts a meeting in the fall, then Montreal must also host a meeting in the fall.If Vancouver hosts a meeting in the spring, then Tampa must also host a meeting in the spring.In each semester, either Montreal or Vancouver or both must host a meeting. Stem:Which one of the following CANNOT be an accurate partial matching of the cities with the semesters in which they host meetings? Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:fall: Honoluluspring: Honolulu, Vancouver Choice B:fall: Montrealspring: Honolulu, Tampa Choice C:fall: Omahaspring: Montreal, Tampa Choice D:fall: Honolulu, Tampaspring: Montreal Choice E:fall: Honolulu, Vancouverspring: Vancouver

PT90 S3 Q14

Question ID:PT90 S3 Q15 Passage:An academic society will hold exactly six meetings during the next school year: three in the fall semester and three in the spring semester. Each meeting will be hosted by one of five cities‚ Honolulu, Montreal, Omaha, Tampa, and Vancouver‚ with each city hosting at least one meeting. No city will host more than one meeting per semester. The following constraints hold:If Honolulu hosts a meeting in the fall, then Montreal must also host a meeting in the fall.If Vancouver hosts a meeting in the spring, then Tampa must also host a meeting in the spring.In each semester, either Montreal or Vancouver or both must host a meeting. Stem:Which one of the following CANNOT be, in either semester, the group of cities hosting the three meetings? Correct Answer Choice:CChoice A:Honolulu, Montreal, and Tampa Choice B:Honolulu, Montreal, and Vancouver Choice C:Honolulu, Omaha, and Vancouver Choice D:Honolulu, Tampa, and Vancouver Choice E:Montreal, Omaha, and Vancouver

PT90 S3 Q15

Question ID:PT90 S3 Q16 Passage:An academic society will hold exactly six meetings during the next school year: three in the fall semester and three in the spring semester. Each meeting will be hosted by one of five cities‚ Honolulu, Montreal, Omaha, Tampa, and Vancouver‚ with each city hosting at least one meeting. No city will host more than one meeting per semester. The following constraints hold:If Honolulu hosts a meeting in the fall, then Montreal must also host a meeting in the fall.If Vancouver hosts a meeting in the spring, then Tampa must also host a meeting in the spring.In each semester, either Montreal or Vancouver or both must host a meeting. Stem:If Tampa hosts two of the meetings, which one of the following could be true? Correct Answer Choice:BChoice A:Honolulu and Vancouver both host meetings in the fall. Choice B:Montreal and Omaha both host meetings in the fall. Choice C:Montreal and Vancouver both host meetings in the fall. Choice D:Montreal and Omaha both host meetings in the spring. Choice E:Montreal and Vancouver both host meetings in the spring.

PT90 S3 Q16

Question ID:PT90 S3 Q17 Passage:An academic society will hold exactly six meetings during the next school year: three in the fall semester and three in the spring semester. Each meeting will be hosted by one of five cities‚ Honolulu, Montreal, Omaha, Tampa, and Vancouver‚ with each city hosting at least one meeting. No city will host more than one meeting per semester. The following constraints hold:If Honolulu hosts a meeting in the fall, then Montreal must also host a meeting in the fall.If Vancouver hosts a meeting in the spring, then Tampa must also host a meeting in the spring.In each semester, either Montreal or Vancouver or both must host a meeting. Stem:If Honolulu hosts a meeting in the fall, which one of the following must be true? Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:Omaha hosts a meeting in the fall. Choice B:Montreal hosts a meeting in the spring. Choice C:Omaha hosts a meeting in the spring. Choice D:Tampa hosts a meeting in the spring. Choice E:Vancouver hosts a meeting in the spring.

PT90 S3 Q17

Question ID:PT90 S3 Q18 Passage:During an eight-day theater festival, exactly six plays‚ Ghosts, Hapgood, Jitney, Loot, Macbeth, and Othello‚ will be performed. There will be one performance each day, subject to the following constraints:The play performed on day 1 must also be performed on day 5.The play performed on day 2 must also be performed on day 7.Macbeth and Othello cannot be performed on consecutive days.For at least one performance of Hapgood, the next play performed must be Macbeth.There must be a performance of Jitney at some time before there is any performance of Hapgood. Stem:Which one of the following could be the order in which the plays are performed, from first to last? Correct Answer Choice:AChoice A:Ghosts, Jitney, Hapgood, Macbeth, Ghosts, Loot, Jitney, Othello Choice B:Jitney, Ghosts, Othello, Hapgood, Jitney, Loot, Ghosts, Macbeth Choice C:Jitney, Hapgood, Macbeth, Othello, Jitney, Ghosts, Hapgood, Loot Choice D:Loot, Hapgood, Macbeth, Ghosts, Loot, Othello, Hapgood, Jitney Choice E:Loot, Jitney, Hapgood, Macbeth, Loot, Jitney, Ghosts, Othello

