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S0032386109010386 | From a general point of view, polymerization techniques can be divided into two types of chemical reactions: step-growth polymerization and free radical polymerization. Step-growth polymerization is widely used for synthesis of polyesters, polyamide and epoxies while the synthesis of polyacrylics requires the use of free radical polymerization. These polymerization reactions can be performed either in bulk or in solution or in dispersed media. Heterophase polymerizations (i.e. emulsion, dispersion and miniemulsion polymerizations) present the advantage of easier removal of the resulting product from the reactor compared to bulk polymerization thanks to the low viscosity of the reaction medium. Polymerization in solution also induces lower viscosity but also lower reaction rates due to dilution of the reactants and higher cost and environmental impact due to the use of organic solvents. These problems are solved in the case of heterophase polymerizations where the reactants are confined inside droplets (no dilution effect) and water is used as medium. The use of surfactant molecules are usually needed for the stabilization of the monomer droplet and subsequent polymer particles in the water phase. | [
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S0378381215300674 | The next phase of our current study is to use the parameters obtained from pure-component systems in a transferable manner to represent the corresponding mixtures. Mixtures of n-alkanes and H2O have been studied previously with SAFT-γ SW [82]. In general it is well known that the extreme nature of the phase separation [150] makes it challenging to model mixtures of H2O with non-polar compounds. Because of the large differences in the dielectric constant of the two phases as well as in the dipole moment of H2O and the hydrophobic molecules, it especially difficult to obtain phase-independent unlike interaction parameters [112] and thus to model simultaneously the equilibrium phases. In previous work [82], emphasis was placed on obtaining an accurate description of the alkane-rich phases (both liquid and vapour), while small absolute (but not relative) deviations for the aqueous phase composition were achieved. The systems of interest in our current work are typically aqueous mixtures containing a high proportion of H2O, alkylamine, and CO2. Consequently, in order to provide an improved overall description of the fluid-phase equilibria at the conditions of interest, refinements have been made to the unlike parameters presented in the previous study [129] relating to the interactions between H2O and the alkyl groups, CH3 and CH2, namely ϵCH3,H2O, ϵCH2,H2O and λCH3,H2O, λCH2,H2O. | [
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S0038092X14000942 | Thermal performance of the smart window has been predicted under different simulated parameters namely, direct solar radiation intensity, ambient temperature, water inlet temperature, and water flow rate. Fig. 11 shows a sample of temperature distribution of all window components at a plane passing through the horizontal window segment based on simulation physical conditions listed on Table 3. Simulation data has been collected from all successive simulations. The effect of increasing direct solar radiation on both solar cells and water temperatures is shown in Fig. 12. Three different simulations were performed assuming direct solar radiation intensities of 400, 600, and 800W/m2 incident on the window’s front pane with set ambient temperature, water inlet temperature and water flow rate of respectively 273K, 283K and 0.01kg/s. Water temperature was found to increase by 5°C as it passed through the tube, carrying the solar cells, from left to right for the bottom most units at 800W/m2 of direct incident solar radiation. | [
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S0888613X16300767 | However this is not just a useful depiction of an apposite well-supported statistical model. If we are prepared to allow that the process is driven by a CRG and that the MAP model that we have discovered is indeed generating the idle process, then identifying the disconnected components of the system allows us to immediately make assertions about the impact of various controls we might apply to this regulatory process – just as we can were we to believe the model was a causal extension of a BN. In the context of microarrays, the objective of clustering is to identify patterns among the data and decide which genes to focus on in further, more gene-specific, experiments. It is therefore necessary for the scientist to make such causal conjectures about the effect of controls available to her on the expressions reflecting the underlying regulatory process she studies. These conjectures can be universal or nuanced by evoking ideas of parsimony. | [
