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+{"metadata":{"id":"004fa9bf06493690923de279df4ef93d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2e23e180-d3a3-4ece-a424-2bc9eb250da3/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"5 Technologies for agricultural transformation Animal health","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"Animals in Southern Africa are essential for nutrition, income, livelihoods and ecosystem services. However, animal diseases are a threat both to the perfor mance of the livestock sector and to the ability of countries to benefit from wildlife resources. Animal diseases can also have direct and indirect impacts on human health. In this chapter we first summarize the different categories of animal disease and their relevance to Southern Africa. Next, we review the technologies that are presently available, and which are being taken up, or could be taken up, by livestock keepers. We then discuss the approaches that can help close the gap between technologies and widespread adoption. Finally, we make recommendations for research and policy to overcome these barriers."}]},{"head":"Priority animal diseases in Southern Africa","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"As is the case in many low-and middle-income countries (LMIC), information on the burden of animal disease in Southern Africa is lacking. Here we draw on a survey of state veterinary services (Grace et al., 2015a), the information officially reported to the World Animal Health Organisation (www.whahid. org) and the literature (Grace et al., 2012;World Bank, 2012) to identify the priority diseases under different categories."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"• Epidemics are defined as occurrence of a certain disease in a population at levels higher than expected. The most important livestock epidemic dis eases are caused by rapidly transmitting pathogens that produce acute and serious disease in large numbers of hosts. According to state veterinary ser vices, the priority epidemic disease in Southern Africa is foot and mouth disease (FMD) followed by contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP)."},{"index":3,"size":271,"text":"Other priority epidemics are peste des petits ruminants (PPR), Newcastle disease and lumpy skin disease (LSD). • Endemic diseases are constantly present in a population. Although live stock endemic diseases are less dramatic than epidemics, some believe that the overall impact is greater. Even though a disease is endemic in an area, seasonal or sporadic outbreaks may occur. Endemic diseases important in Southern Africa are clostridial diseases, ticks and tick-borne diseases (TTBD), helminth infections and African animal trypanosomosis (AAT). • Zoonoses are animal diseases that are transmissible to people. Over 60% of human pathogens are zoonotic (Taylor et al., 2001), but a smaller num ber of zoonoses are responsible for most illness. The priority zoonoses in Southern Africa are rabies, followed by brucellosis and anthrax. Other zoonoses are emerging. For these diseases, human infection is currently rare, but as these pathogens evolve they may become better adapted to humans: priority emerging diseases are highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) and Rift Valley fever (RVF). • More than half of the priority foodborne diseases are zoonotic (Havelaar et al., 2015), and animal source foods are an important source of both zoonotic and foodborne diseases. The human health impact of foodborne disease is comparable to that of HIV/AIDs, malaria or tuberculosis (Have laar et al., 2015). The economic costs for LMICs are at least US$115 billion a year ( Jaffee et al., 2018). Foodborne disease is likely to worsen in South ern Africa over the next decades (Grace, 2015). • The priority wildlife diseases are FMD and anthrax, which are also dis eases of livestock and the priority aquatic diseases is epizootic ulcerative syndrome."},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"The distribution of infectious diseases (human, animal and plant) and the tim ing and intensity of disease outbreaks is often closely linked to climate and weather. Associations are strongest for diseases that are vector-borne, soil asso ciated, water or flood associated, rodent associated or air temperature/humid ity associated, and most of the priority animal diseases in Southern Africa are considered climate-sensitive (Grace et al., 2015b)."}]},{"head":"Technologies for better managing animal disease","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Technological advances have revolutionized our ability to detect, diagnose, cure and prevent animal diseases. Diagnostics are used to understand infection and epidemiology, in moni toring disease, in discovering pathogens, in developing and evaluating control strategies and in treating individual animals. Advances in diagnostics include the use of recombinant technology, the development of lateral flow tests and realtime polymerase chain reaction (PCR) on field lab platforms (Howson et al., 2017). However, many of these tests are not yet routinely used or commercially available. Their introduction will depend upon investment in the technology, leading to performance and cost advantages over the existing approaches used to control disease outbreaks which in turn depends upon developing a com mercial market."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"In tropical developing countries, there is also a need for field-friendly diag nostic tests. A good example of this is the FAMACHA test for anaemia in sheep to detect animals who need treatment for haemonchosis. Animals are restrained, and the eyes are examined and scored against a standardized set of five colours ranging from red-pink (normal) to white (terminal anaemia). Developed for use in sheep in South Africa, the method has been extended to other animal systems and used in other countries (O'Brien et al., 2018)."},{"index":3,"size":134,"text":"Vaccines are one of the most effective means of controlling disease, and there are more than 300 veterinary vaccines registered around the world (Barrett, 2016). Although vaccines exist for many priority diseases, technological advances can improve uptake and usability. Thermostable vaccines exist for Newcastle disease and are under development for other diseases. \"DIVA\" (differentiation of vaccinated from naturally infected animals) vaccines allow vaccinated and infected animals to be distinguished so the latter can be culled. Molecular epide miology allows the development of vaccines that are safer and cheaper and give long-lasting immunity. Insertion of protective antigens into a live but apatho genic vector organism (vector-based vaccines) has been used successfully against viral diseases but are still only emerging for bacterial diseases. Multivalent vac cines can protect against several diseases and are attractive to farmers."},{"index":4,"size":100,"text":"There is also a rapidly growing concern about increasing antimicrobial resist ance in human pathogens. One landmark study predicted that by 2050, 10 mil lion deaths worldwide will be attributable to antimicrobial resistance (O'Neill, 2016). The use of antimicrobials in agriculture is considered to contribute to this, and there is much interest in innovations that would allow reduction of anti microbials in livestock. As well as vaccines, research in Africa is investigating the potential of prebiotics, probiotics, phages, heavy metals, phytochemicals, organic acids, engineered peptides, nanoantibiotics, highly effective chicken and plant immunoglobulins and genetically resistant animals (Marquardt and Li, 2018)."},{"index":5,"size":100,"text":"Information and communication technologies (ICT) and eAgriculture has been one of the fastest growing areas in recent years and has many applications to animal health (also see Chapter 4.4 in this volume). Several projects in Africa have used mobile telephones to send information to producers and to support disease reporting. Use of electronic tags and readers can transform paper-based livestock traceability systems into an ICT-compliant system that is more secure and transparent. Model systems have been used in South Africa and Namibia and are considered to have wide applicability (Gitonga, 2017). Blockchain also has potential to revolutionize livestock value chains."},{"index":6,"size":73,"text":"Accurate information on presence, level and impacts and the costs for con trolling disease is needed to plan disease control. Disease surveillance is an information-based activity that involves collection and analysis of informa tion on disease occurrence. Well-functioning surveillance systems and timely responses may reduce the cost of outbreaks by 95% (Grace, 2014). Most devel oping countries currently lack capacity to detect diseases. Promising surveil lance and reporting opportunities for poor countries include:"},{"index":7,"size":192,"text":"• Risk based (targeted) surveillance: traditional surveillance assumes that the probability of disease is constant across all individuals, but this is rarely the case.By concentrating surveillance on the diseases,sectors,sub-populations or areas most likely to be affected, costs can be reduced and efficiency increased. • mSurveillance: mobile phones have reached widespread cover in develop ing countries. Pilot programmes involving veterinarians, community ani mal health workers and farmers have been successful in several countries. • Participatory disease surveillance (PDS) was originally developed in Africa to harness the skills of local communities in detection and reporting of rin derpest. It has subsequently been used for several diseases including avian influenza. It often reaches further and costs less than traditional surveil lance. However, reports typically require confirmation by other means. • Satellite data are increasingly being used to aid disease prediction, especially for those diseases that occur in epidemics such as Rift Valley fever. There is huge potential to calibrate these data, based on the local Meteorology Sta tion data, so they can be used in short-term disease prediction and longerterm forecasting. These can be combined with mathematical models to better understand options for disease control."}]},{"head":"Translating technologies to better animal health","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":207,"text":"Technologies by themselves will not improve animal health. Mechanisms are needed by which they can be deployed at scale. Recent years have seen the development of a series of approaches that bring together processes, technolo gies with enabling policies and incentives to bridge the gap between innovation and adoption. Three key approaches are sustainable intensification, progressive disease control and risk-based approaches for food safety. Sustainable intensification implies increasing livestock productivity but not at the expense of the environment, or economic or social well-being. Coun tries in Southern Africa, like many LMIC, are forecast to experience significant growth in demand for livestock and fish products over the next decades. At the same time, there is increasing concern over the environmental externali ties of livestock especially their contribution to greenhouse gas, pollution and environmental degradation. In Southern Africa, much of the livestock is kept by smallholders or by farmers who keep large numbers of animals but operate low-input, low-output systems. For these farmers, intensifying farming -as opposed to industrializing it -can be supported by adoption of a package of technologies. These include enhancing feed, better matching genetics with environment and improving health (ILRI, 2019). Producing more from less can also reduce the per kilogram carbon footprint of livestock products."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Progressive disease control, with the ultimate aim of eradication, has become prioritized as a result of the successful eradication of rinderpest or cattle plague. This catastrophic disease of ruminants was the second disease to be eradicated from the planet (after smallpox)."},{"index":3,"size":168,"text":"Eradication led to nearly a billion dollars in annual economic benefits in Africa alone, bringing immense benefits to livestock keepers. Global eradi cation may not always be feasible, but many diseases can be controlled by a combination of treatment, vaccination, culling and reduction of transmission. Control is usually staged with initial measures used to reduce prevalence pro gressing to more rigorous and expensive methods to eliminate infection. These staged approaches bring together stakeholders to develop a road map for control. They have been developed for foot and mouth disease (OIE and FAO, 2012), trypanosomosis (Diall et al., 2017), cysticercosis and other priority diseases pre sent in Southern Africa. Control activities are most advanced for peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and rabies ( Jarvis, 2016). PPR eradication is expected to cost US$2.26 billion over 15 years, which will create US$76.5 billion in benefits to farm communities, nearly 34 times the original investment and equal to 25% of the annual agricultural output of sub-Saharan Africa ( Jones et al., 2016)."},{"index":4,"size":137,"text":"South Africa experienced the world's largest ever recorded outbreak of lis teria (Listeria monocytogenes), with 209 human deaths between January 1, 2017, and June 5, 2018. Domestically processed ready-to-eat meat was identi fied as the probable source (Hunter-Adams et al., 2018). Managing food safety is best done through use of risk analysis: this combines risk assessment (what is the risk to human health?), risk management (what best to do about it?) and risk communication (the two way and iterative engagement among stakehold ers). Although the gold standard for managing food safety, risk analysis has not been widely adopted in LMICs. In the last decade, participatory methods have been developed to make risk analysis easier to apply and have been successfully used in several countries in Southern Africa including Tanzania, Mozambique and South Africa (Roesel and Grace, 2014)."}]},{"head":"Policy and processes to improve animal health in Southern Africa","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"The increasing importance of the human health externalities of agriculture, including emerging diseases, zoonoses and antimicrobial resistance, means ani mal health has to go beyond impacts on livestock and fish. The best practice for managing these is an approach known as \"One Health\" or Ecohealth. This assumes that the health of humans, animals and the planet are interdepend ent and problems at the intersection of human and health require solutions based on cross-disciplinary collaborations. Community animal health programmes have been successfully implemented in many countries but require an enabling national animal health policy, which is not always present. Govern ments can establish and support cross-ministerial One Health units, apply One Health methods to the control of zoonotic diseases and AMR and support community-based animal health services (Munyua et al., 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":248,"text":"Societies around the world increasingly recognize the obligation to treat animals humanely. Animal welfare fits naturally into health discussions: poor animal health causes great animal suffering, and reduction in animal disease also reduces disease in humans. In addition, animal welfare is related more broadly to livestock production. Providing adequate nutrition, husbandry and housing for livestock is critical for their welfare as well as for their productivity. Ade quate livestock transport and competent slaughter processes reduce both ani mal suffering and losses from damaged carcasses. In developing and emerging economies, improvements in livestock welfare often simultaneously improve livestock productivity, presenting a win-win opportunity. Governments need to ensure animal welfare legislation is present and raise awareness on the need for, and benefits of, improving animal welfare, Veterinary Services (VS) comprise all actors, public and private, who col laborate in the domain of animal health under the overall control and direc tion of the Chief Veterinary Officer. Veterinary services are a global public good and are essential to safeguarding and improving the health of animals and animal-related health and nutrition of people. They are essential to global trade in livestock and livestock products. There is considerable evidence that these services have been underinvested in (OIE, 2019) and that adequate fund ing of VS has considerable benefits for animal and human health ( Jaffee et al., 2018). The Performance of Veterinary Service Pathways supported by the OIE offers an appropriate and sustainable way for Southern African countries to strengthen VS (see www.oie.int/solidarity/pvs-evaluations/)."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"We are currently in an era of unprecedented interest and advances in animal disease research. This livestock sector is growing rapidly in response to demand, and the consequent intensification brings about needs for new and adapted technologies. Advances in epidemiology, molecular epidemiology, genomics, diagnostics, vaccines and ICT have great potential for controlling disease and improving productivity in livestock. At the same time, the growing concern about human health externalities of livestock production (especially emerg ing zoonotic disease, foodborne disease and antimicrobial resistance), substand ard animal welfare and the environmental impact of livestock is stimulating new investments in research to tackle these problems. Much of the growth in demand for livestock products and generation of negative externalities occurs in LMIC, and these will be at the forefront of future research. A One Health perspective that understands the importance of livestock in the context of ani mal, human and environmental health can help ensure a sustainable transforma tion of the livestock sector."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"a9e92e8e-d773-4f75-9e02-7039df55bb4d","abstract":""}

data/part_4/0076f22810cd9d0616d9fe7e650690e3.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0076f22810cd9d0616d9fe7e650690e3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ddb2a894-dfd5-4373-9e68-11fa6d4d46c0/retrieve"},"pageCount":17,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"Once the Board has made its selection (see box), the ATTC Managing Director will inform the selected investor(s) in writing. If a decision is made during the course of the Board meeting and it's possible to invite the selected firm(s) in to the meeting, congratulate them and discuss next steps in person, all the better! However, in some cases, the Board will have continual and legitimate concerns about the top candidates and will have asked for additional information after the presentations-resulting either in no company selected as a manufacturing and distribution partner or another month of discussions, deliberations, and compromises, within the Board and with the selected partner (see the example in the text box to the right). ATTC should inform the investors who have not been selected and thank them for their interest and participation in the process."}]},{"head":"Lessons Learned","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"It is possible, even after the presentations, Q&A with the investors, and discussion amongst the Advisory Board, that they are not ready to make a decision. In Nigeria, the Advisory Board had reservations and felt they didn't have sufficient information to make a decision based on the presentations and responses to their questions. As a result, the Advisory Board did not make a final decision at the end of the Board meeting. Instead, they continued to perform due diligence and asked for additional information from the investors, giving the Board a few extra weeks to analyze their options. The opposite was the case in Tanzania, where the Advisory Board was satisfied with the information presented by the investors and was able to make a unanimous decision on the final day of the Board meeting. "}]},{"head":"I. Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) has developed a unique solution, Aflasafe, to address aflatoxin contamination in major staple cereal crops in Africa. Through more than a decade-and-a-half of research and development, IITA and its partners have developed this product by identifying friendly fungi that are highly effective at reducing aflatoxin levels, then testing them in farmers' fields. This testing has helped IITA create the best composition of Aflasafe for each country while providing data needed for the registration and regulatory process. The widespread application of Aflasafe in aflatoxin-affected areas has the potential to significantly increase quantities of aflatoxin-safe maize, sorghum, and groundnuts, and significantly reduce health effects of aflatoxin, including stunting in children and liver cancer. Through Aflasafe, IITA seeks to contribute not only to improving food safety but also increasing the income of smallholder farmers."},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"To achieve these goals, IITA must widely deliver Aflasafe to agricultural value chain actors. However, developing an extensive production, distribution, and marketing operation throughout Africa to commercialize Aflasafe is not in line with the CGIAR Intellectual Assets (IA) Principles or the mandate of IITA as a non-profit research institution. After considering various options for manufacturing and distribution, IITA decided to pursue Aflasafe commercialization, led by the private sector and supported by the public sector, to turn this scientific innovation into a commercial product. greatly preferred to hold all of the Board presentations in person. In addition to providing the option for translation if/as needed, and mitigating connectivity issues, an in-person presentation naturally provides more interactive Q&A sessions in addition to time for general interaction with the potential investors."},{"index":3,"size":124,"text":"By this stage, all of the investors who are finalists have undergone site visits and thorough due diligence. It is recommended to invite three (maximum of four, if warranted) investors to present to the Board. By now, you may have realized that one or more investors are not suited to be the selected M&D partner and therefore, it would not make sense to request an in-person presentation. It could also be that one of the investors is not qualified to carry out the manufacturing component but would be a valuable distribution partner. Speak with the investor to confirm their interest in distribution only, and if they are interested, invite them to participate in the presentation, making it clear what their interests and capabilities are."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"The Board will agree on the structure of the engagement with the investors, determining the length, format, and order of the presentations. Please see Annex E for a sample of the guidance letter provided to previous investors regarding the Advisory Board presentation and what to expect during the Q&A process (see box above for additional guidance)."},{"index":5,"size":5,"text":"Step 10. Select the Investor"}]},{"head":"Objective","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"To select an investor or investors with the greatest potential to succeed in manufacturing and distributing Aflasafe Things to keep in mind"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"x Did the presentations validate or change your assumptions of who was the strongest partner?"},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"x Is there any follow-up that is needed from an investor in order for the Advisory Board to make a decision? x What terms will the investor require that can be discussed now to get ahead of the TTLA discussions?"}]},{"head":"Projected timeline and resources","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Led by the Advisory Board, and supported by the Team Leader x"},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Ideally, the Advisory Board has sufficient information and can come to consensus and a decision at the end of the meeting. If not, there may be follow-up required from one or more investors, which could extend the investor selection timeline by 1-2 weeks."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"Following the investor presentations, the Board members will convene to discuss and deliberate, analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of the investors and the information gleaned from the presentations. The team can help by recapping the key decision points (these should also be on a slide within the Board presentation), as well as by summarizing any new pertinent information learned during the investor presentations. At this time, the Board will likely re-rank the investors. You can help spur the investor selection discussion by asking leading questions, which take a holistic view of the options."}]},{"head":"Lessons Learned","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"We would like for all investors to be able to put their best foot forward to give ATTC the clearest summary and most thorough view of their potential. Offer to provide guidance in preparing for the presentation to any potential investors that are interested. For example, investors can send their draft presentation for review and feedback, and/or rehearse with your team. However, do not give an unfair advantage to any one investor during this process. Your feedback should be constructive, to enhance the quality of the presentation, but not include tips on how to appeal to the Board."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Investor Selection / Page 27 of 32"},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"x A review of the investor selection criteria x Proposed manufacturing sites x A review of the financial analysis x An overview of the licensing options x A ranking of the investors (with explanations of rankings)"},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"x Key considerations for the Board."},{"index":5,"size":119,"text":"The presentation given in person will most likely also include a section to discuss any outliers, special factors, or considerations to facilitate discussion with the Board. The data for the presentation comes from the work previously done during the due diligence phase and analysis of the business plans. To see a sample board presentation completed for Tanzania, please refer to the ATTC database/toolkit. The in-person presentation is helpful to frame the conversation and focus the Board members who are all juggling multiple initiatives. Thus, sufficient time for Q&A and an engaging dialogue with the Board is also critical, to ensure the Board members have a confidential space to ask any precursor questions before hearing the presentations from the companies."}]},{"head":"Step 9. Plan the Advisory Board Meetings with Potential Investors","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Objective","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"To organize and facilitate the advisory board meeting in a way that provides sufficient information for the board to make a decision on the investor(s) and licensing options."}]},{"head":"Things to keep in mind","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"x Will the Board convene for an in-person meeting to listen to the presentation, or will presentations only be held over videoconference (e.g. Skype) or phone? x How many investors will present out of the group of finalists? x What will be the order of the presentations?"}]},{"head":"Projected timeline and resources","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Led by the Team Leader and Manager x The Team Leader should reach out to the advisory board at least two months in advance of the anticipated meeting date, as board members may have to travel x Preparations for the advisory board meeting will occur in tandem with the creation of the ATTC board presentation x The board meeting itself will take place usually over 2 days"},{"index":2,"size":142,"text":"In addition to the presentation you will have created to summarize your analysis and recommendation, each of the investors will be asked to present their business plans to the Advisory Board. ATTC's Advisory Board is comprised of members of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, USAID, representatives of IITA senior management, and third-party advisors, such as the Partnership for Aflatoxin Control in Africa (PACA). Typically, at least one representative from each group attends the Board meeting. The ATTC Managing Director is the secretary of the Advisory Board. For IITA, a scientist and/or engineer may participate in the meeting to contribute their expertise as part of the investor review process when assessing understanding and ability to replicate manufacturing process. The Board also typically has a member that is able to analyze the financial information presented as part of the due diligence on investors."},{"index":3,"size":123,"text":"Having the Board members and investor representatives together in person is ideal because it reduces the potential for technological challenges that can occur when multiple people in different locations are dialing in, and allows Board members to meet the representatives, assess their commitment (or lack thereof), and ask questions directly. However, if resources and/or time are limited, or if an in-person meeting is not possible, meeting by Skype or phone is a second option. Due to connectivity and language issues, it has been found to be Investor Selection / Page 6 of 32 manufacturing, distribution, and marketing efforts in such a way that the Aflasafe product will be available locally in an economically viable, sustainable, and independent way for many years to come."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"To enable the continued commercialization of Aflasafe and potentially support IITA or other CGIAR institutions in commercializing other products in the future, IITA, Chemonics, and Dalberg, under ATTC, have created four guides which outline the core processes of commercialization, i.e., how to take scientific research products to market. These guides include Market Assessment and Strategy Development, Investor Selection, Structuring the Business Relationship, and Implementation of the Business Development Strategy. A summary of the four guides is presented below in the order of the commercialization process."}]},{"head":"Market Assessment and Strategy Development:","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"This guide describes the process that the ATTC initiative created for developing a commercialization strategy for Aflasafe, demonstrating how it can become a marketable farm input for sale in a specific country. The guide introduces the concept of commercialization and how it relates to IITA's activities, outlines the desired outcomes of the market assessment and strategy development process, and suggests steps to be taken to develop a high-quality document featuring findings and conclusions backed by data-including the country context, market analysis, forecasts of Aflasafe uptake, a review of manufacturing potential, and identification of potential investors. The process should take approximately 4-6 months in total-if assigned to a dedicated team with no unforeseen delays. Once the commercialization strategy is in place, there should be a clear understanding of how to commercialize Aflasafe in the country by prioritizing core market segments that are sensitive to aflatoxin and thus more likely to adopt Aflasafe. The strategy also informs the capacities and expertise needed by an investor to undertake manufacturing, marketing, and distribution."}]},{"head":"Investor Selection:","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"This guide discusses the ATTC initiative's recommended process for sourcing potential partners, analyzing investor options, and ultimately selecting the investor(s) in a specific country with the best potential for success in the manufacturing, marketing, and distribution of Aflasafe. The initial ideas for partner identification will be generated during the strategy development process, with multiple submissions from partners and reviews by IITA, culminating in a final selection by an advisory board based on presentations and recommendations. The selection process should take approximately 4-6 months if completed efficiently and without delays."}]},{"head":"Structuring the Business Relationship:","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"This guide shares the ATTC initiative's experiences navigating CGIAR policies and practices and partner motivations to structure a business relationship with the private sector investor selected to become the manufacturing and distribution (M&D) partner for Aflasafe. It provides guidance to a non-legal audience on crafting the legal document needed for the transfer of the Aflasafe technology: a Technology Transfer Licensing Agreement (TTLA). The guide covers why this type of license agreement was selected by IITA as the core legal document for the process, provides questions to consider when tailoring the TTLA template, and offers insights into negotiations with M&D partners to date. The TTLA process can take 1-2 months, depending on the level of negotiation required."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"Investor Selection / Page 7 of 32 4. Implementation of the Business Development Strategy: This guide captures ATTC's experiences working with the selected M&D partner to hand over valuable business knowledge developed throughout this process. This guide provides background information, lessons learned, and the recommended process for developing the key deliverables, including consumer profiles of potential buyers, a business case for the marketing of Aflasafe, and a handover memo for the selected partner. The guide addresses each of the key sections of these documents and shows their importance in facilitating the marketing and sales of Aflasafe to potential buyers. The development, consolidation, and handover of this information should take a total of 3-4 months using the standardized templates and tools."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"Please note that these guides are not exhaustive manuals, and thus should not be considered a complete list of steps to take. Also keep in mind that the approaches and guidance should be modified and contextualized for each target market and adjusted for changing dynamics. The guides have been designed with Aflasafe in mind but may be a starting point to adapt for other IITA or CGIAR products. As such, we have included considerations for products beyond Aflasafe throughout the guides."},{"index":4,"size":135,"text":"This guide is dedicated to the investor selection process and provides a detailed description of the recommended steps to be taken, including the sourcing of potential partners, analyzing the options, and selecting the partner with the best potential for success. The partner that is selected to receive the Aflasafe license must invest in the manufacturing and distribution of Aflasafe. Thus, we use both terms-partner and investor-throughout this guide. The goal of this guide is to identify the partner with the best prospect for investing in and succeeding with the manufacturing and distribution of Aflasafe. Choosing the right partner contributes to the success of the commercialization of Aflasafe. The guide also contains an annex of sample documents from prior work done in other countries that you can refer to throughout the process of selecting an investor."},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"Investor Selection / Page 26 of 32"},{"index":6,"size":7,"text":"Option 4: Joint venture by pre-selected investors."},{"index":7,"size":44,"text":"This became an option based on the request of an investor; however, it is unlikely to work in practice. If no agreement can be reached, revert to dictated terms under the prior options, and consider encouraging partnership that are not a formal joint venture."},{"index":8,"size":18,"text":"Once the best licensing arrangement is analyzed and determined, you can begin to prepare for the board presentation."},{"index":9,"size":11,"text":"Step 8. Develop the ATTC Team's Presentation for the Advisory Board"}]},{"head":"Objective","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"To create a presentation which effectively summarizes the investor options and ATTC's recommendation for investor and licensing option."}]},{"head":"Things to keep in mind","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"x What decisions does the advisory board need to make at the end of the board meeting? How can we anticipate those and provide the necessary data to facilitate the decision making? x What are our recommendations that we want to communicate?"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"x What risks and concerns should be indicated and considered?"}]},{"head":"Projected timeline and resources","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":213,"text":"Led by the Team Leader and Manager, supported by the Scientist and Financial Analyst x 2-3 weeks to create the draft presentation, incorporate feedback from internal stakeholders into a final version, and submit to the advisory board; remember that we began drafting slides for the presentation during steps 4 and 5 while evaluating the business plans and audited financials Create a PowerPoint presentation which summarizes the key takeaways that the Board should consider when reviewing the candidates. This presentation is provided to the Board in advance of an in-person or Skype/phone meeting in which the Board convenes to review their options and hear directly from the candidates (addressed further below). There will likely be two versions of the presentation: the first is sent to the Board approximately one month in advance of the Board meeting and is similar to a visual summary of the primary information in each business plan, without any recommendations; the second is presented in person, and reflects any updates and feedback received leading up to the Board meeting, in addition to a summary comparison of the various companies and a recommendation for the Board to consider. The presentation to the Board and subsequent discussions with the Board is a great opportunity to share the analysis and any final recommendations."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"The presentation itself may contain sections including, but not limited to: Option 3: One manufacturing license plus one or more distribution license(s). In the case of multiple distribution licenses or the manufacturer's insistence on distribution rights, delineation of markets will be necessary."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"Investor Selection / Page 8 of 32"}]},{"head":"II. Overview of Investor Selection","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Getting Aflasafe to the last mile, in line with IITA's mission, is most effective when working with and through the private sector. Without business acumen and experience, not to mention established and sustainable distribution channels and innovative marketing strategies, the product will never see the light of day. Successfully working with and through the private sector creates a cycle of financial support to regenerate and scale the operations of producing and distributing Aflasafe."},{"index":2,"size":226,"text":"A competitive selection process is necessary to ensure the most appropriate private sector partner is selected, ideally one whose strategic goals align with the IITA mission, and whose financial and management capacity can support development of this business line as a longterm commitment. Although the product has been tested and proven with internationally recognized scientists at a research institute, it's not a franchise nor turnkey operation. There is still significant market knowledge and strategy development required of the private sector partner. While the investor selection process is similar in some ways to a venture capital due diligence process, ensuring a competitive selection process is even more critical as IITA has a responsibility to the management of public goods and a reputation to protect by ensuring quality standards are upheld by the private sector partner. Open competition is healthy in that it promotes fairness and also drives innovation. During the investor selection process, support and engagement with the potential investors is recommended as a means to get to know the prospective partners, ensure they understand the operations and address any questions as they complete the applications without creating unfair advantages for any one potential investor along the way. The prospective investors must prove themselves and show that they value this opportunity and will fight to succeed in getting Aflasafe to market in the face of anticipated challenges."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"For additional background information on the entire commercialization process, and the importance of scaling through the private sector, please reference the overview sections in the Market Assessment and Strategy Development and Structuring the Business Relationship guides."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"Investor Selection / Page 9 of 32"}]},{"head":"III. Roles and Responsibilities","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"It is advantageous for the ATTC team members who will be conducting due diligence and analysis on the investor candidates to have the experience and knowledge of what is required to commercialize Aflasafe in a particular country. As such, some team members that were part of the commercialization strategy team for that country should also participate in the investor selection process, as possible, to be available to answer questions."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Similar to the commercialization process to date, it is advisable to continue to draw upon the expertise of an external consulting strategy firm, to support the investor selection process."},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"IITA is an internationally renowned scientific research institution. However, it does not have a private sector mandate and thus does not directly employ personnel with extensive business strategy experience and acumen. It behooves IITA to continue to partner with similarly strong, internationally recognized external consultancy and strategy companies to assess the capacities of investors. In addition, it may be important to add external resources with specialized expertise, such as financial analysis. In order to complete each step in the process detailed below, be sure to identify and mobilize the requisite human resources."},{"index":4,"size":182,"text":"Exhibit 2 below outlines the essential roles and responsibilities, but keep in mind that different resources may be required based on the specific needs of a country. The list below does not specify which team members should be brought in from an external consulting team, but ideally, they should have expertise in agribusiness, strategy and financial analysis. The Team Leader, Strategy Manager, and Financial Analyst all play important roles throughout the investor selection process, supported by other key roles.  The investor was given an exclusive license, but it was clear that given the large size the country, it would be advantageous for the investor to partner with some of the other applicants who had strong distribution networks. The Board determined that the selected investor should work directly with the other applicants who had networks that were complimentary to that of the selected investor. The selected investor is negotiating its distribution arrangements with the other applicants at the request of IITA. This approach will increase the investor's geographic reach using partners who are already familiar with Aflasafe having gone through the application process."}]},{"head":"Option 1c: Nationwide exclusive distribution license and no manufacturing license in the country (yet)","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"Our preference is to provide the manufacturing license to a firm within country. The additional investment in manufacturing operations creates more incentive for the licensee to succeed and is a better model for sustainability of operations. However, there may be instances where there is not a suitable company capable of manufacturing or it may be that no companies are interested in manufacturing. In this case, IITA could provide a distribution license only, if there is a nearby manufacturing operation."}]},{"head":"Investor Selection / Page 23 of 32","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"The licensing options should be analyzed and presented to the Board as part of the Board presentation (see Step 8 below), with pros and cons of each option. By summarizing the potential options in the presentation which is submitted to the Board before Board meeting, frame the investor selection process and help guide the Board in thinking through their options. Note that after seeing all of the investor presentations, it is possible that an alternative arrangement may be identified during the Board meeting discussions, as happened in Tanzania (see box, and discussed in further detail below). The arrangement that the Board and investor(s) envision will be central to the negotiations and finalization of the TTLA, which is discussed in detail within the next guide. The tables below outline the most common licensing arrangements available to IITA:"}]},{"head":"Lessons Learned","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"For Tanzania, after the commercialization strategy, the Board assumed that there would be two licenses provided. This impacted the way the entire process was conducted in Tanzania. We were transparent and forthcoming with all of the potential investors with this information, asking about their preferences (including the options of having one manufacturing license with multiple distributors, or two manufacturing license). We also asked investors about geographic strengths, in preparation for potentially awarding two licenses."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Investor Selection / Page 10 of 32"}]},{"head":"IV. Process","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"This section outlines the recommended steps to be taken for investor analysis and selection as outlined below in Exhibit 3."}]},{"head":"Exhibit 3. Investor Selection Process","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":209,"text":"Before beginning the investor selection process, it is important to remember that much of the groundwork has already been laid during the commercialization strategy process. The information collected and documented during the commercialization strategy process should be referenced throughout the investor selection process as ATTC has already analyzed key questions-such as what type of market to target, who is driving demand, what level of investment will be required and what potential return exists, and also, who the potential partners in production, distribution and consumption are. The commercialization strategy document summarizes the key takeaways, which provide answers to these questions. ATTC should already have a good idea about the profile of the investor they are looking for based on interviews conducted during the commercialization strategy process and the fact that IITA has most likely already been working in-country for a few years performing Aflasafe test trials and certification. Additionally, the first set of potential applicants will likely come from the investor forum held during the commercialization process. Note that the Board's approval of the Commercialization Strategy and any feedback, guidance or questions from the Board regarding their assumptions about the potential licensing arrangements will also frame the investor selection process in any given market, as highlighted further in Step 7."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"We have outlined below the basic process for investor selection and noted which ATTC team members should be involved in each step, including suggested timeframes. However, depending on the level of experience of the targeted businesses, availability of funds, and Investor Selection / Page 11 of 32 business acumen within the ATTC team, an external consulting company may be asked to provide additional fundamental support during the various steps in this process."}]},{"head":"Step 1. Conduct Initial Filtering and Request Submissions of EOIs","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Objective","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"To consolidate the list of potential investors, determine the initial filtering criteria and narrow the universe of candidates. After that, request Expressions of Interest (EOIs)."}]},{"head":"Things to keep in mind","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"x What companies have we met so far that would be strong candidates?"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"x What are red flag issues that will eliminate candidates?"}]},{"head":"Projected timeline and resources","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Led by the Strategy Manager, advised by the Team Leader and supported by the Junior Strategy Associate:"},{"index":2,"size":192,"text":"x 2 weeks for consolidating the list of potential investors and conducting the initial filtering x 1-2 days for reaching out to investors to request EOIs x 1 week for firms to submit questions and requests for clarification x 2-3 weeks to receive EOI submissions As discussed in the guide on Market Assessment and Strategy Development, begin identifying possible investors during the key informant interviews, ultimately deciding upon who to invite to the investor forum. During the investor forum, provide a survey asking firms whether they are interested to apply for the license. Encourage applications from potential investors who have strong manufacturing and/or distribution capabilities and are able to meet many of the criteria that you are seeking, such as high motivation and strategic alignment with their current business; a realistic understanding and readiness to take on the opportunity, adequate financial, marketing, and distribution capacity, and a strong management structure. Remember that it is possible to provide multiple licenses or pair investors, as discussed further in Step 7, and so an investor who is strong in either manufacturing or distribution, but not the other, should not be filtered out at this stage."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"It is likely that some applicants may be filtered out before EOIs have been requested. It may be quite clear from the outset that certain firms are not a good \"fit\" with the local context, ATTC goals, or country-specific goals. It is not only OK, but smart and efficient, to eliminate some firms at the initial stage in order to focus time and effort on soliciting EOIs from those that do fit. For example, you may choose to not request EOIs from applicants that exhibit deficiencies such as:"},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"x Businesses that do not have relevant experience in manufacturing, marketing or distribution of commercial products. x Non-profit organizations that will not be driven to maximize market penetration and sales. x Organizations that do not have experience or a presence in the target country."},{"index":5,"size":43,"text":"x Businesses or business owners that are barred or excluded due to poor reputation in organizational databases, such as the System for Award Management in the United States. x Businesses that do not have formal registration or authority to operate in the country."},{"index":6,"size":48,"text":"x Parastatal organizations, if you have sufficient applications from private sector partners. (In Kenya, for example, ATTC partnered with a parastatal organization given the political situation. This should be analyzed during the market assessment and strategy development process to determine the likelihood of the level of government involvement.)"},{"index":7,"size":7,"text":"Investor Selection / Page 22 of 32"}]},{"head":"Objective","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"To consolidate the analysis completed thus far into subjective rankings based on the evaluation criteria."}]},{"head":"Things to keep in mind","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"x How will we rank? Will we assign points or look at the criteria and results holistically?"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"x How do we factor in risks and \"red-flag\" issues?"}]},{"head":"Projected timeline and resources","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":268,"text":"Led by the Team Leader supported by the Manager x 1 week to clean up notes and update evaluation criteria results for each investor x 1 week to meet and compare rankings, and come to consensus Once you have reviewed the business plans and audited financials and conducted due diligence site visits, there should be ample data points and conclusions to evaluate investors against the evaluation criteria previously established and, as applicable, tailored for context. It may be helpful to have a way of highlighting each categorization and conclusion as positive, negative or neutral. This could be a quantitative ranking where points are assigned or a visual snapshot, such as color coding. When all of the results and conclusions have been written up for each candidate, you can then rank them. The rankings and conclusions form should be in a format such as Microsoft PowerPoint, Excel or Word that can be easily reviewed and understood by other decision-makers who were not part of the analysis. In particular, the resulting analysis should be shared with the ATTC Advisory Board and included as part of the Board presentation discussed in Step 8 below. It is also important to explain any aspect of the rankings that are more subjective or do not fit well within the original evaluation criteria, as well as identify open questions or key risks (if any) to flag coming out of the ranking process. Lastly, rank overall capacity using the evaluation criteria, as well as capacity in manufacturing versus distribution, as you could consider a special arrangement for multiple licenses or distribution support, as discussed further below."}]},{"head":"Step 7. Assess the Licensing Options","index":31,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Objective","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"To assess our options for the business relationship and role of the investor(s) with whom we are considering."}]},{"head":"Things to keep in mind","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"x Was there a clearly dominant investor in both manufacturing and distribution, or do we consider one investor strongest in manufacturing while another is stronger in distribution? x How does geography factor in? Will the selected investor have the ability to distribute throughout the entire country?"}]},{"head":"Projected timeline and resources","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Led by the Team Leader and Scientist, supported by the Manager x 1 week to consider licensing options (to be conducted in tandem with the ranking of the investors)"},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"\"Exclusivity\" is noted as one of the evaluation criteria from Step 3 above. Consider discussing exclusivity when corresponding with applicants during the EOI and business plan phases. Although the standard licensing arrangement is to have one exclusive licensee who manages both the manufacturing and distribution (Option 1), you can also consider whether the responsibility should be divided amongst multiple candidates and what the implication of that arrangement might be. For example, one candidate may have the clear capacity to manufacture, but they are not known for distribution or marketing. It may be beneficial to provide separate licenses for manufacturing and distribution or to recommend a partnership between one manufacturer and one or more distributors."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"Step 6. Rank the Investors requirements and production specifics, and also ask technical questions of the businesses. In advance of traveling, (for the non-engineer visit) read through the business plans and develop a list of questions-to be most efficient with time, and to be able to hone in on any areas that require clarification (see box below for more ideas)."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"When planning the site visit, it's important to reflect on exactly what you want to verify during the visit, and design your questions accordingly. Your team should focus on analyzing the following key areas:"},{"index":5,"size":46,"text":"x Scale and operations: Visiting the operations in person will provide an excellent sense of scale and manufacturing capacity. Does the company's scale and sophistication seem appropriate for Aflasafe commercialization? Ask to see the relevant manufacturing equipment they currently have and confirm what will be purchased."},{"index":6,"size":275,"text":"x Market knowledge: The investor should not just regurgitate their commercialization strategy. They need to provide concrete examples which support their own strategy. Ask probing questions to test the depth of their market knowledge. x Relationships and distribution network: Ask the investor to provide specifics on their distribution plan and network-they will likely be more willing to discuss sensitive information verbally than in writing. Can the investor leverage their existing distribution network and succeed in Year 1? x Government relationship: Ask the investor how they plan to work with the government to promote public health campaigns as part of the awareness-raising component that will create demand. x Financial: Prepare to question any irregularities in the audited financials or seek clarification on the financial projections. Ensure that marketing costs included are sufficient. Ask about other investments they are planning to make, to see if there are upcoming financial pressures not reflected in past financial statements. x Transparency: The investor must be willing to share sufficient information to prove that they are prepared and willing to trust your team. How open was the company to letting you see operations? Were your questions answered and were follow-up items provided if not available during the meeting? x \"Soft\" factors: Look out for any signals from management that may indicate the company is hesitant, not ready for the challenge of commercializing Aflasafe, or does not consider Aflasafe a priority. Did they value your time? Did they prepare questions for you? How involved was the senior management team during the visit? How committed do they appear to be to this endeavor? Did their body language indicate discomfort or lack of sincerity?"}]},{"head":"Lessons Learned","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"If the registration process, the commercialization strategy, and the market intelligence are all developed by different teams or individuals, it's critical to keep a central repository of the raw information gathered, or even start an FAQ early on of basic issues/discussions. Although some of the information may not be included in formal public documents, the details are still important to share with future teams to ensure there's a common understanding of key issues, such as VAT applicability, implications of joint venture operations, country context views, background on the national government's view on multi-national operations, etc. If this information is not shared and maintained in a central location, future individuals/teams may re-research and make determinations on the same issues with the same contextual background or interpretation of the analysis. It is helpful to see and understand how thinking might have evolved and why."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Investor Selection / Page 12 of 32"},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"Next, reach out to the shortlisted firms to request that they submit a formal EOI (see box). EOIs are the initial applications submitted by the firms that are candidates for the Aflasafe license. Request EOIs from all applicants at the same time to ensure a fair and competitive process that will attract the best potential partners. Businesses should demonstrate their dedication and motivation to making this business line grow in step with IITA's vision, ultimately ensuring the product will make it to the last mile."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"The EOI package submitted to ATTC by interested firms should include, but is not limited to, the following:"},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"x A written EOI that serves as a cover letter x Country registration verification x An organizational chart x Corporate governance documentation x Audited financials for the past three years x Proof of financial capacity (i.e., letter from a bank confirming a line of credit or agreement to lend for the Aflasafe investment, or a confirmation of cash reserves, equity or other financing if loans will not be needed)"},{"index":6,"size":104,"text":"Set a deadline of 2-3 weeks to receive EOIs. Give potential investors sufficient time to respond, but they should also show the ability to meet a deadline. The deadline for receiving EOIs should not be extended significantly beyond your original deadline-this can be a factor in determining who is serious about the opportunity. The documents themselves should not be difficult to gather. Remember to set an intermediate deadline (e.g., 1 week) for firms to submit questions and requests for clarification. Answers to these questions should generally be distributed to all recipients of the EOI package, unless they relate to a particular firm's specific situation."},{"index":7,"size":1,"text":"Step"}]},{"head":"Shortlist Candidates and Request Submissions of Business Plans Objective","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"To ensure that ATTC receives strong business plans to adequately assess the investor candidates."}]},{"head":"Things to keep in mind","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"x What is the capacity of candidates in this country, and is targeted support needed to enhance the business plan submissions? x How can we ensure fairness during this process?"}]},{"head":"Projected timeline and resources","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Led by the Strategy Manager, advised by the Team Leader and Engineer, and supported by the Junior Strategy Associate"}]},{"head":"If business plans are prepared independently with no support from ATTC:","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"x 1 week -review EOIs, shortlist candidates, and request business plans x 1 week -period to receive questions from businesses x 3 weeks after end of Q&A period -final business plans due"}]},{"head":"If working session approach is utilized (see discussion further below):","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"x 1 week -Preparation for kick-off meeting x 1 week after kick-off meeting -Business plan outline from investor due x 1 business day after receiving outline from investor -Feedback on outline from ATTC due x 2-3 weeks after receiving feedback on outline from ATTC -First draft of business plans and audited financials due x 2-3 week after receiving draft business plan -Feedback on business plan by ATTC and stakeholders for input due* x 2-3 weeks after receiving feedback from ATTC on draft business plan -Final draft of business plans due and presentation to ATTC"}]},{"head":"Tips and Tricks","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"The EOI package should make clear to firms that this is not an application for funding from IITA. Investors must find their own funding and clearly indicate a financing plan. The communications must also clearly state the point of contact within IITA and request the same of each applicant to ensure efficient communication channels."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"Investor Selection / Page 13 of 32 * If site visits from specialists like the Engineers, or an invitation of perspective investors to a sample manufacturing site are possible, arrange after the draft business plans are submitted. Share feedback on a rolling basis if a specialist is not available to provide timely feedback."}]},{"head":"Shortlisting the EOIs.","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"After receiving all EOI submissions (see box), ATTC should review and determine which of the EOI applicants to invite to submit a complete business plan and share copies of audited financials for the past three years. The number of EOIs submitted will depend on the level of interest by potential investors; there is no required amount of EOIs to be received although three to six is a reasonable expectation. In the event of receiving only one EOI, analyze the applicant to determine if it is appropriate to continue the investor due diligence for the single applicant, or whether to re-open the process. Assuming receipt of multiple applications, do not inform the shortlisted investors who they are competing against. We believe that the anonymity of competitors ensures fair competition."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Upon receiving the EOIs, conduct another round of filtering, potentially filtering out:"},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"x Applicants that do not have proper management structure and operations (e.g., individuals looking to make investments but not willing to manage operations)."},{"index":4,"size":70,"text":"x Very small businesses that do not have significant capital or access to capital, or that have operations that are too small to take on the Aflasafe investment in either manufacturing or distribution. x Businesses that were unable to submit packages that were complete or within the deadline. In these cases, use your own judgment to determine how deficient the submission was and whether you will still consider the submission."},{"index":5,"size":127,"text":"Submission of Business Plans. Once you have filtered the EOIs, the next step is to request business plans from shortlisted candidates (see box). The business plan is comprised of a narrative component, as well as a model in Microsoft Excel containing financial assumptions and projections. The business plan submission is the official method through which the applicant will demonstrate their capability to take on the Aflasafe investment. At this stage, provide a general overview of the evaluation criteria in the letter or email to investors requesting business plans. It is not recommended to share the comprehensive selection sub-criteria at this stage. Rather, share just the main categories of criteria. This will allow for some flexibility in the process (see Step 3 below for details on evaluation criteria)."},{"index":6,"size":52,"text":"As the companies attempt to outline their approach to the business, they will no doubt realize they have significant questions-about the manufacturing process, the equipment, potential alternatives in the manufacturing and sourcing process, and even about the viability of the technology-as they are starting to visualize this business line within their operations."}]},{"head":"Lessons Learned","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Having multiple perspectives when shortlisting potential businesses is important. Some businesses may not present a compelling EOI, but if there's someone on the review panel with significant country experience, s/he could provide additional context to explain the significance of including that company in the shortlist. This scenario occurred in Tanzania, where the documentation provided by one of the applicants was lower in quality and thoroughness as compared to the others. However, ATTC knew that the applicants possessed a very strong distribution network that qualified it as a top candidate. Although this investor was not ultimately selected by ATTC, they participated in the full application process."}]},{"head":"Lessons Learned","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"In Senegal, we received only one EOI. Early interaction with one investor during the research and trial phase led to a reduction in the number of applicants. We learned that in order to ensure more competition and interest, we must promote the opportunity as fully open throughout the early stages of research and commercialization or else potentially interested firms will not engage."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Investor Selection / Page 20 of 32 their assertion that the financials present a true and fair view of the state of the audited entity's financial affairs. The most important aspect of the audited financials for purposes of due diligence is the summary of the total sales, profit (gross and net), taxes, equity, debt, assets, cash flow, and inventory."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"To analyze these statistics, create a matrix in Microsoft Excel, which will allow for ease of comparison across years and across companies. This will enhance your ability to identify outliers and trends. For a sample matrix of the analysis of audited financials completed for the four finalists in Tanzania, please refer to Annex D."},{"index":4,"size":96,"text":"For example, if total sales or net profits decline in two or three of the three years displayed, question this negative trend. If the net profit margin is negative or under 1%, ask why. There may be a valid reason that indicates this is only temporary; however, if the investor is having challenges managing their core business, it may be a sign that they are not healthy enough to take on the Aflasafe investment. Exhibit 6 below contains relevant financial ratios to calculate and compare across investors: Exhibit 6. Financial Ratios for Analyzing the Audited Financials"}]},{"head":"Financial Ratio & Calculation Definition","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":204,"text":"Total Assets to Liabilities Ratio = Total Assets/Total Liabilities A high ratio for total assets to liabilities indicates that the company has either a strong level of assets or low liabilities or both. The higher the ratio the better, to show that the company has significant assets to cover its liabilities. Current Ratio = Current Assets/Current Liabilities The current ratio measures a company's ability to pay short-term obligations or those due within one year. The higher the ratio the better. Quick Ratio = (Current Assets -Inventories)/Current Liabilities The quick ratio measures a company's ability to pay short-term obligations or those due within one year with assets excluding inventories which are meant for sale and not to pay off liabilities. Cash Ratio = Cash/Current Liabilities The cash ratio measures a company's ability to pay short-term obligations or those due within one year using its most liquid assets which are cash and cash equivalents (i.e., if urgent payment is required). Total Debt to Equity Ratio = Total Debt/Total Equity The total debt to equity ratio is a measure of the degree to which a company is financing its operations through debt versus wholly-owned funds (i.e., equity). A very high ratio indicates high leverage, and potential risk."}]},{"head":"Inventory Ratio = Inventory/Sales","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"The inventory ratio analyzes the level of inventory that an investor is carrying in a given year. A high ratio could indicate challenges with selling products."}]},{"head":"Step 5. Conduct Due Diligence Site Visits","index":47,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Objective","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"To ask further questions, verify what is described in the business plan and observe firsthand the management team and operations of each investor Things to keep in mind"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"x What do we need to verify in person?"},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"x What aspect of the business plan was unclear and requires further probing?"}]},{"head":"Projected timeline and resources","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Led by the Team Leader, Strategy Manager and Engineer x 1-2 weeks prep time before travel (can be done in parallel with the business plan reviews) x 1 day on the ground with each investor plus 1-2 days of travel (depending on distance between investors)"},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Site visits are a key step in the evaluation process to verify what was included in the business plans by seeing physical operations in person and meeting team members."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"Request to meet with senior management as well as other technical experts. Consider sending an engineer to meet with the businesses to answer questions on capital expenditure"}]},{"head":"Tips and Tricks","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Both working capital and long-term financing are required for the investment in Aflasafe. Debt financing can be expensive and hard to obtain. Make sure the investor has the capacity and financial health to take on more debt if it is required and included within their business plan. Keep in mind that audited financials may not tell the whole story. Is the firm making any other investments in new products that would impact its ability to take on the Aflasafe investment?"},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"reputation and history of the investor. Tactfully look out for any \"relationship issues\" with other private sector partners or the government that would hinder their business potential. Also use the reference checks to determine how realistic their business plans are. Without giving out proprietary information to references, confidentially assess the feasibility of the investor's capacity to take on the investment in Aflasafe production and distribution. To see the results of the investor selection criteria for the four finalists in Tanzania, please refer to Annex C."}]},{"head":"Step 4. Analyze the Audited Financials Objective","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"To assess the financial health and capacity of each applicant."}]},{"head":"Things to keep in mind","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"x Does the financial data show a steady trend or are there outliers? If there is outlier data, what does it signify about their regular business operations? x How do the financials compare across companies and what conclusions can we draw based on what we know about the differences in size and business models? x Can we compare financials to other firms in the industry (if we have access to that data)?"}]},{"head":"Projected timeline and resources","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"Led by the Financial Analyst, and supported by the Team Leader and Manager x 3 weeks for reviewing business plans and asking follow-up questions to investors (this is done in tandem with the review of the business plans) x Begin consolidating information by drafting slides for the Advisory Board while reviewing and comparing the audited financials A financial statement audit is the examination of an entity's financial statements and accompanying disclosures by an independent auditor. The result of this examination is a report completed by the auditor-the audited financials-attesting to the fairness of presentation of the financial statements and related disclosures. The audited financials allow you to assess the financial health and capacity of an applicant (see boxes on this page). Request the most recent three years of audited financials from each applicant. One year of financials is not sufficient because they don't show trends. Three years of audited financials allow you to see how the financial health of the company has changed in the years leading up to today."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"While the format of the audited financial reports may vary from country to country, they will generally consist of similar information."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"The financials should contain an introduction of the financial firm who performed the audit and"}]},{"head":"Lessons Learned","index":54,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"Having multiple skill sets and perspectives on the evaluation team is useful. During the review of the Tanzania business plans, Chemonics ensured there was complementarity in the team's skills. In particular, an individual with significant financial analysis experience was brought in specifically to review the audited financials and the financial component of the business plans once all of the financial documentation was received. This individual had not been very involved in the process to date and didn't have the entire context and/or biases regarding the relationships developed with all of the businesses. This helped to ensure thorough and comprehensive review and analysis from a perspective more akin to how the Board might be approaching the information and decisionsome Board members may primarily be piecing together the comparative analysis from the financial documentation. Bringing in fresh perspectives can ensure an unbiased review-not based on previous engagement with the investors-and anticipate questions from the Board."}]},{"head":"Tips and Tricks","index":55,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"This is not a franchise business model or complete turnkey operation. In order for the chosen business partner to be successful, it takes marketing strategy, distribution networks, financial investment, and market relationships and knowledge. Developing and/or expanding these networks takes time and money. If a potential investor already has a struggling business line, or a struggling core business, this new business line with Aflasafe will not be a savior, or a quick and easy cash cow. As much as there are definite advantages to working with IITA, (proven technology/product, technical expertise, international research institute reputation), this is still a new business line. As with any new business line, there's a significant investment of time, strategy, and money required during the first few years and the chosen investor must be willing and able to meet this challenge."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Investor Selection / Page 14 of 32 Support and timely feedback from the engineers and scientists at this stage can be critical to quickly addressing and mitigating any fears the company may have, but it will also give ATTC insight into whether they are willing to adhere to the required quality standards and if they have the capacity to be a strong business partner-one who can challenge the accepted knowledge to find efficiencies as opposed to challenging just for the sake of challenging."},{"index":3,"size":178,"text":"As it is important to ensure that you are asking for and receiving sufficient information from which to evaluate and compare the potential investors, templates for both the narrative and financial projections are provided to solicit the same information across all of the shortlisted candidates. Ideally, you will receive a uniform level of information for comparison purposes. You may decide to pre-fill some of the information in the business plan narrative to guide the responder; for example, the template could include information from the commercialization strategy on the target market and recommended strategies and market segments. However, leave sufficient space for the investor to show their own analysis, commitment to and understanding of the product, and approach to entering the market. The template allows your team to evaluate the investor and should not be pre-filled with too much information, just enough to be clear in what is expected of the investor. The business plan narrative template and guidance letter from IITA is provided as Annex A and the business plan financial projections template is provided as Annex B."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"Business Plan Narrative. The narrative component of the business plan requires applicants to display their knowledge of Aflasafe, an understanding of the marketplace, and the ability to map out a strategic plan and the resources needed for the investment. Specifically, the narrative template contains the following sections:"},{"index":5,"size":110,"text":"x Executive Summary x Description of the business x Potential markets and competitive analysis x Strategic plan x Manufacturing plan x Marketing and distribution x Financial plan x Legal and governance structure x Potential risk and mitigation strategies x Acknowledged weaknesses and plan to address them x Action plan x Annex Business Plan Financial Model. Request a financial model from the investor candidate that includes anticipated costs and targets. Aflasafe is an investment opportunity with a return over a medium-term horizon, therefore, ask for a five-year financial model as part of the business plan. To support the process, consider providing a template for the financial model, containing the following sections:"},{"index":6,"size":46,"text":"x A summary of the commercialization process x Annual production targets x Annual marketing costs x A procurement schedule x A staffing plan x Detailed financial projections (costs and revenues) x A break-even point analysis x A sensitivity analysis Investor Selection / Page 15 of 32"},{"index":7,"size":158,"text":"x Potential risks and mitigation strategies x Potential partners x Action plan calendar As all investors will utilize some form of financial model for projections and budgeting within their regular operations outside of Aflasafe, be prepared to accept different formats for the financial projections. The financial model template demonstrates to the investor the minimum level of detail required in order to analyze their projections. If the investor would like to submit a more detailed financial model, we recommend that you accept the additional detail. Many formats are acceptable, as long as they are organized so that the data is easily understood. If the investor cannot provide a financial model that is clear or complete, this is a red flag. The Aflasafe investment requires a level of capacity and planning that must be backed up by a financial model to prove that the investor understands the capital required as well as the risks and potential gains for the investment."},{"index":8,"size":66,"text":"Upon receipt of the business plan narrative and financial projections, you must conduct an initial review of both to determine if there is anything missing or incomplete, to be sure you have complete submissions to analyze. Don't forget to respect the confidentiality of the information submitted by applicants. The ability to trust each other will be key to receiving quality information and establishing a good relationship."},{"index":9,"size":114,"text":"If you expect the capacities of the applicants to be relatively low, you can offer support to investors during the business plan development process by organizing working sessions. In the past, the Chemonics and Dalberg teams offered support from the perspective of consulting firms. This provided some distance from the IITA team and reduced the potential for bias. However, if a consulting team is not involved, you can and should offer this same support. If you are providing insights to one investor regarding how to prepare the business plan, in fairness, try to provide the same information to all applicants. This will also increase the chances that you receive high quality submissions from everyone."},{"index":10,"size":154,"text":"What each potential investor does with the information-i.e., how they apply it to their business plan-is up to the investor. Potential investors will interpret and apply the same information differently, but at least each one will have the same access to the information and no favoritism or unfair advantage will be shown. There will always be some investors who will want to have meetings, seek further insight, and try to figure out what the ATTC business advisors are thinking; these are the ones who recognize that the business plan support meetings amount to free management consulting support. Investors who do solicit advice from ATTC show initiative and the determination to succeed. These requests provide a window into the way they do business-and how open the company is to feedback and collaboration (see box below). Giving targeted support to investors will probably lengthen the timeline for completion of the business plan given the extra drafts"}]},{"head":"Lessons Learned","index":56,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Many potential companies are family-owned businesses. Across the globe, family-owned businesses are notorious for being slow to accept external advice and have a hard time adapting to change. This became clear during the due diligence phase, in assessing how the companies responded to the feedback provided throughout the entire process."}]},{"head":"Lessons Learned","index":57,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"There are competing priorities with setting a timeframe that is too aggressive versus one that is too lax."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"In the case of Tanzania, the Board wanted to award the TTLA in Tanzania within a 2.5 month timeframe from their approval of the Commercialization Plan, which meant less than 6 weeks for the businesses to submit all final documents and less than 2 weeks for the Board to evaluate the business plans, prepare presentations, and convene a Board meeting. Thankfully, the Board listened to feedback from the potential investors and adjusted their expectations, adding an additional 3 months to the process. With the end-of-year holidays, it took the entire five months in between Board meetings for the investors to finalize their plans, and it took another 7 weeks after the Board meeting to finalize the TTLA."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"Investor Selection / Page 18 of 32 "}]},{"head":"Marketing and Distribution","index":58,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Business plan details a market-driven approach for driving uptake of Aflasafe Investor has experience marketing new products to processors and consumers in Tanzania Investor has relationship with processors, aggregators, and farmers Business plan outlines existing distribution channels to reach target market; or detailed plans to create them"}]},{"head":"Management Team","index":59,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Management team is dedicated to Aflasafe business, marketing, awareness, and advocacy* Team has positive relationships with public sector institutions Balanced patience with action and strategic thinking* Ability to communicate the vision and approach internally and externally*"}]},{"head":"Exclusivity & options","index":60,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Investor is open to working with other partners *These sub-criteria will be evaluated in particular during on-site due diligence visits as described in"},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"Step 5 below."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"Based on the established evaluation criteria, begin to analyze each applicant's qualifications in detail (see boxes). Pay particular attention to any deficiencies or \"red flag\" issues and be prepared to ask the investor to clarify as needed via targeted follow-up questions. There may be a valid explanation, thus removing the red flag, or perhaps there is a mitigation plan to take note of."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"At this stage, also use IITA's network to conduct informal reference checks on the investor, in particular if the investor is not well known to ATTC. It is important to know the"}]},{"head":"Tips and Tricks","index":61,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Question the assumptions in the business plan! We must scrutinize and have a discerning eye regarding any projections. We also need to check for accuracy."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"The financial analyst can focus on the business plan financial model while the Manager can focus on the business plan narrative."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"Investor Selection / Page 17 of 32"},{"index":4,"size":123,"text":"x Up to 3 weeks should be allowed for reviewing business plans and asking follow-up questions to investors as needed, although this is generally not advertised to investors in advance as part of the process x Begin consolidating information by drafting slides for the Advisory Board while reviewing and comparing business plans Upon receiving the final business plans, the real analysis can begin. Establishing evaluation criteria enables an objective comparison of the merits of each proposal and firm. The criteria will help determine follow-up questions to ask of the investors if the information submitted is not clear in any way. The criteria may be influenced by the guiding questions and key takeaways developed in the strategy document as part of the commercialization process."},{"index":5,"size":84,"text":"It is recommended to allow some flexibility in the sub-criteria (as indicated in the right side of the table below) as you will learn about more critical nuances within the country context and potential approaches as you begin comparing investors. To maintain the integrity of the evaluation process, any additional sub-criteria, changes to the sub-criteria, or clarification of expectations within the sub-criteria should be agreed upon by the evaluation panel in advance of each assessment and should be applied evenly to all potential candidates."},{"index":6,"size":56,"text":"Exhibit 5 below provides a sample of the evaluation criteria from the recent investor selection process in Tanzania. The refinement of the evaluation criteria is an iterative process, with incremental changes and progress strengthening the selection process as it progresses. No doubt the process will continue to evolve over time, as we learn from each experience."},{"index":7,"size":127,"text":"Investor Selection / Page 16 of 32 and reviews, so keep setting deadlines in order to keep the process moving in a timely manner (see box). In Nigeria, for example, the Dalberg team had three sessions with the prospective investor HarvestField. Exhibit 4 below displays the process followed in Nigeria for providing targeted support to the business plan development. Reviewing the audited financials will allow for the determination of the health of the applicant's organization from a financial perspective-to assess if they have sufficient cash flow or borrowing ability to finance the initial capital assets, working capital to start production, and an ability to implement an aggressive marketing strategy and distribution plan. If requested by the prospective investor, IITA would sign an NDA to ensure data privacy."},{"index":8,"size":1,"text":"Step"}]},{"head":"Evaluate the Business Plans utilizing the Evaluation Criteria Objective","index":62,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"To thoroughly analyze the business plan submissions and evaluate the quality of the proposals submitted Things to keep in mind"},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"x Are there any unique qualities or characteristics that an investor operating in this country should possess? x While reviewing business plan submissions, how can we compare strengths and weaknesses, on an absolute and relative basis? Projected timeline and resources Led by the Team Leader and Strategy Manager, supported by the Junior Strategy Associate and Financial Analyst x 2-3 days for updating and contextualizing the detailed selection criteria (flexibility to update/change before reviewing business plans)"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Exhibit 1 . Science to Scale Commercialization To facilitate the commercialization process, IITA received a grant from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) for implementation of a five-year initiative entitled Aflasafe Technology Transfer and Commercialization (ATTC), which is managed by IITA through the Business Incubation Platform (BIP). IITA hired Chemonics International, Inc. and Dalberg Advisors to support the implementation of ATTC. Aflasafe commercialization began in 2016 and has since expanded. Aflasafe is currently commercially registered and available in seven countries: Burkina Faso, The Gambia, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Senegal, and Tanzania. As of October 2019, 12 more countries across Africa are at different stages in the pipeline for eventual Aflasafe commercialization: Benin, Burundi, Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Rwanda, Zambia, Uganda, and Zimbabwe. In each country, ATTC researches the potential for commercialization, identifies and attracts potential investors, transfers the Aflasafe technology to an investor, and supports the Investor Selection / Page 28 of 32 "},{"text":" Selection / Page 25 of 32 Option 2: Two competing investors each with a manufacturing & distribution licenses. Sub-options include open nationwide competition, or geographically delineated zones. "},{"text":"Option 1 : Nationwide exclusive licenses Option 1a: One nationwide exclusive license with a single investor for both manufacturing and distribution Option 1b: One nationwide exclusive license with single investor for manufacturing partner and recommended distribution partnerships with additional companies This arrangement transpired in Tanzania where we had multiple competent applicants who offered different strengths. The investor chosen was clearly the strongest potential partner. "},{"text":"Exhibit 4 . Overview of Business Plan Support Provided to Nigeria Prospective InvestorInvestors are also required to submit the three most recent years of audited financials. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Investor Selection / Page 4 of 32 Acronym List  Acronym List ATTC Aflasafe Technology Transfer and Commercialization ATTCAflasafe Technology Transfer and Commercialization BIP Business Incubation Platform BIPBusiness Incubation Platform EOI Expression of Interest EOIExpression of Interest IA Intellectual Assets IAIntellectual Assets IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture IITAInternational Institute of Tropical Agriculture M&D Manufacturing and Distribution M&DManufacturing and Distribution PACA Partnership for Aflatoxin Control in Africa PACAPartnership for Aflatoxin Control in Africa R&D Research and Development R&DResearch and Development TTLA Technology Transfer Licensing Agreement TTLATechnology Transfer Licensing Agreement USAID United States Agency for International Development USAIDUnited States Agency for International Development  "},{"text":"Exhibit 2. Illustrative Roles and Responsibilities for Investor Selection Role Illustrative Skills Responsibilities Team  Financial Mastery of MS Excel, Reviews the business plan financial model and audited FinancialMastery of MS Excel,Reviews the business plan financial model and audited Analyst understanding of corporate finance financials, and develops financial slides for the Advisory Analystunderstanding of corporate financefinancials, and develops financial slides for the Advisory  principles Board presentations. principlesBoard presentations. Scientist Involvement in Aflasafe Research Reviews the soundness of the overall commercialization ScientistInvolvement in Aflasafe ResearchReviews the soundness of the overall commercialization  and Development (R&D) and/or plan in relation to Aflasafe. Reviews the ATTC board and Development (R&D) and/orplan in relation to Aflasafe. Reviews the ATTC board  testing, knowledge of country presentation and participates in the advisory board testing, knowledge of countrypresentation and participates in the advisory board  context meeting contextmeeting Engineer Expertise in Aflasafe Participates in due diligence site visits and Advisory EngineerExpertise in AflasafeParticipates in due diligence site visits and Advisory  manufacturing facilities Board meeting to select the investor. Supports investor manufacturing facilitiesBoard meeting to select the investor. Supports investor   to design and inspect factory setup, identify and select to design and inspect factory setup, identify and select   appropriate equipment, and facilitate the technology appropriate equipment, and facilitate the technology   transfer training. transfer training. Advisory Individuals mostly from outside Reviews investor options during Advisory Board meeting AdvisoryIndividuals mostly from outsideReviews investor options during Advisory Board meeting Board your organization who bring and selects investor. Serves as external checks and Boardyour organization who bringand selects investor. Serves as external checks and  diverse experience in agribusiness, balances consistently across each investor selection diverse experience in agribusiness,balances consistently across each investor selection  science, experienced business process, ensuring the project team, in addition to IITA science, experienced businessprocess, ensuring the project team, in addition to IITA  acumen, financial analysis and and donor representatives, are learning and applying acumen, financial analysis andand donor representatives, are learning and applying  donor representative perspective lessons learned through the entire commercialization donor representative perspectivelessons learned through the entire commercialization   process. process.  "},{"text":"Exhibit 5. Investor Evaluation Criteria in Tanzania Investor aligns with ATTC's mission to be a leader in innovation of agricultural technologies in Tanzania Business plan details a market-driven approach for driving uptake of Aflasafe Investor is aware and sensitive to aflatoxin contamination in Tanzania Investor possesses financial capacity to invest in Aflasafe manufacturing & distribution in 2019 Business plan details the source of funds or financing to make an investment in manufacturing & distribution Financial plan and forecast show financial acumen and ability to turn a profit Criteria Sub-criteria CriteriaSub-criteria Motivation &  Motivation & Strategic Alignment  Strategic Alignment Realistic Understanding & Investor possesses financial capacity to invest in Aflasafe Realistic Understanding &Investor possesses financial capacity to invest in Aflasafe Readiness manufacturing & distribution in 2019 Readinessmanufacturing & distribution in 2019  Investor possesses managerial and operational capacity to Investor possesses managerial and operational capacity to  launch Aflasafe production in 2019* launch Aflasafe production in 2019*  Investor is prepared to implement its business plan in next Investor is prepared to implement its business plan in next  3 to 6 months 3 to 6 months Financial: Health, Scale, Access,  Financial: Health, Scale, Access, Management  Management  "}],"sieverID":"14fbd985-d8e0-4b1e-923e-9f4d8bd09d2b","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00a23d5e00df89521c4df5690678614b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/904bdc0b-8ece-419c-9e68-a178ac886931/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Tigray region is characterized by a cold and frosty climate. The landscape is hilly with steep slopes. The soils are degraded and crop production is low. Livestock, particularly sheep production, are the mainstay of farmers' livelihoods. Livestock production is constrained by ecological, technical and economic limitations which result in severe feed shortages."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"The Feed Assessment Tool (FEAST) is a systematic and rapid method to assess local feed resource availability and use at site-level. It helps in the design of intervention strategies aiming to optimize feed supply and utilization through technical and organizational interventions."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"FEAST was used to characterize the livestock production system and in particular feed-related aspects of smallholder farmers of Tsibet kebele is located in Endamehoni District in southern Tigray."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"The objective of the current survey was to assess the feed resource availability and utilization using a feed assessment tool (FEAST) within the context of the overall farming and livestock production systems to determine the potential of site-specific feed interventions in selected areas within the sub-alpine highlands."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study site","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"The survey was conducted in Tsibet Kebele. Tsibet is located in Endamehoni District in the southern Tigray zone of the Tigray regional state. The kebele lies 683km north of Addis Ababa, approximately 116 km from Mekele (the regional capital city). Tsibet has an altitude of 2950-3050 m above sea level with a minimum average temperature of 4 0 C and maximum average temperature of 12 o C. The mean annual rainfall is 750 mm. The kebele has a total land area of 4016 ha, of which 1039 ha are arable. It has 1267 households of which 304 are female-headed and 963 are male headed. The average family size is 6 persons."}]},{"head":"Sampling method","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Selection of Kebeles","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Tsibet is one of the two kebeles in Tigray selected for the Africa RISING project intervention. The criterion was based on accessibility and proximity to the administrative town of the District. Tsibet is the less accessible kebele of the two and it lies 9km from the main road and 20 km from the administrative town."}]},{"head":"Selection of participants","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"The criteria for selection of participants included gender, age and wealth classes based on landholding (small, medium, large)."}]},{"head":"Survey structure and format","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Two tools were used for the survey, a focus group discussion using the participatory rural appraisal approach and individual interviews. A total of 20 farmers (7 women and 13 men) were selected for the focus group discussion. From the three landholding categories (small, medium and large farm size), 9 respondents (3 respondents from each categories) were selected for individual interviews. The surveys were conducted on 26 -27th December, 2013."}]},{"head":"Major results","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Overview of the farming systems","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"The farmers in Tsibet kebele are entirely smallholders with a subsistence mode of production. The average farm size is very small, about 65 % of the households have a land size of less than 0.5 ha. The landless farmers are 10 % (Table1). Tsibet has only one cropping season, the meher season (May -December). There is a short season, belg, from February to June which has become highly unreliable over the years. Irrigation (stream, well dig and check dam) is available to 20% of the households. The major crops grown are barley, wheat and faba beans covering approximately 0.20 ha, 0.12 ha and 0.04 ha respectively in each household (Figure 1)."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"There is shortage of land for cultivation and fallowing is done to control soil erosion. Agricultural activities in the kebele do not usually require more than family labour. Farmers with large landholdings who may need extra labour get it through the traditional labour sharing arrangements (wonfel, jige) or hire it at a cost of Birr 65 ($3.4) and Birr 40 ($2.1) at the time of weeding and harvesting respectively. Lunch and a local drink are provided. Farmers in the area have various sources of income sources (Figure 2). The main sources are sale of food crops, cash crops (ensosla and horticulture) and eucalyptus trees that contribute up to 80% in total. "}]},{"head":"Livestock production system","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Majority of the households in Tsibet own sheep, local dairy cows, draft cattle, local poultry and donkeys (Table 2). Figure 3 shows the average livestock species (in TLU) per household. Donkeys, draft cattle which are later fattened and local dairy cattle are predominant.  "}]},{"head":"Feeds and feed resources","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"The feed resources in Tsibet kebele include natural pasture (grazing), cereal and legume crop residues, hay, naturally occurring green fodder (mainly weeds). Overall feed availability is low because farmers own very small plots of land, thus yields of cereal and pulse crops are very low. Grazing land is highly degraded and only a few farmers produce cultivated fodder, usually not more than 10 plants. Farmers do not treat crop residues in any way except chopping. They have no knowledge of mixing crop residues with any supplements to improve their nutritional value."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"The relative contributions of the different feed sources to the total dry matter (DM), metabolizable energy (ME) and crude protein (CP) contents of the total diet are shown in Figure 4. Famers rely heavily on grazing and naturally occurring fodder that is available after the rains from September-December (Figure 5). During the rest of the months of the year, farmers rely on crop residues which are in short supply as seen in their low (6%) contribution to DM (Figure 4). "}]},{"head":"Problems, issues and opportunities","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Livestock production is constrained by a multitude of factors. The major problems and their priority ranking according to farmers are presented in Table 3. Feed shortage, leeches and low performance breed were identified by farmers as the most important problems. Poor animal husbandry and marketing problems were the second and the third most important problem in the kebele respectively."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"The very rough and hilly topography with high soil degradation, frosty and sub-moist climate and land shortage limit feed availability from grazing, development of planted forages and availability of crop residues. Crop production and livestock are banned in the mountains and hills due to soil conservation projects. There are limited high yielding forage species adapted to the sub-alpine highlands."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"Disease, traditional breeding and management practices limit livestock productivity and hence income, resulting in poor incentives for farmers to adopt improved technologies. Attitude and knowledge of the farmers towards small ruminant production does not encourage improvement because farmers consider them scavengers. Coping mechanisms of farmers and their perceived solutions to their livestock problems are presented in Table 4. Potential interventions to the livestock situation in Tsibet are shown in Table 5.  "}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Despite the constraints of land shortage both for grazing and crop production, rough and hilly topography and farmers' subsistence mode of production, the interest of farmers and their experience in zero grazing is a good opportunity to build upon. Improved forage crops and improved bulls to reduce uncontrolled breeding can be introduced. The construction of water troughs through community participation (labour contribution) to control the problem of leeches needs to be emphasized as it causes high losses of production and death of animals."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Major crops grown in Tsibet "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Contribution (%) of livelihood activities to household income in Tsibet "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Average livestock species holdings per household in Tropical Livestock Units (TLU) in Tsibet "},{"text":"Figure 4 :Figure 5 : Figure 4: The contribution of various feedstuffs to DM (a), ME (b) and CP (c) to livestock diets in Tsibet "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Average land size owned by various categories of farmers in Tsibet  "},{"text":"Category of farmers Range of land size(ha) Ranges of land size in \"timad\" % of households that fall into the category  Landless 0 0 10 Landless0010 Small Up to 0.25 Up to 1 15 SmallUp to 0.25Up to 115 Medium 0.26-0.5 1.1 up to 2 50 Medium0.26-0.51.1 up to 250 Large 0.6-0.75 2.1 up to 3 25 Large0.6-0.752.1 up to 325  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Livestock species owned by households in Tsibet Livestock species % Livestock species%  "},{"text":"of household that own the species Average number of animal per household   Fattening sheep and goats 8% Draft animal 4% Fattening sheep and goats 8%Draft animal 4%  Eucalyptus trees Dairing 4% Eucalyptus treesDairing 4%  20% Poultry Meat 20%Poultry Meat   3% 3%   Poultry eggs Poultry eggs  Cash crops 2% Cash crops2%  22%  22%  Food crops  Food crops  37%  37% Local dairy cows 75 2 Local dairy cows752 Improved dairy cow 1 1 Improved dairy cow 11 Draught cattle 80 2 Draught cattle802 Sheep 90 25 Sheep9025 Goats 5 4 Goats54 Local poultry 95 6 Local poultry956 Improved poultry 2 3 Improved poultry23 Horses 1 2 Horses12 Donkeys 95 2 Donkeys952  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Livestock production problems as ranked by farmers in Tsibet Problem Score of the problem Order of the problem importance ProblemScore of the problemOrder of the problem importance Feed shortage 3 1 Feed shortage31 Leeches 3 1 Leeches31 Low performance breed 3 1 Low performance breed31 Poor animal husbandry 1 2 Poor animal husbandry12 Market problem 0 3 Market problem03  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Coping mechanisms to problems and proposed solutions proposed by farmers in Tsibet Major Farmers coping mechanisms Suggested solutions Opportunities and MajorFarmers coping mechanismsSuggested solutionsOpportunities and problem   limitation problemlimitation Feed  Collecting and conserving  Planting forages in Even though land shortage Feed Collecting and conserving Planting forages inEven though land shortage shortage green forages & crop backyards is the Key problem, they shortagegreen forages & cropbackyardsis the Key problem, they  residue  Introducing cut and have good experience of residue Introducing cut andhave good experience of   Feed purchasing and carry system zero grazing. Faba beans  Feed purchasing andcarry systemzero grazing. Faba beans  planting of forages  Destocking and field peas are well planting of forages Destockingand field peas are well    known crops next to barley known crops next to barley    and wheat and residues and wheat and residues    from these crops can be from these crops can be    used to improve the used to improve the    nutritional values of other nutritional values of other    crop residues. crop residues. Leech  Drinking animals using  Construction of water Farmers are willing to Leech Drinking animals using Construction of waterFarmers are willing to  water trough troughs cooperate in the water troughtroughscooperate in the   Controlling animals  Controlling animals construction of water  Controlling animals Controlling animalsconstruction of water  during drinking times during drinking times troughs as they realize the during drinking timesduring drinking timestroughs as they realize the   Dehydrate animals to  detrimental effects of  Dehydrate animals todetrimental effects of  remove the leach by  leeches remove the leach byleeches  denying them water   denying them water Market  Selling at high market  Introducing road Feeder road which Market Selling at high market Introducing roadFeeder road which problem price time infrastructure connects to the main road problemprice timeinfrastructureconnects to the main road   Travel to neighbor  Establishment of near is under construction.  Travel to neighbor Establishment of nearis under construction.  market places, Alaje and market place Knowledge on fattening is market places, Alaje andmarket placeKnowledge on fattening is  EndaMehoni  limited both in small EndaMehonilimited both in small    ruminant and large ruminant and large    ruminants. Farmers have a ruminants. Farmers have a    large number of animals large number of animals    with small sizes of lands with small sizes of lands    which cause low which cause low    production potential, so production potential, so    awareness creation about awareness creation about    destocking and fattening destocking and fattening    importance should be an importance should be an    intervention. intervention. Low  Cross breeding with  Establishment of AI Zero grazing feeding Low Cross breeding with Establishment of AIZero grazing feeding performance improved breeds service at kebele level system can be used to performanceimproved breedsservice at kebele levelsystem can be used to breed  Selection of local bull  Introducing improved control uncontrolled breed Selection of local bull Introducing improvedcontrol uncontrolled  breeds bulls breeding (to use only breedsbullsbreeding (to use only    Introducing breeds selected breed or bull).  Introducing breedsselected breed or bull).   adaptable to the agro  adaptable to the agro   ecology  ecology Poor animal  Supplementation using  Improving feeding Farmers are aware of the Poor animal Supplementation using Improving feedingFarmers are aware of the husbandry salt strategies importance of animal husbandrysaltstrategiesimportance of animal   Cleaning animal barns  Improve animal health, thus health  Cleaning animal barns Improve animalhealth, thus health   Built animal barn with health technicians should be  Built animal barn withhealthtechnicians should be  iron roofs and mad wall  availed at kebele level to iron roofs and mad wallavailed at kebele level to    assist farmers. assist farmers.  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Potential interventions for top priority problems in Tsibet Planting forages at irrigation and backyard  Supplementing green forages to crop residue and mixing cereal residues with legume residues  Introducing cut and carry system  Destocking and fattening Leech  Construction of water troughs is the only way of solving the problem. Establishment of AI service at PA level  Introducing improved bulls and Introducing adaptable breed for the agro ecology Problems Possible intervention ProblemsPossible intervention identified by  identified by farmers  farmers Feed shortage  Low performance  Feed shortage  Low performance  breed  breed  "}],"sieverID":"571056b5-cf86-4566-908f-7597b49c8219","abstract":""}