PT90 S3 Q18

Question ID:PT90 S3 Q19 Passage:During an eight-day theater festival, exactly six plays‚ Ghosts, Hapgood, Jitney, Loot, Macbeth, and Othello‚ will be performed. There will be one performance each day, subject to the following constraints:The play performed on day 1 must also be performed on day 5.The play performed on day 2 must also be performed on day 7.Macbeth and Othello cannot be performed on consecutive days.For at least one performance of Hapgood, the next play performed must be Macbeth.There must be a performance of Jitney at some time before there is any performance of Hapgood. Stem:Which one of the following must be false? Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:Ghosts is performed on day 2. Choice B:Ghosts is performed on day 5. Choice C:Hapgood is performed on day 2. Choice D:Hapgood is performed on day 5. Choice E:Loot is performed on day 5.

PT90 S3 Q19

Question ID:PT90 S3 Q20 Passage:During an eight-day theater festival, exactly six plays‚ Ghosts, Hapgood, Jitney, Loot, Macbeth, and Othello‚ will be performed. There will be one performance each day, subject to the following constraints:The play performed on day 1 must also be performed on day 5.The play performed on day 2 must also be performed on day 7.Macbeth and Othello cannot be performed on consecutive days.For at least one performance of Hapgood, the next play performed must be Macbeth.There must be a performance of Jitney at some time before there is any performance of Hapgood. Stem:If Othello is performed on day 3, which one of the following could be true? Correct Answer Choice:BChoice A:Ghosts is performed on day 2. Choice B:Hapgood is performed on day 2. Choice C:Loot is performed on day 1. Choice D:Loot is performed on day 7. Choice E:Macbeth is performed on day 7.

PT90 S3 Q20

Question ID:PT90 S3 Q21 Passage:During an eight-day theater festival, exactly six plays‚ Ghosts, Hapgood, Jitney, Loot, Macbeth, and Othello‚ will be performed. There will be one performance each day, subject to the following constraints:The play performed on day 1 must also be performed on day 5.The play performed on day 2 must also be performed on day 7.Macbeth and Othello cannot be performed on consecutive days.For at least one performance of Hapgood, the next play performed must be Macbeth.There must be a performance of Jitney at some time before there is any performance of Hapgood. Stem:If Hapgood is performed on day 2, which one of the following could be true? Correct Answer Choice:CChoice A:Ghosts is performed on day 1. Choice B:Jitney is performed on day 3. Choice C:Loot is performed on day 8. Choice D:Macbeth is performed on day 4. Choice E:Othello is performed on day 5.

PT90 S3 Q21

Question ID:PT90 S3 Q22 Passage:During an eight-day theater festival, exactly six plays‚ Ghosts, Hapgood, Jitney, Loot, Macbeth, and Othello‚ will be performed. There will be one performance each day, subject to the following constraints:The play performed on day 1 must also be performed on day 5.The play performed on day 2 must also be performed on day 7.Macbeth and Othello cannot be performed on consecutive days.For at least one performance of Hapgood, the next play performed must be Macbeth.There must be a performance of Jitney at some time before there is any performance of Hapgood. Stem:If Macbeth is performed on day 2, which one of the following must be true? Correct Answer Choice:EChoice A:Ghosts is performed on day 6. Choice B:Hapgood is performed on day 3. Choice C:Jitney is performed on day 1. Choice D:Loot is performed on day 8. Choice E:Othello is performed on day 4.

PT90 S3 Q22

Question ID:PT90 S3 Q23 Passage:During an eight-day theater festival, exactly six plays‚ Ghosts, Hapgood, Jitney, Loot, Macbeth, and Othello‚ will be performed. There will be one performance each day, subject to the following constraints:The play performed on day 1 must also be performed on day 5.The play performed on day 2 must also be performed on day 7.Macbeth and Othello cannot be performed on consecutive days.For at least one performance of Hapgood, the next play performed must be Macbeth.There must be a performance of Jitney at some time before there is any performance of Hapgood. Stem:If Loot is performed on day 7 and Othello is performed on day 8, which one of the following must be true? Correct Answer Choice:AChoice A:Ghosts is performed on day 6. Choice B:Hapgood is performed on day 3. Choice C:Jitney is performed on day 1. Choice D:Macbeth is performed on day 4. Choice E:Macbeth is performed on day 5.

