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C_cb749859c40b4d9ca31d84eb14200b76_0
Spirit (rover)
Spirit, also known as MER-A (Mars Exploration Rover - A) or MER-2, is a robotic rover on Mars, active from 2004 to 2010. It was one of two rovers of NASA's ongoing Mars Exploration Rover Mission. It landed successfully on Mars at 04:35 Ground UTC on January 4, 2004, three weeks before its twin, Opportunity (MER-B), landed on the other side of the planet. Its name was chosen through a NASA-sponsored student essay competition.
Communication attempts
Spirit remains silent at its location, called "Troy," on the west side of Home Plate. As of 2016, there has been no communication with the rover since Sol 2210 (March 22, 2010). It is likely that Spirit experienced a low-power fault and had turned off all sub-systems, including communication, and gone into a deep sleep, trying to recharge its batteries. It is also possible that the rover had experienced a mission clock fault. If that had happened, the rover would have lost track of time and tried to remain asleep until enough sunlight struck the solar arrays to wake it. This state is called "Solar Groovy." If the rover woke up from a mission clock fault, it would only listen. Starting on Sol 2333 (July 26, 2010), a new procedure to address the possible mission clock fault was implemented. Each sol, the Deep Space Network mission controllers sent a set of X-band "Sweep & Beep" commands. If the rover had experienced a mission clock fault and then had been awoken during the day, it would have listened during brief, 20-minute intervals during each hour awake. Due to the possible clock fault, the timing of these 20-minute listening intervals was not known, so multiple "Sweep & Beep" commands were sent. If the rover heard one of these commands, it would have responded with an X-band beep signal, updating the mission controllers on its status and allowing them to investigate the state of the rover further. But even with this new strategy, there was no response from the rover. The rover had driven 7,730.50 meters (4.80 miles) until it became immobile. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "Did something go wrong with communicating with the rover?", "Did something happen to make the rover not communicate?", "How many times did they try to communicate with it?", "Did they give up on the rover?", "What was the last thing the rover communicated?", "Did the rover send any important information?", "Was there any other factors that contributed to the communication failure?", "Why would the mission clock fail?", "Was there a lack of solar arrays at the time?" ]
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Spirit, also known as MER-A (Mars Exploration Rover – A) or MER-2, is a Mars robotic rover, active from 2004 to 2010. Spirit was operational on Mars for sols or 3.3 Martian years ( days; ). It was one of two rovers of NASA's Mars Exploration Rover Mission managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). Spirit landed successfully within the impact crater Gusev on Mars at 04:35 Ground UTC on January 4, 2004, three weeks before its twin, Opportunity (MER-B), which landed on the other side of the planet. Its name was chosen through a NASA-sponsored student essay competition. The rover got stuck in a "sand trap" in late 2009 at an angle that hampered recharging of its batteries; its last communication with Earth was on March 22, 2010. The rover completed its planned 90-sol mission (slightly less than 92.5 Earth days). Aided by cleaning events that resulted in more energy from its solar panels, Spirit went on to function effectively over twenty times longer than NASA planners expected. Spirit also logged of driving instead of the planned , allowing more extensive geological analysis of Martian rocks and planetary surface features. Initial scientific results from the first phase of the mission (the 90-sol prime mission) were published in a special issue of the journal Science. On May 1, 2009 (5 years, 3 months, 27 Earth days after landing; 21 times the planned mission duration), Spirit became stuck in soft sand. This was not the first of the mission's "embedding events" and for the following eight months NASA carefully analyzed the situation, running Earth-based theoretical and practical simulations, and finally programming the rover to make extrication drives in an attempt to free itself. These efforts continued until January 26, 2010, when NASA officials announced that the rover was likely irrecoverably obstructed by its location in soft sand, though it continued to perform scientific research from its current location. The rover continued in a stationary science platform role until communication with Spirit stopped on March 22, 2010 (sol ). JPL continued to attempt to regain contact until May 24, 2011, when NASA announced that efforts to communicate with the unresponsive rover had ended, calling the mission complete. A formal farewell took place at NASA headquarters shortly thereafter. Objectives The scientific objectives of the Mars Exploration Rover mission were to: Search for and characterize a variety of rocks and soils that hold clues to past water activity. In particular, samples sought include those that have minerals deposited by water-related processes such as precipitation, evaporation, sedimentary cementation, or hydrothermal activity. Determine the distribution and composition of minerals, rocks, and soils surrounding the landing sites. Determine what geologic processes have shaped the local terrain and influenced the chemistry. Such processes could include water or wind erosion, sedimentation, hydrothermal mechanisms, volcanism, and cratering. Perform calibration and validation of surface observations made by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) instruments. This will help determine the accuracy and effectiveness of various instruments that survey Martian geology from orbit. Search for iron-containing minerals, and to identify and quantify relative amounts of specific mineral types that contain water or were formed in water, such as iron-bearing carbonates. Characterize the mineralogy and textures of rocks and soils to determine the processes that created them. Search for geological clues to the environmental conditions that existed when liquid water was present. Assess whether those environments were conducive to life. Mission timeline Opportunity and Spirit rovers were part of the Mars Exploration Rover program in the long-term Mars Exploration Program. The Mars Exploration Program's four principal goals were to determine if the potential for life exists on Mars (in particular, whether recoverable water may be found on Mars), to characterize the Mars climate and its geology, and then to prepare for a potential human mission to Mars. The Mars Exploration Rovers were to travel across the Martian surface and perform periodic geologic analyses to determine if water ever existed on Mars as well as the types of minerals available, as well as to corroborate data taken by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). Both rovers were designed with an expected 90 sols (92 Earth days) lifetime, but each lasted much longer than