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data/part_4/023887134499e3f8934688c75d12b662.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"023887134499e3f8934688c75d12b662","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ccaf4159-4502-4088-8619-808fd7c4936f/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Néstor Gutiérrez y Julián Buitrago"}]},{"head":"Introducción","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"En la producción de cerdos el factor de costos más importante es la alimentación, la cual representa entre el 75 jo 8:') por ciento del costo total de producción."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"El objeto de este trabajo eS el cálculo de raciones concentradas de mínimo costo para cerdos, empleando para el ejemplo que se ilustra en este caso, productos y subproductos alimenticios disponibles en el ,talle del Cauea. Colombia .. Se trata de proporcionar la mezcla más \"eficiente\", seleccionando los ingredientes alimenticios en forma de cumplir con los requerimientos nutricionales del animal, basándose en ~a composición nutritiva de los alimentos."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"Este método de cálculo de raciones ofrece grandes ventajas a los investigadores y pOrcicultores por su rapidez, exactitud y bajo costo."}]},{"head":"Metodologla","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"Se empleó el mooelo de programación Lineal, utilizando el computador IBlvl 370/145*** con el programa MPSj360 (1). Este modelo de cálculo determina la cantidad (actividad) de cada ingrediente alimenticio disponible (variables estructurales o de decisiÓn) que debe incluirse en una mezcla alimenticia para satisfacer las necesidades nutricionales mfnimas (restricciones nutricionales) del cerdo en una determinada etapa de su ciclo de vida. De todas las raciones posibles (soluciones factibles) que cwnplan estas restricciones nutricionales se buscan aquellas que tengan el menor costo (objetivo). Esta es la soluci6n 6ptima desde el punto de vista de la Programación Lineal. La dieta de costo mínimo que se calcule para cada etapa de' desarrollo del cerdo debe proporcionar los niveles predeterminados de energra., proteína, calcio, fósforo y aminoácidos esenciales de acuerdo a los requerimientos nutricionales que se presentan en el Cuadro 1."}]},{"head":"*","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Se agradece la colaboración de los Dres.  Se incluyeron, como ingredientes. 105 principales granos que se producen en ~~ ~ pa.rs, las materias primas nativas con mayores perspectivas y los principales subproductos, a precios corrientes durante el segundo semestre de 1973 en el Departamento del Valle del Cauca, (ver Cuadro 1 del Apéndice). I~a informaci6n '-'obre su composición qufmica proviene del lCA, CIA T y de otras entidades cicntrficas (3). (ver Cuadro 2 del Apéndice)."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"En las restricciones, se limitó la cantidad de melaza y de torta de algod6n,según la etapa de desarrollo del cerdo, y la cantidad de harinas de carne y de sangre debido a limitaciones del mercado."}]},{"head":"Resultados","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"En el Cuadro 2 se puede observar la parte fundamental de los resultados del análisis. En él aparece la composici6n de las dietas de mfnimo costo en unidades por cada 100 kilogramos de raci6n completa, calculadas para cada etapa de peso del cerdo."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Como fuentes principales de energía se utilizan harina de arroz y azlí.car. A medida que el cerdo aumenta de peso se sustituye la harina de arroz por melaza. Este cambio va acompañado de una baja en el costo total de la dieta."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"La protefua proviene principalmente de la torta de algod6n y de las harinas de carne y sangre."},{"index":4,"size":151,"text":"Se observa una mayor sensibilidad en el costo de la ración al variar los precios de los insumos empleados como fuentes de energra y proteína, que representan el mayor volumen fraieo en la raci6n. Esta obselvación sugiere que la sensibilidad del costo al cambio de los precios es directamente proporcional al volumen empleado. otra informaci6n disponible en el modelo de programaci6n lineal es la variaci6n en el costo total de la dieta como consecuencia de cambiar los requerimientos nutritivos. Se especifica el nutriente e ingredientes que saldrIan (o entrarían) si se cambian los lfrnites de requerimientos. Se presenta asimismo información sobre los :ingredientes que no resultaron incluidos finalmente o estaban limitados en la raci6n, indicándose las cantidades y precios a los cuales podrIan incluirse en la dieta 6ptima y los cambios que se hubiesen causado en los cosros totales de la ración si se hubiese incorporado un kilo de dicho ingrediente."}]},{"head":"Conclusiones","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"Con los precios anotados hay buenas perspectivas de incrementar el uso en la dieta de subproductos de arroz, caña de azúcar, torta de algod6n, torta de ajonjolr y harinas de hueso, sangre y pescado t además de algunas materias primas nativas tales como la yuca.  * Ingredientes considerados pero que no quedaron inclurdos en la dieta: maíz amarillo, sorgo, salvado de marz, harina de yuca, banano fresco, harina de banano, fiame fresco, harina de ñame, L-Lisina, metionina y cistina."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Las dietas óptimas resultaron ser muy sensibles a cambios en los precios, a la composici6n de los alimentos ya los requerimientos nutricionales. Cualquier cambio que ocurra en estas variables puede ser incorporado y evaluado fácilmente mediante el programa. La sensibilidad es mayor en aquellos productos que ocupan un mayor peso dentro de la dieta, especialmente harina de arroz y azdcar."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"Para algunos ingredientes que representan una pequeña fracción del costo, como son harina de sangre, torta de algodón y melaza, se dan los l!mites de cantidad y los márgenes de precios hasta los cuales se podrían subir y aun ser empleados en la rai ción."},{"index":4,"size":86,"text":"Considerando la existencia de variabilidad de precios, el sistema calcula en cud.nto deberfan bajar los precios de los ingredientes que resultaron excluidos o se incluyeron en forma limitada. para incorporarlos o aumentarlos a la dieta de mfuimo costo. Uno de los productos con mejores perspectivas para ser utilízado al realizar pequeños cambios en el precio resultó ser la harina de yuca, como se muestra en el Cuadro 3. Se dispone de la misma infonnación para todos los ingredientes considerados en cada una de las dietas calculadas."},{"index":5,"size":42,"text":"Con este método puede detectarse la posibilidad de substituir ingredientes que tengan un valor nutritivo similar. De la misma manera se puede detectar la influencia de las restricciones nutricionales impuestas al programa, proporcionando infor-maci6n sobre el efecto en el costo al cambiarlos."},{"index":6,"size":143,"text":"Se debe tener en cuenta la importancia de incluir información exacta y actualizada sobre el valor nutritivo de los ingredientes que se van a utilizar, ya que se presenta mucha variabilidad en la calidad de muchos de los productos y subproductos disponibles. Además, es necesario revisar cuidadosamente las fOrmulas finales con respecto a la condiCión flsica y palatabilidad de la dieta, problemas que no están bajo el control del com.putador. La gran ventaja del método eS su rapidez y bajo costo. se estima que el cálculo de una nueva ración tiene actualmente un costo inferior a $100 (pesos) por corrida. Esto lo hace atractivo para productores e investigadores de dentro y fuera de Colombia, ya que no hay dificultad en recalcular la dieta variando las fuentes nutritivas y los precios, segtln la disponibilidad de alimentos y precios pertinentes para la región en cuestión."},{"index":7,"size":43,"text":"Para estos efectos se incluye en el Cuadro 3 del Apéndice un ejemplo del tipo de formulario con la informaci6n que el usuario deberla enviar cuando tenga interés en hacer uso del servicio de programaci6n Lineal. Por cada 100 kg de ración  -"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Internacional de Agricultura Tropical CALCULO DE RACIONES DE IIIINIMO COSTO PARA e léRf'OS EN ZONAS TROPICALES' "},{"text":" J. H. Maner, A. Valdés y G. Gómez. ** Investigador Asociado! Nutricionista Asistente! respectivamente. Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, eIA T, Apartado Aéreo 67-13, Cali, Colombia, S. A. *** El montaje y la corrida del programa estuvo a cargo de J. Villalobos como consultor, y J. A. Porras, Oficina de Biometría, eIAT. Cuadro l. Especificaciones y requerimientos nutríclonales para cerdos Ciclo de producción "},{"text":", Cuadro 2 . Composición de dietas de núnimo costo en cerdos. para el Valle del Cauea (Colombia) "},{"text":",  "},{"text":"Cuadro 3 .o* Herrera, H .. J. T_ Gallo, J~H. Maner y E. Ceballos. 1970. Análisis qufmico-bromatológico de algunas materias colombianas empleadas en nutrición animal. Boletín leA. Bogotá, Colombia. lCA. 1973. Programa de Porcinos. Palmira, Colombia. NRC. 1968. Nutrient requirements of swine. No .. 2. Washington, D. C. , USA. Formulario para el cá.lculo de raciones de mfnimo costo para cerdos Señale con una X la(s) categorfa(s) para la(s) cual (es) necesita la(s) dleta(s).Indlque los alimentos que Vd. tenga disponibles de la siguiente tabla llenando la columna de precio por tonelada al cual Ud. puede comprar el producto y la cantidad disponible. Se omiten aquellos productos que deben entrar necesariamente en la dieta (sal, premezcla mineral, etc.). "},{"text":"programa de Porcinos, Palmira, Colombia.    Crecimiento  Acabado Gestación Lactancia Reproductor CrecimientoAcabadoGestación Lactancia Reproductor Peso vivo, kg. 5-10 10-20 20-35 35-60 60-100 100-160 140-200 110-180 Peso vivo, kg.5-1010-2020-3535-6060-100100-160140-200110-180 Peso calculado para la         Peso calculado para la raci6n, kg. 1.0 1.05 1.05 1. 05 1. 0-1. 05 1.0-1.05 1.0-1. 05 1.0-1.05 raci6n, kg.1.01.051.051. 051. 0-1. 051.0-1.051.0-1. 051.0-1.05 Enet'g!a Dig. , Kcal. 3.5 3.5 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 Enet'g!a Dig. , Kcal.3.53.53.33.33.33.33.33.3 Prorefna, kg. 0.22 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.14 Prorefna, kg.0.220.180.160.140.130.140.150.14 Calcio (max), kg. 0.0095 0.0095 0.0095 0.008 0.008 0.0095 0.0095 0.0095 Calcio (max), kg.0.0095 0.0095 0.0095 0.0080.0080.00950.00950.0095 Calcio (min), kg. 0.0065 0.0065 0.0065 0.005 0.005 0.0075 0.005 0.0075 Calcio (min), kg.0.0065 0.0065 0.0065 0.0050.0050.00750.0050.0075 Fósforo disponible (max), kg. 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.008 0.008 Fósforo disponible (max), kg.0.0080.0080.0080.0070.0070.0080.0080.008 Fósforo disponible (min), kg. 0.005 O.OOS 0.005 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.005 Fósforo disponible (min), kg.0.005O.OOS 0.005 0.0040.0040.0050.0050.005 Metionina, kg. 0.004 0.003 0.003 0.0025 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 Metionina, kg.0.0040.0030.0030.00250.0020.0020.0020.002 Met 4-Cist, kg. 0.008 0.005 0.005 0.0035 0.003 0.0035 0.0035 0.0035 Met 4-Cist, kg.0.0080.0050.0050.00350.0030.00350.00350.0035 Liaina, kg. 0.012 0.007 0.007 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 Liaina, kg.0.0120.0070.0070.0050.0050.0050.0050.005 Triptófano, kg. 0.0018 0.0018 0.0013 0.001 0.009 0.008 0.008 0.008 Triptófano, kg.0.0018 0.0018 0.0013 0.0010.0090.0080.0080.008 Sal, kg. 0.0025 0.0025 0.0025 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 Sal, kg.0.0025 0.0025 0.0025 0.0050.0050.0050.0050.005 Afsillin, !g¡. 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 Afsillin, !g¡.0.0030.0030.0020.0020.0020.0020.0020.002  "},{"text":"Precios de ingredientes disponibles en el Valle del Cauca*   APENDICE    APENDICE Cuadro 1.    Precio al cual entraría Precia al cual en1.ró Cuadro 1.Precio al cual entraríaPrecia al cual en1.ró     en la dieta óptima en la dieta en la dieta óptimaen la dieta   Valor ingrediente   Valor ingrediente Ingredientes US$ por** relativo al precio del Pesos por Pesos/tonelada IngredientesUS$ por**relativo al precio delPesos porPesos/tonelada  tonelada cerdo en pie*** tonelada  toneladacerdo en pie***tonelada   2.93  1.520  2.600 2.931.5202.600 Mafz amarillo 160  0.18 4.000  Mafz amarillo1600.184.000 Mafz opaco Sorgo 168 128 14.63 0.19 0.15 2.593 4.200 3.200  2. (iOU Mafz opaco Sorgo168 12814.630.19 0.152.593 4.200 3.2002. (iOU Arroz 160  0.18 4.000  Arroz1600.184.000 Salvado de mafz Harina de arroz 112 112 10.43 0.13 0.13 2.593 2.800 2.800  2. (júO Salvado de mafz Harina de arroz112 11210.430.13 0.132.593 2.800 2.8002. (júO Harina de trigo 112  0.13 2.800  Harina de trigo1120.132.800 Yuca fresca Harina de yuca 32 104 5.54 0.04 0.12 2.572 800 2.600  2.600 Yuca fresca Harina de yuca32 1045.540.04 0.122.572 800 2.6002.600 Banano fresco 40  0.05 1.000  Banano fresco400.051.000 Harina de banano 160  0.18 4.000  Harina de banano1600.184.000 Ñame fresco 48 10.85 0.05 2.399 1. 200  2.600 Ñame fresco4810.850.052.399 1. 2002.600 Harina de ilame 124  0.14 3.100  Harina de ilame1240.143.100 Azticar Melaza 104 32 6.77 0.12 0.04 2.600 2.574 800  2.600 Azticar Melaza104 326.770.12 0.042.600 2.574 8002.600 Torta de soya 200  0.23 5.000  Torta de soya2000.235.000 Torta de algod6n Torta de ajonjolí 140 232 6.77 0.16 0.26 2.574 3.500 5.800  2.600 Torta de algod6n Torta de ajonjolí140 2326.770.16 0.262.574 3.500 5.8002.600 Harina de carne 232  0.26 5.800  Harina de carne2320.265.800 Harma de sangre 220  0.25 5.500  Harma de sangre2200.255.500 Harina de pescado 360 0.31 0.41 2.531 9.000  2.600 Harina de pescado3600.310.412.531 9.0002.600 Harina de hueso 112  0.13 2.800  Harina de hueso1120.132.800 Harina de ostras 32  0.04 800  Harina de ostras320.04800 Fosfato bicálcico 140  0.16 3.500  Fosfato bicálcico1400.163.500 Carbonato de calcio 20  0.02 500  Carbonato de calcio200.02500 Sal 60  0.07 1. 500  Sal600.071. 500 L-Lisina 6.000  6.82 150.000  L-Lisina6.0006.82150.000 D-Metionina 4.000  4.55 100.000  D-Metionina4.0004.55100.000 Afsillrn 2.400  2.73 60.000  Afsillrn2.4002.7360.000 Segundo      Segundo  "},{"text":"semestre de 1973. Tasa de conversión empleada! $25 por d61ar. Va.lor tonelada ingrediente sobre valor tonelada cerdo en pie ($22.000).  Cuadro 2. Cuadro 2.  "},{"text":"Composición de las materias primas utilizadas para formulaci6n de raciones pOr Programación Lineal  Cuadro 2 (continuación) Cuadro 2 (continuaci6n)           Cuadro 2 (continuación) Cuadro 2 (continuaci6n) I Energía      Fósforo   Metionina  IEnergíaFósforoMetionina MaíZ amarUlo Harina carne ---(9% humedad) Energfa Digestible (Mcali!<.ll:l Energfa Digestible Digestible (Mcal¿j¡g¡ (Moal/!g¡) 2.4 Fósforo Protelha Fibra Calcio disponible í'l!!l í'I!!! (%1 (J¡! Proteína Fibra Calcio disponible Fósforo Protefna Fibra Caloio disponible LIBlna Metlonlna + cistina Metionina Lisma Metionina + cistina Triptófano r;i¡! í' l!!l (10) (10) Lisina Metionina + Cistina Triptófano Metlonlna ¡J'g) ~) CM ~l <%l ('41 ('i¡) (%1 Triptófano !%l a) t%l @) t%l (%1 (%) (%) 60 8 2.6 1.6 3.8 0.8 1.6 0.3 MaíZ amarUlo Harina carne ---(9% humedad)Energfa Digestible (Mcali!<.ll:l Energfa Digestible Digestible (Mcal¿j¡g¡ (Moal/!g¡) 2.4Fósforo Protelha Fibra Calcio disponible í'l!!l í'I!!! (%1 (J¡! Proteína Fibra Calcio disponible Fósforo Protefna Fibra Caloio disponible LIBlna Metlonlna + cistina Metionina Lisma Metionina + cistina Triptófano r;i¡! í' l!!l (10) (10) Lisina Metionina + Cistina Triptófano Metlonlna ¡J'g) ~) CM ~l <%l ('41 ('i¡) (%1 Triptófano !%l a) t%l @) t%l (%1 (%) (%) 60 8 2.6 1.6 3.8 0.8 1.6 0.3 (13% humedad) Maíz opaco Yuca fresca (65% humedad) Harina sangre (15% humedad) 3.60 1.32 2.6 10 1 80 2 1 1 0.07 0.12 0.28 0.1 O.E 0.22 0.2 0.015 6.9 0.2 0.003 0.9 0.36 0.006 1.0 0.1 0.005 1.1 (13% humedad) Maíz opaco Yuca fresca (65% humedad) Harina sangre (15% humedad)3.60 1.32 2.610 1 802 1 10.07 0.12 0.280.1 O.E 0.220.2 0.015 6.90.2 0.003 0.90.36 0.006 1.00.1 0.005 1.1 (13% humedad) Sorgo-Millo Harina yuca (10% humedad) Harina pescado (8% humedad) 3.60 3.38 2.99 10 2 63 2 3 0.8 0.07 0.3 5.0 0.1 0.9 2.8 0.4 0.03 5.4 0.4 0.007 2.1 0.8 0.01 3.0 0.1 0.01 0.6 (13% humedad) Sorgo-Millo Harina yuca (10% humedad) Harina pescado (8% humedad)3.60 3.38 2.9910 2 632 3 0.80.07 0.3 5.00.1 0.9 2.80.4 0.03 5.40.4 0.007 2.10.8 0.01 3.00.1 0.01 0.6 (13% humedad) Arroz Banano fresco (80% humedad) Harina huesos (5% humedad) 3.45 0.63 10 1 24 3 1 O 0.06 0.008 23.0 0.2 0.1)2 11. O 0.27 0.04 0.09 0.016 0.27 0.092 0.09 0.038 (13% humedad) Arroz Banano fresco (80% humedad) Harina huesos (5% humedad)3.45 0.6310 1 243 1 O0.06 0.008 23.00.2 0.1)2 11. O0.27 0.040.09 0.0160.27 0.0920.09 0.038 (11% humedad) Salvado mafz Harina banano (9% humedad) Harina ostras (2% humedad) 3.75 2.81 1 3 8 1 3 0.04 0.03 32.0 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.27 0.2 0.27 0.09 0.36 0.1 0.09 (11% humedad) Salvado mafz Harina banano (9% humedad) Harina ostras (2% humedad)3.75 2.811381 30.04 0.03 32.00.05 0.04 0.050.27 0.20.27 0.090.36 0.10.09 (11% humedad) Harina arroz Ñañe fresco (65% humedad) Fosfato bicálcico (4% humedad) 3.20 1.2 12 2 O 6 2 O 0.08 0.01 22. O 0.3 0.0J.6 18.0 0.4 0.09 O 0.18 0.038 O 0.36 0.06 O 0.021 O (11% humedad) Harina arroz Ñañe fresco (65% humedad) Fosfato bicálcico (4% humedad)3.20 1.212 2 O6 2 O0.08 0.01 22. O0.3 0.0J.6 18.00.4 0.09 O0.18 0.038 O0.36 0.06 O0.021 O (10% humedad) Harina trigo Harina ñame (10% bumedad) Carbonato cálcico (4% humedad) 3.20 3.1 15 5 O 10 5 O 0.05 0.02 30. O 0.7 0.04 O 0.77 0.2 O 0.29 0.08 O 0.69 0.15 O 0.1 0.05 O (10% humedad) Harina trigo Harina ñame (10% bumedad) Carbonato cálcico (4% humedad)3.20 3.115 5 O10 5 O0.05 0.02 30. O0.7 0.04 O0.77 0.2 O0.29 0.08 O0.69 0.15 O0.1 0.05 O (11% humedad) Torta soya Referencias Az(¡car (100/0 humedad) eJAT. 1973. 3.00 3.3 16 48 11 4 0.17 0.23 0.48 0.35 0.6 2.9 0.1 0.65 0.4 1.32 0.3 0.6 (11% humedad) Torta soya Referencias Az(¡car (100/0 humedad) eJAT. 1973.3.00 3.316 4811 40.17 0.230.48 0.350.6 2.90.1 0.650.4 1.320.3 0.6 (0% humedad) Torta algodón (8% humedad) 3.80 2.94 O 42 O 8 O 0.13 O 0.61 O 1.6 O 0.65 O 1.6 O 0.5 (0% humedad) Torta algodón (8% humedad)3.80 2.94O 42O 8O 0.13O 0.61O 1.6O 0.65O 1.6O 0.5 Melaza            Melaza (78% humedad) Torta ajonjolf (9% humedad) 2.46 3.0 0.02 46 O 6 0.6 1.9 0.02 0.6 O 1.3 O 1.4 O 2.0 O 0.7 (78% humedad) Torta ajonjolf (9% humedad)2.46 3.00.02 46O 60.6 1.90.02 0.6O 1.3O 1.4O 2.0O 0.7 ~            ~  "},{"text":"Programa de Porcinos. CaE, Colombia.   "}],"sieverID":"5fa4fe02-4796-44e0-b04d-49b4d8a560e3","abstract":"CIAl es una organil.ción sin 'nimo de lucro, dedkada al desarrollo-.grito!iI y Kon6mico de lu tierras. b.íillS tropicales. El Gobierno dlll Colombia proporciona '$U .1poyo como p .. ís sede del ClAT y el t~r .. no en q ... e se encuentra\" localizadas su'$ printíp.h~'$ instala<:io\"es, un. finca uperimental de 522 hectár •• s cerca de ,. dudad de C .. li. Se-U_an a cabo proyecto\\; cooperati\"os con el Instituto Colomb¡ano Agrop«uario (leA), p,lnt.ipelment. lI!Il los Ce\"tren Experímentaltll de Turipan.i y ( .. rim ... gua. El CIAT está finandado por \"arios miembros instifucior¡ales del Grupo Consultivo pan 1 .. Inyestigad6n Agrícola fnler\".cional En 1972 enos donan'es fueron 1 .. Agencia Esta-d¡n~n$e par,] el De,arrollo Internadonal (USAJD J.. la Fundaci6n Rockefeller, la FlJndac:ión Ford, fa Agencia (anadi,.\",. Pill•a el Desa.rrollo Int~rnacional (CfCA J. l. Fundación W. K_ Kellogg, el Banco Internado\"a! de Reconstrucción y Fomento (81Ii1F' por medio de la Agendiil Internacional del Cesarrollo (IDA J, ., los Gobiernos de Holanda, Suiu y República Federal Ale'ttana. Varia, de 101' $ entidadu mencionad.s, jur¡to con el Centro 'nternadonal de In\",\"stigación pilra el Desarrollo (ellO) del (anada y el Bal'lco Interilmericano de Desarrollo (BID), proporcionan también fondos par,) proye<:to~ et.peciales. La información '1 <::onclusionfl ae. .sl:a p\",bljución no reflt1jan neceuriament. la posición d. ninguna de las agencia .. , fundadone'$ o gobiernos ~e~don;ulos.CENTRO r' lTR~:\\(.JO'i\\L DE .\\(anct LTl R4. TKOI'l<..'\\l .. (Ie\\l Aparlad(l Arreo fii 11 Cali. ('qlom'oia. S A"}

data/part_4/02a759f67a90ef0fa1d5493c5b00b1c8.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02a759f67a90ef0fa1d5493c5b00b1c8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2cfcf00e-4908-4d31-84bc-475789dfeb71/retrieve"},"pageCount":17,"title":"Một số biện pháp thường quy về thú y Hội thảo tập huấn Tăng cường quản lý sức khỏe vật nuôi cho chăn nuôi nông hộ Sơn La, tháng 12 năm 2020","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Phân loại thuốc dùng trong chăn nuôi 1. Thuốc bổ, trợ sức, trợ lực, hạ sốt. "}]},{"head":"Gà","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"• Thức ăn:"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"-Thức ăn cho gà phải đảm bảo chất lượng: không ẩm mốc, không vón cục, không lẫn tạp chất."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"-Có thể dùng thức ăn công nghiệp (cám) hoặc phối trộn các loại thức ăn có sẵn (ngô, thóc, rau, bột cá, bột thịt, đậu tương…) sao cho đủ các thành phần: năng lượng, đạm, khoáng, vitamin."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"• VD: Gà 5 -30 ngày tuổi: cám ngô 65%, cám gạo 25%, đạm 10%, -Bổ sung thêm vitamin (A,B,D,E) và khoáng (chủ yếu với gà nuôi nhốt). VD: trộn vitamin vào thức ăn, nước uống: bổ sung thường xuyên"}]},{"head":"Gà","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"• Nước uống:"},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"-Nước uống phải sạch và đầy đủ . -Khi thời tiết thay đổi: pha điện giải và vitamin C vào nước uống. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"2.•- Thuốc ký sinh trùng 3. Vắc xin 4. Kháng sinh: tiêm, cho uống Việc sử dụng thuốc thú y rất cần thiết nhưng phức tạp. Cần có sự giúp đỡ (liên kết) của cán bộ chuyên môn trong việc mua và sử dụng thuốc. More meat milk and eggs by and for the poor Thức ăn: Cung cấp đủ lượng thức ăn, đảm bảo cân đối, đảm bảo chất lượng: -Thức ăn chủ yếu là chất xơ: các loại cỏ -Bổ sung thêm cám, bột, ngô cho bò sữa. -Bổ sung đạm: VD: thân cây họ đậu, bổ sung urê  Chỉ sử dụng urê cho bò trưởng thành  Bò chưa ăn urê cần làm quen: 5-10 ngày, mỗi ngày một ít  Trộn với thức ăn khác, chia thành nhiều lần trong ngày: pha 1 thìa nhỏ/ ngày để tưới đều lên cỏ  Không hoà urê vào nước cho bò uống trực tiếp hay cho ăn với bầu bí (vì trong đó có nhiều men urêaza).  Cung cấp kèm thêm các chất dễ lên men (bột, đường, cỏ xanh) để vi sinh vật dạ cỏ dễ tổng hợp protein -Bổ sung khoáng và vitamin A, D3, E: dạng đá liếm (thường dùng cho bò nuôi nhốt) Để trâu bò uống nước tự do theo nhu cầu: Trâu bò trưởng thành 30 lít /con /ngày, bò sữa 40-50 lít/ con/ ngày -Trâu bò uống nước sông suối dễ mắc ký sinh trùng • Một số thuốc thường dùng: -Tẩy giun sán: định kỳ 2 lần/năm (cho bê con từ 3-4 tuần tuổi, sau đó 6 tháng tẩy 1 lần) -Chữa ngoại ký sinh trùng (ve, ghẻ): tiêm, phun/ bôi (dùng thuốc theo chỉ dẫn) Chuồng nuôi bò của một hộ dận tại bản Khoa, Chiềng Chung -Mai Sơn Lợn • Nước uống: -Cung cấp đầy đủ nước uống theo nhu cầu: Ví dụ: sử dụng núm uống tự động -Lợn nái nuôi con cần rất nhiều nước: 20-30 lít/ngày • Thức ăn: -Cung cấp đầy đủ thức ăn, đảm bảo cân đối khẩu phần, đảm bảo chất lượng (theo lứa tuổi, hướng chăn nuôi). Ví dụ:  Giai đoạn 10 -35kg: 0,3 -0,7kg thức ăn tinh + 0,5kg thức ăn xanh  Giai đoạn > 36kg: 0,8 -1,2kg thức ăn tinh + 1kg thức ăn xanh -Thức ăn tận dụng cần được nấu chín kỹ loại bỏ mầm bệnh. Lợn • Một số thuốc thường dùng: -Bổ sung sắt: tiêm Dextran 2 lần, lần 1 vào 3 ngày tuổi 100mg/con, lần 2 vào lúc 7-10 ngày sau lần 1-liều 200mg/con -Phòng ngoại ký sinh trùng:  Vệ sinh chuồng nuôi thường xuyên và giữ chuồng luôn khô ráo  Định kỳ sát trùng chuồng nuôi 1 lần/ tuần  Định kỳ dùng thuốc phòng: Tắm cho nái trước khi đẻ 2 tuần, tiêm cho lợn con lúc 30 ngày tuổi,….. -Tẩy giun sán: tẩy giun, tẩy sán lá đường ruột… "},{"text":"• VD: Trung bình một con gà trưởng thành cần 200ml nước/ ngày -Lưu ý máng uống phù hợp chiều cao của gà -Nên đặt máng ăn và máng uống cạnh nhau -Thay nước thường xuyên • Một số thuốc thường dùng: -Thuốc phòng cầu trùng: trộn thuốc cầu trùng trong thức ăn. Đối với gà chăn thả thì dùng trong 3 đợt: 2 -4 -7 tuần tuổi. "},{"text":"• Tránh gió lùa: che chắn chuồng trại bằng rèm/ bạt • Giữ nền chuồng khô ráo, sạch sẽ • Không tắm, không chăn thả vật nuôi vào những ngày rét đậm • Cung cấp đủ thức ăn, nước uống, chất dinh dưỡng. Chống rét cho trâu bò • Dùng bạt, chăn chống rét cho trâu bò • Rải trấu, rơm vào nền chuồng để sưởi ấm chân • Cho uống nước ấm, bổ sung muối ăn 5g/ 100kg thể trọng "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"1a2a7b6b-f3b1-46ef-8122-c78b64cf704b","abstract":""}

data/part_4/03481851d6c38f4f9f7526459a251de4.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03481851d6c38f4f9f7526459a251de4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9e68b11b-d2cd-4f1e-8441-067ba7cb2023/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Livestock research for food security and poverty reduction ILRI strategy critical success factors BETTER LIVES THROUGH LIVESTOCK","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"In 2012, ILRI developed a new strategy for the period 2013-2022. Articulated in the tagline better lives through livestock, it incorporates several changes from the previous strategy, moving from a focus on livestock as a pathway out of poverty to a broader agenda that addresses poverty and food security in ways that are environmentally sustainable, good for human health and nutrition, and equitable."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"In addition to a vision, mission and three strategic objectives, the strategy identifies five areas where ILRI needs to excel to be able to deliver intended outcomes. These so-called critical success factors emerged from an analysis of both the external environment and ILRI's strengths and weaknesses. For each factor, a detailed operational plan will set out objectives, targets and measurable indicators and is the basis for regular monitoring, priority-setting and assessment of outcomes. This brief introduces each of the five critical success factors."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"The five critical success factors are: • get the science right, • influence decision-makers, • grow capacity, • secure sustainable and appropriate funding, • ensure ILRI is fit for purpose."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"In addition to these, partnership remains the institute's fundamental modus operandi. This strategy, in which ILRI takes more responsibility for translating research outputs into outcomes and impacts, demands that ILRI reaches out to and engages with a broader range of partners than before. "}]},{"head":"Influence practice, policy and choices of decisionmakers to address the use of livestock in developing countries","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"To achieve its strategic objectives, ILRI needs to influence the choices of decision-makers and investors and catalyse changes in the strategies and practices of a large set of livestock system actors and livestock producers themselves. Outcomes involving changes in behaviour are essential for the institute to significantly increase food security and reduce poverty."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Success in the first critical factor, on generating solid evidence and delivering high-quality and relevant science products, is certainly key but is clearly insufficient. ILRI also needs to ensure that its science products influence others and have impacts."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"Being intentional about listening to and influencing decisionmakers requires that the institute invests time in evaluating the issues and target groups before articulating its rolling operational plans that spell out the institute's specific work in the areas of policy, investment and foresight, as well as generating the evidence needed to inform livestocksector policies and investments. Approaches to advocacy, communications and partnerships are determined using outcome mapping and other pragmatic tools for planning outputs-to-outcomes-to-impacts."}]},{"head":"Grow capacities to support appropriate livestock development and investment in developing countries","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"To avoid the risk that ILRI's research and development activities could be isolated and one-time interventions, and to bring about sustained change and ensure impact at scale beyond conventional project lifespans, a critical mass of people and organizations has to be equipped with the skills to design, implement and maintain appropriate livestock research and development initiatives."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"For ILRI, capacity development entails the development of attitudes, skills and institutional arrangements as well as knowledge. ILRI works with individuals, organizations and institutions engaged in research and development directly; it also works with those making agricultural investment decisions at all levels. Capacity development is an integral and essential part of successful livestock research for development that delivers outcomes and impacts."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"ILRI's capacity development strategy identifies institutional and individual clients and prioritizes their needs with reference to the outcome and impact pathways defined in ILRI and CGIAR research programs. This is informed by a baseline assessment and benchmarks against which progress is measured."}]},{"head":"Secure sustainable and appropriate funding","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"The CGIAR reform process (2010-2012) significantly changed the ways that resources flow to ILRI to achieve its strategic objectives, not only in terms of funding its research activities but also of maintaining its research capacity. ILRI's institutional business and resourcing plan promotes more efficient and stable funding flows, dedicating professional capacity to support and monitor various funding opportunities and improving the identification of objectives and assigning of responsibilities for funding targets. The plan will be regularly updated through diagnoses of the 'funding market' that map all potential funders, their interests and how ILRI could link its work to their interests. The plan also includes metrics to assess the match of funds with institute priorities, full-cost recovery and grant size."}]},{"head":"Ensure ILRI is fit for purpose","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"The strategy presents new challenges that require ILRI to build on its excellent people, processes and infrastructure to design, carry out and deliver on its purpose. ILRI's business and performance culture must ensure that every part of the institute is aligned and optimized to support the strategic objectives. Ensuring ILRI is fit for purpose means that the organization is more effective in what it does (that it achieves its aims), efficient in how it operates (at least cost), represents excellent value for money to investors (in terms of returns and being the 'go to' place for livestock research for development), is known for being a reliable partner (in terms of relevant, high-quality and timely deliverables) and is a stimulating and rewarding place to work."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"Making ILRI fit for purpose necessitates that ILRI attracts, motivates and empowers high-quality professionals to deliver in a performance culture, achieved through incentives, rewards, promotion and career development, staff diversity, work conditions and a supportive environment that enables people to grow. It also calls for a global institutional culture and environment that enable staff and the organization to learn, respond quickly to demands and perform to their best ability."},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"Read related materials at ilri.org/mission"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" ilri.org better lives through livestock ILRI is a member of the CGIAR Consortium Box 30709, Nairobi 00100, Kenya Phone: +254 20 422 3000 Fax: +254 20 422 3001 Email: ILRI-Kenya@cgiar.org Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone: +251 11 617 2000 Fax: +251 11 617 2001 Email: ILRI-Ethiopia@cgiar.org I This document is licensed for use under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 Unported Licence. Photos by ILRI/Stevie Mann. "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"b8c2fd49-a7d4-43f8-8268-ea4756fbc80a","abstract":"Get the science right ILRI's ability to achieve its strategic objectives depends heavily on implementing excellent livestock science to provide high-quality empirical evidence and to address the most relevant science questions, spanning technology solutions and how and for whom research results are used, i.e. sciencebased solutions that enable ILRI to improve food security and reduce poverty. This is delivered through a multi-year rolling research strategy and operational plan that determine what ILRI's research agenda and focus should be and what individual skills and institutional capabilities ILRI needs to deliver on its research agenda."}

data/part_4/03c4d0d5e55c4ec72326eba8fd25d1f9.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03c4d0d5e55c4ec72326eba8fd25d1f9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/14e22aa2-ea75-48e8-af14-8c4ce806f6d8/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Mapping the spatial and temporal extent of floods in South Asia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Objectives","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"• To create a methodology that can be used to detect spatio-temporal changes in the extent of fl ood inundation."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"• To develop an inundation algorithm to quantify the extent of the temporal South Asian fl oods."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"• To map monsoon fl ood affected areas at a fi ne resolution in South Asia for the period 2000 to 2011."}]},{"head":"Partners","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"International Water Management Institute (IWMI)"}]},{"head":"Approach","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"• The MODIS 8-day composite time-series data of Land Surface Water Index (LSWI), Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI), Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Normalized Difference Snow Index (NDSI) were obtained."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"• An algorithm for fl ood inundation mapping to understand seasonal and annual changes in the fl ood extent and in the context of emergency response was determined for the study."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"• The proposed algorithm was applied for MODIS data to produce time-series inundation maps for the ten annual fl ood season between 2000 to 2011. The fl ood product has three classes as fl ood, mixed and long-term water bodies."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"• The MODIS fl ood products were validated via comparison with ALOS AVINIR / PALSAR and Landsat TM using the fl ood fraction comparison method."},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"• The spatial characteristics of the estimated early, peak and late and duration of inundation cycle were also determined between 2000 to 2011."}]},{"head":"Initial Results","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"• A methodology was developed in order to detect spatial extents and temporal changes of fl ood inundation of South Asia from the time-series MODIS data."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"• The inundation products are in good agreement with the water-surface area derived from ALOS AVINIR/PALSAR and Landsat images at a 10-km grid level in terms of temporal changes and spatial distribution."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"• A database of fi ne-resolution fl ood inundated areas in South Asia at 500-m spatial resolution has been developed for the period 2000 to 2011."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"• The inundation products derived from MODIS 500m imagery gives the ability to study fl ood dynamics."}]},{"head":"ABOUT CCAFS","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"The "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"a41767f5-ac2f-42b8-a2fc-33d17f3347df","abstract":"Floods affect many regions around the world year after year-leaving a trail of death and destruction. Over half a billion people every year worldwide are affected by fl oods and it is expected that by 2050 nearly two billion people globally will be threatened by fl oods. A high proportion of these people live in Asia. In recent years, most South Asian countries including Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka have experienced the devastation of massive fl oods. The recent report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and other studies suggest an increase in monsoon related fl ood events in South Asia due to climate change.Considering their large impact on human lives, it is important to understand the spatial and temporal distribution, frequency and intensity of fl oods. In order to evaluate and improve fl ood prediction models and to develop adaptation strategies, it is vital to develop comprehensive, standardised and detailed fl ood information about historic fl ood events including their frequency, intensity, severity and societal impacts. Advances in satellite remote sensing technology have made it feasible to monitor global fl ooding and its impacts even in remote areas and developing regions.A research project by CCAFS and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) focuses on a moderate-resolution mapping of monsoon fl ood risk areas in South Asia using satellite remote-sensing datasets. In the past, many studies were carried out in South Asia to investigate the hydrologic behaviour of the fl oods and post-fl ood event mapping using remotesensing data. However, large-scale systematic monitoring of fl oods both spatially and temporally covering the whole of South Asia has been very limited."}

data/part_4/0449969c96f8415376ad9e817ea03244.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0449969c96f8415376ad9e817ea03244","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/40875707-2975-4481-af2f-de8ad1ad61b7/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" GI Initiatives: from customer demand to farmers' fieldsGENE BANKS GI Initiatives: integrated into whole CGIAR portfolio and theory of change "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Building Effective CGIAR-NARES Breeding Networks There is no alternative to collaboration and partnerships No Single public entity can handle all aspects of the breeding chain -CGIAR does not have mandate for delivery or universal presence -NARES & SMEs often lack resources, germplasm and modern technology at scale     Resilient Agrifood Systems Initiatives, e.g. Systems Transformation Initiatives, e.g. Resilient Agrifood Systems Initiatives, e.g.Systems Transformation Initiatives, e.g.     PLANT HEALTH HER+ PLANT HEALTHHER+     EXCELLENCE IN AGRONOMY NATIONAL POLICIES & STRATEGIES EXCELLENCE IN AGRONOMYNATIONAL POLICIES & STRATEGIES Industry Trait Mining Donor Dev, TI BETTER GENETIC Population Improve. INNOVATION SYSTEMS Research & Dev / Breeding Teams Early Stage Testing GENETIC GAIN IN FARMERS' FIELDS Late Stage Testing Registration and Seed Systems Commercial Regulatory, Sales and IMPACT AT SCALE Commercial, PLC Breeder Marketing IndustryTrait MiningDonor Dev, TI BETTER GENETIC Population Improve. INNOVATION SYSTEMS Research & Dev / Breeding TeamsEarly Stage TestingGENETIC GAIN IN FARMERS' FIELDS Late Stage Testing Registration and Seed Systems Commercial Regulatory, Sales and IMPACT AT SCALE Commercial, PLC Breeder Marketing CGIAR/NARES  CGIAR  NARES Industry / Ext / NARES CGIAR/NARESCGIARNARESIndustry / Ext / NARES  "}],"sieverID":"fa28c303-e695-4fd0-b1e8-2ad9d4dc5400","abstract":""}

data/part_4/04c66c929a9fe270618bb08360355fa6.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04c66c929a9fe270618bb08360355fa6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a906c5e6-7c2d-49e7-ad11-d1d968fe9914/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"PARA LA APLICACIÓN DE FUNGICIDAS EN EL MANEJO DE LA RANCHA DE LA PAPA","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"2. Siempre realiza la primera aplicación de un fungicida cuando las plantas hayan emergido. Se recomienda usar un fungicida sistémico en el caso de variedades incluidas en la rueda de color rojo y un fungicida de contacto en las variedades incluidas en las ruedas de color amarillo y verde."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"El CIP agradece a los donantes y organizaciones que apoyan globalmente su trabajo a través de sus contribuciones al Fondo Fiduciario del CGIAR."}]},{"head":"PROGRAMA DE INVESTIGACI ÓN SOBRE","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Raíces, Tubérculos y Banano","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"La rueda gris te indicará que fungicida usar (contacto o sistémico) o podría indicarte que no es necesario aplicar un fungicida."}]},{"head":"¿Como utilizar este juego de ruedas? Ejemplo","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Escoge cuál de las ruedas usar (roja, amarrillo o verde) dependiendo de la variedad de papa que sembraste. Encontrarás los nombres de las variedades en la parte superior de cada rueda. Se debe usar esta misma rueda hasta la cosecha."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Si usas las ruedas de color rojo debes hacer las evaluaciones cada 7 días, en el caso de usar las ruedas de color amarillo harás las evaluaciones cada 9 días, y en el caso de usar las ruedas de color verde las evaluaciones serán cada 11 días."}]},{"head":"2","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Observa que en la rueda grande hay una marca, úsala para alinear las flechas de las ruedas más pequeñas."}]},{"head":"3","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Recuerda como estuvieron los días anteriores (sin lluvia o con lluvia). Gira la rueda de color celeste hasta llegar a la opción correcta y alinea la flecha con la marca central."}]},{"head":"4","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Recuerda cuando fue la última vez que aplicaste un fungicida en tu parcela. Gira la rueda de color naranja hasta llegar a la opción correcta y alinea la flecha con la marca central."}]},{"head":"5","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Suma los números que están al costado de las flechas que elegiste en las ruedas celeste y naranja, busca el número de la sumatoria en la rueda gris y alinea esta flecha con la marca."}]},{"head":"6","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Si tú has sembrado Yungay, usarás la rueda roja. Y si en los últimos siete días llovió más de tres días elegirás la opción que tiene el valor 5."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"Si la última aplicación de fungicida o hizo entre 7 y 9 días, entonces elegirás la opción que tiene el valor 3."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"Ahora suma los números de las opciones escogidas, es decir 5 + 3 = 8. En la rueda gris verás que la opción cuya sumatoria es mayor de 7 recomienda aplicar un fungicida sistémico."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"Si tú has sembrado Yungay, usarás la rueda roja. Y si en los últimos siete días llovió más de tres días elegirás la opción que tiene el valor 5."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"Si la última aplicación de fungicida o hizo entre 7 y 9 días, entonces elegirás la opción que tiene el valor 3."},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"Ahora suma los números de las opciones escogidas, es decir 5 + 3 = 8. En la rueda gris verás que la opción cuya sumatoria es mayor de 7 recomienda aplicar un fungicida sistémico."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" se debe usar un mismo fungicida sistémico por más de cuatro veces durante la campaña agrícola. Debe alternarse con otros productos de distinto ingrediente activo. tu equipo de protección personal. "}],"sieverID":"54b9147b-f2e6-46f2-80a2-4625e81ab60e","abstract":"Amigo agricultor esta herramienta te permitirá manejar mejor la rancha en tus campos de papa, de tal manera que puedas hacer aplicaciones de fungicidas sólo cuando sea necesario y de acuerdo con la variedad de papa que sembraste."}

data/part_4/04dce46940626b242f823d56ed8d11d9.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04dce46940626b242f823d56ed8d11d9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e1f71dff-2a76-44f8-81f0-d62954d5bd6c/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"A NARO-Uganda seed company created to promote varieties identified through CCAFS activities","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Is new?: No","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Policy/Investment Type: Budget or Investment"}]},{"head":"Stage of Maturity of the Process: Stage 3","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Amount: USD $100,000.00"},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"Geographic Scope: National"}]},{"head":"Country(ies):","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"• Uganda"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Outcome Impact Case Report:"},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"• 3125 -Supportive policy environment on informal seed system led to increased utilization of local climate-resilient varieties in East Africa (https://tinyurl.com/y56zsqqh)"},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"• 3848 -Enhancing capacity for climate change adaptation: upscaling best performing varieties of sorghum, finger millet, bean, wheat and barley in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Ethiopia (https://tinyurl.com/y9czegop)"}]},{"head":"Innovations:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"• I1070 -Resilient seed systems approach and methodology (https://tinyurl.com/2l6unmdr)"}]},{"head":"Narrative of Evidence: <Not Applicable>","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Milestones:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"• New priority setting framework being used to target more transformational food system interventions in selected countries"}]},{"head":"Sub-IDOs:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"• 35 -Enabled environment for climate resilience • 41 -Conducive agricultural policy environment"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"b19f7357-62ae-457f-8b76-7f136196be84","abstract":""}

data/part_4/054a76c516df52ec70e3f5f93586293d.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"054a76c516df52ec70e3f5f93586293d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/def291bc-0bf9-48ed-b97c-fdd3e8373cb5/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"bc5b8d89-b055-4651-9b7f-a8add1605ff1","abstract":""}

data/part_4/05719bfc6ee7e969ea9302d60f16ded3.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05719bfc6ee7e969ea9302d60f16ded3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3094be3b-19c6-43c2-85f0-59ddde8660f7/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"More than 85% of the inhabitants of the hill state of Nagaland in northeast India rely on rainfed agriculture for their livelihoods. The local tribal people cultivate rice, millet, fruits and vegetables in their small jhum (slash and burn) and terraced fields and combine this with livestock rearing. Pigs are the preferred livestock species and most families rear one to three pigs either for household consumption or for selling or for both. The pig population of Nagaland was estimated to be 698,000 (Livestock Census 2007) and more than 80% of rural households keep a few pigs under backyard system. Most of the households (70-90%) keep pigs for fattening purpose while some households (10 to 30%) also keep for breeding purpose."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Demand for pigs and pork is growing rapidly in Nagaland and currently outstrips local supply: large amounts of pigs and pork are imported from other states and the neighbouring country, Myanmar, to make up the deficit. Yet this strong and growing demand represents an opportunity for smallholders to shift from subsistence to more commercially-oriented production which could significantly improve their livelihoods and increase cash income."},{"index":3,"size":174,"text":"But it was found that nutrition is the most important constraint to convert the present subsistence to marketoriented pig production. Work undertaken under the A model to improve pig nutrition using local resources for market-oriented production-An impact narrative from Nagaland, India The traditional system of feeding involves feeding a wet slop made up of different forages collected from the forest (abundant in the wet season but scarce in winter) combined with garden and kitchen waste, all cooked with firewood. Purchased wheat bran and also some maize and rice are also sometimes fed by some farmers. Feeding of balanced concentrate feed to pigs is neither popular nor are the concentrates readily available in the market. Some farmers buy a couple of feed ingredients, mainly wheat bran or rice polish, from the local feed stall and fed it to pigs with any additional farm and kitchen waste. However, they hardly buy any protein rich feed ingredients or mineral and vitamin mixture. This is possibly because pig producers lack knowledge of pig nutrition together with financial constraints."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"These traditional feeds provide inadequate nutrition to support acceptable growth rates and maintain good health."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"In addition collecting forages is a major cause of forest degradation; this is exacerbated because the forages are cooked before feeding which requires enormous amounts of fuel wood to be collected in addition to the wild forages. Also, collection of forages and fuel wood places an enormous burden on women who are traditionally responsible for these activities."}]},{"head":"Nutritional gap analysis","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"To assess the magnitude of the nutritional gap in the diets of pigs kept by smallholders and to meet the gap, a study was undertaken involving 35 households in 5 villages (7 in each village) in Nagaland. The study had basically three phases as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"• Non-conventional feed sample collection and nutritional gap analysis in laboratory, • Designing and preparation of customized supplementation ration, and • On-farm feeding trial and pigs performance observations."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Mixtures of non-conventional feeds generally offered by farmers to pigs were collected just before cooking was dried and sent with proper labeling to the nutritional laboratory of Assam Agricultural University for proximate analysis of the feed mix and to work out the nutrient gap."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"The gap analysis results demonstrated that the traditional diets being fed to the pigs did not provide the required nutrients in terms of dry matter, protein or energy. The diets fed supplied between 61 and 69% of the recommended amount of protein (measured as crude protein and between 67 and 71% of the recommended amount of energy-metabolizable energy measured in Mcal/kg dry matter."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"Analysis of the amino acid content of the feed showed that 5 of the 16 amino acids considered to be essential in diets of pigs were deficient, including lysine and methionine, with two-tryptophan and histidine-being totally absent."},{"index":6,"size":64,"text":"The analysis concluded that the traditional diet could not meet the total nutritional requirements of pigs to enable acceptable productivity and that supplementary concentrates should be fed to bridge the nutritional gap. It was calculated that, on average, just over half a kilogram of supplementary ration needs to be fed per day (or 30% of the total feed requirement) to meet the nutrient gap."},{"index":7,"size":52,"text":"To address the gap, a supplementary compound ration with high protein (20.67%) and high energy (3.67 ME MCal) was developed. It contains maize (42%), wheat bran (15%), rice polish (12%), groundnut cake (20%), fish meal (8%), mineral mix (2%) and common salt (1%), plus the amino acids lysine and methionine and vitamins."},{"index":8,"size":77,"text":"The concentrate supplementation feed was produced locally in a mini pig feed mill (with a small feed grinder and mixture) at a state-run pig breeding station at Medziphema. The mill was established in a collaboration between ILRI and the state Veterinary and Animal Husbandry Department. Because of the unavailability of most of the feed ingredients locally, ingredients were sourced from outside the state at prevailing market prices and therefore the feed price could not be reduced significantly."},{"index":9,"size":113,"text":"To test these rations under local conditions and also to expose local farmers to the benefits of the compound rations, feeding trials were carried out with two treatments: (i) full replacement of local feeds with compound feed (quantity decided based on body weight) and (ii) supplementation with 500 g for pigs up to 40 kg and 1 kg beyond. The trial involved 70 pigs owned by farmers in 7 villages with the project providing feed at a 60% subsidy during the trialthe full cost of the supplementary ration was calculated to be 25 Indian rupees (INR) 1 per kilogram (large-scale feed production and bulk transport can bring this cost down to INR 20/kg)."}]},{"head":"The impact","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"By the end of the 180 day trial, pigs which received the supplementary feed gained an additional weight of 27 kg compared to the control group.  1)."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"In the other treatment (full replacement of local feeds with compound feed), the pigs gained an additional weight of 34 kg compared to the control with a feed consumption of 169 kg. The total feed cost is INR 3380 and price of additional weight gained is INR 4250. Therefore the additional profit per pig is INR 870 and per household is INR 2610/year (Table 1)."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"It is also anticipated that for farmers who breed pigs, supplementary feeding will result in two additional piglets per year-the total value of these additional piglets is INR 4000. monsoon season landslides are common occurrences which can close critical roads for days at a time and the heavy rains result in poor road surfaces. Transport costs are therefore relatively high and pig feed is a bulky commodity. To ensure dependable supplies it would perhaps be advantageous to situate feed mills throughout the state; however, since most of the ingredients used in the compound feeds are imported from other states, transporting raw materials will remain a challenge."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"Currently there are no commercial feed mills operating in the hilly areas of Nagaland-which is why the feed mill for the trial was installed at the state run pig farm."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"To ensure sustainable production of pig feed throughout the state there are several options. Private investors could be encouraged and supported, through loan/grants and technical support, to establish and operate largescale commercial feed mills. Alternatively rural communities could also be encouraged and supported to establish and run community-owned smaller scale feed mills producing the feed needed locally."},{"index":6,"size":69,"text":"A common problem with animal feed is that some unscrupulous producers manufacture substandard feed and, especially in remote developing regions, state and national authorities tend to lack the capacity to monitor and enforce standards. The result is that smallholders buy feed that does not contain the stated level of nutrients and the productivity of their pigs suffers accordingly. Community owned feed mills could be one solution to this problem."},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"As part of the community owned feed mill, incentives can be provided to farmers to locally cultivate crops that form the main feed ingredients (maize, for instance)."},{"index":8,"size":23,"text":"Centralized purchase for many such feed mills in the state can reduce the cost of other ingredients (fish meal and oil cakes) considerably."},{"index":9,"size":19,"text":"An agency, in which farmers are members can be given the responsibility to overseeing the business operations and transport."},{"index":10,"size":54,"text":"1. It completely eliminates the need to collect forage from the forest or to cook the traditional feed, which save up to 2 hours a day labour. Traditionally collecting forage and cooking feed are done by women, so switching to a system based on compound feed would have a significant impact on women's workloads."},{"index":11,"size":33,"text":"2. It reduces cutting of trees for fuel wood. The fuel wood has become increasingly costlier. It is estimated that the proposed non-cooking practice can save fuel wood worth INR 2700/household per year."},{"index":12,"size":73,"text":"After the trial period the demand of compound feed on full cost basis was estimated from nine pilot villages. It was found that 192 beneficiaries expressed willingness to purchase feed (about 57.6 quintals/month) on actual cost basis. This clearly indicates the impact of feed improvement. It was also observed that after getting used to the new compound feed, pigs were reluctant to return to diets based only on forest forages and household waste."}]},{"head":"Scaling out","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"For the feeding trial, a mini feed mill was established by the project partners at a state run pig farm. The feed mill was small, capable of producing just 300 kg of feed per day. At 0.5 kg feed/pig per day and operating for 25 days a month, the mill could produce the required feed for around 500 pigs only. With close to 700,000 pigs in the state of Nagaland alone, it is apparent that to roll out this feeding system across the state will require a significant investment in feed mills. Even if feed mills with 10-times the capacity of the mini feed mill were built, to feed the state's pigs would need more than 100 such facilities. The total installed capacity to provide supplementary feed to all the state's pigs would be around 127,750 t per year."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"A major constraint to any activity in northeast India is transport: the terrain is hilly, often with only one main road linking key towns, and population densities are low with long distances between communities. During the"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Impact of feeding compound feed over traditional feeds  Treatment/control Weight gain (during trial period) Additional weight compared to control Quantity of feed offered Additional income compared to control (INR) Additional income per household (INR) with 2 pigs Additional year) (INR) benefit per year (1.5 farrowing/ Expected additional benefits Treatment/controlWeight gain (during trial period)Additional weight compared to controlQuantity of feed offeredAdditional income compared to control (INR)Additional income per household (INR) with 2 pigsAdditional year) (INR) benefit per year (1.5 farrowing/Expected additional benefits 100% replacement of 64 34 169 870 1740 2610 2 additional piglets 100% replacement of6434169870174026102 additional piglets traditional feed with compound feed       Saving women labour traditional feed with compound feedSaving women labour        Saving fuelwood Saving fuelwood Supplementation 57 27 95 1475 2950 4425 2 additional piglets Supplementation5727951475295044252 additional piglets Control 30 - - - - -  Control30-----  "}],"sieverID":"91c9e0a7-8dd9-443a-a64f-972410ff9c9b","abstract":"auspices of the TATA-ILRI partnership program, ELKS (Enhancing Livelihoods through Livestock Knowledge Systems), has assessed the nutrition gap in pig diets and developed and tested nutritionally balanced compound feeds designed to support better growth rates and overall higher productivity."}

data/part_4/05876ab33fb2e8fc0508e40c706c4b27.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05876ab33fb2e8fc0508e40c706c4b27","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d02a74f1-fa4d-45d4-a2b1-cabfc883996a/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Development of Potato Varieties Resistant to Late Blight Through Biotechnology Strategy","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"One of our current strategies to control this devastating disease include stacking broad-spectrum resistance genes isolated from wild potato relatives through transgenesis. The RB, Rpi-blb2 (isolated from Solanum bulbocastanum) and the Rpi-vnt1.1 (isolated from S. venturii) R genes (Song et al. 2003;Vossen et al., 2005) can be transferred by genetic engineering into susceptible farmer-preferred varieties. These R genes were cloned into a triple R gene construct (pCIP99) to transform two susceptible potato varieties grown in SSA. 'Desiree' was chosen essentially because of its high transformation efficiency and for testing efficacy with single and the stacked R genes whereas 'Victoria/Asante' for its wide adoption as stable variety in Kenya and Uganda. The later will only be transformed with the 3R gene stack."}]},{"head":"Results","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Out of 62 transgenic events produced with RB from 'Desiree', we identified 7 that display high level of resistance to Pi using a whole-plant infection (Tab. 1, Fig. 2). Resistance was confirmed and related to number of copies of the RB gene (2 to 4). These transgenic events have been transferred to BecA in Kenya. Other transgenic events from 'Desiree' (62, 115, 327 for Rpi-vnt1.1, Rpi-blb2 and the 3R genes, respectively)."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"14 putative transgenic events from Asante / Victoria containing the 3-R (Fig. 3) gene stack were analyzed by Southern blotting using transgene specific probes. Only one event presented the expected banding pattern. This result illustrates the difficulty in transforming this variety which appears to be particularly susceptible to kanamycin. Lowering km selection has increased the selection of \"escapes\" (false positive to the km selection). This event is being screened for gene expression and LB resistance."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"New candidate varieties for SSA have been identified, with priority given to three: Shangi (rapidly increasing adoption in Kenya), Tigoni (well established variety in Kenya), and Cruza 148 (grown in the Lake Kivu region, especially in Burundi and Rwanda, and which has been transformed previously at CIP ABL in Peru). This is important experiment because of the difficulty in transforming Asante/Victoria."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"The proposed research will involve the identification of high expressers, the assessment of their resistance level, the characterization of the pathogen diversity and virulence, and an innovative seed system that will support a deployment of multi lines of the same variety in time and space. This research is anticipated to be conducted with NARS partners, NARO-Uganda and KARI-Kenya."}]},{"head":"Supported by","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"United States Agency for International Development (USAID)   "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Damage caused by P. infestans in the field (left), on potato leaf (center) and tuber (right). "},{"text":"Figure 3 :Figure 2 : Figure 3: Triple R gene construct: plasmid vector containing the three genes (RB, Rpi-blb2, Rpi-vnt1.1) to be used for transformation. "},{"text":"Table 1 : Average percentage of plants covered by lesions of late blight at 6 days post inoculation with 5 different P. infestans isolates. HR=hypersensitive response HR=hypersensitive response  "}],"sieverID":"1579a409-5297-4f26-8420-80d35791b9ba","abstract":"Potato production in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has more than doubled since 1994, with 70% of that growth concentrated in Eastern Africa. The most devastating disease is late blight (Figure 1), caused by the water mold Phytophthora infestans (Pi) and is still responsible for significant losses which may reach 30% to 75% depending on the varieties in SSA.. Global economic losses are estimated at 2,750 million US dollars a year. CIP estimates that a better control of late blight could save US$ 530 per hectare every year (FAO, 2006)."}

data/part_4/05c553eff894bdf287815ee6c9fce32c.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05c553eff894bdf287815ee6c9fce32c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ee95027e-f659-4f27-8f27-015f733b3a00/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"Poultry losses and One Health: Reducing losses and zoonotic risks along the poultry value chain through a One Health approach Inception workshop report","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"List of abbreviations","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Meeting objectives","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"The objectives of the workshop were to: ─ gain more insights from stakeholders about the current situation of the local poultry sector in the North Centre (CN) including constraints and opportunities; ─ together with stakeholders, validate the different innovations of the project and identify other priority areas for intervention to upgrade the poultry value chain; ─ present and discuss synergies between the project and projects in the poultry value chain including Push Pull Urban food markets in Africa project: Incentivizing food safety using a pull-push approach (Pull Push project); ─ discuss the planning of activities for year; and ─ explore further collaboration with potential partners and stakeholders who were not involved in the proposal development."}]},{"head":"Background information","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":253,"text":"Village poultry farming is a convenient animal production system for poor communities, widespread in most countries in Africa and Asia. Village poultry are often very well classified as an existing resource where productivity can be increased with modest additional inputs to the farm. In rural areas, poultry is usually owned and managed by women and children and is often essential for female-headed household incomes. In Burkina Faso, village poultry farming is an important part of livelihood, food and strengthening social ties. In addition, the growing demand for local poultry in urban and export markets in Burkina Faso has led to an increase in poultry production activity, particularly in peri-urban areas and along major roads. However, the increase in the poultry population as a result of the high demand is not accompanied by a profound transformation of the production system. Many shortcomings remain in the production practices, conditions of transport, processing and marketing of local poultry. Therefore, improving poultry management, rearing and hygiene practices can ensure and improve the livelihoods of smallholders by increasing production for sale and self-consumption. Also, improving the farm environment and livestock diet could contribute to reducing exposure to foodborne pathogens thus improving human health. The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in collaboration with several other national and international partners initiated the Poultry losses and One Health (POLOH) project, which aims to reduce economic losses and the transmission of zoonoses in rural communities through \"One Health\" interventions at the level of each farm and transport nodes of the value chains."}]},{"head":"Presentations and discussions","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Opening remarks","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"The presidium of the ceremony brought together Dr. "}]},{"head":"Presentation of the POLOH project","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":213,"text":"The first communication was made by the principal investigator Michel Dione on the POLOH project. The main objective of the project is to strengthen household food security and improve the livelihoods of small-scale poultry producers by reducing economic losses and zoonotic risks throughout the of the value chain, by developing OH (One Health) interventions in the northcentral region, precisely in the commune of Boussouma. The project has set itself five objectives to be achieved, namely: ─ Assessing knowledge, attitudes, and practices of smallholder poultry producers and other connected value chain actors ─ Assessing the distribution and characterizing the key chicken associated zoonotic pathogens (Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp.) and assessing intervention effects and gendered impacts of farm and market-level practices on productivity, food safety, and animal welfare through modeling approaches, laboratory surveys, and field evaluation ─ Developing and testing appropriate Integrated Educational and Training packages using a holistic approach ─ Identifying and testing likely gender-sensitive business models for enhancing value linkages, including inputs, delivery of veterinary products (such as deworming, effective vaccination and training), and advisory services through public-private partnerships and including community vaccinators ─ Building the capacity of next-generation youth national researchers on poultry health and food safety research using a OH approach and improve networking and collaboration among value chain stakeholders."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"The project targets four innovations ─ Integrated Educational and Training (IET) packages using a One Health approach ─ Gender-sensitive business models through a public-private partnership (PPP) to improve productivity and safeguarded human health ─ Build capacity of next generation national researchers and academia on poultry health and food safety research using a OH approach. ─ Create a Poultry Multi Stakeholder Platform (PMSP) for advocacy and communication"}]},{"head":"Presentation of the local poultry sector in the Center North region","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"The representative of the DRMAAH-CN presented the constraints and opportunities for poultry farming in the CN region. Producers are organised into cooperative societies (SCOOP) supported by the poultry interprofession, which bring together traders and processors."}]},{"head":"Constraints","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"─ Lack of feed following the rise in cereal prices on the market; ─ Insufficient veterinary service coverage due to the reduced number of animal health workers; ─ Lack of technical skills of actors (especially producers) on best practices of poultry farming; ─ The persistence of poultry diseases; ─ Poor housing; ─ Difficulty of actors in accessing micro-credit finances; ─ Constraints related to the insecurity situation."}]},{"head":"Opportunities","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"─ The poultry production cycle is short (less than a year, possibility of having two production cycles per year); ─ The initial investment is low; ─ The demands in time and labour are low (about 1 hour per day); ─ The flow of products (chicks, adult poultry, eggs, manure) is easy; ─ The demand for meat of village chicken is high; ─ Makes it possible to fight against unemployment in the sense that it is a real source of job creation with a number of actors involved along the value chains; ─ There is political will to boost the poultry sector."}]},{"head":"Recommendations","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"To boost the poultry sector in the CN region, the following recommendations were suggested:"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"─ Build capacity of producers (example the creation of demonstration units/model farms)."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"─ Strengthen the capacity of extension agents and support stakeholders; ─ Facilitate the access of actors to financial loans; ─ Train actors of the processing node on best hygiene practices; ─ Train actors on management and marketing; ─ Involve all stakeholders in the consultation process in decision making to develop the poultry sector."},{"index":4,"size":133,"text":"Presentation on the prevalence of Salmonella and Campylobacter along the chicken value chain in Burkina Faso Assèta Kagambèga, searcher of Université Joseph Ki-Zerbo (UJKZ) made a review of the prevalence of Salmonella and Campylobacter in chicken samples in Burkina. The results of this study indicated that the prevalence of Salmonella on chicken carcasses sold in Ouagadougou markets ranged from 37% to 90% in the dry season and up to 57% in the wet season, while the prevalence of Campylobacter was estimated at 50% on chicken carcasses. Research gaps that have been identified in these past studies include absence of a OH approach in the investigation of food hazards, the lack of data on pathogens along the entire chicken value chain, the lack of proper assessment of health outcomes after training interventions of actors."}]},{"head":"Presentation of the Pull-Push project","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"The Pull-Push project was presented by Theodore Knight-Jones, researcher at ILRI. The objective of this project is incentivizing food safety in urban food markets in Africa using the Pull-Push approach. The results of this project reveal many food safety challenges in chicken markets, but also massive and preventable production losses. Many of the issues in the farm-to-fork value chain have resulted in both loss of chicken production and human health risks, and impact animal welfare. The Pull-Push project provided basic information for detailed intervention in planning of the POLOH project. There is strong connection between this project and POLOH given their different focuses which make them complementary."}]},{"head":"Group work feedback","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"The oral presentations were followed by group work. The participants were divided into four groups."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"The first group discussed the sustainable model for delivering of veterinary inputs -with focus on vaccination and biosecurity on farm. The following recommendations were given to the project: ─ Take stock of the potential in terms of human capacity for vaccination; ─ Establish the distribution circuit of vaccines from firms, through importers to village volunteer extension; ─ Identify the main difficulties about biosecurity for better management in perspective."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"The second group reflected on capacity building/training. Participants recognised huge gaps in capacity of actors in the poultry sector and proposed several training themes targeting producers, extension and other value chain actors. The main themes proposed for the trainings were:"},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"─ At production node: modern production techniques, health and hygiene, integration of the OH approach ─ At transport and marketing nodes: improvement of transport and marketing ─ At processing nodes: best practices in slaughtering and preparation. ─ For extension: good practices in cold chain management"},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"The third group reflected on how to better integrate women in the poultry sector-focus on OH. For better integration of women, these six points would be considered as necessary:"},{"index":6,"size":137,"text":"─ Facilitate women's access to infrastructure and production inputs through o creation of cooperatives o training on livestock management ─ Facilitate women's access to financing (micro-credits) through o creation of poultry cooperatives made up of women (solidarity credits) o advocacy with partners to obtain guarantee funds ─ Develop productive alliances to facilitate the flow of production (organization) through o signature of business contracts between the links of the poultry value chain ─ Empower women through o improvement of management of production units o training in good hygiene and biosecurity practices (manure pits for composting) o training in technical and financial management ─ Train women on meat processing techniques o drying, smoking, roasting, packaging ─ Sensitize men on the merits of empowering women in production activities such as leadership, women's participation in meeting household needs (schooling, health, food)"},{"index":7,"size":142,"text":"The fourth group, reflected on the establishment and operationalization of a Poultry Multi-Stakeholder Platform (PMSP) in the CN. They made the following suggestions: ─ Make an inventory of the existing platforms ─ Identify actors (who can be a member of the platform) ─ Build capacity of actors ─ Make a diagnosis of the problems (prioritization) and propose solutions ─ Identify activities to be carried out within the framework of the OH ─ Identify human and financial resources ─ Set results to be achieved ─ Identify measurable indicators ─ Collaborate with the various structures in connection with the sector Further discussions were made on how to better involve policy makers to accelerate the uptake of the results of the research; and a discussion was made on the Local Capacity Development (LCD) plans. For this session, the participants were divided into two focus groups."},{"index":8,"size":46,"text":"Group 1: on policy Participant suggested involving decision makers through the project implementation, more specifically at three stages of the project. ─ When starting the project o Invite the authorities to the launch of the project o Explain the objectives of the project to political decision-makers "}]},{"head":"General discussions","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"The plenary session allowed participants to exchange and make comments on outputs form group work. Additional recommendations to the project included:"},{"index":2,"size":259,"text":"─ Better enforcement of the regulation on the quality of vaccines (specially by maintaining a cold chain) to avoid informal channels of vaccine supply. This will ensure good quality vaccine to the farmers, thus improve vaccination efficacy; ─ Strong involvement of the public sectors (through CPAVI) and private sector actors in a form of a public-private partnership in the project implementation to increase the chances of success and ensure sustainability. ─ The integration of a module on One Health (OH) approach in the training manuals ─ Capacity building of stakeholders including decision makers on how to operationalize OH approach was seen as critical, given that there is a gap in this area; ─ The integration of a module on the gender approach in the training manual to producers; ─ It was mentioned that the issues related to the use of antimicrobials and antimicrobial resistance should be considered; ─ Training/capacity building should not only target producer, buy also other actors of the value chains especially the inputs suppliers. ─ There are already existing training modules developed by CPAVI for the entire poultry sector in Burkina Faso. Participants pointed out the important of avoiding duplication and suggest that POLOH should only fill gaps in biosecurity and OH. ─ The duration and content of the modules must be adapted to the needs of the target ─ Including community leaders among decision-makers ─ Set up an OH award for actors in the field. ─ Setting up a local committee made on veterinary, human health and environment to implement OH during the project implementation"}]},{"head":"Participants","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"The participants comprised national and international researchers, private sector, farmers cooperatives, veterinarians, poultry value chain actors, extension, government staff and development organizations."}]},{"head":"Action points and next steps","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"─ The project team will carry out a scoping visit in October to the site and discuss collaboration with on-site partners and how activities will be implemented; ─ Various potential additional collaborators to the project will be contacted for further discussions on opportunities to work together; ─ All recommendation by stakeholders will be reviewed and considered by the project team. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Photo 3: Group work during the workshop discussing how to better integrate women in the poultry value chain "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" BF and its various actions, then explained the context which prevailed for the financing of this present project. The co-leader of the AHH program of ILRI then congratulated this initiative and welcomed the presence of the participants. Dr. Ouattara welcomed this project as the representative of the MAAH through CPAVI whose essential mission is to promote village poultry farming. While wishing participants a fruitful day of work with relevant results, officially he declared the opening of the POLOH project launch workshop. The official opening speech was then followed by several communications. Gnanda Isidore (Institut National Gnanda Isidore (Institut National d'Environnement et de Recherche Agricole -INRERA -coordinator of the Innovation Lab for d'Environnement et de Recherche Agricole -INRERA -coordinator of the Innovation Lab for Livestock Systems in Burkina Faso), Dr. Seydou Ouattara (Ministère de l'Agriculture et des Livestock Systems in Burkina Faso), Dr. Seydou Ouattara (Ministère de l'Agriculture et des Aménagements Hydrauliques (MAAH) -Director of the Centre de Promotion de l'Aviculture Villageoise - Aménagements Hydrauliques (MAAH) -Director of the Centre de Promotion de l'Aviculture Villageoise - CEPAVI) and Dr. Hung Nguyen (Animal and Human Health program-AHH co-leader at ILRI). The CEPAVI) and Dr. Hung Nguyen (Animal and Human Health program-AHH co-leader at ILRI). The introductory speech was addressed by Dr. Gnanda Isidore; after the usual greetings, he made a introductory speech was addressed by Dr. Gnanda Isidore; after the usual greetings, he made a brief presentation of the LSIL- brief presentation of the LSIL-  "},{"text":"─ At midline o Mid-term results sharing workshops (central, regional, and local level) and discuss difficulties. o Identify the implementation gaps if there are any o Develop a plan to tackle the gaps ─ At the end of the project o Organize workshops to share project results o Develop briefs for decision-makers o Feedback to all project stakeholders Group 2: on LCD The participants recognized the need to build capacity of young generation in poultry health and OH. They suggested that the project should offer short-term online or face-to-face training modules targeting different profiles. ─ Professionals -technical wings of the government ─ Academic/research ─ Student/ MSc, PhD The key topics of the training should target (but not limited): antimicrobial resistance, biosafety, zoonoses, good practices in the value chain, gender approach, pesticide use, leadership and communication and OH approach evaluation  "}],"sieverID":"5ac2071c-d309-4ebb-8cd8-cc4d37562f42","abstract":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used."}

data/part_4/062507bbf02637c7a12730fca608a1c0.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"062507bbf02637c7a12730fca608a1c0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/66b0d1de-0985-43c3-a954-8de9072c2172/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"","keywords":["Vil!: Bibropur","Deldur Dist: Tangaíl","Bangladesh ubinig@eitecheo","net"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"One agricultural practice in our area is this: after harvesting red gram, the farmers plow back lhe land, so lhal whatever leaf-fal! Ihere is from Ihe red gram will immedialely go back lo the 50il. We are consciou5 of whatever we exlracl from Ihe soíl and we Iry lo give back Ihe same amounl of Ihings Ihat we are extracting from Ihe soil. This is very important lo uso"},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"The more crops we grow, Ihe more the load will be evenly spread on us for harvesting them. More lhan that, we will al so get more employment. The greater lhe diversíty of crops, lhe more harvesting lhere is for differenl crops at different times; people in lhe víllage will gel more employment when there is more diversity."},{"index":3,"size":410,"text":"Women in our area do not prefer mono-cropping. The grealer lhe diversity, lhe fewer the grains of each crop, so lhe women won't want lo seU lhís smaU quantity of grain in Ihe market. Neilher will the men bother because of the small quantity; they will lhink Ihal \"even if I take this lo Ihe market, wha! is it lha! I am getting?\" When you see each crop individually, il will be very small, bu! when we compare the grain produetion for all of lhem, lhere will be more grain in total. If we have a range of different crops in our homes, lhen whenever we feel hungry, we can consume them. Wilh a single crop, we may or may nol get a good yield. If the crop fails, we will slarve for most of the year. You may Ihink Ihal if you gel good crop, you may purehase some of Ihe grains of different crops lo eat, but even if you can gel it in Ihe market, poor women will defini!ely no! buy so many different crops. They would ralher spend Ihe money on olher !hings Ihan food. If we have grains in our own homes, Ihe satisfaelion is different than when we buy il from Ihe market. Even if you want lo eat, you may nol have the money, and even buying from the market, we will eal less and lhe satisfaction will not be Ihere. If we grow a range of erops and have the different grains in our homes, then whenever children ask, we can cook different recipes from lhe differenl grains and provide them with nutritious food al Ihe sama time. whieh is no! possible when we grow a single crop. Ourfood, our knowledge, and whateverwe are doing should nol be a Ihreat lo diversity, bul should enhance diversity. The types of food we eat now should also help in inereasing diversity. Whatever inputs we are using for farming. Ihe resources should be avaílable loeally and the farmer should not depend on any external resources. We want lo use our own products; we want to use some of the green-Ieaf manuring crops. We give a 101 of importance to soil fertility management. Whatever variety you may grow, unless lhe soU is fertile, we cannot achieve anythíng; we eannot achieve the potential yield even though Ihe genelie potential may be lhere. So soil fertility is one of Ihe mos! important lhings we are trying lo address."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"Our way of looking at lhe productivity of a farm is different. We generally don't look al yield only or yield per unil of land only or only general yield. There are many things we getfrom lhe farm, like uncultivaled greens, medicinal planls, vegetables, fodder. So ifyou monitor all these things, Ihey will be more lhan wha! you would get from a single crop. Everything is equally important in this whole farming system, so we look at different things in farming and nol at a single lhing."}]},{"head":"Experiences Growing a Modern Rice Cultivar","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Raksya Begam Woman (armer from Bang/adesh","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Abstract","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"A farmer trom Bangladesh describes her experiences growing a modem rice variety."},{"index":2,"size":142,"text":"I'm trom Bangladesh and my name is Rabia. 1 am here to talk about our experiences. The scientists told us, lhe farmers, tha! you can lake a variety and planl il in your fields and you will gel plenty-20 mounds of rice per acre. We were very simple; we believed il and were very happy lo hear the news. We actually planted Ihis variety. It was a dwarf variety, and the kind of straw we gol from lhese planls was the type Ihal if there was rain lhen alllhe straw gol rolten and was no good for fodder for liveslock, nol even as fodder for the scavenger chicken. Allhough the straw mixed with cow dung created many insects. which were useful for chickens to ea!. We also had lo use pesticides and fertilizers and soon the whole land became hard like rock."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"Previously we used to cultivale Ihe local rice varieties of Aaush and Aamon. The slraw of Ihese varietíes was long-taller-and was very good for fodder. 1I ensured thal we could keep livestock and poullry."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"Now, Ihe scientisls have always made claims. They showed us Ihe profil_hat we will gel trom Ihe production of Iheir varlelies-bul they never actually calculated the losses, the olher losses thal lhe farmers have lo pay the cosl foro Now we, the farmers, have realized these other costs."},{"index":5,"size":49,"text":"The situation right now is that Ihe soll has become just like rock and the fertllity is not the same as il was before. Now il also requires a lot of money to cullivate paddy or to remain in agriculture and the relums lo Ihe farmers are very peor."},{"index":6,"size":75,"text":"Previously, Ihe kind ofvariety we used to cullivate was laslier, compared lo Ihe modem varielies.lt was also not a source of disease: il did not conlain any pesticide or pesticide residues. After consuming thase new rice varieties, we are now suffering trom many diseases, so lhere are health problems along with the olher problems. There are health problems in the livestock and poullry also, so the managemenl of lives!ock and poultry is more difficult now."},{"index":7,"size":61,"text":"On Ihe olher hand, uncultivated food is not available any more, al leasl il has really become scarce. But the scientists never calculated lhis serious cast to Ihe tarmers. So we tarmers have now realized !hal we have had to pay too much for !hese new varieties and il is lime lo realize !ha! we need lo gel away from Ihem."},{"index":8,"size":33,"text":"The older varielies had many other uses. We could use Ihem as sources of energy and also as a kind of organic fertilizer. The dwarf--or modem--variety is no! useful as the older varie!ies."},{"index":9,"size":69,"text":"There ís a proverb in Bengal, \"Don't go lo lhe field in the ea s!. \"This is a local saying, which means, \"Don't go lo a place where you will hear bad informalion; il looks like !he sun bul it is no! the sun.\" Now we realize thal to the scientists, Ihe farmers were not lheir objective-their main focus was nol really lo serve the interests of !he farmers."},{"index":10,"size":7,"text":"15 There an Imminent Crisis in Agriculture?"},{"index":11,"size":332,"text":"Abu Taher Rahamani Farmer from Bangladesh Abstract A farmer from Bangladesh, with 22 years of experience, predicts an imminent crisis in agriculture, I have been practicing modern agriculture for quite a long time and received the Presidential Award twice. I am here lo share some of my experiences wi!h the different varieties, especially !he modem varieties, tha! I have planted on myown farmland.ln terms oflhe productivityof a single crop, I have been able to demonstrate that some of the varieties performed well, but economically, I did nol galn. In my 22 years as a farmer planling modem varieties, one Ihing I would like lo say is Ihat we are heading for an imminen! crisis in agriculture. And we need the collaboration of the government and the scientists with the farmers. As scientists have noticed, the organic maller is very low, now it is 0.50 (the lowest) and 1.63 (lhe highest). This is the range in one area. We can talk about plant breeding or talk about Ihe inlroduction of modern varieties, bul unless we take care of Ihe problems of organic maller in the sOI', we will not be able lo resolve Ihe crisis in agriculture, On my farmland, I am Irying lo make available more organic maller from my farm and I am also reducing Ihe use of pesticides. Despile the fac! that many people are aware of the dangers of pesticides, the use of pesticides Is increasing, partly because of the companies' aggressive marketing techniques. Farmers are somellmes confused with Ihis type of aggressive markeling and eventually they pay Ihe cost of using pesticides, In my experience and from Ihe literature available lo me, none of the pesticides I am familiar with can reduce Ihe allack to 50% or 60%, In conlrast, partly from my own experience, from my own practice, and al the same time from some of Ihe training I got for inlegrated pes! management (IPM), I have been able to reduce the attack of pests by 80%-90%."},{"index":12,"size":43,"text":"Al the same time, seed is a very vital issue. You have lo have good-quality, healthy seeds for Ihe farmers. So this is a very sensitive area for the farmers. You have to have good-quality seeds for the experiments that we are trying."},{"index":13,"size":61,"text":"And now there is more promolion of hybrid seeds around the world. They say thal the hybrid cannot contribute lo the interests of the farmer because they cannot keep Ihe seeds. The farmers will not know the characteristics of the seeds the way they know the lraditional varieties, So eventually i! canno! be good for the welfare of the farming community,'"},{"index":14,"size":64,"text":"My general feeling aboul the technology is thal when you prom ate a technology, it is very importan! to understand the nature ofthe technology, whose interests il is serving, and how it is good for the farmer, or for thal maller, who the consliluencies of Ihe technology are. Unless you know very c1early about that, !hen eventually the technologies will not be very fruitful."},{"index":15,"size":1,"text":"When "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"víllages. Now they can crop al least 2000 acres of land with lhese 72 Iraditional  landraces. After seeing Ihis biodiversity festival, many farmera left !he area understanding the im- landraces. After seeing Ihis biodiversity festival, many farmera left !he area understanding the im- portance and uses of Ihe differenl crops. They are coming forward to culliva!e lhe landraees, and in portance and uses of Ihe differenl crops. They are coming forward to culliva!e lhe landraees, and in each village 20 farmers are eultivating these 72 different landraces. each village 20 farmers are eultivating these 72 different landraces.  "},{"text":" we decide about technology, certain characleristics are very important. One is Ihat jt should no! be costly or it should be al leas! wilhin Ihe reasonable reach of farmers. Second, il should be verified by scientific procedures and by an indication !ha! it can perform as they are claming it Is going lo perform. Third, it should be gainfullo Ihe farmer-the recipient who is receiving it. 1I should be sustainable and also should be used by a large number of farmers.So I appeal to Ihe scientists lo note what I ha ve said. I hope you will take it as coming from the farmers and that you will take interest in Ihese issues. OST PAU Acronyrns SRISTA Participants Punjab AgriculturaJ University on-station trial Society for Research .nd Initiatives for Sustainable Technologies and OST PAUAcronyrns SRISTA Participants Punjab AgriculturaJ University on-station trialSociety for Research .nd Initiatives for Sustainable Technologies and ACAP AICSIP PCI PGR Bangladesh Anuapurna Conservation Area ProjecI AH India Coordiuated SQrghum participatory erop improvement planl genetic resourees Improvement Project BAU Birsa Agricultural University BBE Bee} Bachao Andolan (Save Seed Move-men!) BCJ BrahminíChhetri/Jogi (ethnicity categoty Cor Ll-BIRD research) BLB bacterial leaC blight CAZS Centre for Arid Zone Studies PGRE plant gene tic resouree enhancement PHILRICE Philíppine Rice Research Institute Rakspa Begam PPB participatory plant breeding UBINIG PR Punjab rice Bangladesh PRA participatory rural appraisal Obaidu/ Islam PRGA Panicipatory Research and Gender PGRS Analysis (CGlAR systemwide Bari, Bangladesh program) iobaidnl@hotmail,com CBD Conventioo on Bio-Diversity PTD participatory teehnology development Farhad Mazltar CBDC Cornrnunity-Based Biodiversity Development and Conservation PVP plant-variety protecrion PVS participatory varietal seleetion UBINIG Dhaka, Bangladesh CBDC-ITP CBDC Intemational Technical Programme CBO cornrnunity-oosed organizatíon R&D research and development RD recornmendation domain Sham Sun Nahar RRA rapíd rural appraisal UBINIG CBR cornmunity biodiversity register RRS regíonal research station CC CONSERVE eross SADC Southern African Development CCl conventional crop improvement Communíty CFFT coordinated farmers' field trial COlAR Consultative Group on Intemational Ag-ricultura! Research CIAT Centro Internacional de Agricultura SA!'lFEC South Asía Network for Food, Ecology and Culture SEARICE Southeast Asía Regionallnstitute for Community Education 11: 1 HYV ¡NGO TIP IARC IARl ICAR ICARDA TLB TRIPs TWN UBINIG UNCTAD ICIMOD UPLB ICRISAT UPOV IDP IDRC USP VDC VRRC IGAU INGO UD IÑ\"TACH IPGRI WTO WARDA high-yielding variety lnstitutions Taro Improvement Projec! international nongovernmental organization inlernational agricultural research center Indian Agricultural Research Instituto lndian Councíl oC Agricultural Research lntemational Cemer for Agricultural taro leafblighl trade-related intellectual property rights Third World Network Unnayan Bikalper Niti Nirdharoni Gobeshan. (BengaJi, Bangladesh) United N.tions Conference on Trade .nd Development Research in !he Dty Areas University of!he PhiJippines-Los Intemational Centre for Integra!ed Mountain Development Baños lnternational Convention for Ihe Intem.tioual Crops Research Institute for lhe Semi-Arid Tropics intensive data plo! Proteelion of New Varioties of Planls University ofthe South Pacific village development committee Intemational Development Rese.rch Variety Release and Registration Centre Cornmittee Indira Gandhi Agricultural University Using Diversíty Network intematianal nongovemmental organízation Indian National T rus! for Art and Cultúral Heritage Intemational Plant Genetic Resourc_s World Trade Organisation West Africa Rice Development ａ ｳ ｳ ｯ ｣ ｩ ｾ ｴ ｩ ｯ ｮ ＠ ACAP AICSIP PCI PGR Bangladesh Anuapurna Conservation Area ProjecI AH India Coordiuated SQrghum participatory erop improvement planl genetic resourees Improvement Project BAU Birsa Agricultural University BBE Bee} Bachao Andolan (Save Seed Move-men!) BCJ BrahminíChhetri/Jogi (ethnicity categoty Cor Ll-BIRD research) BLB bacterial leaC blight CAZS Centre for Arid Zone Studies PGRE plant gene tic resouree enhancement PHILRICE Philíppine Rice Research Institute Rakspa Begam PPB participatory plant breeding UBINIG PR Punjab rice Bangladesh PRA participatory rural appraisal Obaidu/ Islam PRGA Panicipatory Research and Gender PGRS Analysis (CGlAR systemwide Bari, Bangladesh program) iobaidnl@hotmail,com CBD Conventioo on Bio-Diversity PTD participatory teehnology development Farhad Mazltar CBDC Cornrnunity-Based Biodiversity Development and Conservation PVP plant-variety protecrion PVS participatory varietal seleetion UBINIG Dhaka, Bangladesh CBDC-ITP CBDC Intemational Technical Programme CBO cornrnunity-oosed organizatíon R&D research and development RD recornmendation domain Sham Sun Nahar RRA rapíd rural appraisal UBINIG CBR cornmunity biodiversity register RRS regíonal research station CC CONSERVE eross SADC Southern African Development CCl conventional crop improvement Communíty CFFT coordinated farmers' field trial COlAR Consultative Group on Intemational Ag-ricultura! Research CIAT Centro Internacional de Agricultura SA!'lFEC South Asía Network for Food, Ecology and Culture SEARICE Southeast Asía Regionallnstitute for Community Education 11: 1HYV ¡NGO TIP IARC IARl ICAR ICARDA TLB TRIPs TWN UBINIG UNCTAD ICIMOD UPLB ICRISAT UPOV IDP IDRC USP VDC VRRC IGAU INGO UD IÑ\"TACH IPGRI WTO WARDAhigh-yielding variety lnstitutions Taro Improvement Projec! international nongovernmental organization inlernational agricultural research center Indian Agricultural Research Instituto lndian Councíl oC Agricultural Research lntemational Cemer for Agricultural taro leafblighl trade-related intellectual property rights Third World Network Unnayan Bikalper Niti Nirdharoni Gobeshan. (BengaJi, Bangladesh) United N.tions Conference on Trade .nd Development Research in !he Dty Areas University of!he PhiJippines-Los Intemational Centre for Integra!ed Mountain Development Baños lnternational Convention for Ihe Intem.tioual Crops Research Institute for lhe Semi-Arid Tropics intensive data plo! Proteelion of New Varioties of Planls University ofthe South Pacific village development committee Intemational Development Rese.rch Variety Release and Registration Centre Cornmittee Indira Gandhi Agricultural University Using Diversíty Network intematianal nongovemmental organízation Indian National T rus! for Art and Cultúral Heritage Intemational Plant Genetic Resourc_s World Trade Organisation West Africa Rice Development ａ ｳ ｳ ｯ ｣ ｩ ｾ ｴ ｩ ｯ ｮ ＠  Tropical  Instituto TropicalInstituto CU,,1MYT Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo I Intemalional Maíze IRD IRRI infonna! research and dovelopmen! International Rice Research Institute CU,,1MYTCentro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo I Intemalional MaízeIRD IRRIinfonna! research and dovelopmen! International Rice Research Institute  and Wheat Improvement Center ITDG Intcnnediate Technology Development and Wheat Improvement CenterITDGIntcnnediate Technology Development CONSERVE Cornmunity-Based Native Seeds  Group CONSERVE Cornmunity-Based Native SeedsGroup  Research Center JPP Jajarkot Permaculture Prograrnme Research CenterJPPJajarkot Permaculture Prograrnme CPB conventional plant breeding KDS KamiIDamailSarkí (ethnicity categoty CPBconventional plant breedingKDSKamiIDamailSarkí (ethnicity categoty CPR COrnmon property resources  for U-BIRO rese.rch) CPRCOrnmon property resourcesfor U-BIRO rese.rch) CRRI Central Rice Research Instituto KRIBHCO Krishak Bharati Co-operative CRRICentral Rice Research InstitutoKRIBHCOKrishak Bharati Co-operative CVSCAFT Central Visayas State College of KRIBP Indo-British Rainfed Farming Projeet CVSCAFTCentral Visayas State College ofKRIBPIndo-British Rainfed Farming Projeet  Agrieulture, Forestty and Technology KVK Krishi Vigyan Kendra Agrieulture, Forestty and TechnologyKVKKrishi Vigyan Kendra DOS Deccan Develapment Society LARC Lumle Agricultura! Research Centre DOSDeccan Develapment SocietyLARCLumle Agricultura! Research Centre DFID Departrnent of lntem.tiona! Ll-BIRD Local Initiatives for Biodiversity DFIDDepartrnent of lntem.tiona!Ll-BIRDLocal Initiatives for Biodiversity  Develapmen!  Research and Development Develapmen!Research and Development DUS distinctive, uniform, .nd stability M&E monitoring and evaluation DUSdistinctive, uniform, .nd stabilityM&Emonitoring and evaluation FAMPAR farmer-managed particip.toty research MAFFM Ministty of Agriculture, Fisheries, FAMPARfarmer-managed particip.toty researchMAFFMMinistty of Agriculture, Fisheries, FAT farmers' acceptance test  Forests and Meteorology FATfarmers' acceptance testForests and Meteorology FFT farmer field trial MNCrrNC multinational/transnational corporation FFTfarmer field trialMNCrrNCmultinational/transnational corporation FGD focus-group discussion MSSRF M.S. Swaminathan Research FGDfocus-group discussionMSSRFM.S. Swaminathan Research FOCUS Focus Humanitarian Assistance  Foundation FOCUSFocus Humanitarian AssistanceFoundation FPB farmer participatory breeding MV modem variety FPBfarmer participatory breedingMVmodem variety FSR farming systems reseatch NARC Nepal Agricultura! Research Council FSRfarming systems reseatchNARCNepal Agricultura! Research Council GAU Gujara! Agriculturul University NARS national agricultural research systemls GAUGujara! Agriculturul UniversityNARSnational agricultural research systemls GMN Gurung/MagarINewar (ethnicity NGO nongovernmental organization GMNGurung/MagarINewar (ethnicityNGOnongovernmental organization  category fO! Ll-BIRD research) NMRP Nation.l Maize Research Prograrnme category fO! Ll-BIRD research)NMRPNation.l Maize Research Prograrnme GRAlN Genetic Resource Action Intemational NRCS Naticnal Research Centre for Sorghum GRAlNGenetic Resource Action IntemationalNRCSNaticnal Research Centre for Sorghum HH HLQ HPPS household household-level questionnaire high-po!enlial production syslem NRRP NSl OPV Nationa! Rice Research Programme national systems of innovation open-pollinated variety HH HLQ HPPShousehold household-level questionnaire high-po!enlial production syslemNRRP NSl OPVNationa! Rice Research Programme national systems of innovation open-pollinated variety  "}],"sieverID":"15f983ae-b27b-4546-b724-4ae6163a6708","abstract":"When we grow crops, we also keep in mind the fodder requirements of the animal s we own. Thal is the reason we grow some varieties that will give more fodder for our animals."}