PT90 S3 Q23

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q1 Passage:The government's tax collection agency has not followed through on its plan, announced a year ago, to crack down on violations of corporate income tax law. Audits are the primary tool for detecting such violations, and over the past year, not a single audit of corporate income tax returns has been completed. Stem:Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:The plan to crack down on violations of corporate income tax law is part of a broad campaign against corporate misconduct. Choice B:The number of personal income tax returns audited over the past year is greater than in previous years. Choice C:Most audits of corporate income tax returns do not reveal any significant violations. Choice D:It generally takes longer than one year to complete an audit of a corporate income tax return. Choice E:Over the last five years, fewer audits of corporate income tax returns have been completed than in the preceding five years.

PT90 S4 Q1

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q2 Passage:Columnist: Making some types of products from recycled materials is probably as damaging to the environment as it would be to make those products from entirely nonrecycled materials. The recycling process for those products requires as much energy as producing them from raw materials, and almost all energy production damages the environment. Stem:The reasoning in the columnist's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:uses the word "environment" in one sense in a premise and in a different sense in the conclusion drawn from that premise Choice B:treats an effect of energy-related damage to the environment as if it were instead a cause of such damage Choice C:fails to consider that the particular types of recycled products that it cites may not be representative of recycled products in general Choice D:fails to consider that making products from recycled materials may have environmental benefits unrelated to energy consumption Choice E:presumes that simply because one phenomenon follows another phenomenon the earlier phenomenon must be a cause of the later one

PT90 S4 Q2

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q3 Passage:Physician: We are constantly bombarded by warnings, based on initial studies' tentative conclusions, about this or that food having adverse health effects. If the medical establishment wants people to pay attention to health warnings, it should announce only conclusive results, the kind that can come only from definitive studies. After all, people who are constantly subjected to fire drills eventually come to ignore the fire alarm. Stem:The statement that people who are constantly subjected to fire drills eventually come to ignore the fire alarm plays which one of the following roles in the physician's argument? Correct Answer Choice:CChoice A:It is presented as an example of the sort of warning referred to in the argument's overall conclusion. Choice B:It is a statement that plays no logical role in the argument but that instead serves to impugn the motives of the medical establishment. Choice C:It is an analogy offered in support of the argument's overall conclusion. Choice D:It is an analogy that forms part of a specific objection to the argument's overall conclusion. Choice E:It is an analogy offered to clarify the distinction the physician makes between an initial study and a definitive study.

PT90 S4 Q3

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q4 Passage:A club wanted to determine whether it could increase attendance by changing its weekly meetings from Tuesday to another day. At one Tuesday meeting, the club's president took a survey of all members present. Of those surveyed, 95 percent said that they had no difficulty attending on Tuesdays. On the basis of this survey result, the club's president concluded that the attendance problem was not due primarily to schedule conflicts. Stem:A questionable technique used in the club president's reasoning is Correct Answer Choice:BChoice A:drawing a conclusion on the basis of circular reasoning Choice B:making a generalization on the basis of a sample that is likely to be unrepresentative Choice C:treating a generalization that applies to most cases as if it applied without exception Choice D:drawing a conclusion on the basis of premises that contradict one another Choice E:inferring, solely from the claim that a change is not sufficient to solve a problem, that it is not necessary either

PT90 S4 Q4

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q5 Passage:The railway authority inspector who recently thoroughly checked the tracks testified that they were in good condition. Thus, since the inspector has no bias in the matter, we should be suspicious of the newspaper reporter's claim that the tracks are in poor condition. Stem:The reasoning in the argument above is most similar to the reasoning in which one of the following arguments? Correct Answer Choice:BChoice A:My pottery instructor says that making pottery will not cause repetitive-motion injuries if it is done properly. So I will probably not get such injuries, for whenever I do pottery I use the proper techniques that my instructor taught me. Choice B:Gardner, a noted paleontologist who has no vested interest in the case, assures us that the alleged dinosaur bones are not old enough to be from dinosaurs. So we should be skeptical of Penwick's claim to have found dinosaur bones, for Gardner inspected the bones carefully. Choice C:The engineer hired by the company that maintains the bridge has examined the bridge and declared it safe. This engineer is the only one who has given the bridge a close examination recently. Thus, we should consider the bridge safe. Choice D:The reporter who recently interviewed the prime minister said the prime minister appeared to be in poor health. But despite the fact that the reporter works for a paper with opposition leanings, we should accept that the prime minister is in poor health. After all, reporters won't let their bias affect them when the truth of their claims will eventually be discovered. Choice E:The snowblower salesperson claims that there will be above-average snowfall this winter, but because the salesperson is biased, we can discount that claim.