expected. Spirit mission lasted 20 times longer than its expected lifetime, and its mission was declared ended on May 25, 2011, after it got stuck in soft sand and expended its power reserves trying to free itself. Opportunity lasted 55 times longer than its 90 sol planned lifetime, operating for days from landing to mission end. An archive of weekly updates on the rover's status can be found at the Opportunity Update Archive. Launch and landing The MER-A (Spirit) and MER-B (Opportunity) were launched on June 10, 2003 and July 7, 2003, respectively. Though both probes launched on Boeing Delta II 7925-9.5 rockets from Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 17 (CCAFS SLC-17), MER-B was on the heavy version of that launch vehicle, needing the extra energy for Trans-Mars injection. The launch vehicles were integrated onto pads right next to each other, with MER-A on CCAFS SLC-17A and MER-B on CCAFS SLC-17B. The dual pads allowed for working the 15- and 21-day planetary launch periods close together; the last possible launch day for MER-A was June 19, 2003 and the first day for MER-B was June 25, 2003. NASA's Launch Services Program managed the launch of both spacecraft. Spirit successfully landed on the surface of Mars on 04:35 Spacecraft Event Time (SCET) on January 4, 2004. This was the start of its 90-sol mission, but solar cell cleaning events would mean it was the start of a much longer mission, lasting until 2010. Spirit was targeted to a site that appears to have been affected by liquid water in the past, the crater Gusev, a possible former lake in a giant impact crater about from the center of the target ellipse at . After the airbag-protected landing craft settled onto the surface, the rover rolled out to take panoramic images. These give scientists the information they need to select promising geological targets and drive to those locations to perform on-site scientific investigations. The MER team named the landing site "Columbia Memorial Station," in honor of the seven astronauts killed in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster. On May 1, 2009 (sol ), the rover became stuck in soft sand, the machine resting upon a cache of iron(III) sulfate (jarosite) hidden under a veneer of normal-looking soil. Iron sulfate has very little cohesion, making it difficult for the rover's wheels to gain traction. On January 26, 2010 (sol ), after several months attempting to free the rover, NASA decided to redefine the mobile robot mission by calling it a stationary research platform. Efforts were directed in preparing a more suitable orientation of the platform in relation to the Sun in an attempt to allow a more efficient recharge of the platform's batteries. This was needed to keep some systems operational during the Martian winter. On March 30, 2010, Spirit skipped a planned communication session and as anticipated from recent power-supply projections, had probably entered a low-power hibernation mode. The last communication with the rover was March 22, 2010 (sol ) and there is a strong possibility the rover's batteries lost so much energy at some point that the mission clock stopped. In previous winters the rover was able to park on a Sun-facing slope and keep its internal temperature above , but since the rover was stuck on flat ground it is estimated that its internal temperature dropped to . If Spirit had survived these conditions and there had been a cleaning event, there was a possibility that with the southern summer solstice in March 2011, solar energy would increase to a level that would wake up the rover. Spirit remains silent at its location, called "Troy," on the west side of Home Plate. There was no communication with the rover after March 22, 2010 (sol ). It is likely that Spirit experienced a low-power fault and had turned off all sub-systems, including communication, and gone into a deep sleep, trying to recharge its batteries. It is also possible that the rover had experienced a mission clock fault. If that had happened, the rover would have lost track of time and tried to remain asleep until enough sunlight struck the solar arrays to wake it. This state is called "Solar Groovy." If the rover woke up from a mission clock fault, it would only listen. Starting on July 26, 2010 (sol ), a new procedure to address the possible mission clock fault was implemented. End of mission JPL continued attempts to regain contact with Spirit until May 25, 2011, when NASA announced the end of contact efforts and the completion of the mission. According to NASA, the rover likely experienced excessively cold "internal temperatures" due to "inadequate energy to run its survival heaters" that, in turn, was a result of "a stressful Martian winter without much sunlight." Many critical components and connections would have been "susceptible to damage from the cold." Assets that had been needed to support Spirit were transitioned to support Spirit's then still-active Opportunity rover, and Mars rover Curiosity which is exploring Gale Crater and has been doing so for more than six years. The primary surface mission for Spirit was planned to last at least 90 sols. The mission received several extensions and lasted about 2,208 sols. On August 11, 2007, Spirit obtained the second longest operational duration on the surface of Mars for a lander or rover at 1282 Sols, one sol longer than the Viking 2 lander. Viking 2 was powered by a nuclear cell whereas Spirit is powered by solar arrays. Until Opportunity overtook it on May 19, 2010, the Mars probe with longest operational period was Viking 1 that lasted for 2245 Sols on the surface of Mars. On March 22, 2010, Spirit sent its last communication, thus falling just over a month short of surpassing Viking 1's operational record. An archive of weekly updates on the rover's status can be found at the Spirit Update Archive. Spirit's total odometry is . Design and construction Spirit (and its twin, Opportunity) are six-wheeled, solar-powered robots standing high, wide and long and weighing . Six wheels on a rocker-bogie system enabled mobility over rough terrain. Each wheel had its own motor. The vehicle was steered at front and rear and was designed to operate safely at tilts of up to 30 degrees. The maximum speed was ; , although the average speed was about . Both Spirit and Opportunity have pieces of the fallen World Trade Center's metal on them that were "turned into shields to protect cables on the drilling mechanisms". Solar arrays generated about 140 watts for up to fourteen hours per sol, while rechargeable lithium ion batteries stored energy for use at night. Spirits onboard computer uses a 20 MHz RAD6000 CPU with 128 MB of DRAM and 3 MB of EEPROM. The rover's operating temperature ranges from and radioisotope heaters provide a base level of heating, assisted by electrical heaters when necessary. Communications depended on an omnidirectional low-gain antenna communicating at a low data rate and a steerable high-gain antenna, both in direct contact with Earth. A low-gain antenna was also used to relay data to spacecraft orbiting Mars. Science payload The science instruments included: Panoramic Camera (Pancam) – examined the texture, color, mineralogy, and structure of the local terrain. Navigation Camera (Navcam) – monochrome with a higher field of view but lower resolution, for navigation and driving. Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer (Mini-TES) – identified promising rocks and soils for closer examination, and determined the processes that formed them. Hazcams, two B&W cameras with 120 degree field of view, that provided additional data about the rover's surroundings. The rover arm held the following instruments: Mössbauer spectrometer (MB) MIMOS II – used for close-up investigations of the mineralogy of iron-bearing rocks and soils. Alpha particle X-ray spectrometer (APXS) – close-up analysis of the abundances of elements that make up rocks and soils. Magnets – for collecting magnetic dust particles. Microscopic Imager (MI) – obtained close-up, high-resolution images of rocks and soils. Rock Abrasion Tool (RAT) – exposed fresh material for examination by instruments on board. Spirit was 'driven' by several operators throughout its mission. Power The rover uses a combination of solar cells and a rechargeable chemical battery. This class of rover has two rechargeable lithium batteries, each composed of 8 cells with 8 amp-hour capacity. At the start of the mission the solar panels could provide up to around 900 watt-hours (Wh) to recharge the battery and power system in one Sol, but this could vary due to a variety of factors. In Eagle crater the cells were producing about 840 Wh, but by Sol 319 in December 2004, it had dropped to 730 Wh. Like Earth, Mars has seasonal variations that reduce sunlight during winter. However, since the Martian year is longer than that of the Earth, the seasons fully rotate roughly once every 2 Earth years. By 2016, MER-B had endured seven Martian winters, during which times power levels drop which can mean the rover avoids doing activities that use a lot of power. During its first winter power levels dropped to under 300 Wh per day for two months, but some later winters were not as bad. Another factor that can reduce received power is dust in the atmosphere, especially dust storms. Dust storms have occurred quite frequently when Mars is closest to the Sun. Global dust storms in 2007 reduced power levels for Opportunity and Spirit so much they could only run for a few minutes each day. Due to the 2018 dust storms on Mars, Opportunity entered hibernation mode on June 12, but it remained silent after the storm subsided in early October. Discoveries The rocks on the plains of Gusev are a type of basalt. They contain the minerals olivine, pyroxene, plagioclase and magnetite. They look like volcanic basalt, as they are fine-grained with irregular holes (geologists would say they have vesicles and vugs). Much of the soil on the plains came from the breakdown of the local rocks. Fairly high levels of nickel were found in some soils; probably from meteorites. Analysis shows that the rocks have been slightly altered by tiny amounts of water. Outside coatings and cracks inside the rocks suggest water deposited minerals, maybe bromine compounds. All the rocks contain a fine coating of dust and one or more harder rinds of material. One type can be brushed off, while another needed to be ground off by the Rock Abrasion Tool (RAT). The dust in Gusev Crater is the same as dust all around the planet. All the dust was found to be magnetic. Moreover, Spirit found the magnetism was caused by the mineral magnetite, especially magnetite that contained the element titanium. One magnet was able to completely divert all dust, hence all Martian dust is thought to be magnetic. The spectra of the dust was similar to spectra of bright, low thermal inertia regions like Tharsis and Arabia that have been detected by orbiting satellites. A thin layer of dust, maybe less than one millimeter thick, covers all surfaces. Something in it contains a small amount of chemically bound water. Astronomy Spirit pointed its cameras towards the sky and observed a transit of the Sun by Mars' moon Deimos (see Transit of Deimos from Mars). It also took the first photo of Earth from the surface of another planet in early March 2004. In late 2005, Spirit took advantage of a favorable energy situation to make multiple nighttime observations of both of Mars' moons Phobos and Deimos. These observations included a "lunar" (or rather phobian) eclipse as Spirit watched Phobos disappear into Mars' shadow. Some of Spirits star gazing was designed to look for a predicted meteor shower caused by Halley's Comet, and although at least four imaged streaks were suspect meteors, they could not be unambiguously differentiated from those caused by cosmic rays. A transit of Mercury from Mars took place on January 12, 2005, from about 14:45 UTC to 23:05 UTC. Theoretically, this could have been observed by both Spirit and Opportunity; however, camera resolution did not permit seeing Mercury's 6.1" angular diameter. They were able to observe transits of Deimos across the Sun, but at 2' angular diameter, Deimos is about 20 times larger than Mercury's 6.1" angular diameter. Ephemeris data generated by JPL Horizons indicates that Opportunity would have been able to observe the transit from the start until local sunset at about 19:23 UTC Earth time, while Spirit would have been able to observe it from local sunrise at about 19:38 UTC until the end of the transit. Equipment wear and failures Both rovers passed their original mission time of 90 sols many times over. The extended time on the surface, and therefore additional stress on components, resulted in some issues developing. On March 13, 2006 (sol ), the right front wheel ceased working after having covered on Mars. Engineers began driving the rover backwards, dragging the dead wheel. Although this resulted in changes to driving techniques, the dragging effect became a useful tool, partially clearing away soil on the surface as the rover traveled, thus allowing areas to be imaged that would normally be inaccessible. However, in mid-December 2009, to the surprise of the engineers, the right front wheel showed slight movement in a wheel-test on sol 2113 and clearly rotated with normal resistance on three of four wheel-tests on sol 2117, but stalled on the fourth. On November 29, 2009 (sol ), the right rear wheel also stalled and remained inoperable for the remainder of the mission. Scientific instruments also experienced degradation as a result of exposure to the harsh Martian environment and use over a far longer period than had been anticipated by the mission planners. Over time, the diamond in the resin grinding surface of the Rock Abrasion Tool wore down, after that the device could only be used to brush targets. All of the other science instruments and engineering cameras continued to function until contact was lost; however, towards the end of Spirit'''s life, the MIMOS II Mössbauer spectrometer took much longer to produce results than it did earlier in the mission because of the decay of its cobalt-57 gamma ray source that has a half life of 271 days. Legacy and honors To commemorate Spirits great contribution to the exploration of Mars, the asteroid 37452 Spirit has been named after it. The name was proposed by Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld who along with Cornelis Johannes van Houten and Tom Gehrels discovered the asteroid on September 24, 1960. To honor the rover, the JPL team named an area near Endeavour Crater explored by the Opportunity rover, 'Spirit Point'. Documentary film, Good Night Oppy, about the Opportunity, Spirit, and their long missions, was directed by Ryan White, and included support from JPL and Industrial Light & Magic. It was released in 2022. Gallery The rover could take pictures with its different cameras, but only the PanCam camera had the ability to photograph a scene with different color filters. The panorama views were usually built up from PanCam images. Spirit transferred 128,224 pictures in its lifetime. See also References External links JPL, MSSS, and NASA links JPL's Mars Exploration Rover Mission home page (obsolete JPL Mars Exploration Rover home page) Planetary Photojournal, NASA JPL's Planetary Photojournal for Spirit NASA TV Special Events Schedule for MER News Briefings at JPL Mission Status updates from NASA JPL Wikisource:NASA MER press briefings MER Analyst's Notebook, Interactive access to mission data and documentation Other links SpaceFlightNow Spaceflightnow.com, Status Page last updated May 2004 Cornell's rover site: Athena last update 2006 Finding Spirit: interactive Mars atlas based on Viking images: you can zoom in/out and pan images, to find your preferred site. Spirit approximate position is 14.82°S (= −14.82°N), 184.85°W (= 5.15°E) (not working as of June 4, 2008) Google map with Spirit landing site marked New Scientist on Spirit Dust Devils , March 15, 2005 New Scientist on Spirit wheel status, April 3, 2006 Unmanned Spaceflight.com discussion on Spirit as of 2008-06-04 last updated 2008-06-04 High-resolution video by Seán Doran that zooms in on Spirit''s final location Archive of MER progress reports by A.J.S. Rayl at planetary.org Category:2003 robots Category:2004 on Mars Category:Aeolis quadrangle Category:Derelict landers (spacecraft) * Category:Mars robots Category:Mars rovers Category:Missions to Mars Category:Robots of the United States Category:Six-wheeled robots Category:Soft landings on Mars Category:Solar-powered robots Category:Space probes launched in 2003 Category:Spacecraft decommissioned in 2011 Category:Spacecraft launched by Delta II rockets
[]
[ "Yes, there has been no communication with the rover since Sol 2210 (March 22, 2010).", "Yes, it is likely that the rover, Spirit, experienced a low-power fault causing it to turn off all sub-systems, including communication, and go into a deep sleep. It is also possible that the rover experienced a mission clock fault, which would cause it to lose track of time.", "The text does not provide a specific number of times the Deep Space Network mission controllers attempted to communicate with the Spirit rover. However, it is implied that they tried to communicate each sol (Martian day) starting on Sol 2333 (July 26, 2010) using a set of X-band \"Sweep & Beep\" commands.", "The text does not specify whether the Deep Space Network mission controllers gave up on the Rover. However, as of 2016, they had not received any response from the Rover since Sol 2210 (March 22, 2010). Despite implementing a new communication strategy, they did not get any responses.", "The text does not provide information on the last thing the rover communicated.", "The context does not provide any specific information about the importance of the data or information sent by the rover.", "The text mentions two possible factors contributing to the communication failure with the rover. One is a low-power fault, which could have caused the rover to turn off all sub-systems, including communication, and go into a deep sleep. The other is a possible mission clock fault, which could have caused the rover to lose track of time. Both factors would have potentially impacted the rover's ability to communicate.", "The text does not provide specific information on why the mission clock would fail.", "The text does not provide information to suggest that there was a lack of solar arrays on the rover. It does mention that the rover might attempt to wake up when enough sunlight struck its solar arrays, implying the presence of solar arrays on the rover." ]
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C_3d642a8d04244ffd90449915e6a249b7_0
Talking Heads
Talking Heads were an American rock band formed in 1975 in New York City and active until 1991. The band comprised David Byrne (lead vocals, guitar), Chris Frantz (drums), Tina Weymouth (bass), and Jerry Harrison (keyboards, guitar). Described by critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine as "one of the most critically acclaimed bands of the '80s", the group helped to pioneer new wave music by integrating elements of punk, art rock, funk, and world music with avant-garde sensibilities and an anxious, clean-cut image. Former art school students, who became involved in the 1970s New York punk scene, Talking Heads released their debut
1992-2002: Post break-up and final reunion
Despite David Byrne's lack of interest in another album, Tina Weymouth, Chris Frantz, and Jerry Harrison reunited for a one-off album called No Talking, Just Head under the name The Heads in 1996. The album featured a number of vocalists, including Debbie Harry of Blondie, Johnette Napolitano of Concrete Blonde, Andy Partridge of XTC, Gordon Gano of Violent Femmes, Michael Hutchence of INXS, Ed Kowalczyk of Live, Shaun Ryder of Happy Mondays, Richard Hell, and Maria McKee. The album was accompanied by a tour, which featured Johnette Napolitano as the vocalist. Byrne took legal action against the rest of the band to prevent them using the name "Talking Heads", something he saw as "a pretty obvious attempt to cash in on the Talking Heads name". They opted to record and tour as "The Heads". Likewise, Byrne continues his solo career. Meanwhile, Harrison became a record producer of some note - his resume includes the Violent Femmes' The Blind Leading the Naked, the Fine Young Cannibals' The Raw and the Cooked, General Public's Rub It Better, Crash Test Dummies' God Shuffled His Feet, Live's Mental Jewelry, Throwing Copper and The Distance To Here, No Doubt's song "New" from Return of Saturn, and in 2010, work by The Black and White Years and Kenny Wayne Shepherd. Frantz and Weymouth, who married in 1977, had been recording on the side as Tom Tom Club since 1981. Tom Tom Club's self-titled debut album sold almost as well as Talking Heads themselves, leading to the band appearing in Stop Making Sense. They achieved several pop/rap hits during the dance-club cultural boom era of the early 1980s, particularly in the UK, where they still enjoy a strong fan following today. Their best-known single, "Genius of Love", has been sampled numerous times, notably on old school hip hop classic "It's Nasty (Genius of Love)" by Grandmaster Flash and on Mariah Carey's 1995 hit "Fantasy". They also have produced several artists, including Happy Mondays and Ziggy Marley. The Tom Tom Club continue to record and tour intermittently, although commercial releases have become sporadic since 1991. The band played "Life During Wartime", "Psycho Killer", and "Burning Down the House" together on March 18, 2002, at the ceremony of their induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. However, reuniting for a concert tour is unlikely. David Byrne states: "We did have a lot of bad blood go down. That's one reason, and another is that musically we're just miles apart." Weymouth, however, has been critical of Byrne, describing him as "a man incapable of returning friendship" and saying that he doesn't "love" her, Frantz, and Harrison. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "What happened in 1992?", "What happened after they broke up?", "Did he make any albums?", "Was it successful?", "Did it make bill board charts?", "Was that the only solo album?", "Did they have any music videos?" ]