data/part_4/0668d10750f0d997bd4f5f94e8b6f1dd.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0668d10750f0d997bd4f5f94e8b6f1dd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8332477f-27a7-4d16-af2a-1dd7e17623da/retrieve"},"pageCount":34,"title":"Report of a Task Force on Inter-regional Cooperation","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":268,"text":"Background to the ECP/GR Inter-Regional Cooperation Network B. Laliberté presented the background of the ECP/GR Inter-Regional Cooperation Network and its progress since its first meeting in October 1999 in Florence, Italy. The Task Force was established as a recommendation of the ECP/GR Steering Committee, during its seventh meeting in 1998, to initiate activities within the framework of a Technical Cooperation Network for Phase VI (now changed to Inter-regional Cooperation Network), and agreed on a budget to convene 2 meetings and produce a publication of the proceedings between 1999-2003.During the first meeting of the Network in 1999, the Task Force defined Terms of Reference and agreed on the main objectives of the Network, i.e. to enhance collaboration between European partners involved in PGRFA development cooperation and developing countries and, in particular, to b ring together the different European partners, identify priorities for inter-regional cooperation, enhance joint fund-raising efforts and collaboration between European partners involved in development cooperation. The expected outputs are exchanges of information, joint training/capacity-building activities, joint research and development projects, regional PGRFA crop and thematic networks strengthened, increased relief assistance and strengthened seed supply systems. During this second meeting, the Task Force took a critical look at the information resources collected and focused on the following points: -Review the status of the outputs and the needs for further information collection activities to be carried out; -Develop cooperation project proposals using funds available from savings made on the expected cost of the meetings and publication for this Task Force (approx. US$35,000); -Review the Terms of Reference of the Task Force in view of a possible readjustment of priorities."}]},{"head":"Summary of agreed Workplan and activities to be undertaken","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Activities were carried out by the Task Force, mainly related to the collection of information resources (inventories) of the following:"},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"- Feedback on needs and priorities from PGR Networks in the other regions was obtained through a questionnaire (see Annex II) and via direct communication. Links were established with regional Networks, with the following Networks selected as a first step:"},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"-WANANET-West Asia North Africa Network for PGR -to be contacted by Marcello Broggio; -SPGRC -SADC Plant Genetic Resources Centre, -to be contacted by Eva Thörn; -REMERFI -Red Mesoamericana de Recursos Fitogenéticos, -to be contacted by Celia de la Cuadra and Beate Weiskopf; -CAN-PGR -Central Asian Network on Plant Genetic Resources, to be contacted by Bert Visser."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"B. Laliberté was responsible for developing a database of European funding opportunities, supported by the IPGRI Regional Office for Europe. Common formats for the collection of information on NGOs and technical projects were developed."}]},{"head":"Overview of progress: reports from the Task Force members","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Task Force members presented a brief report of the activities undertaken. Discussions were held on the difficulties and constraints encountered. B. Laliberté reported on behalf of Fabrizio G rassi. No reports were received from Celia de la Cuadra and Nikolaos Stavropoulos. Issiaka Zoungrana, newly appointed Training Officer at IPGRI, introduced himself and gave a brief overview of his main responsibilities. He expressed his interest in collaborating closely with ECP/GR, in particular with the Inter-Regional Cooperation Task Force members. I. Zoungrana is based at the IPGRI Regional Office for the SSA region in Nairobi, Kenya."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"A summary of progress for each of the main activities is reported here."}]},{"head":"Assessment of needs and priorities of regional PGR Networks","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"M. Broggio reported on the survey of needs and priorities of WANANET. All 23 National Focal Points (NFP) in the region were contacted in December 2000. The Country Reports in preparation for the Leipzig Conference in 1996 were consulted to see if any specific feedback could be analyzed for the different needs in technical cooperation. However, the information was not up-to-date and not sufficient to obtain a clear picture of the current situation."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"Five countries replied to the survey and 4 countries replied by completing a questionnaire: Egypt, Iraq, Oman and Tunisia. In light of the difficulties of getting feedback through questionnaires, M. Broggio suggested that direct contact be preferable and that the next meeting of the National Coordinators of the WANANET countries in October 2001 could be a good opportunity to obtain direct feedback from the main people involved in the PGR national programmes."},{"index":3,"size":160,"text":"M. Broggio suggested contacting again the countries that did not respond to the questionnaire to complete the picture in the region. He expressed some concerns that what the Network might perceive as needs at the regional level might not always correspond to the needs at the national level. This point was further illustrated by the noticeable differences in feedback scores from Iraq and the other 3 countries with low priority indicated by Iraq particularly with regards to the needs for: inventories of PGRFA conserved on-farm; international collaboration for regeneration effort for ex situ material; PGR training material for inclusion in national curricula; and policy development and national strategies for the implementation of international agreements (CBD, IU, WTO etc). All 4 countries marked the following points as being very important: national and regional inventories of PGRFA conserved in situ: linking databases of ex situ holdings between the different regions; ex situ conservation methodologies; and raising awareness of the value of PGRFA."},{"index":4,"size":190,"text":"B. Visser reported on the feedback obtained from REMERFI during a meeting of the GPA implementation in Latin America (San José, 12 -14 September 2000). He reported that documentation of PGR is a priority. Efforts are on-going with PC-GRIN and USDA. PC-GRIN is the PC version of the germplasm documentation system used by USDA that is also promoted in Latin America. Concerns in documentation are related to the exchange of information within the different institutes, but also within the region. B. Visser informed the group of a large project containing several workshops funded by FAO under the NL-FAO partnership programme. It was remarked that funding resources from ECP/GR and making the links with the relevant European central crop databases (ECCDB) could be an important contribution. It was also pointed out that language is an important issue and poses constraints in the exchange of information. The questionnaire completed by REMERFI was moderately useful in identifying priorities, as almost all items mentioned in the questionnaire were scored as being important to very important. However the feedback is useful in validating whether an activity is or is not a priority for the Network."},{"index":5,"size":115,"text":"B. Weiskopf provided feedback from REMERFI based on a recent review (March 2000) of the programme, which is still supported by GTZ until the end of this year (2001). GTZ is especially supporting the regional coordination. It was confirmed that documentation is a priority. Here it is especially important to link the different databases existing and create a platform. But also building capacity in the area of in situ and on-farm conservation, as well as policy and legal issues, were identified as priorities. Inter-regional cooperation in these areas can have mutual benefits. It was suggested that in addition to contacting Networks, donors could also be approached directly to indicate their areas of priorities in PGR."},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"E. Thörn reported feedback received from SPGRC on their priorities in general but also indicating priorities where the involvement of ECP/GR could be most useful and most valuable contributions. The following areas of priority for inter-regional cooperation were identified by SPGRC:"},{"index":7,"size":101,"text":"-Training and capacity building: training material, short courses and advanced specialized courses, and training of trainers; -Information and documentation: inventories of in situ PGRFA, directories of NGOs active in disaster situations, seed directory of farmers' saved indigenous varieties, strengthening linkages between formal and informal sectors, and between breeders and genebanks managers; -Emergency situations: mechanism for rapid reintroduction of diverse planting material, studies of the impact of seed relief onto genetic erosion, development of emergency seed transfer protocols, contingency planning, regional back up collection, and the development of approaches to achieving sustainable seed security at small-scale farm level; -Assistance to small-scale farmers."},{"index":8,"size":323,"text":"Concerns were expressed by SPGRC regarding international agreements in relation to seed exchange, such as the agreement on Trade-Related aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPPS) of the World trade Organization (WTO). E. Thörn suggested the possibility to link with the European documentation project EPGRIS (European Plant Genetic Resources Infra-Structure), where NGB is one of 7 partners. B. Laliberté proposed to brief the group on the EPGRIS project, as an important initiative that could also contribute to building capacity in other regions for the development of national inventories of ex situ collections, with the aim of centralizing these inventories at the regional level (see summary information on EPGRIS on page 9). B. Laliberté briefed the group on recent discussions about priorities in training and documentation between different staff at IPGRI, the Network Coordinator of GRENEWECA -Genetic Resources Network for West and Central Africa, Raymond Vodouhe, the interim coordinator of the Eastern Africa Plant Genetic Resources Network (EAPGREN), Dan Kiambi, and the Regional Director of the IPGRI-SSA office, Kwesi Atta-Krah. Direct interaction with Raymond Vodouhe, at the occasion of his visit to the Regional Office for Europe in September 2000, confirmed that training in documentation of PGR is of high priority for GRENEWECA. An initiative in this area is currently underway in collaboration with USDA and the IPGRI Regional Office for the Americas. Technical support will be provided for 10 computers and for training on using PC-GRIN. Thirteen participants from 10 West and Central African countries will participate in a workshop to be held on 4 -11 August 2001 at Cotonou, Benin. Kwesi Atta-Krah, Regional Director of the IPGRI-SSA office agreed that the area of documentation and data management is a priority and a potential area for collaboration. He also suggested that the EPGRIS initiative could well complement the on-going PC-GRIN initiative in West Africa. He suggested that another area of collaboration could be in sharing experiences related to in situ conservation and data management."},{"index":9,"size":56,"text":"Another priority identified by GRENEWECA is in the area of raising awareness on the importance of PGR for economic development of decision makers and persons responsible for national structures, as well as scientists. Workshops were organized in 1999 and 2000 with a positive impact on the support from the participating countries to the national PGR programmes."},{"index":10,"size":98,"text":"Feedback was received from Mikkel Grum of the IPGRI-SSA office. He indicated that within the framework of an existing project (AFDB project), they are planning to undertake a region-wide study on genetic diversity (inventory) and genetic erosion. He indicated that ECP/GR could make an important contribution to technically supporting this, particularly with the documentation aspects. This could facilitate priority setting in the region and in national programmes and help build the necessary information base for strengthening the Network, which, according to M. Grum, is a weakness at the moment as there is a lack of true networking activities."},{"index":11,"size":129,"text":"Dan Kiambi of the IPGRI-SSA office provided some feedback from EAPGREN that was established in 1997 under the auspices of ASARECA, the Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in East and Central Africa. EAPGREN has not fully taken off because it only recently received funding from the Swedish International Development Authority, SIDA, for Network activities. The Network is now in the project implementation and planning phase. IPGRI is one of the technical and scientific support institutions, together with the Nordic Gene Bank. The Network has a Regional Steering Committee comprising representatives from the East Africa member countries and its activities will be implemented through a Secretariat. Besides EAPGREN, there are several other crop-based Networks (about 14) operating under ASARECA. Possible links with relevant ECP/GR Crop Working Groups could be facilitated."}]},{"head":"Scientific and technical cooperation projects in PGRFA in Europe","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"Information on scientific and technical cooperation projects between European partners and partners in other regions was collected with the aim of gaining/in order to gain a better knowledge of the current projects underway, identify gaps and establish priorities for future projects, obtain information from these projects on sources of funding and exchange feedback and experience on cooperation projects. The ECP/GR National Coordinators were approached by the Task Force members to obtain information. A common format (questionnaire) was developed to provide uniformity and ensure that information collected could be easily centralized. This activity resulted in the collection of information from a selection of projects. The summary table, in Annex III, lists the project titles, the partners involved and the budget allocated."},{"index":2,"size":186,"text":"The information collected represents a first step in developing a more exhaustive directory of projects. However, the major constraints were that feedback from some countries was not obtained and therefore the inventory is not by any means exhaustive or complete. This task was ambitious and the preliminary data collection provided useful feedback. Its continuation was recommended. ZADI kindly offered to take responsibility for a European database of scientific and technical cooperation work in PGRFA and the European partners and centralize the information once collected and provide access to it. The Task Force gratefully welcomed this offer from ZADI. This database will contain the data collected from each country, with the assistance of the Task Force members and ECP/GR National Coordinators. The task Force members were therefore encouraged to forward any relevant information on technical cooperation projects to ZADI with copy for information to the ECP/GR Secretariat. It might be envisaged in the future to provide a platform on the ECP/GR web site to display different references of information. It would also be useful to establish a link to the EIARD's Information System, INFOSYS, hosted at ZADI."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"Reports from the Task Force members also illustrated that some European countries, mainly Eastern European, are not currently involved in cooperation projects since their current priority is to strengthen their own PGR national programmes, to set up crop collections and infrastructures, and take part in network activities. Therefore they might have limited capacity to undertake inter-regional cooperation activities and in building capacity of other regional partners."}]},{"head":"European NGOs active in technical cooperation projects in PGRFA in other regions","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":215,"text":"Acknowledging the importance of the work carried out by several NGOs in the area of interregional cooperation, the Task Force proposed to collect the contact details of and information on programmes of European NGOs active in this area. The main objective was to establish links with relevant projects and identify potential partners for future activities. A common format was developed to standardize the information collected for the following details: name of NGO, details of main contact person, type of membership, number of members, type of funding, national/regional partners, geographic and species coverage as well as principal areas of activities. Annex IV summarizes the information collected. The major constraints in collecting information are similar to the exercise for the scientific and technical projects. In some countries, there are only a few NGOs and in others there are more than 200 NGOs active in this field for which directories already exist. In most cases, however, the information is scattered. Based on the informal nature of the information collected, a platform on the ECP/GR web site might be more suitable, as opposed to centralizing this information into a database. The Task Force members should therefore forward any information related to NGOs active in technical cooperation to the ECP/GR Secretariat for compilation and publication on the ECP/GR web site."}]},{"head":"European funding opportunities for PGRFA activities in other regions","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Brigitte Laliberté reported on the collection of information on European funding opportunities and demonstrated the database. It currently holds information about 100 organizations identified as potential sources of funding. The database was developed in September 2000 to collect information on the following: -Name of the programme (original and in English); -Contact details of organization; -Source of information with specific references (internet, printed etc.); -Priority themes and regions (and countries) of the programme; -Mission and objectives of the programme; -Type of activity funded such as research projects, training activities, workshops etc.; -Amount of funds made available; -Deadlines for application; -Special requirements for admission; -General comments."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"A first version of the database was compiled from information available through the Internet."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"Approximately 100 web sites of potential European funding opportunities were analyzed. The choice to survey the web first was based on the following reasons: -Internet is still not necessarily accessible to all potential partners; -"},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"The information is a priori not catalogued; -To test how easily accessible this information would be on the web and evaluate the level of detail and information provided."},{"index":5,"size":96,"text":"The results of this preliminary study/trial show that: -Eligibility and deadlines are not always clear; -Areas or priorities are very general such as biodiversity, environment protection and agricultural development; -Information is not well structured and priorities are not clear. Only in 6% of cases were PGR specifically mentioned; -Amount mentioned for project were: less than US$5,000 (48%), between US$5,000 to US$10,000 (45%) or more than US$10,000 (53%); -Information is difficult to find to locate calls for proposals and grants = need for a catalogue of filtered opportunities; -Identified a need for assistance in writing project proposals."},{"index":6,"size":89,"text":"In order to obtain more specific information regarding the possibilities to fund activities related to PGR conservation and use, the information collected was validated by contacting the organizations included in the database. Replies were expected by the end of April 2001. By mid-May, 10 replies confirming the availability of funding and specifying the eligible subject areas were received. Three replies were also received informing us that PGR were not considered as priority for those specific programmes and applications would not lead to acceptance. This information is also very useful."}]},{"head":"Directory of PGRFA specialists in Europe","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"The objective of collecting this information was to have a better knowledge of the European expertise and identify different partners with experience in inter-regional cooperation. For this exercise no common format was developed and information was received from Fabrizio Grassi in the form of a list of contact details of experts from Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, Spain, The Netherlands and the UK , , (list available on request). However, the list is not complete. ZADI kindly offered to assist in establishing this Directory of Specialists on PGRFA in Europe. A similar platform on the ECP/GR web site might be an alternative to developing a directory."}]},{"head":"Supporting the development of central crop databases in other regions","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"NGB and the ECP/GR Coordinator are contributing to the development of a pineapple database for the Americas region. NGB is providing technical advice and prepa ration for on-line presentation. The central search catalogue will be created by the ECP/GR Secretariat at IPGRI, which will also take responsibility to maintain the system after completion of the project."}]},{"head":"European Plant Genetic Resources Information Infra-Structure -EPGRIS","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":241,"text":"The 7 partners of EPGRIS are: BRG -France, CGN -The Netherlands, ECP/GR -IPGRI -Italy, INIA -Portugal, NGB -Sweden, RICP -Czech Republic and ZADI -Germany. In order to facilitate the development of national PGR inventories, the European region has been divided into 4 sub-regions (the list of countries and dates of meeting are available on the web site). The project will hold a series of sub-regional meetings to analyse the status of national PGR inventories, identify the needs for training, infrastructure and institutional support. The first round of four regional meetings will take place between July and September 2001. The second round of four regional meetings will take place in Autumn 2002. The final Coordination meeting and the Pan-European meeting of all Focal Persons and Project Participants will take place at the end of 2003. B. Laliberté also informed the group that the participation in sub-regional meetings of focal persons from countries not funded by the EU project, but that are members of ECP/GR, will be supported financially by ECP/GR. The participation of European countries not funded by the EU and that are not formally members of ECP/GR will be supported financially by IPGRI. Additionally, sub-regional meetings are excellent opportunities to support the participation of PGR Network Coordinators from other regions to interact with the project partners and National Focal Persons but also to discuss the details of the mechanism for establishing and linking the national PGR inventories at the regional level."}]},{"head":"Discussion on outputs produced and recommendations","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"The group agreed that the task of collecting feedback and detailed information from partners, colleagues and other Networks was more ambitious than originally anticipated. In many cases, even after repeated attempts to contact the Coordinators, no feedback was received. It was therefore suggested in the future to try to obtain feedback from various sources, rather than simply relying on the National Coordinators' intermediation. Moreover, they are probably facing a general \"questionnaire fatigue\", therefore feedback might be best obtained through direct contacts. Generally, information from the countries of the Task Force members was obtained, while gaps remained for several other European countries."}]},{"head":"Feedback from PGR Networks in other regions","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Responses were obtained from REMERFI, SPGRC, WANANET, GRENEWECA and EAPGREN. Most Networks ranked as high priority most of the areas of activities suggested in the questionnaire for inter-regional collaboration. REMERFI indicated priority for increased attention to on-farm conservation of PGR; most Latin American Networks identified support for building an information network. SPGRC identified a large number of activities qualifying for collaboration. GRENEWECA and EAPGREN both also have documentation and in situ conservation as priorities."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"I. Zoungrana stressed the fact that assistance is often needed in writing convincing project proposals for approaching donors. In the area of policy, one of the main problems is the lack of continuity with staff in institutions. Often staff are promoted to higher positions and/or to other institutions to work in international cooperation, often leaving the country. We have to ensure that capacity building takes place at the institute level and not only on an individual basis, therefore empowering institutions to ensure sustainability."},{"index":3,"size":117,"text":"The feedback received so far was sufficient to initiate some activities and there was no need to continue or pursue the responses through the questionnaire (documentation, characterization and evaluation, training, in situ and on-farm conservation and policy and legal issues). It was agreed that feedback from Networks is very important for this Task Force to prioritize actions. Continuous and regular communications with Network Coordinators should be encouraged and not solely left to a one-off occasion through a questionnaire. Whenever possible, and if the opportunity arises, contacts should be made through meetings on how best the ECP/GR Inter-Regional Cooperation Network can collaborate. This information should be shared among the Task Force members via Email: on a regular basis."},{"index":4,"size":133,"text":"Several activities could be undertaken to increase the links with these Networks and raise awareness of each other's activities and capacity to undertake joint projects. It was pointed out that ECP/GR does not have close relationships with other regional Networks and is not well aware of their activities in general. The ECP/GR Working Groups do not generally undertake inter-regional activities, so links could be strengthened, for example, between the ECP/GR Crop Working Groups. Coordinators of other regional crop Networks could be invited to attend some relevant ECP/GR meetings. In this spirit, it was proposed to invite some PGR Network Coordinators in other regions to attend the next ECP/GR Steering Committee meeting to strengthen links. Relevant ECP/GR members could also be invited to attend some of the other regional PGR Networks' activities and meetings."},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"It was also suggested that at the upcoming ECP/GR Steering Committee meeting, some interactions between PGR Network Coordinators and the ECP/GR Steering Committee members take place. A suggestion was made to organize a specific discussion day after the meeting to go in-depth into specific issues relevant to other regions and to identify how ECP/GR can best collaborate, for example, in establishing some crop specific databases."}]},{"head":"Inventory of NGOs active in inter-regional cooperation","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"It was agreed that the inventory on NGOs initiated would be useful if completed. There are different kinds of NGOs, national and international. A similar inventory of contacts for onfarm conservation in Europe was initiated in the summer of 2000. Contact details are currently being verified through a survey. It was proposed to include information on activities in international cooperation amongst the areas of interest and serve the purpose of both Task Forces. The information could be made available via the ECP/GR web site with references to NGOs active in this area, useful web sites, reference to already centralized databases and some other lists (Action: B. Laliberté)."}]},{"head":"Inventory of cooperation projects between European partners and partners in other regions","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"M. Broggio informed the group of an initiative currently underway at the IAO on an inventory of activities of technical cooperation by Italian partners (March 2000-December 2001). He has kindly offered to provide this information as a contribution to the survey (Action: M.Broggio). This experience could also be useful in making recommendations to carry out similar inventories in other countries."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"A platform for information on cooperation projects could also be developed on the ECP/GR web site, providing access to already existing national inventories (such as in the case of the Italian inventory described above). In order to facilitate this work, each Task Force member could verify if such an inventory already exists in their own country (Action: All Task Force members). Additionally, ECP/GR National Coordinators would be informed of the Italian initiative and invited to refer to the ECP/GR Secretariat should similar initiatives be underway in their own countries (Action: B. Laliberté)."}]},{"head":"Database of European funding opportunities for PGRFA activities in other regions","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"The concept of the funding opportunity database was well received by the Task Force members. This can be a unique product contributing to increasing access to funding by partners in the other regions. The main objective was to collect information on \"nontraditional\" sources of funding (such as foundations, NGOs, trusts etc) as well as to have the information on the more \"traditional\" donors. A suggestion was made to ensure that the database include the traditional funding agencies and to validate the information on ODAs for each European country by circulating the information to the Task Force members to complete from their own countries as a first step. It was proposed to put the current version on the ECP/GR Intranet and circulate among National Coordinators and Task Force members for completion (Action: B. Laliberté). ECP/GR National Coordinators could be contacted to complete the information from most countries."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"The objective of the database is to increase the access of developing country scientists to European funding opportunities. Therefore the information should be as widely distributed as possible. As the funding opportunities are targeted to developing countries, developed countries can use this information to encourage their own partners to develop joint projects. Providing access to the information via the IPGRI web site was proposed as the most suitable solution. The web page of such a database could also offer links to related sites of funding opportunities such as InfoSys for Europe and ensure that mutual links are made (Action: B. Laliberté)."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"Distribution of information on funding opportunities on CD-Rom is an option only for those partners without Internet connections and on request since the information has a short shelf life and will need to be updated regularly. Donors could possibly sponsor the collection of information, as it provides publicity to their programmes."},{"index":4,"size":86,"text":"It was suggested to further increase the visibility of the information by providing the PGR community with an electronic news bulletin to be sent out every 3-6 months, announcing forthcoming opportunities, highlighting criteria for selection and encouraging ECP/GR Working Groups to propose projects with partners from other regions. This bulletin could be sent to PGR Network Coordinators, all IPGRI regional offices and professional staff and to all of the 350 members of ECP/GR, in the hope that this information would be further circulated (Action: B. Laliberté)."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"IPGRI will support 3 months of work on collecting information during the Summer 2001 in order to complete the content of the database and to make it accessible via the IPGRI  "}]},{"head":"Discussion on possible projects that could be supported by the ECP/GR Inter-Regional Cooperation Network","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Sufficient knowledge on priorities and needs was collected to initiate collaborative activities."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"The group agreed that it was important to work in consultation with PGR Networks and not independently and/or directly with specific national programmes. On the basis of the survey, personal contacts and discussions within the Task Force, 4 topics were suggested for further elaboration into project proposals:"},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"1."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"In situ and on-farm conservation; 2."},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"Documentation systems (including indigenous knowledge); 3."},{"index":6,"size":3,"text":"Policy issues; 4."},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"Process such as collaboration including south-to-south, partnerships, networking, writing proposals."},{"index":8,"size":55,"text":"Activities were envisaged for capacity building, such as workshops in Europe or in the region, training in Europe and in the regions by trainees from developing countries and/or technical support from European partners in developing countries. The Task Force was divided into 2 working groups to develop project proposal for the 4 selected thematic areas:"},{"index":9,"size":84,"text":"1. In situ and on-farm conservation Experience in Europe is limited mainly to theoretical knowledge, such as on concepts (the relation between ex situ and in situ conservation), on population genetics and information technology, whereas socio-cultural knowledge has developed much more in developing countries. As a consequence, a European contribution should focus on technical aspects and could benefit from practical experiences in the tropics. Donor organizations could also produce a specific input. On-farm conservation approaches complementary to ex situ efforts should be further developed."}]},{"head":"Documentation and information systems, including inventories of in situ managed","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"PGRFA Documentation of indigenous knowledge is an important issue, preventing appropriation by intellectual property right systems. Again, European input will be mainly technical since scarce experience exists on documenting qualitative information in open fields. Within ECP/GR a vast experience of centralizing ex situ PGR information as a shared tool has been developed (e.g. ECCDB, EPGRIS). Regional approaches to sharing information could be strengthened. The LAC region has requested technical support for the establishment of links between individual databases all to be based on PC-GRIN. In Africa, documentation is also a priority and some initiatives are currently underway such as a regional workshop in West and Central African Network, GRENEWECA. It was suggested by the regional office for SSA and by the Network Coordinator that a contribution from ECP/GR could build on the initiative and complement the efforts by concentrating on sharing and centralizing information first at a national level and secondly at a regional level."}]},{"head":"Policy issues, in particular implementation at the technical level","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"The consequences of new international agreements (CBD, Cartagena protocol, FAO IU) have to be elaborated at the technical level in order to allow for continued inter-regional collaboration, in accordance with the provisions for these new instruments. Support should be provided for the implementation of policies and legislation as appropriate and analyze their impact at the national level and harmonization at the regional level. Both sides may profit from accelerated experience and confidence building. Practical issues such as establishing collections, conditions and agreements for plant collecting expeditions and material exchange within the new legal context should be examined."}]},{"head":"Capacity building in regional collaboration/networking","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"This topic needs a concrete agenda and may deal with topics like common concepts and strategies on PGR maintenance, sharing of responsibilities for PGR management (exchange of materials, core collections), mechanisms for sharing of information (e.g. joint databases). Limitations in other regions (political, physical, resource-based) should be taken into account, meaning that the European model cannot be simply translated."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"As a result of the working groups' discussions, 3 project proposals were further elaborated. Training and capacity building is a cross-cutting issue and is better dealt with in the context of a thematic project. The following 3 project proposals were agreed on: 1."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Project Proposal for in situ and on-farm conservation and management; 2."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"Project Proposal for documentation and information system development; 3."},{"index":5,"size":5,"text":"Project Proposal on policy issues."},{"index":6,"size":30,"text":"More detailed feedback /from? the Networks selected (WANANET, REMERFI, SADC, GRENEWECA, EAPGREN) will be obtained for the project proposals to ensure that the proposals are in line with their priorities."}]},{"head":"Project proposal for in situ and on-farm conservation and management","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Objectives:","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"In consultation with the ECP/GR Inter-Regional Cooperation Task Force and the ECP/GR On-farm Conservation and Ma nagement Task Force, this project will develop the programme for a workshop (3-5 days) on on-farm conservation and management to be held in 2002, involving ECP/GR and the countries of the REMERFI network (currently 7), the Red Mesoamericana de Recursos Fitogenéticos (Latin America PGR Network)."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Persons responsible: Beate Weiskopf, German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ), Eschborn, Germany and Vladimir Meglic, Agricultural Institute of Slovenia, Ljubljana, Slovenia."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"Time-frame : equivalent of 1 month."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"Budget: US$ 5,000 (for the employment of one month/person at GTZ plus some travel expenses)."}]},{"head":"Background","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Experience in Europe is limited mainly to theoretical knowledge, such as on concepts (the relation between ex situ and in situ conservation), on population genetics and information technology, whereas socio-cultural knowledge has developed much more in developing countries. As a consequence, a European contribution should focus on technical aspects and could benefit from practical experiences in the tropics."}]},{"head":"Outputs of this project:","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"-Needs and priorities of REMERFI and possibly other PGR Networks identified and analyzed; -Clear objectives of the workshop developed and agreed; -Content of the workshop defined, based on feedback from Networks (including ECP/GR); -Full programme of the workshop developed with plans of necessary background documents and logistic arrangements; -Participants and resource persons identified, selected and committed; -Members of the ECP/GR On-farm Conservation and Management Task Force consulted during the process and selected members invited to participate; -Links with different initiatives currently underway, such as the Global In situ Project (coordinator: Dr Devra Jarvis, IPGRI) ensured and capitalized on; -Source of funding secured."}]},{"head":"Activities:","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"-Contact the relevant stakeholders and analyze needs and priorities for the workshop; -Consult the different task force members and experts in this area; -Develop a workshop programme with attached budget; -Identify components that can be funded by different European partners; -Identify sources of funding for the total budget requested; -Obtain a commitment from interested parties to provide financial and/or personal resources."}]},{"head":"Project proposal for documentation and information system development","index":25,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Objectives:","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"In consultation with the EPGRIS partners and the ECP/GR Information and Documentation Network (Internet Advisory Group), to prepare the organization of a workshop on regional approaches to documentation of PGR ex situ collections and related in situ conservation activities."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Persons responsible: Brigitte Laliberté, Regional Office for Europe, IPGRI and Eva Thörn, Director, Nordic Gene Bank, Alnarp, Sweden Time-frame : Definite plans for a workshop ready by December 2001 and a workshop to be undertaken in 2002. Discussions to be held during the EPGRIS sub-regional meetings, 5-6 August 2001 in Portugal and 24-25 August 2001 in Sweden."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"Budget: Activities of the current project would be carried out as inputs-in-kind by the persons responsible for the project. A budget of US$10,000 (complemented by additional funding estimated at US$10,000) will be used to cover the cost of the workshop."}]},{"head":"Background","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"ECP/GR has expertise and experience in developing common tools, in sharing and centralizing information and also in dealing with the different issues related to sharing responsibilities for PGR conservation and use among different institutions and between countries. Within ECP/GR a vast experience of centralizing ex situ PGR information system as shared tools has been developed (e.g. ECCDB, EPGRIS). In this respect, it is felt that ECP/GR has a lot to offer in terms of capacity building in the area of documentation and information networking and developing regional strategies. Furthermore, documentation of indigenous knowledge is an important issue, preventing appropriation by intellectual property right systems. In this particular area, European input will be mainly technical since limited experience exists in documenting qualitative information of this nature. However, it could be beneficial to ECP/GR to become involved in the development of appropriate tools."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"In Africa, documentation is a priority area for PGR management and some initiatives are currently underway, such as a regional workshop in West and Central African Network, GRENEWECA. Feedback from the IPGRI Regional Office for Sub-Saharan Africa and the GRENEWECA Network Coordinator confirmed that ECP/GR could make an important contribution towards building on the current initiative and complement efforts in building capacity in sharing and centralizing information systems at a regional level. The Latin American region has also expressed the need for technical support for linking individual databases mainly to be based on PC-GRIN."}]},{"head":"Outputs of the project:","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"- "}]},{"head":"Background","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"The consequences of international agreements such as the CBD, Cartagena protocol and the FAO International Undertaking, have to be assessed at the technical level in order to allow for continued inter-regional collaboration, in accordance with the provisions for these new instruments. Support should be provided for the implementation of policies and legislation and harmonization at the regional level and their impact should be analyzed at the national level. Both sides (in this case European and African partners) may profit from reciprocal experience, both inter-regional and intra-regional. Practical issues concerning access to and exchange of germplasm and implementation of benefit sharing mechanisms within the new international legal context should be examined."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Reasons to approach policy issues at the inter-regional level:"},{"index":3,"size":124,"text":"-Building expertise at the regional, national and institutional level regarding the implementation of international agreements on management of PGRFA; -Building trust between regions for collaboration leading to mutual benefits; -Discussing overall cross-cutting issues and specific topics in a broader context and with experts for both regions, complementing experience and interests. -Approaching issues on an ecosystem and farming systems level, that might be different than only on a territorial (national) level; -Setting up the conditions for further, self-sustained efforts at the inter-regional, regional and institutional levels on common grounds; -Analyzing the possibilities and evaluating the comparative advantages of sharing certain responsibilities and tasks at the supra-national level such as databases on traditional knowledge, strategies of in situ and on-farm conservation, common ex situ holdings; -"},{"index":4,"size":121,"text":"Increasing the bargaining power of potential users in negotiating access and benefit sharing arrangements over common resources; -Optimizing the financial resources allocated by international donors, including GEF, and national donor agencies, for capacity building and training (including biosafety), hence merging national capacity b uilding programmes into larger, regional or subregional ones; -Improving the transparency of access and benefit sharing negotiations, therefore also allowing small and medium enterprises to have access to resources in fare fair competition with multi-national corporations and specialized bio-prospecting companies; -Improving the confidence amongst inter-regional partners through examples of collaborative projects on genetic resources; -Enhancing quality standards and quantity of germplasm exchanges through common regulative frameworks (MTAs etc) -Limiting competition and \"influence shares\" amongst European public cooperation agencies."}]},{"head":"Reasons for selecting Africa as a region for collaboration","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"In general, Sub-Saharan Africa countries (SSA) are amongst those where the establishment of institutional and legal frameworks is most needed. Efforts made up to now at the regional level, while deserving consideration, seem to be hardly conducive to implementation, possibly due to their very broad scope and geographical coverage and perhaps to large gaps at the national and institutional level. Therefore, the Task Force members feel that any correct and disinterested joint effort in enhancing the quality and soundness of the national biodiversity programmes with respect to policy and legal instruments, in the countries of both regions, would be beneficial."}]},{"head":"Task Force Workplan for the period June 2001 to 2003, until end of ECP/GR Phase VI","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"It was agreed that US$25,000 out of the US$35,000 available would be allocated between the 3 concept notes proposed. The remaining US$10,000 would be used for the participation in meetings and the remainder as contingency money for the three proposals."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"The Task Force proposes to the Steering Committee that for the next ECP/GR Phase, a working budget be allocated to the Task Force, to be used as \"seed money\" for projects with the aim of attracting additional funding such as in the case of the three project proposals. A similar amount (US$35,000) would be sufficient. It was therefore proposed to allocate a minimal amount to continue funding 2 small meetings during the next phase (US$10,000)."}]},{"head":"Terms of Reference and election of chair and Task Force members","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"It was agreed that the Terms of Reference of the Task Force and the Logframe of the Network presented in 1999 did not need any amendments in view of the new workplan. The chair thanked all participants for their active involvement in this meeting. He thanks the local organizer RICP for their excellent organization and very enjoyable hospitality. The meeting was adjourned."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"(end of current ECP/GR Phase VI) -Revised Terms of Reference of the Task Force -Election of Chair and Task Force members -Other business -Closing of meeting 20:00 onwards"}]},{"head":"Musical concert for those interested. Details to be provided by Ladislav Dotlacil","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Please indicated what you consider being the most important needs for PGR-related activities in your region and where inter-regional cooperation can have the most impact. Give a rating from 0-3 for the following areas, where: 0 = not important 1 = little important 2 = important 3 = very important Needs in information, networking and collaboration activities: Rate (0-3) 1. Documentation systems for PGRFA collections."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"2. National and regional inventories of PGRFA conserved ex situ 3. National and regional inventories of PGRFA conserved in situ 4. National and regional inventories of PGRFA conserved on-farm 5. Linking databases of information on ex situ holdings between the different regions.  Emergency situations and seed security of small-scale farmers Rate (0-3)"}]},{"head":"6.","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"1. Mechanisms for the rapid reintroduction of diverse planting material to farming system that have suffered drought, war or other catastrophes including seed multiplication and distribution 2. Support the study of specific plant population genetic consequences of seed relief, in areas where baseline data exist, to establish whether seed relief contributes to genetic erosion."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"3. Encourage the development of emergency seed transfer protocols in advance of disasters to support farmer efforts to recover locally-adapted landraces."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"4. Contingency planning, regional back-up collection, for seed relief in disaster affected regions 5. Develop approaches to achieve sustainable seed security at farm household level: improve the capacity of rural farming communities to acquire, multiply and deliver seed of locally adapted varieties including planting materials."},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"Annex "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"3. Environmental education in secondary schools 4. In situ and on-farm conservation of wild crop relatives.5. Use of landraces in breeding programmes6. PGRFA policy and legal information.7. Genetic resources conservation issues among the humanitarian seed relief and emergency assistance agencies.8. Financial support for PGRFA conservation activities. "},{"text":" Brigitte Laliberté introduced the EPGRIS project to the Task Force members. EPGRIS is a three-year concerted action funded by the EU 1 and coordinated by Plant Research International, Centre for Genetic Resources, The Netherlands (for more information see web site: http://www.ecpgr.cgiar.org/epgris). The infrastructure for information on PGR maintained ex situ in Europe will be established by (1) supporting the creation and providing technical support to National PGR Inventories, (2) creating a European PGR Search Catalogue with passport data on ex situ collections maintained in Europe. The European Inventory will automatically receive data from the National Inventories. It will effectively provide access to all ex situ PGR information in Europe and thus facilitate locating and accessing PGR.  "},{"text":" The Task Force members invited B. Visser to continue as Chairperson until the next meeting. B. Visser kindly accepted. The members present at this meeting accepted to remain on the Task Force and to carry out the agreed Workplan. It was further proposed by B. Visser to invite Patrick Mulvany, Food Security Policy Adviser at the Intermediate Technology Development Group -ITDG, in the United Kingdom to become a member of the Task Force in order to strengthen the links with NGO's as important partners in cooperation and development activities (Action: B. Visser to contact P. Mulvany).  "},{"text":" Documentation of indigenous knowledge on traditional varieties and wild PGRFA 7. Directory of specialists on genetic resources and biodiversity in the regions. Facilitate the use by farmers of landraces and other material conserved in genebanks Policy development and national strategies for the implementation of international agreements such as CBD, IU, WTO Agreements etc. Activities related to the GPA and the CBD. Areas of joint research and capacity building: Rate (0-3) Areas of joint research and capacity building:Rate (0-3) 1. 2. Ex situ conservation methodologies  1. 2. Ex situ conservation methodologies 3. Characterisation and Evaluation  3. Characterisation and Evaluation 4. Develop complementary conservation strategies including ex situ and in situ  4. Develop complementary conservation strategies including ex situ and in situ approaches  approaches 5. Plant breeding (including pre-breeding activities with emphasis on base-  5. Plant breeding (including pre-breeding activities with emphasis on base- broadening programmes)  broadening programmes) 6. Farmer management of PGRFA (including improvement of farmer selection of  6. Farmer management of PGRFA (including improvement of farmer selection of varieties)  varieties) 7. Sustainable management of under-utilised species  7. Sustainable management of under-utilised species 8. Development of markets (explore market opportunities) for products originating  8. Development of markets (explore market opportunities) for products originating from traditional and under-utilised varieties and crops  from traditional and under-utilised varieties and crops Areas for public awareness activities: Rate (0-3) Areas for public awareness activities:Rate (0-3) 1. Value of PGRFA  1. Value of PGRFA 2.  2. Needs in training and capacity building activities, including information Rate (0-3) Needs in training and capacity building activities, including informationRate (0-3) and documentation:  and documentation: 1. PGR training material for inclusion in national curricula on agriculture,  1. PGR training material for inclusion in national curricula on agriculture, horticulture, forestry and botany in different languages.  horticulture, forestry and botany in different languages. 2. Advanced and specialised PGR courses at regional level  2. Advanced and specialised PGR courses at regional level 3. Short technical courses on PGR at regional and national level  3. Short technical courses on PGR at regional and national level 4. Training of trainers in PGR conservation and use  4. Training of trainers in PGR conservation and use 5. Identify opportunities for joint training activities between the regions  5. Identify opportunities for joint training activities between the regions  "},{"text":" III: National Information on scientific and technical cooperation in PGRFA funded by European countries Project Title Partners Country/ Period of Support Planned Project TitlePartnersCountry/Period of SupportPlanned   Region  Budget RegionBudget 19.Conservation, management and Germany, IPGRI 1999-2002 DM 19.Conservation, management andGermany,IPGRI1999-2002DM Project Title sustainable use of forest genetic resources with reference to Brazil 1. International Genebank, Turrialba. Infrastructure development, collections of PGR, documentation, evaluation, characterization. and Argentina 20.Contribution of home gardens to in situ conservation of Plant Genetic Resources in farming systems 21.Strengthening the scientific basis of 2. National Genebank, Kenya. Management of infrastructure and conservation systems, capacity building, training, collection, 3. International Genebank Addis prediction using GIS tools of GR in Peru: rapid assessment and risk evaluation and documentation, use in situ conservation of agricultural biodiversity: Morocco Country Component 22.Patterns of genetic diversity and genetic erosion of traditional crops Partners BfH, Hamburg Germany IPK, Gatersleben, Germany Germany Germany Germany Country/ Region Central-America IPGRI IPGRI Ethiopia, Kenya IPGRI Period of Support 1976-1993 In 1986 a fully 1998 -functioning service unit was handed 1998 -over to the partners 1976 -2001 1983-1994 From 1992 to 1994 consolidation and 1999 -follow-up support 1,600,000 Planned Budget DM DM 950,000 10,800,000 DM 940,000 DM DM 10,700,000 DM 1,100,000 Project Title sustainable use of forest genetic resources with reference to Brazil 1. International Genebank, Turrialba. Infrastructure development, collections of PGR, documentation, evaluation, characterization. and Argentina 20.Contribution of home gardens to in situ conservation of Plant Genetic Resources in farming systems 21.Strengthening the scientific basis of 2. National Genebank, Kenya. Management of infrastructure and conservation systems, capacity building, training, collection, 3. International Genebank Addis prediction using GIS tools of GR in Peru: rapid assessment and risk evaluation and documentation, use in situ conservation of agricultural biodiversity: Morocco Country Component 22.Patterns of genetic diversity and genetic erosion of traditional cropsPartners BfH, Hamburg Germany IPK, Gatersleben, Germany Germany Germany GermanyCountry/ Region Central-America IPGRI IPGRI Ethiopia, Kenya IPGRIPeriod of Support 1976-1993 In 1986 a fully 1998 -functioning service unit was handed 1998 -over to the partners 1976 -2001 1983-1994 From 1992 to 1994 consolidation and 1999 -follow-up support1,600,000 Planned Budget DM DM 950,000 10,800,000 DM 940,000 DM DM 10,700,000 DM 1,100,000 Ababa, Ethiopia. Infrastructure  East Africa Ethiopian Genebank 13,100,000 Ababa, Ethiopia. InfrastructureEast AfricaEthiopian Genebank13,100,000 development, collection, evaluation   developed into  development, collection, evaluationdeveloped into and documentation, use of GR,   Biodiversity Centre,  and documentation, use of GR,Biodiversity Centre, capacity building   now GTZ Project on  capacity buildingnow GTZ Project on    forest genetic  forest genetic    resources  resources 4. Evaluation, mutual exchange and Czech China 1998-2000 US$9,000 4. Evaluation, mutual exchange andCzechChina1998-2000US$9,000 effective utilization of plant genetic Republic    effective utilization of plant geneticRepublic resources     resources 5. Community Biodiversity The Brazil, 4 years US$4,200,00 5. Community BiodiversityTheBrazil,4 yearsUS$4,200,00 Development and Conservation Netherlands Burkina  0 Development and ConservationNetherlandsBurkina0 (CBDC)  Faso,   (CBDC)Faso,   Canada,   Canada,   Chili, Mali,   Chili, Mali,   Norway,   Norway,   Peru, the   Peru, the   Philippines,   Philippines,   the   the   Netherlands   Netherlands   , Sierra   , Sierra   Leone,   Leone,   Thailand,   Thailand,   Vietnam,   Vietnam,   Zimbabwe   Zimbabwe 6. National Biodiversity Centre Bhutan CGN, the Bhutan 4 years US$50,000 6. National Biodiversity Centre Bhutan CGN, theBhutan4 yearsUS$50,000  Netherlands    Netherlands 7. Conservation, characterization, Instituto Algeria, 5 years US$105,000 7. Conservation, characterization,InstitutoAlgeria,5 yearsUS$105,000 collection and utilization of genetic sulla Egypt,   collection and utilization of geneticsullaEgypt, resources of olive Propagazio Morocco,   resources of olivePropagazioMorocco,  ne delle Syria,   ne delleSyria,  Specie Tunisia   SpecieTunisia  Legnose,    Legnose,  Italy    Italy 8. Training and transfer initiatives on SMED, Italy Italy and 2000-2001 Euro5,000 8. Training and transfer initiatives onSMED, Italy Italy and2000-2001Euro5,000 conservation and valorization of  Syria   conservation and valorization ofSyria plant genetic resources in the     plant genetic resources in the Mediterranean     Mediterranean  "}],"sieverID":"04fec4b6-1c83-46fd-bde5-01363301e85a","abstract":"Brigitte Laliberté welcomed all the participants on behalf of ECP/GR and expressed her sincere appreciation of the excellent organization and preparation of the meeting to the host institute, the Research Institute of Crop Production (RICP), in particular Dr Ladislav Dotlacil and his colleagues Iva Faberová and Zdenek Stehno. B. Laliberté conveyed apologies on behalf of the Task Force members unable to attend the meeting: Celia de la Cuadra, Fabrizio Grassi and Nikolaos Stavropoulos. L. Dotlacil welcomed the participants to Prague on behalf of RICP. He provided details about the logistic arrangements and wished the group a pleasant meeting and fruitful discussions. B. Laliberté presented the agenda, which was approved by the group (see Annex I: Agenda). All participants introduced themselves and their respective institutes."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06906fbbbcec74a253cf6589f353a46d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/61661ef3-9ec5-414f-a62f-2e3d91000961/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"Spotlight on EADD's Breeding Efforts Table of contents From Here...to Maternity 2 Artificial Insemination in Rwanda: Exploring Opportunities, Overcoming Challenges 3 De-mystifying Artificial Insemination 5 Bridging the Gap through AI Operational Satellite Centers 6 Celebrating Our First PoG's 6 The Four P's of Artificial Insemination 7 Interview with Judge Jack Lawson 7 EADD Launches a New Website 8 Spotlight On","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"EAST AFRICA DAIRY DEVELOPMENT NEWS | AUGUST 2009 VOLUME 3 | SPOTLIGHT ON EADD'S BREEDING EFFORTS R wanda is not only a country of a thousand hills; it is also a country of a thousand opportunities and challenges for dairy development. Artificial insemination using high quality bull genetics, and improving milk hygiene and quality are some of the major production and market access enhancement activities being undertaken by EADD."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"In this article we highlight the Rwandan experience with regards to AI and its intake. We also give an in-depth insight on why AI is good for the country and highlight the best AI strategies applicable."}]},{"head":"Why Artificial Insemination is Good for Rwanda","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":235,"text":"The target for EADD is to improve dairy production for smallholder farmers who earn less than US$2 per day. The entry point into dairy production is a dairy cow. A large majority of farmers in the target project districts in Rwanda own indigenous breeds of cattle whose milk output is extremely low, typically less than 4 liters per cow per day. This certainly does not qualify them as dairy cows. For owners of such cows to meet their household milk needs and have some surplus for sale to improve their income, All these presented tremendous opportunities and incentives for genetic improvement of the cattle breeds so farmers can reduce their numbers of animals while improving their output of milk. A poor smallholder farmer in Rwanda has two options when it comes to genetic improvement of their cattle. The first option is to use natural breeding. Natural breeding requires the farmers to have access to both male and female livestock. Under such circumstances, normally only a few males breed most of the females leading to inbreeding. Leaving the breeding to the livestock lets nature take its own course at best results average-producing animals. Artificial insemination is the second and best option for smallholder farmers in the target project areas. Artificial insemination. is well suited to improving herd performance. It also permits the farmer to select the ideal male to mate with each female on the farm."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"EADD is using quality genetics from performance tested bulls, whose records are kept, allowing the farmer to select the right bull for their cow or the bull that meets their breeding goals. From a pool of world class genetics, farmers can choose for example, calving ease bulls to avoid the problems of dystocia in their herds. Proven bulls are also ranked on type traits such as udder attachment, fitness traits such as leg conformation and production traits. "}]},{"head":"The Challenges","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"The difficulty with AI is the level of herd and semen management required. An AI program can fail in several ways."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"The first is incorrect heat detection. Identification of cattle in heat is critical especially in large herds as with the case in Rwanda. The farmer must closely monitor those cattle exhibiting estrus to decide when they are in standing heat and ready to breed. Ear tagging when done properly, is foolproof cow identification procedure."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"A recent study by part of the EADD team shows that in the operational zone, only 6% of the farmers are able to correctly pin point true estrus (heat) in animals. This is a major challenge which weighs down on AI following natural heat detection. The challenges of heat detection in the project area gave further impetus for EADD Rwanda to adopt synchronization and time breeding to avoid the inefficiencies associated with poor heat detection."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"Careless semen handling is the second way AI can fail."},{"index":5,"size":80,"text":"The bull semen must be stored, transported and thawed correctly to ensure it remains viable. The third area is im-proper insemination technique. Lack of handling facilities makes it difficult for the inseminators to follow proper semen handling procedures and times. Proper training and experience are necessary to be successful. The farmer often overlooks the last area. Record keeping is important for following individual cows' cycles, birthing dates and missed breeding. EADD has so far trained 336 farmers in record keeping."}]},{"head":"Synchronization vs. Natural Heat Detection","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":324,"text":"The Rwanda Government is anxious to see a rapid change over from indigenous animal type to exotics of any level. This has resulted in the country adopting a strategy of using hormones for estrus synchronization and artificial insemination, though it is more expensive compared to natural heat detection. The aim is to get as many improved breeds as possible in the shortest possible time. Basing on experiences of the first year of project implementation where on average, not more than 300 inseminations were achieved per month using natural heat detection, EADD Rwanda had to adopt synchronization and timed AI as a breeding strategy to go along with the government's initiative, and avoid undue competition. However, synchronization was not part of the initial project strategy, and this has called for a review of the budgetary alloca- I n Uganda, some of the target farmers were pastoralists who have now settled in very remote areas. Accessibility to AI services has been a major challenge to these farmers. EADD has therefore set up 'AI Satellite Centers' which bring AI services to the farmers' doorstep. AI Satellite Centers are points from where services, semen and other breeding and animal ID supplies (liquid nitrogen, gloves, sheaths, ear tags, ear tag applicators, etc) can be accessed by the farmers. Other AI service providers also draw supplies from these AI centers to serve farmers in the locality. Farmer groups act as the basis and locality to set up AI centers. Each center is managed by a qualified AI technician who is also the contact person of EADD. To serve farmers better and create trust, the AI technicians sign binding agreements with EADD and the groups. So far, seven AI Satellite Centers have been set up in the various EADD operational areas. This is helping to ease on service delivery to the targeted dairy farmers. Eight more AI satellite centers are planned to be set up in the third quarter of 2009."}]},{"head":"Celebrating Our First Pass on the Gifts (PoG's)!","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":259,"text":"T his second year has seen tremendous improvements in the EADD project with regards to breeding. Results of intensive breeding are beginning to show. We are celebrating the beginning of births of numerous PoGs! In Kenya, the first calf was born on 6th July to Mr. and Mrs Francis Warui of Silanga village Olkalou the calf was as a result of insemination by Justus Ndwiga from a Holstein bull called Spillman. Mr Warui is also an EADD accredited farmer trainer in fodder establishment and feed conservation, stemming from his knowledge and experience over time. He has been very instrumental in recruiting farmers to deliver milk to Olkalou Dairy. In Rwanda, the first three calves were born in Nyagatare district, Nyagatare site. The calves are two females and one male. All were born in the month of July and all belong to one farmer, Mr. Alexis Kagabo, who is also a community animal health provider working with EADD. One piece of interesting information about the mothers of these calves is that they are all 75% Friesian, and are currently producing on average 16 litres each per day (morning) milking only. Finally, in Uganda, the first calf was born on the 14th June to Mr and Mrs William Kibirige in Wakiso district. The calf is as a result of insemination from a Holstein bull called Vital Sign. Mr. Kibirige is an EADD model dairy farmer whose farm also doubles up as a milk collection center before selling the milk to Jesa farm. He collects 160 liters of milk daily from neighbors."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Mr. Kibirige has been over the years passing on weaned calves to assist non-dairy farmers start small dairy businesses. "}]},{"head":"Business Plans","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Three Business Plans for Gahengeri, Kibondo & Gasi sites were completed within the last quarter. A fourth one for Matimba is being re-written. Meanwhile, three sites in Nyagatare were linked to processors and are in the process of signing of contracts."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Other key activities included linking of two sites, Kirebe and Matimba with the Development Bank of Rwanda to fast track CP financing, site validation that identified four sites to work with EADD in the districts of Rwamangana and Gatsibo. This was followed by feasibility studies that were largely completed within the same period. Business Training Manuals and a Quality Assurance Manual were also developed."}]},{"head":"Highlights from Kenya|Jane Kithuka","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"EADD Kenya's Inaugural Newsletter","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"EADD Kenya now produces a quarterly newsletter EADD Today in which they highlight the project's progress in Kenya. The newsletter features stories and photographs from the field. To see the inaugural and subsequent editions, "}]},{"head":"Business Opportunity Seminars","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"EADD held several Business Opportunity Seminars for Business Delivery Service (BDS) providers in Kipkaren, Kipkelion, Siongiroi, Ol Kalou and Mweiga. In order to develop a sustainable dairy value chain, EADD Kenya adopted a sub sector business development services (BDS) approach that aimed in making the dairy market function efficiently by facilitating the provision of BDS services to farmers and capacity building of service providers. EADD identified and is working with private sector providers who are entrepreneurial, business like and willing to invest in the sector. EADD is also partnering with members of the supply chain such as input providers who provide embedded services that can be promoted and replicated."}]},{"head":"Exchange Visits Organized","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Numerous exchange visits took place within the quarter where skills and knowledge were shared and transferred to farmers on areas such as calf rearing from birth to maturity, good feeds and better feeding methods, feed conservation (silage preparation and management), records and record keeping, income generating activities identification and modern practical animal husbandry tips from the exchange/ host farmer. "}]},{"head":"EADD Engages Sot Dairy Cooling Plant Limited","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Kiboga West Livestock Co-operative Society Open for Business","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"After the installation of a 5000liter capacity cooling tank, Kiboga opened its doors to members to start selling milk."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Currently, it is collecting about 3600 litres daily. "}]},{"head":"Mobilization","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introducing New Staff","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Several staff have joined us within the last quarter. In the regional office, Gaitano Simiyu joined as the Regional Direc-  "}]},{"head":"Humor Corner","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"A club catering for the wealthy city woman visited a dairy farm as its monthly outing programme. Most of the ladies had lived in the city all their lives, and had never seen a farm before. On the way, they looked out of the windows as the city squalor turned into lovely, unpolluted countryside. After they arrived, they were greeted by the farmer who invited them to look him up should they have any questions. Maggie, after looking about and being amazed by what she saw, stepped into a building and viewed something she thought was quite remarkable. She saw the farmer walk by and hailed him. He sauntered in. \"Sir,\" she inquired."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"\"Why doesn't this cow have any horns?\" The farmer cocked his head for a moment, then began in a patient tone: \"Well, ma'am, cattle can do a powerful lot of damage with horns. Sometimes we keep 'em trimmed down with a hacksaw. Other times we can fix up the young ones by putting a couple drops of acid where their horns would grow in, and that stops 'em cold. Still, there are some breeds of cattle that never grow horns. But the reason this cow don't have no horns, ma'am, is because .... it's a horse!"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" each farmer would have to own and manage a very large herd. A preliminary survey conducted by EADD in the first year of project implementation shows that many households own upward of 20 herds and even up to over 100 cows. Such a large herd would require large areas of land to satisfy the animals feed requirements. Further, and on account of the hilly nature of the country's topography, water for livestock is scarce by any measure and pasturelands as well as quality of feed available are very limited. Unfortunately for Rwanda, about 9 million citizens share a surface area of 26,338 Km2 (inclusive of areas under water), resulting in a high population density of around 340 people per square kilometer, one of the highest in Africa. On account of the high population density, land is a very scarce commodity. With the exception of the Eastern Province (EADD's operational zone), average size of farming land per household for the rest of the country has shrunk to about 0.76 ha. However, recently, the Rwandan Government adopted a new land policy which is working towards reducing landholdings in the Eastern Province to a maximum of 25 hectares per household encourag-Artificial Insemination in Rwanda: Exploring Opportunities, Overcoming Challenges | Paul Chatikobo, Rwanda ing families with large herds to cut down and intensify their production. Maximizing production per unit of land requires adoption of new technologies such as artificial insemination to improve and match the quality of animals for milk production. "},{"text":" Another advantage of AI to the farmer is reduced costs associated with not keeping males on the farm. Somesmall farms may only have three or four heads of cattle, and under such circumstances, AI can be several EAST AFRICA DAIRY DEVELOPMENT NEWS | AUGUST 2009 VOLUME 3 | SPOTLIGHT ON EADD'S BREEDING EFFORTS 4 times cheaper than keeping a bull year-round for such small herds. Further, bulls have the added disadvantage of spreading reproductive diseases such as brucellosis which causes infertility in cattle further derailing the process of genetic change. A recent study by EADD shows that the prevalence of brucellosis in the project area ranges from 12-20%, average 9.75%. In Rwanda, like anywhere else, successful AI programs require patience, a thorough understanding of bovine reproduction and attention to detail. It requires special training. At the start of the project, EADD trained inseminators from all the three districts in proper insemination techniques. Further, this quarter EADD ran a refresher course for artificial insemination service providers (AISPs) on semen handling. EADD-Government of Rwanda Partnership EADD's AI component fits well with the Rwanda government's policy of rapid breed improvement through crossbreeding with exotic quality bulls. EADD is working very closely with the Rwanda Animal Resources Development Authority (RARDA), whose mandate is to contribute towards the growth of animal production through the development of appropriate technologies. The Government of Rwanda realized the tremendous power of artificial insemination in achieving its desired goals and embraced AI as a breeding technology more than a decade ago. This has seen tremendous gains in milk production. "},{"text":" tions for animal breeding. Implementing artificial breeding program with indigenous cattle managed under open uncontrolled natural grazing lands and with farmers possessing little or no knowledge of animal science is a very costly exercise Why Synchronization Works EADD has joined hands with Rwanda Animal Resources Development Authority (RARDA) and Eastern Region Animal Genetics Improvement Co-operative (ERAGIC) to guarantee the best opportunity for success. Synchronization is an excellent tool to improve performance and the overall value of a herd and the subsequent calf-crop. EAST AFRICA DAIRY DEVELOPMENT NEWS | AUGUST 2009 VOLUME 3 | SPOTLIGHT ON EADD'S BREEDING EFFORTS A rtificial Insemination (AI) remains one of the most important and economical reproductive technologies in breeding history. There are three cornerstones for its application; simplicity, affordability and its effectiveness in upgrading dairy cattle breeding value. The efficiency of heat detection is essential to the success of AI. There are many external factors that impact heat detection, including environment, nutrition, labor, the individual cow, mentoring and experience of farmers and service providers. Currently, timely and accurate heat detection reports are essential for high conception rates which are crucial for dairy farmers to appreciate AI technology. EADD enables dairy farmers to make informed decisions through education, provision of AI services and linkages to service providers. In order to accurately detect heat, farmers undergo rigorous training. Farmers are also trained on record keeping which is key in AI. History of a cow is important right from when it is bred and to which bull in order to avoid inbreeding and ensure that the calf registration and insemination records match. Once the cross bred calf is born, the animal is registered and tagged, forming the inception of performance recording. Currently in Kenya non return rate of the cows inseminated and recorded under the EADD program is above 80%. This indicates that efforts to educate farmers on basics and efficiencies of AI are taking root. In most of the traditional bull dominant areas, the obstacle was resistance by farmers, who saw AI as competition to their traditionally valued bulls. Thus, concerted efforts were required to sensitize them that AI had enormous potential to improve the productivity of their heifers. In the beginning a few model farmers bought into the technology with potential benefits of increased profit margins. The number has since gradually increased as many farmers opt for AI. Using the check off system as a mode of payment of services has also enhanced the uptake of the technology since most poor farmers cannot afford to pay cash. Since most farmers were using local bulls for natural mating, the EADD breeding program had to incorporate uterine irrigation to eliminate reproductive diseases. Breeding capacity gaps in both farmers and service providers are being addressed to improve the quality of service delivery and establish sustainable support systems. Record-keeping procedures are being established to enhance the breeding system and to provide vital information for registration and breeding management. These interventions have made extension personnel, service providers, and farmers more aware of the multifaceted aspects of reproduction, breeding and the value of cooperation for mutual benefit. Some of the greatest threats to AI include drought and disease outbreaks particularly foot and mouth disease. The last two years of the program have been unusually adverse, with the inclement weather slowing down expected genetic gains. Despite the challenges EADD is celebrating the beginning of numerous births of EADD sired calves and increased productivity is anticipated. De-mystifying Artificial Insemination | Ambrose Munene, Kenya Before EADD, access to AI was limited. Services were unreliable, expensive and cows bred rarely conceived due to limited information and knowledge regarding breeding. Service providers were few and had to travel long distances since demand for breeding services was low-Dairy farmer in Ol Kalou, Kenya Bridging the Gap through AI Operational Satellite Centers | Silver Turyahikayo & Augustus Nyerere, Uganda "},{"text":" All our young calves are in good condition and are mooo-ing along fine! Left: Liquid nitrogen production at Masaka AI Satellite Centre (right) AI technicians receive liquid nitrogen plus other breeding supplies for their Center-Photos by Augustus Nyerere Mr and Mrs. Warui and their two young children celebrate the birth of their calf in Kenya-Photo by Ambrose Munene One of the first PoGs in Uganda's Wakiso district-photo by Augustus Nyerere The perfect gift! One of the first 3 PoGs in Rwanda-photo by Paul Chatikobo EAST AFRICA DAIRY DEVELOPMENT NEWS | AUGUST 2009 VOLUME 3 | SPOTLIGHT ON EADD'S BREEDING EFFORTS EADD's Four P's Approach to Artificial Insemination | Silver Turyahikayo & Augustus Nyerere, Uganda What Makes a Good Dairy Cow Interview with Judge Jack Lawson | Beatrice Ouma P roduct (Semen): EADD's AI supply chain through the AI satellite centers guarantee farmer satisfaction through high quality products and services available in the market. People: EADD's AI products and services are people focused. Farmer groups are encouraged to nominate their own to be trained as AI service providers and full participation by every member in the community who are EADD beneficiaries is encouraged. For most of EADD target areas, AI technology has been non-existent or minimal. This has been attributed to lack of trained AI Technicians. To address the gap, AI trainees have been selected by the communities they will be serving in a participatory manner. Each candidate is seconded by the executives of the targeted cooperative society or Dairy Interest Group (DIG). EADD subsequently shortlists the potential trainees and forward the selected candidates to the National Animal Genetic Resources Centre and Data Bank (NAGRC &DB), who in partnership conduct the trainings. Upon qualification the technicians are registered by NAGRIC&DB and a provisional certificate is provided to allow them inseminators to practice. EADD facilitates equipping the newly trained service providers with the AI equipments and associated breeding supplies. EADD also plays a key role in inducting the newly trained AI technicians in field service practice and follow ups to enable them provide quality services to the farmers. Price: The pricing structure for the EADD's AI products and services offered to our target farmers are very competitive in the market.Promotion: There is a deliberate effort by EADD to ensure that the AI products and services package offered to the farmers is well understood by the target community and other partners .This is done through farmer sensitizations, trainings and information materials like brochures, flyers, newspaper articles, radio programs, etc. All this is done to achieve the overall vision of EADD of improving small holder dairy productivity by improving on farm production and market access.J udging dairy cattle is a comparative evaluation of cattle in which animals are ranked based on their closeness to \"ideal\" dairy conformation. Desirable dairy conformation involves functional traits associated with high milk production over a long, trouble free productive life. According to Judge Jack Lawson, one of the official judges at this year's Brookside Livestock Breeders and Sales Show in Kenya, there are several qualities that judges look out for in a dairy cow during such competitions. So what are these features? First and foremost is the cow's first impression. Judges observe cows that move with ease. They also check for strengthof loins and firmness of udder attachments. A front view of the cow shows width of chest while a rear view aids in evaluating sharpness of withers, spring of rib, width of rump, width of rear udder and amount of udder cleft. Ultimately, the udder is often the deciding factor in close placings. Milking cows at the peak of lactation are given an advantage over dry cows or stale cows of equal merit. The frame of the cow counts for 15% of the overall marks. When judging the cow's frame, the judges look out for rumps that are long and wide throughout, with pin bones slightly lower than hip bones. The tailhead should be refined and EAST AFRICA DAIRY DEVELOPMENT NEWS | AUGUST 2009 VOLUME 3 | SPOTLIGHT ON EADD'length in leg bones with a long bone pattern; the height at withers and hips should be relatively proportionate. Also, the cow's chest should be full with ample width between the front legs. The cow's loin should be broad, strong and nearly level, especially in young cows. The cow's dairy character counts for 20% of the overall marks. The judges evaluate the physical evidence of milking ability. Emphasis is put on angularity, general openness while maintaining strength, flatness of bone and lack of coarseness. Consideration is normally given for stage of lactation. The cow's body capacity counts for 10% of the overall marks. Good body capacity is often judged by strength and capaciousness of an animal. Body capacity allows an animal to make optimal conversions of feed to milk. The volumetric measurement of the cow (length x depth x width) is evaluated with age taken into consideration. The cow's feet and legs count for 15% of the overall marks. The structure of the rear legs and feet are extremely important to the longevity and efficiency of a cow. The cow should have good mobility and be able to move smoothly. Slightly more emphasis is placed on feet than on rear legs when evaluating this category. Finally, judging a cow's udder takes a better portion of the marks; 40%. Major consideration is given to the traits that contribute to high milk yield and a long productive life. Lactation number and age are also two factors to consider. A strongly attached, well-balanced, capacious udder with quality texture is necessary to stand up to today's production standards. This year's champion in of the categories is presented to the public. -Photo by Jane Kithuka EADD Launches a New Website! We are please to present our new website www.eadairy.org. The site incorporates different features including activities of EADD in each country as well as site specific information. We have news and highlights relating to the project and also feature a BDS directory, EADD publications, training videos, newsletters and many more. It is our hope that the site will keep our teams and stakeholders updated on project progress. Visit us now to find more about us! EAST AFRICA DAIRY DEVELOPMENT NEWS | AUGUST 2009 VOLUME 3 | SPOTLIGHT ON EADD'S BREEDING EFFORTS M eet 24-year old Celestine who is an AI technician attached to Tanykina Dairy Plant in Kipkaren Eldoret under the EADD program. Celestine is one of the few females in a male dominated profession. But she is happy to be in this field. In fact she says that the demand for female AI technicians has increased with more farmers putting their trusts on them. As a young girl together with her siblings, she used to look after their cows and this got her interested in the profession. Celestine underwent an intensive AI training in Kitale in 2006 and then hired by a private AI practitioner until she joined Tanykina Dairy Plant under the EADD program in September 2008. She covers the whole Kipkaren location which has several villages. Since joining EADD she has been very busy as demand for AI has considerably increased with the sensitization by EADD. Averagely she inseminates between 5-7 cows per day. Currently, Celestine is waiting for the first delivery resulting from her insemination in August or early September this year. And she is very excited about it. Among the highlights of her job include making regular visits to find out how the heifers are progressing after the insemination. She feels very happy when a pregnancy is diagnosed and they can look forward to a new calf, hopefully another heifer. Working with poor farmers has given her job a purpose and she finds content in their happiness and achievements. But it has not been a rosy affair. The job comes with certain challenges that she has to deal with everyday. One of them is lack of transport. Some of her clients live very far away from the dairy plant and she has to cycle sometimes as far as 20 kms to attend to a cow. This sometimes causes delays on her part. Her only wish is to get a motorcycle which is much faster. Celestine has dreams of becoming a vet doctor and is glad that the opportunity to work under the EADD program is giving her the experience and the boost she needs to achieve her goals. EADD is in the process of signing a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with NDBP to partner in field activities. NDBP, which is involved in supporting livestock farmers to install domestic biogas digester, will offer these services at subsidized prices to farmers within the EADD sites. The main objective is to develop a sustainable domestic biogas sector in Rwanda by increasing awareness of the biogas technology among farmers. has tremendously increased within the last quarter from 240 to 2053. Although the site has not yet started collecting milk for sale, farmers have made financial commitment and have raised a significant portion of equity towards the acquisition of a chilling plant. COOPAG is also the only cooperative with a woman chairperson. Feed Stakeholder Workshop EADD organized a two day feed stakeholder workshop within the last quarter. The aim of this workshop was to develop a strategy based on innovation system perspective for testing feeds 'best bets' in EADD sites. The workshop was attended by over 20 stakeholders and partner organizations. During the workshop, EADD conducted a participatory stakeholder analysis to determine stakeholder perceptions of opportunities constraints and in feed resource development and jointly propose potential solutions to the challenges. Demonstration Plots and Seed Banks So far EADD has set up 55 demonstration plots to aid ToT's in recruiting and training as many farmers as possible. The number of farmers who have now taken up quality feed and fodder practices has increased to 4455 farmers. Two seed banks have also been set up to enable farmers have access to high quality seeds. EAST AFRICA DAIRY DEVELOPMENT NEWS | AUGUST 2009 VOLUME 3 | SPOTLIGHT ON EADD'S BREEDING EFFORTS 10 Learning Trips This quarter, EADD facilitated one regional and two domestic learning trips for farmers. A total of 120 farmers from all the project sites participated in the regional exchange visit to Kenya and Uganda. Local visits to model dairy farmers Rwamagana and Gicumbi were also arranged between the month of February and March. Business Development Services (BDS) As part of the wider BDS initiatives, EADD carried out five farmers open days to bring together farmers and service providers to explore areas of convergence. Potential service providers we taken through a Business Opportunity seminar to assist them in identifying and taking advantage of opportunities. "},{"text":" visit: http://www.eadairy.org/inside.php?articleid=7 EADD Participates at the Brookside Livestock Breeders Show EADD Kenya actively participated in a 3-day Livestock Breeders and Sales Show organized by one of the major processors, Brookside. As well as exhibiting, EADD facilitated the participation of two hundred dairy farmers. The farmers came from Siongiroi, Kipkaren, Kabiyet, Metkei, Ol Kalou, Kipkellion, Lelan, Longisa, Mweiga, Cheptalal, Cheborgei and Chepkorio drawn from twelve sites. During the 3 days in which EADD Kenya Country Office exhibited, approximately 1,664 people visited the EADD stand, registered and received training. EADD's participation in the Brookside Livestock was deemed successful. EADD's Field Visit to Makongi Dairy Farm This quarter also saw the participation of EADD in a major field day organized by the Kenya Dairy Board at Makongi Farm, one of the successful dairy farms in Kenya based in Uasin Gishu District. During the field day, a milk cooling facility was commissioned. The chilling plant will serve the community by giving farmers access to modern technology for improved milk handling. It will also serve as a training center for practical learning. A total 168 dairy farmers from Chepkorio, Metkei, Kabiyet, Lelan, Kipkaren and Kipkelion sites participated in the field day. EADD conducted a number of training demonstrations to the farmers on milk quality, breeding and feeds. The event which was presided over by the Minister of Livestock Hon. Mohammed Kuti was attended by several high profile dignitaries. "},{"text":" An engagement signing ceremony was carried out between EADD Kenya and Sot Dairy Cooling Plant Limited located in Longisa. This is a new EADD site and the limited liability company has attained the minimum qualification for engagement, this being 2,043 registered farmers and 830 EAST AFRICA DAIRY DEVELOPMENT NEWS | AUGUST 2009 VOLUME 3 | SPOTLIGHT ON EADD'S BREEDING EFFORTS shareholders with Kshs.1,273,610 share capital raised. Farmer Field Days Farmer field days were held in Metkei, Kipkaren, Siongiroi and Ol Kalou where farmers were trained in milk production, improving milk quality, feeds and fodder and best practices in breeding. EADD partnered with stakeholders including the Government and others in the dairy and livestock industry in training the farmers. Training Documentaries Two training documentaries were produced by the feeds team in conjuction with the communications office. The training documentaries detail the process of making plastic tube silage and box bailing. The videos will enhance the training process to the farmers. New Products A number of new products have been realized within the last quarter. These include a Pulveriser which is a feed machine that enables efficient use of crop residues and fodder crops. It combines a hammer mill which grinds dry feeds to soft palatable substance and chuff cutter that reduces sizes of feed for easy consumption and silage making. Farmers have welcomed this new technology and 5 DMGs have acquired them as a group. There was also the introduction of Animal production Software which has been developed by EADD interns in Kipkaren. The software links registered farmers to their cows, production AI, animal health, breeding, feeds and farmer trainings and their earnings. It is used by the team to do quick analysis on various interventions and observe productivity per farmer and cow as the intervention are rolled out. More routine and subroutines are being added to make it a herd management tool. Other major activity has been the labelling of milk cans to increase the process of traceability by the quality team in various sites. Highlights from Uganda|Beatrice Nabwire EADD Puts On a Good Show at the Annual Uganda National Agriculture Show EADD participated in the annual Uganda National Agriculture Show which was held in Jinja. EADD shared an exhibition tent with HPI-Uganda and both emerged as winners in the livestock sector. "},{"text":" Continues EADD continues to actively mobilize and organize farmers into DFBAs. Farmers in Bubusi, Jinja, Mukono-Buikwe are being organized to operate and run the traditional hub models. Over 90 farmer mobilizers have been trained to assist Uganda's DFBAs gain more membership. Over 5000 farmers have also been engaged and trained in group dynamics and governance Farmer Field Days and Exchange Visits Farmer field days have been organized in Kiboga and BU-BUSI and over 400 farmers involved in local learning visits. Business Delivery Services Five linkages have been established between DFBAs and private vet service providers in Bubusi, Masindi, Luweero, Mukono -Buikwe . A farmer business opportunity seminar (BOS) was also organized in BUBUSI and over 5000 farmers are currently accessing BDS services Feeds Over 100 farmer-trainers were trained in improved feed practices, including fodder-selling farmers. Farmers were sensitized on high quality feeds and about 3000 farmers are currently using high quality feeds. Over 90 on-farm demonstrations of high quality feed production and use have been established AI Twenty one Community-based animal healthcare providers (CAHPs) were trained and equipped as accredited artificial insemination (AI) technicians. Over 3000 farmers trained in basic animal management, heat detection, recordkeeping and traceability. Up-to-date about 4000 original AIs have been performed. Chilling Plant Management A workshop for traditional milk traders and CP managers on milk business and quality management was successfully accomplished within the last quarter. EAST AFRICA DAIRY DEVELOPMENT NEWS | AUGUST 2009 VOLUME 3 | SPOTLIGHT ON EADD'S BREEDING EFFORTS Get to Know Your Dairy Team Augustus Muli Nyerere, Dairy Project Coordinator Augustus is working with EADD as the Dairy Project Cofeeding and nutrition services. Augustus is an animal scientist who holds a MSc. in Animal Production (Ruminant Nutrition) from University of Nairobi. He has over six years experience working in the Kenyan livestock sector as a Livestock Production Officer. He also worked a Livestock Technical Advisor with the livestock production and breeding program implemented by the British's Voluntary Services Overseas in Masindi Uganda, as well as an Associate Graduate Researcher with ILRI. He received training in Total Dairy Management Systems, Artificial insemination and animal breeding at ABS TCM Nairobi. He is a proud father of five children and loves out-door activities specifically jogging/walking and socializing, as well as venturing into new pursuits. William Odhiambo , Senior Business Advisor William works with EADD as a Senior Business Manager for Kenya. He is currently pursuing his MBA from University of Wales (UK) and holds an Honours degree in Food Technology and Marketing, Post -graduate diploma in Project Planning and Management, and certificate in Business Development Services (BDS) .He is a seasoned business / market development specialist. He has a wealth of experience in enterprise / business development, market development, value chain analysis , BDS market assessment and making markets work for the poor initiatives spanning over 9 years. William has previously worked as a Business advisor, Senior Business Advisor, BDS consultant, Value analyst and as an Enterprise development specialist for Tech-noServe Kenya, Aga Khan Foundation and private organizations as business development consultant. Betty Rwamuhizi, Senior Dairy Specialist Betty is working as a Senior Dairy Specialist in Rwanda. Her job functions include managing the business operations of the dairy enterprises, assessing the needs of the CPS, conducts trainings for farmer cooperative members in milk handling, hygiene and milk quality. She holds a Bachelor of Science Degree in Food Science and Technology. Previously, she worked as a district community Social Worker under the Ministry of Women and Family Promotion (MIGEPROFE) in Rwanda. She is devoted Christian and among her hobbies include listening to gospel music and attending prayer sessions. She is single and currently takes care of two children who are blood relations. "},{"text":" tor for M&E. In Rwanda, Celestine Nyamutamba has joined EADD as the new Investment Advisor, Clive Turyakira as an Accountant and George Mose as Animal Husbandry/Monitoring & Evaluation Officer. In the Kenyan office, Cheuiyot Langat and David Kimeto joined as Livestock Specialist and Driver respectively. Welcome aboard! Dairy Tip of the Quarter Less Mud in Heifer Pens Saves Feed Cost The amount of mud that heifers must wade through to reach the feed bunk can sharply increase their energy intake. \"It literally sucks the energy out of them,\" says Greg Bethard, of G&R Dairy Consulting in Wytheville, Va., and assistant director of dairy technology at Dairy Records Management Systems in Raleigh, N.C. It is important to keep the area between the feed bunk and the resting area \"relatively free of mud. Six inches to a foot of mud is not acceptable. Excess mud means heifers need to consume more energy to meet maintenance requirements, and that can rack up the feed bill fast. "}],"sieverID":"48a10505-15bb-4b79-8b1b-68a4e9bb1013","abstract":"This project represents an effort by the East African Dairy Development Project (EADD) consortium to combine and consolidate talents and resources to assist the smallholder dairy farmers in Kenya, Rwanda and Uganda. As we reflect on the progress of the EADD project, we are very thankful for the opportunity to work with each and every one of you consortium partners and dairy stakeholders.Today the dairy industry has several breeding technologies including, AI using quality proven genetics, heat synchronization for fixed time breeding and sexed semen. Genetics is the smallest input in the farm production level value chain yet its impact on dairy cattle productivity is big. In Rwanda genetic progress using AI is now enhanced by the predetermined breeding schedules such as synchronization of cows.The key driver of the East African dairy industry development plan hinges on individual country dairy policy and a strong market that exerts a pull effect as enabled by the dairy chilling plants hub model. The hub model market is attractive and has quantifiable incentives for the dairy producers that include service provision and access to credit. The artificial breeding services are anticipated to grow exponentially as more planned dairy chilling hubs become functional and are capable of delivering the dairy services farmers need.Improving personal and milk hygiene at farm level is critical to producing quality dairy products and has impact on penetrating regional export markets for East African dairy products. Transfer of technology on udder care and milk quality testing is ongoing in the EADD target areas including introduction of effective pre and post teat dips, milk screening for mastitis, microbial diagnostics and milk component testing equipments. Call your nearest EADD appointed service provider to learn more about these technologies. ABS TCM will maintain standards of excellence with a technical service team available to improve dairy production with AI and synchronization tools, diagnostic testing for mastitis, specialized hands on training on AI, reproductive management, genetic management and quality milk systems. Key to dairy business profitability are: producing a pregnancy in a timely manner, maximizing milk quality, quality feeds and prudent feeding strategies, reproductive and herd management and record keeping. We urge all dairy farmers under the EADD project to use quality genetic products and services to experience a huge impact on your dairy profitability."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06ba379467ee23d979da8f0b8275c7b5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cb974d37-0a7b-4839-babd-42fe601a0683/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"Potential use of the bushmint, Hyptis suaveolens, for the control of infestation by the pink stalk borer, Sesamia calamistis on maize in southern Benin, West Africa","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Maize, Zea mays L. (Poales: Poaceae), has become one of the most important staple foods in sub-Saharan Africa (World Bank 1997;FAO 2007). It is an integral part of the social and economic life of the people (Adandé 1984;Lutz et al. 1995) with a per capita consumption of over 100 kg per year especially in the central and southern regions of the country (ONASA 1997)."},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"Maize production in Benin is constrained by insect pests, among which stemborers are the most important. The larvae of several Lepidoptera inflict serious damage on preharvest maize stems and ears and significantly lower maize yields (Atachi 1984(Atachi , 1987;;Bosque-Pérez and Mareck 1990;Schulthess et al. 1991). Yield reduction due to stemborers ranges from 20% to total crop failure (Shanower et al. 1991;Bosque-Perez and Schulthess 1998). Of the ten identified species of maize Lepidoptera in Benin, the most frequently encountered are Sesamia calamistis Hampson (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), S. botanephaga, Eldana saccharina, Busseola fusca; Mussidia nigrivenella, Chilo spp.; Cryptophlebia leucotreta, and Spodoptera exempta (Atachi 1987;Shanower et al. 1991). Sesamia calamistis is a serious pest, especially on maize in the minor season in southern and central Benin (Atachi 1987) and on late maize in the northern regions."},{"index":3,"size":148,"text":"The use of chemical pesticides against stemborers is limited not only because of their high costs (generally not affordable for small farmers) and scarce availability in rural areas, but also due to the health and environment concerns related to them. There is a need for cheaper and safer alternative control practices. Over the years, farmers have learned to contain pest problems through the use of plant extracts. The potential advantages of botanical pesticides over synthetic pesticides have been highlighted by Prakash et al. 2008. Many plants have been tested or identified as interesting botanical pesticides in sub-Saharan Africa (Kossou et al. 2001a, b;Oparaeke et al. 2005;Sinzogan et al. 2006;Oparaeke et al. 2006a, b;IITA 2006;Okereke et al. 2007;Oigiangbe et al. 2007;Aboubakary et al. 2008) and are potentially usable in pest control programs taking into account both the needs of increased food and preserving the health of a growing population."},{"index":4,"size":184,"text":"In Benin, only a limited database is available on the use of botanicals to control insect pests on crops in the field. Some attempts made in the past to reduce pest pressure on crops using botanicals focused on legumes, mainly cowpea (PRONAF 2000;Kossou et al. 2001a, b;James et al. 2003;Gbehounou 2007). Furthermore, neem (Azadirachta indica) oil was successfully used to control stem borers on maize in the field (Bruce et al. 2004). Also, recent research findings revealed that a combination of the aqueous extract of the bushmint Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. (Lamiales: Lamiaceae) with a lower dose of insecticides such as Thionex 350 EC (Endosulfan (350)) or Laser 480 EC (Spinosad (48)) helped to successfully control cotton bollworms (Sinzogan et al. 2006) Hyptis suaveolens is used for some ethnobotanicals applications in rural communities in African countries (Koumaglo et al. 1993;Kossou et al. 2001a, b;Edeoga et al. 2006) and the plant is readily available close to villages, along roadsides, on farmsteads, etc. The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential use of H. suaveolens plants for the control of S. calamistis on maize."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study locations","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":185,"text":"Field and screenhouse experiments were conducted at the Research Station of IITA in latitude 6° 25' E and longitude 2° 20' N]. The site is located in the Coastal Savannah characterized by a bimodal rainfall with two peaks, one in June and another in October, and an annual rainfall of 1100 -1500 mm. The first and main production season extends from April to July while the minor season covers the months of September to November. The long dry season starts in November and lasts until March. The average annual temperature fluctuates between 25 and 30° C with a minimum in July and August and a peak in March. The field trial was run in the minor cropping season in 2004, which was characterized by high precipitation especially in September (356.2 mm) and October (219.1 mm). The monthly average temperature fluctuated between 25.2° C and 26.8° C and the average monthly relative humidity ranged from 81.2 to 87.7%. The trial was conducted in the field on a sandy-clay soil. The screenhouse had a temperature of 25 to 28° C and relative humidity of 75 to 80%."},{"index":2,"size":172,"text":"Experiment 1: Screenhouse study Potted maize production and use. The improved, early maturing (90 days) IITA maize variety DMR, resistant to downy mildew, Peronosclerospora sorghii, and maize streak virus, was used for this experiment. The average yield of DMR is 4 metric tons ha -1 with a potential of 7 to 8 metric tons ha -1 in highly fertile soils with low pest pressure (Bosque-Pérez and Mareck 1989). Maize grains were sown in black plastic pots (30 cm in diameter and 40 cm in height) filled with soil in the field and the seedlings were thinned to 1 plant per pot. The pots received NPK fertilizer (14-23-14) at the rate of 3 g per pot. Three weeks after planting, the pots were transferred to the screenhouse where they acclimatized for 5 days before the release of adults of S. calamistis. This procedure ensured that any eggs deposited on the plants while in the field were not taken into account when counting eggs five days after the release of adults in the screenhouse."}]},{"head":"Cultivation of H. suaveolens and preparation of the aqueous extracts.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Three to four-week-old H. suaveolens seedlings were transplanted onto a 0.8 ha plot at the IITA experimental site and watered regularly until the onset of the rains. One month after transplanting, fresh leaves and stems were weekly collected for the preparation of the aqueous extracts."},{"index":2,"size":204,"text":"The procedure for obtaining the aqueous extract of H. suaveolens, the concentrations of extract per hectare, and the dose administered were based on the technology developed by the Cowpea Project for Africa, whereby 37.5 kg of fresh H. suaveolens were used to treat one hectare of cowpea (PRONAF 2000). Following the same approach leaves and stems of H. suaveolens were collected at sunset and crushed in a mortar until soft dough that was subsequently transferred into a bowl. The rest of the herbal substance was recovered by rinsing the mortar. Some 300g of powder soap were added to the mixture that was stirred and left to rest overnight. The subsequent morning the mixture was filtered with a fine tissue, and water was added to the filtrate to obtain a concentration of 10:100 (weight: volume). Then 300 ml of kerosene were added and the resulting solution was vigorously stirred. The soap acted as an adjuvant enhancing the adhesion of the extract on the surface of treated plants while the kerosene was used to prevent soap bubbles. In the current investigation, various concentrations of H. suaveolens were tested in the screenhouse (Table1) to identify the best concentration for reducing the incidence of S. calamistis on maize."},{"index":3,"size":110,"text":"Production of larvae and adults of S. calamistis. Virgin adults of S. calamistis used in the screenhouse were obtained from the mass rearing culture maintained over several generations at IITA-Benin. The insects were reared in a room maintained at a temperature of 25 to 27° C, 75 to 80% relative humidity, and 14:10 (L:D) illumination. Insects were sexed at the nymphal stage. The eggs were incubated until the blackhead stage, and then transferred to an artificial medium. The medium was originally developed at ICIPE (Onyango and Ochieng-Odero 1994) for B. fusca, but proved to be suitable for the breeding of many other borers including S. calamistis (Songa et al. 2001)."},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"Experimental design of the screenhouse study. A randomized complete block design with five treatments replicated eight times was used. The treatments were individual potted maize plants treated with various concentrations (C) of H. suaveolens extract (Table 1) as follows:"},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"Treatment 1: No plant extract; 0g L -1 (C1 = 0%); Treatment 2: Plant treated with extract at a dose of 50g L -1 (C2 = 5%) Treatment 3: Plant treated with extract at a dose of 100g L -1 (C3 = 10%) Treatment 4: Plant treated with extract at a dose of 150g L -1 (C4 = 15%) Treatment 5: Plant treated with extract at a dose of 200g L -1 (C5 = 20%)"},{"index":6,"size":186,"text":"The quantities of H. suaveolens and other ingredients (kerosene and soap used to improve the adherence of the extract to the maize plants) are given in Table 1. The proportions of these ingredients were equal to those proposed by PRONAF (2000). A fixed quantity of 1 liter of each concentration of the aqueous extract was prepared and partially used to treat the eight plants receiving the same concentration in each trial. The spraying took place the same day prior to release of adult insects. All parts of the plants were copiously wetted with the extract using a local hand-held mist blower and the remaining quantity of each concentration was discarded. Within the screenhouse, the blocks (or repetitions) were 2 m apart and separated by mosquito nets. Within a block, the plants treated differently were also separated by 2 m. Four pairs of virgin adults were released into each block (making a total of 32 couples of insect for the screenhouse) and, after five days, the number of egg masses per plant and number of eggs per mass were recorded. The trial was set up four times."},{"index":7,"size":106,"text":"Experiment 2: Field trial Field maintenance and fertilizer application. The field was planted on 27 August 2004 at IITA, using the same maize variety (DMR). Two weeks after sowing, maize was thinned to one seedling per hill at a spacing of 80 cm between rows and 25 cm within rows, giving a plant density of 50,000 plants ha -1 . The plots received NPK fertilizer (14-23-14) at a dose of 150 kg ha -1 3 weeks after planting and 100 kg ha -1 of urea 6 weeks after planting. All plots were weeded at least twice before harvest, and generally prior to the application of fertilizer."},{"index":8,"size":35,"text":"Experimental setup of the field trial. The randomized complete block design with four treatments replicated three times was used. The following treatments were allocated to 10 m x 5 m (50 m 2 ) plots:"},{"index":9,"size":14,"text":"Treatment 1 (T1): sole crop maize without protection (no H. suaveolens and no insecticide)."},{"index":10,"size":19,"text":"Treatment 2 (T2): maize plot surrounded by 2 strips making a total of approximately 250 plants of H. suaveolens."},{"index":11,"size":44,"text":"Treatment 3 (T3): maize plot treated with an aqueous extract of H. suaveolens at a dose of 75 kg in 375 liters of extract per hectare (approximately 2 liters of aqueous extract of 200 g L -1 (20%) per 50 m 2 experimental plot)."},{"index":12,"size":30,"text":"Treatment 4 (T4): maize plot treated with granular Furadan (carbofuran) (applied in the cone leaf of the plant 3 weeks after planting at a rate of 2 g per plant)."},{"index":13,"size":34,"text":"The three replicates were actually three blocks of 39 m x 14 m each, plowed to a depth of 20 cm with a tractor, and separated by 150-200 m to reduce interaction between treatments."},{"index":14,"size":86,"text":"In T2, seedlings of H. suaveolens (30 to 40 cm tall), were transplanted at a density of 200 to 250 seedlings per plot 10 weeks before maize planting. In treatment 3 (T3), the maize plants were carefully sprayed every week, from the third to the twelfth weeks after planting with an aqueous extract of H. suaveolens prepared on the eve of the spraying performed using a 15 L sprayer (Cooper Pelger, www.cooperpegler.com). Whenever it rained the day of spraying, the operation was repeated the next day."}]},{"head":"Sampling","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"method and parameters measured. Destructive sampling was done weekly from 3 to 12 weeks after planting according to Atachi (1984). Samples of 10 randomly chosen maize plants were collected along the diagonals and medians of the plots and at calibrated distances. Seedlings were pulled by hand while older plants were cut with a knife just above the collar and then dissected. The dissected samples were inspected in the field if infestation was low, or taken to the laboratory where the following parameters were recorded: number of S. calamistis (larvae or pupae), percentage of plants infested by S. calamistis, percentage of dead hearts, and percentage of ear infested by S. calamistis."}]},{"head":"Data analysis.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"For the screenhouse study, a univariate analysis of variance was performed using SAS software (SAS Institute Inc. 2001) to compare the effect of different concentrations of the aqueous extract of H. suaveolens based on the numbers of S. calamistis egg masses per plant and eggs per mass. Statistical analysis of field data was preceded by the normalization of variances. Data on S. calamistis density were logtransformed and the numbers of dead hearts or ears infested by S. calamistis were square root-transformed. An analysis of variance on repeated measures of different variables was made using SAS software (SAS Institute Inc. 2001). Means were separated for significance using the Student Newman-Keuls (SNK) test."}]},{"head":"Results","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"Experiment 1: Screenhouse study Effect of H. suaveolens aqueous extract on the number of S. calamistis egg masses. The number of egg masses per plant decreased linearly with an increase in the concentration of the aqueous extract (Table 2A). Highly significant differences were observed between treatments (F = 28.334, DF = 4, P = 0.000). The SNK test showed that there were significantly more egg masses on the control (T1) than on all treated plants. Treatments T4 and T5 (concentrations 15% and 20%) gave statistically similar results, but were significantly better than treatments T2 and T3 (concentrations 5% and 10%), which were also significantly different from each other (Table 2A). Compared with the untreated control, the aqueous extract of H. suaveolens reduced the number of egg masses per maize plant by almost 50%."}]},{"head":"Effect of H. suaveolens aqueous extract on the number of S. calamistis eggs per mass.","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":278,"text":"There was a linear decrease in the number of eggs per mass with an increase in the concentration of the aqueous extract (Table 2B). Highly significant differences were found between treatments (F = 35.277, DF = 4, P = 0.000). The SNK test indicated that significantly higher numbers of eggs per mass were laid on plants in the control (T1) than on all treated plants. Treatments T4 and T5 (concentrations 15% and 20%) were statistically identical but significantly better than treatments T2 and T3 (concentrations 5% and 10%), which were also significantly different from each other (Table 2B). In comparison with the untreated control, the aqueous extract of H. suaveolens reduced the number of eggs per mass by at least half.  3A). However, their interaction with the sampling dates was not  3A). The SNK test showed that all protection measures tested (T2, T3, and T4) were significantly different from the control (T1). Furadan (T4) had statistically the same protective effects as the aqueous extract of H. suaveolens (T3), but was significantly more effective than T2 (H. suaveolens plants surrounding the maize plot). There was no significant difference between the two treatments that included the use of H. suaveolens (whether as a vegetative association with maize (T2), or as a 20 % aqueous extract (T3)) (Table 4A). The use of H. suaveolens in a vegetative association with maize in the field reduced by half the percentage of plants infested by S. calamistis compared to the control. Furthermore, maize plant infestation by S. calamistis was more than three times higher in the control than in maize plots treated with the 20 % aqueous extract of H. suaveolens (Table 4 A)."},{"index":2,"size":155,"text":"Effect of treatments on S. calamistis densities. The treatments significantly affected S. calamistis densities (F 3, 6 = 52.79, P = 0.0001) (Table 3B). Due to the nonsignificant interaction between treatments and sampling periods (F 24, 1036 = 0.69, P = 0.8696), means for all sampling periods were pooled. The SNK test showed that there were significantly more S. calamistis in the control than in all other treatments (T2, T3 and T4). The vegetative association of maize with H. suaveolens (T2) was significantly less effective than T3 (aqueous extract of H. suaveolens) and T4 (Furadan). No significant differences existed between T3 and T4 (Table 4B). The mean density of S. calamistis in the control (T1) was nearly three times that in T2 and 10 times that in T3. Plots treated with Furadan (T4) had the lowest density of the insect but this was not statistically different from using H. suaveolens aqueous extract (T3) (Table 4B)."}]},{"head":"Effect of treatments on percentage of deadhearts.","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"The treatments also significantly affected the mean percentage of deadhearts (F 3, 70 = 26.78; P < 0.0001) (Table 3C). Due to the non-significant interaction between treatments and sampling periods (F 24, 70 = 1.60; P = 0.0656), the comparison of means for all sampling periods was combined. The SNK test showed that all the protective measures (T2, T3, and T4) were significantly different from the control (T1). The mean percentage of deadhearts in the control was more than double the percentage found in T2. The extract of H. suaveolens (T3) performed better than the vegetative association of maize with H. suaveolens (T2) (1 versus 5 deadhearts per 100 plants) and gave statistically similar results with Furadan (T4) (Table 4C)."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"Effect of treatments on the percentage of infested ears. The treatments significantly affected the average percentage of ears infested by S. calamistis (F 3, 30 = 28.53, P <0.0001) (Table 3D), but their interaction with the sampling periods was not significant (F 9, 30 = 1.38; P = 0.2425). The SNK test demonstrated that only treatments T3 and T4, which were statistically identical, were significantly better than the control T1. The vegetative association of maize and H. suaveolens (T2) did not reduce stemborer infestation of the ears compared to the control T1 (Table 4D)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":427,"text":"The results of the screenhouse study showed that the aqueous extract of H. suaveolens adversely affected egg production by S. calamistis, reducing by at least half the number of egg masses per maize plant as well as the number of eggs per mass compared to the control. Based on these two parameters all the treatments performed better than the untreated control. The reduction in egg production on the treated plants may be due to probable oviposition deterrent properties of the extracts and confirms previous results on lepidopteran pests (Raja et al. 2005). The oviposition deterrent activity of the aqueous extract of H. suaveolens that prevented the borer from laying eggs on the maize plants in the screenhouse seemed to be confirmed in the field experiment. In fact, significantly higher densities of S. calamistis were recorded in the control than on plants treated with H. suaveolens extracts. The percentage of maize plants infested by S. calamistis was more than three times higher in the control than in maize plots treated with the aqueous extract of H. suaveolens. The same was true for other parameters (percentage of infested ears and deadhearts). The spraying of the aqueous extract of H. suaveolens on maize plants at weekly intervals, may have acted as an inhibitor that stopped the development of different stages of S. calamistis. Hyptis suaveolens has been reported to be biologically effective against lepidopteran pests (Prakash et al. 2008) and may have caused insects feeding on the maize plants to reduce their food intake. The results of the current studies are in accordance with previous studies reporting the efficacy of H. suaveolens on various pests infesting damaging diverse crops. Extracts of H. suaveolens were found to possess significant ovicidal and antifeedant activity against Helicoverpa armigera on cotton (Raja et al. 2005). A leaf extract of H. suaveolens reduced the population of Spodoptera litura and Aphis craccivora on groundnut (Ignacimuthu and Jayaraj 2003;Jayakumar et al. 2004). On cowpea, various solvent extracts of H. suaveolens were found to be efficient in terms of their oviposition deterrent, ovicidal, or insecticidal effects against Callosobruchus maculatus (Jayakumar et al.2005). Oparaeke et al. (2005) found that a combination of H. suaveolens extracts and neem extracts greatly reduced pod damage by Maruca vitrata and Clavigralla tomentosicollis, and produced more yield than the unsprayed control. Extracts of H. suaveolens have been successfully used not only against devastating insects, but have also contributed to the reduction of Sclerotium wilt of tomato caused by Sclerotium rolfsii by exerting some antifungal protective action on the tomato plants (Okereke et al. 2007)."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"The results of this study also showed that intercropping H. suaveolens with maize can reduce attack by S. calamistis on maize in the field."},{"index":3,"size":177,"text":"The vegetative association of H. suaveolens with maize contributed to the reduction of S. calamistis infestation and densities of the ear borer per plant. The idea that H. suaveolens plants may have driven away the adult S. calamistis from the maize plant by their smell is not as convincing as the presumption that the plant probably played a disturbing role. Vandermeer (1989) listed three possible mechanisms responsible for reduced pest infestation in mixed cropping systems: (a) the disruptive-crop hypothesis, in which a second non-host plant species disrupts the ability of the pest to find its proper host plant species; (b) the trap crop hypothesis in which a second non-suitable host plant species attracts the pest away from its primary host; (c) the natural enemy hypothesis in which the intercropping situation attracts more predators and parasitoids than the monocrop, thereby reducing pests on the primary host plant. H. suaveolens may have played the role of a disruptive plant reducing both chemical and visual cues and stimuli of S. calamistis, thus interfering with its ability to encounter maize plants."},{"index":4,"size":162,"text":"H. suaveolens extract compares favorably with the insecticide Furadan in reducing S. calamistis densities on maize. In a previous study, H. suaveolens leaf extract also gave similar effect in comparison with the fungicide Captan on Sclerotium wilt of tomato (Okereke et al. 2007). Many other plant extracts have exhibited insecticidal, ovicidal, antifeedant, and oviposition deterrent activity against lepidopteran pests (Juan et al. 2000;Arnubio et al. 2006;Oigiangbe et al. 2007;Prakash et al. 2008;Aboubakary et al. 2008). Botanical insecticides have long been touted as attractive alternatives to synthetic chemical insecticides for pest management because they reputedly pose little threat to the environment or human health. Since there are variations in the chemical composition of H. suaveolens from different locations (Peerzada 1997;Azevedo 2001), further work should include scaling up of the current results through screening of this plant and evaluation of other plant extracts for the control of the maize stemborer and other insect pests so as to the control options immediately available to farmers."},{"index":5,"size":157,"text":"The current studies revealed that in the context of integrated pest management, the aqueous extract of H. suaveolens may play a significant role in pre-harvest maize protection against stemborers. Nevertheless, the preparation of the extract is laborious and time consuming. Also the quantity used is rather large and would be one of the constraints for using aqueous extracts. All this calls for innovative methods and more appropriate formulation, perhaps in the form of essential oils. In spite of the promising results obtained with the vegetative association of H. suaveolens with maize, this technique needs to be considered with caution. H. suaveolens is a fairly prolific plant with luxuriant growth, forming dense stands within a few weeks and it might compete with crops for space, water, and nutrients. The plant is neither reported as food nor as feed in Benin, so it does not possess any intrinsic added value to the cropping system apart from deterring insect pests."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Experiment 2 : Field study Effect of treatments on the infestation of maize plants by S. calamistis. The treatments significantly affected the percentage of plants infested by S. calamistis (F 3, 70 = 48.94, P <0.0001) (Table "},{"text":"Table 2 . Comparison of treatments (Means ± Standard Errors) based on the numbers of egg masses and eggs per mass laid by Sesamia calamistis on maize plants (N= 32 maize plants for each treatment) C = Concentrations of aqueous extracts of H. suaveolens (C1=0% ; C2= 5% ; C3= 10% ; C4=15% ; C5=20%) SE = Standard Error On the same line, means followed by similar letter are not significantly different according to Student Newman Keuls test with P< 0.05 significant (F8, 70 = 5.20, P = 0.3130) (Table "},{"text":"Table 3 . Repeated measure analysis of variance of % infested plants, Sesamia calamistis densities per plant, % Deadhearts, % infested ear and ear damage during the minor cropping season in 2004 in southern Benin d.f.: numerator degree of freedom; DDF: denominator degree of freedom of covariance parameters ** = highly significant (P<0.01; ns = non significant (P>0.05) T = treatments (Various experimented protective measures and the control); T1= Control; T2 = 'Hyptis -Maïs' as vegetative association; T3 = Maize sprayed with aqueous extracts of Hyptis suaveolens; T4 = Maize treated with Furadan DAS = Dates After Sowing (sampling dates) T*DAS = Interaction between Treatments and dates after sowiing (sampling periods) "},{"text":"Table 4 . Comparison of treatments (T1, T2, T3 and T4) based on % infested plants, Sesamia calamistis densities per plants, % Deadhearts, % ears infested and cob damage during the minor cropping season in 2004 in southern Benin T = treatments (Various experimented protective measures and the control); T1= Control; T2 = 'Hyptis -Maïs' as vegetative association; T3 = Maize plant sprayed with aqueous extracts of H. suaveolens; T4 = Maize plant treated with Furadan SE = Standard Error On the same line, means followed by similar letter are not significantly different according to Student Newman Keuls test with P< 0.05 "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"b50eec75-afce-4e5e-a223-4318eb1b6ae8","abstract":"Maize production in Benin, especially in resource-poor farmers' fields, is constrained by stemborers among other factors. One of the major stemborers in southern Benin is Sesamia calamistis Hampson (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). African farmers cannot afford to use commercial insecticides for controlling stemborers -they are expensive and unsuitable for durable pest management systems due to eco-toxicity. There is therefore a need for cheaper and environmentally friendly methods and botanicals offer an attractive alternative. The bushmint, Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. (Lamiales: Lamiaceae), was compared with the commercial insecticide Furadan (carbofuran) for the control of S. calamistis on maize Zea mays L. (Poales: Poaceae). Trials were conducted in the screenhouse and in the field during the minor cropping season in 2004 at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)-Benin station. The variables measured included numbers of egg masses per plant, eggs per egg mass (in the screenhouse study), population density of S. calamistis, percentage of infested plants and/or ears, and deadhearts in the field. Irrespective of the variable considered, the aqueous extract of H. suaveolens compared favorably with Furadan while maize surrounded by live H. suaveolens plants had lower S. calamistis densities."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0745196f8da6dc4908ead08a8354b4fd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://waterdata.iwmi.org/applications/sanitaion/reports/Report%20Institutions_First%20draft.pdf"},"pageCount":62,"title":"Urban Stakeholder Analysis for Food Waste Prevention and Reduction in Sri Lanka","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Acronyms","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"List of figures","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"In 2015, the 2030 Agenda launched Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 12.3 \"by 2030, halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses.\" Food waste (FW) prevention and reduction plays a major role in supporting food systems' sustainability while also contributing to effective Solid Waste Management (SWM), minimizing detrimental environmental, climate change, and socio-economic impacts."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Awareness-raising and capacity development for food supply chain actors, the public sector, and for civil society organizations is required for successful SDG 12.3 interventions. Mapping stakeholders and their potential roles towards prevention and reduction of FW supports a coherent, coordinated, and complementary approach to quantification, causes identification, and scaling up of feasible solutions that bring significant returns on investment."}]},{"head":"Context","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"From June 2019 to August 2021, the project Innovative approaches to reduce, recycle and reuse FW in urban Sri Lanka was implemented under the oversight of the Ministry of Urban Development and Housing, in collaboration with the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI). The project had six working areas (see Figure 1). This report is the deliverable for the 1.3 project component (i.e. stakeholder analysis)."}]},{"head":"Figure 1 Major components of the 2019 -2021 project on Innovative approaches to reduce, recycle and reuse FW in urban Sri Lanka","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The major output of the project was to facilitate knowledge development for and drafting of the Urban Roadmap on FW Prevention, Reduction, Management in Sri Lanka, that includes a comprehensive Action Plan with Monitoring and Evaluation criteria. "}]},{"head":"Objectives and methodology","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"The objective of this report is to map 1 state and non-state stakeholders in selected 2 municipalities: Colombo metropolitan area (Colombo, Sri Jayewardenepura-Kotte, Negombo, Kaduwela, and Moratuwa Municipal council areas), Jaffna, Kandy, Batticoloa, Kurunegala and Galle. Stakeholders were grouped in clusters: producers, enterprises/food business operators, private/public/civil society organizations, and households (see Figure 3)."}]},{"head":"Figure 2 Identified urban state and non-state stakeholders' groups","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Source: Authors' elaboration"},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"In Sri Lanka, institutions working on food and/or (bio-)waste can be divided into governmental, semigovernmental, private, and non-governmental. These actors cover governance (e.g. policies and regulations), production, trade, input supply, services, welfare support, and research. Their duties and responsibilities are, sometimes, crosscutting and interrelated with overlaps that can lead to poor coordination."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"The total FW generated in the country was estimated at 3 963 tons per day (FAO/IWMI, 2021c). The data for Colombo Municipality is presented in Figure 4 while it is compared with the food use-not-waste 1 The research was mainly conducted through desk review and telephone interviews."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"2 The selection was based on size of population."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"hierarchy diagram that is indicating main actors and actions that can contribute to FW prevention, and reduction. "}]},{"head":"Analysis of food production governance and its main stakeholders","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"The Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) is a key central government ministry responsible for formulating and implementing the national policy related to food production. An array of institutions is engaged with the MoA to strengthen the food production sector in Sri Lanka. 4 The institutions governing food production in Sri Lanka could be categorized based on their mandates dealing with food crops, plantation crops, export agricultural crops (export crops other than tea, rubber, and coconut), livestock and poultry, fishery, and other allied services such as irrigation, agrarian development, and environment. The institutional linkages of the different ministries and agencies are described in Figure 5."},{"index":2,"size":234,"text":"In addition to the agencies described in Figure 5, there are several Provincial Ministries (Agriculture, Irrigation, Environment, Local Government, Health, etc.) and departments, under each Provincial Ministry, handling the devolved function of the agriculture and food production sector. The national 2019 overarching agricultural policy (draft, available online 5 highlights that the food production sector has an extended number of institutions with poor inter-institutional coordination owing to the devolution of powers without real decentralization leading to top-down approach in implementation and rent-seeking behavior due to over-regulation. There is an absence of sound coordination for knowledge generation and dissemination between national and provincial systems. The key functions and mandates of the main governmental institutions dealing with food production are listed and described in ANNEX 1 (roles and mandates of the key government agencies working with food production). The key private sector players and civil society/producers/consumer organizations engaged in food production are listed in ANNEX 2 (private sector players in food production, manufacturing, and marketing). Additionally, ANNEX 3 (major supermarket chains in the country) is presented along with ANNEX 4 on major restaurant chains in the country. There are many NGOs, civil societies, and consumer/trader organizations working in the areas of food production, distribution, and marketing. Some of the main national-level organizations are described in ANNEX 5 on major national level NGOs and civil societies working on food production, distribution, marketing and waste prevention, minimization, and management"},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"The MoA and the allied institutions are mandated to conduct research and technology development while also promoting innovative practices in production. The MoA has a dedicated Institute for Post-Harvest Technologies, aimed at reducing food losses in the value chain (i.e. from production up to but excluding retail) and also a separate division for food research to develop food preservation techniques that would help strengthening value addition, especially for peak production periods."},{"index":4,"size":139,"text":"The Department of Agriculture (DoA) has developed guidelines and good management practices to minimize the food losses. However, there is no law, regulation, or enforcing mechanism with the DoA to for the implementation of the guidelines or prevent noncompliance. The organizations dealing with food production have no mandate or authority to regulate packaging, handling, and transporting. Efforts to reduce the food losses occurring in the transport of perishables with the introduction of plastic crates by the MoA were not successful due to the significant increase in transport cost with the intervention. Retail markets are under the ministry of Trade, while public fairs and open markets are the property of LAs where a considerable amount of FW is occurring. Therefore, a common platform to reduce FW is critically important -with overarching governance that coordinates the activities of different working groups."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"A significant amount of FW is generated in schools, universities, hospitals, and institutional canteens."},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"According to an estimate, hospitals generate about 01 to 04 metric tons of FW per day 6 , as patients receive food from the hospital while also receiving food from visitors."},{"index":7,"size":85,"text":"Considerable amounts of FW are occurring in the food services sector and retail markets in the selected urban areas. Interventions targeting FW reduction should focus on supply chain optimization, training of employees, raising awareness and disseminating information for customers, and increasing cooperation with charities and social service organizations for recovery and redistribution of safe and nutritious food for direct human consumption. Businesses have an opportunity, for instance, to utilize the resources allocated for Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) to initiate quantification of FW and stakeholders' mapping."},{"index":8,"size":56,"text":"There are several national-level private sector players engaged in food processing and value addition of fruits and vegetables, dairy, and livestock products (see ANNEX 2). Transferring knowledge on international experiences and best practices to prevent and reduce FW to enhance current capacities would benefit the Sri Lanka in general and the food business sector in particular."},{"index":9,"size":79,"text":"Different types of food-related civil societies and national level NGOs have been functioning in the country, especially for fruits and vegetables, livestock, dairy industries, fishery, bakery products, and food services (see ANNEX 5). These organizations have a large number of members and sometimes create regional branches throughout the country. These organizations should be an active part, as identified in Sri Lanka's Roadmap and Action Plan on Urban Food Waste Prevention and Reduction for Households, Food services, Retailers, and Wholesalers."},{"index":10,"size":10,"text":"6. State and non-state actors in food and bio-waste management"},{"index":11,"size":42,"text":"State actors could create and enabling environment for FW reduction through effective policies, regulatory instruments, and incentives for better bio-waste management, multi-stakeholders action plans, and monitoring and reporting mechanisms for FW data (e.g. from wholesale, storage, processing, distribution, food services, and households)."},{"index":12,"size":84,"text":"The diverse roles and responsibilities for food and (bio-)waste related Ministries and Departments are described in ANNEX 6 (role and mandates of central and provincial agencies for (bio-)waste). The function of (bio-)waste management is a responsibility of the Ministry of Local Government and Provincial Councils and relevant LAs which is stipulated in the Municipal Councils Ordinances No.16, Urban Council Ordinance No.61, and Pradeshiya Sabha Act No. 15. Each LA has been given the authority to define the implementation and penalties rules for waste management."},{"index":13,"size":35,"text":"In Sri Lanka, each LA is responsible for the collection and disposal of waste generated by residents and for the development of relevant policies and by-laws that refer to measures related to citizens and businesses."},{"index":14,"size":186,"text":"The National Solid Waste Management Support Center was established to provide technical and financial support for LA's to upgrade the waste management system. The institutional linkages between ministries and agencies are illustrated in Figure 6. The current fragmentation leads to duplicated and overlapping functions. In addition to the mapped government agencies, there are universities, research institutes, and NGOs that are keen about food waste prevention and reduction. The government could initiate collaborative research projects with these organizations to generate knowledge that would facilitate behavior change for wholesalers, retailers, food processors, food services, and consumers. Several private organizations are involved in (bio-)waste management in Sri Lanka. Some of them as the executive body for projects or/and donor organizations, while some are service providers for LAs. The major private sector players in (bio-)waste management, at the moment, are Clean Tech of Abans/Abans Environmental Services PVT Ltd and Care Clean. They are providing services in solid waste collection and transport. Connections are established with piggery farmers to provide former foodstuffs to be utilized as feed from hotels and restaurants -to reduce transport cost of biowaste going to landfill sites."}]},{"head":"Supervision rights over","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Additionally, there is also the commercial company Carekleen Services active in cleaning services for offices, while also working on solid waste management. However, due accessibility and logistics challenges, the private sector involvement in waste management is slowly reducing (Basnayake and Viswanathan, 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"The private sector interest in projects on waste to energy started recently. For example, Biogreen cycle Pvt. Ltd is providing services to the projects related to recovery of energy from waste through a variety of processes, including combustion, gasification, pyrolization, anaerobic digestion, and landfill gas (LFG) recovery. Nevertheless, prevention of FW at source has demonstrated high returns on investment. Current FW management, once the resource becomes waste, should be balanced with reduction efforts."}]},{"head":"Stakeholder analysis in selected Municipality Council areas","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":206,"text":"Colombo Municipal Council (CMC) was established in 1865 and it is one of the oldest Municipalities in South Asia. In addition to the resident population in Colombo, there is an estimated floating population of nearly 500,000. Out of the selected areas, Colombo, Sri Jayewardenepura-Kotte, Kaduwela, Moratuwa and Negombo are in the Colombo Megapolis area and others located in other provinces. Colombo registers a higher male to female ratio compared with the other urban areas analysed. The major demographic features of the selected municipality areas are described in ANNEX 7. The locations of the selected sites are illustrated in Figure 7. There are about 697 private food service entities (eg. hotels, restaurants, and caterers) registered with CMC, excluding star grade hotels. The number of star hotels exceeds 100 within the city limits. The city has the largest wholesale fruits and vegetable market of the country (i.e. Colombo Manning Market) and more than 10 public retail markets provide a regular supply of perishables and other food items to the city dwellers. The city has a current network of supermarkets consisting of nine Keells supermarket, 22 Cargills Food Cities, four Arpico Super Centers, and five Laugfs Super Marts. The dedicated economic center in Narahenpita is another popular retail market."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"The estimated amount of food waste generated in CMC area in 2017 was 353 t/day, which is half of the total waste generated in this geographical area. Waste analysis done for the segregated waste collected by the CMC primarily consisted of household food waste, followed by 110 t/day from food services, 25 t/day from markets, and 9 t/day from slaughterhouses and meat shops (FAO, IWMI, and RUAF, 2018). Therefore, food services are a major group of food waste generators."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"ANNEXES 8 -12 describe the major stakeholders under different categories (e.g. traders, charities, retailers, service provides, regulatory actors), in Colombo city who could contribute to FW prevention, reduction, and recycling."}]},{"head":"Sri Jayewardenepura -Kotte Municipality","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Sri Jayewardenepura -Kotte (commonly known as Kotte) is the official administrative capital of Sri Lanka, located in the southwestern part of the country, about 8 km southeast of the commercial capital of Colombo. The city is one of the planned urban sites with government offices and residential buildings. The Parliament of Sri Lanka and the University of Sri Jayewardenepura are located within the city."},{"index":2,"size":154,"text":"The major identified stakeholders linked with FW generation, management, and regulations are listed in ANNEXES 13 -15. In addition to listed supermarkets, the city area has ten Keells Super, 12 Cargills Food City, four Laugfs Super Mart and two Arpico Super Centers. An analysis of the sectoral contribution of FW in Kaduwela Municipal Council (MC) showed that supermarkets and vegetable fairs/markets account for the highest FW generation followed by hotels and restaurants sector. Typically, the foodservice sector is expected to contribute with the highest amounts of FW. However, in this case, a considerable amount of former foodstuffs generated in hotels and restaurants are diverted to piggery farmers without going to municipal solid waste collection system (Jayathilake et al, 2021). Therefore, the actual FW generated by hotels and restaurants, in this area, is underestimated. The list of stakeholders belongs to various categories associated with FW generation, regulation and management are given in ANNEXES 16 -19."}]},{"head":"Kaduwela Municipal Council","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Moratuwa Municipal Council","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Moratuwa is an area having the second-highest population density in the Colombo metropolitan region. Moratuwa is a large suburb of Colombo city, on the southwestern coast of Sri Lanka, near Dehiwala-Mount Lavinia. It is situated on the Galle-Colombo (Galle road) main highway, 18 km south of Colombo city center."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"According to UN-Habitat (2002), the city is important due to various factors namely it is a town with some modern industrial activities, traditional carpentry workshops and timber industry, fisheries activities, educational and religious centers of a higher order, service activities particularly related to tourists and industry and Residential suburbs of Colombo."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Moratuwa Municipal Council collects around 124.5 tons of solid waste per day that included 66.8 tons of residential waste, 10 tons of hotel and restaurant waste, 24 tons from markets. Waste composition analysis conducted at the disposal site shows that 52.5% of the waste is kitchen waste (JICA,2016). The major food waste generator in the area is households followed by markets and hotels and restaurants."},{"index":4,"size":92,"text":"The city accommodates 23 primary schools, 07 secondary schools, 02 national schools, 02 private schools and 04 international schools. There are several major supermarkets in the area including seven branches of Cargills food city, three branches of Keells Super, and one Arpico Supercenter and Laugf Super Mart, and eight public markets. The key stakeholders associated with food waste generation and management are listed in ANNEXES 20 -22 that cover major private actors, service providing institutions -public and private, regulatory actors and other government organizations responsible for food waste generation and management respectively."}]},{"head":"Negombo Municipal Council","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"Negombo is a city on the west coast of the country and at the shore of Negombo lagoon, close to Colombo International airport. Negombo is one of the fastest-growing tourist destinations in Sri Lanka and it is experiencing a rapid increase in waste generation. The daily waste generation is 157.68 tons and data on solid waste indicates 100.77 tons of residential waste, 14.23 tons of hotels and restaurant waste, and 14.99 tons of markets, daily fairs, fruits/vegetables retail stalls and fish/meat stalls waste (Karunarathna et al., 2019). Hotel waste generation increases by 50-200% during the peak tourist seasons (November to April) and for special events (weddings and parties). Out of the daily collected bio-waste, 10 tons is used for compost-making at the Municipal compost plant. The remaining quantity is currently disposed of at Ovitiyawatta open dumping site (Negombo Municipal Council, 2019). Approximately 1-2 tons of former foodstuffs are collected by private traders to sell as animal feed for piggery farmers (Karunarathna et al., 2019)."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"Negombo has a large number of star grade hotels and guest houses. The area has branches of several major supermarkets including nine branches of Cargills food city, four branches of Keells Super, one Arpico Super Centre and one Laugf Super Mart. Households are the dominant FW generators followed by markets, hotels, and restaurants respectively. The major stakeholders associated with FW generation and potential role in FW reduction and management are listed in ANNEXES 23 -26: major private actors, service providing institutions -public and private, regulatory actors and other government responsible for FW generation and management, and major traders organizations, respectively."}]},{"head":"Kandy Municipal Council","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Kandy is the capital city of the Hill Country. It is a UNESCO heritage city with a high level of tourist attractions. The Municipality area has a population of 98,828 as per the 2012 census, but the city also serves an additional urban fringe population of 116 000 (SLILG, 2018). Kandy registers the highest share of inmigrants as a proportion of the total population (SLILG, 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"According to the registration records of the Kandy Municipal Council (KMC), the area consists of over 330 hotels, restaurants, and caterers excluding star hotels. Total numbers of hotels, including star grade hotels within the Kandy city center, is 96. There are 84 government offices, 33 Schools and 4 hospitals in the KMC area with cafeteria facilities. In addition to 33 supermarkets in the city, numbers of registered vegetables, fruits, fish, and meat stalls are 34, 15, 14 and 29 respectively. The supermarkets include three numbers of Cargills food City, two numbers of Keells Super, One Arpico Super Center, and one Laugf Super Mart."},{"index":3,"size":171,"text":"The total waste generated in the Kandy municipality area was 127 tons per day in 2016 (Karunarathna et al., 2019). According to a waste assessment conducted in 2007, the solid waste generated consisted of 59.2% of FW (Menikpura et al, 2007). However, waste composition analysis done by JICA ( 2003), shows that the waste consisted of on average 58.2 % of kitchen waste that included 77.11 % of residential kitchen waste and 79.67 % of market waste. Dissanayake (2013) also found similar findings and reports that residential waste in the Kandy landfill consisted of 78.3% kitchen waste. Kandy Teaching Hospital alone generates 4 tons of FW per day (Sujeewa Fernando, Ministry of Environment, personal communication, August 2020). ANNEXES 27 -30 indicate the main stakeholders representing different groups who have a potential role to play in FW reduction: major private actors, service providing institutions -public and private, regulatory actors and other government organizations responsible for food waste generation and management, main charities, consumer organizations and NGOs related to food waste management, respectively."}]},{"head":"Galle Municipality","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":191,"text":"Galle is the capital city of Southern Province. The city is a UNESCO heritage city with significant tourism attractions. The average waste generation rate of Galle MC area is 0.28kg/capita/day (i.e. 50.9 tons of waste/day). Out of the total waste generated, 80% is disposed of in an open dumpsite. Households, food business operators, and institutions are the biggest waste generators in Galle, but the contribution from households is the highest (i.e. 51%). The results of waste analysis show that household waste consisted of 68.1 % of kitchen waste and food business operators waste (i.e. hotels and restaurants) with 70-76 % of kitchen waste. (Balasooriya et al., 2015) The city area has more than 350 registered hotels, restaurants, guest houses and caterers excluding star grade hotels. The major supermarkets in the city are three branches of Cargills Food City, two branches of Keells Super, and one branch of Arpico Supercenter. The estimated population in 2017 is 104,000, but the Municipal Council serves an additional fringe population of 263 000 (SLILG, 2018). It has been reported that Galle city has the lowest working-age population out of the nine provincial capital cities (SLILG, 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"ANNEXES 31 -34 indicate the main stakeholders representing different groups who have a potential role to play in FW reduction: major private actors, service providing institutions -public and private, regulatory actors and other government organizations responsible for food waste generation and management, main charities, consumer organizations and NGOs related to food waste management, respectively."}]},{"head":"Jaffna Municipality","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Jaffna is the Northern Capital of the Country. The city is a historical colonial port city. Jaffna's economy is mainly driven by the service economy (SLILG, 2018). The amount of solid waste generated is 104.87 tons per day and the waste generation rate is 1.297 kg/person/day (JICA, 2016). The results of the waste analysis show that the collected solid waste consisted of 68.9% kitchen waste. According to JICA (2016) Jaffna MC has not implemented any program in an organized manner to reduce, overall, the generation of organic waste nor FW."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"The Municipality area has 88 registered hotels, restaurants, eateries, and caterers and 7 numbers of star grade hotels. Numbers of schools with catering facilities is around 17 and also have three degree offering higher educational institutes. The major supermarkets available within the Jaffna Municipality area are three branches of Cargills Food city, and one branch of Arpico Super center. ANNEXES 35 -38 indicate the main stakeholders representing different groups who have a potential role to play in FW reduction: major private actors, service providing institutions -public and private, regulatory actors and other government organizations responsible for food waste generation and management, main charities, consumer organizations and NGOs related to food waste management, respectively."}]},{"head":"Kurunegala Municipality","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Kurunegala is the provincial capital city of North-Western Province. The city provides a good example of ribbon development progressing into urban sprawl. The economy of the city is based on industrial and service sectors. Kurunegala city has the highest level of tertiary education attainment compared to other provincial capital cities (SLILG, 2018). The large number of service-oriented institutions and higher education centers located within the boundaries of Kurunegala MC serve a floating population of about 250 000. According to the Solid Waste Management Action plan of 2008 (JICA, 2016), the total waste generated in the Kurunegala MC area is 48 tons/day, including 2.46 tons of waste generated from hotels and restaurants. Overall, the total waste consisted of 52% of kitchen waste."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"The supermarket list excludes the major supermarkets including two Cargills Food city outlets, one each of Keells Super, Laugf Super Mart and Arpico Super Centre."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"ANNEXES 39 -41 indicate the main stakeholders representing different groups who have a potential role to play in FW reduction: major private actors, service providing institutions -public and private, regulatory actors and other government organizations responsible for food waste generation and management, main charities, consumer organizations and NGOs related to food waste management, respectively."}]},{"head":"Batticoloa Municipality","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Batticoloa is an eastern coastal town surrounded by the Indian Ocean and Batticoloa lagoon. The quantity of waste generated in the Batticoloa MC area is 52.5 tons per day (Otoo et al., 2016) in which 57% is organic waste (Bandara, 2011). Out of the total waste collected, 12 tons of waste is segregated at source. The segregated waste consists of 8% of food and market waste. Households are the major waste generators in Batticoloa followed by markets, hotels, restaurants, institutions (e.g. hospitals, universities) and commercial entities."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"The MC area consisted of 23 721 households, five markets, one slaughterhouse, 55 hotels and restaurants, three hospitals, and 44 commercial and institutional establishments (Otoo et al., 2016). Waste analysis done for the collected household waste indicates that FW generation is the highest category of waste from the total waste generated at household level amounting to 3.4 tons per day. The study further reveals that every person generates 260g of FW per day and FW contributes nearly 88% of the total waste generated by the households in the study area (Sivakumar and Sugitharan, 2010)."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"The area has the highest poverty headcount index out of all selected municipalities given in Table 7. In addition to the resident population of 86 200, there is a floating population of around 3 000 that is daily coming to Batticoloa town for their work."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"ANNEXES 42 -45 indicate the main stakeholders representing different groups who have a potential role to play in FW reduction: major private actors, service providing institutions -public and private, regulatory actors and other government organizations responsible for food waste generation and management, main charities, consumer organizations and NGOs related to food waste management, respectively."}]},{"head":"Concluding remarks","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"There is a large array of institutions in the country, starting from food production to consumer affairs, that are performing their duties throughout the food consumption, production, and supply chain. The report highlights a lack of coordination that leads to a duplication of tasks and a risk of not realizing the full potential of complementarities in the efforts to prevent and reduce FW. There is a need for a common platform on the topic."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Most state entities seldom work closely with non-state stakeholders, including grass-root organizations. Currently there is no mechanism to implement or enforce provisions made through a large number of legislations and policies that are linked with FW prevention and reduction."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Most institutions involved in waste management are not fully aware of or concerned about the importance of FW reduction and do not yet have sufficient budgetary allocation to start investments that would lead to significant socio-economic and environmental returns."},{"index":4,"size":96,"text":"LAs, as the actors responsible for handling and managing waste, are currently involved in recovering nutrients and resources from former foodstuffs (i.e. through animal feed) and food waste (i.e. through comport). The private sector and civil society organizations launched initiatives on redistribution and recovery of safe and nutritious food for direct human consumption. However, the lack of official legal and operational guidelines for redistribution and recovery of safe and nutritious food for direct human consumption as well as for utilization of former foodstuffs for animal feed, combined with a gap in enforcement and monitoring is highlighted."},{"index":5,"size":170,"text":"The country's institutional framework should focus on creating awareness among the stakeholders involved in both food production and FW prevention and reduction. Building capacities of all state and nonstate stakeholders is a timely to effectively implement win-win strategies that lead to significant returns on investment. The WMA is responsible for the supervision of waste management of the entire WP. As per the WMA Statute No.1 adopted by the WMA has a role to provide technical and financial assistance to all LAs of the WP to build their capacities in SWM, collecting waste data in WP, developing common final disposal sites to LAs and also assisting to LAs to conduct public awareness and environmental education to develop waste management discipline among the public. Email: wmawp.gov@gmail.com Web: http://www.wma.wp.gov.lk/ Central Environmen tal Authority Regional Offices CEA has established provincial offices and District offices to have easy access to the entrusted services to the people and industrialists. The regional offices have the cadre force with a Regional Director Assistant Director, Senior Environmental Officers (SEO)."}]},{"head":"Local Authority (LA)","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"LAs, under the supervision of the PCs, are responsible for health and hygiene, waste disposal, and regional environmental protection of the designated area. According to the power vested to the LAs, they are responsible for the ownership and resource allocation of waste in the area of concern. The Local Authorities have to create awareness among the people, on how LAs can assist people in collecting solid waste through notices and announcements. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 Figure 1 Major components of Innovative approaches to reduce, recycle and reuse FW in urban Sri Lanka project ..................................................................................................................................................................... Figure 3 Identified urban state and non-state stakeholders' groups .................................................................... Figure 4 The food-use-not waste hierarchy (adapted from HLPE 2014), on the left, compared with current food waste management practice in the selected urban study area in Sri Lanka, on the right .................................... Figure 2 Administrative and political structures .................................................................................................. Figure 5 Sri Lanka, main institutions handling the food production sector activities at the national level, 2019 ...................................................................................................................................................................... Figure 6 Institutional linkages of the Regulatory agencies of the central government and provincial administration on food control and waste management in Sri Lanka ................................................................ Figure 7 Locations of the selected Municipality areas......................................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 3 Figure3The food-use-not waste hierarchy (adapted from HLPE 2014), on the left, compared with current food waste management practice in the selected urban study area in Sri Lanka, on the right "},{"text":"Figure 5 Figure 5 Sri Lanka, main institutions handling the food production sector activities at the national level, 2019 "},{"text":" LAs was handed over from the central government to the Provincial Councils (PCs) through the 13th Amendment of the 1987 constitution. Its rights relating to waste management were, accordingly, handed over to the PC in the Provincial Council Act No. 42. Ministry of Environment formulated the National Environmental Act (NEA) No.47 in 1980 aiming to preserve the environment and to prevent pollution. Consequently, the Central Environmental Authority (CEA) was established. Food safety falls under the mandate of the Food Control Administration Unit (FCAU) with the leadership of the Director-General of Health Services, Ministry of Health who is also the chairperson the Food Advisory Committee (FAC) represented by various stakeholders from government departments/ministries, private sector, and consumer organizations. In addition to the Ministry of Health, other major ministries involved in FAC are the Ministry of Technology and Research, Ministry of Trade, Ministry of Finance (Department of Customs), and Ministry of Agriculture (Livestock). "},{"text":"Figure 7 Figure 7 Locations of the selected Municipality areas "},{"text":"Kaduwela Municipality is a growing peri-urban city near Colombo. It is located about 16 km from Colombo city center on the Colombo -Avissawella old road. The city area hosts several key Ministries and International organizations such as the International Water Management Institute and the Overseas School of Colombo. Several major supermarkets have opened the branches in the area including 11 Cargills Food city branches, six Keells super outlets, two Laugfs Super Marts, and three Arpico Supercenters. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" The Sri Lanka's Roadmap and Action Plan on Urban Food Waste Prevention and Reduction for Households, Food services, Retailers, and Wholesale offers the starting point towards reaching SDG 12.3. Association Waste protect Coconut Cultivation in Sri Lanka. from this market daily. Over 360,000 kilos om/ Secretary, C/O The National Chamber of Association Wasteprotect Coconut Cultivation in Sri Lanka. from this market daily. Over 360,000 kilosom/ Secretary, C/O The National Chamber of Lanka Canneries Edinborough Products (Pvt) Limited. MILCO Fonterra Association in Sri Lanka Canneries is manufacturing jam, cordial, chutney and pickle extracted from fresh fruits and vegetables. The company is involving in manufacturing and marketing a range of quality food products that include sauces, chutneys, pickles, jams, cordials, fruit drinks, concentrate Juices, Syrups, oil, etc. The mission of the MICO is to improve the standard of living of the local dairy farmer and increase milk production ensuring customer satisfaction by supplying quality fresh milk and dairy products at competitive prices, through effective and efficient milk collection from farmers, processing fresh milk, and marketing the milk products under the Highland brand. Fonterra sells a range of Anchor brand products and Lanka (SEASL) export companies in Sri Lankan to discuss Mobile + 94 (0) 777580 371 Mr.Nilhan Ekanayake -Export Manager, PO. BOX 341, Nawala Road, Colombo 00500. Tel:+94 11 2 586622 Email:md-lankacanneries@eureka.lk Web: https://www.facebook.com/ Moragasmulla, Rajagiriya Tel: +94772984984 Email: info@edinboroughfoods.com Web: http://www.edinborough.lk/ No: 100 New Kandy Rd, common platform for the leading seafood Email dilan@tsf.lk from Sri Lanka. The SEASL provides a Haldanduwana, Dankotuwa engaged in the export of seafood products President -SEASL, Bubulla Watte, promote the interests of companies development in the organization. MILCO engages in Seafood Exporters The SEASL was created to represent and Dilan Fernando management, encouraging human resources No: 45, Nawala Road, Narahenpita industry. Web: www.milco.lk/ Vision. It consists of 83 members from the https://www.srilankanspices.com/ 368082 unifying their efforts to realize the Industry Road, Colombo 06. Tel: 070 3979936, Web: Colombo 00500. Tel: 0112 exporter of coconut products in the country. Spices and Allied Products Producers Association The Association promotes regular dialogue with the state agencies and all other policy-making bodies to enable its members, comprising exporters, producers, and brokers associated with the spice industry to address, with one voice. Mrs. Nisansala Perera, 5588801; Email: nisansala@chamber.lk Spice Council The Spice Council acts as the apex body to meet the aspirations of stakeholders by Colombo Liaising Office, No. 23, Charlemont (MARKFED) Mr. Dhammika Gunasekera, Secretary, operative Marketing Federation Ltd to assist and provide venues for the industrial products markfed@sltnet.lk marketing of rural agricultural and Tel: +94112325497, Email: Colombo, Sri Lanka 00200. Tel; +94-11-Sri Lanka Co-Federation of cooperative societies aimed 127, Grandpass Road, Colombo 14, Commerce, No.50, Navam Mawatha Web: https://www.thasl.lk/ Manager, C/O; Ceylon Chamber of Association of Sri Lanka (THASL) industry in the country. It's membership E-mail: thasl@chamber.lk located in different parts of the country. Colombo 02 Tel: 55 888 00 presently stands at 200 hotels and resorts 2nd Floor, No: 50, Navam Mawatha 12, New Kolonnawa Road, based manufacture, processor, and The Hotels THASL is the apex body of the entire hotel C/o Ceylon Chamber of Commerce, LankaCanneriesPvtLtd/ Commerce, 450, D.R. Wijewardena Mawatha, Colombo 10, Sri Lanka. Tel; 0773219741 of fish are supplied to the market daily Manageme from various parts of the country. nt Authority E-mail: lankacoconutgrowers@gmail.com; All Ceylon Bakery Association is the voice of the baking Mr. Annesly Roshan Hettiarachchi of Western Web: http://lankacoconutgrowers.com/ Sri Lankan Coconut Producers' Co-operative Societies Union Ltd The Sri Lankan Coconut Producers' Co-operative Societies Union Ltd is the Apex smallholders. They are the only grower-Web: http://www.acboa.lk/ Coconut Co-operative in Sri Lanka of 127 Grandpass Rd, Colombo 01400 bakeryowners@gmail.com Tel: Phone: 0112 323 540 Owners Association industry composed of baking professionals -A 15-15, Industrial Estate, Ekala, Ja-Ela, Sri Province from various fields of baking here in Sri Tel: (+94) 76-656-2042, email: Lanka. Lanka. (WMA) Lanka Canneries Edinborough Products (Pvt) Limited. MILCO Fonterra Association in Sri Lanka Canneries is manufacturing jam, cordial, chutney and pickle extracted from fresh fruits and vegetables. The company is involving in manufacturing and marketing a range of quality food products that include sauces, chutneys, pickles, jams, cordials, fruit drinks, concentrate Juices, Syrups, oil, etc. The mission of the MICO is to improve the standard of living of the local dairy farmer and increase milk production ensuring customer satisfaction by supplying quality fresh milk and dairy products at competitive prices, through effective and efficient milk collection from farmers, processing fresh milk, and marketing the milk products under the Highland brand. Fonterra sells a range of Anchor brand products and Lanka (SEASL) export companies in Sri Lankan to discuss Mobile + 94 (0) 777580 371 Mr.Nilhan Ekanayake -Export Manager, PO. BOX 341, Nawala Road, Colombo 00500. Tel:+94 11 2 586622 Email:md-lankacanneries@eureka.lk Web: https://www.facebook.com/ Moragasmulla, Rajagiriya Tel: +94772984984 Email: info@edinboroughfoods.com Web: http://www.edinborough.lk/ No: 100 New Kandy Rd, common platform for the leading seafood Email dilan@tsf.lk from Sri Lanka. The SEASL provides a Haldanduwana, Dankotuwa engaged in the export of seafood products President -SEASL, Bubulla Watte, promote the interests of companies development in the organization. MILCO engages in Seafood Exporters The SEASL was created to represent and Dilan Fernando management, encouraging human resources No: 45, Nawala Road, Narahenpita industry. Web: www.milco.lk/ Vision. It consists of 83 members from the https://www.srilankanspices.com/ 368082 unifying their efforts to realize the Industry Road, Colombo 06. Tel: 070 3979936, Web: Colombo 00500. Tel: 0112 exporter of coconut products in the country. Spices and Allied Products Producers Association The Association promotes regular dialogue with the state agencies and all other policy-making bodies to enable its members, comprising exporters, producers, and brokers associated with the spice industry to address, with one voice. Mrs. Nisansala Perera, 5588801; Email: nisansala@chamber.lk Spice Council The Spice Council acts as the apex body to meet the aspirations of stakeholders by Colombo Liaising Office, No. 23, Charlemont (MARKFED) Mr. Dhammika Gunasekera, Secretary, operative Marketing Federation Ltd to assist and provide venues for the industrial products markfed@sltnet.lk marketing of rural agricultural and Tel: +94112325497, Email: Colombo, Sri Lanka 00200. Tel; +94-11-Sri Lanka Co-Federation of cooperative societies aimed 127, Grandpass Road, Colombo 14, Commerce, No.50, Navam Mawatha Web: https://www.thasl.lk/ Manager, C/O; Ceylon Chamber of Association of Sri Lanka (THASL) industry in the country. It's membership E-mail: thasl@chamber.lk located in different parts of the country. Colombo 02 Tel: 55 888 00 presently stands at 200 hotels and resorts 2nd Floor, No: 50, Navam Mawatha 12, New Kolonnawa Road, based manufacture, processor, and The Hotels THASL is the apex body of the entire hotel C/o Ceylon Chamber of Commerce, LankaCanneriesPvtLtd/ Commerce, 450, D.R. Wijewardena Mawatha, Colombo 10, Sri Lanka. Tel; 0773219741 of fish are supplied to the market daily Manageme from various parts of the country. nt Authority E-mail: lankacoconutgrowers@gmail.com; All Ceylon Bakery Association is the voice of the baking Mr. Annesly Roshan Hettiarachchi of Western Web: http://lankacoconutgrowers.com/ Sri Lankan Coconut Producers' Co-operative Societies Union Ltd The Sri Lankan Coconut Producers' Co-operative Societies Union Ltd is the Apex smallholders. They are the only grower-Web: http://www.acboa.lk/ Coconut Co-operative in Sri Lanka of 127 Grandpass Rd, Colombo 01400 bakeryowners@gmail.com Tel: Phone: 0112 323 540 Owners Association industry composed of baking professionals -A 15-15, Industrial Estate, Ekala, Ja-Ela, Sri Province from various fields of baking here in Sri Tel: (+94) 76-656-2042, email: Lanka. Lanka. (WMA)  some other own bands. The company's vision is to concerns and constraints affecting seafood Web: www.seasl.lk Kaduwela 11650 some other own bands. The company's vision is to concerns and constraints affecting seafood Web: www.seasl.lk Kaduwela 11650  provide high-quality dairy products to Sri Lanka and exports per se, as well as issues affecting Tel : 0112 488032, Email: provide high-quality dairy products to Sri Lanka and exports per se, as well as issues affectingTel : 0112 488032, Email:  to develop a thriving dairy industry. With nine filling the fisheries industry as a whole in Sri fbl.communications@fonterr to develop a thriving dairy industry. With nine filling the fisheries industry as a whole in Srifbl.communications@fonterr  machines working around the clock, the plant packs Lanka. a.com machines working around the clock, the plant packs Lanka.a.com mm 5270 metric tons of milk powder every month. Dairy Association The membership of the Association Ms. Shehara de Silva, Management Web: mm 5270 metric tons of milk powder every month. Dairy Association The membership of the Association Ms. Shehara de Silva, Management Web: for Sri Lanka comprised of individuals or firms engaged https://www.fonterra.com/lk Executive, C/O; Ceylon Chamber of for Sri Lankacomprised of individuals or firms engagedhttps://www.fonterra.com/lk Executive, C/O; Ceylon Chamber of in farming, producing, processing, Lanka Milk Foods (LMF) Ltd is a public-private partnership company, established to package and Commerce, No.50, Navam Mawatha /en.html distribute imported milk powder. They have products ranging from Lakspray, Daily, and My Juice. Welisara, Ragama. Tel: 011 295 6263; Email: importing of dairy products and providing Colombo 00200. Tel: +94-11-5588800 associated services to serve as the central Email: shehara@chamber.lk forum for consensus-building and more lakspray@lmfgroup.lk competitive in the marketplace. Web: Animal and Animal Lanka Milk Foods (LMF) Ltd The members of this organization are C S K Kularaj Perera, President, Animal and https://www.lmfgroup.lk/ Nestlé (Pvt.) Ltd Nestlé's milk collection network currently involves more than 25 000 farms and represents an estimated 40 percent of the total fresh milk collected Production working with several hotels, restaurants, Animal Production Association, 440 T. B. Jayah Mawatha, the piggery. 699 991; Web: Farmers) to collect the food waste generated to feed Colombo 00100. Tel: 0112 Association (pig and institutions (hospitals, etc.) in Colombo Kudahapola South, Ja-Ela. Tel: 077-6228414 in farming, producing, processing, Lanka Milk Foods (LMF) Ltd is a public-private partnership company, established to package and Commerce, No.50, Navam Mawatha /en.html distribute imported milk powder. They have products ranging from Lakspray, Daily, and My Juice. Welisara, Ragama. Tel: 011 295 6263; Email: importing of dairy products and providing Colombo 00200. Tel: +94-11-5588800 associated services to serve as the central Email: shehara@chamber.lk forum for consensus-building and more lakspray@lmfgroup.lk competitive in the marketplace. Web: Animal and Animal Lanka Milk Foods (LMF) Ltd The members of this organization are C S K Kularaj Perera, President, Animal and https://www.lmfgroup.lk/ Nestlé (Pvt.) Ltd Nestlé's milk collection network currently involves more than 25 000 farms and represents an estimated 40 percent of the total fresh milk collected Production working with several hotels, restaurants, Animal Production Association, 440 T. B. Jayah Mawatha, the piggery. 699 991; Web: Farmers) to collect the food waste generated to feed Colombo 00100. Tel: 0112 Association (pig and institutions (hospitals, etc.) in Colombo Kudahapola South, Ja-Ela. Tel: 077-6228414 nationwide. Nestlé runs a substantial milk powder-Traders Federation The fish market consisted of 148 wholesale Mr. Jayantha Cooray, Secretary, St. Johns www.nestle.lk/en processing operation based on locally procured milk. Pelwatte Dairy Pelwatte Dairy Industries Ltd is a leading Company specialized in milk processing, animal feed and dairy of St. John Fish stalls and 128 retail stalls and 25 MT Fish Market Traders' Federation, Peliyagoda. NO: A4, Perahera Mawatha, Colombo -00300 Market, Peliyagoda capacity ice plant. Over 3,000 consumers from Colombo city and its suburbs buy fish Tel: 077341830 nationwide. Nestlé runs a substantial milk powder-Traders Federation The fish market consisted of 148 wholesale Mr. Jayantha Cooray, Secretary, St. Johns www.nestle.lk/en processing operation based on locally procured milk. Pelwatte Dairy Pelwatte Dairy Industries Ltd is a leading Company specialized in milk processing, animal feed and dairy of St. John Fish stalls and 128 retail stalls and 25 MT Fish Market Traders' Federation, Peliyagoda. NO: A4, Perahera Mawatha, Colombo -00300 Market, Peliyagoda capacity ice plant. Over 3,000 consumers from Colombo city and its suburbs buy fish Tel: 077341830  "},{"text":" 0112 696 331 Web: https://hayleysagriculture.com/ Abans Environnemental Services (Pvt) Ltd No141 Kirula Rd, Colombo 00500. Tel: 0117 717 777 071 036 5337 Web: https://abansiss.com/ Carekleen (Pvt) Ltd No. 125 Jawatta Rd, Colombo 05. 077 725 1351 Web: https://www.carekleen.lk/ Green Keepers (Pvt) Ltd 6A Barnes Pl, Colombo 7. Tel:0114 401 451 Web: https://www.greenkeepers.lk/contact-us.php Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources New Secretariat Colombo 10. Tel:0112446183 Web: https://www.fisheries.gov.lk/ Manning Market Traders Association Mr. Anil Indrajith, Secretary, Colombo 11. Tel: 0772010685 Traders Association of Narahenpita Dedicated Economic Center Mr. Chanka Karunarathna, Manager, Kirimandala Mawatha, Colombo 05. 0112 369 626 Email: karunarathnawrcp@gmail.com Annex 12 Colombo: main charities, consumer organizations and NGOs related to food waste prevention and management Annex 11 Colombo: major traders' organizations  Annex 11 Colombo: major traders' organizations Name Contact Details  NameContact Details Name Contact Details Remarks NameContact DetailsRemarks The Soup Bowl Ms. Rishani Sittampalam , Tel: +94 774841134, A group of volunteers works The Soup BowlMs. Rishani Sittampalam , Tel: +94 774841134,A group of volunteers works  Email: rishanisittampalam@gmail.com together to serve underprivileged Email: rishanisittampalam@gmail.comtogether to serve underprivileged  Web: people providing meals and Web:people providing meals and  https://www.facebook.com/TheSoupBowlSriLanka/ essential food items. They https://www.facebook.com/TheSoupBowlSriLanka/essential food items. They   distribute food to the children's distribute food to the children's   homes, homes for elders, and homes, homes for elders, and   street people. street people. The Robin Hood Army Mr. Aqeel, Tel: 0765297829; Email: The Robin Hood Army is a The Robin Hood ArmyMr. Aqeel, Tel: 0765297829; Email:The Robin Hood Army is a  robinhoodarmycolombo@gmail.com volunteer-based, zero-funds robinhoodarmycolombo@gmail.comvolunteer-based, zero-funds  Web: https://www.facebook.com/groups/RHASL/ organization that works to get Web: https://www.facebook.com/groups/RHASL/organization that works to get   surplus food from restaurants and surplus food from restaurants and   the community to serve poor the community to serve poor   communities in the urban areas. communities in the urban areas. West Paws Rotary Club of Colombo West 26, Retreat Road, West Paws is an initiative of the West PawsRotary Club of Colombo West 26, Retreat Road,West Paws is an initiative of the  Colombo 4, Sri Lanka, Colombo 07. Tel: Colombo West Rotaract Club Colombo 4, Sri Lanka, Colombo 07. Tel:Colombo West Rotaract Club  0765297829 which collects and delivers leftover 0765297829which collects and delivers leftover   food from restaurants to animal food from restaurants to animal   shelters. They also accept financial shelters. They also accept financial   donations to cover transport costs. donations to cover transport costs.   Currently, they are partnered with Currently, they are partnered with   Isso restaurant, Habibi Kitchen, Isso restaurant, Habibi Kitchen,   Royal Bakery and Nimsara caterers Royal Bakery and Nimsara caterers Federation of Sri Lankan Local 296/2C, Off High level road, Shanthi Mawatha, This is an NGO established with a Federation of Sri Lankan Local296/2C, Off High level road, Shanthi Mawatha,This is an NGO established with a Government Authorities Colombo 10250. Tel: 0112 810 685 mission \"To Coordinate a unified Government AuthoritiesColombo 10250. Tel: 0112 810 685mission \"To Coordinate a unified  Web: https://fslga.lk/ approach among the Local Web: https://fslga.lk/approach among the Local   Authorities, whilst increasing their Authorities, whilst increasing their   effective participation, effective participation,   strengthening their functions and strengthening their functions and   capacity to facilitate their joint capacity to facilitate their joint   actions, establishing good actions, establishing good  "}],"sieverID":"be435971-62b5-4084-ac89-f5e4e7584903","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07867b492c9fe042c7e533cd434350a4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b5ede600-9b64-42e1-bcc1-e585e3feca2c/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"The long term objective of the project is to secure and improve livelihoods of poor livestock keepers through utilisation and conservation of indigenous FAnGR","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Red jungle fowl cock Indigenous chicken flock Beetal herd-Makhi-cheeni Ban pig","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Project objectives are being achieved through three main components and focus areas;"},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"i.Tools for documentation and assessment of FAnGR: development and testing of appropriate tools for breeding and management, as well as a framework for their implementation at community level; diversity assessment and conservation of priority breeds; and cost-benefit analysis for alternative breeds in low-input production systems."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"ii. iii.Market and policy analysis: stakeholder analysis; development of a conceptual framework for characterizing existing indigenous FAnGR marketing systems and guiding marketing options; identification of policies and their impact."}]},{"head":"Collaborating Institutions","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Conservation and sustainable use of indigenous farm animal genetic resources (FAnGR) in Asia and in other regions of the developing world merit considerable attention. These regions are home to highly diverse FAnGR, which both directly and indirectly contribute significantly to their keepers' livelihoods and to humankind in many other ways."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Diversity of FAnGR is, however, fast disappearing, hence an urgent need to conserve the existing functional genetic diversity. This can be achieved by sustainably improving the productivity of the existing breeds and crop-livestock production systems to respond to the current and future increases in demand for livestock products."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"Being centres of origin for several major livestock species (e.g. pig, chickens and goats), South and South-East Asian countries, such as Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Vietnam are particularly rich in genetic diversity of FAnGR."}]},{"head":"Why conserve indigenous livestock?","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Rich diversity in these countries is being genetically eroded following indiscriminate crossbreeding and breed replacement programs. With a number of livestock breeds having already become extinct, there is a growing and urgent need to characterize and sustainably use/conserve the remaining breeds, so as to meet the increasing demand for livestock products and to be able to effectively respond to the uncertain future demands in marketing and production systems as well as to the challenges posed by climate change."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"The FAO Global Action Plan has identified the lack of relevant institutional capacity as a key constraint to the conservation and utilisation of FAnGR."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"Thus, there is an urgent need to generate evidence in partnership with livestock keeping communities and to create awareness at the community and government decision making levels on the key place and roles of FAnGR. In addition, the related links between poverty alleviation in rural areas and the improvement of livestock production through sustainable use/conservation of FAnGR diversity must be stressed."},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"This can be achieved through:"},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"• Capacity building and training of relevant stakeholders;"},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"• Developing and making available decision-support tools and frameworks for information generation and knowledge management so as to enable prioritization, sustainable in-situ utilization, and conservation of indigenous FAnGR."},{"index":7,"size":33,"text":"Little has been done in developing countries with regard to strategies that enable the sustainable use of FAnGR for securing and improving human livelihoods. Such strategies will need to address the following aspects:"},{"index":8,"size":18,"text":"• which indigenous populations/breeds exist today, and what contributions are they making to the livelihoods of their keepers?"},{"index":9,"size":26,"text":"• how can such contributions of FAnGR to human livelihoods and sustained environmental health be enhanced or optimized (i.e. how can maximum economic returns be achieved)?"},{"index":10,"size":31,"text":"• how can the information above be incorporated into decisions on conservation and utilization programs, and/or mainstreamed into the planning processes and resource allocation for the existing indigenous and non-indigenous FAnGRs?"},{"index":11,"size":25,"text":"• how best can agricultural improvement programs be designed so as to minimize potential negative impacts on the genetic diversity of FAnGR and the environment?"},{"index":12,"size":21,"text":"• how can existing policy and marketing agencies be better informed to be more supportive of sustainable utilization of indigenous FAnGRs?"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"c6096a91-573f-4d8e-b153-29064a36a30d","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07a34a7340168c4e2fb860db9643e27a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/5239/994d1094751ef436529e3565e15c79e2.pdf"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Relationships between pond water and tilapia skin microbiomes in aquaculture ponds in Malawi","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":191,"text":"Capture fisheries will not be able to satisfy the demand for seafood products from an ever-increasing human population with rising living standards (Henchion et al., 2017) combined with plateauing, and in some cases declining, wild fish stocks due to overfishing and ecosystem degradation (Link and Watson, 2019). Seeking to meet this demand for aquatic products, many aquaculture farming practices are undergoing intensification. Shifting from extensive to intensive and semi-intensive practices in aquaculture, however, is often associated with increased incidence of infectious disease (Hinchliffe et al., 2020;Pulkkinen et al., 2010). Intensification can cause chronic stress that adversely impacts fish physiology resulting in reduced growth and impaired disease resilience. Increasing pond stocking rates and levels often occurs with insufficient amounts of clean water, leading to the deterioration of water quality, including dissolved oxygen, pH and ammonia (Abdel-Tawwab et al., 2014;Sundh et al., 2019), which in turn impacts negatively on fish growth and health, and renders the fish more susceptible to diseases. Regular restocking of ponds with fish of uncertain health status to compensate for mortalities, in turn, increases the likelihood of repeated introductions of sub-clinical infections (Bondad-Reantaso et al., 2005;Murray and Peeler, 2005)."},{"index":2,"size":168,"text":"Disease remains a huge challenge for aquaculture, particularly in Asia where 89% of global aquaculture production occurs (FAO, 2020c). Successful management of disease risk and intensification of aquatic species production requires a better understanding of the relationships between the microbial systems (microbiomes) of both the cultured aquaculture species and of the environments in which they are grown (Bass et al., 2019). The study of microbiomes in aquaculture is gaining momentum and recent studies have investigated how pond and fish treatments (e.g. antibiotics, dietary supplements, probiotic treatments and pond fertilisers) affect fish microbiomes (Limbu et al., 2018;Minich et al., 2018;Suphoronski et al., 2019;Tan et al., 2019). Much of this research has focused on the gut microbiome due to its intricate role in gut health, which when optimised can maximise feed conversion, growth, and overall aquaculture productivity (Perry et al., 2020). When considering disease resistance and/or susceptibility in fish aquaculture, however, arguably the microbial communities harboured on/in the skin and gills are likely to be equally if not more important."},{"index":3,"size":317,"text":"These outer facing mucosal surfaces are in continuous contact with the aquatic environment and provide a primary barrier against invading pathogens (Legrand et al., 2018;Rosado et al., 2019b). The microbes colonising this skin niche include those specifically adapted to the host mucosal surface, as evidenced by host-species specificity of microbiome composition (Doane et al., 2020), but also microbes derived from the surrounding water community (Krotman et al., 2020). Relatively little is known about the environmental and host contributions to these microbial assemblages, particularly in aquaculture ponds. It is known, however, that skin colonisers have a direct connection with the host immune system helping to shape its function and responses (Kanther et al., 2014). Equally, the immune system provides feedback in sculpting the microbial community structure (Kelly and Salinas, 2017;Tarnecki et al., 2019). If these finely balanced communities are disrupted, to a state known as dysbiosis, resulting health complications and disease may occur. The fish skin microbiome has been reported to change following stressful events, such as high stocking densities and hypoxia (Boutin et al., 2013), in fish showing clinical signs of gastrointestinal enteritis (Legrand et al., 2018) and also following viral infection (by salmonid alphavirus; see Reid et al., 2017), bacterial infection (by Photobacterium damselae; see Rosado et al., 2019b) and macroparasitism (by the sea lice Lepeophtheirus salmonis; see Llewellyn et al., 2017). In all of these cases, there was a decrease in abundance of reputedly beneficial taxa, concurrent with an increase in opportunistic pathogens. The resulting theory is that dysbiosis within the skin microbiome causes fish to become more susceptible to secondary bacterial infections. This has been shown for exposure to the antimicrobials rifampicin in Gambusia affinis Baird & Girard (Carlson et al., 2015) and potassium permanganate (Mohammed and Arias, 2015) in Ictalurus punctatus Rafinesque, where increased mortality occurred for dysbiotic fish compared with controls when challenged with the disease-causing Edwardsiella ictaluri and Flavobacterium columnare, respectively."},{"index":4,"size":234,"text":"A limitation in the majority of microbiome studies, regardless of host species, is a focus on the bacterial community only with little or no attention given to the remaining microbial community members. This includes microeukaryotes, a taxonomic group that encompasses protists, microfungi, microalgae, and microbial metazoans (Bass and del Campo, 2020;del Campo et al., 2019), as well as viruses that infect an expansive host range including microeukaryotes, bacteria and the animal host (Gadoin et al., 2021). Microeukaryotic communities are well described in some settings, such as the contribution of microalgae to primary production in the ocean (Benoiston et al., 2017). The relationships between microeukaryotes and animal hosts have predominantly focussed on parasitism and pathogenesis, yet microeukaryotes play an intricate role in the broader microbial community of host-associated niches. One of the best described examples is Blastocystis, a protist commonly found to colonise the gut of humans and other animal hosts. Its presence is thought to correlate with protection against several gastrointestinal inflammatory diseases by interacting with the bacterial community to promote a healthy microbiome (Laforest-Lapointe and Arrieta, 2018), specifically via an associated increase in bacterial diversity and strong co-occurrence patterns with reputed beneficial bacteria (Audebert et al., 2016;Beghini et al., 2017). The full role Blastocystis plays in human health remains unresolved and controversial. The extent of interactions occurring between bacteria and microeukaryotes and/or viruses in the fish skin microbiome is largely unknown and unreported."},{"index":5,"size":146,"text":"Tilapia are the most widely farmed finfish in global aquaculture, produced in over 170 countries. Numerous species of tilapia are farmed, dominated by Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus L.), and predominantly in lower-middle income countries (LMICs) across the Southeast Asian, African and South American continents (FAO, 2020b). Given their fast growth, adaptability to a variety of environmental culture conditions, and resilience against both disease and poor water quality, tilapia are now a production staple for many LMICs, and colloquially is often referred to as the aquatic chicken (FAO, 2020a). While some aquaculture species grown in LMICs, such as shrimp, are high-value products for export, the bulk of tilapia production is for domestic markets. As a consequence, fewer regulations exist for tilapia production (El-Sayed, 2019) and there has been far less scientific research for optimising sustainable production compared to some other high-value teleost species, such as Atlantic salmon."},{"index":6,"size":236,"text":"Aquaculture in Malawi is in its relative infancy compared with other countries in Africa and Asia. Nevertheless, production has seen on average a 24% yearly growth between 2006and 2016(CASA, 2020)). The levels of intensification or disease incidence seen in Malawi are low compared with Asia, but as demand increases, disease levels will inevitably increase also. Tilapia species cultured in Malawi include Coptodon rendalli Boulenger and Oreochromis shiranus Boulenger, with the notable absence of Nile tilapia, which is considered an invasive species. To fully elucidate the influence of microbiomes on fish health during disease processes, we need to better understand the relationships between the microbial diversity, community variance and structure in the mucosal surfaces of fish and those in the aquatic environment, including microeukaryotes (often excluded from microbiome studies), for disease-free populations. In this study therefore, we applied high throughput DNA sequencing for metabarcoding of the 16S and 18S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) small subunit (SSU) marker genes (which are conserved within prokaryotes and eukaryotes, respectively), to characterise the microbial communities of pond water and tilapia skin (C. rendalli and O. shiranus) from earthen aquaculture ponds in Malawi. With these data, we investigated the relationships between the pond water and skin microbiome. We identified differentially enriched and core taxa within the tilapia skin microbiome that are likely to play an important biological role for the host and may provide notable taxa for future studies to interpret disease events."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sample collection","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"Seven tilapia aquaculture earthen ponds were sampled in October 2017 from two pond systems in Malawi. Two ponds from a commercial farm were located in Maldeco, and a five ponds from a community pond syndicate were located 200 km further south in Blantyre (Supplementary Fig. S1). Two sample types were collected: pond water and tilapia skin swabs (Table 1). Pond surface water was collected from five locations within each pond by passing 200 mL of water through a polycarbonate filter (0.4 μm pore, 47 mm diameter, Whatman). The volumes of water filtered were affected by the amount of organic/particulate matter in the samples such that volumes were sampled until filters became saturated and prevented further filtration. Mucosal skin samples of tilapia flanks (C. rendalli and O. shiranus) were collected by swabbing three times along the entire length of the lateral line (Delamare-Deboutteville et al., 2021) with sterile polyester swabs (Texwipe). Filters were preserved in 1.8 mL of 100% molecular grade ethanol (Fish-erScientific), while swabs were preserved in 1.8 mL of RNAlater (Qiagen), and stored at ambient temperature until transferred to the UK for prolonged storage at − 20 • C, until used for DNA extraction and sequencing."}]},{"head":"DNA extraction","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Ethanol was removed from pond water filters by freeze-drying (ScanVac CoolSafe Pro, 4 L condenser at − 110 • C) and filters were then stored at − 80 • C. RNAlater was removed from fish swab samples by vortexing the swabs for 30 s in 23 mL of 1× sterile phosphate buffered saline (Sigma) to allow detachment of microbes. The swab and solution were transferred to a syringe for filtration with a 0.22 μm Sterivex (Millipore) filter unit. Following ethanol and RNAlater removal from filters and swabs, DNA was extracted with a CTAB/EDTA/chloroform method adapted from Bramwell et al. (1995) and Lever et al. (2015), and is available in full at (https://dx.doi.org/10.17504/protocols.io. bw8gphtw)."},{"index":2,"size":239,"text":"Briefly, for DNA extraction, filters were first suspended in 570 μL lysis buffer (30 mM Tris, 30 mM EDTA, pH 8, FisherScientific), freezethaw lysed in liquid nitrogen and homogenised by bead-beating with Lysing Matrix A Bulk Beads (Garnet) on the Qiagen TissueLyser II for 40 s at 30 Hz. The sample suspension was digested with 1 μL Ready-Lyse lysozyme (1000 U/ μL, Epicentre), and 3 μL proteinase K (20 mg/mL, Sigma) in 30 μL SDS (10% w/v, FisherScientific) for 1 h at 55 • C. Samples were then incubated for 10 min at 65 • C in 120 μL NaCl (5 mM, Sigma) and CTAB solution (hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide, 96 μL, 10% w/v, Sigma). An equal ratio of sample and 24:1 chloroform:isoamyl alcohol (Acros Organics) were used for extractions, with centrifugation at 14,000 xg, 4 • C for 5 min. The aqueous layer was retained for a second extraction, after which 1 μL of linear polyacrylamide solution (GenElute LPA, Sigma) was added to aid precipitation with 0.7 volumes isopropanol (Acros Organics). Following overnight incubation at 4 • C, samples were centrifuged at 21,000 xg, 4 • C for 30 min and the resulting pellet was washed with 70% ethanol (FisherScientific). After 10 min of centrifugation at 21,000 xg and pipetting off the ethanol, DNA pellets were resuspended in TE buffer (10 mM Tris-HCl, 1 mM EDTA, pH 8, Sigma) and stored at − 20 • C until used for sequencing."}]},{"head":"Metabarcoding","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Metabarcoding of prokaryotic and microeukaryotic SSU rRNA marker genes was performed by PCR amplification with the Earth Microbiome Project recommended primers. The 16S rRNA V4 hypervariable region was targeted by 515F (Parada) 5'-GTGY-CAGCMGCCGCGGTAA-3 ′ (Parada et al., 2016); 806R (Apprill) GGACTACNVGGGTWTCTAAT (Apprill et al., 2015), and the 18S rRNA V9 hypervariable region was targeted by 1391f 5 ′ -GTACA-CACCGCCCGTC-3 ′ (Lane, 1991) and EukBr 5 ′ -TGATCCTTCTG-CAGGTTCACCTAC-3 ′ (Medlin et al., 1988). Amplification conditions for 16S V4 were 98 • C for 30 s; 30 cycles of 98 • C for 10 s, 55 • C for 30 s, 72"},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"• C for 30 s; and a final extension of 72 • C for 2 min. 18S V9 conditions were the same, with the exception of an annealing temperature of 60 • C. Samples were amplified and multiplexed in a 1-step PCR with a dualindexing scheme (Kozich et al., 2013). Individual samples were run as 50 μL reactions with 2 ng starting DNA, 25 μL NEBNext High-Fidelity PCR Master Mix (New England Biolabs), 0.5 μM forward and reverse primers, prior to pooling and sequencing by the University of Exeter Sequencing Service on the Illumina MiSeq, using v2 chemistry (250 bp paired-end for 16S and 150 bp paired-end for 18S). The sequencing runs included four positive controls (ZymoBIOMICS® Microbial Community DNA standard, lot number ZRC190811) and six negative controls comprising nuclease free water carried through the entire DNA extraction and PCR amplification."}]},{"head":"Bioinformatics processing","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":196,"text":"All bioinformatics and statistical analyses were performed in R v3.6.3. Following sample demultiplexing, reads were quality controlled and processed by the DADA2 pipeline v1.14 (Callahan et al., 2016). Briefly, quality profiles of paired reads were inspected and forward and reverse reads were truncated at 200 bp and 160 bp, respectively, for prokaryotes, and 100 bp for both reads of microeukaryotes. Amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) were then inferred with DADA2's pooling method to enhance the detection of rare ASVs. Paired reads were merged if they achieved a minimum overlap of 100 bp for prokaryotes and 25 bp for microeukaryotes. To remove off-target sequencing artefacts, final ASVs were only retained for the lengths 250-256 bp for prokaryotes and 90-150 bp for microeukaryotes. Chimeras were removed and taxonomy assigned to each ASV against the SILVA SSU v138 taxonomic database (Quast et al., 2012). For the microeukaryotic dataset, only ASVs classified by SILVA as eukaryotic were retained and final taxonomic classifications of these ASVs were made by the PR2 v4.12 taxonomic database (Guillou et al., 2012). Accuracy of the taxonomic assignment was assessed in positive controls, with all members of the ZYMO mock community present, as expected (Supplementary Fig. S2)."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"A phylogenetic tree of ASVs was constructed with Phangorn v2.5.5 (Schliep, 2010) by first generating a neighbour-joining tree, followed by fitting a generalised time reversible substitution model to generate a"}]},{"head":"Table 1","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Details of pond sites and samples for the pond water and fish skin swabs obtained from Malawian tilapia aquaculture ponds. * Numbers in parentheses refer to the number of 18S rRNA samples successfully sequenced, where this differs from 16S rRNA samples."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"maximum likelihood tree. The statistical tool Decontam v1.6 (Davis et al., 2018) was used to identify contaminating ASVs by looking at the prevalence in negative controls, with standard parameters baring a 0.5 prevalence threshold. Thus, all sequences found at greater prevalence in negative controls than positive samples were classed as contaminants and were removed from the ASV table."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"ASVs and sample data were parsed to Phyloseq v1.30 (McMurdie and Holmes, 2013) for all subsequent quality control and data analyses. To remove sequencing noise, only ASVs that reached a 2% prevalence threshold across samples were retained. Furthermore, any ASVs taxonomically assigned as chloroplasts, mitochondria, eukaryotic or unclassified at kingdom level were removed from the prokaryotic dataset. Additionally, for the microeukaryotic dataset, 14 sequences classified as Craniata were removed, as these most likely represented fish sequences. As a result, the characterisation of fish skin microeukaryotes was limited due to the high levels of contaminating host 18S rRNA sequences (98.6%) in swab samples."}]},{"head":"Statistical and data analysis","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Alpha diversity metrics were calculated with Phyloseq on counts rarefied to the minimum sequencing depth. The difference between pond sites was statistically tested by Welch's ANOVA and post-hoc pairwise Games-Howell test, following confirmation of normality. Further testing between sample types utilised lmerTest v3.1-3 (Kuznetsova et al., 2017) to perform a linear mixed-effects model that accounted for pond site as a random effect. A Pearson's correlation coefficient was used to test for correlation of Chao1 richness and Shannon diversity between sample types."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"Beta diversity analysis was performed with compositional data analysis principles. These comprise log-based transformations, which cannot be performed on zero values. Therefore, ASV counts were subjected to a count zero multiplicative replacement method in zCompositions v1.3.4 (Palarea-Albaladejo and Martín-Fernández, 2015). A centred log-ratio (CLR) transformation was then applied to ASV counts with the CoDaSeq package v0.99.6 (https://github.com/ggloor/Co DaSeq). Euclidean distance was calculated on log-ratios and ordinated by PCoA biplot with FactoExtra v1.0.7 (https://github.com/kassambara /factoextra). Statistical differences between pond site and sample type groups were conducted on the Euclidean distance matrix by permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA) and permutation tests for homogeneity of multivariate dispersions, implemented in Vegan v2.5-6 (Dixon, 2003)."},{"index":3,"size":125,"text":"Community composition was presented as heat trees of taxon relative abundance with Metacoder v0.3.4 (Foster et al., 2017), utilising a Davidson-Harel layout algorithm. Differential abundance between sample types was assessed by CornCob v0.1 (Martin et al., 2020), utilising the Wald Chi-Squared test and accounting for pond site as a random effect. Core microbiome analysis was performed on ASVs amalgamated to genus level and rarefied to the minimum sequencing depth. Classification of the fish skin core genera was performed with the Microbiome package v2.1 (Lahti and Shetty, 2017) based on a prevalence threshold of 80% and a detection threshold of 0.01% in all swab samples. Heatmaps of core genera and discriminant taxa were depicted as heatmaps of CLR abundance of non-rarefied counts by pheatmap v1.0.12 (https://github.com/raivokolde/pheatmap)."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"The significance level and false discovery rate of 0.05 was set for all statistical analyses."}]},{"head":"Data availability","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Raw sequencing reads were deposited in the European Nucleotide Archive under the accession PRJEB46984. Data processing, analysis scripts and final ASV tables are accessible at https://github.com/jamiem cm/Malawi_Tilapia_Microbiomes."}]},{"head":"Results","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Following quality control and filtering, the final prokaryotic dataset contained 969,562 reads and 5782 ASVs from all skin swab and pond water filter samples, respectively, collected in this study (67 samples). The eukaryotic dataset comprised 94,611 reads, 1659 ASVs from the samples collected. Full read counts per library, including break down between skin swabs and pond water filters, are available in Supplementary Table S1."}]},{"head":"Phytoplankton communities","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"Compositional approaches (CLR) to beta diversity were applied to explore variation in microbial community composition and abundance of pond water between sites are shown in Fig. 1A and B. Clear clustering of water samples by pond site was evident, with the position of mean group centroids corresponding to site shown to be significantly different from each other according to PERMANOVA for both prokaryotic (F (6,28) = 34.29, R 2 = 0.88, p < 0.001) and microeukaryotic (F(6,28) = 15.12, R 2 = 0.76 p < 0.001) communities. Dispersion of the pond water samples collected within each site was relatively small, particularly with respect to prokaryotes (Fig. 1B). However, largely due to pond site 2, dispersion in prokaryotes differed significantly according to permutation tests for homogeneity of multivariate dispersions (Prokaryotes F (6,28) = 3.95, p = 0.003; Eukaryotes F(6,28) = 0.87, p = 0.53)."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"While pond location had a strong influence on the separation of pond water samples, the clustering observed in prokaryotes of the tilapia skin was less distinctive (Fig. 1C). There was a significant difference between the mean centroid position of each pond site by PERMANOVA (F(6,25) = 4.19, R 2 = 0.50, p < 0.001) and significant dispersion between fish within the same pond (F(6,25) = 5.32, p = 0.009)."},{"index":3,"size":214,"text":"Specific taxa were associated with driving community separation between pond sites. Fig. 1 shows the top 15 contributing taxa plotted as arrows on each biplot, with their CLR abundance depicted in the accompanying heatmaps. In pond water, microeukaryotes included several diatoms (ASV6: Cyclotella and ASV16: Aulacoseira), the presence of which separated pond site clusters 2,3 and 6,7 from 1,4,5. ASV47: Eukaryota was the major taxon -found at high abundance -discriminating pond site cluster 1,4,5 from the remaining ponds, and a BLASTn search of this ASV revealed 90% similarity to the microalgae Cryptomonas. In the pond water prokaryotic community, photosynthetic Cyanobacteria were particularly prevalent in pond site clusters 2,3 and 6,7, with apparently differing Cyanobium ASVs (ASV3, ASV4) in each cluster, and a shared Synechocystis (ASV1). Pond site cluster 1,4,5 was distinguished by typical freshwater planktonic Proteobacteria (ASV9: Polynucleobacter, ASV111: Limnohabitans and ASV22: Comamonadaceae), among others. For fish skin prokaryotes, three out of the top discriminant taxa (ASV43: Aquabacterium, and ASV16, ASV74: Comamonadaceae) explained the separation of pond cluster 1,4,5 only. Many of these identified taxa shared taxonomic affiliation to the aforementioned prokaryotes of pond water, but were represented by separate ASVs than those previously identified, such as ASV17, ASV24: Cyanobium, ASV16, ASV74: Comamonadaceae and ASV6, ASV73, ASV135: Actinobacteria hgcl clade (Warnecke et al., 2004)."},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"Alpha diversity metrics gave an insight into species diversity of the pond water samples from different pond sites as determined through assessing community richness (Chao1) and evenness (Shannon diversity and Inverse Simpson diversity) (Fig. S3A,B). Applying Welch's ANOVA showed a significant difference between both prokaryotic and microeukaryotic communities of each pond site for all diversity metrics (Table S2). No correlation was found between prokaryotic and microeukaryotic communities for the mean richness/diversity metric of each pond site (Fig. S3D  "}]},{"head":"Microbial niche separation","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":250,"text":"We used measures of alpha and beta diversity to explore the influence of the environment (pond water) in shaping tilapia skin prokaryotic microbiota. When controlling for pond site as a random effect in linear mixed-effects modelling, ASV richness of the fish skin was found to be significantly lower than pond water (by 503 ± 59.49 ASVs, R 2 c = 0.61, p < 0.001) (Fig. 2A). Shannon diversity of fish skin and pond water varied according to pond site, however, there was no overall clear separation between the sample types when the aforementioned statistical model was applied (pond water 4.96 ± 0.12, fish skin 4.72 ± 0.15, R 2 c = 0.11, p = 0.115) (Fig. 2B). Additionally, neither richness nor diversity were correlated between the fish skin and pond water when comparing between pond sites, according to Pearson correlation tests (Chao1 richness R = 0.18, p = 0.71; Shannon diversity R = 0.11, p = 0.81) (Fig. 2C,D). Pair-wise comparisons were made of the beta diversity (Aitchison distance) between samples within each pond site (Fig. 2E) and this showed pond water samples clustered closely together, but greater dispersion was apparent between fish skin samples. The largest Aitchison distance values were seen in the comparisons between pond water and fish skin samples, indicating different prokaryotic community structures between these niches. Although these structures were made up of shared taxa, albeit at different abundances, with 4020 of a total 5782 ASVs detected in both pond water and fish skin (Fig. 2F)."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Depicting taxonomic composition of prokaryotic and microeukaryotic communities from skin swab and pond water samples as phylogenetic heat trees (see Fig. S4) illustrates much of the diversity for individual samples is accounted for by rare taxa found at low abundance. The prokaryotic community composition at coarse taxonomic levels was overall very similar between the pond water and skin environments, although divergence emerges at finer taxonomic resolution. For the microeukaryotic community, a far greater overall taxonomic diversity was observed in pond water than on skin, with numerous rare taxa. However, skin diversity was artificially under-sampled due to the over-amplification of tilapia host 18S RNA gene copies."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"Taxonomic relative abundance (depicted as dot plots of prokaryotes at class level and microeukaryotes at division level) highlights the differences between pond water and fish skin niches (Fig. 3). According to differential abundance statistical testing, the bacterial classes Gammaproteobacteria and Clostridia were enriched (FDR <0.05) in the fish skin. Pond water by contrast had enriched abundances of Cyanobacteria, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidia, Verrucomicrobiae, Planctomycetes, Kapabacteria and Chloroflexia. Differential abundance testing controlled for pond site as a random effect, however, the degree and consistency of enrichment did vary between pond sites."},{"index":4,"size":385,"text":"Within these high level taxa, individual prokaryotic taxa were (FDR <0.05) differentially abundant between pond water and the skin (Fig. 4). In general, these taxa followed phylogenetic trends of Chao1 richness and Shannon diversity showed no correlation between fish skin and pond water, with points plotted for the mean of each pond site. A regression line of Pearson's correlation coefficient is plotted, with 95% confidence intervals. E. Beta diversity pairwise comparisons of Aitchison distance between samples of pond water, pond water vs fish skin and fish skin, within each pond site. F. Number of ASVs unique or shared between pond water and fish skin. enrichment, whereby if a taxon was found to be differentially abundant, all other identified taxa within the same phylum were enriched in the same sample type. The pond water was differentially enriched with several taxa associated with key nutrient cycling processes in the aquatic environment, such as the photoautotrophs Cyanobium, Synechocystis and Microcystis, and the methanotroph Methylocystis. Meanwhile, selected ASVs found to be differentially enriched at the skin surface included taxa previously reported as fish microbiome commensals, such as Cetobacterium, as well as additional fish related taxa, which in some cases can be associated with diseases, such as Aeromonas, Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, and Streptococcus. Fig. 3. Relative abundance of bacterial (16S) and eukaryotic (18S) taxonomic communities. Each plot reveals the relative abundance for every sample collected at pond sites 1-7, with faceting at the taxonomic levels class (16S) and division (18S). Fish skin and pond water samples are represented in pink and blue respectively. Each facet is scaled independently. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) Fig. 4. Differentially abundant prokaryotes of pond water and fish skin show phylogenetically conserved trends. The effect sizes and 95% prediction intervals of significant differential abundant taxa (FDR < 0.05) are plotted. Taxa to the left with a negative effect size are enriched in pond water, while taxa with a positive effect size are enriched in the fish skin. Taxa are ordered according to the phylogenetic tree, with labels included for the highest available taxonomic classification of each ASV. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)"}]},{"head":"Tilapia species differences","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"This study featured two tilapia species commonly cultured in Malawi (Coptodon rendalli and Oreochromis shiranus). No significant difference of prokaryotic community alpha diversity were observed between species (Fig. S5) and while beta diversity did showed potentially unique community structures between species, this only explained 11% of variance. Pond site in contrast explained 50% of variance in beta diversity. Additionally, intra-species dispersion of C. rendalli prokaryotic communities (Average distance to median 54.49) was similar to any interspecies dispersion observed between C. rendalli and O. shiranus at Blantyre (Average distance to median 53.79)."}]},{"head":"Tilapia skin core microbiome","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"To further explore specific taxa prevalent within the skin microbial communities we identified 14 prokaryotic core genera of tilapia skin. Abundances of these core genera are depicted for both fish skin and pond water samples in Fig. 5. Two of the prokaryotic core genera had a clear enrichment of abundance in the fish skin versus to pond water, namely ASV47: Pseudomonas and ASV8731: Sphingomonas. The remaining prokaryotic genera were found at high abundance in both pond water and skin samples, despite being classified as part of the tilapia skin core microbiome."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"Previous work has highlighted the collective contributions of microbial symbionts, the host and the environment to fish health and disease susceptibility under the pathobiome concept (Bass et al., 2019). Applying this framework to aquaculture production of finfish, the skin mucosal surface microbiome and its direct interface with the environment is likely to play a role in the maintenance of fish health and disease resilience. However, relationships between the microbial assemblages on the skin of fish in culture and their aquatic environment remain poorly established. Here, we characterised the prokaryotic and microeukaryotic communities of the tilapia skin mucosal surface and accompanying water in aquaculture ponds of southern Malawi in the absence of detectable disease to develop a holistic understanding of the relationships between these microbial communities and niches in healthy animals and environments, and against which future studies may assess how microbial dysbiosis contributes to disease onset."},{"index":2,"size":194,"text":"In this study, biogeographic factors played a key role in determining the diversity and structure of pond water microbial communities. Pond location explained 88% of prokaryotic and 76% of microeukaryotic beta diversity separation in microbial abundance profiles. Significant differences in richness and alpha diversity were observed between the seven pond sites. In freshwater ecosystems, both neutral and deterministic processes contribute to the separation of microbial assemblages (Lear et al., 2014;Lee et al., 2013). Interestingly, just over 1% of prokaryotic pond water ASVs were detected in all seven pond sites, suggesting limited species dispersal and/or distinct micro-ecologies between ponds. Numerous environmental selective pressures could play a role in the divergence in ASVs between ponds, such as alternative feeding regimes (Deng et al., 2019), differences in water physiochemistry (Qin et al., 2016) and differences in pond treatments, that can include the use of probiotics (Wu et al., 2016) and manure fertilisers (Minich et al., 2018). Within a pond complex, some of these factors will be conserved, such as weather and water source. Yet microbial community divergence was still observed between ponds in the Blantyre pond complex, with two notable clusters of pond sites (1,4,5 and 2,3)."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"The tight clustering of pond water samples was concurrent between both prokaryotic and microeukaryotic communities suggesting crossdomain relationships shaped by ecological or environmental processes. This connection has recently been observed in shrimp culture ecosystems, with the deterministic process of homogenous selection largely responsible (Zhou et al., 2021). In this theory, each pond site cluster represents a comparable set of environmental conditions (be it nitrogen, phosphorous or oxygen availability) that exerts strong selective pressures on both prokaryotic and microeukaryotic communities "}]},{"head":"CLR Abundance","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Fig. 5. Core bacterial genera of tilapia skin communities. ASVs were amalgamated at genus level, rarefied and core genera were classified across fish samples at an 80% prevalence threshold and 0.01% detection threshold. Abundance counts of core genera were transformed and are presented as non-rarefied compositional log ratios for both pond water and fish skin samples. Abundances were utilised for ordering by a hierarchical clustering dendrogram. (Zhou and Ning, 2017). Additionally, direct cross-domain ecological interactions may contribute to the observed trends. For instance, phagotrophic protists and their prokaryotic prey have negative interactions (Sherr and Sherr, 2002), while microalgae and bacteria can show all manner of symbiotic relationships, including extensive crossfeeding (Fuentes et al., 2016;Ramanan et al., 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":203,"text":"The close proximities of microbial communities of pond water with those in the fish outer mucosal surfaces mean they are physically closely interconnected, yet pond and skin microbiomes clearly differ. Our results demonstrate these differences in prokaryotic community structure, with ASV richness differing significantly, and separation by beta diversity. However, there was no significant difference in alpha diversity, a finding previously reported in freshwater and marine environments (Chiarello et al., 2015;Reinhart et al., 2019;Webster et al., 2018). At finer taxonomic scales further separation between the skin and pond water profiles was seen, and conserved across all ponds sites, with 25 ASVs differentially enriched at the fish skin mucosal surface. The abundances assessed at coarse taxonomic classifications reflected previous reports, namely that Proteobacteia (and in particular Gammaproteobacteria) dominated the fish skin mucosal surface, as seen in a variety of freshwater cichlids (Krotman et al., 2020); reviewed in depth by Gomez and Primm (2021). The next most abundant bacterial classes in the fish skin were Verrucomicrobiae, Bacteroidia and Clostridia. The pond water was similarly dominated by Proteobacteria, followed by Cyanobacteria and Planctomycetes, which is in accordance with a previous report of the bacterioplankton community in Nile tilapia aquaculture ponds in China (Fan et al., 2016)."},{"index":3,"size":257,"text":"Despite divergent abundance profiles, there was a high number of taxa shared between pond water and skin mucosa. Only 8% of the total fish skin ASVs were unique to the skin, which contrasts with that for reports on some other fish species. For example, in freshwater riverdwelling mature northern pike, Esox lucius L., 36% of skin taxa were not detected in samples of the surrounding water (Reinhart et al., 2019). In a study on freshwater Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., this figure was 73% (Webster et al., 2018), where fry (8-9 months post-hatch) were sampled from both wild rivers and hatcheries. Both of these studies were in natural aquatic environments and flow-through systems with high water exchange rates which is very different from typical carp and tilapia earthen aquaculture ponds, where daily water exchange rates tend to be very limited, typically a maximum of 20% total pond volume (Nhan et al., 2008). In fact, often in Africa and Asia during dry seasons, due to the lack of water availability, there is no daily water exchange at all in tilapia earthen aquaculture ponds. Such static conditions and high stocking densities may be reflected in a greater microbial crossover between fish skin and pond water. Given the common taxa seen between the tilapia skin and pond water environments, it is noteworthy that we found no correlation in ASV richness or Shannon diversity between the pond and skin niches within each pond site. This finding supports the hypothesis that the skin and pond water niches support uniquely structured microbial communities."},{"index":4,"size":259,"text":"The core microbiome refers to taxa found in the majority of samples which, by inference, may therefore play an important functional role in the microbiome. Fourteen prokaryotic core genera (from a total 770 genera) were identified in tilapia skin, consistent with previously published findings from other studies of fewer than 20 core OTUs on fish skin (reviewed by Gomez and Primm, 2021;Rosado et al., 2019a). Among the core genera found in the tilapia skin, Cetobacterium has been widely reported as a core genus in the gut of freshwater fish (Liu et al., 2016;Sharpton et al., 2021), including tilapia (Bereded et al., 2020;Elsaied et al., 2019). This genus may represent an important functional symbiont, and is reputed to synthesise vitamin B12 and antimicrobial metabolites (Tsuchiya et al., 2007). Other core genera and differentially enriched taxa of the skin are listed in Supplementary Table S3. Ten of the fish skin core genera were also detected at relatively high abundance in pond water. These include Cyanobium and Methylocystis (two of the most abundant and differentially enriched phytoplankton in pond water), which may have resulted from swab sampling incorporating some residual pond water. Some studies propose only retaining ASVs unique to swab samples and those statistically enriched from water samples to avoid this possible complication (Krotman et al., 2020). This approach, however, risks underestimating diversity and missing key taxa of the fish skin that through mucosal sloughing may still be detected at high abundances in water. The majority of studies make no corrections; instead, acknowledging crossover is inevitable and representative of these niches."},{"index":5,"size":97,"text":"While the current study included two different species of tilapia, geographic location (and the associated environmental factors) of each pond site appeared to be a stronger influence of prokaryotic fish skin communities than any species differences observed between C. rendalli and O. shiranus. This suggests species is a complicating factor in our study but is of lesser importance when considering the broader trends of microbial community separation between pond water and fish skin. The importance of habitat over host taxonomy has previously been demonstrated for a large-scale study of marine fish gut microbiomes (Kim et al., 2021)."},{"index":6,"size":244,"text":"Several of the bacterial genera we found to be differentially abundant in fish skin contained species pathogenic to tilapia, including Aeromonas (hydrophila) (Dong et al., 2017), Streptococcus (agalactiae) (Zhang, 2021) and Pseudomonas (fluorescens) (Hal and El-Barbary, 2020). In addition to these fish skin enriched genera, further potentially pathogenic taxa were detected in pond water and fish skin. Namely, Plesiomonas (shigelloides) (Liu et al., 2015), Flavobacterium (columnare) (Dong et al., 2015) and Acinetobacter spp. an emerging group of freshwater fish pathogens (Malick et al., 2020). Likewise, among the detected microeukaryotic genera, there were species pathogenic to tilapia, including the parasitic ciliate Ichthyophthirius multifiliis (El-Dien and Abdel-Gaber, 2009) and two skin-targeting pathogenic oomycetes, Aphanomyces invadans (OIE, 2013) and Saprolegnia parasitica (Ellison et al., 2018) but the metabarcoding of short hypervariable regions of marker genes does not allow us to accurately assign species or strain level classifications to determine their pathogenicity. The detected genera also contain numerous non-pathogenic species. The above 'pathogens' were all at very low (typically less than 1%) relative abundances in fish skin, and indeed none of these ponds had any reported incidence of disease. This work does not preclude the fact that other pathogens may be present below the limits of detection thresholds or taxonomic resolution. Presence may raise the risk of opportunistic disease as primary or secondary pathogens if environmental stressors create a state of dysbiosis in the fish skin to favour pathobiont propagation, leading to disease onset (Bass et al., 2019)."},{"index":7,"size":92,"text":"Contrary to pathogenesis, many of the detected fish skin microbes will exhibit commensal or mutualist relationships with their fish host. For instance, symbiotic bacteria can provide colonisation resistance against pathogens through competition for nutrients and adhesion sites (Legrand et al., 2018). In the microeukaryotic kingdom, ciliates were among the most widely detected taxa of tilapia skin and may offer beneficial roles to the fish by predating upon other microorganisms (Pinheiro and Bols, 2013). Although, the precise functional roles played by symbiotic bacteria and protists of the fish skin remain almost entirely unresolved."},{"index":8,"size":184,"text":"Fish skin microbiomes are inherently variable between populations (Webster et al., 2018), species (Chiarello et al., 2018), individuals in the same environment, and even across different areas of skin (anal, caudal, dorsal and pectoral fins) of the same individual (Chiarello et al., 2015). We observed separation of fish skin communities according to environment (pond site), however inter-individual dispersion within pond sites was considerable, and the degree of dispersion between pond sites was significantly different. This compares to pond water microbiomes showing strong similarities within sites, suggesting the fish skin microbiome is less subjected to environmental influences. This may be due to host factors enabling greater buffering tolerance against environmental directed microbial community assembly. Host genetics is further known to contribute to the inter-individual variation of fish skin communities (Boutin et al., 2014). Additionally, fish age has been seen to influence individual taxa abundances but offers a limited explanation of interindividual variation at the microbial community level (Rosado et al., 2021). To account for the observed inter-individual variation of fish skin microbiomes we recommend increased fish numbers (6 or more) per treatment/location during sampling campaigns."},{"index":9,"size":235,"text":"In contrast to the variability of fish skin, pond water communities were more consistent across sample sites. At most pond sites, one photoautotroph (Cyanobium or Synechocystis) was dominant, at up to 20% relative abundance. While Synechocystis is well studied as a model organism, little is known of Cyanobium and its large contribution to primary production despite being among the most abundant taxa in carp aquaculture ponds (Marmen et al., 2021) and freshwater lakes (Rogers et al., 2021). Additionally, the harmful algal bloom agent Microcystis was detected at very high abundance in pond sites 5, 6 and 7, which is concurrent with observations of rich blue-green algae during sampling. Microcystis (see Marmen et al., 2021Marmen et al., , 2016;;Zimba and Grimm, 2003), and its toxin microcystin, are frequently detected in aquaculture ponds and can have toxic effects in tilapia (Abdel-Latif and Khashaba, 2017). Conversely, eukaryotic microalgae, in particular diatoms, contribute positively to the freshwater ecosystem as key primary producers and stabilisers of water quality (Guedes and Malcata, 2012;Li et al., 2017). The barbed spines of some diatoms (Chaetoceros spp.), however, can cause gill haemorrhage in saltwater aquaculture (Yang and Albright, 1992). Pond sites 2, 3 and 6 were dominated by several diatoms, including Cyclotella, Nitzschia and Aulacoseira. In other pond sites, many high abundance ASVs remained unclassified beyond kingdom level, however, BLASTn searches suggested several of these were photosynthetic microalgae and likely contribute to oxygen cycling."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":193,"text":"This study highlights the diversity, structure and variance of the microbial communities found in tilapia skin and pond water, and characterises the microbiomes for 'healthy' earthen aquaculture ponds in Malawi. Future studies seeking to establish relationships between dysbiosis and disease states need to take into account the interindividual variation between fish, and community variance across pond sites that also occurs within the same pond complex. We found a large degree of taxa crossover between fish skin and pond water, some of which may be reflective of swab sampling bias, but also unique microbial communities supported by each niche. The identified core genera and differentially enriched taxa may represent conserved markers of tilapia skin, whose presence and abundance should be considered in future dysbiosis events, albeit in most cases the functional host relation of these taxa at the level of fish skin remains to be determined. Developing a deeper understanding on the microbial communities, particularly those that interface between the aquatic environment and culture species from different geographies, is critical for understanding health risks in aquaculture species as production expands and intensifies, bringing with it an increased risk of dysbiosis and incidence of disease."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" ) (Pearson's correlation: Chao1 richness R = 0.56, p = 0.19; Shannon diversity R = 0.35, p = 0.44; InvSimpson R = − 0.024, p = 0.96). "},{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. Microbial compositional diversity and abundance of pond water varies significantly by pond site, with trends for inter-site variation consistent across bacterial and eukaryotic communities. Fish skin samples show significant dispersion within pond sites. Left panel: Ordination by PCoA biplots on Euclidean distance of log-ratios (Aitchison distance). Points represent samples, coloured by pond site, with arrows for top 15 Amplicon Sequence Variants (ASV) explaining variation between samples. ASV abundances increase in the direction of arrows and arrow length represents magnitude of change. Angles between arrows denote correlation between ASVs (approximately 0 • = correlated, <90 • positive correlation, >90 • negative correlation, 90 • no correlation). Right panel: The centred log-ratio (CLR) abundances of top 15 discriminant ASVs are plotted as accompanying heatmaps, with ASVs ordered according to a hierarchical clustering dendrogram. Labels include ASV number, lowest available taxonomic classification and rank of this classification e.g. \"_F\" = Family. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig. 2.Comparisons of prokaryotic richness and diversity between pond water and fish skin. A. Chao1 richness estimates of ASVs per sample, with sample type group means and standard deviations. B. Shannon diversity was calculated for each sample and plotted for each pond site as group means and standard deviations. C, D. Chao1 richness and Shannon diversity showed no correlation between fish skin and pond water, with points plotted for the mean of each pond site. A regression line of Pearson's correlation coefficient is plotted, with 95% confidence intervals. E. Beta diversity pairwise comparisons of Aitchison distance between samples of pond water, pond water vs fish skin and fish skin, within each pond site. F. Number of ASVs unique or shared between pond water and fish skin. "}],"sieverID":"b4bdce67-bee8-4445-b849-379805f4216f","abstract":"Intensification of fish farming practices is being driven by the demand for increased food production to support a rapidly growing global human population, particularly in lower-middle income countries. Intensification of production, however, increases the risk of disease outbreaks and thus the likelihood for crop losses. The microbial communities that colonise the skin mucosal surface of fish are poorly understood, but are important in maintaining fish health and resistance against disease. This skin microbial community is susceptible to disruption through stressors associated with transport, handling and the environment of intensive practices, and this risks the propagation of disease-causing pathogens. In this study, we characterised the microbial assemblages found on tilapia skinthe most widely farmed finfish globallyand in the surrounding water of seven earthen aquaculture ponds from two pond systems in distinct geographic regions in Malawi. Metabarcoding approaches were used to sequence the prokaryotic and microeukaryotic communities. We found 92% of prokaryotic amplicon sequence variants were common to both skin and water samples. Differentially enriched and core taxa, however, differed between the skin and water samples. In tilapia skin, Cetobacterium, Paucibacter, Pseudomonas and Comamonadaceae were enriched, whereas, the cyanobacteria Cyanobium, Microcystis and/or Synechocystis, and the diatom Cyclotella, were most prevalent in pond water. Ponds that clustered together according to their water prokaryotic communities also had similar microeukaryotic communities indicating strong environmental influences on prokaryotic and microeukaryotic community structures. While strong site-specific clustering was observed in pond water, the grouping of tilapia skin prokaryotes by pond site was less distinct, suggesting fish microbiota have a greater buffering capacity against environmental influences. The characterised diversity, structure and variance of microbial communities associated with tilapia culture in Malawi provide the baseline for studies on how future intensification practices may lead to microbial dysbiosis and disease onset."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"081c64484c90f263aff8381a31ec4da8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cf244b76-9912-4f7c-ae43-2bc09993f9c4/retrieve"},"pageCount":31,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Selection criteria:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"1. Collaborations should have strategic relevance to the goals of the PRGA Program. 2. Partnerships must contribute to the outputs contained in the PRGA logframe. 3. To the extent possible, all collaborative activities should contain a co-fi nancing arrangement. 4. Priority will be given to regional networks over individual institutions or members of organizations; with an exception of partnerships for production of scientifi c publications only. 5. All proposals are encouraged to have a strong gender focus. 6. The proposal of the collaborating institution or project should contain and be guided by the following:"},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"• A clear and focused research issue and work-plan, and defi ned expected output of the partnership; • Evidence that the project activities will involve farmers' organizations or groups;"},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"• Explicit consideration of social-inclusion issues, particularly based on gender and difference, in the proposed research; • A strategy for multidisciplinary team work involving social and natural science skills;"},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"• A plan to build on farmers' skills and capabilities, such as experimentation, organizational capacity; • A plan for monitoring, evaluation and impact assessment; • A clear defi nition of the roles of all partners in the research and capacity-building process; • A statement of resources available and resources required;"},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"• A plan for sustaining project activities at community and organizational level beyond the proposed project cycle."},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"Partners should be willing to:"},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"• Participate in comparative analyses across Program partnerships and projects."},{"index":8,"size":6,"text":"• Implement interventions agreed upon jointly."},{"index":9,"size":30,"text":"• Monitor impact using similar (standardized) procedures and indicators, and process documentation. • Organize a yearly broad-based participatory research (PR) and gender analysis (GA) seminar or workshop in their organization."},{"index":10,"size":30,"text":"• Share experiences in planned international workshops organized by the PRGA Program and submit research fi ndings for peer review. • Co-publish with local partners and with the PRGA Program."},{"index":11,"size":22,"text":"• If there is funding from the PRGA Program, provide an account of how project resources will be allocated among their partners."},{"index":12,"size":6,"text":"Partner institutions can expect to gain:"},{"index":13,"size":16,"text":"• Information on the impact of PR and GA in agricultural research and technology development. n"},{"index":14,"size":21,"text":"The FRCs will be able to market their expertise and PPB products to the neighboring districts as resource-generating and livelihood options."},{"index":15,"size":1,"text":"n"},{"index":16,"size":29,"text":"The mechanisms of equitable benefi ts sharing of intellectual property rights (IPRs) of PPB products within and among their farmers, FRCs and subcommittees will be developed, implanted and documented."},{"index":17,"size":16,"text":"n Joint workshop enabled 30 members of LiBird to conduct an institutional assessment of their institution. "}]},{"head":"Participatory plant breeding: A new challenge in the development and adoption of potato varieties by farmers in Bolivia","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Country","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Publications:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"n Knox A, 2005. Unearthing the \"power\" in empowerment: Is PM&E capable of meeting social justice objectives? PRGA Program Small Grant report.   To develop a participatory monitoring and evaluation process that improves resource use and management practices in the upland areas."}]},{"head":"Assessing participatory learning and action in China","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"n To identify the main stakeholders and their relations in the cash-crop production that is rapidly being adopted in the upland areas. To determine what kind of gender-related data could be used in developing an impact model for assessing how gender-focused policy and investment can impact food-security, nutritional status, and well-being at a global (or regional) scale.  Priority areas for the model were identifi ed (i.e. education, fuel and time link, health and nutrition, population growth, water supply and sanitation, information technology, healthrelated investments, effects of health improvements on anemia and consequence of anemia reduction on productivity and schooling).  "}]},{"head":"ICARDA's NARS partners","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Objective:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"To develop a plan of action for capacity in gender-sensitive participatory research in ICARDA and its national partners.  "}]},{"head":"Objectives:","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"n To generate a viable set of \"best practices\" for mainstreaming gender-sensitive participatory approaches (PR and GA) within core programs of selected organizations in the region using a learning and change approach. n To develop human resources through building capacity in participating organizations and their partners to replicate the framework (\"best practices\") for mainstreaming PR and GA approaches (developed in Phase 1) in Phase 2. n To establish a network of innovators in the eastern, central and southern African region for mainstreaming gender-sensitive participatory approaches in agricultural research-fordevelopment. "}]},{"head":"Objectives:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"n To build the capacities of rural women in the Eastern Himalayas to meet their needs for food security and income-generating opportunities through local organizations and agro-enterprise development."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"n To support partner agricultural and NRM organizations in the Eastern Himalayas to institutionalize a planning and delivery process that is more responsive to the needs of rural women through facilitating organizational change."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"n To generate a viable set of \"good practices\" for mainstreaming gender-sensitive participatory R&D approaches within selected organizations through action research, and assessing the impacts of these methodologies for learning and change.  A network of female professionals in agricultural service agencies of these countries acting as brokers for the rural women's interactions with the agency, and as change agents for their own organizations."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"n Set of \"best practices\" to institutionalize the mainstreaming of gender-sensitive participatory R&D approaches to make agriculture organizations responsive to the needs of poor rural women. The \"best practices\" will be documented in a format accessible to rural women and agriculture professionals. "}]},{"head":"Objective:","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"To examine the participatory research methodology implemented by a cassava-breeding project in four communities of northeast Brazil over an 8-year period."}]},{"head":"Project duration: April 2003 to December 2004","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"PRGA direct fi nancial contribution: US$ 30,000"}]},{"head":"Outputs/achievements:","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"This study assessed the soundness of the participatory plant breeding methodology by testing whether participant farmers were representative of the farming communities in which the project was implemented. The study also investigated the adoption potential of the cassava varieties developed in the project, benefi ts perceived to have accrued from adoption, and the time spent on project activities by the participating farmers.  "}]},{"head":"Study of the impact of local agricultural research committees (CIALs) in Cauca, Colombia","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Country","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Outputs/achievements:","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"The fi rst level of analysis is completed and the results showed benefi ts to individual CIAL members. The study indicates that there are signifi cant social-and human-capital benefi ts for CIAL members. CIAL members indicated that they had gained more knowledge about agriculture, were experimenting with new technology, and were seen as agricultural experts and advisors in their communities. They had also improved their communication and leadership skills, and had increased relationships with neighbors and with outside institutions. Outputs/achievements: This pilot project developed a prototype of the tool and it was implemented in two communities. The social network maps generated are being used as communication and fund-raising tools by the CIAL groups included in the study. This prototype will be further developed and honed for application in other cases, and presented to NGOs, so it can hopefully go into a further stage of collaborative research (between NGOs themselves and with communities). "}]},{"head":"Objective:","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"The PRGA Program staff participated in an expert panel which was convened to develop a strategy for ensuring that the products of GCP research can and will be adopted, adapted and applied for the ultimate benefi t of resource-poor farmers."}]},{"head":"Project duration: July 2005","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"PRGA direct fi nancial contribution: US$ 0"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Impact Assessment of Participatory Research and Gender Analysis 1. Impact and cost of participatory plant breeding in Nepal 2. Participatory cassava breeding in northeast Brazil: Who adopts and why? 3. Impact of participatory natural-resource management research in cassava-based cropping systems in Vietnam and Thailand 4. Participatory research at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) 5. Institutional impacts of the Cassava Participatory Research and Extension Project in Thailand and Vietnam 1993-2004 6. Study of the impact of local agricultural research committees (CIALs) in Cauca, Colombia 7. Improving water productivity of cereals and food legumes in the Atbara River basin of Eritrea 8. Impact Assessment Workshop 9. Strengthening rural innovation ecologies: Participatory development of a methodology for strengthening social networks 10. Generations Challenge Program: Strategy for reaching end-users 11. Assessing the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) experience with learning alliances in Central America 12. Poverty reduction and social inclusion: Evidence of effective ways of infl uencing research policy and practicePART 1: GUIDELINES FOR RESEARCH PARTNERSHIPS WITH THE PRGA PROGRAM Research and capacity-development partnerships between the PRGA Program and partner institutions are based on the following selection criteria. Partners and institutions with interest in establishing a partnership with the Program must follow the criteria stated for partnering arrangements. "},{"text":"nnnn To develop and adapt methodologies for obtaining advanced clones with genetic resistance to stresses.To draw out the research capacity of farmers so that they may solve the production problems of their own region.n To train farmers in the techniques of hybridization, and management and selection of seedlings in household seedbeds and in the fi eld to obtain new varieties. n To contribute to the conservation and use of potato genetic resources. n To develop varieties with good resistance to late blight, good yield, and acceptable culinary qualities for household and industrial consumption.n To conduct economic analyses of conventional plant breeding and participatory plant breeding. Methodologies for obtaining advanced clones with genetic resistance to stresses developed and adapted. n Research capacity of farmers enhanced so they can solve the production problems of their own region. n Farmers trained in the techniques of hybridization, and management and selection of seedlings in household seedbeds and in the fi eld to obtain new varieties. n Potato genetic resources conserved and used. n Varieties developed with good resistance to late blight, good yield, and acceptable culinary qualities for household and industrial consumption. n Economic analyses conduct of conventional plant breeding and participatory plant breeding. Herbas J; Salazar M; Ruiz J; Lopez J; Villaroel J; Cossio D, 2004. Fitomejoramiento Participativo: Un Nuevo Desafío en la Generación y Apropiación Variedades por los agricultores de Papa en Bolivia. Working Document No. 22. PRGA Working Document No. 22. PRGA Working Document Program, Cali, Colombia.5. Learning Workshop: Integrating gender factor in agricultural researchCountry: UgandaPartner involved: n ECAPAPA (Eastern and Central Africa Programme for Agricultural Policy Analysis, of ASARECA, Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa) Objectives: To identify gaps and opportunities for capacity development in PR and GA. n To formulate a plan of action for mainstreaming GA in the ASARECA region. Project duration: March 22-24, 2004 Project budget and PRGA contribution: n Partner contribution: US$ 10,000 n PRGA direct fi nancial contribution:: US$ 23,000 Outputs/achievements: n Sharing of experiences, particularly the opportunities for and constraints to mainstreaming gender. n Basis for formulating a plan of action for joint collaboration through a Capacity Development and Small Grants Program. 6. Support to student on participatory monitoring and evaluation tools Country: Colombia Partner involved: n CIAT (International Center for Tropical Agriculture)Objective:To develop participatory monitoring and evaluation (PM&E) tools and deepen CIAT's understanding of the impacts of these tools through fi eld research.Project duration: March 2004 to March 2005 PRGA direct fi nancial contribution: US$ 75,600 Outputs/achievements: n Participatory monitoring and evaluation tools document. "},{"text":"n Participatory assessment of the use of a participatory approach (learning and refl ection process) in China, emphasizing: n Development of a viable framework to accelerate learning; n Identifi cation of key areas for capacity development; n Establishment of a network of innovators from the learning communities; n Development of a high-level community of partners that can support the network of innovators and enhance the learning alliance. Project duration: May 2004 to March 2006 PRGA direct fi nancial contribution: US$ 38,000 Outputs/achievements: n Learning Workshop. n Supported national Network of PR to conduct an assessment for institutionalization. n High-level community of partners developed. Publication: n Final report (in prep.). 8. Support for a workshop entitled \"Women Feeding Cities: Gender mainstreaming in urban food production and food security\" and Strengthening innovative social science and high-quality participatory research at the International Participants in the workshop were from the following organizations: l Urban Harvest (Systemwide Initiative on Urban and Periurban Agriculture) l IWMI (International Water Management Institute) l ETC-RUAF (Dutch-based development organization) Objective: To develop the capacity of the Social Science Unit (CIP) to support methodological innovation in PA and GA across CIP's research program. Project duration: June-December 2004 PRGA direct fi nancial contribution: US$ 15,000 Outputs/achievements: n Workshop output: publication on methods and approaches. n Social Sciences Unit web-page for research related to social sciences at CIP and participatory methods. n Databases and library of social sciences updated and accessible on-line. "},{"text":"nn Two seminars related to innovative methods in social sciences and PR and GA research.Publication: n Prain G; de Zeeuw H, 2004. Women feeding cities, gender mainstreaming in urban food production & food security. End-of-Project Workshop, Accra, Ghana, September 20-23Lao PDR (International Relief and Development Agency) Objectives: n To measure the organizational processes associated with gender mainstreaming. n To document the organizational \"best practices\" for mainstreaming gender. n To identify the opportunities and constrains for mainstreaming. n To identify key areas for further input, such as capacity development, reformulation of organizational policy, incentives for champions. Project duration: June 2004 to January 2005 PRGA direct fi nancial contribution: US$ 10,000 Outputs/achievements: n Report detailing CARE's best practices for mainstreaming gender. Publication: n Sharp K, 2005. Mapping Gender Mainstreaming: The CARE Laos Experience. Lao PDR.To investigate the impact of cash cropping on the local agricultural production system through action research in Sing District. "},{"text":" n "},{"text":"n To involve local farmers and district agriculture and forestry offi cials, or local extension workers, from the beginning of the research to jointly assess the impact of cash cropping on uplands, and current obstacles faced by different stakeholders in agricultural production.n To develop a management plan that links farmers and local extension workers. Project duration: June 2004 to May 2005 PRGA direct fi nancial contribution: US$ 21,710 Outputs/achievements: n Management plan report that links farmers and local extension workers. Publications: n Fujita Y; Thongmanivong S; Vongvisouk T, 2006. Stakeholder strategy for improving upland agricultural land use: Case study of Sing District, Luang Namtha Province. National University of Laos, Faculty of Forestry, Vientiane, Lao PDR. "},{"text":"n To identify relevant indicators for investment and policy reforms in NRM.n To identify gender parameters relevant for inclusion in a new gender-focused impact model. Project duration: August 2004 PRGA direct fi nancial contribution: US$ 10,000 Outputs/achievements: n While data/indicator constraints may limit what can be put into the model, qualitative discussion can serve to help in framing the model. "},{"text":" n "},{"text":"n Based on the MDGs (Millennium Development Goals) and Beijing + 10 summit, a number of indicators were proposed as a starting point for assessing data availability and what could be included in the impact model (and how). "},{"text":"n Proposed follow up action included: l incorporating proposed gender parameters into the impact model; l identifying limits of the impact model for gender and suggestions as to how to address these; Food Policy Research Institute),[2004]. [Draft] Technical Report on Long-Term Impacts of Gender-Focused Investments and Policy Reforms: A Scoping Workshop, November 2-3, 2004, Warrenton, Virginia, USA. 12. Broadening the knowledge of technicians, rural extension agents and small farmers in participatory plant breeding methodologies and informal Research Unit of EMBRAPA, the Brazilian Enterprise for Agricultural Research) n CENARGEN (Biotechnology and Genetics Resources, EMBRAPA) Objective: To broaden the knowledge base of researchers, extension agents and farmer communities in relation to participatory breeding methodologies and seed multiplication systems in cassava, maize and beans. Project duration: August 1-8, 2004 PRGA direct fi nancial contribution: US$ 10,000 Outputs/achievements: n Twenty participants from eight Brazilian states, along with research and extension personnel from national institutions and social projects duly trained. n Selection criteria and qualifi cations for the technology components used by farmers and/or end-users identifi ed. n Field books on the handling the information generated in participatory evaluation projects. n Guidelines for the establishment of seed multiplication schemes with the active participation of farmers. n Network of collaborators developed among those committed to the application of participatory research methodologies, with emphasis on participatory breeding. n Methodologies disseminated, with emphasis on participatory breeding and informal seed multiplication in cassava and associated crops in eight Brazilian states in the northeast and central-west regions. 13. Institutional assessment to identify gaps and opportunities in capacity development for participatory research and gender analysis at the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) Country: Syria Partners involved: n ICARDA (International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas) n "},{"text":"nn Capacity development needs assessed in ICARDA and its partner institutions. n Plan of action/strategy for capacity development developed. n Mechanisms identifi ed for sustaining a network of national trainers to be associated with ICARDA. Publication: Final report: Braun A, 2005. Assessment of Capacity Development for PR & GA among ICARDA and Partner institutions. "},{"text":"14. Building capacity for gender analysis and gender mainstreaming in the Eastern and Central African Region Countries: Eastern and Central African Region (Ethiopia, Sudan, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Madagascar) Partner involved: n ECAPAPA (Eastern and Central Africa Programme for Agricultural Policy Analysis, of ASARECA, Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa) "},{"text":"n Project duration: November 2004 to July 2006 PRGA direct fi nancial contribution: US$ 379,300 Outputs/achievements: n Enhanced capacity of participants to design and practically implement gender research and analysis in their projects. n Documentation of institutional opportunities and constraints for mainstreaming gender analysis and gender issues in their organizations. n Research results/papers will be published and disseminated in various media.nA peer-support network in the region of researchers involved in integrating social/gender analysis (SA/GA) will be established.n A group of trainers for gender analysis and mainstreaming methods has been established in the region. n Experience of the process will be documented for other researchers and organizations to use and consider in the development of training and capacity-building programs. African Network for Soil Biology and Fertility) Objective: To develop the capacity of The African Network for Soil Biology and Fertility (AfNet) member scientists in their knowledge and skill level of farmer participatory research (FPR) and scaling up (SU) approaches, and to enhance their ability to apply the FPR & SU approaches in their research and development work. Project duration: September 19-30, 2005 PRGA direct fi nancial contribution: US$ 10,000 Outputs/achievements: n Final training workshop report. n Initial exposure of workshop participants to participatory research and scaling up/out, covering concepts, approaches, issues, methods and tools. n AfNet scientists are able to communicate and relate more effectively and equitably with rural farmers-thinking critically and refl ectively about their own role in research. n Increased relevance and impact of research for integrated soil-fertility management (ISFM), NRM and for the livelihoods of local farmers. n Participatory research expertise identifi ed and incorporated into interdisciplinary teams for more effective research. n Community of learning created among the scientists along with an ongoing network of support. Action plans developed and personal approaches to research and interaction with farmers and stakeholders in the fi eld duly improved. n Approaches applied with farmers in the fi eld and reviewed by AfNet scientists. Organizing for Change in Agriculture and Natural Resources Management) "},{"text":"n Rural women's agriculture R&D committees established in fi ve areas of the Eastern Himalayas in three countries. "},{"text":" n "},{"text":" Peru; one country from Sub-Saharan Africa Partners involved: n CIP (International Potato Center) n One NARI from Eastern Africa audit and is working on the development of an action plan for mainstreaming gender analysis in the projects of ILRI. Project duration: November 2005 to October 2006 PRGA direct fi nancial contribution: US$ 10,000 Outputs/achievements: n Developed comprehensive survey questionnaire for institutional analysis. n Institutional assessment completed. n Action plan for mainstreaming gender analysis developed with support from management and senior leadership. To assess the impact of LiBird's participatory maize-breeding project, as one component of the Program's larger effort to study institutional change. Project duration: November 2002 to October 2003 PRGA direct fi nancial contribution: US$ 12,000Outputs/achievements:A workshop was conducted in 2003 to assess the institutional opportunities for and constraints to mainstreaming participatory approaches.2. Participatory cassava breeding in northeastBrazil: Who adopts and why? Brasileira de Pesquisa Agroprecuária). "},{"text":" To assess whether farmer participatory research, in the form of community-based research services called Local Agricultural Research Committees (CIALs), makes research more pro-poor: nTo evaluate the changes in the livelihoods of the farmers, and their communities, that are attributable to the CIAL methodology; n To assess the effectiveness of the CIAL methodology, the extent to which the problems addressed by the CIALs are relevant to the communities, and the benefi ts of CIALs to their members as well as to the communities in terms of the development of appropriate technologies and who benefi ts from the innovations; n To examine how farmer participation in the agricultural research process affected the process itself, as well as the specifi c communities and individuals involved. "},{"text":"Project duration : May 2004 to December 2006 PRGA direct fi nancial contribution: US$ 0 "},{"text":" Lilja N; Sandoval V; Garcia J; Hincapié F; Sanchez F. Assessing impacts of farmer participatory research approaches: A case study of local agricultural research committees in Colombia. Paper presented at the Impact Assessment Workshop, October 19-21, 2005, CIMMYT, Mexico, DF. To research and develop a participatory methodology to help make rural innovation ecologies visible, help identify interventions for strengthening social networks, and then help monitor and evaluate subsequent interventions. Project duration: May 2005 to April 2006 PRGA direct fi nancial contribution: US$ 5000 "},{"text":" Hernández LA; Claros E; Alvarez S; Carvajal A. Strengthening rural innovation ecologies: Participatory development of a methodology for strengthening social networks. End of the project report to the PRGA Program. December 2005. CIAT, Cali, Colombia. "},{"text":"PART 2: INVENTORY OF PARTNERSHIPS Mainstreaming of Participatory Research and Gender Analysis in Agricultural and Natural-Resource Management Research 1. Building capacity in social/gender analysis in the Eastern Himalayas • Exchange of information and experience with a wider research network and through inclusion in the PRGA Program's communities of practice in plant breeding, naturalresource management, gender analysis, institutional change and impact assessment. • Lessons about what works and what doesn't work in terms of PR and GA methods and their institutionalization, including \"best practices.\" • Enhanced capacity for implementing PR and GA methods, assessing impact for learning and change, and institutionalizing PR and GA methods through organizational change. • Opportunities to publish research results. Countries: Eastern Himalayan Region (Bhutan, India, Nepal) Countries: Eastern Himalayan Region (Bhutan, India, Nepal) Partners involved: Partners involved:  "},{"text":"2004 PRGA direct fi nancial contribution: US$ 41,902 Outputs/achievements: Training workshop on SA/GA in NRM and Biodiversity in the Eastern Himalayas.Informal \"peer networks\" of researchers engaged in SA/GA in NRM within the region have developed and are emerging more broadly across the region. Publication: Publication: n Final technical report submitted to the International Development Research Centre (IDRC). nFinal technical report submitted to the International Development Research Centre (IDRC).  2005. PRGA Program, Cali, Colombia. 2005. PRGA Program, Cali, Colombia. 2.  2. n That participants identifi ed change agents for SA/GA in their parent organizations nThat participants identifi ed change agents for SA/GA in their parent organizations  demonstrates their high levels of commitment, and their understanding of the linkages demonstrates their high levels of commitment, and their understanding of the linkages  between gender focus in implementation and gender equality in the organizations engaged in between gender focus in implementation and gender equality in the organizations engaged in  NRM research and development. NRM research and development. n Lessons learned that indicate the need for using different modalities to support research nLessons learned that indicate the need for using different modalities to support research  partners in integrating SA/GA into projects. partners in integrating SA/GA into projects. n Adapted and built the framework on Engendering Research in Vietnam by working with nAdapted and built the framework on Engendering Research in Vietnam by working with  regional partners in the design and development of the program, building on the lessons regional partners in the design and development of the program, building on the lessons  learned. learned. n A manual on social and gender research was provided to the workshop participants, together nA manual on social and gender research was provided to the workshop participants, together  with handouts used in the training and supplemental materials to aid their research projects with handouts used in the training and supplemental materials to aid their research projects  and knowledge about gender analysis. and knowledge about gender analysis.  "},{"text":"Technological innovation and small breeders Countries: Cuba, Honduras, Bolivia Partner involved:  n PBA Foundation (Foundation for the participatory and sustainable development of small nPBA Foundation (Foundation for the participatory and sustainable development of small  farmers) farmers) Objectives: Objectives: n To compile interesting technology innovation experiences with small-scale breeders in order nTo compile interesting technology innovation experiences with small-scale breeders in order  to show their importance for rural development. to show their importance for rural development.  "},{"text":"Project duration: November-December 2003 Project budget and PRGA contribution: n Partner contribution: US$ 75,935 n PRGA direct fi nancial contribution: US$ 37,000 Outputs/achievements: Five cases were studied: Participatory and sustainable development of small breeders in Colombia. 3  3 n Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Agrícolas (INCA), Cuba: Participatory plant breeding: nInstituto Nacional de Ciencias Agrícolas (INCA), Cuba: Participatory plant breeding:  promoting biodiversity and food security. promoting biodiversity and food security. n PROINPA Foundation (Research and Promotion of Andean Crops): Chemical control strategy nPROINPA Foundation (Research and Promotion of Andean Crops): Chemical control strategy  for potato rust in Bolivia. for potato rust in Bolivia. n Zamorano University in Honduras with emphasis on Nicaragua: Integrated pest management nZamorano University in Honduras with emphasis on Nicaragua: Integrated pest management  program in Central America. program in Central America. Publications: Publications: n Reports on each of the fi ve case studies were submitted. nReports on each of the fi ve case studies were submitted.  "},{"text":". Farmer-led participatory maize breeding in middle hills of Nepal Country: Nepal Partner involved:  n LiBird (Local Initiatives for Biodiversity Research and Development) nLiBird (Local Initiatives for Biodiversity Research and Development) Objective: Objective: To strengthen institutional capacity of Farmers' Research Committees (FRCs) and subcommittees To strengthen institutional capacity of Farmers' Research Committees (FRCs) and subcommittees in group mobilization, resource generation and marketing their expertise and/or participatory in group mobilization, resource generation and marketing their expertise and/or participatory plant breeding (PPB) products. plant breeding (PPB) products.  "}],"sieverID":"ee0faab0-0eb8-41b8-8678-a4e0daf2642d","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"087a1f91fdd5fbca51897bea8486b565","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/35409f41-8f3f-4f67-b7e4-f396fff772b3/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Livestock, Climate and System Resilience","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Nitrogen cycling and N 2 O emissions in Brachiaria-based grass-alone pastures and silvopastoral systems in a grazing trial in Colombia","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"To evaluate the nitrogen (N) cycling differences in grass-alone pastures and silvopastoral systems we established a field trial in the CIAT campus in Palmira, Colombia."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"Plant biomass production and nutrition quality of the pastures was higher in the grass-legume (T3 and T4) than the grass monoculture treatments (T1 and T2). N 2 O emissions were higher in the grass-legume pastures."}]},{"head":"Objective","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Experimental design: Complete blocks with three replications Table 1. Nutrition quality parameters of grass alone (T1-T2) and grass-legume tree (T3-T4) pasture treatments. "}]},{"head":"Results","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Although N 2 O emissions were higher in the grass-legume pastures, higher N uptake by the pastures in terms of higher N accumulation in tissue and biomass production yielded to lower emissions intensity, i.e. less N 2 O emitted per dry matter produced. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Silvopastoral trial at CIAT, Colombia. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Plant biomass production in different pasture treatments. BS: Area between shrub rows of L. diversifolia. US: Area under shrubs of L. diversifolia. "},{"text":" Nitrous oxide emissions of grass alone (T1-T2) and grass-legume tree (T3-T4) pasture treatments. "}],"sieverID":"b4f4ceed-a9bb-49cc-826a-77b3222978c9","abstract":"Silvopastoral systems provide a number of environmental and productive benefits compared to grass-alone pastures in terms of: i) increased forage biomass offer and quality ii) nutrient cycling iii) biodiversity iV) cash flow, among other ecosystem services."}