PT90 S4 Q5

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q6 Passage:If the proposed air pollution measures were to be implemented, ozone levels in the city's air would be one fifth lower than current levels. Since the ozone in our air is currently responsible for over $5 billion in health costs, we would spend about a billion dollars less on these ozone-related health costs should the proposed measures be adopted. Stem:The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it Correct Answer Choice:BChoice A:fails to consider the possibility that other types of pollution not involving ozone might rise, perhaps even producing an overall increase in health costs Choice B:presumes, without providing evidence, that ozone-related health costs in the city vary roughly in proportion to ozone levels Choice C:provides no explicit reason for believing that the proposed air pollution measures will in fact be adopted Choice D:attempts to support its conclusion by making an appeal to emotions Choice E:discusses air pollution in order to draw attention away from more significant sources of health-related costs

PT90 S4 Q6

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q7 Passage:Newspaper article: Recently discovered clay tablets from southern Egypt date to between 3300 and 3200 B.C. Though most of the tablets translated thus far are tax records, one of them appears to contain literary writing. Hence, these tablets challenge the widely held belief among historians that the Sumerian civilization in Mesopotamia was the first to create literature. Stem:The argument in the newspaper article requires the assumption that Correct Answer Choice:CChoice A:most of the recently discovered tablets that have not yet been translated contain literary writing Choice B:every civilization that has kept tax records has also kept other written records Choice C:historians generally believe that the Sumerians did not create literature earlier than 3300 B.C. Choice D:some historians are skeptical about the authenticity of the recently discovered tablets Choice E:the Sumerian civilization arose sometime between 3300 and 3200 B.C.

PT90 S4 Q7

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q8 Passage:Climatologist: The waters off the Pacific coast of North America have warmed about 4 degrees over the past 15 years. Some scientists claim that this trend is a symptom of a more general, global warming caused by human-generated air pollution. However, this conclusion is far from justified‚ it is known that there are many natural cycles of ocean temperature changes that last 60 years or more. Stem:Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion drawn in the climatologist's argument? Correct Answer Choice:CChoice A:Some scientists have found evidence that the waters off the Pacific coast of North America have grown significantly warmer over the past 15 years. Choice B:The warming of the waters off the Pacific coast of North America is not a symptom of a more general, global warming caused by human-generated air pollution. Choice C:The conclusion that the warming of the waters off the Pacific coast of North America is a symptom of a more general, global warming caused by human-generated air pollution is far from justified. Choice D:The warming of the waters off the Pacific coast of North America may be the result of a natural cycle of ocean temperature changes. Choice E:If the warming of the waters off the Pacific coast of North America is due to a natural cycle of ocean temperature changes, then it is not a symptom of a more general, global warming caused by human-generated air pollution.

PT90 S4 Q8

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q9 Passage:Robin: Archaeologists can study the artifacts left by ancient cultures to determine whether they were nomadic or sedentary. If the artifacts were made to last rather than to be quickly discarded, the culture was likely sedentary.Kendall: But what artifacts a people make is determined largely by the materials available to them. Stem:Their statements commit Robin and Kendall to disagreeing over whether Correct Answer Choice:BChoice A:the distinction that Robin makes between two kinds of cultures is illicit Choice B:it is reasonable to assume that a culture whose artifacts were not durable was nomadic Choice C:any evidence other than the intended durability of a culture's artifacts can establish conclusively which of the two kinds of cultures a particular culture was Choice D:the distinction that Robin makes between the different kinds of cultures is as important as many archaeologists have thought Choice E:studying a culture's artifacts can reveal a great deal about the culture

PT90 S4 Q9

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q10 Passage:Railroads rely increasingly on automation. Since fewer railroad workers are needed, operating costs have been reduced. This means that we can expect the volume of freight shipped by rail to grow. The chief competitor of railway shipping is shipping by truck, and no reduction in operating costs is predicted for the trucking industry. Stem:Which one of the following most accurately states the argument's overall conclusion? Correct Answer Choice:AChoice A:The volume of freight shipped by rail can be expected to increase. Choice B:Increasing reliance on automation means that fewer railroad workers are needed. Choice C:No reduction in operating costs is predicted for the trucking industry. Choice D:Operating costs for railroads have been reduced as a result of increased reliance on automation. Choice E:The chief competitor of railway shipping is shipping by truck.

PT90 S4 Q10

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q11 Passage:In the past, infants who were not breast-fed were fed cow's milk. Then doctors began advising that cow's milk fed to infants should be boiled, as the boiling would sterilize the milk and prevent gastrointestinal infections potentially fatal to infants. Once this advice was widely implemented, there was an alarming increase among infants in the incidence of scurvy, caused by vitamin C deficiency. Breast-fed infants, however, did not contract scurvy. Stem:Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? Correct Answer Choice:AChoice A:Boiled cow's milk makes less vitamin C available to infants than does the same amount of mother's milk. Choice B:Infants who consume cow's milk that has not been boiled frequently contract potentially fatal gastrointestinal infections. Choice C:Mother's milk can cause gastrointestinal infections in infants. Choice D:When doctors advised that cow's milk fed to infants should be boiled, they did not know that scurvy was caused by vitamin C deficiency. Choice E:When doctors advised that cow's milk fed to infants should be boiled, most mothers did not breast-feed their infants.