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S0045782513001448 | Traditionally, the simulation of incompressible fluid flow by the SPH method has been through a weakly compressible SPH formulation (WCSPH). In this approach, the pressure is treated as a thermodynamic variable and is calculated using an artificial equation of state. The sound speed is set to be sufficiently high to limit density variations to within a small fraction of the actual fluid density. In practice, this high sound speed places a limitation on the maximum permissible time-step size through the Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy (CFL) constraint. A particular weakness relates to noise in the pressure field since a small perturbation in the local density will yield a large variation in the local pressure. This can make WCSPH formulations ineffective for accurate force and pressure prediction, although recent developments which create more uniform particle distributions have improved this [1,2]. A review of the SPH method can be found in [3] while a review of the classical WCSPH formulation applied to free-surface flows can be found in [4]. | [
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S0167931713002438 | There have been suggestions that electrons can be trapped in the bulk and at surfaces of silica [15] but new models of electron trapping centres started to appear only recently. It has been suggested by Bersuker et al., who used molecular models, that electrons can be trapped by Si–O bonds in a-SiO2 leading to their weakening and thus facilitating Si–O bond dissociation [16]. Further calculations by Camellone et al. have shown that electrons can spontaneously trap in non-defective continuum random network model of a-SiO2 [17]. Recent calculations have also demonstrated that the two dominant neutral paramagnetic defects at surfaces of a-SiO2, the non-bridging oxygen centre and the silicon dangling bond, are deep electron traps and can form the corresponding negatively charged defects [18]. However, these theoretical predictions have not yet been confirmed experimentally, emphasising the challenges for identifying defect centres. | [
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S0022311513011951 | The displacement cascade is a rapid process (of order picoseconds). Further migration of vacancies and SIAs, mainly by diffusion, happens over a timescale of order nanoseconds [17]. This is still short compared to operating times, so is important to consider the equilibrium result of such processes: If the vacancies and SIAs were likely to find their Frenkel partner, recombine, and annihilate, then the metal should essentially return to its original structure; however, if defects instead formed large clusters of a single type this could result in formation of voids, dislocation loops or swelling, possibly weakening the material in the process. Defects can be trapped at grain boundaries or surface, so for an ODS particle to effect the diffusion, there concentration must be such that there are many such particles in each grain. | [
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S0022311515303640 | Ferritic and martensitic steels are candidate materials for use in nuclear reactors [1,2]. The transmutation-created inert gas, especially He, plays an important role in the microstructural evolution of these steels under neutron irradiation. In a previous paper [3] the mechanisms by which He in a perfect body-centred-cubic (bcc) Fe lattice, can agglomerate into bubbles was discussed. It was shown that small He interstitial clusters are highly mobile but become effectively pinned with the emission of Fe interstitials when the clusters contain 5 or more He atoms. Small bubbles up to around 1.5 nm in diameter can easily form at room temperature from such seed points but larger bubbles are more difficult to form by diffusion alone due to the induced strain in the bcc lattice which increases the energy barriers for diffusion towards the bubbles whilst reducing them in a direction away from the bubbles. Subsequent bubble enlargement can then only occur either through increased temperature or by radiation induced mechanisms which increase the number of vacancies in the bubble and reduce the lattice strain. Emission of interracial loops from such a bubble was not observed in molecular dynamics simulations. | [
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S0167931714000203 | To restrict pollen tube growth to a single focal plane is an important subject to enable their accurate growth analysis under microscopic observation. In the conventional method to assay pollen tube growth, the pollen tubes grow in a disorderly manner on solid medium, rendering it impossible to observe their growth in detail. Here, we present a new method to assay pollen tube growth using poly-dimethylsiloxane microchannel device to isolate individual pollen tubes. The growth of the pollen tube is confined to the microchannel and to the same focal plane, allowing accurate microscopic observations. This methodology has the potential for analyses of pollen tube growth in microfluidic environments in response to chemical products and signaling molecules, which paves the way for various experiments on plant reproduction. | [