data/part_4/08a0b34cb20f476c7cca16940be53bb1.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08a0b34cb20f476c7cca16940be53bb1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4707ce86-d09d-46c0-bafc-8a4a36815725/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"From open weather data to accessible weather information services for smallholder farmers ICTs for agriculture series 16 CTA Policy Brief","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Scope and severity of problem","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"About one in nine people on earth suffer from hunger and malnutrition and the world's population by 2050 will reach 9.1 billion. Nearly all of this population increase will occur in developing countries and FAO estimates a 60% increase in food production by 2050."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"Weather represents the greatest opportunity -and risk -in the agriculture sector. Climate change presents major risks for long-term food security and developing countries may suffer the greatest share of damage in the form of declining yields and greater frequency of extreme weather events. For example, studies indicate that the aggregate negative impact of climate change on African agricultural output up to 2080-2100 could be between 15 and 30 percent 1 . While 80% of the necessary production increases needs to come from increases in yields and cropping intensity, a continuous linear increase in yields at a global level, following the pattern established over the past five decades will not be sufficient to meet food needs 2 ."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"The challenge is therefore for technology to assist in addressing this problem. Data has risen high on the food security policy agenda. The last decade has seen an exponential increase in the volume and types of data, and the benefits of open data for agriculture are potentially huge. In many areas of the world, agriculture is already a data-driven business, with precision farming making extensive use of GPS, weather, and satellite data, alongside soil information and crop production statistics."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"Providing value-added services for smallholders using open weather data in developing countries is challenging for several reasons, such as a lack of infrastructure within meteorological departments, a lack of technical skills and capacity and a lack of incentives and viable business models to sustain the release of more weather data. "}]},{"head":"Why open data?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"For data to be considered 'open', it must be accessible online, available in a machinereadable format, and have a license that permits anyone to use it. As such, open data is a vital link to increase efficient and effective decision-making, to increase innovation (because of better insights for solutions), and to increase transparency as people can follow developments."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Open data with the use of analytics have begun and closed to affect every node in the agriculture value chain and, in the process, are redefining operations, competition and strategy within and between the various circles. For example:"},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"n Research institutions developing new drought and stress resistant varieties require access to frequent reliable weather data."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"n Agriculture dealers such as input suppliers, breeders and others need access to data on localised weather conditions to optimise their products, prioritise their production, and improve recommendations to farmers."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"n Information technology and mobile service providers need to develop solutions that will provide farmers with daily weather data and agronomic alerts through SMS messaging, smart phone apps and videos."},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"n Extensionists require data and information on current conditions including weather, pests, diseases, and crop stress, in order to provide accurate advice and early warning."},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"Better information across the value chain empowers the smallholder farmer."},{"index":8,"size":29,"text":"n Insurance providers require access to weather data to determine the risk of rainfall or temperature variability or extreme events and the appropriate cover options of weather index-based insurance."},{"index":9,"size":26,"text":"n Smallholder farmers in developing countries can now receive real-time weather forecasts, alerts, and field recommendations generated through mobile service providers on a basic cell phone."},{"index":10,"size":48,"text":"These are just some ways that localised, field-level weather and agronomic data can have a greater impact. To ensure sustainable agricultural systems, there is need to explore new opportunities on how to deliver more open data to add more value and deeper impact to the agricultural value chain."},{"index":11,"size":123,"text":"One such example is an innovative project funded by CTA 3 that has helped farmers in the Gezira irrigation scheme, Sudan, to more than quadruple their wheat yields while conserving water and other key inputs. Using satellite data and mobile phones, farmers participating in the project received field-specific information, irrigated their crops more often, but applied less water than non-participating farmers, and increased their yields. Awareness about the importance of (open) data needs to be raised at the level of end users, the consumers of the weather information services. They need more knowledge about data rights and the quality of data used in services. Furthermore, they need a better understanding on how to interpret data for planning and changes in their farming practices."}]},{"head":"Policy recommendations","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Skills cascading models are necessary and the creation of train-the-trainer networks will reduce duplication of efforts through better cooperation and communication."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"Investors should also not be overlooked as many are not aware or do not fully understand the opportunities in the open weather data value chain."}]},{"head":"Increased technical support for data collection and exchange","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Sustainable publishing of high quality data in standard forms is an important element of a strong data infrastructure. To ensure that weather data can be easily accessed, used and shared requires the use of data standards. Data standards are documented, useable agreements that help organisations to publish and exchange data in consistent ways. Presently with observational data, one of the challenges is that different stations work with different standards and produce data that is not easily interoperable. It would be a step in the right direction if some collaborative work were done to improve this. An example of this can be found in the recently launched map of agri-food data standards 4 and the open data standards directory 5 , which has a wider scope."}]},{"head":"Some key recommendations for better use and usability of weather data standards:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"n Address discovery issues relating to weather data (improving use of discovery metadata to help catalogue and describe data)"},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"n Improve the documentation and selfdescription of existing data standards (creating developer documentation; publishing existing vocabularies in new ways); offer community support; Q&A services n Identify 2-3 key code lists that should be published in more linkable, versatile formats; link key code lists and publish existing alignments; provide web services for cross-walks."}]},{"head":"Developing viable business models","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"The key issue for sustainability is developing solid business models, beyond project funding and subsidies. Business models that provide incentives for various entities to collect and share weather data. If these models provide business value directly to the data providers, the quality of the collected data will also be higher. One telecoms company in Southern Africa, for example, is providing agro-input advisory services including weather information via SMS to smallholders. They have managed to sell the service (EcoFarmer) and sustain it by providing it as a bundle, which includes other services that smallholders require, e.g. funeral insurance."}]},{"head":"Partnerships and collaboration","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Co-creation in the open weather data value chain, bundling services, and packaging different data sources requires collaboration with many stakeholders. Such broader focus and engagement can only be achieved in Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) or multi-stakeholder constructions to offer ways to combine all the skills, perspectives, and options that could optimise market opportunities and find solutions for challenges, including monetising on investments."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"In partnerships, all stakeholders have their own roles and responsibilities to add"}]},{"head":"About the series","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"CTA Policy Briefs provide a concise summary of a particular issue of relevance to the Centre's activities, the policy options to deal with it, and some recommendations on the best option."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"They are aimed at policy-makers and their technical advisors, academics and educators working in the policy field and others who are interested in formulating or influencing policy. "}]},{"head":"Copyright notice","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"This work is the sole intellectual property of CTA and its copublishers, and cannot be commercially exploited."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"CTA encourages its dissemination for private study, research, teaching and non-commercial purposes, provided that appropriate acknowledgement is made:"},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"-of CTA's copyright and EU financing, by including the name of the author, the title of the work and the following notice \"© CTA 2018 EU financing\", -and that CTA's or its co-publishers', and European Union's endorsement of users' views, products or services is not implied in any way, by including the standard CTA disclaimer."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"All requests for commercial use rights should be addressed to publishing@cta.int."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Weather data is used by providers of ICT services, extensionists, and farm advisors to generate added value through combining this data with soil data, crop data, agronomic knowledge and bringing this knowledge to farmers through a variety of services. Providing weather data-based support to farmers goes beyond being familiar and being able to work with weather data. It requires a broader view on standards, capacity development, entrepreneurship, partnerships and impact measurement."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" It will require collaborative efforts and partnerships to develop localised services from raw weather data. Effective use of the data will require increased engagement with farmer communities; increased use of open data standards to ensure interoperability and the addressing of major capacity gaps in the open weather data value chain.  "},{"text":"1. Capacity building tailor-made for all stakeholders in the value chain  and understanding the end users' needs  and understanding the end users' needs through feedback mechanisms.  through feedback mechanisms. At the intermediary's level, capacity is  At the intermediary's level, capacity is needed on how to interpret and translate  needed on how to interpret and translate raw data into actionable information. A  raw data into actionable information. A better understanding of sound business  better understanding of sound business models and good entrepreneurship skills is  models and good entrepreneurship skills is also needed. Improved communication skills  also needed. Improved communication skills and understanding the farmers is important  and understanding the farmers is important for intermediaries to apply human centred  for intermediaries to apply human centred design skills for their services. They also  design skills for their services. They also need to understand what is essential when  need to understand what is essential when providing climate information services  providing climate information services to increase productivity, resilience, and  to increase productivity, resilience, and mitigation/adaptation.  mitigation/adaptation.  Capacity gaps occur at all levels in the Capacity gaps occur at all levels in the  open weather data value chain. At the data open weather data value chain. At the data  provider level, it is about building the data provider level, it is about building the data  infrastructure including technical support infrastructure including technical support Weather data for agriculture Weather data for agriculture Forecasting Index-based insurance ForecastingIndex-based insurance (Model based on weather stations) Open data archives (Model based on weather stations)Open data archives www.openweatherdata.org  www.openweatherdata.org Agriculture Specific alerts E.g. Irrigation AgricultureSpecific alerts E.g. Irrigation monitoring tools Satellite image with models monitoring toolsSatellite image with models e.g. Famine early warning SMS delivery e.g. Famine early warningSMS delivery  Source: CTA Source: CTA  "},{"text":" This work has been made with the financial assistance of the European Union. However, it remains under the sole responsibility of its author(s) and never reflects CTA's or its co-publisher's or European Union's opinions or statements whatsoever nor as well the opinion of any country or State member. The user should make his/her own evaluation as to the appropriateness of any statements, argumentations, experimental technique or method as described in the work. value and reduce costs. They therefore can Skilled stakeholders value and reduce costs. They therefore canSkilled stakeholders create trade-offs between initiatives and stakeholders on which competition can be channelled. Governments have a role to drive this process creating an environment in which PPPs or multi-stakeholder n Technical skills n Communicational skills n Economic skills, e.g. knowledge of organisation development business models create trade-offs between initiatives and stakeholders on which competition can be channelled. Governments have a role to drive this process creating an environment in which PPPs or multi-stakeholdern Technical skills n Communicational skills n Economic skills, e.g. knowledge of organisation development business models partnerships can thrive. n \"E-readiness\" partnerships can thrive.n \"E-readiness\" 5. Measuring impact Impact measurement is often forgotten, but it is critical to ensure weather data services are made sustainable in the long term. Accessibility n Availability of reusable data (FAIR -Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, Reusable). 5. Measuring impact Impact measurement is often forgotten, but it is critical to ensure weather data services are made sustainable in the long term.Accessibility n Availability of reusable data (FAIR -Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, Reusable). Context, however, is crucial to assess the  Context, however, is crucial to assess the potential impact of open data initiatives.  potential impact of open data initiatives. Key considerations include:  Key considerations include: Favorable policy environment  Favorable policy environment n Political will and commitment in supporting  n Political will and commitment in supporting transparency and open data  transparency and open data Authors: Chipo Msengezi and Chris Addison  Authors: Chipo Msengezi and Chris Addison Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation P.O. Box 380 -6700 AJ Wageningen -The Netherlands P.O. Box 380 -6700 AJ Wageningen -The Netherlands Tel: +31 (0) 317 467 100 | E-mail: cta@cta.int | www.cta.int Tel: +31 (0) 317 467 100 | E-mail: cta@cta.int | www.cta.int Disclaimer  Disclaimer  "}],"sieverID":"dbe7e080-34cd-4cbf-ba4e-743997ecf3f6","abstract":"Weather data and services derived from weather data have a high potential to enhance support for smallholder farmers in taking operational decisions on farm management. Plant growth is driven by weather variables and therefore agricultural production is directly dependent on weather conditions. Many agricultural activities (e.g. sowing, harvesting, and fertiliser application) are dependent on weather conditions for planning and effectiveness. Given this, all agricultural stakeholders are interested in some form of meteorological data. This Policy Brief outlines the importance and benefits that can be derived from weather data in agriculture and nutrition, the challenges in the weather data value chain and recommendations to address these challenges.Having access to accurate, localised weather information is crucial for farmers to make well-informed farm management decisions, like timing irrigation and fertilisation and harvesting. This access also allows for effective risk mitigation.Access to open data and particularly weatherrelated data was identified as a key factor in transforming agriculture and nutrition by the G8 in 2013. Open data is simply defined as data that can be used, re-used, shared and built-on by anyone, anywhere, for any purpose. By making meteorological data available as open data it not only becomes easier to share, but also allows the development of specialised information services by infomediaries targeting specific user needs and the prediction of suitable conditions for farm activities."}