PT90 S4 Q11

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q12 Passage:The only effective check on grass and brush fires is rain. If the level of rainfall is below normal for an extended period of time, then there are many more such fires. Yet grass and brush fires cause less financial damage overall during long periods of severe drought than during periods of relatively normal rainfall. Stem:Which one of the following, if true, would most help to resolve the apparent paradox described above? Correct Answer Choice:CChoice A:Fire departments tend to receive less funding during periods of severe drought than during periods of normal rainfall. Choice B:Areas subject to grass and brush fires tend to be less densely populated than areas where there are few such fires. Choice C:Unusually large, hard-to-control grass and brush fires typically occur only when there is a large amount of vegetation for them to consume. Choice D:Grass and brush fires that are not caused by human negligence or arson tend to be started by lightning. Choice E:When vegetation is destroyed in a grass or brush fire, it tends to be replaced naturally by vegetation that is equally if not more flammable.

PT90 S4 Q12

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q13 Passage:Medical researcher: A new screening test detects certain polyps at such an early stage that it is generally unclear whether the polyps are malignant. But the risk that a polyp might be malignant leads doctors, in most cases, to have such polyps surgically removed, which is a dangerous process. Yet some of those polyps turn out not to be malignant. Thus, the new screening test can prompt dangerous operations that actually are not medically necessary. Stem:Which one of the following is an assumption that the medical researcher's argument requires? Correct Answer Choice:BChoice A:A surgical operation that is dangerous is ethically justified only for treating a medical condition that is more dangerous. Choice B:Surgical removal of nonmalignant polyps detected by the new screening test is not always medically necessary. Choice C:If the new screening test encourages medically unnecessary operations, then probably it either should not be used or its use should be modified. Choice D:A polyp detected by the new screening test should be surgically removed if it is malignant. Choice E:The screening test is medically useful only when it detects a polyp that requires treatment.

PT90 S4 Q13

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q14 Passage:Psychologist: Most people's blood pressure rises when they talk. But extroverted people experience milder surges when they speak than do introverted people, for whom speaking is more stressful. This suggests that the increases result from the psychological stress of communicating rather than from the physical exertion of speech production. Stem:Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the psychologist's argument? Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:Medications designed to lower blood pressure do not keep the people who take them from experiencing blood-pressure fluctuations when speaking. Choice B:In general, the lower one's typical blood pressure, the more one's blood pressure will increase under stress. Choice C:Introverted people who do not have chronically high blood pressure often sense the rises in blood pressure that occur when they speak in conversation. Choice D:Deaf people experience increased blood pressure when they sign, but no change when they move their hands for other reasons. Choice E:Extroverted people are more likely to have chronically high blood pressure than are introverted people and are more likely to take medication to lower their blood pressure.

PT90 S4 Q14

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q15 Passage:One should only buy a frying pan that has a manufacturer's warranty, even if it requires paying more, and even if one would never bother seeking reimbursement should the pan not work well or last long. Manufacturers will not offer a warranty on a product if doing so means that they will need to reimburse many customers because the product did not work well or last long. Stem:The conclusion of the argument is strongly supported if which one of the following is assumed? Correct Answer Choice:AChoice A:Most people who buy a frying pan with a manufacturer's warranty would seek reimbursement should the pan fail to work well or last long. Choice B:All of the frying pans currently on the market that are covered by a manufacturer's warranty work at least as well at the time of purchase as any of the frying pans not covered by a warranty. Choice C:The more a frying pan costs, the more likely it is to be covered by a manufacturer's warranty. Choice D:The most expensive frying pans are the ones most likely to work well for many years. Choice E:Most frying pan manufacturers' warranties provide for full customer satisfaction.

PT90 S4 Q15

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q16 Passage:Journalist: When judges do not maintain strict control over their courtrooms, lawyers often try to influence jury verdicts by using inflammatory language and by badgering witnesses. These obstructive behaviors hinder the jury's effort to reach a correct verdict. Whenever lawyers engage in such behavior, therefore, it is reasonable to doubt whether the verdict is correct. Stem:Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the journalist's argument? Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:Court proceedings overseen by judges who are very strict in controlling lawyers' behavior are known to result sometimes in incorrect verdicts. Choice B:Lawyers tend to be less concerned than are judges about whether the outcomes of jury trials are just or not. Choice C:People who are influenced by inflammatory language are very unlikely to admit at some later time that they were influenced by such language. Choice D:Obstructive courtroom behavior by a lawyer is seldom effective in cases where jurors are also presented with legitimate evidence. Choice E:The selection of jurors is based in part on an assessment of the likelihood that they are free of bias.