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Talking Heads were an American rock band that formed in 1975 in New York City. The band was composed of David Byrne (lead vocals, guitar), Chris Frantz (drums), Tina Weymouth (bass) and Jerry Harrison (keyboards, guitar). Described as "one of the most critically acclaimed bands of the '80s", Talking Heads helped to pioneer new wave music by combining elements of punk, art rock, funk, and world music with an anxious, clean-cut image. Byrne, Frantz and Weymouth met as freshman students at the Rhode Island School of Design. They moved to New York City in 1975, joined the New York punk scene, recruited Harrison, and changed their name to Talking Heads. Their debut album, Talking Heads: 77, was released in 1977 to positive reviews. They collaborated with the British producer Brian Eno on the acclaimed albums More Songs About Buildings and Food (1978), Fear of Music (1979), and Remain in Light (1980), which blended their art school sensibilities with influence from artists such as Parliament-Funkadelic and Fela Kuti. From the early 1980s, they included additional musicians in their recording sessions and shows, including guitarist Adrian Belew, keyboardist Bernie Worrell, singer Nona Hendryx, and bassist Busta Jones. After a hiatus, Talking Heads reached their commercial peak in 1983 with the U.S. Top 10 hit "Burning Down the House" from the album Speaking in Tongues. In 1984, they released the concert film Stop Making Sense, directed by Jonathan Demme. For these performances, they were joined by Worrell, the guitarist Alex Weir, the percussionist Steve Scales and the singers Lynn Mabry and Ednah Holt. In 1985, Talking Heads released their best-selling album, Little Creatures. They produced a soundtrack album for Byrne's film True Stories (1986), and released their final album, worldbeat-influenced Naked (1988), before disbanding in 1991. Without Byrne, the other band members performed under the name Shrunken Heads, and released an album, No Talking, Just Head, as the Heads in 1996. In 2002, Talking Heads were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Four of their albums appeared in Rolling Stones list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time in 2003, and three of their songs ("Psycho Killer", "Life During Wartime", and "Once in a Lifetime") were included among the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll. Talking Heads were also number 64 on VH1's list of the "100 Greatest Artists of All Time". In the 2011 update of Rolling Stones "100 Greatest Artists of All Time", they were ranked number 100. History 1973-1977: Early years In 1973, Rhode Island School of Design students David Byrne (guitar and vocals) and Chris Frantz (drums) formed a band, the Artistics. Fellow student Tina Weymouth, Frantz's girlfriend, often provided transportation. The Artistics dissolved the following year, and the three moved to New York City, eventually sharing a communal loft. After they were unable to find a bassist, Weymouth took up the role. Frantz encouraged Weymouth to learn to play bass by listening to Suzi Quatro albums. Byrne asked Weymouth to audition three times before she joined the band. The band played their first gig as Talking Heads, opening for the Ramones at CBGB on June 5, 1975. According to Weymouth, the name Talking Heads came from an issue of TV Guide, which "explained the term used by TV studios to describe a head-and-shoulder shot of a person talking as 'all content, no action'. It fit." Later that year, the band recorded a series of demos for CBS, but did not receive a record contract. However, they drew a following and signed to Sire Records in November 1976. They released their first single in February the following year, "Love → Building on Fire". In March 1977, they added Jerry Harrison, formerly of Jonathan Richman's band the Modern Lovers, on keyboards, guitar, and backing vocals. The first Talking Heads album, Talking Heads: 77, received acclaim and produced their first charting single, "Psycho Killer". Many connected the song to the serial killer known as the Son of Sam, who had been terrorizing New York City months earlier; however, Byrne said he had written the song years prior. Weymouth and Frantz married in 1977. 1978–1980: Collaborations with Brian Eno More Songs About Buildings and Food (1978) was Talking Heads' first collaboration with the producer Brian Eno, who had previously worked with Roxy Music, David Bowie, John Cale and Robert Fripp; the title of Eno's 1977 song "King's Lead Hat" is an anagram of the band's name. Eno's unusual style meshed with the group's artistic sensibilities, and they began to explore an increasingly diverse range of musical directions, from post-punk to psychedelic funk to African music, influenced prominently by Fela Kuti and Parliament-Funkadelic. This recording also established the band's relationship with Compass Point Studios in Nassau, Bahamas. More Songs About Buildings and Food included a cover of Al Green's "Take Me to the River". This took Talking Heads into the public consciousness and gave them their first Billboard Top 30 hit. The collaboration continued with Fear of Music (1979), with the darker stylings of post-punk rock, mixed with white funkadelia and subliminal references to the geopolitical instability of the late 1970s. Music journalist Simon Reynolds cited Fear of Music as representing the Eno-Talking Heads collaboration "at its most mutually fruitful and equitable". The single "Life During Wartime" produced the catchphrase "This ain't no party, this ain't no disco". The song refers to the Mudd Club and CBGB, two popular New York nightclubs of the time. Remain in Light (1980) was heavily influenced by the afrobeat of the Nigerian bandleader Fela Kuti, whose music Eno had introduced to the band. It explored West African polyrhythms, weaving these together with Arabic music from North Africa, disco funk, and "found" voices. These combinations foreshadowed Byrne's later interest in world music. In order to perform these more complex arrangements, the band toured with an expanded group, including Adrian Belew and Bernie Worrell, among others, first at the Heatwave festival in August, and later in their concert film Stop Making Sense. During this period, Weymouth and Frantz formed a commercially successful splinter group, Tom Tom Club, influenced by the foundational elements of hip hop, and Harrison released his first solo album, The Red and the Black. Byrne and Eno released My Life in the Bush of Ghosts, which incorporated world music, found sounds and a number of other prominent international and post-punk musicians. Remain in Lights lead single, "Once in a Lifetime", became a Top 20 hit in the UK, but initially failed to make an impression in the USA. It grew into a popular standard over the next few years on the strength of its music video, which Time named one of the greatest of all time. 1981–1991: Commercial peak and breakup After releasing four albums in barely four years, the group went into hiatus, and nearly three years passed before their next release, although Frantz and Weymouth continued to record with the Tom Tom Club. In the meantime, Talking Heads released a live album The Name of This Band Is Talking Heads, toured the United States and Europe as an eight-piece group, and parted ways with Eno, who went on to produce albums with U2. 