data/part_4/08a1d95ce7c727a87e03e83e653a0c1f.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08a1d95ce7c727a87e03e83e653a0c1f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dc806147-a374-45e6-8f36-049ac116d1fb/retrieve"},"pageCount":23,"title":"Rapid Evidence Review","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Food system emissions contribute to 1/3 of global emission (1990-2018)  Plant-based meat (PBM) in low and middleincome countries"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• Collaboration of IIASA, Limestone Analytics, CCAFS, Impossible Foods, and USAID"},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"• Investigated expansion of plant-based meat (PBM) and dairy and their impacts on climate, land use, and food security • Used GLOBIOM model, exploring scenarios of animal product substitution using hypothetical plant-based meat \"recipes\" that are nutritionally equivalent and realistic for global production • Explored business cases in four countries: Brazil, China, Nigeria and Vietnam"}]},{"head":"Slide courtesy of Miroslav Batka","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Global PBM Scenarios (IIASA) Kozicka, Batka, Havlik et al., forthcoming"}]},{"head":"• PBM has substantial mitigation outcomes","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"• A 25% substitution rate of PBM for its respective meat led to a 1 GtCO 2 e/yr reduction in 2050."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• PBM substitution of beef has the highest impacts, compared to other meats."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"• If the land released from beef production is used as forest, the mitigation impact of PBM is doubled."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"• The potential for biodiversity co-benefits is significant due to the reduced area of cultivated land and lower pressure for expansion in forests."}]},{"head":"2/18/22","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"What can consumers do? Transport accounts for only ~5% of food emissions."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"For beef, transport is less than 1% of emissions 5. Take individual action to drive large-scale, systemic impacts"},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"• Promote policy targets and actions for reduced meat diets in high-and middleincome countries (e.g. C40 cities) • Support labeling and certification of meat • Advance affordable meat alternatives • Support consumption of lower-emission foods"},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"• Increase the ease and visibility of buying plantbased foods in menus, canteens and supermarkets. • Promote awareness campaigns and social movements for consumer behavior change, link to health."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"1) Aim to reduce food emissions by 20% 2) Eat lower emissions foods 3) Avoid products associated with deforestation (oil palm, soy from Brazil) 4) Reduce food waste Local does not necessarily mean low emissions (   Exception: airfreight for Exception: airfreight for  highly perishable foods highly perishable foods  such as asparagus, such as asparagus,  berries produces high berries produces high Greenhouse tomatoes in Sweden emissions. But airfreight Greenhouse tomatoes in Swedenemissions. But airfreight used 10X more energy than is only 0.16% of food. used 10X more energy thanis only 0.16% of food. imported in-season tomatoes from  imported in-season tomatoes from Southern Europe (Hospido et al.  Southern Europe (Hospido et al. 2009).  2009).  "}],"sieverID":"705b8981-5e14-41bb-8df4-259ddf7ad0af","abstract":"We review over 4000 countries, companies, and subnational governments, which together make up the preponderance of global emissions. We find 769 of these entities have net zero targets, but only 152 meet minimum criteria for robustness, including timing, status, coverage, use of offsets, and governance. Though net zero is now widespread as a concept, its operationalization is still in its infancy. Making net zero targets robust should now be a priority for policymakers in order to deliver Paris-consistent action, as well as securing more ambitious targets."}

data/part_4/08e2c9c38192f559d5445893a47ca92b.json

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Q&10+EE10A-QBA-QB-R1)5GA-SB-T&,'=&7A-&0E-QB-F=/7&,A-!\"#\"B-%&'()*+,(-&../+0',-10-23%4-5&,10,P-61789(-:&'()*+,(-&../+0'10","-/<-'=(->178/8/-?&,10B-23%4-%/)H10","-3&8()P-?&,10-4/.&9-3)/M(.'-,()1(,A-?43 J66^-*-!\"\\$*Z[\"! _/+-.&0-`0E-'=(-23%4-%/)H10","-3&8()-,()1(,-/0910(-&'-=''8Paa:::B:&'()&0E<//EB/)","a8+591.&'1/0,a8)/",")&7*8+591.&'1/0,a:/)H10","*8&8(),B='79B M+ !'7,0+&4*2%C%F4+'-*+'-+%.8C,-)+%H+8&)+7,(NC)+O'"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"F&59(-#B-2&'.=7(0',-10-'=(->178/8/-?&,10-:1'=-'=( 1 p-na6-q-+8,')(&7l-da6-q-E/:0,')(&7B F=(-7(&0-&00+&9-)&10<&99-/<-'=(-5&,10-D&)1(,-./0,1E()&59G-X!\"\"*#[\"\"-77Y-:1'=-7+.=-/<-'=(-0/)'=()0-&0E-:(,'()0-8&)',-/<-'=(-?&,10-)(.(1D10;-9(,,-'=&0-[\"\"-77B-K&10<&99-1,-=1;=9G-, (         p-na6-q-+8,')(&7l-da6-q-E/:0,')(&7B"},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":",-,,, ,-,,."},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":",-,/, ,-,/."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":",-,0, ,-, ,-/ ,-0 ,-T ,-J ,-. ,-K ,-N ,-L *33;2<!985?D9D@2@DA3O!G 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m-C-<+)'=()-8&)'1'1/010;-/<-'=(-(D&8/')&0,81)&'1/0-10'/-'=(-8)/8/)'1/0-/<-(D&8/')&0,81)&'1/0-&../+0'(E-</)-5G-(&.=-D(;('&'1/0-'G8(-/)-9&0E-+,(A-10.9+E10;-(D&8/')&0,81)&'1/0-<)/7-:('9&0E,-&0E-(D&8/)&'1/0-<)/7-/8(0-:&'()B F=(-,1789(-=GE)/9/;1.&9-&../+0'-1,-5&,(E-/0-&-7/0'=9G-'17(-,'(8A-:=1.=-:(-./0,1E()-&E(i+&'(-</)-/+)-8+)8/,(B F=(-&../+0'-1,-&-'/8*E/:0 "},{"text":" D&8/')&0,81)&'1/0-&0E-8/'(0'1&9-(D&8/')&0,81)&'1/0-&)(-;1D(0-10-77B K1D()-U/:,-&0E-,'/)&;(,A-&0E-9&H(-,'/)&;(A-&)(-;1D(0-10-7.7-X71991/0-.+51.-7(')(,YB-#-)(./)E,-/<-'=1,-;&+;(-&'-<&.(-D&9+(-17891(,-&-)+0/<<-)&'1/-/<-c-fA-:=()(&,-&99-'=(-/'=()-;&+;(E-.&'.=7(0',-10-'=&'-8&)'-/<-'=(->178/8/-=&D(-17891(E-)+0/<<-)&'1/,-/<-#-'/-!-fB-4+)'=()7/)(A-'=(-7(&,+)(E-U/:-&'-2=/H:(-X'=(-9&,'-;&+;(-)(./)E,-5(</)(-'=(-7/+'=Y-17891(,-&-E1,.=&);(-<)/7-'=(-5&,10-;)(&'()-'=&0-'=&'-(,'17&'(E-5G-/'=()-7(&0,-X?/)/'/-!\"\"#l-R(D10-6./''A-8(),/0&9-./77+01.&'1/0A-!\"\"eYA-&0E-&;&10-17891(,-'=&'-,/7(-;&+;(,-&)(-:)/0;B 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B-%(-=&,'(0-'/-(78=&,1,(-'=&'-'=1,-1,-0/'-&-8)(E1.'1/0-/<-=/:-'=(-E&7-:199-5(-+,(El-1'-1,-7()(9G-&-E(7/0,')&'1/0-/<-'=(-+,(-/<-'=(-:&'()*+,(-&../+0'-,8)(&E,=(('B-F=(-178&.'-/0-U/:,-&'-2=/H:(-1,-,((0-10-41;+)(-#[B-J'-7&G-5(-0/'(E-'=&'-'=(-(0'1)(9G-=G8/'=('1.&9-9&);(-E1D(),1/0,-<)/7-,+.=-&-E&7-9171'-U/:,-E)&7&'1.&99G-5+'-E/-0/'-8)(D(0'-'=(-U//E,-/<-!\"\"\"-X7+.=-/<-'=(-./0')15+'1/0-'/-:=1.=-.&7(-<)/7-'=(-N918=&0',-K1D()YB %(-:&)0-'=&'-'=(,(-(V&789(,-&)(-</)-E(7/0,')&'1/0A-'=(G-&)(-0/'-&-8)(E1.'1/0-/<-:=&'G;@W<=?G< C-D()G-,1789(-,8)(&E,=(('-7/E(9-:1'=-<(:-&EM+,'&59(-8&)&7('(),-=&,-8)/E+.(E-89&+,159(-)+0/<<-&0E-)1D()-U/:-5(=&D1/+)-10-'=(->178/8/-?&,10B-J<-)(i+1)(E-1'-./+9E-5(-<+)'=()-E(D(9/8(EB-F=1,-:/+9E-(0'&19-E(D(9/810;-7/)(-./789('(-&0E-())/)*<)((-.917&'(-&0E-,')(&7-U/:-E&'&A-&,-:(99-&,-E&'&-/<-9&0E-+,(-&0E-.)/8-./(<`.1(0',B "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"e3f1b10b-3dcd-4893-9c3e-afbe526026f5","abstract":";%(N%-)-87+'-*+2)7.C87+,-+*)8',"}

data/part_4/08f8be5420e09e0a4a85c677795e8375.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"08f8be5420e09e0a4a85c677795e8375","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a5528961-6fa9-4c98-a76e-8198ff9f0db6/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"Evaluation of the Groundwater potential of the Malala alluvial aquifer, Lower Mzingwane river, Zimbabwe","keywords":["alluvial aquifer","piezometers","resistivity","water balance 1. Introduction"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"The erratic rainfall pattern in the south-west of Zimbabwe limits the possibilities for rainfed agriculture. However, the largest river in the area, the Mzingwane River, is ephemeral and thus can only supply water for a limited period of time during the year. This limited temporal availability of surface water can be mitigated through accessing groundwater stored in the river bed: the alluvial aquifer. This stored water can therefore be considered an extension of surface flow (Mansell and Hussey, 2005). The alluvial aquifer of the lower Mzingwane River is recharged by the ephemeral surface flows. Commercial farmers in the valley below Zhovhe Dam access this water for irrigation of citrus, wheat, maize, cotton and vegetables (Love et al., 2007). However, the smallholder farmers of Mtetengwe Communal Land, through which the Mzingwane River flows, have little access to such productive water resources -which is typical in Zimbabwe and is considered a significant constraint on rural development (Magadzire, 1995)."},{"index":2,"size":151,"text":"In this study, two coupled techniques were applied to locate and evaluate a potential site for alluvial groundwater development for smallholder farmers: (i) identification of hydrogeologically favourable conditions such as geological boundaries (Owen and Dahlin, 2005) and (ii) resistivity profiling (Israil et al., 2006;Owen et al., 2006). Monitoring groundwater levels and determining aquifer hydrogeological properties allowed for the groundwater potential of the aquifer to be developed. Given the constraint that water chemistry may impose on agriculture, especially water from alluvial aquifers (Love et al., 2006) it is also necessary to establish the major ion chemistry of the water in the alluvial aquifer. The objectives of this study were therefore (i) to determine the groundwater yield of the alluvial aquifer after a managed dam release, (ii) to classify the groundwater hydrogeochemically and (iii) to determine the irrigation potential from the alluvial aquifer storage after a dam release or a natural flood event."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study Area","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"The study area lies in the Mzingwane river catchment which is in the south-western part of Zimbabwe and is part of the Limpopo River Basin (figure 1). The study area lies in the agroecological region V which experiences considerable low average annual rainfall of approximately 350 mm/a compared with the national average figure of 675 mm/a for Zimbabwe (Meteorological Services Department, 1981). The selected study site at Malala (see figure 1) lies approximately 35 km downstream of Zhovhe dam. The alluvial aquifer system between Zhovhe dam and the Limpopo River is recharged artificially by water which is released from Zhovhe dam for Beitbridge town and commercial farmers, as well as by spillage from the dam and natural flow from tributary rivers. "}]},{"head":"Reconnaissance","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"Owen and Dahlin (2005) have shown that alluvial aquifer development is pronounced at geological boundaries where there is a significant difference in the resistance to erosion of the lithologies in contact. The Mzingwane river valley was investigated in the Communal Lands between the downstream commercial farm (Ferguson, see figure 1) and Bertie Knott Bridge. Regional mapping showed the Mzingwane River being crossed by dolerite dykes, intrusive into the older gneisses at two sites (Watkeys, 1979). At each of the sites, resistivity measurements were made to determine the most favourable site (see section 2.3) and the Malala site was selected (section 3.1)."}]},{"head":"Resistivity measurements","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"In the resistivity surveys, a Terrametter SAS 300C geophysical equipment was used to determine the approximate depth of the sand (the depth to the bed rock). The Schlumberger (AB/2) electrode configuration was used. 24 resistivity soundings were observed at the study site. The apparent resistivity of the ground surface was computed and its variation was modeled with an increase in the depth of the ground formations. The apparent resistivity was computed using equation (1) (Breusse, 1963)."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Where p = apparent resistivity (Ωm), W = potential electrode spacing (m), L = current electrode spacing (m) , V = voltage (V), I = current (A)."},{"index":3,"size":171,"text":"The Rinvert software was used for interpreting resistivity sounding data collected from the schlumberger (AB/2) method. The method involves initially assuming an earth model of the acquired resistivity data by defining multiple horizontal layers and assigning resistivity values to each layer of a given initial thickness. A forward modelling procedure is done were a sounding curve is produced for the initial earth model. The model proposed is used as an initial model for inverse modelling. This procedure finds automatically the optimal model which gives the best least squares fit to the field data set. Equivalence analysis is done in order to show the uncertainty in the interpreted model. This is done by the determination of the range of models which fit the field data just as well within a user defined value of % RMS. The final model gives a reasonable guide into the earth layering at the studied site. The various depths of the layers are therefore estimated and the depth to the bedrock can be estimated with reasonable accuracy."}]},{"head":"Field mapping","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The Malala alluvial aquifer which was studied is 1 000 m long and is approximately 200 m wide. The aquifer can be divided into two sections depending on the location of the area relative to the dolerite dyke which cuts across the mid section of the aquifer. Approximately 2 km 2 on either side of the river channel was mapped. Rock outcrops were recorded on a 1: 16,000 topographical map of the study area."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"A topographical survey was carried out using standard surveying procedures. The theodolite was used to calculate horizontal distances between one point and another. A dumpy level was used to calculate differences in elevation between two or more points. The measured difference in elevation was then divided by the horizontal distance between the two points to calculate the slope of the river bed."}]},{"head":"Water level monitoring","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Eight piezometers were installed into the Malala alluvial aquifer. The piezometers were driven into the sand to 3 m. Water level monitoring was carried out daily using an electric dip measure. A point on the river channel was set at an elevation of 100 m during the topological survey. Water levels were then calculated by subtracting the depth to the water level from the surveyed elevation at any one point."}]},{"head":"Hydrogeological properties of aquifer material","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"The grain size distribution of a sample of aquifer material was determined by the sieve shaker model. The used sieves are US standard sieves with sizes 4000, 2800, 2000, 1000, 500, 250, 180, 125 and 32 µm. The samples were electronically weighed at an accuracy of 0.001 g. The hydraulic conductivity was then calculated using the Hazen (1892) method and the Alyamani and Sen (1998) method. Porosity (n) was derived indirectly from an empirical relationship using the coefficient of grain uniformity (Vukovic and Soro, 1992)."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"For the calculation of the specific yield the saturated sand method was used: the sand sample was placed in a beaker of a known mass. The sand sample was saturated with water and the mass of the saturated sample measured. The sample was then placed in a sieve and was closed. This was done in order to minimize evaporation losses. After water was allowed to flow out of the sample under gravity the sand was then weighed. The value of 2.65 was used for the specific gravity of sand. The specific yield was then determined using equation ( 2)"},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"Where S Y = Specific yield (g), M W = Mass of water (g), M S = Mass of sand (g), S G = Specific gravity of sand (%)."},{"index":4,"size":112,"text":"Permeability was determined using the permeameter test, which is based on Darcy's law. The test works with a vertical slope i = 1. Sand was collected from the aquifer and placed into a bucket with a volume of 0.045 m 3 . Water is poured into the bucket through a tube connected to a continuously flowing source of water. The continuous flow of water thus holds the hydraulic head constant A stop watch was used to measure the time required to fill 1; 1.5; 2; 2.5; 3; 3.5; 4 and 4.5 litre containers. The outlet pipe was stuffed with gravel in order to prevent the sand from flowing out of the bucket."},{"index":5,"size":2,"text":"( )"},{"index":6,"size":54,"text":"Where, K = Hydraulic conductivity (ms -1 ), Q = Flow rate or discharge (m 3 s -1 ), A = Cross sectional area (m 2 ), V = Volume of percolated water (m 3 ), t = Time taken to fill a container of known volume (seconds), d = Diameter of container (m)."}]},{"head":"Hydrogeochemistry","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Seven water samples were collected from the Mzingwane river system: four at the study site, two at Zhovhe dam and one from a well point at Mazunga which lies approximately 20 km upstream of the study site but downstream of Zhovhe dam along the Mzingwane river (see figure 1 for locations). Water samples were filtered to less than 0.2 microns and were analysed for sulphate (SO 4 2-"},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":") and Chloride (Cl -). The samples were also analysed for bicarbonate (HCO 3 -) using a standard acid titration. Samples were analysed for Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , K + , and Na + using a perkin -Elmer 5100 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AA). The water samples were analysed at the National Water Quality Laboratory, Harare, Zimbabwe."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"The sodium hazard in irrigation water is expressed by determining the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) by the following relation (equation 4)."},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"2"},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"Where c(M) is the concentration expressed in milliequivalents per litre of cation M."}]},{"head":"Groundwater potential of the Malala alluvial aquifer","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The Malala alluvial aquifer was subdivided into 125 cells, each cell representing a 40 m by 40 m square. The length of the aquifer (1000 m) was divided into 25 cells and the width of the aquifer (200 m) was divided into 5 cells. The groundwater potential of each cell was calculated using equation ( 5)."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"(5)"},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"Where: GP = Groundwater potential (ML), A = Area represented by the cell (m 2 ), d = Depth represented by the cell (m), S y = Specific yield (-)"},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"Area A for each cell was 1,600 m 2 . Depth d was determined from the resistivity surveys (section 2.3). Depth measurements were observed for 24 cells. The remaining depth estimations for the other 101 cells were estimated using the nearest neighbour analysis method. The specific yield S y was determined in the laboratory (section 2.6). The groundwater potential of the Malala alluvial aquifer was then calculated by summing up the quantities from each of the 125 cells."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Reconnaissance","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Two sites with suitable geological boundaries were selected: Malala and Massasanye. At both sites, a dolerite dyke crosses the Mzingwane River (Watkeys, 1979), thus giving the potential for a significant difference in the resistance to erosion at the contact, and thus greater depths upstream or downstream of the contact. Resistivity profiles carried out at the two sites showed a significantly greater depth to bedrock at Malala than at Massasanye (figure 2); on this basis Malala was selected for further study. "}]},{"head":"Resistivity","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"Rinvert modeling results for the upstream and down stream part of the dyke indicated a minimum depth of the sand to be approximately 5 meters and the maximum depth of the sand to be 25 meters (figure 3). The results suggest that the aquifer on the upstream side of the dolerite dyke has a thicker sand layer as compared to the downstream section of the dolerite dyke, which is functioning as a natural sand dam on the upstream part of the alluvial aquifer. The upstream part is thus preferred for the installation of an abstraction unit. The topographical survey which was carried out along the channel river bed gave a slope of 0.38 % for the section of the river channel. This is a rather steep section of the river as compared to the between 1: 500 and 1: 1000 average derived by Moyce et. al. (2006) in their overall study of the Mzingwane river system. "}]},{"head":"Field mapping","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"The geological mapping showed the geological setting of the alluvial aquifer. The river bed, which consists of an alluvial fill (the aquifer), is underlain by tonalitic and granodioritic gneisses. The alluvial fill is intersected mid way along the studied length of the river channel by a dolerite dyke at an approximate depth of six meters. The gneisses due to their relatively old age of 2,690 ± 60 Ma (Watkeys, 1979) are expected to be weathered and fractured at depth. Therefore seepage losses are expected from the aquifer to the underlying rocks. "}]},{"head":"Water level monitoring","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The alluvial aquifer was fully saturated for approximately 30 days (figure 5). After this water levels dropped below the full saturation level by an average of 0.5 meters, suggesting seepage losses of 5,400 m 3 or 3.7 % water losses from the total volume of the alluvial aquifer when fully saturated. This loss represents seepage to bedrock and evaporation, and the loss of 3.7 % is likely to be specific to the granodioritic and tonalitic bedrock or rocks of similar hydrogeological character. "}]},{"head":"Hydrogeological properties of aquifer material","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"The sieve analysis results are given as a plot of the percentage of grains passing a sieve of a given diameter against the particle size (figure 6). At least 91 % of the alluvial aquifer material lies in the sand size region (between 0.0625 and 2 mm; Johnson, 1967). Using the Vukovic and Soro (1992) approach the average porosity, based on the grain size distribution of the five samples, was 40.8%. Standard laboratory methods gave porosities of 38.2 % and 38.1%. Thus an average porosity for the alluvial aquifer using the three methods is estimated at 39%, comparable to previous values determined for sands in this river system: 30 % by Moyce et al. (2006) and 35 % by Nord (1985) and Owen (1992)."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"The saturated sand method (table 1) gave a specific yield value of 5.4 % using equation (2)"},{"index":3,"size":178,"text":"The specific yield derived for this river section is low: 5.4 % of the aquifer saturated volume can actually be abstracted. As such a larger volume of the saturated aquifer is required so that more water can be abstracted. This is quite a low value, compared to 20 % from Nord (1985) and Owen (1992), and indicates high clay content. It is comparable to that of Johnson (1967) for sandy clay. Hydraulic conductivity estimated from grain size distribution, gave a range from 17 to 61 m day -1 (table 2), and with average values of 38 m day -1 from the Hazen (1892) method and 30 m day -1 from the Alyamani and Sen (1998) method. The permeameter test (table 3) gave a range of 43 to 45 m day -1 and an average of 44 m day -1 . The overall average hydraulic conductivity is thus 37 m day -1 or 0.043 cm s -1 , which is at the lower end of the range proposed by Bear (1972) for good aquifer material and well sorted sand."},{"index":4,"size":192,"text":"Table 2. Hydraulic conductivities estimated from grain size distribution using empirical formulae of Hazen (1892) and Alyamani and Sen (1998).  Chloride concentration shows great variation (figure 8), with much higher levels being recorded at Malala than elsewhere. These high levels -together with the slightly higher sodium concentrations -are similar to those reported by Love et al. (2006) from alluvial plains upstream of Malala, suggesting interaction between the riverbed aquifer at Malala and older alluvial material. However, all levels are below the maximum recommended level for irrigation of 100 mg/l chloride (DWAF, 1996). Figure 8. Chloride concentrations in the alluvial aquifer at Malala (B1, B2, B5 and B6), at Mazunga (MAZ, for location see figure 1) and surface water at Zhovhe dam (ZH1, ZH2). Note the substantially higher concentrations at Malala. The sodium hazard in irrigation water is expressed by determining the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). SAR = 1.37 was derived for the water at the Malala alluvial aquifer. According to Richards (1954) classification, the water in the aquifer is of a very low sodium hazard and can thus be used for irrigation without posing much risk to the permeability of the soils."}]},{"head":"Groundwater potential of the Malala alluvial aquifer","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"The total yield of 1 km length of the aquifer when it is fully saturated is calculated, using equation ( 5) as 145 ML. Based on the observed water levels after a flow event, it is clear that the water level drops to a maximum of 0.75 m in almost 100 days. When water levels drop to this point the groundwater available for abstraction in the alluvial aquifer is approximately 135 ML. This amount of water has the potential of irrigating 13.5 ha per year -based on smallholder irrigation demand of 10 ML ha -1 a -1 (Ministry of Local Government Rural and Urban Development, 1996), provided that the water is available throughout the year."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"To ensure sustainability of 135 ML of water supply, a flow event is needed approximately every 100 days. Examination of records from Zhovhe Dam reveal that, since the dam's construction in 1995, at least one spill event or managed release from the dam can be expected in a given three month periods. This is also confirmed from flow records at Bertie Knott Bridge, downstream of Malala (see figure 1). The frequency of such flows satisfies the need for a flow event at least every 100 days to recharge the aquifer at Malala."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"The Malala alluvial aquifer can be utilized for the benefit of the communal farmers at Malala. Small scale irrigation schemes can be implemented using water resources from the alluvial aquifer. The number and frequency of dam releases is an important factor in the recharge of the alluvial aquifer at Malala. With a single release or a natural flood event on the Mzingwane River, approximately 135 ML of water per km stretch of the river can be available for use by the communal farmers at Malala, and the frequency of such flows suggests the abstraction would be possible throughout the year. The major significance of alluvial aquifers, such as at Malala, is thus their ability to act as natural water harvesting formations. They can store water which can be utilized in future drier periods. Although greater salinity (sodium and chloride) was observed at Malala than at Zhovhe Dam, it is not high enough to be a problem for irrigated agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"The plains also exhibit adequate porosity and specific yield and therefore a similar analysis is recommended to evaluate the groundwater potential of the plains aquifer."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. The Lower Mzingwane river system, showing the location of Malala and existing irrigation sites. Inset: location in Southern Africa "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Resistivity results from the reconnaissance exercise, lower Mzingwane valley. The resistivity profile at Malala (right) indicates a much greater depth (20 m) than the 10 m at Massasanye (left), and on this basis Malala was selected for further study. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Resistivity profiles, Malala. (Left) upstream of the dolerite dyke; (right) downstream. Several measurements were made at each site. The upstream profile appears deeper. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Geological map of the field study site, Malala, based on field mapping. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Observed groundwater levels at Malala, after flow in the Mzingwane River (spill of water from Zhovhe Dam). "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Grain size distribution curves for sand samples taken from the alluvial aquifer at Malala. "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. Piper plot of Malala alluvial aquifer water chemistry "},{"text":"Table 1 : Calculation of the specific yield of the aquifer  Mass of Mass of Mass of Mass of Mass of Mass of Specific Mass ofMass ofMass ofMass ofMass ofMass ofSpecific Beaker + Empty Saturated Beaker + Drained Water (g) Yield (%) Beaker +EmptySaturatedBeaker +DrainedWater (g)Yield (%) Saturated Beaker (g) Sand (g) Drained Sand (g)   SaturatedBeaker (g)Sand (g)DrainedSand (g) Sand (g)   Sand (g)    Sand (g)Sand (g) 2570.0 258.0 2312.0 2523.5 2265.5 46.5 5.4 2570.0258.02312.02523.52265.546.55.4  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Hydraulic conductivities determined using the permeameter test.Chemical results for cation and anion concentrations for the water samples collected from the piezometers at the alluvial aquifer (B1, B2, B5 & B6), as well as from the Mazunga area (MAZ) and Zhovhe dam (ZH1 & ZH2) are presented in the table 4 below and on a piper diagram in figure7, showing a composition dominated by sulphate, but with no dominant metal. Sodium levels are higher at Malala than elsewhere. V = volume, t = V = volume, t =  "}],"sieverID":"8860c5ef-54ff-454f-af59-a37230366e07","abstract":"The largest river in the semi-arid southwest of Zimbabwe, the Mzingwane River, is ephemeral and thus can only supply water for a limited period of time during the year. This limited temporal availability of surface water can be mitigated through accessing water stored in the river bed: the alluvial aquifer. This study evaluated groundwater resources at a local scale by characterizing the Malala alluvial aquifer, which covers a stretch of 1000 m of the Mzingwane river and is on average 200 m wide. The aquifer is recharged naturally by flood events during the rainy season and artificially by managed dam releases from Zhovhe dam during the dry season. The Malala site was selected from geological mapping and resistivity studies. The site shows indications of deeper sand layers and hence would be expected to have a higher potential of storing more groundwater. Piezometers were installed in the river channel to monitor the water level fluctuations in the alluvial aquifer. Water samples were collected from Zhovhe dam, Mazunga area and Malala alluvial aquifer in order to analyse the major ion chemistry of the water at the aquifer and at the source of recharge. A piper diagram analysis showed that the water in the alluvial aquifer can be classified as sulphate water with no dominant metals. The water is also of a low sodium hazard and can therefore be used for irrigation without posing much risk to the compaction of soils. Laboratory and field tests gave an average porosity of 39 %, hydraulic conductivity of 37 m day -1 , specific yield value of 5.4 % and the slope of the aquifer was measured as 0.38 %. Resistivity surveys showed that the alluvial aquifer has an average depth of 13.4 m. The bedrock is metamorphic rock mainly tonalitic and granodioritic gneisses which have been intruded by a dolerite dyke. Water level observations from the installed piezometers indicated that the water levels dropped on average by 0.75 m within 100 days after the observed dam release. After any flow event in the Mzingwane River, approximately 135 ML of water per km stretch of the river is available for use by the communal farmers at Malala, with the potential of irrigating at least 13.5 ha a -1 . The frequency of such flows suggests the abstraction would be possible throughout the year. The alluvial aquifer can thus store a significant amount of water and has the potential to sustain both irrigation water supply throughout the year."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"090f973cd0056f03d0e1b10ff4a2b6f0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/51620d2e-77e4-462e-b60b-fc574f04113f/retrieve"},"pageCount":64,"title":"PABRA and the power of beans in Africa: 25 years of transformation","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"From the Director I am delighted to present this report, which showcases the success and impact of the Pan-Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) and its journey of transformation over the past 25 years. As PABRA evolved, the power of beans to positively change lives in Africa became clearer and grew much stronger."},{"index":2,"size":147,"text":"At the heart of the success and impact are the innovations, dedication, and commitment of all those involved throughout PABRA's history -from the research institutes in Africa, international and national government agencies and non-governmental organizations, and regional economic communities to the smallholder farmers, entrepreneurs, funders, and investors who have partnered with PABRA to generate positive impacts through the power of beans. Together, we have all improved the performance of beans in Africa. Despite Africa's food security being challenged by social crises, climate extremes, and economic shocks, PABRA's approach has enabled the bean sector to thrive, thus positively impacting livelihoods throughout Africa. Indeed, beans are not just a subsistence crop, but an income earner for millions of smallholders and the national economy at large. By helping to improve soil fertility while withstanding limited soil moisture, high temperatures, and less rainfall, beans enhance the resilience of our agri-food systems."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"The dedication of all PABRA partners shines a light on what is possible. Collaboration and diversity among our growing partnerships demonstrates the power of all institutions combining synergies towards a common vision to achieve greater impact. Through a process of learning and adapting, we have become more empowered to improve the performance of the bean value chain -from farmers to consumers."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"Our long-term commitment to generate better beans that nourish a growing population reveals lessons for the future of agri-food systems. PABRA demonstrates the use of science and partnerships to effectively scale innovations at continental, regional, subregional, national, and local levels. Coordination across scales has enabled PABRA to solve problems, alleviate constraints, and unlock bottlenecks, thus developing the sector through dynamic and expanding market demand."},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"The challenges to nourish and feed a growing population within the planetary boundaries and having the capacity to manage climate extremes are immense. Nevertheless, PABRA provides an example of what is possible when innovations are embedded in a diverse, multi-level, and coordinated alliance of people and institutions."},{"index":6,"size":61,"text":"Please join me in celebrating the power of beans in Africa and PABRA's 25 years of transformation. \"Beans are a superfood, \"Beans are a superfood, a powerful contributor to a powerful contributor to reducing poverty, improving reducing poverty, improving nutrition and health, nutrition and health, generating jobs, and being generating jobs, and being kinder to the planet\" kinder to the planet\""}]},{"head":"Jean Claude Rubyogo","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CIAT","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Executive summary","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"The release of 657 new bean varieties, in 31 countries of Africa over 25 years, which have reached more than 37 million farmers (58% of whom are women), along with good farm management have more than doubled yields in many cases, thus significantly improving nutrition, health, and food security in Africa."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Bean quality has improved as well. Advances in iron and zinc biofortification empower beans to provide more dietary protein and micronutrients to more than 400 million people in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), especially women and children living in rural areas and vulnerable urban settlements."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"More than 5 million households in 10 African countries have seen a 30% increase in household income, with some farmers earning an additional US$800 to US$1,000 per hectare with the use of improved varieties and good agricultural practices. Impact assessment studies 1 have shown that, when smallholders use an additional 10 kg of improved varieties, this raises per capita consumption expenditure by 9% and increases the probability that a household is food secure by 6% while decreasing the likelihood of being poor by 6%. Beans are a powerful contributor to reducing poverty, improving livelihoods, and creating jobs."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"1 Katungi EM, Larochelle C, Mugabo JR, Buruchara R. 2018. The effect of climbing bean adoption on the welfare of smallholder common bean growers in Rwanda. Food Security 10(1):61-79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-017-0753-4"},{"index":5,"size":150,"text":"Gender equality and youth inclusion form the heart of all PABRA initiatives and impacts. Using a reach-out, empowering, and transformative approach to fostering change, we have enhanced the technical capacity of more than 50% of the women across the value chain. Of the more than 14.6 million households that have accessed climate-smart and farmer-and marketdemanded improved varieties from 2017 to 2021, 58% are led by women. Of the 3.5 million farmers that were linked to more profitable markets, 49% were women. Of the more than 11.3 million Africans who have consumed high-iron beans in 15 SSA countries, 53% were women. And, of the half a million bean value chain actors who have been trained by PABRA, 73% were women. Our approach has empowered and continues to empower women. This is illustrated in Zimbabwe and Burundi, where women's participation in decisionmaking bodies increased from 30% in 2015 to 50% in 2021."},{"index":6,"size":70,"text":"PABRA takes on the challenges of climate change. Our improved varieties mature early in 65 to 90 days, thus helping to reduce the risk of drought and harvest failure. In addition, improved pest and disease tolerance and access to timely climate information enables farmers to further diminish risks. As a result, many smallholder farmers are already achieving significantly higher bean crop yields, thus enhancing their household income and food security."},{"index":7,"size":117,"text":"Strong partnerships within the three PABRA regional networks, their constituent national research organizations, and the private sector enable the process of change. PABRA helps to not only coordinate and prioritize research, but also facilitates the timely dissemination of promising varieties and complementary innovations and the sharing of lessons learned across SSA. The national agricultural research systems (NARS), many of whom are founding members of PABRA, are key entry points in the development and dissemination of bean research. Based on agreed complementary and synergistic roles, PABRA helps to inform national and regional bean programs priorities and activities by providing a space for leveraging and integrating support and resources, joint implementation of activities, and mutual learning and performance reporting."},{"index":8,"size":24,"text":"PABRA's approach is diverse, dynamic, responsive, and agile. PABRA removes constraints that hinder the performance of entire bean value chains -from farmers to consumers."},{"index":9,"size":7,"text":"The success of PABRA has come through:"},{"index":10,"size":39,"text":"• Supporting institutional development Social conflict, climate extremes, and economic shocks along with the high cost of nutritious foods and growing inequalities continue to challenge food and nutrition security in SSA. Despite this difficult context, PABRA will continue to:"},{"index":11,"size":26,"text":"• Expand the power of demandled bean breeding with increased attention to farmer and consumer priorities, using innovative financial models, and through regional and international partners"},{"index":12,"size":20,"text":"• Assure greater smallholder profits from improved bean varieties that produce larger harvests and earn higher return on their investments "}]},{"head":"Affordable and nutritious beans for all","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"More than 11.3 million people in Africa (53% women) have eaten high-iron beans to address food and nutritional security at the household level in 15 SSA countries. More than 275,000 school-age children (51% girls) in Tanzania, Rwanda, Uganda, Cameroon, and Zimbabwe now regularly enjoy high-iron beans in school feeding programs (https://bit.ly/3wACako). This bean consumption has been shown to improve school performance (https://bit.ly/3R5CBLQ)."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"In Tanzania, the number of schools serving high-iron beans increased from 23 in 2018 to 492 in 2021, with a population of 238,972 pupils. In Madagascar, absenteeism declined from 10 days a month to 2 days a month when school children consumed a nutrition collation composed of 40% bean flour three mornings per week."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"PABRA has also developed and promoted healthy, nutritious, and convenient bean-based products that have been obtained or consumed by more than 5.2 million children, women, and men across Africa."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"In Ethiopia, shifting from old varieties to improved beans on 1 hectare increases per capita household annual consumption by 23% and, if combined with fertilizer application, increases per capita annual consumption by 37%. In Rwanda, beans can provide 75% of women' s daily iron needs."},{"index":5,"size":2,"text":"N.Palmer (CIAT)"},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"• Influence national policies to create an enabling environment that attracts greater public and private investments in the bean value chains "}]},{"head":"PABRA's unique approach","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Concerned about the declining bean production and productivity with a growth in demand, PABRA was established in 1996 to enhance food and nutrition security, income generation, poverty reduction, empowerment, and the health of poor communities through bean research, capacity building, networking, and partnership building."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Today, PABRA, facilitated by the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT (the Alliance), is a mature model of research and development partnership. Through effective and stable governance (Figure 1), it brings together NARS from 31 countries across sub-Saharan Africa, the Alliance, and more than 934 value chain actors (private and producers' organizations) in three regional networks that have a joint planning framework to coordinate research implementation and achieve synergy in outcomes."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"Through the Bean Corridor Approach, PABRA has adopted a food system approach that links consumption to responsive production systems supported by demand-led research."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"PABRA has boosted the power of beans to improve livelihoods across Africa by being: The approach provides lessons for the global agri-food system to effectively meet these challenges and advance towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)."},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"PABRA uses the power of science, innovation, and partnership to benefit smallholder food producers and consumers. It is a participatory approach that enables a wide range of value chain actors to contribute to the development of breeding strategies and varietal selection. These considerations include bean grain size, color, and cooking time, higher iron and zinc, as well as resilience to the major biotic and abiotic production constraints."},{"index":6,"size":57,"text":"3. The long-term approach taken by all partners, including national governments, private-sector partners, and international funding agencies 4. The ability to work at all levels in the value chain, bringing all stakeholders together 5. The focus on innovations that will improve livelihoods through effective market engagement 6. Demand-driven multi-disciplinary research that can be applied in various contexts."},{"index":7,"size":30,"text":"Importantly, PABRA has focused on building institutional capacity for all those involved in its partnerships Through a long-term commitment to people and partnership since 1997, PABRA and its members have:"},{"index":8,"size":25,"text":"• Delivered improved bean varieties to over 37 million African farmers, with 800,000 farmers directly trained in the management of improved varieties across 22 countries"},{"index":9,"size":13,"text":"• Released over 657 new bean varieties across 27 countries that increase yields"},{"index":10,"size":18,"text":"• Enabled the use of high-iron and highzinc beans that improve nutrition in vulnerable communities, households and individuals"},{"index":11,"size":11,"text":"• Provided commercial opportunities for women bean entrepreneurs both on-and off-farm"},{"index":12,"size":11,"text":"• Linked more than 1.4 million farmers with more profitable markets."},{"index":13,"size":22,"text":"This impact has been generated by a long-term commitment by all stakeholders and a willingness to shape the direction of PABRA through:"},{"index":14,"size":71,"text":"1. At the heart of PABRA's success over 25 years is its ability to be dynamic, responsive, and agile, and to build partnerships that deliver benefits and impact to smallholder farmers and other value chain actors and consumers. This impact has been underpinned by longterm engagement and partnerships with national governments and long-term sustainable investment by international development agencies, led by the Governments of Canada, Switzerland and the USA since 1997."},{"index":15,"size":21,"text":"In 1996, when PABRA was being designed, beans were a staple crop in the subsistence agriculture sector facing significant production challenges."}]},{"head":"CIAT (now part of the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT) and","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"During the early focus on farm productivity through improved varieties, on farm management and functioning seed systems, regional bodies were maturing."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"As PABRA developed, the challenge of sustainable scaling was identified. This needed to be resolved to deliver the greatest benefit to millions of smallholder farmers and consumers. These challenges, with the support of effective leadership, drove a transformation in PABRA that enhanced its capacity to respond to demand. This demand response is multi-layered: first responding to smallholder farmer demand through such innovations as disease-resistant and early-maturing varieties to combat the challenges of climate change; then to consumer demand with the development of nutrition-rich beans that can be cooked and processed more efficiently, thus saving labor, women's time in the kitchen, and resources; and to the changing demand of investors wanting to deliver wide-scale nutrition outcomes through diet diversity."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"partners engaged in addressing these challenges and identified the potential of beans to improve livelihoods in African food systems. At this stage, the African bean sector was largely informal and had spare capacity with research and development actions disconnected in several countries.  • Participatory plant breeding building on CIAT's pioneering work in participatory breeding. 4 The approach embraces new forms of cooperation between farmers and researchers for the selection and testing of new varieties along with innovative strategies for local seed production and distribution."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"• Demand-led breeding, which increases the availability and adoption of high-performing crop varieties that meet consumer and market demand, and harnesses private-sector investment in the bean value chain. This approach has been expanded in recent years in the partnership between PABRA and the Demandled Breeding (DLB) project (www. demandledbreeding.org/), which has used beans in Africa as an example of how to identify farmer and consumer preferences to guide bean breeding programs. The approach is applicable to many other crops."},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"• Impact-oriented seed systems foster partnerships for scaling up access to quality seed. This evaluates diverse models of seed production and delivery, supports farmerinformed choices, catalyzes private seed enterprise development, and shapes policy to the benefit of millions of smallholder farmers through the adoption of new varieties."},{"index":6,"size":40,"text":"• Product corridors are used to enhance the business environment by improving linkages and providing coordination among farmers, researchers, seed suppliers, buyers of products, and consumers, and engaging with policymakers to support investment in bean value chains and cross-border trade."},{"index":7,"size":81,"text":"• Gender mainstreaming integrates a gender perspective into the preparation, design, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation of approaches with a view to promoting equality between women and men, and combating discrimination, thus making sure that women have access to production assets and benefits from the value chain while also having an enhanced role in leadership and decision-making. For example, PABRA works with the CGIAR Gender, Diversity and Inclusion (GDI) Knowledge Hub, when developing new bean varieties that meet women's preferences. 5"},{"index":8,"size":31,"text":"• Private partnerships have been used to leverage public funds, enhance efficiency, and improve the adaptation of innovations to demand with the aim of fostering wider and faster diffusion and sustainability."},{"index":9,"size":47,"text":"• Improving school meal programs mainstreams the integration of high-iron beans in school meals to ensure that school-age children have access to nutritionally balanced and healthy diets, thus catalyzing community-based (women-owned) food businesses. The release of new varieties has grown since the inception of PABRA (Figure 3)."}]},{"head":"These varieties meet market demand and address micronutrient deficiencies.","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"A total of 54 iron-and zinc-rich varieties improve nutritional outcomes. Smallholder farmers use multiple-stresstolerant and climate-smart varieties (early-maturing, drought-tolerant, pest-and disease-tolerant) to adapt to the challenges of climate change."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"The pest-and disease-tolerant varieties enable farmers to use more efficient and effective management systems and reduce on-farm losses."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"The introduction of new varieties to African farming systems alongside improved farm management has, in some cases, doubled yield and driven an 86% increase in the area of bean In addition to these on-farm improvements, opportunities for entrepreneurs, particularly youth, to provide farm services have arisen. Using mechanization to decrease labor on-farm provides income and increases the productivity of the farming system."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"Introducing a new variety and farm management practices does not, in itself, lead to adoption and practice change."}]},{"head":"S U C C E S S S T O R Y","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Empowering women agri-preneurs to offer multiple services and generate impacts These bags are triple-layered, airtight, and sealed, thus preventing insects from burrowing into the seed. Within six months, she was surprised to find that none of the bean seeds had been attacked by bruchid. This was proof enough for her to invest in more bags. She uses the bags not only on beans but also on other crops such as maize and rice."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"The profit she made from selling seed was used to buy two cows, eight goats, and four pigs to include in her farm. She also paid her daughter' s university fees and built her own store for the grains. She now supplies seed of new varieties, including high-iron bean seed, to 100 smallholder farmers (98 women and 2 men) in her community. Empowering women entrepreneurs such as Ms. Kabirori has helped women to increase crop productivity and seed production beyond beans and improve their incomes and family livelihood while delivering quality agri-services, supporting their communities, and raising their social status."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"As such, a significant contribution from PABRA has been a focus on effective methods to scale innovations. "}]},{"head":"S U C C E S S S T O R Y","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Bean grain processor in Tanzania -G2L Company Ltd."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"G2L is working with more than 7,500 smallholder farmers in four regions in Tanzania to benefit all those in the value chain. Beans now provide 25% of G2L' s grain business revenue with 6,000 t annually. G2L is partnering with research institutions, local government, and lending institutions to support the development of the whole bean value chain in Tanzania. Focusing on building farmer capacity and enabling access to new bean varieties and access to suitable finance, G2L has developed an approach that benefits all those involved in the value chain."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"Another important outcome is the ability for smallholder farmers to adapt early-maturing varieties, climatesmart agricultural technologies and practices, as well as climate information services. PABRA developed and deployed a Digital AgroClimate Advisory (DACA) tool to enhance bean value chain actors' ability to respond to climate challenges."},{"index":4,"size":70,"text":"A key outcome for PABRA is the significant contribution that improved bean varieties make to better nutrition. More than 37 million smallholder farmers accessed, farmed, and consumed beans with improved quality from 2004 to 2021. In Rwanda, high-iron beans (RWR2245) improved yields, increased own consumption, and provided an additional 4.7 mg of iron per day (https://bit.ly/3crNN6H), more than a quarter of the recommended daily requirement of 18 mg/day for women."},{"index":5,"size":68,"text":"More than 277 SME start-ups (69 led by women) have taken advantage of new commercial opportunities and played a significant role in linking more than 3.5 million smallholder farmers (51% women) to growing market opportunities. These SMEs provide significant opportunities for women and youth to engage in commercial activities, such as providing farm services and processed bean product development that enhance the overall performance of the value chain."}]},{"head":"JC Rubyogo (CIAT)","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"\"PABRA has been a major contributor to the CGIAR impact areas\""}]},{"head":"Nutrition, Health and Food Security","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Common bean is a major component of the diet of the urban and rural populations of Eastern, Central, and Southern Africa. Beans provide iron and zinc, which are essential to the health and well-being of African women and children, and also protein, which is essential for the entire household of women, men, and children."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"The release of 657 new bean varieties, which have reached 37 million farmers,"}]},{"head":"Impacts: changing lives","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Impressive impacts have been achieved by PABRA, with significant contributions to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The focus to understand impacts continues, with recently commissioned impact assessments that will determine economic benefits through cost-benefit analysis in Zimbabwe and Burundi. The analysis will consider investment and operational costs and benefits derived primarily through increased revenue and income for farmers and value chain actors."},{"index":2,"size":166,"text":"along with good farm management has more than doubled yield in many cases. In Ethiopia, beans are grown by more than 3 million smallholders on more than 290,000 hectares of land and account for 3% of the land planted to grain crops, with yield increasing at more than 6% per year, since 2003. A total of 65% of the area allocated to beans has improved varieties grown by 57% of the farms. From 2003 to 2021, in Uganda, yield improved from 0.7 to 1.5 t/ha; in Ethiopia, yield has expanded from 0.7 to 1.8 t/ha; and in Tanzania, yield increased from 0.5 to 1.3 t/ha. In conjunction with this yield increase, there has been an 86% increase in bean production area throughout Africa. In Rwanda, farmers who adopted improved high-iron variety RWR2245 increased yield by 20% and increased the length of time beans are consumed from own production by 19-20 days and decreased the length of time beans are purchased for consumption by 22-23 days (https://bit.ly/3crNN6H)."},{"index":3,"size":130,"text":"This increase in yield and area of production has contributed to providing dietary protein to more than 400 million people in Africa, especially women and children living in rural areas and poor urban consumers. To determine additional nutritional effects, studies of high-iron beans versus normal beans were conducted with young women in Rwanda, most of whom were iron deficient or anaemic. After four and a half months, the group eating high-iron beans showed a statistically greater increase in haemoglobin (3.8 g/L), log serum ferritin (0.1 log μg/L), and total body iron (0.5 mg/kg). 11 Furthermore, other studies revealed that consumers of high-iron bean demonstrated superior cognitive ability, increased neuron activity, and superior work capacity. More than 37 million smallholder farmers accessed, cultivated, and consumed improvedquality beans from 2004 to 2021."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"With the bean yield increase, there has been an 86% increase in bean production areas throughout Africa. "}]},{"head":"S U C C E S S S T O R Y W o r k i n g w i t h smallholder farmers in central Uganda","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"More than 800 t of seed of improved bean varieties are now being sold to smallholder farmers for production in central Uganda. Productivity has increased up to fourfold with improved varieties and good farm management. The increased production provides more nutritious diets for households in the community as well as increasing income. The success comes from working with and building capacity of the entire value chain. The approach of linking institutions, public and private, around a common goal with both farmers and consumers plays a key role in delivering impacts in Uganda."}]},{"head":"G.Smith (CIAT)","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Poverty Reduction, Livelihoods, and Jobs"},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"The PABRA partnership has seen a 30% increase in household income for 5 million households in 10 African countries. For example, from 2003 to 2021, smallholder farmers who adopted improved bean varieties in Zimbabwe saw seasonal income gains of US$500−800 per hectare under rainfed conditions and US$1,000 per hectare under irrigation. In addition to the income increases, analysis shows that, when 10 kg of additional improvedvariety bean are planted, this raises per capita consumption expenditure by 9% and increases the probability that a household is food secure by 6% while decreasing the likelihood of being poor by 6%."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"A total of 277 SMEs (69 womenowned) commercializing bean have also been supported by PABRA, which has enabled more than 1.4 million farmers (51% women) to have new market opportunities. This improved market engagement has also provided employment for more than 300,000 men and women throughout the value chains."}]},{"head":"Environmental Health and Biodiversity","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"The scaling of good agricultural practices (GAP) has had significant impact on environmental health and biodiversity. Smallholder farmers are using chemical inputs more efficiently and effectively, thus diminishing environmental impact. Improved bean yield through efficient use of inputs and GAP also means less land clearing, contributing to improved environmental health. Consumers are becoming more interested in the environmental impacts of food consumption patterns and are providing incentives to continue and improve agricultural practices. Increased yield also contributes to environmental health benefits. The environmental impact of shorter cooking time for beans is potentially large through decreased demand for fuel for cooking, hence less destruction of forests for wood and charcoal. The growing of beans contributes to increased nitrogen in the soil through atmospheric nitrogen fixation and provides organic nitrogen sources for companion crops or subsequent crops in rotation. Straw left behind after the grain harvest is valuable for soil fertility and animal feeding."}]},{"head":"Gender Equality, Youth, and Social Inclusion","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"Women and youth have been a key focus of PABRA. Of the more than 37 million households that have gained access to improved seed, 58% are represented by women. Of the 3.5 million farmers that have improved their market access, 50% are women. Of the more than 10 million Africans who have consumed high-iron beans in 15 SSA countries, 53% are women. And, of the 501,716 bean value chain actors who have been trained by PABRA, 73% are women."}]},{"head":"Climate Adaptation and Greenhouse Gas Reduction","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"The use of improved varieties has bean crops maturing early in 65-95 days, thus avoiding climatic stress conditions, such as drought. In Rwanda, when smallholder farmers have access to and use climate information, they achieve"}]},{"head":"Managing climate extremes for smallholder farmers","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Rising temperatures will decrease the area suitable for bean production by 30% to 50% in Eastern Africa in the 21st century if adaptation does not occur. New varieties are a key part of an effective adaptation strategy. Of the new varieties released, 52 are early maturing, 38 are drought tolerant, 180 are multiple stress tolerant, and 412 are pest and disease tolerant. These traits are used to address the challenges of climate extremes."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"The 2016 drought in Malawi caused maize crops to fail. Improved climate-resilient bean varieties developed and distributed by PABRA and its partners in Malawi were able to be successfully grown and harvested, thus delivering nutritional security and income for farming families. Following the benefits of beans to address climate extremes, Malawi partners are now evaluating the effects of maize intercropping and fertilizer application on bean productivity."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"Adapting to climate extremes with the support of new varieties can also improve productivity. In Uganda, farmers who adopted two climate strategies (using drought-tolerant/earlymaturing varieties in conjunction with adjusting planting times based on weather information) harvested double the amount of beans compared with those farmers who did not use the climate adaptation strategies."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"significantly higher yield than those that do not use the available climate information. In Ethiopia, access to higher-yield beans that are resilient to pests, diseases, and drought enabled more than 2 million farmers to triple production from 117,750 t in 2004 to 378,802 t in 2021, with yield rising from 0.75 to 1.6 t/ha from 2004 to 2021 (https://bit.ly/3TqOaPf)."},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"From farm to household, community, country, and continent "}]},{"head":"Key success factors","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"The key success factors for PABRA follow:"}]},{"head":"Supporting institutional and individual development","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"The most important success factor for PABRA is its approach to working with partners and supporting the institutional and individual development of those partners. The direct training of 4,000 national research partners, more than 100 postgraduates, and more than 460,000 smallholder farmers and other value chain actors is a small indication of the dedication to institutional development. However, the approach is much deeper. PABRA works with all actors in the value chain, the research bodies that develop innovations to scale, and the policy agencies that develop an enabling environment. PABRA strengthens the capacities of its members for the benefit of the African bean sector. The other important institutional development approach is to enable the connection across countries, through regional networks, value chains, and bean corridors, and throughout the continent to learn and develop from tested experience, supporting each other in the ongoing development of the bean sector. Finding solutions to specific bottlenecks through a multidisciplinary approach"},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"PABRA has focused on the right bottlenecks and solved those problems along the value chain. This approach ensures impact for smallholder farmers and consumers. A key part of this success is the ability to use a multidisciplinary approach, in partnership with other organizations, to invest in and implement innovations that enable the whole value chain to improve in a sustainable manner."}]},{"head":"Building sustainable partnerships","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Founded in the evidence derived through research, over 25 years, PABRA has always built partnerships that enhance value and deliver benefits for key stakeholders. Partnerships with research institutes within and beyond Africa have been important. Engaging"}]},{"head":"Recovering from economic shocks through access to innovation","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The ability to respond to economic shocks rapidly is a key feature of more resilient agri-food systems. One way in which PABRA is ensuring improved capacity to respond to economic shocks is to get improved seeds into the hands of smallholder farmers faster. This enables improved productivity and income generation in a shorter period of time."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"A unique private-sector partnership was formed to enable this to happen in Kenya. PABRA worked with a Kenyan business, Bubayi, to identify customers for new bean varieties. The partnership was able to produce certified seed in 4 years, a process that usually takes 10 to 12 years."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"with value chain actors throughout the bean corridors of Africa, which has been supported by African regional bodies and economic communities, has enhanced the impact of PABRA. These partnerships have benefited PABRA through engagement in prioritization, dissemination, scaling, adoption, and co-investment to deliver benefits in a complementary manner."}]},{"head":"Excellent and stable leadership and responsible governance","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"Initiated by CIAT (now the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT), who formed a consortium with key regional bean bodies and 31 NARS, the approach of PABRA has benefited from insightful and committed leadership at several levels. Governance arrangements have also been able to respond to new partnerships and continue to resolve emerging challenges, through regional steering committees and an overall PABRA steering committee with authority and responsibility for setting priorities. The stability of committed leadership is also an important factor, with only three directors leading PABRA over its 25 years. Important leadership and governance roles have been played by national governments and more recently by the private sector, with the approach developing into a shared leadership model. This shared leadership supports shared decision-making and the ability to engage with emerging opportunities and investments."}]},{"head":"Using multiple impact pathways","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"The motivation of PABRA has always been to have beneficial impact on smallholder farmers and consumers through the more effective use of beans."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"To this end, PABRA has taken an open approach to the most effective delivery mechanisms to achieve this benefit at scale. PABRA has used informal and formal approaches, government-based systems, the private sector, and NGOs to ensure that impact is maximized. PABRA has also been willing to engage in innovation, such as digital platforms, to ensure that this impact continues, and is tailored to the needs and context of different countries and communities."}]},{"head":"Bundling of innovations","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Bundling innovations in various ways has been a constant approach for PABRA. Breeders have bundled multi-stress genes into new varieties. As these new varieties emerge, these technological innovations have been bundled with financial and policy innovations to ensure that enabling environments are in place to maximize impact. Research partnerships have also been bundled effectively together with CGIAR and the NARS of both developing and developed countries, and various research disciplines have been bundled together to maximize the likelihood of impact. As these research approaches have been effectively bundled, PABRA has also ensured the bundling of research, extension, adoption, and capacity building to ensure that innovations reach scale effectively."}]},{"head":"Constantly evolving to meet new challenges","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"PABRA has shown a constant ability to evolve with a long-term commitment, which is essential for impact. PABRA has demonstrated adaptive management of all resources, responding to demand and evolving methodologies to improve impact. This has been demonstrated in the development of seed systems that have improved farmers' access and evolved approaches to ensure the maximization of benefits for women and youth. PABRA has also evolved to address emerging challenges, such as the need for improved nutrition, the empowerment of women in all aspects of the value chain, and breeding work and capacity to respond to climate change."}]},{"head":"Ensuring orientation to inclusive impact","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"All of PABRA's efforts have been focused on delivering impact, particularly for smallholder farmers and consumers. With this focus, PABRA has always ensured an inclusive approach, enabling women and youth to gain significant benefit through their engagement with growing opportunities within bean value chains and throughout bean corridors."}]},{"head":"Solving inequalities through beans","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"As agricultural systems move from subsistence to market engaged, men often take greater advantage of the opportunities to improve income. PABRA has been instrumental in supporting women and youth entrepreneurs to engage in employment and commercial activities as markets provide greater livelihood opportunities. In addition, PABRA' s efforts to decrease bean cooking time and develop processed bean products have been highly beneficial for women."}]},{"head":"Ensuring continuous funders' support","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"PABRA is a multi-donor and investment platform. Since inception, PABRA has benefited from the long-term commitment of three founding external investors through the international development agencies of Canada, Switzerland and the USA. They have also provided important stability of external funding to which additional bilateral projects can be added at the country level to support specific outputs, while contributing to the overall outcomes and impact of PABRA. The long-term commitment of CIAT (now part of the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT) and the funders of CGIAR has also provided stability in staffing and institutional support. In addition, the founding external funders have provided an investment framework for other donors, governments, and private-sector investments. The continuous funding has allowed PABRA to have a long-term vision and program planning and to take innovation to scale sustainably."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"\"PABRA is ready to continue to generate impacts in the face of food insecurity, climate extremes, and social equity challenges\""},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"The future"},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"Climate, security, resilience, crisis, nutrition, women Africa's food security is being challenged by climate extremes, social crises, and economic shocks. PABRA will continue to take on such challenges by enabling the bean sector to thrive. PABRA will expand its role as an investment platform for both the public and private sector. Working with a broad array of these partners will assure our future success."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"PABRA is a key part of the agri-food transformation in Africa, with a proven track record of developing regenerative and resilient agri-food systems that deliver lower-cost nutritious foods enjoyed by many."},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"PABRA, an ever-evolving investment platform"},{"index":7,"size":4,"text":"PABRA's future focus will:"},{"index":8,"size":25,"text":"• Expand the power of demand-led bean breeding with both increased farmer and consumer priorities, using innovative financial models, and by regional and international partners"},{"index":9,"size":20,"text":"• Assure greater smallholder profits from improved bean varieties that produce larger harvests and earn higher return on their investments "}]},{"head":"Investor portfolio","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"The development of PABRA over 25 years has been gratefully underpinned by investment by a group of bilateral and multilateral donors, the philanthropic sector, and PABRA member country governments. This investment support will remain critical to PABRA and the bean sector in Africa as PABRA continues to generate significant impact."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"PABRA also recognizes the importance of engaging the private sector (conventional financial service providers and impact investors). These newer investors will likely focus on mediumand long-term issues that have an impact on the transformation of the bean sector in Africa. Private-sector investors will look for opportunities to derive economic outcomes within a shorter time through a focus on areas that engage a growing market, such as seed supply, alternative packaging, and cooked products. Environmental, social, and governance (ESG) investors will be willing to engage in a longer timeframe and look at more undefined areas of investment, such as the provision of ecosystem services through the smallholder bean sector."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Leader of the Global Bean Program, Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, and Director of PABRA • Government of Canada through Global Affairs Canada (GAC), formerly the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) • Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) and • the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) who are founding donors and who continue to support PABRA. For strongly contributing to the PABRA agenda, we also express great gratitude to: • Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) • Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF) • African Development Bank through Technologies for African Agricultural Transformation (TAAT) and contributions to national bean programs and investments • International Development Research Centre (IDRC) • Rockefeller Foundation • Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable Agriculture (SFSA) • Alliance for Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA) and • KirkHouse Trust. A big thank you goes to PABRA members and their countries, bean farmers, and other value chain actors who tirelessly work to invest in and upgrade bean value chains and continuously contribute to the research agenda. Finally, we would like to acknowledge the great contributions of the subregional organizations: • Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA) • Centre for Coordination of Agricultural Research and Development for Southern Africa (CCARDESA) • West and Central African Council for Agricultural Research and Development (CORAF/WECARD) • Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA). "},{"text":" The PABRA breeding activities are linked to the trait discovery and early generation development work of the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT Bean Program in Colombia, and to the genebank Future Seeds at the Alliance Americas hub in Colombia -which safeguards the global bean collection -through germplasm and knowledge exchange, along with capacity strengthening in breeding and related crop improvement disciplines.PABRA's work stretched along the "},{"text":"11 Murray-Kolb LE, Wenger MJ, Scott SP, Rhoten SE, Lung'aho MG, Haas JD. 2017. Consumption of Iron-Biofortified Beans Positively Affects Cognitive Performance in 18-to 27-Year-Old Rwandan Female College Students in an 18-Week Randomized Controlled Efficacy Trial. The Journal of Nutrition, 147(11):2109-2117. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.117.255356 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"CHARLES KATABALWA -CEDO MANAGER (SEED COMPANY AND GRAIN AGGREGATOR) UGANDA.  Why beans  Why beans in Africa? \"PABRA understands  in Africa? \"PABRA understands the situation on the  the situation on the Beans are a superior source of dietary protein and one of the best sources of ground. They solve issues Early-maturing (65-90 days), higher yielding, and climate-resilient varieties Beans are a superior source of dietary protein and one of the best sources of ground. They solve issues Early-maturing (65-90 days), higher yielding, and climate-resilient varieties iron and zinc, two of the most common nutritional deficiencies affecting more facing smallholder farmers can provide farmers with good harvests up to three times a year, thus iron and zinc, two of the most common nutritional deficiencies affecting more facing smallholder farmers can provide farmers with good harvests up to three times a year, thus \"Beans are a critical climate-smart, The common bean is rapidly evolving food security crop than two billion people worldwide. communities in Africa. farmers and the most marginalized security, and income of rural smallholder potential to improve the health, food The common bean has shown great and value chain actors\" easily converted to cash to meet urgent time without deteriorating; and are after harvesting can be stored for a long such as maize, cassava, and banana; fertility; can be planted with other crops throughout the year. Beans enhance soil guaranteeing productivity and improving income and household food security \"Beans are a critical climate-smart, The common bean is rapidly evolving food security crop than two billion people worldwide. communities in Africa. farmers and the most marginalized security, and income of rural smallholder potential to improve the health, food The common bean has shown great and value chain actors\"easily converted to cash to meet urgent time without deteriorating; and are after harvesting can be stored for a long such as maize, cassava, and banana; fertility; can be planted with other crops throughout the year. Beans enhance soil guaranteeing productivity and improving income and household food security from a subsistence crop to a highly to beat poverty\" nutritious and valuable crop, making household needs while contributing to a healthy, more nutritious diet to from a subsistence crop to a highly to beat poverty\" nutritious and valuable crop, makinghousehold needs while contributing to a healthy, more nutritious diet to a significant contribution to national overcome malnutrition. a significant contribution to nationalovercome malnutrition. economies. The common bean is the most important widely grown and consumed grain legume in Eastern, Central, and Southern Africa, where about 6.3 million hectares of land are used to grow beans every year. Per capita bean consumption in Eastern Africa is the highest in the world: in Western Kenya, Rwanda, and Burundi, people consume above 30 kg per capita per year. Beans Improved bean varieties, particularly densely cultivated climbing beans, offer great potential for increasing yield. So, where bean farming households in rural areas retain about 50% of their beans for domestic consumption, higher yields help put more food on plates, as well as increased sales and higher household income. economies. The common bean is the most important widely grown and consumed grain legume in Eastern, Central, and Southern Africa, where about 6.3 million hectares of land are used to grow beans every year. Per capita bean consumption in Eastern Africa is the highest in the world: in Western Kenya, Rwanda, and Burundi, people consume above 30 kg per capita per year. BeansImproved bean varieties, particularly densely cultivated climbing beans, offer great potential for increasing yield. So, where bean farming households in rural areas retain about 50% of their beans for domestic consumption, higher yields help put more food on plates, as well as increased sales and higher household income. are quickly gaining importance in Central  are quickly gaining importance in Central and West African countries such as  and West African countries such as Cameroon and Guinea.  Cameroon and Guinea. Beans are a highly attractive and  Beans are a highly attractive and versatile crop. The current value of dry  versatile crop. The current value of dry bean production in PABRA countries  bean production in PABRA countries is approximately US$3.84 billion per  is approximately US$3.84 billion per annum at farm gate prices, with an  annum at farm gate prices, with an export value of approximately  export value of approximately US$300 million. 2  US$300 million. 2 2 Adapted from FAOSTAT. 2022. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/  2 Adapted from FAOSTAT. 2022. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/  "},{"text":"Figure 1: PABRA governance structure. PABRA STEERING COMMITTEE Networking Chair People PABRA Director FUNDING PARTNERS GAC, ACIAR, SDC, BMGF, USAID, AfDB, SROs, H.Gvt ECABREN  WECABREN  SABRN ALLIANCE OF WECABRENSABRNALLIANCE OF STEERING COMMITTEE STEERING COMMITTEE STEERING COMMITTEE BIOVERSITY STEERING COMMITTEESTEERING COMMITTEESTEERING COMMITTEEBIOVERSITY    INTERNATIONAL INTERNATIONAL CORAF / WECARD ASARECA REGION CCARDESA REGION AND CIAT CORAF / WECARDASARECA REGIONCCARDESA REGIONAND CIAT    SCIENTIFIC THEMATIC SCIENTIFIC THEMATIC NATIONAL BEAN PROGRAMS AND OTHER VALUE CHAIN ACTORS LEADERS AND NATIONAL BEAN PROGRAMS AND OTHER VALUE CHAIN ACTORSLEADERS AND    TECHNICAL TEAMS TECHNICAL TEAMS  "},{"text":" After a thorough analysis, Aggregator Trust was established to deliver what farmers and consumers want in Rwanda. Aggregator Trust works with more than 4,000 smallholder farmers and community groups providing seeds and fertilizer and building capacity to improve the quality and quantity of bean production. The partnership has also improved access to finance from institutional lenders. Aggregator Trust has big plans, all of which involve a continuous partnership with PABRA. Over the next 3 years, Aggregator Trust plans to work with 25,000 smallholder farmers, supporting their transition to becoming a profitable bean business that delivers wide consumer benefits. \"Thanks to PABRA, \"Thanks to PABRA, common beans now represent more than common beans now represent more than 25% of our processing and trading business, 25% of our processing and trading business, which has grown significantly to more than which has grown significantly to more than 6,000 t per annum. PABRA has played a 6,000 t per annum. PABRA has played a key role in building our capacity and the capacity key role in building our capacity and the capacity of more than 7,500 smallholder farmers that we of more than 7,500 smallholder farmers that we work with in technical and financial skills, but work with in technical and financial skills, but also in areas such as management also in areas such as management and leadership\" and leadership\" G2L COMPANY LTD. The power of value chains within bean corridors Inputs Producers Production hubs Distribution hubs 657 new bean varieties used by 37 million African smallholder farmers 800,000 farmers trained in the management of improved varieties across 22 countries New and growing markets for 3.5 million smallholder farmers New and diversified products and market opportunities for value adding Processors Traders/ Exporters Growing market opportunity incentivise farmer and processor behavior S U C C E S S S T O R Y Aggregators adding value and improving livelihoods in Consumption hubs New and growing markets for 3.5 million smallholder farmers Improved diet diversity and product availability for consumers Consumers Distributors/ Marketers Consumers value nutrition outcomes and new products Rwanda -Aggregator Trust \"Through the development of my small seed business, annual consumption expenditure rises estimated to take 21 years for 50% of production for a growing population. national bean production increased also able to improve their is bundled with fertilizer application, coordinated efforts of PABRA, it was country's capacity to improve its food of area under beans as well, annual more income. Farmers are and GAC support. These efforts have not only returned benefits to smallholder the household increases by 23%. If the adoption of the new bean variety in diminishing the long lag from varietal release to farmer adoption. Prior to the pressure on land is a leading cause of beans a year. Considering the expansion soil fertility depletion, thus eroding the in the region eat on average 45 kg of I have been able to earn Country transformations Demand-led research farmers and consumers; in some years, beans have provided more than 10% household expenditure increases by 54% when the household is able to sell all harvested beans. The new varieties are early maturing, thus avoiding stress from drought during maturation and allowing harvest and sales to occur early in the growing season, providing both to cultivate new improved varieties, thus severely restricting the return on investment. Following the sustained and coordinated efforts in Ethiopia and building of smallholder farmer capacity, this lag to adoption declined from more than 20 years to 2 to 7 years. A key part of As a result of its membership in PABRA, the Institut des Sciences Agronomiques Transforming food Outputs, outcomes and impact systems in Rwanda 8 : the du Burundi (ISABU) has released impact of iron-biofortified 30 climate-smart farmer-and consumer-bean adoption on bean preferred bean varieties (including climbing) developed through demand-led approaches. The adoption of productivity, consumption, purchases, and sales Outputs achieved by PABRA in transforming the economy -an Ethiopian case study 6 In Ethiopia, the adoption of new bean varieties bundled with improved farm management has increased food consumption, diet diversity, and annual consumption expenditure, and significantly grown profitable export markets. Economic liberalization in the 1990s enabled the development of the has benefited the growth of the bean sector, in which yields increased 6% annually from 2006 to 2016 and exports increased threefold in the same period. This growth has been jointly supported by the Ethiopian government and PABRA through the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) in partnership with the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, intensifying efforts under the Tropical Legumes II and III, Accelerated Varietal Improvement and Seed Delivery of Legumes and Cereals in Africa (AVISA), and Modernizing Ethiopian Research on Crop Improvement (MERCI) project financed by BMGF and long-term SDC This effective scaling (supported by a functional and coordinated seed system) has provided more than 3 million 290,000 hectares, about 3% of Ethiopia' s area planted to grain crops. The adoption of the improved varieties, bundled with soil fertility improvement options, has led to increased food consumption, diet diversity, and consumption expenditure for rural households. The impact analysis shows that, if 1 hectare of cropping land uses improved bean varieties, annual consumption expenditure for farmers to adopt new varieties. These innovations include demand-led systems diversification of seed production shape, taste, short cooking time, and nutritional value). Perhaps the most significant outcome the Ethiopian bean sector is the success 2 million people per year if most people more than 95% of the food supply. High of the efforts to support the growth of through more than a decade of civil war (1993−2005) with severe socioeconomic effects on the population. The country's economy depends on agriculture, which contributes about 40% of GDP and grown. The yield gain resulting from the 87,000 t, enough to feed almost beans including women and youth national bean production by more than 400 million consumers with improved diet diversity through management practices in Burundi raised Kessy et al. 2020. 9 adoption of improved varieties and crop Further country insights can be found in Impacts changing lives traits (e.g., bean grain color, size, and population under 15. Burundi went consumption irrespective of the variety of selling beans. demand, and breeding for consumer triple by 2050, with almost half of the harvested quantity is used for home bean purchases and increased likelihood models, seed pack size to meet farmer than its agricultural outputs and is expected to double by 2030 and profitable than local varieties. It was also found that more than 95% of the household income that can be spent on nutritious foods through the decrease in 37 million households accessing bean varieties that improve livelihoods centered around grain market demand, (463 people/km 2 in 2022). The country's population has been expanding faster ly/3e5lz22) conducted in 2019 showed that improved varieties are 15.8% more market and additionally by increasing Over 11.3 million consumers accessing biofortified beans for less nutrient-dense beans from the improved varieties that are being grown on A range of innovations help smallholder densely populated country in Africa impact assessment study (https://bit. substituting biofortified harvested beans Climate challenges managed smallholder farmers with access to bean exports from Ethiopia to grow to more than US$184 million in 2018. central East Africa and the second most with local landraces, thus making extra income available for households. An household nutrition via two channels: primarily by increasing iron intake via Increased consumption expenditure by 37% Burundi is a landlocked country in substantially from US$8 million in 2008 case study 7 farmers to harvest 26% more from the same area of land than they would have by 12%. Adoption can thus improve Doubling bean yields among adopters increases the probability of selling beans agricultural sector of Ethiopia and of the agricultural export earnings of Ethiopia. In addition to the improved farm productivity and new bean varieties with multiple resilience to abiotic and biotic constraints that address pest, disease, drought, and low soil fertility challenges, as well as market-desired traits, the efforts have developed an innovative decentralized seed system that has improved linkages between formal and informal systems and led to a framework for wider dissemination and scaling of improved varieties. food and income at an early stage of the season. As the sector developed, farmer cooperative unions in regional states supported production increases for the success in reducing the lag time was resolving the disconnect between those who multiply the seed as a business and those who distribute the seed to smallholder farmers, with capacity building in the informal sector to identify drought-tolerant medium-altitude climbers expanded the area grown to beans from seven agroecological regions in 2015 to ten in 2021. Old varieties were replaced by new varieties at scale. The higher demand for improved varieties In Rwanda, farmers, consumers, and traders have benefited from the adoption of a high-iron bean variety (RWR2245). Farmers who adopted 657 new varieties that are climate smart and improve nutrition released \"Over the past 25 years, by NARS partners since 1997 \"If not for beans, PABRA members have Improved farm management for smallholder farmers RWR2245 obtained a yield gain of 20-49% over traditional bush bean my child would not have Input service providers gain employment released over 657 new export, with small white bean canning-type varieties grown for export markets and other varieties grown for domestic consumption. Efforts were made to ensure that all categories of consumers and market improved varieties. Demand-led research in enhancing nutrition resulted in an increased number of small and medium seed enterprises from 15 producing 10 t of certified and quality varieties. Growing RWR2245 for at least graduated from school\" New commercial opportunities in processing healthy, nutritious, and bean varieties aimed one out of two annual growing seasons increases the length of time beans are SMALLHOLDER FARMER FROM UGANDA convenient bean-based products to meet market demand declared seed (QDS) in 2014 to 315 (175 of them women-led) producing 1,595 t in consumed from own production by 19-20 days and reduces the time beans and human nutritional were reached via multiple delivery channels. The development of the export market enabled the value of small white and improving farmers' livelihoods -a Burundi 2021. Combining improved varieties with improved crop management enabled are purchased for consumption by 22-23 days. Growing RWR2245 also Outcomes benefiting users needs.\" \"Thanks to PABRA, \"Thanks to PABRA, common beans now represent more than common beans now represent more than 25% of our processing and trading business, 25% of our processing and trading business, which has grown significantly to more than which has grown significantly to more than 6,000 t per annum. PABRA has played a 6,000 t per annum. PABRA has played a key role in building our capacity and the capacity key role in building our capacity and the capacity of more than 7,500 smallholder farmers that we of more than 7,500 smallholder farmers that we work with in technical and financial skills, but work with in technical and financial skills, but also in areas such as management also in areas such as management and leadership\" and leadership\" G2L COMPANY LTD. The power of value chains within bean corridors Inputs Producers Production hubs Distribution hubs 657 new bean varieties used by 37 million African smallholder farmers 800,000 farmers trained in the management of improved varieties across 22 countries New and growing markets for 3.5 million smallholder farmers New and diversified products and market opportunities for value adding Processors Traders/ Exporters Growing market opportunity incentivise farmer and processor behavior S U C C E S S S T O R Y Aggregators adding value and improving livelihoods in Consumption hubs New and growing markets for 3.5 million smallholder farmers Improved diet diversity and product availability for consumers Consumers Distributors/ Marketers Consumers value nutrition outcomes and new products Rwanda -Aggregator Trust \"Through the development of my small seed business, annual consumption expenditure rises estimated to take 21 years for 50% of production for a growing population. national bean production increased also able to improve their is bundled with fertilizer application, coordinated efforts of PABRA, it was country's capacity to improve its food of area under beans as well, annual more income. Farmers are and GAC support. These efforts have not only returned benefits to smallholder the household increases by 23%. If the adoption of the new bean variety in diminishing the long lag from varietal release to farmer adoption. Prior to the pressure on land is a leading cause of beans a year. Considering the expansion soil fertility depletion, thus eroding the in the region eat on average 45 kg of I have been able to earn Country transformations Demand-led research farmers and consumers; in some years, beans have provided more than 10% household expenditure increases by 54% when the household is able to sell all harvested beans. The new varieties are early maturing, thus avoiding stress from drought during maturation and allowing harvest and sales to occur early in the growing season, providing both to cultivate new improved varieties, thus severely restricting the return on investment. Following the sustained and coordinated efforts in Ethiopia and building of smallholder farmer capacity, this lag to adoption declined from more than 20 years to 2 to 7 years. A key part of As a result of its membership in PABRA, the Institut des Sciences Agronomiques Transforming food Outputs, outcomes and impact systems in Rwanda 8 : the du Burundi (ISABU) has released impact of iron-biofortified 30 climate-smart farmer-and consumer-bean adoption on bean preferred bean varieties (including climbing) developed through demand-led approaches. The adoption of productivity, consumption, purchases, and sales Outputs achieved by PABRA in transforming the economy -an Ethiopian case study 6 In Ethiopia, the adoption of new bean varieties bundled with improved farm management has increased food consumption, diet diversity, and annual consumption expenditure, and significantly grown profitable export markets. Economic liberalization in the 1990s enabled the development of the has benefited the growth of the bean sector, in which yields increased 6% annually from 2006 to 2016 and exports increased threefold in the same period. This growth has been jointly supported by the Ethiopian government and PABRA through the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) in partnership with the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, intensifying efforts under the Tropical Legumes II and III, Accelerated Varietal Improvement and Seed Delivery of Legumes and Cereals in Africa (AVISA), and Modernizing Ethiopian Research on Crop Improvement (MERCI) project financed by BMGF and long-term SDC This effective scaling (supported by a functional and coordinated seed system) has provided more than 3 million 290,000 hectares, about 3% of Ethiopia' s area planted to grain crops. The adoption of the improved varieties, bundled with soil fertility improvement options, has led to increased food consumption, diet diversity, and consumption expenditure for rural households. The impact analysis shows that, if 1 hectare of cropping land uses improved bean varieties, annual consumption expenditure for farmers to adopt new varieties. These innovations include demand-led systems diversification of seed production shape, taste, short cooking time, and nutritional value). Perhaps the most significant outcome the Ethiopian bean sector is the success 2 million people per year if most people more than 95% of the food supply. High of the efforts to support the growth of through more than a decade of civil war (1993−2005) with severe socioeconomic effects on the population. The country's economy depends on agriculture, which contributes about 40% of GDP and grown. The yield gain resulting from the 87,000 t, enough to feed almost beans including women and youth national bean production by more than 400 million consumers with improved diet diversity through management practices in Burundi raised Kessy et al. 2020. 9 adoption of improved varieties and crop Further country insights can be found in Impacts changing lives traits (e.g., bean grain color, size, and population under 15. Burundi went consumption irrespective of the variety of selling beans. demand, and breeding for consumer triple by 2050, with almost half of the harvested quantity is used for home bean purchases and increased likelihood models, seed pack size to meet farmer than its agricultural outputs and is expected to double by 2030 and profitable than local varieties. It was also found that more than 95% of the household income that can be spent on nutritious foods through the decrease in 37 million households accessing bean varieties that improve livelihoods centered around grain market demand, (463 people/km 2 in 2022). The country's population has been expanding faster ly/3e5lz22) conducted in 2019 showed that improved varieties are 15.8% more market and additionally by increasing Over 11.3 million consumers accessing biofortified beans for less nutrient-dense beans from the improved varieties that are being grown on A range of innovations help smallholder densely populated country in Africa impact assessment study (https://bit. substituting biofortified harvested beans Climate challenges managed smallholder farmers with access to bean exports from Ethiopia to grow to more than US$184 million in 2018. central East Africa and the second most with local landraces, thus making extra income available for households. An household nutrition via two channels: primarily by increasing iron intake via Increased consumption expenditure by 37% Burundi is a landlocked country in substantially from US$8 million in 2008 case study 7 farmers to harvest 26% more from the same area of land than they would have by 12%. Adoption can thus improve Doubling bean yields among adopters increases the probability of selling beans agricultural sector of Ethiopia and of the agricultural export earnings of Ethiopia. In addition to the improved farm productivity and new bean varieties with multiple resilience to abiotic and biotic constraints that address pest, disease, drought, and low soil fertility challenges, as well as market-desired traits, the efforts have developed an innovative decentralized seed system that has improved linkages between formal and informal systems and led to a framework for wider dissemination and scaling of improved varieties. food and income at an early stage of the season. As the sector developed, farmer cooperative unions in regional states supported production increases for the success in reducing the lag time was resolving the disconnect between those who multiply the seed as a business and those who distribute the seed to smallholder farmers, with capacity building in the informal sector to identify drought-tolerant medium-altitude climbers expanded the area grown to beans from seven agroecological regions in 2015 to ten in 2021. Old varieties were replaced by new varieties at scale. The higher demand for improved varieties In Rwanda, farmers, consumers, and traders have benefited from the adoption of a high-iron bean variety (RWR2245). Farmers who adopted 657 new varieties that are climate smart and improve nutrition released \"Over the past 25 years, by NARS partners since 1997 \"If not for beans, PABRA members have Improved farm management for smallholder farmers RWR2245 obtained a yield gain of 20-49% over traditional bush bean my child would not have Input service providers gain employment released over 657 new export, with small white bean canning-type varieties grown for export markets and other varieties grown for domestic consumption. Efforts were made to ensure that all categories of consumers and market improved varieties. Demand-led research in enhancing nutrition resulted in an increased number of small and medium seed enterprises from 15 producing 10 t of certified and quality varieties. Growing RWR2245 for at least graduated from school\" New commercial opportunities in processing healthy, nutritious, and bean varieties aimed one out of two annual growing seasons increases the length of time beans are SMALLHOLDER FARMER FROM UGANDA convenient bean-based products to meet market demand declared seed (QDS) in 2014 to 315 (175 of them women-led) producing 1,595 t in consumed from own production by 19-20 days and reduces the time beans and human nutritional were reached via multiple delivery channels. The development of the export market enabled the value of small white and improving farmers' livelihoods -a Burundi 2021. Combining improved varieties with improved crop management enabled are purchased for consumption by 22-23 days. Growing RWR2245 also Outcomes benefiting users needs.\" by 37%. In addition to these increases income and food security\" the farmers to be aware of new varieties from 250,000 t in 2014 to 420,000 t in consumption expenditure, non-food and 23 years for 50% of the farmers in 2021. by 37%. In addition to these increases income and food security\" the farmers to be aware of new varieties from 250,000 t in 2014 to 420,000 t in consumption expenditure, non-food and 23 years for 50% of the farmers in 2021.  "},{"text":" The Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Burundi (ISABU), in partnership with the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, and through the Pan-Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA), empowered Ms. Regine Kabirori (https://bit.ly/3CGtvRB), a bean farmer and agri-preneur from Kirundo Province, who has been producing new early-maturity bean varieties with large grain size and others traits preferred by consumers. Before 2016, Ms. Regine produced 1.25 t of bean seed on her 4-hectare farm. With identified demand, Ms. Kabirori rented other farms from her neighbors to grow more beans and sold more seed to farmers' organizations in distant communes, NGOs. and other development partners. In 2021, she produced and supplied 86.7 t of certified bean seed. Ms. Kabirori also attended a training activity on the use of Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS) bags.  "},{"text":" Meeting the SDGs by 2030This approach has delivered significant impact. With support and the right growth strategies, PABRA will continue making significant contributions to the SDGs by 2030. SDG Current impact Growth strategy Planned impact SDGCurrent impactGrowth strategyPlanned impact  30% increase in incomes • Foster women and youth Deepen and broaden 15 million farmers increasing income 30% increase in incomes• Foster women and youth Deepen and broaden 15 million farmers increasing income  for 5 million households entrepreneurship and generate adoption and market by 30% through the adoption and for 5 million householdsentrepreneurship and generate adoption and market by 30% through the adoption and  improved beans in 10 countries using reduce poverty engagement to new jobs marketing of improved beans improved beans in 10 countries usingreduce poverty engagement tonew jobsmarketing of improved beans    • Advance gender-transformative • Advance gender-transformative  40% of households using improved bean research and development for Broaden household 60 million Africans diversifying their inclusive future agri-food systems access to and availability diet through the consumption of 40% of households using improved beanresearch and development for Broaden household 60 million Africans diversifying their inclusive future agri-food systems access to and availability diet through the consumption of  increase in diet diversity with 10% showing varieties in 10 countries model and insights into value improve diet diversity • Share the PABRA bean corridor of high-iron beans to high-nutrient beans increase in diet diversity with 10% showing varieties in 10 countriesmodel and insights into value improve diet diversity • Share the PABRA bean corridor of high-iron beans to high-nutrient beans     chain performance with a range chain performance with a range  1.4 million farmers of private-sector investors having Increase opportunities 2 million women through the 1.4 million farmersof private-sector investors having Increase opportunities 2 million women through the  (50% women) have market access gained improved for women' s engagement national, regional, and international bean value chain engaging with perspectives with growing markets profitable market opportunities (50% women) have market access gained improvedfor women' s engagement national, regional, and international bean value chain engaging with perspectives with growing markets profitable market opportunities    • Influence national policies to create • Influence national policies to create  Bean sector has an enabling environment that attracts Create employment 1,000 SMEs take-up bean business Bean sector hasan enabling environment that attracts Create employment 1,000 SMEs take-up bean business  provided income and greater public and private investments for youth and women opportunities providing 10 million provided income andgreater public and private investments for youth and women opportunities providing 10 million  employment for 295,208 in bean value chains along the value chain from farmers (60% women) with new employment for 295,208in bean value chains along the value chain from farmers (60% women) with new  men and women farm inputs to processing market opportunities men and womenfarm inputs to processingmarket opportunities  smallholder farmers and marketing • Embrace efficiencies generated by smallholder farmersand marketing• Embrace efficiencies generated by     information and communications information and communications  37 million farmers accessed improved varieties Ensuring farmers have technologies (ICT) that scale out 60 million farmers accessing access to varieties and climate-smart varieties that are innovations in the value chains and climate extremes change livelihoods knowledge to manage pest, disease, and drought tolerant 37 million farmers accessed improved varietiesEnsuring farmers have technologies (ICT) that scale out 60 million farmers accessing access to varieties and climate-smart varieties that are innovations in the value chains and climate extremes change livelihoods knowledge to manage pest, disease, and drought tolerant    • Assist in expanding the PABRA model • Assist in expanding the PABRA model  934 partnerships and experiences to other regenerative Effective partnerships 1,000 partnerships: including 934 partnershipsand experiences to other regenerative Effective partnerships 1,000 partnerships: including  in 31 countries throughout  food crops, particularly legumes 600 farmer organizations, in 31 countriesthroughoutfood crops, particularly legumes 600 farmer organizations,   entire value chain and 230 public and private seed entire value chain and230 public and private seed   • Ensure healthier dietary outcomes policy environment enterprises, 50 grain trading • Ensure healthier dietary outcomes policy environment enterprises, 50 grain trading     through the nutritional power organizations, 20 bean processing through the nutritional power organizations, 20 bean processing     of beans. businesses, 20 support of beans.businesses, 20 support     service providers service providers • Build resilience to climate change   • Build resilience to climate change  and the regenerative capacities of   and the regenerative capacities of  farming systems   farming systems  "}],"sieverID":"3a4e5fba-0f17-4f6f-ba67-14351c8a1821","abstract":"PABRA's focus is to improve bean productivity, use, and commercialization for the benefit of smallholder farmers and urban populations. Our goal is to enhance food and nutrition security, and income generation of poor communities in a gender-equitable and environmentally friendly manner. www.pabra-africa.org PABRA is facilitated by the Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). The Alliance delivers research-based solutions that harness agricultural biodiversity and sustainably transform food systems to improve people's lives. Alliance solutions address the global crises of malnutrition, climate change, biodiversity loss, and environmental degradation. With novel partnerships, the Alliance generates evidence and mainstreams innovations to transform food systems and landscapes so that they sustain the planet, drive prosperity, and nourish people in a climate crisis. The Alliance is part of CGIAR, a global research partnership for a food-secure future. https://alliancebioversityciat.org www.cgiar.org N.Palmer (CIAT)"}