PT90 S4 Q16

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q17 Passage:Mateo: Global warming has caused permafrost to melt under several arctic villages, forcing all their inhabitants to relocate at great expense. Since pollution from automobiles is a major contributor to global warming, the automotive industry should be required to help pay for the villagers' relocation. Stem:Which one of the following principles, if valid, would most help to justify Mateo's argument? Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:Any industry has an obligation to pay for any damage that it should have known would result from its activities. Choice B:Manufacturers should be required to produce goods in a way that minimizes harm to people and the environment. Choice C:When the use of a product causes damage, governments should not be required to help pay for the damage unless those responsible for manufacturing the product are also required to help pay for them. Choice D:Any industry manufacturing a product whose use contributes to costly damage for others should be liable for any damage generated by that product's use. Choice E:An industry that contributes to global warming should be required to help pay for resulting damage to specific communities only if it has a general obligation to help pay for all damage produced by global warming.

PT90 S4 Q17

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q18 Passage:Lindsey: Several people claim that our company was unfair when it failed to give bonuses to the staff. Perhaps they recalled that the company had promised that if it increased its profits over last year's, the staff would all get bonuses. However, the company's profit was much smaller this year than it was last year. Clearly, then, the company acted fairly. Stem:The argument is flawed in that it Correct Answer Choice:BChoice A:relies on the opinions of certain unnamed people without establishing that those people were well informed on the matter Choice B:infers that an opinion is false merely because one potential reason for that opinion has been undermined Choice C:dismisses a claim on the basis of certain irrelevant attributes of the people who made the claim Choice D:confuses the size of a quantity with the amount by which that quantity has increased Choice E:overlooks the possibility that a policy can be fair even when it is not generous

PT90 S4 Q18

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q19 Passage:It is widely known that the rescue squads serving high mountain areas with treacherous weather save the lives of many mountain climbers every year. However, many experienced climbers believe that the rising annual toll of deaths and injuries among climbers in these regions can be significantly reduced only by completely abolishing the rescue squads. Stem:Which one of the following, if true, would most help to justify the apparently paradoxical belief of the experienced climbers? Correct Answer Choice:EChoice A:It is difficult to recruit and train members for the rescue squads. Choice B:The recording of deaths and injuries tends to be more accurate in mountain regions served by rescue squads. Choice C:People who commonly take risks with their lives and health do not expect other people to take those risks to rescue them. Choice D:Most of the people injured or killed while mountain climbing were not adequately prepared for the dangers they would face. Choice E:The lower the risk of climbing a particular mountain is perceived to be, the greater the number of less competent climbers who attempt to climb it.

PT90 S4 Q19

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q20 Passage:Paula: Earthlike planets seem to be the rule rather than the exception, so there probably are intelligent beings on other planets. Furthermore, we can expect our radio telescopes to detect signs of such beings. Alien scientists would have basically the same understanding of mathematics and physics that humans have. Thus they would inevitably discover gravity, electromagnetism, and other fundamental physical phenomena and then develop technologies such as radio communication. Ashley: That is like saying they would inevitably have the same legal or political systems that humans do. Our science, mathematics, and technology are unique outgrowths of our physiology, cognitive makeup, and environment. Using radio telescopes to search for intelligent life is a waste of time and money. Stem:The dialogue provides the most evidence that Paula and Ashley disagree with each other about whether Correct Answer Choice:AChoice A:it is probable that there are intelligent alien beings who have developed radio communication Choice B:it is probable that there are intelligent alien beings who have the same legal or political systems that humans do Choice C:our technology is influenced by our cognitive makeup Choice D:there is likely to be intelligent life on other planets Choice E:scientists should spend more time and money on the search for intelligent extraterrestrial life

PT90 S4 Q20

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q21 Passage:Developer: The builders of the Glen Veil apartment complex will not complete the complex unless a road connecting it to the town of Sierra is built. The completed apartment complex would strengthen Sierra's economy, and a stronger economy would benefit every Sierra resident. Therefore, the residents of Sierra should vote in favor of a local tax to fund construction of the proposed road. Stem:Which one of the following principles, if valid, would most help to justify the developer's reasoning? Correct Answer Choice:EChoice A:If a construction project is necessary in order to strengthen a town's economy, then the residents of that town should vote in favor of a local tax to fund that construction project. Choice B:The residents of a town should not vote in favor of a local tax to fund a construction project unless that construction project will produce results that benefit all of those residents. Choice C:Whenever a town funds a construction project, it should do so by means of a tax rather than debt. Choice D:Only those residents who will benefit from the results of a construction project should be required to pay a tax to fund that project. Choice E:Anyone who would benefit from the results of a construction project should vote in favor of a local tax to fund that project.