1983 saw the release of Speaking in Tongues, a commercial breakthrough that produced the band's only American Top 10 hit, "Burning Down the House". Once again, a striking video was inescapable owing to its heavy rotation on MTV. The following tour was documented in Jonathan Demme's Stop Making Sense, which generated another live album of the same name. The tour in support of Speaking in Tongues was their last. Three more albums followed: 1985's Little Creatures (which featured the hit singles "And She Was" and "Road to Nowhere"), 1986's True Stories (Talking Heads covering all the soundtrack songs of Byrne's musical comedy film, in which the band also appeared), and 1988's Naked. Little Creatures offered a much more American pop-rock sound as opposed to previous efforts. Similar in genre, True Stories hatched one of the group's most successful hits, "Wild Wild Life", and the accordion-driven track "Radio Head". Naked explored politics, sex, and death, and showed heavy African influence with polyrhythmic styles like those seen on Remain in Light. During that time, the group was falling increasingly under David Byrne's control and, after Naked, the band went on "hiatus". In 1987 Talking Heads released a book by David Byrne called What the Songs Look Like: Contemporary Artists Interpret Talking Heads Songs with HarperCollins that contained artwork by some of the top New York visual artists of the decade. In December 1991, Talking Heads announced that they had disbanded. Frantz said that he learned that Byrne had left from an article in the Los Angeles Times, and said: "As far as we're concerned, the band never really broke up. David just decided to leave." Their final release was "Sax and Violins", an original song that had appeared earlier that year on the soundtrack to Wim Wenders' Until the End of the World. Byrne continued his solo career, releasing Rei Momo in 1989 and The Forest in 1991. This period also saw a revived flourish from both Tom Tom Club (Boom Boom Chi Boom Boom and Dark Sneak Love Action) and Harrison (Casual Gods and Walk on Water), who toured together in 1990. 1992–2002: Post-breakup and final reunion Weymouth, Frantz, and Harrison toured without Byrne as Shrunken Heads in the early 90s. In 1996, they released an album, No Talking, Just Head, under the name the Heads. The album featured a number of vocalists, including Gavin Friday of The Virgin Prunes, Debbie Harry of Blondie, Johnette Napolitano of Concrete Blonde, Andy Partridge of XTC, Gordon Gano of Violent Femmes, Michael Hutchence of INXS, Ed Kowalczyk of Live, Shaun Ryder of Happy Mondays, Richard Hell, and Maria McKee. It was accompanied by a tour with Napolitano as the vocalist. Byrne took legal action to prevent the band using the name The Heads, which he saw as "a pretty obvious attempt to cash in on the Talking Heads name". The band briefly reunited in 1999 to promote the 15th anniversary re-release of Stop Making Sense, but did not perform together. Harrison produced records including the Violent Femmes' The Blind Leading the Naked, the Fine Young Cannibals' The Raw and the Cooked, General Public's Rub It Better, Crash Test Dummies' God Shuffled His Feet, Live's Mental Jewelry, Throwing Copper and The Distance to Here, No Doubt's song "New" from Return of Saturn. Frantz and Weymouth have produced several artists, including Happy Mondays and Ziggy Marley. The Tom Tom Club continue to record and tour intermittently. Talking Heads reunited to play "Life During Wartime", "Psycho Killer", and "Burning Down the House" on March 18, 2002, at the ceremony of their induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, joined on stage by former touring members Bernie Worrell and Steve Scales. Byrne said further work together was unlikely, due to "bad blood" and being musically "miles apart". Weymouth has been critical of Byrne, describing him as "a man incapable of returning friendship" and saying that he doesn't "love" her, Frantz, and Harrison. Influence AllMusic stated that Talking Heads, one of the most celebrated bands of the 1970s and 1980s, by the time of their breakup "had recorded everything from art-funk to polyrhythmic worldbeat explorations and simple, melodic guitar pop". Talking Heads' art pop innovations have had a long-lasting impact. Along with other groups such as Devo, Ramones, and Blondie, they helped define the new wave genre in the United States. Meanwhile, their more cosmopolitan hits like 1980's Remain in Light helped bring African rock to the western world. Their 1984 concert film Stop Making Sense, directed by Jonathan Demme, is considered one of the best concert films ever released. Talking Heads have been cited as an influence by many artists, including Eddie Vedder,LCD Soundsystem, Foals, the Weeknd, Vampire Weekend, Primus, Bell X1, the 1975, the Ting Tings, Nelly Furtado, Kesha, St. Vincent, Danny Brown, Trent Reznor and Franz Ferdinand. Radiohead took their name from the 1986 Talking Heads song "Radio Head", and cited Remain in Light as a critical influence on their 2000 album Kid A. The Italian filmmaker and director Paolo Sorrentino, receiving the Oscar for his film La Grande Bellezza in 2014, thanked Talking Heads, among others, as his sources of inspiration. Members David Byrne – lead vocals, guitar (1975–1991, 2002) Chris Frantz – drums, percussion, backing vocals (1975–1991, 2002) Tina Weymouth – bass, backing vocals (1975–1991, 2002) Jerry Harrison – keyboards, guitar, backing vocals (1977–1991, 2002) Additional musicians Adrian Belew – lead guitar, vocals (1980–1981) Alex Weir – guitar, vocals (1982–1984) Bernie Worrell – keyboards, backing vocals (1980–1984, 2002; died 2016) Raymond Jones – keyboards (1982) Busta Jones – bass (1980–1981; died 1995) Steve Scales – percussion, backing vocals (1980–1984, 2002) Dolette McDonald – vocals, cowbell (1980–1982) Nona Hendryx – vocals (1980, 1982) Ednah Holt – vocals (1983) Lynn Mabry – vocals (1983–1984) Stephanie Spruill - vocals (1984) Timeline Discography Talking Heads: 77 (1977) More Songs About Buildings and Food (1978) Fear of Music (1979) Remain in Light (1980) Speaking in Tongues (1983) Little Creatures (1985) True Stories (1986) Naked (1988) See also List of dance-rock artists List of funk rock bands List of new wave artists and bands List of post-punk bands References Further reading Krista Reese, The Name of This Book is Talking Heads (London: Proteus Books, 1982). . Sytze Steenstra, Song and Circumstance: The Work of David Byrne from Talking Heads to the Present (New York and London: Continuum Books, 2010). . Talking Heads and Frank Olinsky, What the Songs Look Like: Contemporary Artists Interpret Talking Heads Songs (New York: Harper & Row, 1987). . External links Entry at 45cat.com Category:American new wave musical groups Category:American post-punk music groups Category:Art pop groups Category:American art rock groups Category:Dance-rock musical groups Category:Funk rock musical groups Category:Musical groups disestablished in 1991 Category:Musical groups established in 1975 Category:Musical groups from New York City Category:Musical quartets Category:Punk rock groups from New York (state) Category:Sire Records artists Category:Philips Records artists Category:EMI Records artists Category:Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners Category:1975 establishments in New York City