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@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0919c828d4d3321f29983eb36223c544","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/75cd0e9b-2449-4fcc-a726-f1cde08e3e8f/retrieve"},"pageCount":57,"title":"School-based nutrition education and promotion of orange-fleshed sweetpotato in urban and peri-urban areas of Kampala: Impacts and lessons learnt","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"List of Figures","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"School-based nutrition education and promotion of orange-fleshed sweetpotato in urban and peri-urban areas of Kampala: Impacts and lessons learnt INTRODUCTION","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is a major health concern in Uganda and other low-income populations where it is an important contributor to high morbidity and mortality rates, including impaired vision and blindness among young children (West 2002, Ezzati et al., 2002). The Ugandan Demographic and Health Survey of 2006 revealed that about 20% of children under five were vitamin A deficient (<0.825 µmol/L of Retinol-Binding Protein) (Uganda Bureau of Statistics and Macro International Inc., 2007)."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"Children under five years of age are at greatest risk of VAD and interventions are often targeted to this group. However, other age groups might be considered for many reasons, particularly as they can play a role in improving vitamin A status in the most vulnerable group, under-five year old children, at household level. In Uganda's capital Kampala, VAD interventions targeted primarily schoolchildren in the project: \"Promotion of Orange-Fleshed Sweetpotato Varieties through Schools in Urban and Peri-urban Communities of Kampala\", but also aimed at improving vitamin A intake and status among under-five year old children and other household members through increased production and consumption of orange-fleshed sweetpotatoes (OFSP) and other vitamin A rich foods."},{"index":3,"size":158,"text":"Targeting schoolchildren is premised on the belief that it may be an effective means for reaching large numbers of households using a central location (school) if children prove to be effective transmitters of technologies from school to household. Furthermore, working with schoolchildren provides an opportunity to influence lifetime food preferences, as they are the future parents of the world (Andrade et al., 2009). Other experiences with targeting schoolchildren are currently ongoing in South Africa. For instance, the South African government has recently incorporated the vegetable garden concept, with OFSP included, into its national school nutrition program. The program has a food production component with the goal of imparting practical skills to students on food production and natural resource management, and a nutrition education component to empower the children to make healthy lifestyle choices. As of April 2007, 6390 schools country-wide had established gardens. The program works in collaboration with the National Research Program (ARC) and FAO (Maduna 2008)."}]},{"head":"IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION OBJECTIVES","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Under the umbrella of the project \"Promotion of Orange-Fleshed Sweetpotato Varieties through Schools in Urban and Peri-urban Communities of Kampala\" two separately funded and implemented components were combined with the shared aim of increasing the production and consumption of OFSP varieties among urban farming households in Kampala, to increase intake of vitamin A among young children and other household members. Interventions of the two components were complimentary in nature with one focused on OFSP production technologies and the second one focused on nutrition education interventions. The components were implemented during the same time period (2004)(2005)(2006), worked with the same communities and involved significant coordination of activities."}]},{"head":"The agriculture component","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"The implementation of the agricultural component started in 2004 with funding from Farm-Africa's Mandeleo Agriculture Technology Fund. It was implemented by a multistakeholder partnership led by the Department of Agricultural Extension, Makerere University. The aim was to contribute to widespread production of two OFSP varieties (Kakamega and Ejumula), among the urban and peri-urban farming communities of Kampala using schools for disseminating OFSP production technologies (rapid vine multiplication techniques, agronomy, post-harvest processing). The component was a build-up and adopted the approach of an action-research project carried out in Kampala in 2002 and 2003 entitled \"Schools as Technology Dissemination, Extension Support and Commercial Seed Production Centres for Urban and Peri-Urban Farming Communities\", which sought to assess the appropriateness of using schools to produce and make available planting materials to urban farming communities."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"As venues, schools were regarded as neutral places where communities would be comfortable to meet, share and exchange knowledge. As avenues for technology dissemination, the schools approach involved training schoolchildren at school in a practical and active way and encouraged them to transfer the acquired knowledge, technologies and innovations to their households of origin, which was expected to influence household decision making."},{"index":3,"size":236,"text":"Based on the above approach, the component was implemented through 11 primary schools in two divisions of Kampala (Kawempe and Rubaga), with interventions tailored and targeted to pupils (grade 3-7), their science and agriculture teachers, their parents, and all interested males and females from farming households in the communities surrounding the participating schools. The two divisions were selected at a stakeholders meeting involving Kampala District Officials and project implementation partners. Rubaga and Kawempe divisions had the largest proportion of land under agriculture with the latter standing out as most affected by malnutrition according to city health authorities. In consultation with the Division Education and other officers, a list of 10 schools with potential to participate was drawn from each division and a feasibility assessment carried out on each to elect the best five. Key points in the assessment criteria included possession of at least one acre of farming land, prior participation in community development programs, willingness to host community meetings, and willingness to allow schoolchildren and teachers to participate in the project. Kampala School for the Physically Handicapped was included in the project as a special needs group. Methods used to mobilise community members were non-discriminatory as to gender, farm size, distance from school, or on any other basis. As such, community participants came from far and near, were men and women, small and large scale farmers, old and new farmers and in some cases, non-farmers."},{"index":4,"size":162,"text":"The agricultural component used a variety of methods including presentation-questionanswer meetings, on-plot demonstrations, drama, farmer-to-farmer extension, farm station visits and the distribution of posters to train and transfer knowledge and technologies to beneficiaries. The school was the principal meeting place for training and learning purposes. OFSP gardens and rapid multiplication technique (RMT) plots were established at the schools for demonstration as well as for the multiplication of vines. Some of them were jointly established and co-owned by the school and community members, while others were separately owned by the schools or community. In the second year (2005), community members established their own private (home) RMTs, and schoolchildren who had land at home were also given vines to establish their own RMTs. Initially, the project purchased vines from established OFSP farmers from Luwero and Soroti districts to distribute to communities and schools. Afterwards, beneficiaries were encouraged to get vines from the community and private RMT plots, and share them with new project members."},{"index":5,"size":110,"text":"Training and establishment of demonstration plots and gardens was carried out in a participatory manner but under the guidance and direction of a team of sweetpotato/agricultural and community development experts from relevant implementing partner institutions. These included the Sweetpotato Program of the National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO), the International Potato Center (CIP), Joint-Energy and Environment Project (JEEP) and Makerere University's Department of Agricultural Extension and Education (DAEE). Each school community chose four people (two farmers and two school teachers) who underwent a short course to train as trainers (TOTs) and provide reinforcement to the project expert team, and assist in the mobilization of communities and coordination of some project activities."},{"index":6,"size":48,"text":"Teachers helped to train schoolchildren and monitor schoolchildren's OFSP gardens/RMT plots using home visits. A TOT manual, translated into the main local language (Luganda), was developed to guide facilitators and trainers on how to pass on technologies and messages to farmers in a simple, practical and effective way."},{"index":7,"size":129,"text":"The agricultural component commenced in March 2004 with a baseline study and ended in February 2006 with an end-project survey. However, due to a lax registration and tracking of participants, there is no valid record of the duration and frequency of attendance at various trainings and activities. A few farmers joined the agricultural interventions at the very beginning in 2004 and stayed with them until the end. Some farmers joined and some fell off as the project progressed. Nevertheless, as per the table below, substantial numbers of farmers and schoolchildren were reached. In addition to these who were reached directly by the project implementers, others were judged to be reached through the mentor-farmer or farmer-to-farmer extension system with estimates included in Orum et al. (undated); Kapinga et al. (undated)."}]},{"head":"The nutrition education component","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"A critical review of agricultural/food-based interventions to reduce general and specific nutrient deficiencies (Ruel and Levin, 2000;Berti, Krasevec and FitzGerald, 2004) concluded that strategies that combine food production/availability with change in nutrition behaviour and practices significantly increase the chances of achieving nutrition outcomes and impacts. Based on these conclusions, nutrition education activities were designed to build synergy with the agricultural component for increased adoption and consumption, as well as intra-household distribution of OFSP. Urban Harvest, CGIAR's system wide program on urban and peri-urban agriculture, joined the above-mentioned partnership to implement nutrition education activities that went beyond 'sensitisation'."},{"index":2,"size":165,"text":"The implementation of the nutrition education component started in February 2005 in Kawempe and Nakawa divisions using the same 'schools approach' of targeting pupils, their teachers, parents and all female and male farmers in communities surrounding the selected schools, and using schools as venues for training sessions. The selection of Kawempe and Nakawa division was based on the primary motive of creating comparison groups for studying the separate and combined impacts of agricultural and nutrition education interventions. In Kawempe division, nutrition education was implemented in the same schools and targeted the same groups as the agricultural component. In Nakawa division, five primary schools were selected based on criteria used also by the agricultural component. Participant households also had to have access to farming land and had to have at least one child 2-6 years old. Thus, in Kawempe division, the aim of the nutrition education component was to build synergy for adoption and increased consumption of OFSP. In Nakawa division no agricultural interventions were implemented."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"Specific objectives of the nutrition education component were as follows:"},{"index":4,"size":102,"text":"1. To increase knowledge and awareness among mothers and other child caregivers about the critical importance of vitamin A in child health and survival. 2. To promote OFSP as a 'common sense solution' to the problem of vitamin A deficiency. 3. To increase mothers' and caregivers' knowledge of other locally available plant and animal foods rich in vitamin A. 4. To highlight and change selected attitudes and practices of mothers and child caregivers that increase risk/susceptibility to vitamin A deficiency and other forms of malnutrition. 5. To impart basic skills to mothers/caregivers for the preparation of meals for children under five years."},{"index":5,"size":109,"text":"Nutrition education and training sessions were carried out on the premises of participating primary schools. At each session, participants were registered, properly indicating their surname, first name, and name commonly used or known by in the village. This provided a basis for the correct identification of participants and analysis of the number of sessions attended. At each school and on any one training day, the training team was divided into two groups; one for the adult farmers and another for schoolchildren. Thus, community members and schoolchildren were trained separately but during the same community visit. The schoolchildren trained were mainly those from primary year four to primary year six."},{"index":6,"size":50,"text":"At least three training sessions were conducted for each school community. Repeat sessions were carried out for sessions that had been poorly attended. The interval between training sessions averaged 4-6 weeks although there was a five-month interval between the first and second session for Kawempe division due to logistical constraints."},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"A complete schedule of schools and training sessions is provided in Appendix I."},{"index":8,"size":111,"text":"Each training session was facilitated by a team composed of a nutritionist from Urban Harvest and a community nutrition educator from the nutritional rehabilitation unit of Mulago Hospital. They were supported by an agriculturalist extension worker from Kampala City Council and a social scientist from JEEP, who were both members of the agricultural interventions team. Each school community had four community members (two teachers and two farmers) who had previously undergone more intensive education and training on the same subject matter to enable them to support nutrition education activities. However, the project did not facilitate them to train community members on their own, as was the case with the agricultural component."},{"index":9,"size":164,"text":"A simple outline was developed to guide nutrition education (see Appendix II). The education covered general nutritional facts, an introduction to the importance of vitamin A, and the identification of food and non-food sources of vitamin A, all the time highlighting the importance of OFSP. Other aspects included the use of vitamin A capsule supplements and mosquito nets. Participants also underwent practical training in the formulation of recipes and preparation of vitamin A/nutrient rich porridges and meals for young children under five. Training sessions were organised as facilitated group discussions with brief presentations followed by questions, answers, and the sharing of knowledge, experiences and concerns in a participatory and respectful environment. The average attendance of each session was 30-40 participants. Demonstrations, posters and calendars depicting plant and animal foods rich in vitamin A were also used to communicate nutrition education messages. Each participant received (to take home) a full-colour poster of vitamin A rich foods, and a cartoon poster extolling the values of OFSP."},{"index":10,"size":92,"text":"A total of 996 parents, over 75 percent of them women and representing an equal number of households, participated in the nutrition education intervention. The number of schoolchildren trained was 657, the majority of them from primary five and six at the time of training. Records also indicate that only a fraction of pupils (about 5 percent) participated in all three sessions. In some cases training was carried out on a weekend, and some schoolchildren could not attend, but every schoolchild has participated in at least one session (A. Lubowa, personal communication)."}]},{"head":"Evaluation objectives","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"While the agricultural component sought to increase household production and consumption of orange-fleshed sweetpotatoes, the nutrition education component aimed to be synergistic with the agricultural component, adding impacts on knowledge, attitudes and practices relevant to child vitamin A nutrition in an urban/peri-urban context."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"Hence evaluation objectives included: 1. To assess knowledge sharing among schoolchildren and their parents potentially attributable to the interventions. 2. To assess differences in vitamin A-related knowledge, attitudes and practices among mothers and other childcare givers across groups. 3. To compare consumption of orange-fleshed sweetpotatoes and other vitamin Arich foods among 2-6 year old children in the agricultural and nutrition education intervention groups compared to a referent community in urban and peri-urban areas of Kampala. 4. To assess whether such changes were associated with dietary intakes and child anthropometric status (if data permitted)."}]},{"head":"METHODS","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Design for comparisons","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"In keeping with a post-post comparison, a cross-sectional survey was undertaken to compare areas 'with' and 'without' different interventions. Among the five divisions in Kampala, the Central Division had been excluded, as it constitutes the central business district with mostly commercial buildings and very little crop farming activity. Implementation of the agricultural component in Rubaga and Kawempe divisions, and the nutrition education component in Kawempe and Nakawa divisions had already created 3 comparison groups. Makindye division, which also had similar farming activities, was added as a relative control where no interventions were undertaken. Hence a four-group comparison structure was available for post-project assessment of the separate and combined impacts of the agricultural and nutrition education interventions (see Table 2). "}]},{"head":"Selection of survey households and respondents","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"Based on the evaluation objectives, households included in the survey had to satisfy the following criteria:  Had at least one adult member who had participated in project activities (both nutrition education and agricultural interventions in Kawempe division, or in nutrition education activities in Nakawa division, or in agricultural interventions in Rubaga division).  Were involved in urban farming as one of their livelihood strategies.  Had at least one 2-6 year old child as a regular household member."},{"index":2,"size":172,"text":"In both Nakawa and Kawempe divisions, registration of participants was carried out for each training session. Each participant also provided information on the number and names of children from 2-6 years old. These attendance registers provided the sampling frame for selection of households to include in the survey. The schedule of 2-6 year olds in each household was used to randomly select one index child per household for estimation of food consumption and vitamin A intake. In Rubaga division, registration of participants had not been systematically implemented and it was not possible to differentiate children from adults, participants from farming and non-farming households and availability, number and names of children from 2-6 years old. Thus, a mini-survey of the TOTs and local leaders was carried out to establish that information and confirm frequency of attendance in agricultural sessions. In Makindye division, selection of schools and households to participate in the survey was carried out using the approach used in Nakawa and Makindye divisions to identify the beneficiaries of the nutrition education component."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"As the principal childcare givers who are also responsible for household food security and nutrition as well being the majority owners of urban farming activities, women were the main survey respondents. In most cases the woman who attended intervention activities was the principal woman (head or head's spouse) of the respondent household, and also the mother/main caregiver of the index child. This woman was therefore automatically selected for the main questionnaires on Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices (KAP), Food Frequency (FFQ) and 24-hour recall for the index child (2-6 years old) (see measures below). In a few households men were the main respondents, having been the ones who attended intervention activities and who were the main caregivers for the index children."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"To evaluate intra-household knowledge transfer, abridged versions of the main questionnaire on KAP were also administered to the spouse of any respondent woman who did not participate in project activities and (where available) the schoolchildren from any households who attended one of the participating schools and also benefited from project interventions. Each respondent household provided written informed consent through the main respondent or household head. Ethical approval for the survey was obtained from the Uganda National Council for Science and Technology."}]},{"head":"Measures","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Four types of data were collected: food frequency; KAP; food consumption data using a modified interactive 24-hour recall according to the method of Gibson and Ferguson (1999); and anthropometric measurements of all index children (2-6 years old). Challenges in data collection and quality concerns in the latter case meant we decided not to proceed further with analysis. The time requirements for processing and our limited resources meant that we also had to leave the 24-hour recall data unanalyzed."}]},{"head":"Food Frequency","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"To assess any differences in consumption of vitamin-A rich foods, particularly OFSP, the Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) was administered for the index child during household visits with the primary caretaker, according to the Helen Keller International method (1993) (see Appendix III)."}]},{"head":"Knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP)","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":191,"text":"To understand the effect of nutrition education on vitamin A-related knowledge, attitudes and practices of the caregiver and the intra-household transfer of that knowledge, three different questionnaires were used to collect information from three types of respondents in the household. The first questionnaire (see Appendix IV) was administered to the main respondent, identified as the person from the household who most attended nutrition education and/or agriculture sessions. Most often, the main respondent was the principal woman of the households and also the mother of the index child. In addition to KAP, this questionnaire collected information on farming and the social and economic characteristics of the household. The questionnaire was devised by the research team, based on their understanding of important KAP issues, and contained a combination of pre-coded as well as open ended questions and was administered by graduate-level research assistants under supervision by an MSc Human Nutrition student attached to the project. Data collection was done between the 6 th of July and 6 th September 2006. It took an average of 1.5 hours to complete one interview and each field assistant did an average of four respondents per day."},{"index":2,"size":152,"text":"The main respondent's KAP questionnaire was adjusted for a child from the respondent household who was a schoolchild in one of the focal schools, and for the spouse of the main respondent. However, the KAP questionnaires for the spouse and schoolchild were administered some weeks after the main KAP, so were partial (see Figure 1). The respective overlap proportions with the main KAP were 63 and 56 respectively. Given our time constraints, the low overlap proportions across all three KAPs (all three n=24), and the greater importance of schoolchildren for a school-based intervention, we limited our analyses to the main and schoolchildren KAP data. In this document the focus is on the results from the main KAP. The results of the schoolchildren KAP are presented in the Proceedings of the Symposium of the International Society for Tropical Root Crops (ISTRC), held in Lima, Peru from 9-13 November 2009 (Loechl et al., forthcoming)."}]},{"head":"Figure 1: Sample sizes of different KAP components and FFQ respondents","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Analysis","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Descriptive analysis of the data was conducted. The data were stratified by intervention group. Influence of occupation (urban farming versus other occupation) and education level (lower education level, i.e. no formal education up to upper primary, versus higher education level, i.e. lower secondary school up to university) was assessed for all variables, and is reported in the results section when it occurred. Inferential testing was done using Pearson's chi-square test."}]},{"head":"Limitations of Population and Analysis","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"Although it would have been interesting to look at knowledge transmission from schoolchildren to main respondents and to assess whether participation of the schoolchild alone, or the schoolchild and the parent, makes a difference compared to participation of the parent alone, we faced considerable challenges. First, the sample sizes are too small: 80 of 85 schoolchildren interviewed had a main KAP, but if stratification by intervention group and attendance mode (parent & schoolchild, parent alone, schoolchild alone) is applied, the sample sizes become very small and below five in a number of cells (n=33 schoolchildren have a main KAP, but they had not participated in project activities at all). Second, in the schoolchild-alone attendance group, some adults seem to have participated in interventions as well, diluting the ability to detect a schoolchild-alone effect."}]},{"head":"RESULTS OF MAIN KAP","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Awareness of OFSP and vitamin A","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"All respondents in intervention Groups 1 and 2 had heard of OFSP, and mostly at the schools OFSP project. In the third intervention group, 92% had heard of OFSP, and in the control group significantly fewer respondents (77%) had heard of OFSP. Of those respondents who had never seen any orange-fleshed SP roots, two-thirds (75%) were in the control group; very few respondents were in Groups 1 and 2, and 22% in Group 3 (p=0.000). There is no measurable influence of occupation or education level on OFSP awareness."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"Overall, 91% of respondents had heard about vitamin A, with no significant differences between the different intervention groups. However, those with higher education were more likely to have heard about vitamin A than those with lower education. This is true for all groups, but is statistically significant in Group 1 only (p=0.035)."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"78% had heard about vitamin A before 2004, i.e. before the project interventions started, with considerable variation between the different groups (p=0.000). Within the control group, the majority of respondents had heard about it before 2004. In all groups, those with higher education were more likely than those with lower education to have heard about vitamin A before 2004, i.e. before the project started (control group: majority 97%). In contrast, respondents in the intervention groups with lower education are more likely to have heard about vitamin A through the project, in 2004 and 2005. This is statistically significant in Group 1 (p=0.054)."}]},{"head":"Knowledge about vitamin A","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":376,"text":"Overall, 74% of respondents thought that children generally are the primary vulnerable group in a family and the ones who need vitamin A most (share within groups is highest in control group: 79.1%); 9.2% thought that children under 6 years of age need vitamin A most (share within groups is highest in Group 1: 16.4%). 9.1% considered pregnant women as the second most vulnerable target groups that need vitamin A most. 63% didn't know and did not indicate a second target group. Respondents with higher education levels were more likely than respondents with lower education to mention children generally, especially children under 6 years of age as the primary vulnerable group most in need of vitamin A within a family. In contrast, more respondents with lower education levels indicated that everyone in a family is in need of vitamin A, or that they didn't know. Differences by education level are statistically significant only in Group 1 (p=0.056). Overall, 50% of respondents were not able to correctly name any health problems related to vitamin A deficiency in children; 34% indicated one and 18% at least two health problems correctly. There were no clear differences between the different groups. But the respondents with lower education were more likely than respondents with higher education to not be able to name correctly health problems that affect children with vitamin A deficiency. Higher percentages of respondents in the higher education group were able to give at least one correct answer or two correct answers. The education level influence is statistically significant in the control group only (p=0.009). Knowledge of vitamin A rich plant foods was lowest in the control group compared to the three intervention groups. Clearly, the respondents in Group 1 were more knowledgeable than respondents in other intervention groups -nearly half of them identified three vitamin A rich foods. More respondents in the lower education group were not able to indicate any vitamin A rich plant food, or just one vitamin A rich plant food compared to the higher education group. In contrast, respondents with higher education were more likely than respondents with lower education to identify two or three vitamin A rich plant foods. These differences are statistically significant in Group 1 (p=0.039) and the control group (p=0.059)."},{"index":2,"size":148,"text":"Similarly to the knowledge of vitamin A rich plant foods, the knowledge of vitamin A rich animal source foods was lowest in the control group compared to the three intervention groups. Clearly, the respondents in Group 1 were more knowledgeable than respondents in other intervention groups -nearly half of them could identify two vitamin A rich animal source foods and 14% three (see Table 6). The education influence on knowledge of vitamin A rich animal source foods is similar to the previous case (knowledge of vitamin A rich plant foods), but the differences are not statistically significant in any of the four groups. The trend is that more respondents in the lower education group compared to the higher education group were not able to indicate any vitamin A rich animal source food. Respondents with higher education were more likely to identify three vitamin A rich animal source foods."}]},{"head":"Attitudes to vitamin A, nutrition and OFSP","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Attitude towards vitamin A capsules: \"Some radio presenters have been telling people that giving children vitamin A capsules is a grand plan by Bazungu (\"white people\") to reduce the population of Africans -do you agree with this?\""},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"Overall, 69% of respondents did not agree and 28% didn't know. There are significant differences between the different groups (see Table 7). Group 1 has highest percentage of respondents who did not agree with the statement (control group the lowest) and has the lowest of those who did not know. Those with higher education in Group 1 were more likely to not agree with the statement than the ones with a lower education level (p=0.080)."},{"index":3,"size":110,"text":"Attitude towards vitamin A capsules: \"At the same workshop, a lady said that it is because these foods and others like carrots and orange-fleshed sweetpotato contain vitamin A which is important for eye-sight and child health. She said many families in Kampala cannot get these foods and so should make sure that their children are given vitamin A capsule supplements every 6 months. Do you agree with this?\" Overall, 61% of respondents did agree and 20% strongly agreed. There are no significant differences between the different groups. But in the control group, significantly more respondents with higher education did agree with the statement than respondents with lower education level (p=0.039)."},{"index":4,"size":155,"text":"Attitude towards nutrition: \"While opening a workshop on health in Kampala last year, one LC111 chairman told the audience that some children in Uganda are becoming blind because they are not eating certain foods such as eggs, dark green leafy vegetables (DGLV), papaya and pumpkins. Do you agree with this?\" Overall, 48% of respondents agreed, 19% did not agree and 18% didn't know. Significant differences exist between the different groups (see Table 8). Group 1 and 3 (nutrition education) have the highest percentages of respondents who did agree with the statement. In addition, Group 1 has the lowest share of those who did not agree, and of those who did not know. Education level did have a contrasting influence depending on the intervention group -in Group 1 significantly more respondents with lower education did agree with the statement (p=0.006) and in Group 3 significantly more respondents with higher education did agree with the statement (p=0.052)."}]},{"head":"Attitude towards nutrition: \"Some parents in Kampala have refused to grow OFSP believing it is dangerous to health. Do you agree with this?\"","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"In Group 1, 90% of respondents did not agree with the statement; in the control group, only about 50% did not agree. The differences between the groups are statistically significant (p=0.000; see Table 9). The education level does not influence respondents' attitude towards growing OFSP, except in the control group. Significantly more respondents with higher education level did not agree with the statement compared to the percentage of respondents with lower education level (p=0.048)."}]},{"head":"Production","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"The majority of respondents of the groups that had received the agricultural intervention reported having grown OFSP (Group 1: 86%; Group 2: 92%), most of them in 2004 and 2005; in Group 3 half of the respondents had grown OFSP (46%) and in the control group only 10% (p=0.000). Urban farmer respondents (with better access to land) who received vines and/or nutrition education were more likely to grow OFSP than respondents with another occupation (see Table 10). This is statistically significant in Group 3 only. In Group 3, the majority of respondents who had heard about OFSP and seen it but had not grown any OFSP reported that they hadn't gotten vines; in the control group, the reasons advanced were: not gotten vines or didn't know enough about OFSP."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"About two-thirds of respondents in Groups 1-3 who had grown OFSP had received the vines from the schools' OFSP project; in the control group, the majority who had grown OFSP had received vines as a free donation from fellow farmers."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"The main motivation for growing OFSP varied considerably between the different groups. About half of the respondents of Groups 1-3 were motivated by the nutritional value of OFSP (see Table 11), whereas in the control group respondents had chosen OFSP because of the attractive flesh color or because they wanted to try something new (p=0.000). For 51% of those who had grown OFSP the favorite variety was Kakamega, 37% preferred Ejumula, and 10% had no preference."},{"index":4,"size":94,"text":"Overall, 66% of the respondents said that they would continue growing OFSP because of its high nutritional value, 12% because it is very high yielding and 10% because the taste is liked. The high nutritional value was mentioned by two-thirds of respondents in Groups 1 (77%) and 3 (75%) (both groups received the nutrition intervention), by half (56%) in Group 2 and only one-third (30%) in the control group. In Group 3, which received the nutrition education but not the agricultural intervention, the high yielding argument was articulated by very few respondents only (2%)."},{"index":5,"size":91,"text":"Overall, 78% indicated that they were planning to grow OFSP in the next season. In Groups 1 and 2 this was true for the majority of respondents (90% and 85% respectively); in Group 3 and the control group, 68% in each indicated planning to grow OFSP in the next season (p=0.000). In the latter two groups vine availability was expressed as a problem. In addition, Group 3 respondents mentioned farming land availability as a constraint and in the control group about one-third of the respondents indicated not knowing enough about OFSP."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"More urban farmer respondents than non-farmer respondents in the agricultural intervention groups expressed that they would grow OFSP in the next season. The differences are though not statistically significant."}]},{"head":"Consumption","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"The majority of respondents in Groups 1 and 2 had eaten OFSP (97% and 98% respectively), but only 25% of respondents in the control group had consumed OFSP (Group 3: 68%) (p=0.000). Urban farmer respondents were more likely than non-farmer respondents to consume OFSP in the household if they had received the nutrition education (see Table 12). The differences are though not statistically significant. OFSP was mostly eaten boiled or steamed (96% of those who have eaten it), some consumed as juice (30%), some as mandazi/chapatti/cake (37%) and a few ate the steamed or boiled leaves (15%). Over 90% of respondents in the three intervention groups expressed that they would prefer to give OFSP to their children instead of other varieties grown, mainly because of the better nutritional value of OFSP and its vitamin content; in the control group still 67% would prefer to give OFSP to their children, mostly for the same reasons (p=0.013)."}]},{"head":"RESULTS ON FOOD FREQUENCY OF YOUNG CHILD 2-6 YEARS OLD","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"The food frequency questionnaire gathered information on patterns of consumption for 2-6 year old children of a variety of foods and food groups, with an emphasis on vitamin A-rich foods. In addition to a focus on vitamin A-rich foods, foods on the list included all possible fat sources. This is because at least a minimum amount of fat is needed in order to optimize absorption of vitamin A (Jalal et al. 1998;Ribaya-Mercado et al. 2007)."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Mothers were asked how many days in the last 7 days the focus child had eaten a variety of foods."},{"index":3,"size":125,"text":"Table 13 gives results showing the proportion of 2-6 year old pre-school children in households who have had each food/group at least once in the last week, and the proportion having had the food/group 3 or more days in the last week. The former (having had food at least once) can be seen as a proxy for availability of and access to the food, either from markets or from their own production. For some very nutrient-dense foods -particularly those rich in fat-soluble vitamins and minerals for which there are large body stores -even infrequent consumption can be nutritionally meaningful. However, in general, foods eaten at least 3 days in the previous week are more likely to make a large and meaningful contribution to nutrient intakes."},{"index":4,"size":135,"text":"The results are presented by intervention group. A meaningful difference between the intervention groups exists for the consumption of OFSP. As expected, only a few children in the control group had consumed OFSP at least one day in the last week. A higher percentage of children in the group that had received both agriculture interventions and nutrition education consumed OFSP at least one day in the last week and consumed OFSP more frequently (three days or more in the last week) than children in the two other groups that had only had one of the two interventions (Group 2 or 3). There are other statistically significant differences between the intervention groups, but it is not clear if these differences are due to the project interventions or to differences in preferences, availability and access to foods."}]},{"head":"Staple grains, legumes and nuts","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"In all groups, children ate a variety of starchy staples, including matooke, cassava, jam, maize, millet, rice and wheat products (chapatti, bread etc.). Legumes, nuts and seeds provide protein and fat (especially nuts/seeds), as well as micronutrients. Sixty-four percent of the children have had legumes 3 or more days in the previous week, and 46% had groundnut or cashew (very few were reported to have other seeds regularly)."}]},{"head":"Animal source foods","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Animal source foods, rich in high quality protein and bioavailable micronutrients, were not consumed regularly by at least two-thirds of the children. Milk of any type was an exception with about 60% consuming it at least 3 days in the last week. Fish, red meat and eggs were consumed at least 3 days in the last week by about one fourth of the children. Chicken and liver were rarely consumed regularly."}]},{"head":"Fats","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"The main sources of fat for the majority of children were foods cooked in or fried with oil."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"A very high percentage of children (91%) have had such foods 3 or more days in the previous week. Most of the oil used during cooking seemed to be fortified as 88% of the children had fortified cooking oil 3 or more days in the last week. Other fat sources were consumed by at least one fourth of the children more regularly (3 or more days in the previous week): groundnut or cashew (46%), vitamin A fortified margarine (32%) and avocado (21%). These data indicate that children are getting some fat source every day, which is important from the standpoint of nutrition."}]},{"head":"Vitamin A-rich foods","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Vitamin A-rich foods on the questionnaire included several animal source foods (liver, eggs with yolk, dried small fish eaten whole); ripe mango and papaya; a variety of dark green leafy vegetables; pumpkin, carrots and yellow-and orange-fleshed sweetpotato; and several fortified products (margarine, cooking oil, other foods). Current child feeding guidance (PAHO/WHO 2003; WHO 2005) recommends that infants and young children over 6 months of age should be fed vitamin A-rich foods every day. Vitamin A in animal source foods is most bioavailable, but as noted above these foods were not eaten regularly by about 75% of the children. Vitamin A rich fruits were not eaten regularly."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"Nearly half of the children (47%) consumed ripe papaya at least one day in the last week, but only 14% have had papaya 3 or more days. Dark green leafy vegetables (DGLV) were eaten by the majority of children (mostly amaranthus and eggplant leaves); 83% have had DGLV in the past week, and 52% had DGLV 3 or more days. Pumpkin and carrots were eaten by about half of the children at least one day in the previous week (40% and 47% respectively), but much fewer children have had pumpkin and carrots more regularly (12% and 26% respectively)."}]},{"head":"Sweetpotato","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"White-fleshed sweetpotato (WFSP) was more frequently consumed than yellow (YFSP) or OFSP. Over the previous week, nearly two-thirds of children (71%) had WSP at least once, half of the children (47%) had YFSP, 31% had OFSP and 18% had both YFSP and OFSP. 20% had eaten WFSP 3 or more days in the last week, and much less had YFSP (12%) or OFSP (9%)."}]},{"head":"Fortified foods","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"Fortified foods can be very important sources of micronutrients, including vitamin A; these foods are recommended to fill nutrient gaps when diet quality is low. The food frequency questionnaire included questions on the fortified products that could have been available in the study area: Cerelac and other fortified complementary foods. Twenty percent of the children were reported to receive these fortified products at least one day in the last week. Few children (8%) received multivitamin pills at least once in the last week. On the contrary, as stated above, fortified cooking oil was consumed by the majority of children (94%) and vitamin A fortified margarine by half of the children (49%) at least once in the previous week.  The education level did have an influence on the consumption frequency of OFSP (see Table 14). Young children in Group 1 were more likely to receive OFSP more frequently (3+ days in last week) if the respondent had a higher education level (secondary school up to university). Differences in the other groups were not statistically significant. "}]},{"head":"Awareness","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Respondents are aware of OFSP in the intervention groups. All respondents in Group 1 and 2 have heard of OFSP, mostly through the schools OFSP project. In the 3 rd group 92% have heard of OFSP, and in the control group significantly fewer respondents (77%) have heard of OFSP. Very few respondents in Groups 1 and 2, and 22% in Group 3, have never seen any orange-fleshed SP roots."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"In conclusion, the project interventions helped to make respondents aware of OFSP, but most of them knew already of vitamin A; the ones with higher education were more likely to have heard about vitamin A."}]},{"head":"Knowledge","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Knowledge of vitamin A rich plant foods is lowest in the control group compared to the three intervention groups. Clearly, the respondents in Group 1 were more knowledgeable than respondents in other intervention groups: nearly half of them could identify three vitamin A rich foods. Higher education had a positive impact on knowledge of vitamin A rich plant foods. Similarly to the knowledge of vitamin A rich plant foods, the knowledge of vitamin A rich animal source foods was lowest in the control group compared to the three intervention groups. Higher education was positively correlated with higher knowledge of vitamin A rich animal source foods."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"In conclusion, project participation seems to have made a difference in knowing more details about vitamin A."}]},{"head":"Production","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The majority of respondents of the groups that had received the agricultural intervention reported having grown OFSP (Group 1: 86%; Group 2: 92%), mostly in 2004 and 2005."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"In Group 3 half of the respondents had grown OFSP (46%) and only 10% in the control group had grown OFSP. Urban farmers were more likely to have grown OFSP than the respondents with other occupations. The motivation for growing was different in the three intervention groups compared to control groups (nutritional value being predominant in intervention groups). The majority of respondents planned to plant OFSP in the next season in Groups 1 and 2. In Group 3 and the control group, many fewer respondents said that they plan to plant OFSP in the next season, mainly because vine availability was expressed as a problem."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"In conclusion, access to vines and land are major determinants for OFSP production."}]},{"head":"Consumption","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"The majority of respondents in Groups 1 and 2 had eaten OFSP (97% and 98% respectively), but only 25% of respondents in the control group had consumed OFSP (Group 3: 68%) -urban farmers were more likely to have eaten OFSP when they had received the nutrition education (Groups 1 and 3) than respondents with other occupations. In intervention groups, OFSP was voiced as the preferred SP variety to give to their children mainly because of its better nutritional value."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"The percentage of young children (2-6 years old) that consumed OFSP at least once per week or more frequently (three days or more in the last week) was highest in Group 1. In addition, they were more likely to receive OFSP more frequently (3+ days in the last week) if the respondent had a higher education level (secondary school up to university)."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"In conclusion, access to vines, growing OFSP and exposure to nutrition education are key factors for the consumption of OFSP."}]},{"head":"Schoolchildren","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"The results from the schoolchildren KAP are in line with the results from the main KAP respondents presented above. In intervention groups all schoolchildren had heard about OFSP (versus only 39% in the control group). All schoolchildren in Group 1 and 2 were able to at least cite one vitamin A rich food (Group 3: 82%, control group: 61%). More schoolchildren in Group 1 (77%) than in Group 2 (60%) had planted vines received at school. Schoolchildren reporting consumption of OFSP prepared at home was highest in Group 1 (100%) and in Group 3 (91%) compared to 56% in Group 2, and 75% in the control group. The majority of schoolchildren who had eaten OFSP voiced that they would prefer OFSP if they were to choose between eating OFSP and WFSP, mainly because OFSP contains vitamin A, tastes better and is sweeter. In conclusion, the results demonstrate that the impact is greatest when schoolchildren participate in both interventions (Loechl et al. forthcoming)."}]},{"head":"Implications for programs and policy","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"The impact demonstrated above on OFSP awareness, knowledge, production and consumption suggests that schools are useful venues for combined agricultural and nutrition interventions. Schools are centralized locations in communities and may be an effective means for reaching large numbers of households (Andrade et al. 2009). But with the current dataset we are not able to evaluate whether schoolchildren are effective transmitters of technologies from school to household. The data do not allow assessing the levels of adoption by parents/communities that can be specifically attributed to schoolchildren's efforts. However, the results are plausible (Habicht et al. 1999) and confirm that two interventions are better than one or nothing (control group). Access to vines proves to be crucial to production and consumption of OFSP."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"Another example of a school-based intervention is the national school nutrition program in South Africa. It is in its initial stages and the activities focus on the management of the gardens (Maduna, 2008). The program works in collaboration with the Agricultural Research Council and FAO and will generate important lessons regarding public sector support of school garden initiatives, and the impact on schoolchildren's knowledge and adoption of OFSP in schoolchildren's households (Andrade et al. 2009)."}]},{"head":"Lessons learned with respect to evaluation","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"At design stage o Lack of a Monitoring & Evaluation system right from the beginning, focus was on dissemination in agricultural component. o Post-post comparison generated interesting results, but does not allow to evaluate effectiveness of using schools as OFSP dissemination points -need for further research. o Stick to simpler indicators when design is not rigorous; for example, quantitative dietary assessment, which requires huge resources, should not be included. o Think about nutrition and health impact at design stage, and integrate it right from the beginning. o Think about the pathway to behavior change, and select indicators to measure accordingly."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"With respect to documentation of implementation/link to agricultural intervention o Relates to last two points of the design lessons -integrate nutrition and health right from the beginning. o Implementation: lack of links between different components and survey modules. o Careful documentation of populations and links between them -population reached, population sampled."}]},{"head":"At analysis stage","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"o Stratification by education level and type of occupation was important -there was relevant heterogeneity in the data set."}]},{"head":"Further research suggestions","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"1. Effectiveness of using schools versus other venues -schools as avenues for OFSP dissemination. Limited work has been done so far to measure the differential impact of food-based interventions through schools. In fact, one future research area set out in a recent CIP-Social Science working paper (Andrade et al. 2009) is: \"Understanding whether school children are effective entry points for knowledge and technology transmission to other household members\"."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"2. Tracking of schoolchildren -parent interactions and assessing the levels of adoption by parents/communities that can be specifically attributed to schoolchildren's efforts, as suggested also by Kapinga et al. (undated)."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"3. Schoolchildren -household interaction -evaluate particularly if pupil girls who have to take care of younger siblings are more likely to feed them OFSP if they have learnt about the nutritional benefits of it. "}]},{"head":"Appendix I -Schedule of schools and training sessions","index":39,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Appendix II -Training of trainers (TOT) manual for nutrition education component","index":40,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"This manual has been prepared to aid in the training and guiding of trainers in urban and peri-urban communities to conduct nutrition education aimed at promoting orangefleshed sweet potatoes (OFSP) and prevention of vitamin A deficiency. The content is based on a rapid assessment of nutritional knowledge and awareness related to vitamin A carried out on a small sample of Kampala residents in March 2003. The manual does not cover extension education or group management skills as these are more appropriately covered in another manual designed for training of farmers in agricultural technologies and skills related to promotion of OFSP."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Module 1: This module will have two topics 1. Nutrition in health and disease aimed at increasing knowledge of farmers about the relation between good nutrition and good health and bad nutrition and poor health. 2. Child health and nutrition."}]},{"head":"WHAT IS VITAMIN A?","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Vitamin A is one of several vitamins (others include vitamin B complex, vitamin C, vitamin D, Vitamin E and K) which the human body needs in very small amounts but are VERY IMPORTANT for good health and development."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Vitamin A is particularly needed in the body for:"},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"1. Proper growth and development. 2. Protection against infections and diseases. 3. Reducing severity of infections (shorter episodes). 4. Promotion of good eyesight. 5. Helping the body to stay strong and healthy. 6. Maybe helping to slow the pace of HIV disease and reducing frequency of some opportunistic infections."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"What happens if a person does not have vitamin A in the body?"},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"When a person lacks enough vitamin A in the body, the doctors say he or she is VITAMIN A DEFICIENT."},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"A person who is vitamin A deficient will suffer from one or more of the following conditions;  Will not grow and develop properly."},{"index":7,"size":32,"text":" Will be more susceptible to infections and diseases such as coughs, diarrhea, measles.  Might suffer from night blindness which is a condition of reduced ability to see in dim light."},{"index":8,"size":80,"text":" Might become totally blind.  Will die if not treated.  Pregnant mothers who are vitamin A deficient experience general poor health and weakness.  Children born to mothers who are vitamin A deficient may have low birthweight, die before birth and not develop properly.  Women who are Vitamin A deficient may suffer reproductive infertility (failure to conceive, abortions, pre-term birth, etc).  Men and women who are Vitamin A deficient may be more susceptible to HIV infection."},{"index":9,"size":11,"text":"Who is most affected by vitamin deficiency? Who needs vitamin A?"},{"index":10,"size":86,"text":"Vitamin A is important and needed by the whole family (Adults and children, young and old) BUT it most needed by:  Young growing children (up to 6 years of life) because: o Children grow very fast and vitamin A helps in body growth and development. o A child's immune system (the body's defense against infections) is still young and is therefore open to risk from many infections such as coughs, measles, diarrhea, malaria, etc. Vitamin A helps to build the child's protection against these infections."},{"index":11,"size":56,"text":" Pregnant and breastfeeding mothers because: o Pregnant women with babies growing in their wombs are nourishing two people. o The normal changes in the mother's body during pregnancy: weight gain, need for more blood, etc., to support the growing baby. o In breastfeeding the mother's body manufactures milk which contains vitamin A for the baby."},{"index":12,"size":38,"text":" Old and sick people because: o Old age brings several frailties such as declining eyesight, body weakness and increased susceptibility to infections. o Sick people need to help their bodies repair themselves and gain strength after sickness."}]},{"head":"WHAT CAUSES VITAMIN A DEFICIENCY","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":" The main cause of vitamin A deficiency in Uganda and many countries of Africa is POOR DIET which is LOW in VITAMIN A.  Vitamin A deficiency is also caused by repeated sicknesses which use up all the vitamin A the body has stored.  Infection by worms causes poor absorption of vitamin A leading to deficiency."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"Why should the people of Uganda and Kampala be concerned about vitamin A deficiency? Why should we learn about it?  Vitamin A deficiency is a serious health problem in Uganda which is responsible for large numbers of children in poor health, mental and physical retardation, and sometimes blindness and death.  It affects about 20 percent (one out of every five) children and nearly 40 percent (two out of every five) of women.  Poor people are the most affected."},{"index":3,"size":129,"text":"If we do not take action,  Uganda will continue to be a country of low population because of child deaths (consider all of Africa with about one third of the world's land mass has less that one sixth of the world's population.  Uganda will have a population of short, weak and unproductive people due to poor physical and mental growth.  Uganda as a country and individual families will have the huge financial burden of caring for a big number of constantly sick children and adults.  The gap between the rich (who can often get enough vitamin A and other nutrients) and the poor (who are most affected by vitamin A deficiency) will grow wider as the poor will be trapped in poor health and poverty."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"What should we do and what is the government of Uganda doing to reduce vitamin A deficiency?"},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"The Strategic Health Plan of the government of Uganda has prioritized prevention and control of vitamin A deficiency. The main approaches adopted for this purpose have been:"},{"index":6,"size":65,"text":"1. Promoting increased availability and consumption of Vitamin A-rich foods by all people but especially children and pregnant/breastfeeding mothers. 2. Addition of vitamin A to widely consumed foods (food enrichment). 3. Periodic supplementation of high risk groups (mothers and children below 6 years) with high dose vitamin A capsules (mass vitamin A supplementation). 4. Periodic de-worming of susceptible groups (children) to reduce vitamin A loss."},{"index":7,"size":77,"text":"Families have the power to reduce vitamin A deficiency by: 1. Growing and eating foods rich in vitamin A. 2. Taking children 6 months to 6 years old to receive vitamin A capsules on scheduled child-health days (twice a year). 3. Allowing their children to take vitamin A when the doctors recommend it. 4. Mothers should take vitamin A capsule within two months after birth so that their breast milk will contain vitamin A for the baby."},{"index":8,"size":41,"text":"Animal foods should be given to children and mothers whenever possible because they contain vitamin A in a readily usable form and contain other nutrients needed by children and pregnant and breastfeeding women. They should be the first choice where affordable."},{"index":9,"size":16,"text":"Using orange-fleshed sweet potatoes to prevent vitamin A deficiency in Uganda = a common sense solution."}]},{"head":"What are Orange-Fleshed Sweet Potatoes (OFSP)?","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":" This is a type of sweet potato whose inside flesh (NOT the skin) is orange in colour.  The orange colour resembles that of carrots, pumpkins, ripe paw paws and mangoes and is due to the presence and high concentration of beta-carotene. Beta-carotene is the substance which the human body converts to vitamin A.  The OFSP is a high beta-carotene, high vitamin A food source.  OFSP is like any other sweet potato with the only differences being in:"},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"1. COLOUR: OFSP is orange and other sweet potatoes are white or yellow. 2. VITAMIN A (BETA-CAROTENE) CONTENT: OFSP has a high vitamin A content while others sweet potatoes DO NOT contain vitamin A."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"OFSP is grown, harvested, and eaten like any other potato."}]},{"head":"Why promote orange-fleshed sweet potatoes?","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"OFSP has been dubbed a 'common sense solution' (KIRI MU GLASI) to the vitamin A deficiency problem in Uganda, Rwanda, Tanzania and other countries for the following reasons:"},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":" OFSP has a high concentration of vitamin A.  Sweet potatoes are generally cheaper and affordable compared to eggs, liver, milk and butter. Therefore OFSP is a cheaper source of vitamin A.  Sweet potato of all varieties is already a major staple for almost 90 percent of Uganda. In Kampala, sweet potato is the major food crop grown by farmers. Therefore:  Most people already know how to grow it.  Both children and adults can eat it (compared to leafy vegetables which are mostly served to adults."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"Replacing white-fleshed sweet potatoes with OFSP can therefore reduce vitamin A deficiency in a large number of people at very low cost. "},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"No other source known 2. At least one other source known  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Sample sizes of different KAP components and FFQ respondents................................ "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Comparison groups created by agricultural and nutrition education interventions............................................................................................................................  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Ever heard of OFSP by intervention group (% within intervention group) ........................  "},{"text":"Table 4 : First heard about vitamin A by intervention group (% within intervention group)....................................................................................................................................  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Knowledge of vitamin A rich plant foods by intervention group (% within intervention group) ................................................................................................................  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Knowledge of vitamin A rich animal source foods by intervention group (% within intervention group) ................................................................................................  "},{"text":"Table 7 : Attitude that vitamin A capsules reduce the population by intervention group (% within intervention group) ......................................................................................  "},{"text":"Table 8 : Attitude that lack of orange fruits/vegetables and DGLV causes blindness by intervention group (% within intervention group) .............................................  "},{"text":"Table 9 : Attitude that OFSP is unhealthy by intervention group by education level (% within intervention/education group)................................................................................ Table 10: OFSP production by occupation of respondent by intervention group (% within occupation group)..................................................................................................  "},{"text":"Table 11 : Main motivation for growing OFSP by intervention group (% within intervention group) ................................................................................................................ Table 12: OFSP consumption by occupation of respondent by intervention group  "},{"text":"Table 16 : Reasons for preferring other varieties over OFSP by intervention group  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Number of active schoolchildren and farmers found growing OFSP in the end of project survey (May 2006)  No. of active No. of active  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Comparison groups created by agricultural and nutrition education interventions  GROUP Division Type of interventions Number of participating GROUP DivisionType of interventionsNumber of participating    schools schools 1 Kawempe Agricultural Technologies/Extension & 5 1KawempeAgricultural Technologies/Extension &5   Nutrition Education  Nutrition Education 2 Rubaga Agricultural Technologies/Extensions only 5 2RubagaAgricultural Technologies/Extensions only5 3 Nakawa Nutrition Education only 5 3NakawaNutrition Education only5 4 Makindye No intervention (control division) 5 4MakindyeNo intervention (control division)5  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Ever heard of OFSP by intervention group (% within intervention group)  n=457 Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Control n=457Group 1Group 2Group 3Control Yes 100.0 100.0 92.3 76.9 Yes100.0100.092.376.9 No 0.0 0.0 7.7 23.1 No0.00.07.723.1 Pearson's chi-square test: F=58.9 and p=0.000    Pearson's chi-square test: F=58.9 and p=0.000  "},{"text":"Table 4 : First heard about vitamin A by intervention group (% within intervention group)  n=439 Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Control n=439Group 1Group 2Group 3Control Before 2004 66.1 74.1 78.2 93.6 Before 200466.174.178.293.6 2004 18.8 12.1 3.0 2.7 200418.812.13.02.7 2005 12.5 12.9 12.9 1.8 200512.512.912.91.8 2006 2.7 0.9 5.9 1.8 20062.70.95.91.8 F-value=42.30; p-value=0.000     F-value=42.30; p-value=0.000  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Knowledge of vitamin A rich plant foods by intervention group (% within intervention group)  n=457 Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Control n=457Group 1Group 2Group 3Control No vitamin A rich plant food known/identified 12.9 16.7 22.1 31.6 No vitamin A rich plant food known/identified12.916.722.131.6 One vitamin A rich plant food identified 18.1 39.2 24.0 38.5 One vitamin A rich plant food identified18.139.224.038.5 Two vitamin A rich plant foods identified 21.6 19.2 33.7 12.8 Two vitamin A rich plant foods identified21.619.233.712.8 Three vitamin A rich plant foods identified 47.4 25.0 20.2 17.1 Three vitamin A rich plant foods identified47.425.020.217.1 F-value=59.03; p-value=0.000     F-value=59.03; p-value=0.000  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Knowledge of vitamin A rich animal source foods by intervention group (% within intervention group)  n=457 Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Control n=457Group 1Group 2Group 3Control No vitamin A rich animal food known/identified 10.3 16.7 8.7 19.7 No vitamin A rich animal food known/identified10.316.78.719.7 One vitamin A rich animal food identified 28.4 44.2 33.7 47.0 One vitamin A rich animal food identified28.444.233.747.0 Two vitamin A rich animal foods identified 47.4 36.7 47.1 32.5 Two vitamin A rich animal foods identified47.436.747.132.5 Three vitamin A animal rich foods identified 13.8 2.5 10.6 0.9 Three vitamin A animal rich foods identified13.82.510.60.9 F-value=38.07; p-value=0.000     F-value=38.07; p-value=0.000  "},{"text":"Table 7 : Attitude that vitamin A capsules reduce the population by intervention group (% within intervention group)   Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Control Group 1Group 2Group 3Control Do not agree 73.3 70.0 70.2 64.1 Do not agree73.370.070.264.1 Don't know 22.4 25.0 28.8 34.2 Don't know22.425.028.834.2 F-value: 26.29; p-value: 0.010     F-value: 26.29; p-value: 0.010  "},{"text":"Table 8 : Attitude that lack of orange fruits/vegetables and DGLV causes blindness by intervention group (% within intervention group)   Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Control Group 1Group 2Group 3Control Do agree 50.0 40.8 52.9 47.9 Do agree50.040.852.947.9 Do not agree 15.5 17.5 22.1 19.7 Do not agree15.517.522.119.7 Don't know 10.3 23.3 15.4 23.9 Don't know10.323.315.423.9 F-value: 25.44; p-value: 0.013     F-value: 25.44; p-value: 0.013  "},{"text":"Table 9 : Attitude that OFSP is unhealthy by intervention group by education level (% within intervention/education group)  Do not agree Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Control Do not agreeGroup 1Group 2Group 3Control Total 89.7 84.2 68.3 41.9 Total89.784.268.341.9 Lower education level 1 82.1 88.9 66.0 29.2 Lower education level 182.188.966.029.2 Higher education level 2 96.7 80.3 70.6 50.7 Higher education level 296.780.370.650.7 F (Pearson's chi-square) 6.86 1.95 0.25 9.60 F (Pearson's chi-square)6.861.950.259.60 p-value 0.077 0.377 0.618 0.048 p-value0.0770.3770.6180.048  "},{"text":"Table 10 : OFSP production by occupation of respondent by intervention group (% within occupation group)  Ever grown OFSP Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Control Ever grown OFSPGroup 1Group 2Group 3Control Urban farmer 94.4 96.3 80.0 13.3 Urban farmer94.496.380.013.3 Other occupation 82.5 90.3 42.6 9.8 Other occupation82.590.342.69.8 F (Pearson's chi-square) 2.98 0.98 5.10 0.18 F (Pearson's chi-square)2.980.985.100.18 p-value 0.084 0.323 0.024 0.674 p-value0.0840.3230.0240.674  "},{"text":"Table 11 : Main motivation for growing OFSP by intervention group (% within intervention group)  n=268, multiple answers Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Control n=268, multiple answersGroup 1Group 2Group 3Control Nutritional value of OFSP 62 46 53 0 Nutritional value of OFSP6246530 Multiple utilization of OFSP varieties 23 28 17 9 Multiple utilization of OFSP varieties2328179 Attractive flesh color 4 3 6 46 Attractive flesh color43646 Wanted to try something new 3 6 17 18 Wanted to try something new361718 F-value: 66.45; p-value: 0.000     F-value: 66.45; p-value: 0.000  "},{"text":"Table 12 : OFSP consumption by occupation of respondent by intervention group (% within occupation group)  Ever eaten OFSP Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Control Ever eaten OFSPGroup 1Group 2Group 3Control Urban farmer 100.0 96.3 80.0 26.7 Urban farmer100.096.380.026.7 Other occupation 95.0 98.9 67.0 24.5 Other occupation95.098.967.024.5 F (Pearson's chi-square) 1.86 0.88 0.70 0.17 F (Pearson's chi-square)1.860.880.700.17 p-value 0.172 0.348 0.402 0.917 p-value0.1720.3480.4020.917  "},{"text":"Table 13 : Frequency of consumption of foods and food groups by focus children during previous week, by intervention group One or more days in the last 7 days (%) Three or more days in the last 7 days (%)       Equality of means       Equality of means   Group Group Group or proportions Group Group Group Group Equality of means or GroupGroupGroupor proportionsGroupGroupGroupGroupEquality of means or  Group 1 2 3 4  test 1 2 3 4 proportions test Group 1234test1234proportions test  Ag and Ag Nutr    Ag and Ag Nutr    Ag andAgNutrAg andAgNutr Variable nutr alone alone Control F (p-value) nutr alone alone Control F (p-value) Variablenutralonealone ControlF(p-value)nutralonealone ControlF(p-value) Staple grains, roots, tubers             Staple grains, roots, tubers Matooke, cassava, jam 99 99 96 98 3.59 (0.31) 71 81 72 81 5.35 (0.15) Matooke, cassava, jam999996983.59(0.31)718172815.35(0.15) Maize, millet, sorghum, other cereal 88 90 99 92 8.06 (0.045) 63 68 88 72 15.01 (0.002) Maize, millet, sorghum, other cereal889099928.06(0.045)6368887215.01(0.002) Rice 92 97 84 94 10.94 (0.012) 58 65 40 62 13.96 (0.003) Rice9297849410.94(0.012)5865406213.96(0.003) White fleshed sweetpotato 70 71 77 68 2.32 (0.51) 20 20 19 21 0.13 (0.99) White fleshed sweetpotato707177682.32(0.51)202019210.13(0.99) Wheat product (chapatti, bread,             Wheat product (chapatti, bread, biscuits, cookies etc.) 99 100 97 100 6.76 (0.08) 88 94 77 91 13.37 (0.004) biscuits, cookies etc.)99100971006.76(0.08)8894779113.37(0.004) Vitamin A-rich roots, tubers             Vitamin A-rich roots, tubers Orange-fleshed sweetpotato 52 34 39 3 57.40 (0.000) 16 9 13 0 16.06 (0.001) Orange-fleshed sweetpotato523439357.40(0.000)16913016.06(0.001) Yellow-fleshed sweetpotato 47 49 47 47 0.10 (0.99) 14 16 13 8 2.68 (0.44) Yellow-fleshed sweetpotato474947470.10(0.99)14161382.68(0.44) Legumes, nuts             Legumes, nuts Beans (any kind) 98 92 97 98 6.60 (0.09) 65 69 55 66 4.67 (0.20) Beans (any kind)989297986.60(0.09)656955664.67(0.20) Groundnut or cashew 87 91 89 88 0.63 (0.89) 43 54 41 48 3.54 (0.32) Groundnut or cashew879189880.63(0.89)435441483.54(0.32) Animal source foods -vitamin A sources             Animal source foods -vitamin A sources Liver 11 7 17 18 6.91 (0.08) 0 2 2 0 4.26 (0.24) Liver11717186.91(0.08)02204.26(0.24) Eggs w/yolk 71 68 71 75 1.11 (0.78) 27 26 31 27 0.59 (0.90) Eggs w/yolk716871751.11(0.78)272631270.59(0.90) Dried whole fish powder (w/liver) 63 69 71 47 14.93 (0.002) 30 33 24 19 5.57 (0.13) Dried whole fish powder (w/liver)6369714714.93(0.002)303324195.57(0.13) Other animal source foods             Other animal source foods Fresh/dried fish (tilapia, nile perch etc.) 64 71 78 81 8.31 (0.040) 13 16 21 20 2.88 (0.41) Fresh/dried fish (tilapia, nile perch etc.)647178818.31(0.040)131621202.88(0.41) Meat (beef, pork, goat, mutton etc.) 77 77 77 83 1.42 (0.70) 26 19 24 31 4.39 (0.22) Meat (beef, pork, goat, mutton etc.)777777831.42(0.70)261924314.39(0.22) Chicken 24 21 24 29 2.04 (0.56) 1 1 1 1 0.01 (1.00) Chicken242124292.04(0.56)11110.01(1.00) Milk (any type),             Milk (any type), fresh/powdered/condensed, yoghurt 82 81 81 77 1.06 (0.79) 66 55 63 53 5.02 (0.17) fresh/powdered/condensed, yoghurt828181771.06(0.79)665563535.02(0.17) Vitamin A-rich fruits             Vitamin A-rich fruits Ripe mango 17 21 21 22 0.93 (0.82) 4 3 2 2 0.99 (0.81) Ripe mango172121220.93(0.82)43220.99(0.81) Ripe papaya 50 52 34 39 7.76 (0.051) 16 14 11 12 1.01 (0.80) Ripe papaya505234397.76(0.051)161411121.01(0.80)  "},{"text":"Table 13 : continued -Frequency of consumption of foods and food groups by focus children during previous week, by intervention group One or more days in the last 7 days (%) Three or more days in the last 7 days (%) Sample size is 379. In the sixth and seventh (and twelfth and thirteenth) columns, we present an F-statistic and a P-value for the hypothesis test that all four proportions are equal (Pearson\\s chi-square test)      Equality of means     Equality of means Equality of meansEquality of means   Group Group Group or proportions  Group Group  or proportions GroupGroupGroupor proportionsGroupGroupor proportions  Group 1 2 3 4 test  Group 1 2 3 Group 4  test Group 1234testGroup 123Group 4test  Ag and Ag Nutr   (p- Ag and Ag Nutr    Ag andAgNutr(p-Ag andAgNutr Variable nutr alone alone Control F value) nutr alone alone Control F (p-value) VariablenutralonealoneControlFvalue)nutralonealoneControlF(p-value) Vitamin A-rich vegetables             Vitamin A-rich vegetables Pumpkin 48 40 30 41 6.89 (0.08) 13 17 8 10 3.62 (0.31) Pumpkin484030416.89(0.08)13178103.62(0.31) Carrots 40 47 48 52 2.69 (0.44) 22 28 25 30 1.87 (0.60) Carrots404748522.69(0.44)222825301.87(0.60) Dark green leaves (any type) 87 87 86 73 10.34 (0.016) 55 57 56 42 5.25 (0.15) Dark green leaves (any type)8787867310.34(0.016)555756425.25(0.15) Eggplant leaves 63 60 49 46 8.35 (0.039) 21 22 19 12 3.76 (0.29) Eggplant leaves636049468.35(0.039)212219123.76(0.29) Amaranthus leaves 77 59 78 58 16.39 (0.001) 37 27 36 21 7.91 (0.048) Amaranthus leaves7759785816.39(0.001)372736217.91(0.048) Sweetpotato leaves 5 3 2 1 3.27 (0.35) 2 1 0 0 3.65 (0.30) Sweetpotato leaves53213.27(0.35)21003.65(0.30) Hibiscus leaves 2 1 6 7 6.26 (0.10) 0 1 0 3 5.65 (0.13) Hibiscus leaves21676.26(0.10)01035.65(0.13) Whole chilies 6 4 6 7 0.84 (0.84) 3 1 5 2 2.47 (0.48) Whole chilies64670.84(0.84)31522.47(0.48) Fat sources             Fat sources Seeds (sesame, pumpkin) 17 18 23 22 1.68 (0.64) 6 9 13 6 3.24 (0.36) Seeds (sesame, pumpkin)171823221.68(0.64)691363.24(0.36) Avocado 47 56 56 43 4.33 (0.23) 23 25 21 15 3.15 (0.37) Avocado475656434.33(0.23)232521153.15(0.37) Butter 4 8 6 6 1.41 (0.70) 1 2 2 2 0.46 (0.93) Butter48661.41(0.70)12220.46(0.93) Vitamin A fortified margarine 55 43 41 55 6.01 (0.11) 37 29 30 31 1.72 (0.63) Vitamin A fortified margarine554341556.01(0.11)372930311.72(0.63) Cod liver oil 1 3 2 2 0.98 (0.81) 1 1 1 1 0.01 (1.00) Cod liver oil13220.98(0.81)11110.01(1.00) Fortified cooking oil 96 95 98 89 7.62 (0.054) 85 90 92 85 3.19 (0.36) Fortified cooking oil969598897.62(0.054)859092853.19(0.36) Foods or sauce cooked in or             Foods or sauce cooked in or fried with oil 97 99 100 97 3.68 (0.30) 84 92 96 93 8.02 (0.046) fried with oil9799100973.68(0.30)849296938.02(0.046) Other fortified foods             Other fortified foods Packaged fortified foods such as             Packaged fortified foods such as Cerelac etc. 25 20 14 21 3.97 (0.27) 15 12 13 12 0.37 (0.95) Cerelac etc.252014213.97(0.27)151213120.37(0.95) Multivitamin pills 4 9 7 10 2.88 (0.41) 1 3 2 7 5.97 (0.11) Multivitamin pills497102.88(0.41)13275.97(0.11) Notes:             Notes:  "},{"text":"Table 14 : OFSP consumption frequency of young children by education level of respondent by intervention group (% within education group)   Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Control Group 1Group 2Group 3Control OFSP 3+ days last week     OFSP 3+ days last week Lower education level 1 6.4 11.4 8.5 0.0 Lower education level 16.411.48.50.0 Higher education level 2 26.1 7.7 17.9 0.0 Higher education level 226.17.717.90.0 F (Pearson's chi-square) 6.67 0.38 1.70  F (Pearson's chi-square)6.670.381.70 p-value 0.010 0.539 0.192  p-value0.0100.5390.192 OFSP 1+ days last week     OFSP 1+ days last week Lower education level 1 51.1 34.1 34.0 2.6 Lower education level 151.134.134.02.6 Higher education level 2 54.3 34.6 43.6 3.8 Higher education level 254.334.643.63.8 F (Pearson's chi-square) 0.10 0.003 0.82 0.10 F (Pearson's chi-square)0.100.0030.820.10 p-value 0.751 0.957 0.365 0.747 p-value0.7510.9570.3650.747  "},{"text":" Maria has a child of 1 year of age. She makes sure the child eats breakfast, lunch and dinner each day and also gives her child a snack in the morning and in the afternoon. Her mother-in-law says she is spoiling the child and wasting her time -that the child just needs 2 big meals a day as it is still breastfeeding. How much do you agree with Maria's mother-in-law? While opening a workshop on health in Kampala last year, one LC111 chairman told the audience that some children in Uganda are becoming blind because they are not eating certain foods such as eggs, nakati, paw paws and pumpkins. How much do you agree with this? Give your .10 7. 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.20 7.24 8.3 8.8 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.25 8.4 8.9 7.21 7.26 7.27 8.5 8.10 7.22 8. 8.1 7.23 8.6 8.11 8.2 8.12 8.7 If you have heard about it, can you name 3 foods you can buy from the market, supermarket or shop that you know to have been fortified with vitamin A? CHILD HEALTH AND FEEDING KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES (w.r.t. index child) Codes: 1. No correct food identified 2. One correct food identified 3. At least two correct foods identified 1. Father 2. Mother 3. Housemaid 4. Grandmother Who decides what foods to prepare for (index child)? 5. Other specify 1. Father 2. Mother 3. Housemaid Who usually prepares (cooks and serves) food or drinks for the (index child) in the 4. Grandmother 12. 72 months morning (breakfast)? 5. Neighbour 6. Other specify 1. Father 2. Mother 3. Housemaid 4. Grandmother 5. Neighbour Who usually prepares (cook and serve) food or drinks for the (index child) in the afternoon (lunch)? days did you prepare 'kitobero' for your child? 2. Once 3. 2-3 times 4. More than four times Codes: 1 = if reason applies, 0 = reason does not apply 1. I do not know how to prepare it 2. I can't get the ingredients If you did not prepare kitobero for the child in the last seven days, please give reasons why. If any omissions, what are the reasons for them? 1. Inaccessibility to hospital 1. I do not agree There is an argument that consuming 1. I do not agree 2. Mother negative to vitamin A cap 2. I somewhat agree large quantities of milk has something 2. I somewhat agree 3. Father negative 3. I agree to do with the Karimojong and 3. I agree 4. Both parents negative 4. I strongly agree Bahiima being taller than the Baganda 4. I strongly agree 5. Parent confident of child feeding with respect to 5. I do not know or Basoga. How much do you agree 5. I do not know vitamin A with this statement? Give your 6. Taken but not ticked 7. Other (specify) reasons Reasons Reasons reasons 3. It takes too much time to prepare 6. Other specify 1. Father 2. Mother 3. Housemaid 4. Grandmother 5. Neighbour Who usually prepares (cook and serve) food or drinks for the (index child) in the evening (supper)? 6. Other specify For lunch, Is food served to (index child) prepared separately or taken from the family meal? 1. Prepared separately 2. Taken from family meal For dinner or supper, is food served to (index child) prepared separately or taken from the family meal? 1. Prepared separately 2. Taken from family meal FOOD/DRINK 1. 2. 3. 4. What, if any, are the foods and drinks served to (index child) that are normally prepared separately? 5. If the food comes from the family meal: Does the child eat from his/her own plate? 1. Yes 2. No On average, how many main meals (solid or semi-solid food or porridge) does (index child) eat in a day? On average, how many times per day type in between the main meals? Reasons 11. 66 months does the child eat snack food of any 4. What I give is enough for the child 5. No particular reason Codes: 1 = yes; 0 = No 1. Day one How comprehensive is the vaccination 1. I do not agree 1. I do not agree At the same workshop, a lady said schedule (completeness of the 2. I somewhat agree 2. I somewhat agree that it is because these foods and vaccination schedule)? 3. I agree 3. I agree others like carrots and orange-fleshed 6. Other (specify) 1 st ingredient 2 nd ingredient 3 rd ingredient 1 2 3 If you have prepared kitobero in the last seven days or did not but know how to prepare it, can you list ingredients for three different types of kitobero? 4. I strongly agree 4. I strongly agree sweet potatoes contain vitamin A 2. 6 weeks 5. I do not know 5. I do not know which is important for eyesight and 3. 10 weeks 4. 6 months child health. She said many families in Reasons Kampala cannot get these foods and so should make sure that their Reasons 5. 9 months Does the index child sleep under a mosquito net? (Interviewer note: politely request to see the net) children are given vitamin A capsule 1. Yes (verified) supplements every 6 months. How 2. Yes (not verified) 3. No 1. Yes 2. No 1. I do not agree 2. I somewhat agree much do you agree with this? Give A lady called Nambi in Entebbe took your reason. her child for immunisation. Two weeks Some people use cloth to filter tap water to make it clean for children to drink, do you think doing this make the water safe for drinking? Give your reasons. Reason: 3. I agree 4. I strongly agree 5. I do not know later, the child developed a fever and 1. I do not agree Some parents in Kampala have died. Nambi feels strongly that the 2. I somewhat agree refused to grow orange-fleshed sweet child died because of the 3. I agree potatoes believing it is dangerous to immunization. 4. I strongly agree health. How much do you agree with 1. No correct combination listed 2. One correct combination listed How much do you agree with Nambi's 5. I do not know this? Give your reason. Reasons 3. Two correct combinations listed 4. Three correct combinations listed Does the index child have an immunisation card? ATTITUDE TOWARDS NUTRITION, VITAMIN A CAPSULES, IMMUNISATION AND USE OF MOSQUITO NETS CODE 4 th ingredient 1. I do not agree Some people believe that regular advice to her neighbours not to take their child for immunisation? Reasons 1. Yes 2. No Codes: 1 = yes; 2 = No 99. Not applicable Observed Reported 1. 6 months 2. 12 months 3. 18 months 4. 24 months 5. 30 months 6. 36 months 7. 42 months 8. 48 months 9. 54 months 10. 60 months How comprehensive are the vitamin A capsule supplementation schedules 2. I somewhat agree 3. I agree 4. I strongly agree 5. I do not know consumption of green vegetables like ddoodo, nakati, and fruits like ripe mangoes, has helped many children in rural areas to suffer less from measles, coughs, and diarrhea compared to those in Kampala who do not get enough of these foods. How Reasons 1. I do not agree 2. I somewhat agree 3. I agree 4. I strongly agree 5. I do not know 1. I do not agree When Jane's baby was 2 months old, Some health organisations want the 2. I somewhat agree she would give him cow's milk in government to make it a punishable 3. I agree addition to her breast milk. How much offence for parents to refuse to allow 4. I strongly agree do you agree with this? Give your their children to be immunised. How 5. I do not know reason much do you agree with this? Give Reasons reasons much do you agree with this statement? Give your reasons 1. I do not agree 2. I somewhat agree 3. I agree 4. I strongly agree 5. I do not know 1. I do not agree Some mothers have refused to use Reasons 2. I somewhat agree Insecticide-treated mosquito nets Some politicians believe that although milk is expensive, all children must get it. How much do you agree with this with this? Give your reason. Reasons 5. I do not know of Africans. How much do you agree statement? Give your reasons 1. I do not agree 2. I somewhat agree 3. I agree 4. I strongly agree 3. I agree believing them to be dangerous to Some radio presenters have been 4. I strongly agree children sleeping under them. How telling people that giving children 5. I do not know much do you agree with this? Give vitamin A capsules is a grand plan by the Bazungu to reduce the population your reason. .10 7. 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.20 7.24 8.3 8.8 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.25 8.4 8.9 7.21 7.26 7.27 8.5 8.10 7.22 8. 8.1 7.23 8.6 8.11 8.2 8.12 8.7If you have heard about it, can you name 3 foods you can buy from the market, supermarket or shop that you know to have been fortified with vitamin A? CHILD HEALTH AND FEEDING KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES (w.r.t. index child) Codes: 1. No correct food identified 2. One correct food identified 3. At least two correct foods identified 1. Father 2. Mother 3. Housemaid 4. Grandmother Who decides what foods to prepare for (index child)? 5. Other specify 1. Father 2. Mother 3. Housemaid Who usually prepares (cooks and serves) food or drinks for the (index child) in the 4. Grandmother 12. 72 months morning (breakfast)? 5. Neighbour 6. Other specify 1. Father 2. Mother 3. Housemaid 4. Grandmother 5. Neighbour Who usually prepares (cook and serve) food or drinks for the (index child) in the afternoon (lunch)? days did you prepare 'kitobero' for your child? 2. Once 3. 2-3 times 4. More than four times Codes: 1 = if reason applies, 0 = reason does not apply 1. I do not know how to prepare it 2. I can't get the ingredients If you did not prepare kitobero for the child in the last seven days, please give reasons why. If any omissions, what are the reasons for them? 1. Inaccessibility to hospital 1. I do not agree There is an argument that consuming 1. I do not agree 2. Mother negative to vitamin A cap 2. I somewhat agree large quantities of milk has something 2. I somewhat agree 3. Father negative 3. I agree to do with the Karimojong and 3. I agree 4. Both parents negative 4. I strongly agree Bahiima being taller than the Baganda 4. I strongly agree 5. Parent confident of child feeding with respect to 5. I do not know or Basoga. How much do you agree 5. I do not know vitamin A with this statement? Give your 6. Taken but not ticked 7. Other (specify) reasons Reasons Reasons reasons 3. It takes too much time to prepare 6. Other specify 1. Father 2. Mother 3. Housemaid 4. Grandmother 5. Neighbour Who usually prepares (cook and serve) food or drinks for the (index child) in the evening (supper)? 6. Other specify For lunch, Is food served to (index child) prepared separately or taken from the family meal? 1. Prepared separately 2. Taken from family meal For dinner or supper, is food served to (index child) prepared separately or taken from the family meal? 1. Prepared separately 2. Taken from family meal FOOD/DRINK 1. 2. 3. 4. What, if any, are the foods and drinks served to (index child) that are normally prepared separately? 5. If the food comes from the family meal: Does the child eat from his/her own plate? 1. Yes 2. No On average, how many main meals (solid or semi-solid food or porridge) does (index child) eat in a day? On average, how many times per day type in between the main meals? Reasons 11. 66 months does the child eat snack food of any 4. What I give is enough for the child 5. No particular reason Codes: 1 = yes; 0 = No 1. Day one How comprehensive is the vaccination 1. I do not agree 1. I do not agree At the same workshop, a lady said schedule (completeness of the 2. I somewhat agree 2. I somewhat agree that it is because these foods and vaccination schedule)? 3. I agree 3. I agree others like carrots and orange-fleshed 6. Other (specify) 1 st ingredient 2 nd ingredient 3 rd ingredient 1 2 3 If you have prepared kitobero in the last seven days or did not but know how to prepare it, can you list ingredients for three different types of kitobero? 4. I strongly agree 4. I strongly agree sweet potatoes contain vitamin A 2. 6 weeks 5. I do not know 5. I do not know which is important for eyesight and 3. 10 weeks 4. 6 months child health. She said many families in Reasons Kampala cannot get these foods and so should make sure that their Reasons 5. 9 months Does the index child sleep under a mosquito net? (Interviewer note: politely request to see the net) children are given vitamin A capsule 1. Yes (verified) supplements every 6 months. How 2. Yes (not verified) 3. No 1. Yes 2. No 1. I do not agree 2. I somewhat agree much do you agree with this? Give A lady called Nambi in Entebbe took your reason. her child for immunisation. Two weeks Some people use cloth to filter tap water to make it clean for children to drink, do you think doing this make the water safe for drinking? Give your reasons. Reason: 3. I agree 4. I strongly agree 5. I do not know later, the child developed a fever and 1. I do not agree Some parents in Kampala have died. Nambi feels strongly that the 2. I somewhat agree refused to grow orange-fleshed sweet child died because of the 3. I agree potatoes believing it is dangerous to immunization. 4. I strongly agree health. How much do you agree with 1. No correct combination listed 2. One correct combination listed How much do you agree with Nambi's 5. I do not know this? Give your reason. Reasons 3. Two correct combinations listed 4. Three correct combinations listed Does the index child have an immunisation card? ATTITUDE TOWARDS NUTRITION, VITAMIN A CAPSULES, IMMUNISATION AND USE OF MOSQUITO NETS CODE 4 th ingredient 1. I do not agree Some people believe that regular advice to her neighbours not to take their child for immunisation? Reasons 1. Yes 2. No Codes: 1 = yes; 2 = No 99. Not applicable Observed Reported 1. 6 months 2. 12 months 3. 18 months 4. 24 months 5. 30 months 6. 36 months 7. 42 months 8. 48 months 9. 54 months 10. 60 months How comprehensive are the vitamin A capsule supplementation schedules 2. I somewhat agree 3. I agree 4. I strongly agree 5. I do not know consumption of green vegetables like ddoodo, nakati, and fruits like ripe mangoes, has helped many children in rural areas to suffer less from measles, coughs, and diarrhea compared to those in Kampala who do not get enough of these foods. How Reasons 1. I do not agree 2. I somewhat agree 3. I agree 4. I strongly agree 5. I do not know 1. I do not agree When Jane's baby was 2 months old, Some health organisations want the 2. I somewhat agree she would give him cow's milk in government to make it a punishable 3. I agree addition to her breast milk. How much offence for parents to refuse to allow 4. I strongly agree do you agree with this? Give your their children to be immunised. How 5. I do not know reason much do you agree with this? Give Reasons reasons much do you agree with this statement? Give your reasons 1. I do not agree 2. I somewhat agree 3. I agree 4. I strongly agree 5. I do not know 1. I do not agree Some mothers have refused to use Reasons 2. I somewhat agree Insecticide-treated mosquito nets Some politicians believe that although milk is expensive, all children must get it. How much do you agree with this with this? Give your reason. Reasons 5. I do not know of Africans. How much do you agree statement? Give your reasons 1. I do not agree 2. I somewhat agree 3. I agree 4. I strongly agree 3. I agree believing them to be dangerous to Some radio presenters have been 4. I strongly agree children sleeping under them. How telling people that giving children 5. I do not know much do you agree with this? Give vitamin A capsules is a grand plan by the Bazungu to reduce the population your reason.  "}],"sieverID":"614f58a2-158c-4778-91a2-6b60124fbe74","abstract":"CIP and Urban Harvest publications contribute important research for development information to the public arena. Readers are encouraged to quote or reproduce material from them in their own publications. As copyright holder CIP requests acknowledgement, and a copy of the publication where the citation or material appears. Please send a copy to the Communication and Public Awareness Department at the address below. Published by the International Potato Center (CIP), on behalf of Urban Harvest CIP contributes to the CGIAR mission through scientific research and related activities on potato, sweetpotato, and other root and tuber crops, and on the management of natural resources in the Andes and the other mountain areas. Between 1999 and 2009 CIP convened Urban Harvest, the CGIAR system-wide initiative on urban and peri-urban agriculture."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0956bee1c526f4f280a8127e8662e152","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3415cce6-c525-42a9-84cf-e9b397ea0196/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Regional Expert Consultation on Underutilized Crops for Food and Nutritional Security in Asia and the Pacific","keywords":["Biofortification","Iron beans","Iron pearl millet","Orange sweet potato","Vitamin A cassava"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":336,"text":"Mineral and vitamin deficiencies are a serious public health problem in Asia and Africa. Two billion people in the world suffer from various forms of malnutrition (FAO, 2011). Malnutrition is an underlying cause of death of 2.6 million children each year -a third of child deaths globally (IFAD/FAO/WFP, 2011; Black et al., 2008). In general, dietary quality is poor, with high dependence on cereal and root staples for the bulk of dietary energy consumption, particularly among the poor (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO, 2015). Low incomes and high prices for non-staple foods such as vegetables, fruits, pulses, and animal products are the major constraints to improved dietary quality. Non-staple foods are often dense in vitamin and minerals, and bioavailability is particularly high for animal products, yet animal products are the most expensive source of dietary energy. The poor eat large quantities of food staples to acquire dietary energy. The health consequences of poor dietary quality are well known-high morbidity and infant mortality rates, compromised cognitive development for children, stunting and low economic productivity. Eating habits of the people depends on many factors, including cultural, geographical, environmental, and seasonal factors. One of the key underlying causes leading to poor dietary quality is that current food systems do not provide minerals and vitamins in sufficient quantities at affordable prices for the poor. Poverty is a major factor that limits intake of adequate, nutritious food, which must be available, accessible, and affordable to the poor. Therefore, Mr Binu cherian is the Country Manager in India for HarvestPlus of CGIAR that develops and deploys biofortified nutritious food staple crops to reduce hidden hunger among malnourished populations in Asia, Africa and Latin America. He holds a Master's degree in Agriculture and Management. He has successfully developed partnerships platforms with public and private institutions to scale biofortified crops to reach consumers. He has over 18 years experience in managing and building sustainable and cost-effective supply chain linkages from farm to gate and commercialization of projects in different geographies."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"long-term agricultural investments and policies to improve the availability and affordability of more nutritious foods, such as biofortification, must be made an important part of the solution."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"Biofortification is the process of breeding nutrients into staple food crops; it is a cost-effective and sustainable agricultural investment that can help to reduce mineral and vitamin deficiencies, especially in the diets of the rural poor. Research in plant breeding and human nutrition, has been largely successful and continues to generate new evidences. One of the critical task is to scale up the supply and demand of biofortified crops and communicate the benefits that are now available to farmers, particularly by impoverished and malnourished rural households, and to embed biofortification as a mainstream approach in the core plant breeding programmes."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"Fortification is particularly effective for urban consumers, who purchase foods that have been commercially processed and fortified. It is less suitable for reaching rural consumers who often do not have access to or the incomes to afford commercially produced foods."}]},{"head":"Justification for Biofortification","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Biofortification provides a comparatively cost-effective, sustainable, and long-term means of delivering vitamins and micronutrients to households that might otherwise not have access to, or that cannot afford to have, a fully balanced diet. No single intervention will solve the problem of micronutrient deficiency, but biofortification complements existing interventions (discussed above) to provide micronutrients to the most vulnerable people in a comparatively inexpensive, cost-effective, and sustainable manner (Bouis, 1999;Nestel et al., 2006;Hotz and McClafferty, 2007;Pfeiffer and McClafferty, 2007;Qaim et al., 2007;Meenakshi et al., 2010)."},{"index":2,"size":207,"text":"Biofortification provides a feasible means of reaching malnourished populations who may have limited access to diverse diets, supplements, and commercially fortified foods. The strategy seeks to put the micronutrient-dense trait (such as for zinc, iron or vitamin A) in basic staple food crops that are being grown and consumed by people in developing countries and that have farmers' preferred agronomic traits, such as high yield. In contrast to complementary interventions, such as fortification and supplementation that begin in urban centers, biofortified crops reach consumers in rural areas first, since most rural farming households consume what they grow. As farmers produce and market surplus biofortified staple food crops, the intervention reaches urban areas. There are several advantages of growing biofortified crops: z Unlike the continual financial outlays required for supplementation and commercial fortification programmes, a one-time investment in plant breeding can yield micronutrient rich planting materials for farmers to grow for years to come. z Biofortified varieties bred for one country can be evaluated for performance and adaption to other countries, thereby potentially multiplying the benefits of the initial investment. As seed producers incorporate biofortified crops into their product lines, biofortification becomes more sustainable over time, if regulatory mechanisms are in place to maintain standards and related claims."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"z While recurrent expenditures are required for monitoring and maintaining these traits in crops, these are low compared to the cost of the initial development of the nutritionally improved crops. Once established, the cost of maintaining biofortified traits represents a small portion of ongoing global investment in crop improvement."}]},{"head":"status on the crop Development of Biofortified staple Food crops under HarvestPlus Programmes","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"There are two common approaches to biofortification, agronomic and conventional breeding. Early in the conceptual development of the HarvestPlus project, a working group of nutritionists and plant breeders established nutritional breeding targets. Based on food consumption patterns of target populations, HarvestPlus estimated nutrient losses during storage and processing, and nutrient bioavailability (Hotz and McClafferty, 2007). Breeding targets for biofortified crops designed to meet the specific dietary needs and consumption patterns of women and children. Targets were set such that for preschool children (4-6 years old) and for non-pregnant, non-lactating women of reproductive age."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Iron-biofortified beans and iron biofortified pearl millet would provide approximately 60 per cent of the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) for iron. Provitamin A biofortified cassava and sweet potato would provide at least 50% of provitamin A."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Originally, established using limited data on consumption patterns, as well as nutrient stability and retention in the biofortified crops (Bouis et al., 2011), the breeding targets were refined to meet the target EARs as more data became available (Tables 1and 2). Major steps involved in the biofortification process are:"},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"z"},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"The HarvestPlus approach to breeding first assesses whether sufficient genetic variation exists in elite or germplasm bank materials for a particular trait of interest."},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"z Plant breeders screen existing crop varieties and accessions in global germplasm banks, including both adapted and non-adapted material such as landraces and wild relatives."},{"index":7,"size":56,"text":"z Initial research indicated that selection of lines with diverse vitamin and mineral profiles could be exploited for genetic improvement (Beebe et al., 2000;Monasterio and Graham. 2002;Pfeiffer and McClafferty, 2007;Jiang et al., 2008;Menkir, 2008;Menkir et al., 2008;Gomez-Becerra et al., 2010a;Talukder et al., 2010;Velu et al., 2011;Ashok Kumar et al., 2012;Dwivedi et al., 2012;Fageria et al., 2012)."},{"index":8,"size":46,"text":"z When lines with these traits are identified, they are used in early-stage product development and parent building. Intermediate stage product development takes place at CGIAR centers, where breeding materials with improved nutrient content and high agronomic performance, as well as preferred consumer qualities are developed."},{"index":9,"size":42,"text":"z Final product development takes place at both CGIAR centers and National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS). National research partners may carry out further crosses with locally adapted materials to develop final products that meet specific traits required by local producers and consumers."},{"index":10,"size":1,"text":"z"},{"index":11,"size":58,"text":"After promising high yielding, high-nutrient lines emerge, they are tested across a wide range of environments side-by-side with locally preferred varieties. Participatory variety selection (PVS) involves farmers and/or consumers who compare crop and food preparation performance to select the preferred materials. The best-performing lines are then submitted to national performance trials conducted by governmental institutions prior to release."},{"index":12,"size":1,"text":"z"},{"index":13,"size":28,"text":"The breeding process takes six to ten years to complete. As of 2017, HarvestPlus partners have released more than 158 biofortified varieties of 10 crops in 26 countries."},{"index":14,"size":442,"text":"HarvestPlus along with the partners has used two strategies to shorten the time to market for biofortified crops: (i) Identifying adapted varieties with significant micronutrient content for release and/ or dissemination as \"fast-track\" varieties; and (ii) while varieties with target micronutrient content are still under development, deploying multi-location regional trials across a wide range of countries and sites to accelerate release processes by increasing available performance data of elite breeding materials. Regional trials also include already released biofortified varieties and generate data on their regional performance. By substituting temporal-by-spatial environmental variation in large-scale regional genotype-by-environment (GxE) testing, testing steps can be eliminated and also time to market shortened by one to two years. Provitamin A yellow cassava is a dietary staple in much of tropical Africa, and grows well in poor soils with limited labour requirements. Screening of cassava accessions from the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) germplasm collection found a range of 0-19 ppm of provitamin A in existing cassava varieties, exceeding the breeding target of 15 ppm (Chavez et al., 2005;Ceballos et al., 2012). Studies on GxE interaction for carotenoid content did not find significant changes in the relative ranking of genotypes, and found high (>0.6) heritability of carotenoid content in cassava roots (Ssemakula and Dixon, 2007;Ssemakula et al., 2007;Morillo et al., 2012;Njoku et al., 2015). Rapid-cycling recurrent selection was used to shorten the normal breeding cycle from eight years to two to three years for high carotenoid content (Ceballos et al., 2013). Breeding programmes for provitamin A cassava are based at CIAT and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA). CIAT generates high-provitamin A sources via rapid cycling in pre-breeding and provides in vitro clones and seed populations to IITA and the national research programmes in two target countries, Nigeria and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), for local adaptive breeding. These national research programmes are the Nigerian National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI) and the Institute National pour l'Etude et la Recherche Agronomiques (INERA) in the DRC. Cassava varieties that best meet farmer-preferred traits include high yield, early maturity, tolerance to pests and diseases, dry matter content, poundability, mealiness, sweetness, ease of peeling, marketability, and in-ground storage durability (Njoku et al., 2015). Genotype-by-environment (GxE) testing is used to verify that varieties proposed for release are widely adapted and stable across different environments (Maroya et al., 2012). Investments in marker-assisted selection have identified phytoene synthase 2 (PSY2) as one of the major alleles for provitamin A accumulation in cassava roots, and markers are beginning to be tested as a breeding tool, in addition to the ongoing phenotypic selection (Welsch et al., 2010;Ferguson et al., 2011;Rabbi et al., 2014)."}]},{"head":"status of crop Development Progress to Date","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":237,"text":"Iron bean (common bean) is the most common food legume in Latin America and eastern and southern Africa. Bush beans are cultivated in low to mid-altitudes and climbing beans in mid-to highaltitude areas. Initial screening found ranges of 30-110 ppm iron (and 25-60 ppm zinc) in cultivated and wild beans from the germplasm collection at CIAT, exceeding the target level of 94 ppm for iron. The highest levels were found in wild and weedy germplasm (Guzman-Maldonado et al., 2000). High-iron genotypes were used to initiate crosses to combine the high-mineral trait with acceptable grain types and agronomic characteristics. Grain mineral content is influenced by environmental factors such as soil organic matter and precipitation (Beebe, 2012;Rai et al., 2014a). Genotype-byenvironment (GxE) testing is, therefore, used to identify materials with stable mineral accumulation across sites and generations (Blair et al., 2010). Biofortified lines are developed by the breeding programme at CIAT and are being evaluated for local adaptation by national programmes in several East and Southern African countries as well as in South and Central America. The lines are at varying stages in the breeding pipelines in each of these countries. Breeding programmes in African target countries Rwanda (Rwanda Agriculture Board-RAB) and the DRC (L'Institut National pour l'Etude et la Recherche Agronomique-INERA) have developed crosses locally and are assuming a greater portion of the selection work. A full breeding pipeline consists of both locally developed germplasm and CIAT introductions."},{"index":2,"size":206,"text":"In Rwanda, four first-wave, fast-track varieties (two bush, two climber) were released in 2010 and five second-wave climbing bean varieties in 2012. In the DRC, five first-waves, fast-track varieties (three bush, two climber) were identified for release and dissemination in 2011 and five second-wave varieties (three bush, two climber) in 2013. Five varieties (two climbers, three bush) were released in Uganda in 2016. Released bean varieties contain about 60 per cent of the iron target level (+44 ppm more iron) in the first wave, 80 per cent in the second wave, and 100 per cent in the third wave. In addition, they are resistant to major pests and diseases have good yield and farmer preferred end-use quality, and different grain colors and sizes that cover a range of major market classes. New climber and bush bean lines with 90-100 per cent target increment for iron are in advanced line validation trials to identify agronomically competitive third-wave varieties. Current breeding efforts focus on developing climate-smart iron beans that are high iron, higher yielding, and tolerant to drought and heat. Additional crop improvement research is underway to combine a low physic acid (LPA) mutation with the iron trait, which increases the bioavailability of iron when beans are consumed."},{"index":3,"size":169,"text":"Iron Pearl Millet (pearl millet) breeding programme is based at the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in India. Initial screening of germplasm accessions found ranges of 30-76 ppm iron (and 25-65 ppm zinc) in pearl millet, nearly reaching the full breeding target of 77 ppm (that is, an increment of +30 ppm additional grain iron compared to 47 ppm on average in non-biofortified germplasm). High-iron genotypes were selected to initiate crosses (Velu et al., 2007;Gupta et al., 2009). High correlation between iron and zinc content indicated good prospects for simultaneous selection for the two micronutrients (Velu et al., 2008 a;b;Rai et al., 2013). Both micronutrients are largely under additive genetic control, implying that iron hybrids will require both parental lines to have high iron density (Govindaraj and Rai, 2016;Govindaraj et al., 2016;Velu et al., 2011). Genotype-by-environment (GxE) testing was used to evaluate the most promising local germplasm and potential parents and verify that mineral accumulation was stable across sites and generations (Rai et al., 2012)."},{"index":4,"size":113,"text":"The The success of pearl millet biofortification in India suggests that similar achievements could be realized for Western and Central Africa (WCA). The WCA region has the largest area under millets in Africa, of which more than 90 per cent is pearl millet. Studies of pearl millet landraces and other locally adapted materials from Niger and Sudan showed promising ranges of mineral density (Bashir et al., 2014 a, b;Pucher et al., 2014). The most promising iron pearl millet OPVs are currently being tested on-farm at more than 30 locations across five countries in WCA. Two OPV varieties (GB8735 and ICTP8203) have been selected as candidates for fast tracking in Niger, Ghana and Senegal."}]},{"head":"Delivery strategies and results to Date","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Vitamin A cassava in Nigeria"},{"index":2,"size":217,"text":"Delivery may be conceptualized and discussed as three broad sets of activities, which to some extent are interdependent and must be implemented simultaneously: (i) cassava stem multiplication and extension to farmers, (ii) creating and building consumer demand, and (iii) connecting supply and demand through markets. The foundation of the successful introduction of yellow cassava in the Nigerian food system and its ultimate sustainability is consumer demand. However, a certain investment and momentum in the supply chain must be established initially before investing heavily in building consumer demand. Scaling up the supply of cassava tubers stem multiplication HarvestPlus employs two major channels (public and commercial) in the multiplication of vitamin A cassava in Nigeria. Generally, public multiplication programmes funded by the government, development agencies, farmer and community-based associations have social responsibilities aimed at alleviating poverty and food security gaps. Commercial multiplication programmes, funded by private investors, aim at making profit. The former channel ensures horizontal access, where every farmer can access a small quantity of stems for planting. While the latter is vertical and demand-driven, it ensures sufficient seed-stem supply for larger-scale production. Starting with the distribution of small free stem packs allows farmers to test the new biofortified varieties with minimal risk, and they can later link to commercial seed farms to purchase stems in larger quantities."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"In 2011, the biofortification crop delivery programme started with stem multiplication in ten local government areas (LGA) in each of the following four states; Oyo in the West, Imo in the East, Akwa Ibom in the South and Benue in the North. In 2012, the programme expanded to six villages in each"},{"index":4,"size":66,"text":"LGA making a total of 60 villages per state and 240 villages in the four targeted states. The programme rolled out to 18 more states between 2013 and 2015, thus covering over 60 per cent of all the states in the country and over 80 per cent of the major cassava producing states even though the level of coverage differs from one state to the other."},{"index":5,"size":88,"text":"Marketing activities along the value chain are necessary to ensure that effective demand can pull the supplies of yellow cassava from rural production to rural and urban markets. Available data from vitamin A cassava investors suggest that 'gari' is the most traded vitamin A cassava product, accounting for 58 per cent of total sales in 2015. 'Fufu' accounted for 30 per cent of the total sales, followed by flour (12%), resulting from the high demand for vitamin A cassava-based snacks and confectioneries like queen cake, combo-bits, and combo-strips."},{"index":6,"size":72,"text":"Creating demand consumer marketing using print, television, and radio media were used extensively to communicate the importance of vitamin A cassava to consumers to create demand, and to investors to increase product supply. Radio and television reach jingles were developed and translated into five local languages for creating awareness on radio and television prior to stem distribution. Nutritious Food Fair (NFF) creates awareness and builds linkages among farmers, processors, marketers and consumers."},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"In 2016, four million people were growing and consuming vitamin A cassava."}]},{"head":"Iron Beans in rwanda","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"In Rwanda, the crop delivery work began in 2011, following the first biofortified bean varietal releases in 2010. According to monitoring data, HarvestPlus and its partners had delivered close to 3,000 metric tons of iron bean seed to over 800,000 farming households by the end of 2015. Delivery may be conceptualized and discussed as three broad sets of interdependent activities: (i) bean seed multiplication and delivery to farmers; (ii) creating and building consumer demand; and (iii) connecting supply and demand through markets. The foundation for successful introduction of iron beans in the Rwanda food system and, ultimately for its sustainability, is consumer demand. However, investment in strengthening the supply chain must be established prior to heavy investment in generating consumer demand. This section presents the delivery activities in Rwanda, followed by additional experiences from DRC."},{"index":2,"size":167,"text":"To facilitate the production of iron bean seed, HarvestPlus worked closely with RAB, contracting individual commercial farmers, farmer-based cooperatives, and small seed companies to multiply biofortified varieties. To increase available seed for the 2015 planting season and beyond, HarvestPlus collaborated with established local and regional seed companies for seed multiplication, with RAB certifying the biofortified seed. These partners include SeedCo, Kenya Seed Company, Rwanda Improved Seed Company (RISCO), and WinWin Agritec. In Rwanda, the biofortification crop delivery programme started in 2011 in four districts, Nyagatare, Kirehe, Ngoma and Musanze. In 2012, the programme rolled out to 13 additional districts and now operates throughout the country. Delivery of iron beans in Rwanda initially occurred through various platforms and mechanisms, including agro-dealers, farmer-based cooperatives, direct marketing in local markets, and a payback system. In direct marketing, marketing agents sold iron bean seed at local markets, reaching a large number of farmers with relatively small quantities of seed. This allowed farmers to try the varieties before committing to greater production."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"Agro-dealers sold iron bean seeds directly to farmers and had the advantage of being close to farmers throughout the year."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"As biofortified beans gained traction in the market, seed companies and agro-dealers became increasingly interested in iron beans in their product lines. From 2015 on, HarvestPlus has been working closely with the private sector to scale up production and delivery of iron bean seeds."},{"index":5,"size":115,"text":"There is a secondary effort to brand biofortified beans through the value chain, which requires educating farmers and consumers about the specific characteristics-including shape, color, and size -that allow for the identification of biofortified varieties. Radio talk shows increase awareness among farmers and general consumers about iron bean production, seed availability, and nutritional benefits. A media-based awareness campaign uses entertainment to reach the public and consumers of iron beans with nutritional messages. This campaign has been conducted in partnership with locally renowned musicians and journalists and included a music video and outreach tour touting the benefits of growing and consuming iron beans in Rwanda. In 2016, two million people were growing and consuming iron beans."}]},{"head":"Orange sweet Potato in Uganda","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Research conducted in Mozambique and Uganda that provided solid evidence (collected from [2002][2003][2004][2005][2006][2007][2008][2009]) that an integrated agriculture-nutrition-marketing intervention using Orange sweet potato (OSP) as a key entry point could significantly and positively impact on young child vitamin A intakes."},{"index":2,"size":146,"text":"The three pillars of the integration are: (i) agriculture-with OSP providing a low cost, easy to grow bioavailable source of vitamin A; (ii) nutrition-both producers and consumers need to be informed of the nutritional value of OSP (demand creation campaigns) and change agents need to work with caregivers to ensure they have core, basic knowledge of good dietary and feeding practices and how to incorporate OSP effectively into the young child diet as well as their own; and (iii) marketingopportunities to commercialize OSP surplus stimulates OSP uptake and rates of permanent adoption. Managing the \"seed system\" based on vines that are easily shared among growers and hence, typically of limited interest to private sector seed companies, is critical to success. The five cases described below vary depending on whether the major outcomes are nutrition improvement (four of the cases) or cash generation (the Rwanda case study)."},{"index":3,"size":94,"text":"Integrated agriculture-nutrition-marketing: case study of Uganda (2011 to date). In Uganda, the goingto-scale dissemination strategy led by HarvestPlus has a three pronged approach integrating agriculture, nutrition and marketing. Principal target groups are children under five years of age and women of child-bearing age. This approach has involved establishing a self-sustaining seed system with trained vine multipliers, ensuring availability of vines to both smallholder farmers and other partners. Local laboratories propagate disease-free or \"clean\" pre-basic cuttings (planting material) and train multipliers receiving the cuttings on agronomy, post-harvest handling, pest and disease control, and vine conservation."},{"index":4,"size":114,"text":"Promotional activities, including community dramas, field days, and radio campaigns, have been conducted to increase the level of awareness of nutritional benefits of the crops, and thus increase demand and uptake by both government and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). An increasing number of NGOs (for example, World Vision, Save the Children, and Finnish Refugee Council) are purchasing the cuttings. In addition, farmers with surplus production are trained in post-harvest handling and value addition and linked to traders and markets. Commercial farmers are engaged to increase production of OSP and the volumes marketed. HarvestPlus also supports offseason production where possible to enable a reliable and robust supply to markets and institutions (such as schools and prisons)."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"In 2016, a total of 550,000 people were consuming OSP in Uganda"}]},{"head":"Iron Pearl Millet in India","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":221,"text":"An iron version of one of the most popular OPVs, ICTP 8203, was developed by ICRISAT, commercialized in 2012 with in partnership with Nirmal Seeds for Maharashtra, India. Due to its high iron content (exceeding 80% of the iron target increment) and wide adaptation, ICTP 8203-Fe was released and notified under the name \"Dhanashakti\" in 2014 for cultivation in all pearl millet-growing states of India (Rai et al., 2014a;b). Dhanashakti was also included in the Nutri-Farm Pilot Project, initiated by the Government of India, for addressing iron deficiency (Purushottam Singh and Uddeen, 2016). Nirmal Seeds Company initiated commercial production of Dhanashakti in 2012 and at the end of 2017, the variety has been marketed to more than 90,000 farmers, mostly in Maharashtra. From 2016 two public sector companies, Mahabeej and KSSC initiated sales and distribution of Dhanashakti in Maharashtra and Karnataka, respectively. The first high-iron and high-yielding hybrid, ICMH-1201, was developed by ICRISAT. Shakti Vardhak Seeds commercialized under its brand name Shakti-1201 since 2014 (Purushottam Singh and Uddeen 2016). Promotional activities were engaged with HarvestPlus partners like product demonstrations, mobile campaign, marketing collaterals with nutrition messaging, farmers meetings. In collaboration with external marketing agency, market research study was conducted to understand the consumer insights towards biofortified crops. At the end of 2017, 465,000 people were consuming iron pearl millet in India."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"conclusions"},{"index":3,"size":227,"text":"Agricultural investments and policies in Biofortification will not only improve the availability and affordability of more nutritious food, but also will help in placing the solution in the hands of farmers and the communities (Bouis, 2000). In the long-term, increasing the production of micronutrient-rich foods and improving dietary diversity will substantially reduce micronutrient deficiencies (Bouis et al., 2011). Biofortification provides a feasible means of reaching malnourished populations in relatively remote rural areas, delivering biofortified foods to people with limited access to commercially marketed fortified foods, which are more readily available in urban areas. Biofortification and commercial fortification, therefore, are highly complementary. The biofortification strategy seeks to take advantage of the consistent daily consumption of large amounts of food staples by households, including women and children, who are most vulnerable for micronutrient malnutrition. Biofortification in pearl millet can help in securing household nutrition security of the population, especially millions in the arid and semi-arid regions of the country that consume pearl millet in their daily diet. Favorable policies for linking it to the existing public food and nutrition programmes, price incentive for primary grain producers can help to trigger demand. Public private partnership (PPP) of value chain players will help to build foundation for scaling out biofortified crops to create long-term sustainable market. Biofortification is a cost-effective agriculture-based strategy for a sustainable solution for public health and nutrition."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"references Ashok Kumar A, BVS Reddy, B Ramaiah, KL Sahrawat and WH Pfeiffer (2012) Genetic variability and character association for grain iron and zinc contents in sorghum germplasm accessions and commercial cultivars. Eur. J. Plant Sci. Biotechnol. 6 (Special Issue 1): 66-70."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"table 1 . Information  and assumptions used to set revised target levels for micronutrient contents of biofortified and assumptions used to set revised target levels for micronutrient contents of biofortified primary staple food crops         primary staple food crops   rice (Polished) Wheat (Whole) Pearl Millet (Whole) Beans (Whole) Maize (Whole) cassava (Fresh-weight) sweet Potato (Fresh-weight) rice (Polished)Wheat (Whole)Pearl Millet(Whole)Beans (Whole)Maize (Whole)cassava(Fresh-weight)sweet Potato(Fresh-weight) Per Capita Adult Women (g/day) 420 260 220 200 290 940 400 Per CapitaAdult Women (g/day)420260220200290940400 Consumption Children 4-6 yr (g/day) 160 70 85 100 170 350 200 ConsumptionChildren 4-6 yr (g/day)1607085100170350200 Iron Additional % of EAR to achieve     >30    IronAdditional % of EAR to achieve>30  Total % of EAR to achieve     >70    Total % of EAR to achieve>70  EAR, non pregnant, non lactating women     1460    EAR, non pregnant, non lactating women1460  (µg/day)         (µg/day)  EAR, children 4-6 yr (µg/day)     500    EAR, children 4-6 yr (µg/day)500  Micronutrient retention after processing (%)   90 90    Micronutrient retention after processing (%)9090  Bioavailability (%)   7.5 7    Bioavailability (%)7.57  Baseline micronutrient content (µg/g)   47 50    Baseline micronutrient content (µg/g)4750  Additional content required (µg/g   +30 +44    Additional content required (µg/g+30+44  Final target content (µg/g)   77 94    Final target content (µg/g)7794 Zinc Additional % of EAR to achieve     >25    ZincAdditional % of EAR to achieve>25  Total % of EAR to achieve     >60    Total % of EAR to achieve>60  EAR, non pregnant, non lactating women     2960    EAR, non pregnant, non lactating women2960  (µg/day)         (µg/day)  EAR, children 4-6 yr (µg/day)     1390    EAR, children 4-6 yr (µg/day)1390  Micronutrient retention after processing (%) 90 95    90   Micronutrient retention after processing (%)909590  Bioavailability (%) 25 15    20   Bioavailability (%)251520  Baseline micronutrient content (µg/g) 16 25    25   Baseline micronutrient content (µg/g)162525  Additional content required (µg/g +12 +12    +12   Additional content required (µg/g+12+12+12  Final target content (µg/g) 28 37    37   Final target content (µg/g)283737 Provitamin A Additional % of EAR to achieve     >50    Provitamin A Additional % of EAR to achieve>50  Total % of EAR to Achieve     >50    Total % of EAR to Achieve>50  EAR, non pregnant, non lactating women     500    EAR, non pregnant, non lactating women500  (µg/day)         (µg/day)  EAR, children 4-6 yr (µg/day)     275    EAR, children 4-6 yr (µg/day)275  "},{"text":" Plant breeders have produced several OSP varieties with provitamin A content of 30-100 ppm, exceeding the target level of 32 ppm. The National Crops Resources Research Institute (NaCRRI), with the support of CIP, conducts breeding research in Uganda. As the provitamin A trait is mainstreamed in breeding populations, ongoing OSP breeding focuses on tolerance to biotic and abiotic stress while maintaining/enhancing provitamin A levels. In Uganda, a HarvestPlus focus country, HarvestPlus coordinates with NaCRRI and CIP to ensure a continuous flow of improved varieties. Two orange-fleshed landrace cultivars named ' Ejumula' and Ejumula' and 'SPK004' ('Kakamega'), with the full provitamin A target, were released in 2004, and two additional 'SPK004' ('Kakamega'), with the full provitamin A target, were released in 2004, and two additional varieties named 'Vita' (NASPOT 9 O) and 'Kabode' (NASPOT 10 O) were released in 2007. In 2013, two varieties named 'Vita' (NASPOT 9 O) and 'Kabode' (NASPOT 10 O) were released in 2007. In 2013, two new OSP cultivars (NASPOT 12 O and NASPOT 13 O) with wide adaptation, high root yield, and high dry new OSP cultivars (NASPOT 12 O and NASPOT 13 O) with wide adaptation, high root yield, and high dry matter content were released. Biofortified OSP varieties have been released in more than 15 countries matter content were released. Biofortified OSP varieties have been released in more than 15 countries across sub-Saharan Africa, and are being introduced in many parts of Asia (China, Bangladesh, and across sub-Saharan Africa, and are being introduced in many parts of Asia (China, Bangladesh, and  "},{"text":" breeding pipeline at ICRISAT initially included open-pollinated variety (OPV) development. However, since approximately 70 per cent of the pearl millet area in India is planted to hybrids, emphasis is now placed on hybrids and hybrid-parent development. The major focus of the breeding programme is to develop higher yielding, high-iron hybrids with stable yield and iron performance for the major pearl millet growing areas in India. Major traits include drought tolerance, resistance to downy mildew, and end-use quality traits. Pearl millet biofortification research at ICRISAT is carried out in alliance with HarvestPlus, the ICAR-All India Coordinated Pearl Millet Improvement Project, six State Agricultural Universities, more than 15 seed companies, and two state seed corporations. To ensure long-term sustainability, HarvestPlus engages seed companies in GxE testing of hybrids and inbred lines developed at ICRISAT, and encourage them to develop their own high iron hybrids for commercialization.  "}],"sieverID":"a235a370-4581-4e83-b787-f1b0307e961d","abstract":"Malnutrition is one of the biggest public health challenges of the century with about 2 billion people affected by it globally. Biofortification is the process of breeding micronutrients traits into staple food crops, which is bioavailable to make a positive measurable impact to the population that eats such staples on a daily basis. It is a cost-effective, sustainable strategy and complementary in nature to the existing market interventions. Iron pearl millet, iron beans, vitamin A cassava and orange sweet potato can contribute to increase household nutrition in the Asia and Africa. Over the years evidences gathered by partners in crop breeding, nutrition studies and delivery experiences will help to build the foundation for scaling out further to reach millions who need the most."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"096cbc7c257a77434d9c13577c81d54e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/97371b88-8281-4434-8ec1-63b699bf3d71/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"Subterranean Microbiome Affiliations of Plantain (Musa spp.) Under Diverse Agroecologies of Western and Central Africa","keywords":["Microbial diversity","Musa spp.","Agroecologies","Smallholder farmers","Metagenomics"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":186,"text":"Musa spp. (banana and plantain) are a key source of income and an essential commodity in international and local trade in many developing countries of South America, South-East Asia, and Africa. In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), banana and plantain are considered as major staple food crop supporting the livelihoods of millions of smallholder farmers. For instance, in 2018, 27% of the total global banana production occurred in SSA with most of it from small farms and backyard gardens [1]. Because plantain plants produce fruits throughout the year, they serve as an important food security crop and a source of income for 70 million people in the west and central parts of SSA. Considering the demographic projections, low plantain yields (4-10 t/ha/year depending on plantation density) and high demands accompanied with increased pressure of the human population are likely to worsen the future of food security in the region. The constant infestation by many pests and diseases cause severe damage to the crop resulting in low productivity [2,3]. Also, studies on the biotic and abiotic constraints revealed that humid tropics are the most favorable for plantain production [4,5]."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Given the potential of plantain as a source of food and income and its role in poverty alleviation, there is a need for policies and technologies that will stimulate its production and productivity in SSA. The development of the genetic variants through breeding approaches to overcome various abiotic and biotic constraints is a slow and complex process. In addition, controlling pests and diseases using synthetic chemicals, and under climatic variations, is difficult and out of the option for smallholder farmers due to associated costs. Therefore, overcoming these obstacles and balancing plantain production require highly sustainable and cost-effective strategies to contribute to food security in SSA."},{"index":3,"size":305,"text":"For decades, soil microbes have been considered as key for protecting numerous crops from various biotic and abiotic constrains. It is well documented that the increase in beneficial microbial diversity of soil can allow controlling various soil-borne diseases and preventing the establishment of injurious pathogens in the rhizosphere and roots of a host plant [6,7]. For Musa spp., cropping practices tend to influence microbial community structures and compositions and these vary under diverse agroecologies and climatic conditions [8,9]. In reverse, beneficial microbial communities associating with a crop may provide excellent health and optimal production by inhibition of pathogens and subsequent disease [10]. Common biocontrol agents include Pseudomonas spp., Bacillus spp., Sphingobium spp., and Chaetomium spp. [11,12]. These biocontrol agents drive the suppression of pathogenic microbes which are further enhanced by the combined antimicrobial actions exerted among beneficial and pathogenic microbes. Soil properties, such as pH, influence structures and compositions of microbial communities and their relative abundance, hence may contribute to general disease suppression/control [13]. Promoting soil health is another important component that needs to be addressed for enhanced biological and microbial diversity in soil. Soil health could be improved by applying organic amendments that aim to upgrade above-and below-ground biodiversity, thereby stimulating soil microbial biomass and activity [14][15][16]. Apart from the protection against pests and diseases and raising soil health, beneficial microbiota supports the host plants with increased growth and production through various mechanisms such as P-solubilization, N-fixation, siderophore production, and rhizobacterial-induced drought endurance and resilience (RIDER) [17,18]. Further, integrating microbes in the plantain breeding programs may benefit from varietal attributes which serve as an important tool for evaluating the production constraints and farmer preference criteria [19]. Thus, the development of a sustainable approach for improving soil quality, identifying and enhancing abundance of beneficial microbial community, and disease suppression is key towards improved plantain production."},{"index":4,"size":205,"text":"Several studies have demonstrated the ecological requirements for Musa spp. and technological approaches that could increase yields and production [20,21]. However, very few studies have focused on indigenous knowledge of plantain production, constraints, variations, and biodiversity specifically microbial diversity across agroecological zones. Thus, a more effective and highly robust system targeting longterm food security and the economic concerns of the smallholder farmers in SSA needs to be identified. Considering the lack of knowledge on plantain-microbe associations and the requirement for a holistic approach to increase productivity, this preliminary study aimed to explore microbiomes in plantain-based production systems in SSA. The study focused on examining self-supporting microbial ecosystems and distribution in agroecologies that fall under two different agroecologies (HR, high rainfall forests and SV, derived savannas) in West and Central Africa (WCA). In addition, we examined the compositions and assemblages of microbiomes in the rhizosphere. Our study is the first to describe an inventory of bacterial and fungal community associated with plantain-based production systems in humid tropics with different agroecologies and seasonal regimes of SSA. With this preliminary study of core microbiomes, we established a model for studying plantain-microbe interactions and their mechanisms that serves as a baseline for the future plant health and production studies."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study Site and Rhizosphere Sample Collection","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":210,"text":"Plantain-growing fields in one West African country (Nigeria) and two Central African countries (Cameroon and Gabon) were targeted for sampling. Data coordinates for each sampling point is represented in Table S1. In each country, agroecological zones falling under two different seasonal regimes (HR, high rainfall forests, rainfall > 1500 mm; and SV, derived savannas, rainfall < 1500 mm) were identified, representing the major plantain-growing regions. Because of the presence of highly rich and diverse microbial diversity, we focused on the smallholder farming systems where fields are predominantly managed with local traditional technologies. Plants with identical physiological stages and random selections were sampled. Around the root zone, 15-30-cm depth was chosen for the collection of rhizosphere soil samples, and at the similar depth after removal of attached soil, root samples were collected. For metagenomics study, both rhizosphere soils and root samples were pooled for each agroecology (HR and SV) representing smallholder farmers' plantain fields in WCA. Samples were immediately placed in polythene sampling bags and carried to the laboratory in an ice-cold box. Samples were further kept at 4 °C in the laboratory until processed. All procedures were carried out according to the institutional guidelines and regulations (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture). Prior to sampling, permissions were obtained from each farmer."}]},{"head":"Genomic DNA Extraction and Amplicon Generation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"The total bacterial DNA was extracted from 250 mg of soil using Plant and Soil DNA Kit (Zymo Research Corp., Irvine, CA, USA) according to the protocol. The bacterial universal V3-V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene was amplified with primers 27F (5′-AGA GTT TGA TCC TGG CTC AG-3′) and 1492R (5′-GGT TAC CTT GTT ACG ACT T-3′). The fungal universal ITS1 region was amplified with primers ITS1-F (5′-TCC GTA GGT GAA CCT GCG G-3′) and ITS4 (5′-TCC TCC GCT TAT TGA TAT GC-3′). For DNA extraction, 1-g soil sample was added to 15-mL centrifuge tube with glass beads and centrifuged at ≥ 10,000 × g for 1 min. The supernatant was thereafter transferred to collection tube and centrifuged at 8000 × g for 1 min. A total volume of 800 μL of Genomic Lysis Buffer was added to the filtrate in the collection tube for DNA extraction. The pellet obtained after centrifugation was used for further processing. Samples were homogenized by vortexing with an elution volume of 50 µL to ensure higher concentrations of DNA. Eluted DNA was then extracted in elution buffer and filtered. Total DNA concentration and purity was checked on 1% agarose gels."}]},{"head":"Illumina Sequencing Library Preparation","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"The paired-end libraries were generated using NEB Next Ultra DNA Library Prep Kit for Illumina (New England Biolabs) following the manufacturer's recommendations with a 2 × 150 read length, and index codes were added. The library was quantified via Qubit and Q-PCR and Agilent Bioanalyzer 2100 system (Agilent Technologies). Finally, the libraries were sequenced on an Illumina MiSeq platform at BGI Pt Ltd., Beijing, China."}]},{"head":"Data Processing and Clustering","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"Paired-end reads were assigned to the same sample according to the unique barcodes and truncated by cutting off the barcode and primer sequences followed by merging using FLASH tool with a minimum 10-bp overlap to recreate the V3-V4 region. Quality filtering on the raw sequence reads was performed and the quality of clean sequence reads was detected by QIIME [22]. Chimeras were filtered out by using UCHIME (v4.2.40) [23]. The 16S rDNA and ITS sequences were screened for chimeras by mapping to the gold database (v20110519, UNITE (v20140703)) separately; de novo chimera detection was done for 18S rDNA sequences. After comparing with the reference database algorithm, chimera sequences were detected and removed to obtain the effective sequence reads."}]},{"head":"Analysis of Community Patterns","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"The sequence reads were clustered to operational taxonomic unit (OTU) by scripts of software USEARCH (v7.0.1090). The sequence reads were clustered into OTU with a 97% threshold by using UPARSE, and the OTU unique representative sequences were obtained. All sequence reads were mapped to each OTU representative sequences using USE-ARCH GLOBAL. Sequences with error > 1 and < 200 bp were removed followed by merging of forward and reverse reads for ITS1 sequences. OTU representative sequences were taxonomically classified using ribosomal database project (RDP) classifier v.2.2 trained on the Greengenes database, using 0.6 confidence values as cutoff [24]."}]},{"head":"Databases Used for Species Annotation","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"16S rDNA is used for bacterial community: Greengene (default), V201305; RDP, Release9 201203 [25]. 18S rDNA is used for fungal community: Silva (default), V119 [26]. ITS is also used for fungal community: UNITE (default), Version6 20140910 [27]. Bioinformatics analysis pipeline for metagenomic analysis demonstrated in Figure S1."}]},{"head":"Data Mining","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":319,"text":"Alpha diversity was applied for analyzing the complexity of species diversity for a sample through several indices, including observed species, Chao1, ACE, and Shannon and Simpson indices. Observed species value, Chao1 value, and ACE value can reflect the species richness of the community, and the rarefaction curve was used to evaluate if produced data is enough to cover all species in the community. The indices were calculated by Mothur (v1.31.2), and the corresponding rarefaction curve were drawn by the package \"Vegan\" software R (v3.1.1). A Venn diagram could visually display the number of common/unique OTUs in multi-samples/groups. Based on OTU abundances, OTU of each group were listed, Venn diagram was drawn by Venn Diagram of software R (v3.1.1), then the common and specific OTU ID were summarized. Beta diversity analysis was used to evaluate differences of samples in species complexity by software QIIME (v1.80). To display the differences of OTU composition in different samples, principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) was used to construct 3D graph to summarize factors mainly responsible for this difference. Based on the OTU abundance information, the relative abundance of each OTU in each sample was calculated, and the PCoA of OTU was done with the relative abundance value by the package \"ade4\" of software R (v3.1.1). Unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA) is a hierarchical clustering method using average linkage and was used to interpret the distance matrix produced by beta diversity. To measure the robustness of this result to sequencing efforts, we performed a jackknifing analysis, wherein 75% of the smallest sample sequences from each sample were chosen at random, and the resulting UPGMA tree from this subset of data was compared with the tree representing the entire available data set by QIIME. Anosim (analysis of similarities) was performed to reflect the similarities and differences of the community compositions and structure between groups and groups of different samples genus levels by color change."}]},{"head":"Results","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Physico-chemical Parameters of Study Sites","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Physiological parameters of the three countries representing different sampling locations are given in Figure S2. Soil texture at sampling locations in Nigeria was from sandy clay to sandy loam, Gabon was clay loam, and Cameroon was from sandy clay to clay loam. Average soil pH ranging in samples from Nigeria was 5.9-7.1, Gabon was 6.5-7.4, and Cameroon was 5.8-7.3."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"A total number of 286 samples were collected from fields (NHR, 96; NSV, 70; GHR, 28; GSV, 32; CHR, 30; CSV, 30) and pooled representing three countries (N, Nigeria; G, Gabon; and C, Cameroon), and two agroecologies (high rainfall forests (HR) and derived savannas (SV)). Details on the sampling points are given in the map (Fig. 1) and supplementary file (Table S1). This study was conducted to reveal the microbial diversity and differences in rhizosphere microbial communities between two plantain-growing agroecologies (HR and SV) in WCA (Fig. 1). The number of clean reads and mapped reads for 16S and ITS of each sample is summarized in Supplementary Tables S2 and S3. The tags, both in terms of bacteria and fungi, were clustered into OTUs at 97% shared sequence similarity."}]},{"head":"α-Diversity and Species Richness of Microbial Communities","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"To directly compare the α-diversity of samples, data was rarefied using QIIME and a rarefaction curve using Shannon diversity index was drawn that showed the richness of observed OTUs indicating that the sequencing data was sufficient to fully cover the whole diversity present in the samples (Figs. S3 and S4). In addition, the Chao1 estimator and accumulation curve of the OTUs richness yielded similar results suggesting that the sampling number was sufficient for detectable OTUs in each group (Figs. S3 and S4). The α-diversity of microbiome in SV was greater compared with that from HR (observed species (Sobs), Chao, ACE; P < 0.05). After the compartmentalization into niche areas (rhizosphere soil and root zones), α-diversity values did not differ significantly among the three countries (Figs. S5 and  S6)."}]},{"head":"Comparison of the Number of OTUs Between Agroecologies (HR and SV)","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"High differences were observed in OTUs richness between agroecologies (HR and SV). Among the total 2736 bacterial OTUs in both agroecologies, 493 and 617 were found in HR and SV of rhizosphere soil, respectively. Out of the total 233 bacterial OTUs, 48 and 51 were found in HR and SV of plantain roots, respectively (Fig. S7)."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"Identical OTU richness was observed for fungal community compositions where both agroecologies (HR and SV) differ from each other. Among the total 1102 fungal OTUs, 889 and 96 were found in HR and SV of rhizosphere soil, respectively. Out of total 671 fungal OTUs, 231 and 238 were found in HR and SV of plantain roots, respectively (Fig. S7). These results suggested that changes between HR and SV occurred to the most abundant bacterial communities, and some specific fungal communities dynamically responded to the seasonal regimes in both the agroecologies (Table S4)."}]},{"head":"β-Diversity Among Different Samples","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) based on the differences in Bray-Curtis, unweighted and weighted UniFrac distances of microbial communities at the OTU level was performed to estimate β-diversity. A common pattern was observed using PCoA, with 65% and 21% differences in bacterial and fungal communities, respectively (Fig. 2A). Additionally, microbial populations at each sampling location were also significant (P < 0.05) between agroecologies. It was observed that the samples from the three countries were clustered together indicating similarities in the microbial communities occupying these premises (Fig. 2a). An evolutionary tree and heatmap at all the sampling locations was constructed using the UPGMA mean methods. No clear clades were observed among the three different countries (Nigeria, Cameroon, and Gabon) at the two agroecologies (Fig. 2b, c)."}]},{"head":"Relative Abundance of Dominant Bacterial Taxonomy in Plantain Forelands","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Most phylotypes of bacterial populations in rhizosphere soil and plantain roots were detected in both HR and SV agroecologies, with only a few sticked to one regime and a single niche area (Fig. 3, Table S5). The frequently detected taxa with > 1% relative abundance at different classification levels in any ecology and niche area were further analyzed."}]},{"head":"Changes at the Phylum Level","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"Across all the samples, we detected seven most abundant phyla (relative abundance higher than 1% at the phylum level in both the agroecologies). These include Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria, Acidobacteria, Chloroflexi, and cyanobacteria accounting for 92.9-99.0% of all bacterial taxa in the rhizosphere soil and roots of plantain at the two agroecologies. Proteobacteria dominated the rest of the six phyla in different samples and became the most abundant phylum (Fig. 3, Table S5). Also, most sequences (85.9%) belonged to members of three phyla: Proteobacteria (43.7%), Firmicutes (24.7%), and Bacteroidetes (17.6%). Strikingly, irrespective of small differences between the two agroecologies, microbial communities appeared to be more niche area associated, whose relative abundances were higher in plantain roots (P < 0.01). On the other hand, a significant presence of Acidobacteria and Chloroflexi were only found in rhizosphere soil of both agroecologies."}]},{"head":"Changes at the Lower Levels","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":246,"text":"A total of 38 classes were detected with 10 being abundant (relative abundance > 1% at both agroecologies). Some phyla had the same dominant classes. For example, in Proteobacteria, the classes Gammaproteobacteria and in Bacteroidetes, the classes Flavobacteriia dominated plantain roots; however, Thermoleophilia of the phylum Actinobacteria dominated in rhizosphere soil of HR and SV (Fig. 3). In the class Bacilli which is confined to both HR and SV, the order Bacillales dominated in rhizosphere soil and roots and accounted for 3.9-19.9%. The dominant order of classes Gammaproteobacteria was Pseudomonadales, which were equally present in all the roots samples of both agroecologies. However, Enterobacteriaceae of class Gammaproteobacteria was greatly confined to SV compared to HR agroecology. Phylogenetic trees were constructed for microbial genera from the rhizosphere. The bacteria identified in previous studies conducted in different countries obtained from NCBI were used to construct the phylogenetic trees (Fig. 4). In the neighbor-joining tree, 14 main phyla were observed for bacterial communities. In both the agroecologies, samples were highly associated with the microbes belonging to Bacillus, Flavobacterium, Acinetobacter, Balneimonas, Pseudomonas, and Enterobacter. Irrespective of agroecology, the dominant phyla in samples have the relative abundance of 94.3-97.8%. Apart, family Bacillaceae had a relatively much higher abundance in plantain roots of SV compared to HR ecology. In reverse, family Pseudomonadaceae had a relatively much higher abundance in plantain roots of HR compared to SV ecology. These results suggest that the overall microbial communities display alteration in HR and SV agroecologies."}]},{"head":"Relative Abundance of Dominant Fungal Taxonomy in Plantain Forelands","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Changes at the Phylum Level","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Zygomycota were the three most abundant fungal phyla detected across all samples in both agroecologies. Ascomycota dominated the rest of the five phyla with a relative abundance of 25.8-85.7% in different samples and became the most abundant phylum  S6). Interestingly, fungal communities seemed to be more seasonal and agroecological associated, where we found higher relative abundances phylum-Ascomycota in SV compared to HR. In reverse, Basidiomycota dominated in HR compared to SV (Fig. 3, Table S6)."}]},{"head":"Changes at the Lower Levels","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"A total of 10 classes were detected with four being abundant (relative abundance > 1% at the class level at both agroecologies). Some phyla had the same dominant classes in each niche area. Ascomycota had the same classes Dothideomycetes (0.89-5.97%), Eurotiomycetes (1.8-9.8%), and Sordariomycetes (9.9-88.1%) dominated in both agroecologies (Fig. 3). Basidiomycota was dominated by Agaricomycetes which accounted only for 0.1-22.9% of the total taxa. Zygomycota was dominated by Incertae sedis which accounted for 4.8-11.9% of the total taxa. In the class Sordariomycetes, although the order Hypocreales dominated in both agroecologies accounted for 4.9-29.9%, a high relative abundance was found SV. Phylogenetic trees were constructed for microbial genera from the plantain rhizosphere. The fungi identified in previous studies conducted in different countries obtained from NCBI were used to construct the phylogenetic trees (Fig. 4). In the neighbor-joining tree, five main phyla were observed for fungal communities. Both the agroecologies were observed with very high dominance of Trichosporon spp. and Fusarium spp., whereas a high abundance of Aspergillus spp. (2.2%) were found in SV."}]},{"head":"Relationship Profiles in the Plantain Rhizosphere Microbes Between Agroecologies (HR and SV)","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Hierarchically clustered heatmaps were generated to know the relationship among samples. Differences were observed among the samples and different agroecologies. These differences between microbial communities in HR and SV were also shown by clustering."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"According to the heatmaps, the fluctuation of the bacterial communities in SV was greater than HR (Fig. 5a). At the order level, C.SV.R and G.SV.R, C.HR.R and N.SV.R, and G.HR.S and N.SV.S clustered together, respectively. Clustering of HR and SV at family and order level showed that there were similar bacterial communities between HR and SV. In HR, the activity of bacteria was lower compared to SV, and there were very few dominant bacteria at the order and family level. The higher abundance of Sphingomonadales, Pseudomonadales, Bacillales, and Rhizobiales originating from both rhizosphere soil and plantain roots were observed."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"According to heatmaps of fungal communities (Fig. 5b), the fungal communities in SV were more stable than HR. At the order level, the clustering of C.SV.R and N.SV.R assembled with the clustering of G.HR.S and N.HR.S. The G.HR.R and G.SV.R clustered together showing the similarity in the level of fungal communities. The higher abundance of Incertae sedis, Agaricales, and Trichosporonales were also observed."}]},{"head":"(b) (a)","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Fig. 4 The genus species phylogeny tree displaying plantain associated microbiome in HR and SV. a Bacterial communities, b fungal communities"}]},{"head":"Analysis of Variations in the Functional Attributes of Plantain","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"To further investigate any potential difference in the functional diversity of the microbial communities among the agroecologies, functional annotations of the microbial community were obtained by blasting against the Clusters of Orthologous Genes (COGs) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) Orthology database. The obtained sequencing results showed no significant variations in the functionality of microbes among HR and SV."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"KEGG enrichment analysis revealed the differentially abundant genes in the six comparison groups, i.e., HR-R vs. SV-S, HR-S vs. SV-R, HR-R vs. HR-S, HR-R vs. SV-R, HR-S vs. SV-S, and SV-R vs. SV-S. Among these groups, abundance of genes for HR-R vs. SV-S (high-16;"},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"(a) Among agroecologies and rhizosphere soil Among agroecologies and plantain roots (b)"},{"index":4,"size":154,"text":"Among agroecologies and rhizosphere soil Among agroecologies and plantain roots Except for HR-S vs. SV-R, there was an observed general trend toward differentially high and low abundant taxa. This was the most genetically distinct group (HR-S vs. SV-R) that had the greatest number of differentially highly abundant taxa (Fig. 6). A total of 20 KEGG pathways were identified in the six comparison groups which showed significant enrichment in all the compared groups of the HR and SV. The pathways with the greatest enrichment between HR-R vs. SV-S were bacterial chemotaxis, peptidoglycan biosynthesis, and phosphotransferase system (PTS). The HR-S vs. SV-R demonstrated the greatest enrichment of two component systems, ABC transporters, bacterial chemotaxis, glycerophospholipid metabolism, and peptidoglycan biosynthesis which corresponds to SV-R vs. SV-S. Enrichment of PTS and peptidoglycan biosynthesis were found in HR-R vs. HR-S. The HR-S vs. SV-S were enriched with metabolic pathways, biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, and carbon fixation pathways (Fig. 7)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":241,"text":"To improve plant health and increase crop productivity and economic benefits to the smallholder farming community in SSA, one will require research in several directions. Harnessing the potential plant-microbe interactions should be at the forefront of such efforts. Like other crops, the merits of cultivating host-microbe interactions in bananas and plantains are two-fold, i.e., increasing productivity, and reducing the pressure of chemical fertilizers and pesticides on the environment that are making a huge economic impact globally [28]. Previous studies have reported that investigating specific regions of the 16S rDNA and ITS can elucidate the diversity profile when amplified for microbial community characterization [29]. Studies also revealed the efficacy of primers on microbial diversity profiles with the greatest relative abundances of the phyla and domains recovered from rhizosphere soils [30,31]. In the current study, we adopted the amplification of V3-V4 region of the 16S rDNA and ITS in all the sample sets to enhance the production efficiency for enriched classifiable sequences. During morphological changes, perennial plants also observe root exudate variations, which results in the successional shift of microbial community in roots and close vicinity, i.e., rhizosphere soil of the plantains. This suggests that the plant species recruits Fig. 6 Scatter plot of gene expression levels in the compared groups of different agroecologies and niche areas, where C, Cameroon; G, Gabon; N, Nigeria; HR, high rainfall forests; SV, derived Savannas; S, rhizosphere soil; R, plantain roots specific regarding their functional attributes [32]."},{"index":2,"size":143,"text":"Therefore, we aimed to analyze the below-ground microbial communities targeting different agroecologies that fall under two different seasonal regimes (HR and SV) in three countries (Nigeria, Cameroon and Gabon) of WCA. Microbial diversity was analyzed by α-and β-diversity indices. With regard to agroecologies, the α-diversity of the microbiome in SV was greater compared with that from HR (Figs. S5 and S6). According to PCoA, microbial communities from all sampling sites exhibited significant agroecological changes (Fig. 2). This change could be adapted due to the proximate connection and variations in root exudate's profile of plantain rhizosphere. Microbial community enrichment in rhizosphere is a well-established and already known fact; however, our findings supplemented this fact by validating the concept that microbiome structure and composition alters with respect to diversified agroecologies (HR and SV). Root exudate metabolites are another primary driver of below-ground microbial communities [33,34]."},{"index":3,"size":315,"text":"We further analyzed the microbial communities associated with plantain in two agroecologies (HR and SV) and observed a few taxa consistently enriched in the rhizosphere. Proteobacteria was obtained as the dominant phylum accounting for 24.9-57.5% of the total relative abundance. Endless bacterial communities in the Proteobacteria are particle-associated and play decisive roles in nitrogen cycling [35]. In the Proteobacteria, Bacillales and Pseudomonadales orders dominated in the rhizosphere of HR and SV (Fig. 3). In earlier studies, enrichment of proteobacteria was observed in the rhizosphere of various Musa spp. in Africa [36,37]. A more stable relative abundance of Alphaproteobacteria in HR and SV agroecologies can be supported by previous studies which indicated that seasonal changes did not affect Alphaproteobacteria [38]. Firmicutes were the second abundant phylum in the plantain rhizosphere, consistent with the findings that they have been recovered from diverse habitats, such as soils, rivers, as symbionts within animals and plants [39] which could be due to their highly diverse phenotypic and metabolic activities. Actinobacteria was another dominant phylum with Actinomycetales as a consistently enriched taxon in the plantain rhizosphere with a relative abundance of 7.9-15.9% among both the agroecologies. Throughout history, Actinobacteria were considered the primary active group residents in rhizosphere [40]. The production of antimicrobial secondary metabolites by Actinomycetales Fig. 7 Pathway functional enrichment of the compared groups of different agroecologies and niche areas. X axis represents enrichment factor. Y axis represents pathway name. The color indicates the q value (high, white, low, blue); the lower q value indicates the more significant enrichment. Rich factor refers to the value of enrichment factor, which is the quotient of foreground value and background value (total gene amount). The larger the value, the more significant enrichment, where C, Cameroon; G, Gabon; N, Nigeria; HR, high rainfall forests; SV, derived Savannas; S, rhizosphere soil; R, plantain roots serves as an elite choice selected due to responses [41,42]."},{"index":4,"size":129,"text":"Various alterations in root microbiome were observed in host plants at diversified environmental and developmental stages [43]. Consistent with such findings, our results demonstrated the changes in the microbial community profiles in different agroecologies and seasonal regimes. Niche areas' analysis on relative abundances of the microbial communities revealed more rhizosphere dependent changes in the plantain microbiome. For example, among all the taxa studied at the genus level, Bacillus, Flavobacterium, Acinetobacter, Balneimonas, Pseudomonas, and Enterobacter were highly enriched in rhizosphere of plantains (Fig. 4). Enrichment of Enterobacter was often used as an indicator of the amendments in the plantain fields of both human and animal manure in these traditional smallholder farms. Besides the positive colonization of Enterobacter in the rhizosphere, it requires further research to analyze their pathogenicity in plantain."},{"index":5,"size":189,"text":"Among fungal communities, Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Zygomycota were the three most abundant phyla observed in the rhizosphere plantains. In contrast with the bacterial communities and niche areas, fungal taxa were more observed under the influence of agroecologies (HR and SV) supporting the previous research findings indicating that the plant disease infection rates are highly influenced by seasonal changes [44]. Sordariomycetes is the only fungal class showing high diversity in each sample. Sordariomycetes are assumed to be cosmopolitan, with variability in functioning also including pathogens, endophytes of plants, and saprobes that are involved in decomposition. In our study, the majority of OTU sequences belonging to the Sordariomycetes and most likely play a role in the breakdown of organic material breakdown in a symbiotic or mutualistic relationship host. At the genus level, a very high relative abundance of Trichosporon spp. and Fusarium spp. were observed at both agroecologies (HR and SV). Further, SV showed increased enrichment of Aspergillus spp. in the rhizosphere of plantains (Fig. 4). These results suggest that the overall microbial communities display alteration in HR and SV agroecologies and the shifts in community composition between different sampling locations."},{"index":6,"size":293,"text":"In any terrestrial ecosystem, along with microbial structure and compositions, studying the functional attributes is always needed because the changes in the diversity profile of rhizosphere are attributed to diversified functionalities possessed by the host plant microbiome. Therefore, to analyze the relationship between plantain host and bacterial diversity, functional attributes of the microbial communities in rhizosphere soil and plantain roots were studied by Clusters of Orthologous Genes (COG) and KEGG pathway's functional classifications. KEGG enrichment analysis revealed the differentially abundant genes in the six comparison groups observed with a general trend toward differentially high and low abundant taxa except for HR-S vs. SV-R group (Fig. 6). In total, 20 KEGG pathways were found in significant enrichment in the six comparison groups of HR and SV. These most common pathways include bacterial chemotaxis, peptidoglycan biosynthesis, phosphotransferase system (PTS), two component systems, ABC transporters, metabolic pathways, biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, and carbon fixation pathways (Fig. 7). These pathways were associated with metabolism, signal transduction and defense, and transport, which involved the regulation of multiple plant-host interactions. The differences in the degree of enrichment and pathway specific enrichment suggest that responsive variability exist between the various rhizosphere soils and plantain roots responsible for structuring the microbial compositions in HR and SV. Variations in functional gene expressions between the different samples could be another reason for this enrichment [45,46]. The composition of soil microbiome has always been recognized as a potent tool for any crop performance, its production and health in the field. For example, many pests and diseases such as banana weevil, nematodes, black Sigatoka disease, Fusarium wilt, and Xanthomonas wilt can suppress plant growth, while the build-up of efficient colonizers and beneficial microbes such as phosphate solubilizers and nitrogen fixers can enhance plant performance [47][48][49]."},{"index":7,"size":124,"text":"Finally, our approach of studying core microbiome and relative abundance through Bray-Curtis distance and α-diversity shows that plantain accommodates very specific associations in the rhizosphere. The potentially positive associations are the key to select and manipulate the microbiomes for plantain breeding with a competitive advantage. Nevertheless, manipulation of soil microbiota could also play a key role in suppressing pathogenic microorganisms and thus helps in improving the natural soil suppressiveness. This goal could be enhanced with the presence of highly beneficial microbiota that are necessary for plant health and production as revealed by our study. Our study also showed that plantains are a propitious habitat for microbial communities of beneficial bacteria and fungi specifically ideal for resource poor farming systems of Western and Central Africa."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"This study focused on the structure and composition of microbial communities with plantain rhizosphere under two different agroecologies and seasonal regimes in SSA. Metagenomics sequencing revealed higher diversities in both HR and SV and demonstrated obvious seasonal and agroecologies impact by complex shifts in both bacterial and fungal communities. In general, α-diversity of SV was greater than that HR. In addition, relative abundances of microbial communities revealed that some bacterial and fungal species varied quantitatively between the two agroecologies. The fate of COG and KEGG pathways and beneficial microbiome inhabiting plantain rhizosphere was also observed which further pointed out the need to enrich the current data with a functional analysis (such as metatranscriptomic and expressional studies) to better understand and profile the rhizosphere interactions between two agroecological variations. These studies further help in quantifying the beneficial effects of microbiota on the growth and production and address the success or failure of a defense strategies for controlling pathogenic microbes of plantain under small holder farming systems."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Area of study in West and Central Africa. Pink and yellow dots represent sampled plantain fields in high rainfall forests (HR) and derived savannas (SV), respectively "},{"text":"Fig. 2 Fig. 2 Similarities and differences in compositions and structures of bacterial and fungal communities among agroecologies and niche areas. a Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) of pairwise, showing jackknife-supported confidence ellipsoids. The first three principal axes are shown. PCoA based on Euclidean distances. b Phyloge- "},{"text":"Fig. 3 Fig. 3 The composition and relative abundance of major bacterial and fungal taxa of the rhizosphere soil and plantain root-associated microbiome in HR and SV. a Bacterial communities, b fungal communi- "},{"text":"Fig. 5 Fig. 5 Hierarchically clustered heatmaps showing the relationship among samples in different agroecologies and niche areas. The closer the color to the dark represents the more dominant microbial commu- "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"baa59b6c-13a1-4f3a-b376-661895e4db39","abstract":"Plantain (Musa spp.) is a staple food crop and an important source of income for millions of smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). However, there is a paucity of knowledge on soil microbial diversity in agroecologies where plantains are grown. Microbial diversity that increases plant performance with multi-trophic interactions involving resiliency to environmental constraints is greatly needed. For this purpose, the bacterial and fungal communities of plantain fields in high rainfall forests (HR) and derived savannas (SV) were studied using Illumina MiSeq for 16S rDNA and ITS amplicon deep sequencing. Microbial richness (α-and β-diversity), operational taxonomic units, and Simpson and Shannon-Wiener indexes (observed species (Sobs), Chao, ACE; P < 0.05) suggested that there were significant differences between HR and SV agroecologies among the most abundant bacterial communities, and some specific dynamic response observed from fungal communities. Proteobacteria formed the predominant bacterial phylum (43.7%) succeeded by Firmicutes (24.7%), and Bacteroidetes (17.6%). Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Zygomycota were the three most dominant fungal phyla in both agroecologies. The results also revealed an immense array of beneficial microbes in the roots and rhizosphere of plantain, including Acinetobacter, Bacillus, and Pseudomonas spp. COG and KEGG Orthology database depicted significant variations in the functional attributes of microbes found in the rhizosphere to roots. This result indicates that the different agroecologies and host habitats differentially support the dynamic microbial profile and that helps in altering the structure in the rhizosphere zone for the sake of promoting synergistic host-microbe interactions particularly under resource-poor conditions of SSA."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"098aa830ad029c2455e6bd4727007bd8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/54/3832_2015_Lind_Differences.pdf"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Differences in sexual size dimorphism among farmed tilapia species and strains undergoing genetic improvement for body weight","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":183,"text":"Growth rate is a focal production trait in commercial aquaculture. Differences in individual growth due to sex have important consequences for production, such as large variation in harvest weight or unsalable small fish. In tilapia (Oreochromis spp.), one of the most important aquaculture species, males are on average larger than females (Lorenzen, 2000;Turner and Robinson, 2000). Because of the superior growth rate of males and availability of sex-reversal techniques, large sectors of the tilapia aquaculture industry produce all-male populations to improve productivity and control reproduction (Beardmore et al., 2001). The growth rate advantages of mono-sex over mixed sex populations of tilapia are dependent on the magnitude of sexual size dimorphism (SSD). With the additional expenses or facilities involved in producing all-male fish, mixed-sex populations having low SSD could be more profitable than mono-sex populations. It has been demonstrated that mono-sex tilapia culture is not always superior to mixed-sex culture (Kamaruzzaman et al., 2009;Little and Edwards, 2004). To  Ponzoni et al. (2011) for details of strain history after transfer from Philippines. b A hybrid strain derived from O. niloticus, O. mossambicus and O. aureus."},{"index":2,"size":139,"text":"predict the likely benefits of all-male populations it is important to determine if SSD for body weight differs among tilapia species or strains and by how much. Reported estimates of tilapia body weight indicate variation in the magnitude of SSD among strains or species (Palada-de Vera and Eknath, 1993;Rezk et al., 2002). Among these only a few utilize large datasets (e.g., Bentsen et al., 1998;Bentsen et al., 2012;Nguyen et al., 2007;Ponzoni et al., 2005). Furthermore, comparative studies are rare. Recent implementation of structured breeding programs in Asia and Africa has generated large datasets where individual tilapia growth rates are recorded. In this study multigenerational pedigreed data sets from seven tilapia breeding programs were analyzed to investigate the magnitude of SSD for body weight in a range of tilapias, and how this may influence the potential benefits of mono-sex culture."}]},{"head":"Materials and method","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Data were assembled from seven tilapia strains of three different species (Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus; Blue tilapia, O. aureus; and Shiré tilapia, O. shiranus) and one hybrid strain (Red tilapia, Oreochromis spp.), developed and maintained at aquaculture field stations in Ghana, Malawi, Israel and Malaysia (Table 1). In all these strains genetic improvement programs to increase body weight are being implemented. No differential treatments were applied to the fish during the implementation of the breeding programs. All fish were reared and managed using standard industry practices (regular water exchange; acceptable stocking densities; use of anesthesia and antiseptics during tagging) to ensure appropriate care of animals."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"2.1. Overview of selective breeding procedure and description of tilapia strains"}]},{"head":"General","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":311,"text":"The following general description of the breeding programs applies to all the strains studied, except the Israeli O. aureus selection program, which was conducted using a slightly different approach (see below). Genetic improvement programs for all other tilapia strains followed the general approach and recommendations for selective breeding of tilapias outlined in Thodesen and Ponzoni (2004). A \"combined selection\" approach utilizing information on individual fish and information coming from relatives was used to determine the genetic merit of potential brood stock. Animal model estimated breeding values (EBVs) of selection can-didates were determined using Best Linear Unbiased Prediction (BLUP). Those with the greatest EBV for body weight at harvest were selected to be the parents of the next generation. To control inbreeding, mating of full-and half-sib relatives was avoided, and the number of individuals selected from each family was restricted in the manner described by Ponzoni et al. (2010). Selected brood stock were mated in mesh hapas suspended within earthen ponds, with a mating ratio of one male to two females in each hapa. Following successful mating, fertilized eggs were collected from females and full-sib families were reared separately in incubators, and subsequently in nursing hapas, until juveniles were large enough for individual tagging (approximately 3 to 5 g). Between 50 and randomly selected juveniles from each full-sib family were tagged with Passive Integrated Transponder (PIT) tags (unless otherwise stated) each having a unique code. After tagging, fish were placed into communal (i.e., mixed families) grow-out ponds for a period of 4-6 months. Fish were fed a commercially available formulated feed throughout the nursing and grow-out periods at an amount equivalent to 3 to 5% of their body weight per day, unless stated otherwise below. The body weight of each fish was measured at the end of communal rearing period. Additional details about each strain are given below and in Table 1."}]},{"head":"Blue tilapia (O. aureus), Abbassa strain","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"This strain is the subject of an ongoing genetic improvement program at the WorldFish Center Aquaculture Research Station at Abbassa, Egypt. A pedigreed base population was created in from a previous genetic improvement program based on massselection. The mass-selected line was derived from a combination of several cultured and wild populations. During winter months (December to March) average minimum water temperatures can drop to 10 to 15 • C (Rezk et al., 2009), which necessitates an \"over-wintering\" rearing stage using heated water to avoid excessive mortalities. During over-wintering, tilapia are transferred to earthen ponds or to cement tanks covered by greenhouse Like structures in order retain heat. The dataset used for this strain is from generations 2-4 of the selection line. Two 0.1 ha replicate ponds were used for communal rearing in generations 2 and 3, whereas four ponds were used in generation 4 because a greater number of families was produced that year."}]},{"head":"Blue tilapia (O. aureus), Israeli strain","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":356,"text":"A detailed description of this selection program is outlined by Zak et al. (2014). The strain was derived from three populations collected from commercial hatcheries or previously stocked irrigation reservoirs in Israel. Families were created by strip spawning ripe females and fertilized with sperm collected from a single male per female. Families were reared separately in incubation jars, trays and then small net hapas suspended in tanks (progressively) until a mean weight of 0.2-0.5 g was attained. At this stage, 150-200 individuals per family were transferred into separate 400 L tanks, where they were reared until large enough to be individually tagged and sorted by sex (approx. 30 g). Numbered Floy tags (Floy Tag Inc., Seattle, WA) or color dye injections were used for the identification of individuals, but this was not conducted in generations 2 and 4 of the program because of limited resources. Hence, in these generations only families could be distinguished. After tagging, males and females of each family were separated and stocked at a rate of 1.5-1.75 fish per m 2 into two replicate earthen ponds per sex (350-400 m 2 pond size). Twenty families were stocked across four replicate ponds, after which an additional set of pond replicates were used until all families were stocked. A total of up to 12 ponds were used in each generation, depending on the number of families produced. Besides the separation of males and females into different ponds, there was no preferential treatment of either sex throughout the culture period. Fish were fed a commercial floating pellet feed at a rate according to a standard growth curve and feeding tables in generations 1 and 3, or adjusted according to a two-weekly weighing in generations 2 and 4. Communal rearing in ponds was carried out for 3-4 months until harvest, when body weight of all individuals was recorded. In each generation the heaviest 3-4 females and 2-3 males per family per replicate pond were selected and pooled together as the breeders of the next generation. Mating of related individuals was avoided when selecting brood stock pairs. Data collected from generations 2-4 were used for this study."}]},{"head":"Nile tilapia (O. niloticus), Abbassa strain","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"This strain is maintained at the WorldFish Aquaculture Research Station, Abbassa, Egypt. The strain was founded in 2002 from a 4 × 4 diallel cross of wild and domesticated Egyptian tilapia populations, producing a composite base population (Rezk et al., 2009). The dataset analyzed here comprises the 6th, 7th and 8th generations of selection. Two 0.1 ha ponds were used for communal grow-out in generation 6 and 7, and four replicate ponds were used in generation 8 because a greater number of families were produced that year."}]},{"head":"Nile tilapia, Akosombo strain","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"The Akosombo Nile tilapia strain was developed by the CSIR-Water Research Institute at the Aquaculture Research and Development Center, Akosombo, Ghana. The strain is derived from a 4 × 4 diallel crossing of three populations of O. niloticus, collected from three different agro-ecological zones within the Volta system in Ghana and a farmed strain from a local producer (Attipoe, 2006;Attipoe and Abban, 2004;Ponzoni and Brummett, 2008). Data collected from generations 4-6 of the selection line are used for this study."}]},{"head":"Nile tilapia, Malaysian GIFT strain","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"The GIFT strain (Bentsen et al., 1998;Eknath et al., 2007) has been maintained by WorldFish and the Malaysian Department of Fisheries at the Jitra Aquaculture Extension Center, Malaysia since being transferred from the Philippines in 2000 and 2001 (Ponzoni et al., 2005;Ponzoni et al., 2011). Each generation, two 0.1 ha growout ponds were stocked with tagged juveniles at a density of 3-4 fish per m 2 . Juvenile fish are distributed between the ponds so that each receives representatives from all families. Data analyzed in this study are from the 7th, 8th and 9th generations of selection conducted in Malaysia (7th generation corresponds to the 2009 spawning season reported in Ponzoni et al., 2011)."}]},{"head":"Red tilapia (O. sp), Malaysian strain","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"This selection line is in the early stages of development, initiated in 2008 at the Jitra Aquaculture Extension Center, Malaysia by WorldFish and the Malaysian Department of Fisheries. It is derived from a complete 3 × 3 diallel cross of red tilapia populations from Malaysia, Taiwan and Thailand (Hamzah et al., 2008). The founder Malaysian lines were chosen from the top four ranked in a growth evaluation experiment involving 16 stocks collected from different hatchery locations in the country. Communal growth evaluations were conducted for approximately 4 months in a single 0.1 ha earthen pond. During this period, fish were fed with a standard commercial feed (32% protein) twice daily. A description of the selection procedures and genetic gain in initial generations in this population is given in Nguyen et al. (2011)."}]},{"head":"Shiré tilapia (O. shiranus), Bunda-Domasi strain","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"The base population of this strain was derived from the 4 × 4 diallel cross of wild O. shiranus populations described by Maluwa and Gjerde (2006). Paired matings were conducted at the National Aquaculture Center in Domasi, Malawi, in hapas suspended in earthen ponds. Following successful spawning, full-sib families were transferred to separate 1 m 3 concrete tanks where each family was reared until large enough for tagging with individual Floy tags (tagging age between 76 and 131 d). Tagged juveniles were split among three different geographic locations across Malawi where they were communally reared in a single 500 m 2 earthen pond for 180 d (Maluwa and Gjerde, 2007;Maluwa et al., 2006). Initial stocking densities were 3 fish per m 2 . Representatives from all families were reared at each site. Data used in the analysis are from generations 1-3 of the breeding program (corresponding to F1, F2 and F3 from Maluwa and Gjerde, 2007)."}]},{"head":"Statistical analyses","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":324,"text":"The data were analyzed using ASReml (Gilmour et al., 2009). The mixed models fitted to each dataset were of the general form: y = Xb + Za + Wc + e where y is the vector of observations, b, a, c and e are the vectors of fixed effects, random animal effects, random common environmental and dam effects, and random residual effects, respectively. Note that the rearing method in all populations entailed maintaining full sib groups together until they could be physically identified, so that what we estimate in Wc is the combination of common environmental and dam effects. X, Z and W are the incidence matrices relating records to fixed effects, additive genetic effects and common environmental effects, respectively. The number of levels of each fixed effect and the number of dams and sires contributing progeny within each strain are shown in Table 2. Depending on the dataset in question, management group (either generation, generation by pond, or generation by environment) and sex were fitted as fixed effects; animal and common environment plus dam were fitted as random effects. Age at harvest was fitted as a covariate within management group. In the Israeli O. aureus selection line, pond effects were confounded with sex because the sexes were reared separately. To overcome this in the analysis, a nested design fitting the replicated pond effect within sex within generation enabled the differences between males and females (i.e., an estimation of the sex effect) to be tested against the mean square of pond within sex. The square root transformation of body weight at harvest improved the distribution of residuals in all datasets, and was used in all analyses. All possible interactions between fixed effects were initially tested in each model, and non-significant interactions were removed from the final models. For each strain, least squares means  for sex and sex by generation were predicted at the average harvest age and back transformed to original measurement units (g)."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Female weight as a percentage of male weight at harvest was calculated as an indicator of SSD using the least squares means of each sex. Confidence intervals for the mean female weight as a percentage of male weight were calculated for each strain following the method of Fieller (1954)."}]},{"head":"Results","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Descriptive statistics","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Table 3 shows the number of records, minimum and maximum harvest weight, simple mean, SD and CV within each strain. A large range in harvest weight was observed within all populations. The smallest individuals were not always female. Coefficient of variation ranged from moderate to high across the seven strains, with O. shiranus showing the lowest (27%) and O. niloticus from Egypt the greatest (52%). Within a strain, males had a smaller CV than femalesin O. aureus (from Egypt and Israel), in O. niloticus from Egypt, and Red tilapia. In the other strains the CV was greater for males."}]},{"head":"Tests for fixed effects","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"The significance level of fixed effects in each strain is shown in Table 4. Sex effect was significant (P < 0.001) in all strains. Sex by generation (S × G) interaction was also significant (P < 0.001) in all strains except O. shiranus and Red tilapia (S × G in Israeli O. aureus could not be tested). Significant S × G interactions only affected the magnitude of the superiority of male over female and not the rank-"}]},{"head":"Table 4","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Effects fitted in the models for the analysis of harvest weight in different tilapia strains. Nested effects were fitted within the effects shown in brackets. Significance of fixed effects and the covariate are indicated by the superscripts. Animal and common environment plus dam were fitted as random effects in all cases."}]},{"head":"Strain","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Fixed effects a Covariate a"},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"ns: non-significant. a Sex (S); Generation (G); Pond (P); Environment (E). * P < 0.05. † P < 0.01. ‡ P < 0.001."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"ing. Across generations the average harvest weight of males was always greater than for their female counterparts."}]},{"head":"Differences between females and males","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Least squares means of harvest weight for both sexes and the ratio of female to male least squares means expressed in percentage term in each strain are presented in Table 5. A large variation in the weight of females relative to males was observed among strains. Average differences between females and males was greatest in the O. aureus line from Egypt, whereas it was smallest in the GIFT strain. Within Nile tilapia strains, the weight of females relative to males ranged from 61.0% in the Akosombo strain to 84.7% in the GIFT strain. The 95% confidence intervals are almost completely non-overlapping across all three O. niloticus strains (Table 5)."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"No clear pattern was observed among strains in the magnitude of sex differences across generations, that is, sex differences did not consistently become smaller each generation or vice versa (Fig. 1). In some cases, such as O. aureus from Egypt, the fluctuation in SSD across generation was large, whereas in other cases, such as GIFT and O. shiranus, the differences between females and males were relatively constant (Fig. 1)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"This study is unique, we present the results from analyses of seven large datasets, each corresponding to a different tilapia strain, but that have all been bred using a similar approach. We analyzed the data using a consistent methodology across strains, and we report female/male relative harvest weights for the different strains. We examine and discuss the extent of SSD among the strains, as well as the ramifications for the tilapia industry. Note that the aim of our study was to show and document differences among strains, not to explain the underlying mechanisms causing them. Nevertheless, to put our results in context, a brief review of possible explanations is relevant."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"All reference to tilapia size in this paper relates to body weight, as it is one of the key measurements defining overall production of an aquaculture operation (the other one being survival rate). SSD is likely to be similar in tilapia for length, height and other size measurements, but for clarity we only discuss SSD for body weight and report this as the ratio of average female weight to average male weight, expressed as a percentage."}]},{"head":"Possible causes of sexual size dimorphism in tilapia","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":522,"text":"The degree to which SSD varies within or among cultured tilapia species or strains is not clearly understood. Parker (1992) outlines several arguments for the evolution of SSD in fish. He generalizes that in mass spawning species, sperm competition is the major factor for reproductive advantage rather than body size and will generally result in males being the smaller sex, up to 100-fold different in some instances. For non-mass spawning species that gain reproductive advantage through male-male \"combat\", selective pressure will generally favor larger males. In these species, males can be larger than females but rarely more than double their size (Parker, 1992). Tilapias fall into the latter category, being paired spawners with males often highly aggressive toward rivals in seeking out potential female mates. Bolivar et al. (1993) showed that the distribution of female spawning status (categorized by early spawners, late spawners or virgin) within a population will influence the observed sex differences in body weight of O. niloticus at 210 d old. They also showed that least squares means of virgin female body weight can be equal or even greater than that of males at 210 d old. The inference made by the authors is intuitive, reasoning that females that have not spawned will be heavier than those that have, therefore a delay in spawning will reduce population-wide SSD at harvest, if body weight is the metric used to determine this. However, this result should be interpreted with caution because of the small sample sizes (n = 16-20) in the study. Given the large CV for body weight observed in tilapia (Table 3), results from small samples may be very different from what may be observed in a similar trial of, say, 1000 individuals. Rutten et al. (2005) showed that the F/M % for body weight in O. niloticus steadily decreased from 75% at approximately 110 d, to 56% at approximately 290 d. The authors note that female growth curve trajectories continued linearly and did not plateau after the point at which sexual maturity is expected, when energy is often thought to be diverted toward reproduction and not somatic growth. They suggested environmental conditions that may suppress breeding (such as high stocking densities) might have been a reason that females continued to grow. Age at sexual maturity is reported to differ substantially within and among tilapia species (reviewed in El-Sayed, 2006). Although currently it is not well known how much of this variation is due to environmental or to genetic influences, is likely to be an important factor to consider when conducting studies on SSD in tilapias. Sexual maturity or spawning status was not routinely recorded in any of the populations in the present study, however, early or unwanted reproduction in communal rearing ponds during grow-out periods was often observed among several of the strains. In our analyses variation due to sexual maturity is considered a component of the residual variance. Because of the possible difficulties of accurately assessing the sexual maturity of tilapia by eye, we suggest that the assistance of experienced technicians be utilized if this is to be incorporated in future studies investigating its influence on SSD."},{"index":2,"size":474,"text":"The effect of social interactions between male and female tilapias may also influence the degree of SSD. Schreiber et al. (1998) reported O. niloticus females grew significantly larger (P < 0.05) than males when reared individually and the potentially agonistic influences of males on females are removed. The authors conclude that the usual observation of females being smaller than males in mixed sex environments is probably caused by behavioral factors rather than physiological factors. In addition, it has been suggested that the differential expression of a thyroid hormone (T3) is a contribut- ing factor to differential growth rates in male and female O. niloticus (Toguyeni et al., 1996;Toguyeni et al., 2009) and O. aureus (Mol et al., 1994). These studies suggest that T3 levels are correlated with a hormone (11-KT) that is linked to aggressive social behavior, which may be contributing to growth rate suppression in females. Separation of males and females during the grow-out period in the Israeli O. aureus strain analyzed here shows that a considerable SSD could still be observed even when potential effect of male-female social interaction is removed. Although the sex-separated Israeli O. aureus showed lower SSD than the mixed-sex O. aureus from Egypt, it is inappropriate to infer such differences are due to the suppression of female growth from aggressive interactions with males. Such a conclusion would require a controlled, side-by-side trial. Genetic factors have also been previously considered as a potential influence on SSD in tilapias. Lester et al. (1989) report zero heritability for variation in SSD in O. niloticus, inferring that all variation is due to environmental factors. In the GIFT strain, Nguyen et al. (2007) report high genetic correlations (not significantly different from unity) when the expression of body dimension characteristics (weight, length, depth) in males and females are treated as different traits. They conclude that the various body dimensions are essentially under control of the same genes in both sexes, and that the relative proportions of these traits are unlikely to be altered through deliberate selection in this strain. Maluwa and Gjerde (2006) report similar but slightly lower genetic correlations between male and female body weight in O. shiranus, with r g = 0.85 ± 0.15 (not significantly different from unity). The same study also reports greater heritability for body weight in males than females (h 2 = 0.40 ± 0.13 and 0.27 ± 0.08, respectively). These studies were conducted on the same O. shiranus strain analyzed here. A recent analysis of the GIFT strain based on five generations of data collected between 1991 and 1996 showed a lower genetic correlation between male and female harvest weight in ponds compared to cages (Bentsen et al., 2012). They suggested this may indicate a low to moderate genotype by sex interaction in pond environments that may not occur when rearing is done in intensive cage environments."},{"index":3,"size":268,"text":"Several studies report changes in the magnitude of SSD in tilapias when reared under different culture environments (e.g., Maluwa and Gjerde, 2006;Pongthana et al., 2010). This supports the hypothesis that environment has a significant effect on the magnitude of SSD in tilapias. However, across three generations of data in O. shiranus, we found no significant sex by environment interaction. We found significant sex by generation interactions (due to changes in the between strain differences, not reversal of ranking) in four of the seven tilapia strains (Table 4). Note that the effect of generation cannot be entirely attributed to genetic changes in a population, and that the effect of environmental fluctuations from year to year (such as rainfall, ambient temperature) will also contribute to the generation effect, albeit confounded with genetic changes in this case. All strains included in our study were cultured in different climates with the exception of GIFT and Red tilapia in Malaysia, and Egyptian O. niloticus and O. aureus in Abbassa. Where possible, it would be valuable to compare strains such as those described here in side-by-side growth trials. Alternatively, repeated mating of brood stock pairs across multiple years would also provide valuable information on the environmental effect on SSD. This would help to clarify (and quantify) the contribution made to SSD by the strain itself and by environmental factors such as those related to year to year conditions (environment as a random effect). Furthermore, recording the performance of a strain in different locations would enable estimate the effect of prevailing conditions in a particular location on SSD (environment as a fixed effect) (James, 1975)."}]},{"head":"Implications for tilapia culture and strain selection","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":271,"text":"Our results and published literature suggest that the magnitude of SSD can vary substantially within and among tilapia species. This variation is likely to have important consequences on decisions to pursue mono-sex tilapia culture or not. Note, however, that the benefits of all-male tilapia culture are not limited to potential improvements in growth rate (Beardmore et al., 2001;El-Sayed, 2006). Eliminating reproduction in tilapia ponds has been a driving factor in the adoption of mono-sex culture in the tilapia aquaculture sector (Mair and Little, 1991;Wohlfarth and Hulata, 1983). The productivity benefits of all-male tilapia culture are likely to be attributable to a combination of both the superior growth rate of males and minimizing reproduction; however, there are reports showing that mono-sex tilapia culture is not always more productive than mixed-sex culture (Dan and Little, 2000;Kamaruzzaman et al., 2009;Little et al., 2003). Whereas mono-sex tilapia culture has had undoubted success at limiting unwanted reproduction, and thus reducing unmarketable small fish or poor productivity, Kamaruzzaman et al. (2009) have suggested that this may be of less importance when faster growing strains are used and the duration of the culture period is reduced. A faster growth rate of males is the primary reason for mono-sex culture in systems where reproduction is inhibited, such as in floating cages, tanks or when stocking densities are high. Whilst recognizing the potential benefits of eliminating unwanted reproduction in some tilapia culture systems, this study highlights that if the anticipated increase in growth rate is an important factor in choosing mono-sex over mixed-sex tilapia, it would be pertinent to consider the magnitude of SSD in the strain(s) and location(s) cultured."},{"index":2,"size":427,"text":"Consider the following hypothetical scenario. Assume a tilapia farmer produces a mixed-sex population with equal proportion of males and females, having an overall mean size of 300 g and total yield of 3.00 t (i.e., 10,000 fish). If the farmer's strain shows a SSD the same as the lower limit of 95% CIs presented in this study (F/M weight of 45%, Table 5), it can be shown that average weights of males and females would be 414 g and 186 g, respectively. If the females of this strain had been masculinized using a standard hormone sex-reversal technique and therefore had a mean weight the same as males, we could anticipate a total yield of 4.14 t. This represents a production boost of 1.14 t by producing an all-male population compared to the mixed sex population described earlier. Applying similar logic for a strain showing SSD at the upper limit presented here (F/M of 95%), average male and female weights would be 309 g and 291 g, respectively. If these females had been masculinized, a total yield of 3.09 t would be predicted, representing an increase of only 90 kg over the mixed sex population. Of course, this is a simplified example with several broad assumptions (e.g., unwanted reproduction is a minor issue), but nevertheless demonstrates that the magnitude of SSD can have a large influence on the relative benefits of producing all-male tilapia populations. When considering the additional costs required to produce all-male mono-sex populations, it is reasonable to assume that there is a particular point at which it is no longer beneficial to produce all-male over mixed-sex populations. This notion is supported by field trials that show that mixed-sex populations can be just as productive as mono-sex male populations produced by different approaches (Dan and Little, 2000;Kamaruzzaman et al., 2009;Little et al., 2003). Further to this, some consumer markets, such as the European Union, are forbidden to produce or import tilapia products for human consumption that have been subjected to hormonal treatment (following Directive 2003/74/EC). Consumer preferences against hormone treated animals have also given rise to the emergence of organic certification standards that do not permit the use of hormones during rearing or reproduction (e.g., Naturland, 2005). We suggest that the degree of SSD could have an important role in tilapia production where the use of hormonally induced all-male populations is undesirable. A more detailed simulation study incorporating factors such as the magnitude of SSD, market price structures and sex reversal efficiencies could be of particular interest when investigating the benefits of mixed-vs. mono-sex tilapia aquaculture."},{"index":3,"size":205,"text":"A logical, practical consideration is whether it is possible for a culturist to choose a particular tilapia strain and have confidence that its degree of SSD is constant (or at least predictable within certain limits). Similarly, is it likely that a fingerling producer is able to confidently market their product as having low SSD? This study demonstrates that SSD can be relatively consistent over extended periods for some strains (e.g., the GIFT strain presented here and in Nguyen et al., 2007;Ponzoni et al., 2005), and less consistent for other strains. Unfortunately, the question of whether this is due to genetic characteristics of the strain itself, or the environmental conditions it is cultured under, still remains unanswered. For instance, differences observed among the O. niloticus strains from Egypt, Ghana and Malaysia are relatively constant over three generations. However, it is impossible, with the data available, to conclude that this is because of genetic differences among strains, differences in climatic conditions in the location of culture, or a combination of both. Only side-by-side controlled trials will help disentangle these factors. Such trials have not been performed to date and this further echoes the importance of multi-species and multi-strain comparisons of tilapia emphasized by Rezk et al. (2002)."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":232,"text":"We showed that the magnitude of SSD varied substantially across tilapia species and strains each reared in a different environment. There are indications that SSD for body weight may be relatively stable within a given population or genetic group over an extended time period, although in other instances it may vary substantially from generation to generation. We observed significant sex by generation interactions in several tilapia strains, indicating that the magnitude of SSD may vary depending on generation. We found little evidence to suggest that selection for greater body weight may consistently reduce (or increase) the difference between sexes over a period of three generations. Further investigation on factors affecting SSD in tilapia is required to better gauge the relative benefits of mono-sex male culture over mixed-sex culture, and whether it is worthwhile to culture mono-sex populations in some instances. Research investigating environmental factors that could contribute toward changes in the magnitude of SSD in tilapia may also provide pointers to management strategies that could help minimize the disadvantages of large weight differences between males and females. The magnitude of SSD is often overlooked in tilapia aquaculture, yet variation in SSD of the order identified in this study may have substantial impact on pro-ductivity. We anticipate the results of this study will provide sound justification for further investigation of this topic in one of the most important aquaculture species throughout the world."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. Across generation changes in sexual size dimorphism of different tilapia strains measured by the ratio of female to male least squares means for harvest weight. "},{"text":"Table 1 Summary of tilapia strains and their origin. Species Strain name Generations of selection Nucleus location Reference(s) SpeciesStrain nameGenerations of selectionNucleus locationReference(s) Oreochromis aureus Abbassa 4 Egypt: 30 • 32 27.22\" N WorldFish Oreochromis aureusAbbassa4Egypt: 30 • 32 27.22\" NWorldFish    31 • 44 13.50 E Unpublished data 31 • 44 13.50 EUnpublished data O. aureus Dor 4 Israel: 32 • 36 29.19\" N; Zak et al. (2014) O. aureusDor4Israel: 32 • 36 29.19\" N;Zak et al. (2014)    34 • 55 48.27\" E  34 • 55 48.27\" E O. niloticus Abbassa 8 Egypt: 30 • 32 27.22\" N Ibrahim et al. (2013); Rezk et al. (2009) O. niloticusAbbassa8Egypt: 30 • 32 27.22\" NIbrahim et al. (2013); Rezk et al. (2009)    31 • 44 13.50 E  31 • 44 13.50 E O. niloticus Akosombo 6 Ghana: 6 • 16 57.04 N CSIR-Water Research Institute, Ghana, O. niloticusAkosombo6Ghana: 6 • 16 57.04 NCSIR-Water Research Institute, Ghana,    0 • 03 30.54 E Unpublished data 0 • 03 30.54 EUnpublished data O. niloticus GIFT 9 a Malaysia: 6 • 15 27.55 N Bentsen et al. (1998); Eknath et al. (2007); O. niloticusGIFT9 aMalaysia: 6 • 15 27.55 NBentsen et al. (1998); Eknath et al. (2007);    100 • 25 54.01 E Ponzoni et al. (2005) 100 • 25 54.01 EPonzoni et al. (2005) O. sp. b Red tilapia 2 Malaysia: 6 • 15 27.55 N Hamzah et al. (2008); Nguyen et al. (2011), O. sp. bRed tilapia2Malaysia: 6 • 15 27.55 NHamzah et al. (2008); Nguyen et al. (2011),    100 • 25 54.01 E WorldFish Unpublished data 100 • 25 54.01 EWorldFish Unpublished data O. shiranus Bunda-Domasi 3 Malawi: 15 • 18 31.33 S Maluwa and Gjerde (2006); Maluwa and O. shiranusBunda-Domasi3Malawi: 15 • 18 31.33 SMaluwa and Gjerde (2006); Maluwa and    35 • 23 37.72 E Gjerde (2007) 35 • 23 37.72 EGjerde (2007)  "},{"text":"Table 2 Data structure for each strain. Strain No. of progeny Sires Dams No. of generations Culture environments Pond replicates a StrainNo. of progenySiresDamsNo. of generationsCulture environmentsPond replicates a O. aureus, Egypt 8845 166 250 3 1 2 or 4 O. aureus, Egypt8845166250312 or 4 O. aureus, Israel 14093 185 201 3 1 5 or 6 b O. aureus, Israel14093185201315 or 6 b O. niloticus, Egypt 10164 173 285 3 1 2 or 4 O. niloticus, Egypt10164173285312 or 4 O. niloticus, Ghana 12190 184 221 3 1 2 O. niloticus, Ghana12190184221312 O. niloticus, GIFT 9182 176 235 3 1 na O. niloticus, GIFT918217623531na Red tilapia 6119 190 208 3 1 1 Red tilapia6119190208311 O. shiranus 2194 102 130 3 3 1 O. shiranus2194102130331  "},{"text":"Table 3 Number of observations (n)  and simple statistics of harvest weight (g) for different tilapia strains. Strain Sex n Minimum Maximum Simple mean SD CV (%) StrainSexnMinimumMaximumSimple meanSDCV (%) O. aureus, Egypt Female 4496 9.0 119.0 36.6 13.2 36 O. aureus, EgyptFemale44969.0119.036.613.236  Male 4349 10.0 154.0 64.7 18.1 28 Male434910.0154.064.718.128  Both 8845 9.0 154.0 50.4 21.2 42 Both88459.0154.050.421.242 O. aureus, Israel Female 7082 47.0 628.0 204.3 80.8 40 O. aureus, IsraelFemale708247.0628.0204.380.840  Male 7011 54.0 819.0 320.0 108.7 34 Male701154.0819.0320.0108.734  Both 14093 47.0 819.0 261.8 111.8 43 Both1409347.0819.0261.8111.843 O. niloticus, Egypt Female 4871 13.0 291.0 93.2 46.9 50 O. niloticus, EgyptFemale487113.0291.093.246.950  Male 5293 18.0 414.0 136.9 62.6 46 Male529318.0414.0136.962.646  Both 10164 13.0 414.0 115.9 59.7 52 Both1016413.0414.0115.959.752 O. niloticus, Ghana Female 5587 16.0 165.0 43.0 13.1 30 O. niloticus, GhanaFemale558716.0165.043.013.130  Male 6603 21.0 192.1 68.8 22.3 32 Male660321.0192.168.822.332  Both 12190 16.0 192.1 57.0 19.4 34 Both1219016.0192.157.019.434 O. niloticus, GIFT Female 4208 33.1 546.3 217.5 80.7 37 O. niloticus, GIFTFemale420833.1546.3217.580.737  Male 4974 19.7 670.0 249.6 98.8 40 Male497419.7670.0249.698.840  Both 9182 19.7 670.0 234.9 92.3 39 Both918219.7670.0234.992.339 Red tilapia Female 2689 21.2 593.7 178.5 84.2 47 Red tilapiaFemale268921.2593.7178.584.247  Male 3430 22.9 595.0 222.8 99.7 45 Male343022.9595.0222.899.745  Both 6119 21.2 595.0 203.3 95.7 47 Both611921.2595.0203.395.747 O. shiranus Female 1195 36.0 146.0 75.2 17.5 23 O. shiranusFemale119536.0146.075.217.523  Male 999 24.0 198.0 92.9 24.0 26 Male99924.0198.092.924.026  Both 2194 24.0 198.0 83.3 22.5 27 Both219424.0198.083.322.527  "},{"text":"Table 5 Mean harvest age, least squares means (LSM) for male and female body weight (BW) at harvest and ratio of female to male harvest weight with 95% confidence limits for different tilapia strains. Retransformed values; analysis conducted on square root transformed harvest weights. Standard errors are in brackets. LSM predicted for mean age at harvest. Strain Mean age at harvest (d) Sex BW LSM a (g) Female/ Male (%) Female/ Male StrainMean age at harvest (d)SexBW LSM a (g)Female/ Male (%)Female/ Male      95% CI b 95% CI b O. aureus, Egypt 297 Female 27 ± 1.7 52.2 45, 61 O. aureus, Egypt297Female27 ± 1.752.245, 61   Male 51 ± 2.3   Male51 ± 2.3 O. aureus, Israel 287 Female 196 ± 6.9 61.7 57, 67 O. aureus, Israel287Female196 ± 6.961.757, 67   Male 317 ± 8.3   Male317 ± 8.3 O. niloticus, Egypt 331 Female 106 ± 4.2 69.1 63, 77 O. niloticus, Egypt331Female106 ± 4.269.163, 77   Male 153 ± 5.0   Male153 ± 5.0 O. niloticus, Ghana 284 Female 43 ± 1.0 61.0 57, 64 O. niloticus, Ghana284Female43 ± 1.061.057, 64   Male 71 ± 1.2   Male71 ± 1.2 O. niloticus, GIFT 260 Female 152 ± 5.6 84.7 77, 94 O. niloticus, GIFT260Female152 ± 5.684.777, 94   Male 179 ± 6.1   Male179 ± 6.1 Red tilapia 263 Female 256 ± 10.9 83.4 75, 93 Red tilapia263Female256 ± 10.983.475, 93   Male 307 ± 10.0   Male307 ± 10.0 O. shiranus 284 Female 74 ± 1.3 81.0 78, 85 O. shiranus284Female74 ± 1.381.078, 85   Male 91 ± 1.4   Male91 ± 1.4  "}],"sieverID":"5d5b4237-2cc6-440f-a016-8cbec921e7ff","abstract":"Many tilapia (Oreochromis spp.) farmers produce all-male populations because of the superior growth rate of males compared to females. To investigate differences in body weight at harvest of males and females among different tilapia strains, we analyzed data from 62,787 individuals collected from pedigreed breeding programs of O. niloticus (GIFT from Malaysia, the Abbassa line from Egypt, and the Akosombo line from Ghana), O. shiranus (the Bunda College-Domasi selection line), O. aureus (a selection line under development in Abbassa, Egypt, and a selection line from Israel) and a synthetic selection line of Red tilapia under development in Jitra, Malaysia, derived from stock from Malaysia, Taiwan and Thailand (O. sp.). Mixed models were separately fitted to the data from each selection line. There was a significant sex effect in all strains (P < 0.001). A significant (P < 0.001) sex by generation interaction was observed in all strains (scale effect, not reversal of rankings), except Red tilapia and O. shiranus. Least squares means showed a large range in the magnitude of body weight differences between sexes across the seven strains. The largest percentage difference between females and males was in O. aureus from Egypt (female body weight was 52.2% that of males at harvest), whereas the smallest difference was observed in the GIFT strain of O. niloticus (female body weight 84.7% that of males). Female to male body weight percentages for Red tilapia, O. shiranus, Egypt O. niloticus, Israeli O. aureus and Ghana O. niloticus were 81.3, 81.0, 69.1, 61.7 and 61.0, respectively. We discuss the results in relation to the potential productivity improvements due to superior growth rates of all-male culture compared to mixed-sex culture in tilapia populations differing in the female to male body weight ratio."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a366b9016aed6fb6297b9e7994a1836","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H026792.pdf"},"pageCount":9,"title":"Impact of Water-Saving Irrigation Techniques in China: Analysis of Changes in Water Allocations and Crop Production in the Zhanghe Irrigation System and District, 1966 to 1998","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"productivity in agriculture crease rice yields due to sturdier plants and the reduction of black root."},{"index":2,"size":155,"text":"Our main research site is the lhanghe Irrigation System (liS). The lhanghe Irrigation District (liD) is situated in the middle part of China north of the Changjiang (Yangtze) river. The liD is an administrative unit consisting of all or parts of several county and city jurisdic tions. The liS's water comes principally from the main reservoir although there are smaller reservoirs and other sources such as groundwater. The lhanghe basin is 7,740 km 2 in cluding a catchment area of 2,200 krn\". The liS accounts for most of the irrigated area within liD. It is one of the typical large-size irrigation systems in China. Its designed irri gation area is about 160,000 ha. The lhanghe reservoir, built between 1958 and 1966 on a tributary of the Chiangjiang river, supplies most of the irrigation water in liS. The reservoir was designed for multipurpose uses of irrigation, flood control, domestic water supply, industrial use and power generation."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"International Water Management Institute It is hypothesized that AWDI is one of the water-saving practices that have enabled lhanghe to transfer water to other higher-valued uses without significant loss in crop production."},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"We are conducting research at three levels to assess the extent of application and impact of AWDI. These include: (i) controlled experiments with and without AWDI and for differ ent timing of fertilizer application, (ii) farm surveys to identify the degree of adoption of AWDI, and (iii) flow monitoring at various scales within liS to assess the farm up to the basin impact of AWDI."},{"index":5,"size":92,"text":"Our ultimate goal in this research is to see whether water-saving technologies used suc cessfully in China can be used in other rice-growing areas of the world. We feel that wa ter-saving irrigation practices such as AWDI and recapture of return flows are suitable for monsoonal areas where there is considerable outflow that could be saved and put to pro ductive use. In the more arid regions, especially where the water resources are fully com mitted to various uses, the scope for water saving by AWDI and related techniques may be limited."},{"index":6,"size":137,"text":"Here we report on one of the initial steps in our research, an analysis of the historical records compiled by liS. This includes annual data compiled since 1966 on water in flows and allocation among different uses, area irrigated, and crop yields per hectare and per cubic meter of water. From the late 1970s to the late 1990s, water from the lhanghe reservoir allocated to.urigation dropped from 600 mcm (million cubic meters) to about 200 mcm (fig. 1). The water allocated for other uses (municipal, industry, and hydro power) has increased steadily. However, the area irrigated and total grain production in liD has declined only modestly. In analyzing the changes taking place, we identify those factors that seem to have contributed to sustained agricultural production despite a sig nificant reallocation of water from irrigation to other uses. "}]},{"head":"International Water Management Institute","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Analysis of Data from a Historical Perspective","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"The time series on which this report is based has been compiled by ZIS for the period 1966-1998. The values show the trends over time. In the tables, however, mean values are shown for three separate time periods-1966-78, 1979-88, and 1989-98. This divisiort was made to reflect the very sharp changes that occurred at the end of the first and second time periods."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Following the end of the Cultural Revolution in the late 1970s, significant reforms took place that affected both irrigation and agricultural production. Volumetric pricing was in troduced. l\\Jew pumping stations were built. Medium and small-size reservoirs were re stored or expanded. Introduction of improved varieties and increased use of chemical fer tilizers led to a sharp increase in rice yields."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"The end of the 1980s saw further changes. The installation of two new hydropower plants greatly increased hydropower capacity but industrial and domestic demand also rose re sulting in a still further decline in water available for irrigation. The pressure to save water"}]},{"head":"International Water Management Institute","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"29","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"led to an expansion of AWDI techniques at the farm level and to other water-saving prac tices such as canal lining. The introduction of hybrid rice gave a further boost to rice yields."}]},{"head":"Regulation and Allocation of Water among Alternative Uses in the Zhanghe Reservoir","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"In ZIS, most of the irrigation comes from the Zhanghe reservoir supported by medium and small-size reservoirs and supplemented by pumping stations. Thus, a large irrigation network including storing, diverting and withdrawing water has been established."},{"index":2,"size":151,"text":"The water available for irrigation includes rainfall, water from main and minor reservoirs, river water, and groundwater. The annual rainfall is 960 mm with a standard deviation of approximately 20 percent. Also in more recent years, there have been significant releases of water for flood control. The flood year 1996 provides a clear example. The rainfall (1,354 mm) and inflow (16.4 x 10 8 m 3 ) were abnormally high. Water released for flood control (8.2 x 10 8 m 3 ) was the highest on record. Adjusting for water released for flood control, the available supply of water from the Zhanghe reservoir does not appear to have changed significantly over time. However, there are large year-to-year fluctuations which affect the annual releases for irrigation (fig. 1). When rainfall is low and the irrigation system needs more water for irrigation, the water yield from the catchment is small and vice versa."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"Water is stored across years to deal with this problem."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"Zhanghe is a multipurpose reservoir. While the primary purpose is irrigation other uses include flood control, hydropower, municipal and industrial water supply, navigation, and aquatic culture. The tasks of regulation are based on planning, design, and experience."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"The objectives of water supply are subordinate to flood control and the prerequisite reser voir safety. As much water as possible is stored to meet water demand for all users, but irrigation has the priority. In years of extreme shortage, such as the current year, water for hydropower is reduced."},{"index":6,"size":130,"text":"In the 1966-78 period, the main water use was for irrigation, but water was not man aged well. The standard of flood control was low. There was excess water at the upper International Water Management Institute end of the canal but farmers at the lower end often did not receive water. In the period 1979-88, there were substantial improvements in regulation and management, and volu metric pricing of water was initiated. In the most recent period, 1989-98, new manage ment tools and information technologies were tested and implemented. Reservoir regula tion and flood control were successfully linked with weather forecasting. In summary, im provements in regulation and management have improved the capacity of the Zhanghe reservoir in flood control and in satisfying demands for water among alternative users and uses."},{"index":7,"size":35,"text":"An emerging impact of IWMI's research over the pastfive years is a setof Irrigation Performance Indicators {water productivity in irrigated agriculture) which help water managers quantify the performance of a system from nine different perspectives."},{"index":8,"size":354,"text":"Through However, the largest increase in water allocation has been for hydropower, followed by industrial and municipal uses (table l ). The lhanghe main reservoir was designed with one hydropower plant of 2 x 800 kw capacity utilizing, on average, a water supply of 3 0.84 x 10 8 m . In contrast to most irrigation systems, the water flowing through the gen erators cannot be diverted back to irrigation. In 1989 and 1995, two new hydropower sets of 1 x 800 kw and 2 x 1,600 kw were installed. The water allocated to hydropower in the 1989-98 period exceeded the water allocated to irrigation-2.5 versus 2.1 10 8 m 3 per annum (table l ). As a result of the growth in demand by hydropower and other sec tors, the amount of water from the lhanghe main reservoir allocated to irrigation in the past decade has declined to one-third of its 1966-78 level (6.0 to 2.1 x 10 8m 3 ) . voir in the 1979-88 period, the total water supply to liS declined only slightly. This is because in the 1980s, a number of medium-size reservoirs and ponds were restored or constructed to increase the water-storing capacity. This evened out farm-level water avail ability from year to year and provided greater water control during the cropping season, facilitating water saving through alternate wetting and drying management of water in paddy fields. In the mid-1980s onward, however, the liS water supply from small reservoirs and other source declined. The apparent reason for this is that many of the medium and small size reservoirs were required to support themselves and were technically no longer a part of liS. What impact has the reduced allocation of water for irrigation had on crop production, and on land and water productivity? The rice-irrigated area in liD has declined, particularly dur ing the 1990s (table 2). However, the area planted to upland or non-paddy crops has in creased from 19,000 ha in 1966-78 to 63,000 ha in 1989-98. Since our focus is on irrigation, in this section we analyze the changes in production and yields only for rice."}]},{"head":"Change in Water Supplied for Irrigation by liS","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"International Water Management Institute","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"The reported paddy rice grain production and yield per hectare are shown for liD in table 2. No data are available on II D water supply for irrigation. However, we assume that the main supply of water to areas in liD not served by liS is the liS drainage water. Based on this assumption, we have estimated the yield per cubic meter of water. There is stili a debate among us as to whether this is the most appropriate assumption."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"Rice production rose sharply during the period 1979-88 compared to the previous period despite a decline of 13 percent in planted area. This is because rice yields rose sharply  yields rose by 16 percent. Thus, rice production declined slightly. Over the three periods the yield per hectare of rice doubled, but the yield per cubic meter of water appears to have tripled. The increase in water productivity was greatest between the second and third periods."}]},{"head":"Factors Contributing to the Increase in Crop Production and Water Productivity","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"The long-term trend in water allocation across sectors and the trends in yield per hectare and per cubic meter of irrigation water supplied show that there have been water savings and a considerable increase in water productivity over time. Despite the decline in water for irrigation from the reservoir (table 1) and in the area irrigated in ZID (table 2), crop prod uction has been susta ined."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"Several factors may have contributed to sustained rice crop production including: (i) eco nomic and institutional reforms initiated in 1978, (ii) higher crop yields due to adoption of modern varieties and increased use of chemical fertilizer, (iii) a shift in the cropping pattern from two to one crop of rice, (iv) on-farm and system water-saving irrigation prac tices (e.g., AWOl of paddy fields), (v) volumetric pricing of water, which may have encour aged AWOl, (vi) development of alternate sources of water such as small reservoirs and groundwater, and (vii) recapture and reuse of return flows through the network of reser voirs. Of course, the various changes that occurred are not independent of each other, but we are attempting to identify more precisely the contribution of each of these factors."}]},{"head":"International Water Management Institute","index":10,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Zhanghe reservoir, Hubei, China: Annual water allocations for irrigation and other uses, 1965-1998. 1000 Water supplied for irrigation Annualirrigation "},{"text":"Figure 2 Figure 2 compares the trend in water supply to irrigation by the lhanghe main reservoir and by liS. I~ the 1960s and 70s the main reservoir supplied three-quarters of the water for irrigation, but now it supplies only half. The water supply to irrigation by liS has dropped sharply since the mid-1980s. Despite the sharp drop in the water supply from the reser "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Water use for irrigation from different sources.10 "},{"text":" due to the spread of modern varieties and increased use of chemical fertilizers following the change in agricultural policies at the end of the Cultural Revolution. Comparing the period 1989-98 with the previous period, rice planted area dropped by 19 percent and International Water ManagementInstitute "},{"text":"Table 1 . Water inflow and releases from the Zhanghe reservoir.   Over the past three decades, with the in Over the past three decades, with the in  crease in population and industry, the wa crease in population and industry, the wa  ter demand from city, industry, and power ter demand from city, industry, and power  generation has increased (fig. 1). Jingmen, generation has increased (fig. 1). Jingmen,  a few kilometers from the Zhanghe main a few kilometers from the Zhanghe main  reservoir is a new industrial city with a reservoir is a new industrial city with a  population of 320,000. It has developed population of 320,000. It has developed  quickly in recent years. The central, pro quickly in recent years. The central, pro more recent research, IWMl scientists vincial, and prefecture governments have more recent research, IWMl scientistsvincial, and prefecture governments have have further refined these to four key indicators: agricultural output percropped area; output per established a number of factories in the have further refined these to four key indicators: agricultural output percropped area; output perestablished a number of factories in the irrigation unit command; output per Irrigation supply; and output per unit of water consumed. city. Major industries include oil, chemicals, irrigation unit command; output per Irrigation supply; and output per unit of water consumed.city. Major industries include oil, chemicals, Agricultural systems have been studied in South America, Asia, NorthAfrica, sub-Saharan Africa, textiles, and leather. In addition to the Agricultural systems have been studied in South America, Asia, NorthAfrica, sub-Saharan Africa,textiles, and leather. In addition to the the MiddleEast and the United States. Jingmen city other smaller cities and towns the MiddleEast and the United States.Jingmen city other smaller cities and towns Since their Introduction, the IndiCators have been have developed rapidly, placing a growing Since their Introduction, the IndiCators have beenhave developed rapidly, placing a growing used to measure 40 IrrlgaticJIIsystems in 15  used to measure 40 IrrlgaticJIIsystems in 15 countries, IWMI Research RefJOrt2o, available at demand for water for industry and munici countries, IWMI Research RefJOrt2o, available atdemand for water for industry and munici www.lwmi.org presents lhlsperformance  www.lwmi.org presents lhlsperformance measurement data. pal use. The Zhanghe main reservoir sup measurement data.pal use. The Zhanghe main reservoir sup Others areslartinglo.usethisJhilJking and fine plies water to Jingmen, while domestic wa Others areslartinglo.usethisJhilJking and fineplies water to Jingmen, while domestic wa lune it to meet their own needs, The Indicators are core measurement criteria in the World Bank! ter for smaller cities and towns is supplied lune it to meet their own needs, The Indicators are core measurement criteria in the World Bank!ter for smaller cities and towns is supplied IPTRID Irrigation Benchmarking System. Nepal,Srl 'l.:ankaand Mexicoareatvarious stages oJ using by medium and small reservoirs or ground IPTRID Irrigation Benchmarking System. Nepal,Srl 'l.:ankaand Mexicoareatvarious stages oJ usingby medium and small reservoirs or ground lhelndicatbrs as agrlcultura!pollcylools, water. lhelndicatbrs as agrlcultura!pollcylools,water.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Changes in paddy rice irrigated area, planted area, production and yield in the ZID.   Irrigated Planted Crop Yield Water supplied Yield IrrigatedPlantedCropYieldWater suppliedYield  area area production  million kg/m\" areaareaproductionmillionkg/m\"  ha x 1,000 ha x 1,000 MT x 1,000 t/ha mcm x 100 (irrigation) ha x 1,000ha x 1,000MT x 1,000t/hamcm x 100(irrigation) 1966-78 138 173 698 4.04 8.50 0.82 1966-781381736984.048.500.82 1979-88 134 151 1015 6.72 7.74 1.31 1979-8813415110156.727.741.31 1989-98 118 122 952 7.80 4.10 2.32 1989-981181229527.804.102.32    MT ~ Metric tons    MT ~ Metric tons   Source: Zhanghe Irrigation System.   Source: Zhanghe Irrigation System.  "}],"sieverID":"43b10a5c-9195-466d-ae4d-e1b063a9f700","abstract":"In 1999, IWMI, in collaboration with the Wuhan University of Hydraulic and Electrical Engineering and the International Rice Research Institute, initiated a study on the impact of water-saving irrigation techniques in China. The initial focus was on alternate wet and dry irrigation (AWOl). As opposed to continuous flooding of paddy fields, AWOl allows for periods of field drying that reduce application requirements."}