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S0301932215002037 | There is also a lack of agreement as to what constitutes churn flow. It is fairly certainly a gas continuous flow. There is growing agreement that there are huge waves present and some of the liquid is carried as drops. Sekoguchi and Mori (1997) and Sawai et al. (2004) using measurements from their multiple probes (92 over an axial length of 2.325 m) obtained time/axial position/void fraction information. From this they were able to identify huge wave from amongst disturbance waves and slugs. They classified individual structures as huge waves from their size together with the fact that their velocities depended significantly on the corresponding axial length. This was in contrast to disturbance waves where the velocity of individual waves only increased slightly with the axial extent of these waves. They also found that the frequency of huge waves first increased and then decrease with increasing gas superficial velocity. Similarly, their velocities were found to deviate from the line for slug flow velocities and pass through a maximum and then a minimum. | [
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S0032386109004996 | SPM, and AFM in particular, has been widely applied to questions in polymer crystallization. The technique has several strengths that make it ideally suited for such studies. It is a high resolution technology, routinely resolving sub 10nm features [13,14], and hence allowing the fundamental length scale of the polymer lamellar crystal, its thickness, to be observed. AFM requires no staining or metal coating of the sample, so sample preparation is relatively straightforward. Also, it is non-destructive under many circumstances. This allows images to be obtained while a process such as crystal growth or melting is occurring, giving time-resolved data at lamellar or sub-lamellar resolution [15–18]. It is this final feature that provides many of the most exciting possibilities of AFM for studying polymer crystallization, as it is now possible to watch crystal growth, crystal melting, and re-organisations within crystals at the lamellar scale, seeing how structure evolves and local conditions influence kinetics. AFM has a wide range of different measuring modes, and, with the ever increasing number of functional semicrystalline polymers available (e.g. [19]), the breadth of experiments that can be carried out with a single machine is also one of the techniques attractions. | [
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S0045782512000266 | In this work, a numerical strategy for designing an optimal maintenance scheduling for a structure, accounting explicitly for the effects of uncertainty is suggested. This contribution, which can be regarded as an extension of the methods developed in [23], presents several novel aspects over similar approaches proposed in the literature. Firstly, the initiation and propagation of fatigue crack is modeled efficiently by means of cohesive zone elements [24–26]. The application of this class of elements allows modeling the crack initiation and propagation within a unified framework. It should be noted that cohesive zone elements have already been used for uncertainty quantification of the crack propagation phenomenon [27,28]. However its application within the context of maintenance scheduling constitutes a novelty. The second innovative aspect of this contribution refers to the assessment of the reliability sensitivity with respect to the variables that define the maintenance scheduling. The estimation of this sensitivity, which is required in order to determine the optimal maintenance schedule within the proposed framework, can be quite demanding as the model characterizing repair of a cracked structure leads to a discontinuous performance function associated with the failure probability. A new approach for modeling this function is proposed herein. The continuous and discontinuous parts respectively of the function are considered separately to estimate accurately the gradients of the failure events. | [
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S0370269304009049 | One of the challenges in quantum chromodynamics (QCD) is the relativistic bound state problem. In the light-cone Hamiltonian approach [1] light-cone wave functions can be constructed in a boost invariant way. It is necessary to have reliable light-cone wave functions if one wants to calculate high energy scattering, especially exclusive reactions. Many parametrizations assume separability of the dependence on the longitudinal momentum fraction and transverse momentum which is very unlikely since the two momenta are coupled in the kinetic energy operator. Various approaches have been tried to compute such wave functions. One can use the usual equal time Hamiltonian [2] and transform the resulting wave functions into light-cone form with the help of kinematical on-shell equations. The light-cone Hamiltonian in a string picture is formulated in Ref. [3]. More ambitious is the construction of an effective Hamiltonian including the gauge degrees of freedom explicitly and then solving the bound state problem. For mesons this approach [4,5] still needs many parameters to be fixed. Attempts have been made to solve the valence quark wave function for mesons in a simple Hamiltonian with a two-body potential [6]. | [