[ { "text": "The following list includes notable dance-rock artists.\n\nArtists\n\n!!!\nABC\nAnd Then There Were None\nThe B-52's\nBelouis Some\nBig Audio Dynamite\nThe Big Pink\nBodyRockers\nA Certain Ratio\nThe Charlatans\nDepeche Mode\nDevo\nDuran Duran\nElectronic\nEMF\nEurythmics\nThe Farm\nFine Young Cannibals\nFrankie Goes to Hollywood\nFranz Ferdinand\nFriendly Fires\nGang of Four\nGarbage\nHall & Oates\nHappy Mondays\nHot Chelle Rae\nHot Chip\nBilly Idol\nINXS\nMick Jagger\nJesus Jones\nThe Killers\nLCD Soundsystem\nLiquid Liquid\nThe New Cities\nNew Order\nNo Doubt\nOingo Boingo\nRobert Palmer\nPet Shop Boys\nPrimal Scream\nThe Prodigy\nPseudo Echo\nPublic Image Ltd\nRogue Traders\nScissor Sisters\nThe Shamen\nSimple Minds\nThe Stone Roses\nTalking Heads\nTom Tom Club\nU2\nWalk the Moon\nWas (Not Was)\nThe White Tie Affair\nRobbie Williams\n\nReferences\n\n \nDance-rock\nDance-rock", "title": "List of dance-rock artists" }, { "text": "The following is a list of post-punk bands. Post-punk is a musical movement that began at the end of the 1970s, following on the heels of the initial punk rock movement. The essential period that is most commonly cited as post-punk falls between 1978 and 1984.\n\nNote: ≠ indicates a member of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame\n\n0–9\n23 Skidoo\n\nA\n\nAdam and the Ants\nThe Alarm\n...And the Native Hipsters\nThe Art Attacks\nArtery\nAssociates\nAu Pairs\nAztec Camera\n\nB\n\nThe B-52's\nThe Batfish Boys\nBauhaus\nBhopal Stiffs\nBig Black\nThe Birthday Party\nThe Blackouts\nBlam Blam Blam\nBlue Orchids\nBlyth Power\nBuerak\nBush Tetras\n\nC\n\nCabaret Voltaire\nCapital Inicial\nCardiacs\nA Certain Ratio\nThe Chameleons\nJames Chance and the Contortions\nThe Chills\nCircus Mort\n≠The Clash \nThe Clean\nClock DVA\nCocteau Twins\nThe Comsat Angels\nThe Cult\n≠The Cure\n\nD\n\nDA!\nDalek I Love You\nDamien Done\nDead Can Dance\nThe Deep Freeze Mice\nThe Del-Byzanteens\nDelta 5\n≠Depeche Mode\nDesperate Bicycles\nDeutsch Amerikanische Freundschaft (D.A.F.)\nDevo\nDinosaur Jr.\nDo-Re-Mi\nThe Dream Syndicate\nThe Durutti Column\n\nE\n\nEcho & the Bunnymen\nESG\nEssential Logic\nEurogliders\nThe Ex\nEyeless in Gaza\n\nF\n\nFactrix\nFaith No More (as Faith No Man)\nThe Fall\nFamily Fodder\nThe Feelies\nFelt\nThe Fire Engines\nFlipper\nThe Flying Lizards\nFor Against\nFra Lippo Lippi (early work)\n\nG\n\nGang of Four\nGene Loves Jezebel\nGirls at Our Best!\nGlaxo Babies\nGreen River\nThe Gun Club\n\nH\n\nHalf Man Half Biscuit\nHeaven 17\nThe Higsons\nThe Human League\nHüsker Dü\n\nI\n\nI'm So Hollow\nIn Camera\n\nJ\n\nThe Jam\nJapan\nThe Jesus Lizard\nThe Jesus and Mary Chain\nJosef K\nJoy Division\n\nK\n\nKilling Joke\nKino\n\nL\n\nLaughing Clowns\nLiLiPUT\nThe Lords of the New Church\nLove and Rockets\nLowlife\nLudus\n\nM\n\nMolchat Doma\nMagazine\nMaximum Joy\nMeat Puppets\nThe Mekons\nMelvins\nThe Membranes\nThe Method Actors\nMidnight Oil (early work)\nMinimal Compact\nMinny Pops\nMission of Burma\nMo-dettes\nModels\nModern English\nModern Eon\nThe Monochrome Set\n\nN\n\nNaked Raygun\nThe Names\nNew Model Army\nNew Order\nNick Cave and the Bad Seeds\nThe Nightingales\n\nO\n\nThe Opposition\nOrange Juice\n\nP\n\nPalais Schaumburg\nThe Passage\nThe Passions\nPel Mel\nPere Ubu\nPhantom Tollbooth\nPigbag\nPink Military\nPloho\nThe Pogues\n≠The Police\nThe Pop Group\nPrimitive Calculators\nThe Proclaimers\nThe Psychedelic Furs\nPublic Image Ltd\nPylon\n\nR\n\nThe Raincoats\nRank and File\nRed Lorry Yellow Lorry\nRema-Rema\n≠R.E.M.\nThe Residents\nRip Rig + Panic\nRomeo Void\n\nS\n\nSad Lovers & Giants\nSavage Republic\nThe Scientists\nScratch Acid\nScritti Politti\nSection 25\nSex Gang Children\nSielun Veljet\nSimple Minds\nSiouxsie and the Banshees\nThe Sisters of Mercy\nThe Sleepers\nThe Slits\nThe Smiths\nThe Soft Boys\nThe Sound\nSouthern Death Cult\nSqueeze\nStreet eaters\nSubway Sect\nSunnyboys\nSwell Maps\n\nT\n\n≠Talking Heads\nThe Teardrop Explodes\nTelevision\nTelevision Personalities\nThe The\nTheatre of Hate\nThis Heat\nThompson Twins (early work)\nThe Three Johns\nThrobbing Gristle\nTin Huey\nTones on Tail\nTransvision Vamp\nTuxedomoon\n\nU\n\n≠U2\nUK Decay\nUltravox\n\nV\n\nThe Veils\nViolent Femmes\nVoigt/465\nVolcano Suns\n\nW\n\nThe Wake\nWall of Voodoo\nThe Wedding Present\nWhirlywirld\nWire\n\nX\n\nXero\nXTC\n\nY\nYoung Marble Giants\n\nZ\nZounds\n\nPost-punk revival bands\n\nSee also\nList of gothic rock artists\nList of new wave artists and bands\nList of punk rock bands, 0–K\nList of punk rock bands, L–Z\nList of post-hardcore bands\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\n \nPost-punk\nPost punk", "title": "List of post-punk bands" } ]
[ "The text does not provide information on what happened in 1992.", "After the band broke up, Tina Weymouth, Chris Frantz, and Jerry Harrison reunited under the name \"The Heads\" for a one-off album called \"No Talking, Just Head\" in 1996, despite David Byrne's disinterest. The album featured several guest vocalists and was accompanied by a tour featuring Johnette Napolitano as the vocalist, but Byrne took legal action to prevent them from using the name \"Talking Heads\". Meanwhile, Harrison became a successful record producer and Frantz and Weymouth continued recording as Tom Tom Club, a side project they had been working on since 1981. This band had several pop/rap hits, specifically in the UK, and has produced several artists. Tom Tom Club still records and tours occasionally. The original band members played \"Life During Wartime\", \"Psycho Killer\", and \"Burning Down the House\" together in 2002 for their induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, but a full reunion is unlikely due to bad blood and musical differences.", "Yes, Jerry Harrison became a record producer and made several albums including the Violent Femmes' The Blind Leading the Naked, the Fine Young Cannibals' The Raw and the Cooked, and others.", "The text does not provide information on the success of the albums produced by Jerry Harrison.", "The text does not provide information on whether the albums produced by Jerry Harrison made the Billboard charts.", "The text does not specify if the album \"No Talking, Just Head\" by The Heads was the only solo album created after the band's split. It also mentions that Tom Tom Club, a project by Tina Weymouth and Chris Frantz, has released several records, but it does not provide details on all their releases. It also does not provide specific information about Jerry Harrison or David Byrne's solo albums.", "The text does not provide information on whether they had any music videos." ]