data/part_4/0ac37c4c50029b5202a5266d393543ff.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0ac37c4c50029b5202a5266d393543ff","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/da00d3de-8f6e-47d4-b90e-cdfe367b3716/retrieve"},"pageCount":37,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"The objectives of this experiment are to understand the basic pattern of growth and development of the bean plant through growth analysis techniques using a standard variety, c.v . Porrillo Sintetico, (growth habit type II, indeterminate)."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"This research is especially focused on an understanding of the pattern of pod set and the evaluation 0f the main factors controlling pod set. The variety chosen h a s proved widely adapted at altitudes from 1900 m to 13m in the tropics and •has yielded consistenly above 2 .5 t/ha in experiments at CIAT."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"The grwoth analysis reported here forms part of a large r set of experiments on the same variety in the same season and in the same field in which manipulation of crop growth conditions was carried out to evaluate further the physiological conditions controlling yield potential in this variety."},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":". . . .. ••."},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":". ,, -2-"}]},{"head":"~MTERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Cultural practice","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Porrillo Sintetice was sown in rows on beds on March 16th, 1976. Bed width center to center and including irrigation furro\\vs was 1m, two rows were sown at intervals of 3Scms on the crest. Seedlings emerged on March 21st, 1976."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"At the three trifoliate lea f stages, the stand was thinned to 30 plants/m 2 (300 x 10 3 /ha). The crop was harvested on June 2nd, 19 76."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"Two hundred kg/ha of compound fertilizar (30:30:30 = Nkg/ha: P 2 0S kg/ha: K 2 0 kg/ha), 2S g/ha of ZnS0 4 (Skg Zn/ ha), S kg/ha of Rayplex Fe (O.S kg Fe/ha) and S kg of Borax (O.S kg B/ha) were broadcasted at seeding time. At 24 and 32 days after germination, a O.S % solution of ZnS0 4 (0.2 kg ZN/ha) sprayed to prevent Zn deficiency."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"Plants were supported from both sides of planted rows by horizontally stretched wires at 20cm and 40cm hei ght."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"However, plants lodged after flowering and this support sy~ tem did not work effectively."},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"Control of pests and diseases and irri gat ion were co~ ducted by following the common practices in CIAT and plants were kept in a healthy condition throughout the growing season."},{"index":7,"size":43,"text":"., .. . Leaves and pods on the mainstem were grouped according to their nade of origin. Le aves and p ods on branches were also grouped for each branch separately and identified according to the node of origin on the mainstem ."},{"index":8,"size":6,"text":"., .. ,: ... , ..    "}]},{"head":"Pod number per node","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The pod classifications were counted separately according to their nod~ of origin. Pod number of three types was summed for each node and then for the whole plants."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"The ~elative percentage of pod number per node within plant and within each node and the relative percentage of each pod type was calculated."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"The relative distribution and total pod number from . l"},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":":.-:-,,! ."},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":".. • ~11."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"the growth analysis plot (mean of four replications) were used to calculate pod distribution pa ttern per node (within each node, each pod type separately) for that growth stage."}]},{"head":"Total pod weight","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Nodes were stratified by node of origin and beans were removed by hand. Beans and pods were oven dried (6oec ., . ."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"¡ ."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"-7-"}]},{"head":"Subsamples for pod_growth","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"On the day of flowering of thc 7th node racerne, two flowers of that node were marked. Twice a week ten pods which were similar to the above marked pods in pod length and growth stage were sarnpled frorn boTder rows. The data for pod length , fresh weight of pod wall and beans and dry we i ght of pod wall and beans were recorded ."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Sarnpling at ha r vesting time"}]},{"head":"Sarnpling","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Sarnpling at final harvest consisted of two parts, (a) yield plot (9m 2 ) and (b) growth analysis plot (1m 2 ). Frorn the yield plot, only data of bean yi e ld and plant population were taken. Frorn the yield cornponent plot, data on plant nurnber, node number, bean yield, rnature pod nurnber, bean number, pod weight, stem weight, and r oot wei g h~ we re me asure d."}]},{"head":"Calculation","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Moisture content of all bean yield and yie ld component ,."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"The ratio (k) of the final bean yield to the bean yield of the yield component plot was calculated. whole plants. The subsamples were taken at each sampling stage from the growth analysis samples every seven days."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"For nitrogen analysis, 2-8 plants (depending on the plant size) per replication were taken from the adjacent border rows of central two beds at each sampling time of growth analysis and were combined for the four replications."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"These samples were divided into two parts. Whole plants (included roots) were washed and dried at 60°C for two days ."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"Green leaves and pod plus beans were removed separately and washed and then dried at 60°C. After drying, each plant was ground and nitrogen determined by the standard micro Kjeldahl technique."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"For sugar and starch analysis, 2 to 8 plants (depending on the plant size) per replication were taken as for nitrogen analysis. Plants were separated into three parts;"},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"whole plants (included roots), stems and pods plus beans."},{"index":8,"size":13,"text":"After fine two stage grinding, the samples were analysed for sugar and starch."},{"index":9,"size":30,"text":"The method of Yoshida et ~ (1971) was slightly modi-. fied in that the total amount of sugar and starch extracted by HCI0 4 twice for 15 minutes was measured."},{"index":10,"size":2,"text":"., ''"},{"index":11,"size":15,"text":". ' ( , -10-Measuremen t ____Qf_ 1 igh t traf!srnis_ s ion ratio (LTR)"},{"index":12,"size":25,"text":"Every two weeks starting from two weeks before flowering to four weeks after flowerin g the li ght transrnission ratio was ~easured in the field."},{"index":13,"size":18,"text":"Every 20crn frorn the soil surface light intensity was rneasured and cornpared with the intensity above the canopy."},{"index":14,"size":35,"text":"For li ght rneasurernents linear MONTEITH type solarirneter was used as a sensor and EIKO type TDP-1 rnillivo ltrneter was used as a detector. These data were calibrated into lux using a TOSHIBA photocell illurninorneter."},{"index":15,"size":4,"text":".,  l: 1 S\""},{"index":16,"size":4,"text":"1 6 1 7"},{"index":17,"size":1,"text":"•.  "},{"index":18,"size":5,"text":"- .. ..: ... ,..."}]},{"head":"~-","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"• ."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• -12of canopy stratum from canopy surface and 10% of light reached soil s urface ."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"At G33 (FL1), canopy height increased and LAI was • about 2.5 . Light conditions were not as favourable, that is 50% of light was intercepted by the first 1/3 of canopy stratum from the canopy surface."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"At G50 (FL18), canopy height had levelled off and LAI reached about 2.8. At this stage light conditions had further deteriorated, that is, 50% of light was intercepted by about only 1/5 of the canopy stratum and less than 20% of light was shared by 1/2 of leaves at the bottom of canopy."},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":"At G61 (FL29), canopy height decreased slightly and LAI decreased to about 2.0 caused by senescence of lower leaves . This drop of lower leaves was reflected in improvement of li ght conditions. At this stage , 50% of light was intertepted by about 1/3 of the canopy stratum, and about 15 % of light reached the soil surface."}]},{"head":"Reproductive Growth P~ase","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"A. fl9wering__pattern and_p_Q~_set","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"• There wer e big differences in th e r atio of mature pod number at harvest to total flower number (pod set ratio), in relation to node position. Hbwever, there was no relation between this pod set ratio and total flower number for each node (Fig. 4) ."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":".,"},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":", .. .. .."},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":".. . ,."},{"index":5,"size":2,"text":".,. ,.  "},{"index":6,"size":2,"text":".. r-."}]},{"head":"t-","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"11 2 1 z 3 11 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 1  .."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"...    Pod wall weight attained its maximum value of about .65 g per pod at FL22 and gradually decreased till about .45 g per pod at maturity, loosing its wei ght of about .20 g per pod (about 30\\ of maximum pod wall weight)."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"Significant bean fi+ling started at FL15 and after that bean weight increased rapidly and reached its maximum value of about 1.7 g per pod at FL33 and levelled off."},{"index":4,"size":89,"text":"Reproductive organ wei ght (ROW; pod wall weight + bean weight) increased rapidly after th e s tart of significant bean filling at FL15 and reached its maximum value of 2.2 g per pod at FL33 and slightly decreased in accordance with the decrease of pod wall weight. At maturity, bean weight ( about 1.6 g per pod) shared about 75% of ROW (about 2.1 g per pod). The decrease amount of pod wall weight (about .20 g per pod) was equivalent to about 10% of bean weight ."},{"index":5,"size":43,"text":". As the water content of pod wall and beans decreased rapidly at FL33, when bean weight and ROW showed their maximum value, FL33 seemed to be the stage of p hysiological maturity of the pod of this node position.  8 and 9)."},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"Up to FL15, small pod number and large pod number in-"},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"creased in parallel with fruited pod number. However, at"},{"index":8,"size":33,"text":"FL22, the increase of fruit ed pod number levelled off and the mature pod number at harvest looked to be determined by the fruited pod number at this stage (Figures 8 and 10)."},{"index":9,"size":44,"text":"After FL8, reproductive organ weight increased rapidly with the commencement of bean fi llin g (Fig. 10). After the final pod number was determined (about FL22), bean fillin g was concentrated in those fruited pods (Fig. 9). After FL36 bean fillin g was completed."},{"index":10,"size":44,"text":"The analysis of yield component s for each node at harvest (Fig. 11) revealed that the upper nodes of the mainstem suffered from an apparent shortage of assimilate during the pod set stage; bean yield, pod number and bean yield per pod , •"},{"index":11,"size":12,"text":"showing lpwer values. This lower bean yield per pod was , :"},{"index":12,"size":2,"text":"• 1. "},{"index":13,"size":10,"text":"•. e i ' 'l .-<..  • . l •l"}]},{"head":"~••'","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":";J{(''-: 80 Harvesting . : . rf ."}]},{"head":"'• l","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Frui ted po ds"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Large pods ~-,¡.,.  ---  .,•¡"},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"."},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":". ... :-."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"••.r'"},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"• ' 1'.   (FL: f l owering; PM: phy.siological maturity; H: harves t )."},{"index":7,"size":1,"text":"•."},{"index":8,"size":1,"text":".,"},{"index":9,"size":2,"text":"• r"},{"index":10,"size":2,"text":"•!'' J."},{"index":11,"size":2,"text":"• ,,,"},{"index":12,"size":2,"text":"• .   "},{"index":13,"size":11,"text":"The growth pattern of this variety will be interpreted as follows."},{"index":14,"size":48,"text":"After floweri~g commenced, competition between VOG and ROG for assimilate was apparent . After th e start of significant ROG, VOG t e rminated and maximum LA! was determined (i.e. two weeks after flowering). Also, light condition of canopy was deteriorated in parallel with the increase in LAI."},{"index":15,"size":97,"text":"Two weeks after flowering com~enced, LAI decreased r apidly resulting in a reduction in the total amount of currently available photosynthate. On the other hand, one week after flowering commenced, crop growth rate (CGR) of reproductive organs (RO) increas ed rapidly (F i g . 14.) resulting in a probable shor tage of photosynthate. The priority in utilization of this limited amount of available photosynth ate seemed to b~ given to the early bloomed fruited pods to complete their bean filling: r emainde r of the phot~ ~ynth ate being shared among sorne late bloomed small pods."},{"index":16,"size":31,"text":"In other words, the location of fruited pods within plants was determined mainly by the earliness of flowering of each pod, and not by the source-sink balance of ea~h nodal unit."},{"index":17,"size":27,"text":"The number of mat ure pods was determined by the available photosynthate which in turn is controlled rnainly by the l eaf .. -----'*-,.. . . ,"},{"index":18,"size":5,"text":"•' ,, .. ' .."}]},{"head":"•:","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"i ."},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"~ . . "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" blooming at the time of sampling; large pods: pod length more than Scm with significant bean filling not yet recognized; fruited pods : significant bean filling recognized and mature pods: fruited pods at final harvest. After counting the various characters, plants were separated into five parts; viz. green leaves, pods, beans (mainstems and branches separately), roots and the rest (yellow leaves, petioles and stems). After drying in a ventilated oven at 60°C for two days, each part was weighted separately. Subsamples for leaf area per node, pod number per node and total ~ weight per nade 1. Sampling Two plants per replication were taken at random from adjacent border rows of the central two beds near to sampling plot for each stage. Eight plants (two plants per replication x four repiications) were combined and tre a ted as one sample. "},{"text":" day) and weighed. Bean weight was expressed on amoisture content adjus ted to 14%. Beans and pod weight were summed for each node and for the whole plants . From the grand total of whole plants, relative percentage of bean and pod weights within plants were calculated. Pod and bean weight distribution were then calculated i n the same manner as for pod number per node. Subsamples for flower and pod r etention Four plants per replication (total 16 p lants) were tagged at random within • the plot with no border effects. For each flower of each plant, the dates of flow e ring, fruiting, phy s ~ological maturity and abo rt ion we re checked almost every day during the post f lowering period . The se data were summed and adjusted to final plant number/m 2 basis (about 30 plants 2 /m). "},{"text":" were •adjusted for 14%. The final b e an yi e ld was calculat e d as the mean of the sum of yield plot and -yield component plot across replications . Final plant number at harve st was calculated in the same way. "},{"text":"RESULTS 1 . Co~~ition betwee~ vegetative organ growth and reproductive organ growth after flowering The increase of vegetative organ weight (VOW) levelled off at eight days after flowering commenced (eight days from flowering commenced will be expressed as FL8) and after FL15 gradually decreased. On the other hand , reproductive organ weight (ROW) increased rapi dly after FLS. That is, it seemed that there was competition between VOG and ROG from FL1 to FL15, and after FL15, growth shifted from VOG to ROG (Fig. 1) •After this shift of growth phase, the increase of veg~ tative node number stopped as did any further increase in leaf area index (Fig.1). Leaf area was also measured individually for each node at each stage (Fig.2). Up to FL15, new leaves unrolled at upper nodes and hence leaf area increased. However, once new leaf development stopped, leaf area decreased rapidly with the senescence of old leaves.Light transmission ratio (LTR) and canopy height were shown in Fig.3. At 19 days aft e r germination (expressed as G19), canopy height was low and LAI was about 1. 2 (Fig.1). At this stage, canopy could maintain good light condition, that is, 50% of light was intercepted by about 1 "},{"text":" Fig. 1 "},{"text":" .. : • v-~.:,--: . ,.,. ... . . \"~ ..... • !'>~ ~•;--~ ... --::.,-:.~!~•~:~ :~ •. :.,. "},{"text":" Li gh t transrnission ratio (LTR) and canopy height at different growth si~ges in Porrillo Sintetice 71 . .. ~,;.. ,, ~~=~• ~-., •• • .-... -. .V = _:;~~~~)!i ;~ -~:.~:-.• ---_•; -• •~:.:•-.-,.-~• •~=---, ~ : . •.:•. _y:--~'r•:~-::-;:~~- "},{"text":" Fig. 4 "},{"text":" within each raceme, two flowers bloomed as a unit on the same day with about three days interval from hottom unit to upper unit sequentially on the raceme. The lowest unit of two flowers at the bottom df the raceme was defined as the first unit and the second lowest unit of two flowers was defined as the second unit and so on.On the mainstem, the relationship between the flowering days of each unit within raceme of each node and the pod set ratio of each node was investigated. The results are shown in Fig.S. Usually the lower the node position the higher the pod set ratio. If th e flcwering day of the second unit of a lower node raceme and that of the first unit of a higher node raceme were the same, the flowers of the first unit were usually set. That is, pod set ratio was controlled principally by the earliness of the flowering day of each flower bud and secondarily by the position within racemes (Fig.6). In other words, the location of mature pods was determined mainly by earliness of the flowering day of each pod and not by the balance within each source-sink unit.The same relationship was found among nodes within each branch. Comparison between each branch resulted in wide fluctuations and data for branches were not discussed here. "},{"text":"Fig . S Fig . S Relationship between flower unit within each raceme at each node position and flowering day of each flower unit and the pod set ratio for each flower unit on the rac emes on the mainstem for Porrillo Sirr tético. (Data of branches excluded). *:0 _ _tb,e.._Qr.d.er......of.. flowet:_ u~it ,o within each racem~). "},{"text":"Fig . 6 Fig . 6 Relationship between flowering da y and pod set ratio (the ratio of mature pod number to total flower number blooming on each day of the flowering pe riod) for Porrillo Sintético. "},{"text":" and development of single pod on th e 7th maintem node position At FL12 pod length reache d at constant level (Flg. 7). "},{"text":"Fig. 8 .:: Fig.8Small pou number (pod l eng th ~S cm) , : large ¡Tod numb e'r (pod "},{"text":" Fig .11 "},{"text":" eld per node (BY), pod number per .node (PN)~ bean number per node (BN), bean number per pod (BN/P), bean yield per pod (BY/P) and bean size {BS) of mainstem and branches (branches differentiated by node of origin) i n Porrillo Sintético. ~ •, h : ,; ;:¡,,. . .. ',.,, .. ; "},{"text":" photosynthate for bean filling during the later maturing stage . "},{"text":" Fig. 1 2 Sugar and starch (S & S) content in stems , S & S amount i n vegetative organs (VO), reproductive organs (RO), and whole plant (WP) at d ifferent growth stages in Porrillo Sinfético . "},{"text":"Fig .. 1 Fig .. 1 3 LAI, nitrogen (N) content of green leaves (GL), N amount in GL, vegetative organs (VO), reproducti ve organs (RO), and whole plant (l.JP) at different growth s tages in Porrillo Sintético. "},{"text":".  "},{"text":" Fig. 14';-Net as s imilation rate (NAR) , leaf area index (LAI) and crop growth rate (CGR) of whole plant (WP), ve getative organs (VO) and reproductive organs (RO ) at different growth sta ge s in Porrillo Sintético . (FL: flowering) . "},{"text":" ,_:---~~~-,-... ---• -•--... . --the period from two to four weeks after flowering the CGR of RO showed the highest value, with photossynthate being concentrated in fruited pods. Up. to . the stage at which bean number per pod was determined, there seemed to be a shortage of assimilate. However, during the bean filling stage, there appeared to be sufficient assimilate for final bean fillin g probably caused partially by the translocation of assimilate from stems.Maxim9m LAI and maintenance of LAI up to the stage of significant bean filling seemed to be determined by the balance between new leaf development and senescence of old leaves . After significant bean filling had commenced, it was determined by senescence of old leaves. There is a possibility that the nitrogen status of green leaves will have sorne influence on the senescence of leaves and maintenance of leaf area. The question of whether this loss of nitrogen from green leaves after significant bean filling could be the primary cause of leaf drop and reduction of LAI or that nitrogen loss was simply the result of leaf drop needs to be determined.It was previously observed that each node could constitute a source-sink unit. The relationship between maximum leaf area of each node after the commencement of flowering and. bean yield per node is shown in Fig. 15. This . . .. ( :• ~ ~. j "},{"text":" :!i l. ... ,. __ ., ._ ~ .... --. .. -• ,.~. t' ~ • \" •!.\"..:-..... . . . • ••.:;.(~- "}],"sieverID":"90a5c652-4cf1-4dfe-980d-e273e12d7a54","abstract":"Experimental design and plot size Randomized block design with four replications ~as chosen. Site for each sampling stage (total 9 stages) randomized within each replication. Plot size within each replication was 84m 2 (4m x 21m). Four adjacent 1m x 2 row beds were used , the two central beds being sampled for growth analysis. Subsamples for leaf area, pod number, pod and bean weight, pod growth, nitrogen anal ys is, sugar and starch analysis and bean yield samples at harvesting time were taken. For growth analysis 1m 2 samples were ta ken from each replication every seven days ~t . nin e growth stages commencing 12 days after eme r gence . At ha rvest 9 m 2 were taken for final yield and samples of 2 m were analyzed for yield components. Each sampling site was pordered by SOcm of crop to avoid border effects between sampling dates. Samplin. g of growth ana_!E is p lot Every s even days starting 12 days after emergence a ll the plants within 1m l eng th of bed (1 m 2 ) were sampled. Canopy hci ght was measur ed in th e field. Plant number, node number on mainstem and branches , three typ es of pods were classified acc ording to siz e and counted. Pods were classified as follows. Small pods: pod length l e ss than Scm ., .,• ..."}