PT90 S4 Q21

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q22 Passage:Historian: Because medieval epistemology (theory of knowledge) is a complex subject, intellectual historians have, until recently, failed to produce a definition that would help to determine what should and what should not be included in it. Clearly, the solution is to define medieval epistemology simply as "the epistemological beliefs of the medieval epistemologists." That way, if we want to know whether medieval epistemology includes some epistemological claim, we just ask whether any medieval epistemologists believed it. If any did, it is part of medieval epistemology; if any medieval epistemologists believed the opposite, then that opposite claim is part of medieval epistemology. Stem:Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the historian's argument? Correct Answer Choice:EChoice A:Medieval epistemologists held some of the same epistemological beliefs as did ancient epistemologists. Choice B:The epistemological beliefs of medieval epistemologists depended upon their beliefs about nonepistemological matters. Choice C:The writings of most medieval epistemologists include passages that are clearly not about epistemology. Choice D:Some medieval epistemologists had epistemological beliefs that contradicted the epistemological beliefs of other medieval epistemologists. Choice E:There is much debate as to which medieval thinkers, if any, were epistemologists.

PT90 S4 Q22

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q23 Passage:Official: Six months ago, the fines for parking violations on the city's streets were raised to help pay for the parking garage that had just opened. Since then, parking violations on our streets have dropped by 50 percent. Hence, if we want there to be even fewer parking violations, the fines should be raised again. Stem:The reasoning in the official's argument is flawed in that the argument Correct Answer Choice:EChoice A:takes a possible effect of a reduction to be a possible cause of that reduction Choice B:takes for granted that raising fines a second time will reduce parking violations at least as much as it did the first time Choice C:fails to take into account the financial benefits the city is now deriving from fines for parking violations Choice D:takes for granted that people who park their cars illegally would prefer to park legally Choice E:fails to establish that the initial decrease in parking violations was not due to the availability of additional parking spaces

PT90 S4 Q23

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q24 Passage:Consumer advocate: Some agricultural crops are now being genetically engineered to produce important pharmaceuticals. However, this development raises the possibility that the drugs will end up in the general food supply, since if pollen from a drug-producing crop drifts into a nearby field in which an ordinary, non-drug-producing crop of the same species is being grown, the pollen could fertilize that crop and turn it into a drug-producing crop as well. Stem:Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the consumer advocate's argument? Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:As far as scientists know, none of the pharmaceuticals produced by genetically engineered crops would present any danger to public health if they were present in the general food supply. Choice B:If pollen from a genetically engineered crop is prevented from drifting into fields in which ordinary crops of the same species are being grown, then there is no risk of the pollen fertilizing the latter crops. Choice C:The genetically engineered crops that produce pharmaceuticals are not among the crop species that comprise the largest portions of the general food supply. Choice D:In crops genetically engineered to produce pharmaceuticals, the drugs are not present in any part of the plant used for food in ordinary crops of the same species. Choice E:If pollen from a drug-producing crop turned an ordinary crop of the same species into a drug-producing crop, it would be possible for scientists to identify the latter crop.

PT90 S4 Q24

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q25 Passage:Most of the members of Bargaining Unit Number 17 of the government employees' union are computer programmers. Thus it is certain that some of the government employees who work in the Hanson Building are computer programmers, since _______. Stem:The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following completes the passage? Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:most of the government employees who belong to Bargaining Unit Number 17 but are not computer programmers work in the Hanson Building Choice B:most members of the executive committee of Bargaining Unit Number 17 work in the Hanson Building Choice C:most of the government employees who work in the Hanson Building are members of Bargaining Unit Number 17 Choice D:most of the members of Bargaining Unit Number 17 work in the Hanson Building Choice E:most of the people who work in the Hanson building are government employees

PT90 S4 Q25

Question ID:PT90 S4 Q26 Passage:Every Labrador retriever in my neighborhood is a well-behaved dog. However, no pet would be well behaved if it were not trained. Thus it is training, not the genetic makeup of the breed, that accounts for these Labrador retrievers' good behavior. Stem:The flawed reasoning in which one of the following is most closely parallel to the flawed reasoning in the argument above? Correct Answer Choice:BChoice A:All the students at Bryker School excel in their studies. However, students at Bryker School would not excel if they did not have good teachers. Thus, all schools should hire good teachers if they want their students to excel. Choice B:Whenever it snows there are relatively more car crashes on the highways. Yet in general, there would not be car crashes unless people were careless. So it is not icy roads, but carelessness, that causes car crashes when it snows. Choice C:Every musician I know is a good dancer. Every mathematician I know is a bad dancer. Thus, it is a sense of rhythm, not the ability to count, that is most responsible for good dancing. Choice D:All of the good cooks in my country use butter, not margarine, in their cooking. Thus, if you want to be a good cook, you must use butter, not margarine, in your cooking. Choice E:All of the students in my algebra class received an A, even though none of them can solve word problems. No student who is unable to solve word problems has an adequate understanding of algebra. It follows that the students in my class received A's not because they did any good work.