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S2212671612002120 | A design method for network attack and defense simulation platform is discussed in this paper. Firstly the component and function of the platform are analyzed. Then Visio second development method is used to construct the virtual network topology. The parsing of virtual network topology is also researched and the relative flow sheet is described. Lastly an example is carried out to test performance of the platform. Simulation results show the effectiveness of the proposed method. | [
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S0021999115003939 | The extrapolation of the upwind value required for TVD differencing is a particular hurdle for the application on unstructured meshes. As discussed in Section 3.2, two methods to extrapolate the value at the virtual upwind node, using data readily available on unstructured meshes, are considered. Given how the virtual upwind node is incorporated in the gradient ratio rf, the extrapolation method of Darwish and Moukalled [13] is referred to as implicit extrapolation and the method introduced by Ubbink and Issa [12] as explicit extrapolation. Both methods precisely reconstruct the upwind value for equidistant, rectilinear meshes but fail to do so on non-equidistant or non-rectilinear meshes, as discussed in Section 3.2. Using the explicit extrapolation method this issue can be rectified by imposing appropriate limits on the extrapolated upwind value. | [
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S2214657115000052 | The exponential relationships reported in the plots may be used to convert the dielectric values to air void values as prescribed in previous studies [1–3]. The AC pavement composite permittivity reduces, along with the reflection coefficient, as the volumetric proportion of air increases as compared to the remaining components. However, the method relies on an empirical fit, determined on a case-by-case basis, since the permittivity of the remaining components depends on the mix design (aggregate type, binder content, etc.). Long term studies in Finland concluded that this empirical fit is an exponential relationship [1]. The exponential fits, using a sufficient amount of cores, can be used to map the air void content variation in a similar manner to the dielectric maps shown in Fig. 4. Only 4 cores were feasible due to various factors involved with testing the final lift of an in-service pavement. More cores are needed for more stable exponential coefficients, although the limited cores show that the predicted relationships are similar for the measured dielectric range in this case-study. Since both regressions predict air void content at a maximum difference of 0.56%, which is within the uncertainty of the core measurement precision of 0.7%, use of either the initial or repeat run regression predictions are appropriate. | [
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S0370269304009086 | The ART model is a hadronic transport model that includes baryons such as N, Δ(1232), N∗(1440), N∗(1535), Λ, Σ, and mesons such as π, ρ, ω, η, K, K∗. Both elastic and inelastic collisions among most of these particles are included by using the experimental data from hadron–hadron collisions. The ART model has been quite successful in explaining many experimental observations, including the surprisingly large kaon antiflow [11,12] in heavy ion collisions at AGS energies. The ART model also allows us to understand whether or not the strongly interacting matter formed in these collisions reaches chemical and/or thermal equilibrium. In the present study, we extend the ART model to include perturbatively the Ξ particle as in the studies for other rare particles using the transport model [6,13,14]. | [
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S0370269304009347 | The presence of chaotic motion in nuclear systems has been firmly related with the statistics of high-lying energy levels [8,9]. Poisson distributions of normalized spacings of successive nuclear or atomic excited levels with the same spin and parity correspond to integrable classical dynamics, while Wigner's statistics signal chaotic motion in the corresponding classical regime [10]. Intermediate situations are more difficult to assess. Very recently a proposal has been made to treat the spectral fluctuations δn as discrete time series [11]. Defining (1)δn=∫−∞En+1ρ˜(E)dE−n, with ρ˜(E) the mean level density which allows the mapping to dimensionless levels with unitary average level density, and analyzing the energy fluctuations as a discrete time series, they found that nuclear power spectra behave like 1f noise, postulating that this might be a characteristic signature of generic quantum chaotic systems. In the present work we implement this idea, using the 1f spectral behavior as a test for the presence of chaos in nuclear mass errors. | [
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