data/part_4/0ae038e98b75a6be4fdf27a8f2fbd813.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0ae038e98b75a6be4fdf27a8f2fbd813","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e2fdc2ba-dda5-4914-b70b-7e9b741780b2/retrieve"},"pageCount":21,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"• ,"},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"• i .,"},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":". , El propósito de este estud,;o fue: 1) Reproducir experimentalmente los síntomas de fotosensibil~zación en novillos en Santander de Quilichao en el Depto.,del Cauca, Colombia; 2) Ohs~rvar, tanto las lesiones clínicas como subclínicas al introdl!cir ene] pasto el hongo P.i:thomyc.e6 c.hCl.ll.tlVLwn, y 3), , Estudiar el efecto de la adición de zinc al suelo y a la sal de los animales en el desarrollo de las lesiones."}]},{"head":"MATERIALES Y ~ETODOS'","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"El 'estudio se reaiizó en la estación experimental Quilichao, Municipio de Santander de Quilichao, en el Depar'tamento del Cauca, Colombia, La esta-\" ción está ~ituada a 40 km. al sur de Cali a una altura de 990 m. •sobre el ' ,nivel del mar' y tiene una temperatura anual promedio de 23.3°C. Se escogieron 20 animalc?~ mestizos cebú de 12 a 14 meses de edad y se asignaron a _seis,; lote~, ':~.ee.rJ.\"le.ntales. de 3 animales cada unó. Los dos animales restJn-',tes se separaron como reemplazos."},{"index":2,"size":161,"text":"Los lotes experim~nta1es fueron parcelas de 0.3 ha. de pasto /3J!.1Ic.hi.tVl-út decumbuu,. Dos meses antes de iniciar el pastoreo, todos los lotes recibieron una fertilización básica de 20 kg P/ha, 50 kg Ca/ha, 50 kg K/ha, y 50 kg N/ha. Se esta~lecieron dos tratamientos y un control. Los tres grupos recibieron la aplicación de hongo' al pasto, el grupo control no recibió ninguna otra apl icación. El tratamiento 1 recibió z,inc aplicado al suelo al momento do 1'a fcrtil ilación de mantenimiento a razón de 5 kg/h/l. El tratamiento 11 recibió la adición de Zn en la sal mineralizada a razón de 50 ppm. Cada tratamiento tenía un lote de 3 animales y una repetición con otros 3 animales. La distribución de los lotes y de los animales dentro de cada lote se hizo al azar . las espm'as del hongo PUhomyc.cu> c.!uvz;taJ¡,WlI se asperjaron sobre las parcelas en las últizilas horas de la tarde. S'e hicieron tres aplicaciones del ---~--"}]},{"head":"\"-","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"hongo\"una 20 dias antes de iniciar el pastoreo (Abril 14), otra cindo dias _a ____ _ antes del 'p'astoreQ, (t1ayo 3), Y la tercera 20 días después de inicia,do el mjs-."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"mo (l~ayo 28). -En total se aplicaron ~.5 x 101~ esporas en'las seis' parcelas."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"Estas esporas se diluyeron en 50 litros de agua destilada para'facilitar la aspersión. Se puso especial cuidado de asperjar aquellas partes de cada lote donde el pasto tenia más altura. Se determinó la concentl'ación de esporas en el pasto cada semana por la t.knica ya descrita, (Aycardi y col.., 1983). Brachiaria antes d~ la fertilizaci6n uno y dos meses después de aplicado éste ."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"Para el estudio estadístico se utiliz6 el análisls de varianza y la prueba de Duncan para separaci6n de medias ."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"."}]},{"head":"RESULTADOS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":", La caracterizaci6n del suelo de las parcelas donde se realiz6 el ensayo (Cuadro 1); mostr6 cómo al final del misnio el tenor de zinc aument6 considerablemente en'el tratamiento 1 al cual se le había aplicado fertilizaci6n básica más la adici6n de 5 kg de Zn/ha. El nivel pasó de 1.0-1.1 a 1.5-1.9 ppm lo cua] representa un incremento del 52%. El contenido de zinc en el ,tejido del pasto /3JLac./úaJUa. d~.C!!lJ7lben5 también se increme~t6 notablemEnte en este tratamier,to (Cuadro ,2). A los dos meses de aplicación de zinc al suelo el ,nivel de este elemento en el, pasto pasó de 18.2-20.9 a 34.0-35.5 ppm, lo cual representa un increm~nto promedio del 77%. La relación calcio-zinc en el tejid'o disminuyó e,n forma notable de niveles 22i¡~225 hasta 108-155; iD tual representa un d~scenso del 42%."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Veintitres (23) días despuls de iniciado el pastoreo aparecieron dos animilles del grupo control y tratamiento II con síntomas externos de foto-sensibilizaci6n (edema de la papada, resecamiento de la piel y prurito cutáneo). En esa misma fecha otros tres animales de los mismos grupos mostraron inquietud y prurito cut~neo."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":".'"},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":".. . . .'"},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":". , : .,"}]},{"head":"7.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"miento 1 que se comportó en forma muy diferente al resto de este grupo y prácticamente se aebi1itó y murió cuando el ensayo había terminado (día 84) ."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"los dos animales que murieron en los dias 27 y 28 del ensayo (Grupo,con-tro1 y tratamiento I)' fueron reempl'azados por los animales de reserva. Estos"},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"dos animales presentaron ambos elevaciones en el tenor de enzima G.G.T. a las cuatro semanas de haber entrado al pastoreo. Los niveles fueron para el animal de1,grupo control, 24.5 u.r. y para el del tratamiento 11, 46.8 u.r."},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"Tres de los 'cincoanímales que murieron tuv'ieron e'le\\'ac'ión del n,ivel de bilírrubina, valores de 0.6-3.6 y 4.4 mg/dl. Todos los animales que murieron presentaron edemas d2 cuello y papada. y tuvieron -también elevación de los niveles de transaminasa oxaloacética en el suero por encima de 70 unidades."},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"Ocho animales mostraron 'indicies de ictericia pOr\" coloración amari.llenta de las mucosas y siete novillos mostraron prurito cutáneo, intranquilidad y de-,caimiento, (Cuadro 3). "}]},{"head":"9.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"El nivel de daño hepát,ico medido por ,la elevación de enzima G.G. Esto permite deducir que la prueba pOdría vtilizarse para detectar los casos sub-clínicos y aún para predecir qué animales van a enfermar o morir en un lote de ,pastoreo. El nivel de enzima G.G.T. en animaíes que murieron parece , . indicar que,un animal tiene pocas probabilidades de sobrevivir si su tenor' de enzima sube más alHi de 80 unidades internacionales."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"Los niveles de bilirrubina sér'ica parecen elevarse únicamente en a19unos de los animales más afectados, especialmente en los que murieron. Los nive-,les sérlcos de transaminasa oxaloacética qu~ también se encuentran elevados en iI,lgunas afecciones que evolucionan 'con éstasis biliar, se encontraron elevados en todos los animales que murieron, sin ell1bargo en otros animales con sintom¡¡s evidentes no mostraron alteración. lo cual sugiere que estas pruebas son de poco valo;\" en el diagnóstico del di:lño hepático producido por aste tipo de fotosensibilización."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"Parece evidente que la p'rueba más fidedigna para determinar casos sub-cHnicos de, foto'sensibilización es la detección de elevación en los niveles de enzinm 6.G.T. del suero, sanguíneo de los bovinos. Es significativo comentar que los cinco animales que desarrollaron edema de cuello y papada 'murieron, a similitud de lo encontrajo en la mayoría de' los casos de enfermedad natural (Garcia y'co1., 1982). Otros signos clínicos, tales como la ictericia'observada en algunos casos, el prurito cutáneo\"la intranquilidad y el decaimiento, observado en otros, no ~arecen ser consis-."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"ten tes en todos los animales afactados."},{"index":5,"size":74,"text":"Par~ce existir una marcada susceptibilidad individual a la acción de la toxina del hongo. Hubo animales que enfermaron más rápidamente y con signos . más notorias. Sin embargo estas diferencias en' reacción pueden deberse a que el hongo tiene preferencias de crecimiento en ciertas partes del potrero, y 10s animales en este caso astarían som~tidos a d4ferentes concentraciones de toxina!:. :' Es de s:Jponer que el daño producido en los animales sobreviene a conse-."},{"index":6,"size":32,"text":", cuencia de la exposición a toxinas produc,idas por crecimiento y esporú1ación ¡\" , del hongo en la pradera y no a la, ingestión de las esporas que se inoculan .. '."}]},{"head":"AGRADECH1IENTOS","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Se agradece a 'jos Sres. Fél ix ~arreño y Jos~ G. Rivas por el manejo y supervisión de los animales. Al Dr, OUo Sánchez F., por la lectura de las láminas histopatológicas, y a Germán Lema y \"lada Cristina Amézquita por el análisis éstad~stico."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"-, . \" : ' .  . I"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"' Se determinó peso de ¡os animales cada dos semana~ y se obtuvo ~,r02itn,,--~_ 1 guineo de los animales cada semana para determinal' proteina, nitrógeno uréico, ! fosfatasa alcalina y.para pruebas de funcional~iento hepático por medición deI \" enzil:1as,-gama-gl utamil-transferasa (G';G,. T.), y Transaminasa oxaloacéti ca, • lSGOT) • También se obtuvo sangre entera para análisis . I hemático,completo. , . ' los allimales se observaron diar-iamente para detel'minar pI'esencia de lesiolles externas. l . . . los 'animales que murieron se les practicó necl'opsia completa y se sacaron órganos para análisis histopatológico.Se hicieron análisis de suelos de cada,parcela, antes de la fertilización y al final del ensayo. Se analizaron muestras de tejido vegetal de. , "},{"text":" que enferma~on el dfa 23 murieron a los 27 y 28 díás de .inicio del pastoreo (Cuadro 3), con síntomas externos y lesiones hepáticas de fotosensibilización. En el día 30 aparecieron 6 animales 'con signos de ictericia y otro con edemas subcutáneos. I-lás tarde (día 70) murieron otros 'dos novillos del 'grupo Control y Tratamiento JI, y un novillo <:Iel tratamiento 1 'murió después de terminado el ensayo (~ía 84 de iniciado el pastoreo).los animales enfermos y muertos presentaron además elevaciones séricas ~e enzimas, S.G.T. y SGOT. El nivel crítico de G.G.T. se determinó calculando 3 desviaciones estándar pqr encima del ,promedio de todos los animales en dos . . muestreos antes de iniciar el pastoreo de 10s lotes infectados con el hongo. los animales del tratamiento 1 mostraron muy poco incremento d~ G.G.T. y algunos nó mostraron elevación alguna (Nos. 2682, 2702 y 2690), Cuadro 3. El prvmedio por tratamiento para los niveles de enzima S.G.T. se encuentra en . , la Figura 1. P.al'a el control y tratamiento IJ los promedios de los seis animales estuvieron, después de la primera semana, siempre por .encima del nivel critico de.15.2 U.L x litro. Los animales del tratamiento 1 estuvieron en promedia por debajo del nivel de afección excepto por una ligera alza a las. 3 semanas de iniciado el ensayo. Básicamente los animales del tratamiento 1 que recibieron la adición de zinc al suel,o se vieron menos afectados que el contr~l y el tratamiento 11. Ese grupo. tuvo menos mortalidad, menos sintomatología y menor afección hepática. Al hacer el análisis estadfstico del incremento de enzima S.S.T. en el suero como una medida de afección del hígado se encontró,. por la prueba de Duncan, que existe una diferencia significa-o tiva (P < 0.05) entre el• tratamiento con la adición de zinc al suelo y los otros'dos tratamiento!. control y con Zn en la sal (Cuadro 4). Sin embargo se debe_indicar que para este análisis'S!! eliminó el animal 2684 del tra\"ta-'-!~:.\"~' :.:¿~{' \" ~ . "},{"text":" El cuadro hemátic~ y los r.ecuentos diferenciales de los animales del ensayo no mostraron ninguna alteración. lo mismo que los niveles nitrógeno ureico y fosfatasa alcalina. de los cinco animales que perecieron durante el ensayo mostraron 'lesiones características de éstasis biliar. Se encontró hiperplasia y prolife'raci6n generalizada de conductos biliares en las áreas portales y periportales del hígado, así como degeneración parenquimatosa hepática,en algunas áreas. se encontró nefrosis generalizada, caracteriiada por degene-, ,ración parenquimatosa y cilindros proteicos en túbulos contorneados proximales. Estas lesiones son similares y compatibles con las encontradas en casos naturales de fotosensibilización hepatotóxica (García,y col\" 1982).Las'esporas,del hongo P~mYCe6 c/~ se detectaron en los potreros desde ocho días después de la segunda aspersión (Mayo 3) hasta cerca del fi-'nal del ensayo a las ocho semanas, En ~l último muestreo, de Julio 13 no se detectaron esporas del hongo.\" DISCUSl0r~ A similitutl de lo encontrado en Carimagua (I\\yc¡¡rdi .y col. 1982) el aumen-. t.o del contenido de esporas de, P.l:tltomyce6 clu:l..UMum 'en el pasto pr'oduce la aparición de animales ~on slntomas y le$iones tanto clínicas como sub~clinicas de fotosensibilización. aproximadamente un mes después de iniciado el pastoreo del potrero de B. decumbeYL6 contaminado con el hongo. En el ensayo ele Carlmagua aparecieron animales cori lesiones externas a los, 32 días, en este en~ayo a los 27 dras. Podría 'pepsarse que la aparición e intensidad de las lesiones var1a de acuerdo a la concentración del hongo en el pasto ya que en este ensa-'yo los animales se expu!:ieron a 2.5 x 1.0 12 esporas en 1.8 ha\" mientras que en Carimagua se someti ero n a 2.7 X IO lI esporas en 4 ha. Además. en este ensayo muriero'n 5 animales comparado con ninguno en el anterior, y se enfermilr'Jn sub-cHnicamente (elevaC'Íó~ de enzima G.G.T. por ardba de 15.2) 15 de ros 18 animales comparado cvn 4 de 15 en el ensayo' ariterfor. --\". -. . _---,-.,--..-.,.,.-~-~.~.---~,--,-~.~._. '--~\"'\"\"----'------ "},{"text":"J inicialmente, ya que el manipuleo y el almacenamiento de éstas parece' destruír el contenido de toxina del material in vitro, (t4arbrook y Mathews, explicaría por qué no es posible,reproducir la sintomatología .I 'inoculando esporas directamente en el animal provenientes de un cultivo in vitro, sin purificar la toxina, o preparar un extracto.Apa¡'entemente la adición de• zinc a los animales tiene 'el efecto benéfico de disminuir el daño producidO por las toxi!1as del hongo sobre los mismos.Parece que éste es un efecto protectivo del Zn t!n el hígado donde minimiza .-En vacas de leche en tlueva Zelandia,(Towers y Smith.   1978), lograron disminuir el efecto de la tOKina manteniendo la producción lechera, por medio de inyecciones 'de este ~ineral a los animales, La adición de zinc al suelo para incrementar el tenor en los tejidos del pasto y en los de los animales que 10 consumen puede ser un sistema práctico de disminuir la afección, esp!!cialmente en áreas como los Llanos Orientales de Colombia donde existen grandes extensiones en Brachiaria y el síndrome es ., 'frecuente, y donde el. manejo animal extensivo,no permite ,hacer aplicaciones o tratamientos individuales. El tratamiento preventivo utilizando .zinc en la sal podda llegar e, ser efectivo y económico si se'utilizan niveles más altos al usado en este ensayo, (50 ppm). Además r.abe pensar que el Zn en la sal podrfa tener un mayor efecto de protección si los animales tienen la oportunidad de recibir el suplemento , de Zn por lo menos uno o dos meses antes de ia exposición a la toxina del hon-. go. En e'l presente tmsayo los .animal.es con Zn en la sal recibieron ésta únicamente al entrar al potrero' donde simultáneamente se estaba exponiendo al hongo, por 10 cual probablemente no se logró observar ningún efecto benéfico sobre los animales. No se logró tampoco observar efecto alguno de la adición de zinc al suelo (} sal sobre las ganancias de peso de los animales posiblemente debido a que todos ~e sometieron a un estrés muy grande por los muestreos intensos que sufrieron.En términos generales puede concluírse que la presencia de esporas de l'.(;tltomyc.eI.> c./¡Mt:aJtum en potreros de 8M.c.lt.úvúa. decwllbenll, ocasiona la aparición de animales con lesiones característiscas de fotosensibilización hepa-totóKica 25 a 30 día.s después de entrar a consumir pasto cont,ilminado... los y lesiones son características de una afección hepática con éstasis biliar, fácilmente detectable aún,en la forma subclínica por elevación de los niveles séricos de la enzima gama-glutamil-transferasa. Se encontraron evidencias de que los animales que consumen un pasto 'con incremento del con-, . tenido de zinc debido a fertilización mostraron enfermedad menos intensa tanto clínica como subc)ínicamente. Valdría la pena en futuros ensayos probar niveles lig~ramente mas altos de zinc en el suelo que puedan prevenir . . 'aún más los efectos d<!l hongo. También es cOlJveniente analizar si existe algún sinergismo entre el Bha~ d~cumbenh y el hongo, o si por el. con-\" .trario el hongo multiplicándose en otros pastos produce la afección . "},{"text":" Figura l. Niveles sérico! de enzima G. G. T. en novillas con folosensibllización experimental pastoreando Brachiaria decumbem; "},{"text":" T. también parece responder al contenido de esporas del hongo en el p~sto. En este ensayo se obtuvieron valores hasta' 139 U.L comparado con 33.5 U.1. cómo máximo en el ensayo realizado e~ Carimagua. Además los cinco animales que m~ rieron en este ensayo tuvieron los más altos niveles de G.G.T. y tres de , , , ,,, ellos, estaban por arriba de 90 U.l. ellos, estaban por arriba de 90 U.l.  "},{"text":" Caracterización del suelo antes y después de la fertilización y adición de zinc en ensayo de fotosensibil ización en Quilichao.Cuadro 3. Mortalidad, afecci~n clínica y sub-clínica en novillos con fotosensibilización experimental.             \", .. :. \",.. :. Tratamiento Parcela• No. animal Prurito I~ortal iC:ad Edema Icteri-Decaimi ento cia. Intranq. G.G.T. S.S.O,T. Af t•d al Nivel I (+de 70) ec a o promediob Tratamiento Parcela• No. animalPrurito I~ortal iC:ad Edema Icteri-Decaimi ento cia. Intranq.G.G.T. S.S.O,T. Af t•d al Nivel I (+de 70) ec a o promediob Control 1  2691 2692 + (Día 27) 2599 + +  + +   ++ + + + 30.8 59,1 20.2 Control12691 2692 + (Día 27) 2599+++ ++++ + +30.8 59,1 20.2 sin Zn 5  2687 2696 . + (Díá 70) 2698 + + +  +    + + + + + 26.0 29.Z 14.4 sin Zn52687 2696 . + (Díá 70) 2698++ +++ ++ + +26.0 29.Z 14.4             , j¡ 30.0 , j¡ 30.0 1 Tra tal!l i ento S Zn en el suelo 2 paree 1 a (3.000m 2 ) 6 . 'Antes a / (Abr. 29/82) 2682 2684 + (Día 84) + 2702 Ca In (ppm), (meq/lOOg) (ppm) 2689 2690 2695 +. Después (Jul. 15/82) P Ca In (ppm) (meq/lOOg) (ppm) + + +++ + + . -+ + + + + 12.4 16.1 10.4 11.9 11.0 • 12.0 1 Tra tal!l i ento S Zn en el suelo2 paree 1 a (3.000m 2 ) 6. 'Antes a / (Abr. 29/82) 2682 2684 + (Día 84) + 2702 Ca In (ppm), (meq/lOOg) (ppm) 2689 2690 2695+. Después (Jul. 15/82) P Ca In (ppm) (meq/lOOg) (ppm) + + +++ + + . -+ ++ + +12.4 16.1 10.4 11.9 11.0 • 12.0 Control sin In  1 5 2.3 2.4 0.9 1.1 1.0 1.2 ,  3.6 3.6  1.4 1.9 1.4 1.3 x 12.3 Control sin In1 52.3 2.40.9 1.11.0 1.2 ,3.6 3.61.4 1.91.4 1.3x 12.3 I 1:1 en el suelo (5 kg/ha) .IV Zn en la sal (50 ppm) II ZIl en la Sal 3 4 2 6 3 4 3.3 2.8 2.7 2.8 2685 2693 + (Día 28) 1.1 1..2 1.1 1.2 2700 2688 2686 + (Día 70) 2697 1.0 + 1.1 0.8 1.1 + + + 3.0 3.2 2.7 2.6 1.3 ,1.1 1.1 1.1 + + -.Ll. 1.5 1.2, 1.1 ++ + ++ + + + + + + + 37.8 14,6 12.5 41.1 20.4 16.0 , x 23.7 I 1:1 en el suelo (5 kg/ha) .IV Zn en la sal (50 ppm) II ZIl en la Sal3 42 6 3 43.3 2.8 2.7 2.8 2685 2693 + (Día 28) 1.1 1..2 1.1 1.2 2700 2688 2686 + (Día 70) 26971.0 + 1.1 0.8 1.1 ++ +3.0 3.2 2.7 2.61.3 ,1.1 1.1 1.1 + +-.Ll. 1.5 1.2, 1.1++ + ++ ++ + + + + +37.8 14,6 12.5 41.1 20.4 16.0 , x 23.7 al Fertilización básica a t0das las parcelas: ,50 'kg K/ha y 50 kg ti/ha. al > d~ 15.2 en cualquier de íos 10 muestreos. ~O k9 P/ha, J ¡ 50 k9 Ca/ha, ! al Fertilización básica a t0das las parcelas: ,50 'kg K/ha y 50 kg ti/ha. al > d~ 15.2 en cualquier de íos 10 muestreos.~O k9 P/ha,J ¡ 50 k9 Ca/ha, ! b/' Bray II.          , i i J I . b/' Bray II., i i JI .  "}],"sieverID":"7cf5edc7-13db-47ec-8514-42bd76d9024a","abstract":"La esporidesmi na, un metabol ita del hongo PLtholn!Jc.u C./¡a.l!.taJt.WIl se constató como el agente que produce la fotosensibilización hepatotóxica en ovinos y bovinos de Nueva Zelandia y ,Australia, (Mortimer y. Tayl?r, 1962). la esporidesminil es producida únicamente PO!' P. c.lu:uLtMUm Y es tóxica experimentalmente para bovinos, ovinos, y animales de laboratorio, (l~hite y c'ol. 1971)\". En Colombia y Brasil la fotosensibilización afecta preferentemente a animales jóvenes (ñ;enores de 24 meses) que pastoreán &a.c.h.i.aJUa dec.wnbe¡u, y se sospe-, , cha una '!'elación con el hongo P. c.I'l.IVLttvwm, (Nobre y'l\\ndrade, 1976; Garcí¡: y \" col., 1982)., la esporidesmina produce considerable daño hepátJco caracteriz~do por in-'tcrru¡)ción de la conducción bn iar (Dodd, 1959), el cual se detecta muy especialmente por elevación de la enzima gama-glutamil-transpeptidasa (~,G.T.), en el sue:-o sangu'íneo de los animales afectados, (To~lers y Straton, 197B; Muchiri y col., 1980), Und ,proporción cons.iderable de animales aparentemente sanos pueden sUfrir,afec.ción suucl'ínica detectada por niveles elevados de' G.G. T. a conSecuencia del daño hepático, (To\\'¡ers, 1978; Aycardi y col., 1983).El sulfato 'de zinc en inyección ha sido utilizado en ¡'¡ueva Zelandia como pro-~ector del efecto produci do pOI' 1 a esporidesmi na sobre el hígado, reduci endo las les.iones hepáticas y manteniendo la producción, de leche y el peso de los animales así tratados, (Towers y Smitl1, 1978)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b36d759c097f1518cec3381ca7ccdd6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ef1321e0-ac79-4f33-aa4f-6f4e675a509b/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Holistic approaches for sustainable and nutrition-sensitive food systems Agricultural biodiversity to improve nutrition using a nutrition-sensitive food system approach","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"One of the world's greatest challenges is to secure universal access not only to enough food, but healthy, safe, and high-quality food that is produced sustainably. Currently, more than 800 million people are hungry worldwide. More than 165 million children under five years of age are stunted. Of these children, 80% live in just 14 countries. Micronutrient deficiencies, otherwise known as \"hidden hunger\", undermine the growth, development, health and productivity of over two billion people. At the same time, across the developed and developing world, an estimated one billion people are overweight and 300 million are obese."},{"index":2,"size":205,"text":"Moving towards sustainable diets is a key challenge of the 21st century. Sustainable food systems and diets need to be diverse and nutritionally adequate. Sustainable food systems can maintain or even enhance agricultural productivity. Such systems sustain the environment and ecosystem services, boost resilience, and guarantee the adequate intake of essential nutrient and non-nutrient health-promoting food elements. Such systems can make local food biodiversity affordable and available for low-income rural and urban households, all year round, in sufficient quantities, and in culturally acceptable forms -all critical ingredients to improving dietary quality. Maintaining the agricultural biodiversity resource base within local food systems is critical to achieving improvements in dietary quality and food system sustainability, especially given that 70% of the world still relies on locally-produced food. Lack of investment and attention to agricultural and tree biodiversity is a critical limitation for human nutrition and health, particularly in the developing world, where diets consist mainly of starchy staples with insufficient intakes of nutrient-rich foods, such as animal products, legumes, fruits and vegetables. Sustainably diversifying agricultural production and associated markets and processing systems, as well as raising consumer awareness to increase year-round supply and demand for nutrient dense foods is the goal of the nutrition-sensitive food system approach."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Key words: dietary diversity, local foods, nutrition, sustainable diets, value chains"}]},{"head":"Indigenous peoples, crop diversity and livelihoods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Phrang Roy","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Indigenous Partnership for Agrobiodiversity and Food Sovereignty (Italy)"},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"The Rio+20 Conference on Sustainable Development held in June 2012 called for the creation of a world that is \"just, equitable and inclusive\". As the world searches for a meaningful way forward from the current climate change and food security crises, concerned citizens are turning a thoughtful gaze toward indigenous peoples. Today the world's remaining biodiversity is concentrated on their lands. Developing a deeper understanding of the world view and practices of indigenous communities and forming a partnership with them can help the CGIAR system to favour those at the margins of mainstream society."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"ea50df75-1e14-4d2d-9c0a-52c986e1b623","abstract":""}