PT90 S4 Q26

Question ID:PT89 S1 Q1 Passage:A customer service department is scheduling its five agents‚ Quinn, Rodriguez, Shaw, Tran, and Upton‚ to attend off-site training sessions being held over a seven-month period, month 1 through month 7. Each agent will be trained in a different month. The training must take place in accordance with the following conditions:Month 6 is one of the months in which none of the agents is trained.Upton is trained in an earlier month than Rodriguez.Quinn is trained in the month immediately before the month in which Tran is trained.Shaw is the third agent to be trained. Stem:Which one of the following is an acceptable schedule for the training? Correct Answer Choice:AChoice A:month 1: Quinnmonth 2: Tranmonth 4: Shawmonth 5: Uptonmonth 7: Rodriguez Choice B:month 1: Quinnmonth 2: Tranmonth 5: Shawmonth 6: Uptonmonth 7: Rodriguez Choice C:month 1: Quinnmonth 3: Tranmonth 4: Shawmonth 5: Uptonmonth 7: Rodriguez Choice D:month 1: Uptonmonth 3: Shawmonth 4: Quinnmonth 5: Tranmonth 7: Rodriguez Choice E:month 2: Quinnmonth 3: Tranmonth 4: Shawmonth 5: Rodriguezmonth 7: Upton

PT89 S1 Q1

Question ID:PT89 S1 Q2 Passage:A customer service department is scheduling its five agents‚ Quinn, Rodriguez, Shaw, Tran, and Upton‚ to attend off-site training sessions being held over a seven-month period, month 1 through month 7. Each agent will be trained in a different month. The training must take place in accordance with the following conditions:Month 6 is one of the months in which none of the agents is trained.Upton is trained in an earlier month than Rodriguez.Quinn is trained in the month immediately before the month in which Tran is trained.Shaw is the third agent to be trained. Stem:If Tran is not trained in month 2, which one of the following could be true? Correct Answer Choice:CChoice A:Quinn is trained in month 1. Choice B:Rodriguez is trained in month 5. Choice C:Shaw is trained in month 4. Choice D:Upton is trained in month 4. Choice E:None of the agents is trained in month 3.

PT89 S1 Q2

Question ID:PT89 S1 Q3 Passage:A customer service department is scheduling its five agents‚ Quinn, Rodriguez, Shaw, Tran, and Upton‚ to attend off-site training sessions being held over a seven-month period, month 1 through month 7. Each agent will be trained in a different month. The training must take place in accordance with the following conditions:Month 6 is one of the months in which none of the agents is trained.Upton is trained in an earlier month than Rodriguez.Quinn is trained in the month immediately before the month in which Tran is trained.Shaw is the third agent to be trained. Stem:If Shaw is trained in month 4, which one of the following must be true? Correct Answer Choice:DChoice A:Quinn is trained in month 1. Choice B:Quinn is trained in month 2. Choice C:None of the agents is trained in month 3. Choice D:Upton is trained in month 5. Choice E:None of the agents is trained in month 7.

PT89 S1 Q3

Question ID:PT89 S1 Q4 Passage:A customer service department is scheduling its five agents‚ Quinn, Rodriguez, Shaw, Tran, and Upton‚ to attend off-site training sessions being held over a seven-month period, month 1 through month 7. Each agent will be trained in a different month. The training must take place in accordance with the following conditions:Month 6 is one of the months in which none of the agents is trained.Upton is trained in an earlier month than Rodriguez.Quinn is trained in the month immediately before the month in which Tran is trained.Shaw is the third agent to be trained. Stem:Which one of the following could be the month in which Upton is trained? Correct Answer Choice:CChoice A:month 2 Choice B:month 3 Choice C:month 4 Choice D:month 6 Choice E:month 7

PT89 S1 Q4

Question ID:PT89 S1 Q5 Passage:A customer service department is scheduling its five agents‚ Quinn, Rodriguez, Shaw, Tran, and Upton‚ to attend off-site training sessions being held over a seven-month period, month 1 through month 7. Each agent will be trained in a different month. The training must take place in accordance with the following conditions:Month 6 is one of the months in which none of the agents is trained.Upton is trained in an earlier month than Rodriguez.Quinn is trained in the month immediately before the month in which Tran is trained.Shaw is the third agent to be trained. Stem:Which one of the following is a month in which an agent must be trained? Correct Answer Choice:BChoice A:month 1 Choice B:month 2 Choice C:month 3 Choice D:month 4 Choice E:month 5

PT89 S1 Q5