[ "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]
C_3d642a8d04244ffd90449915e6a249b7_1
Talking Heads
Talking Heads were an American rock band formed in 1975 in New York City and active until 1991. The band comprised David Byrne (lead vocals, guitar), Chris Frantz (drums), Tina Weymouth (bass), and Jerry Harrison (keyboards, guitar). Described by critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine as "one of the most critically acclaimed bands of the '80s", the group helped to pioneer new wave music by integrating elements of punk, art rock, funk, and world music with avant-garde sensibilities and an anxious, clean-cut image. Former art school students, who became involved in the 1970s New York punk scene, Talking Heads released their debut
1981-1991: Height of commercial success and break-up
After releasing four albums in barely four years, the group went into hiatus, and nearly three years passed before their next release, although Frantz and Weymouth continued to record with the Tom Tom Club. In the meantime, Talking Heads released a live album The Name of This Band Is Talking Heads, toured the United States and Europe as an eight-piece group, and parted ways with Eno, who went on to produce albums with U2. 1983 saw the release of Speaking in Tongues, a commercial breakthrough that produced the band's only American Top 10 hit, "Burning Down the House". Once again, a striking video was inescapable owing to its heavy rotation on MTV. The following tour was documented in Jonathan Demme's Stop Making Sense, which generated another live album of the same name. The tour in support of Speaking in Tongues was their last. Three more albums followed: 1985's Little Creatures (which featured the hit singles "And She Was" and "Road to Nowhere"), 1986's True Stories (Talking Heads covering all the soundtrack songs of Byrne's musical comedy film, in which the band also appeared), and 1988's Naked. Little Creatures offered a much more American pop-rock sound as opposed to previous efforts. Similar in genre, True Stories hatched one of the group's most successful hits, "Wild Wild Life", and the accordion-driven track "Radio Head", which became the etymon of the band of the same name. Naked explored politics, sex, and death, and showed heavy African influence with polyrhythmic styles like those seen on Remain in Light. During that time, the group was falling increasingly under David Byrne's control and, after Naked, the band went on "hiatus". It took until December 1991 for an official announcement to be made that Talking Heads had broken up. Their final release was "Sax and Violins", an original song that had appeared earlier that year on the soundtrack to Wim Wenders' Until the End of the World. During this breakup period, Byrne continued his solo career, releasing Rei Momo in 1989 and The Forest in 1991. This period also saw a revived flourish from both Tom Tom Club (Boom Boom Chi Boom Boom and Dark Sneak Love Action) and Harrison (Casual Gods and Walk on Water), who toured together in the summer of 1990. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "What happened in 1981?", "What was the height of commercial success?", "Did they receive any awards?", "When did they break up?", "What caused the breakup?", "How long was the hiatus?", "What else was interesting in this section?" ]
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Talking Heads were an American rock band that formed in 1975 in New York City. The band was composed of David Byrne (lead vocals, guitar), Chris Frantz (drums), Tina Weymouth (bass) and Jerry Harrison (keyboards, guitar). Described as "one of the most critically acclaimed bands of the '80s", Talking Heads helped to pioneer new wave music by combining elements of punk, art rock, funk, and world music with an anxious, clean-cut image. Byrne, Frantz and Weymouth met as freshman students at the Rhode Island School of Design. They moved to New York City in 1975, joined the New York punk scene, recruited Harrison, and changed their name to Talking Heads. Their debut album, Talking Heads: 77, was released in 1977 to positive reviews. They collaborated with the British producer Brian Eno on the acclaimed albums More Songs About Buildings and Food (1978), Fear of Music (1979), and Remain in Light (1980), which blended their art school sensibilities with influence from artists such as Parliament-Funkadelic and Fela Kuti. From the early 1980s, they included additional musicians in their recording sessions and shows, including guitarist Adrian Belew, keyboardist Bernie Worrell, singer Nona Hendryx, and bassist Busta Jones. After a hiatus, Talking Heads reached their commercial peak in 1983 with the U.S. Top 10 hit "Burning Down the House" from the album Speaking in Tongues. In 1984, they released the concert film Stop Making Sense, directed by Jonathan Demme. For these performances, they were joined by Worrell, the guitarist Alex Weir, the percussionist Steve Scales and the singers Lynn Mabry and Ednah Holt. In 1985, Talking Heads released their best-selling album, Little Creatures. They produced a soundtrack album for Byrne's film True Stories (1986), and released their final album, worldbeat-influenced Naked (1988), before disbanding in 1991. Without Byrne, the other band members performed under the name Shrunken Heads, and released an album, No Talking, Just Head, as the Heads in 1996. In 2002, Talking Heads were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Four of their albums appeared in Rolling Stones list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time in 2003, and three of their songs ("Psycho Killer", "Life During Wartime", and "Once in a Lifetime") were included among the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll. Talking Heads were also number 64 on VH1's list of the "100 Greatest Artists of All Time". In the 2011 update of Rolling Stones "100 Greatest Artists of All Time", they were ranked number 100. History 1973-1977: Early years In 1973, Rhode Island School of Design students David Byrne (guitar and vocals) and Chris Frantz (drums) formed a band, the Artistics. Fellow student Tina Weymouth, Frantz's girlfriend, often provided transportation. The Artistics dissolved the following year, and the three moved to New York City, eventually sharing a communal loft. After they were unable to find a bassist, Weymouth took up the role. Frantz encouraged Weymouth to learn to play bass by listening to Suzi Quatro albums. Byrne asked Weymouth to audition three times before she joined the band. The band played their first gig as Talking Heads, opening for the Ramones at CBGB on June 5, 1975. According to Weymouth, the name Talking Heads came from an issue of TV Guide, which "explained the term used by TV studios to describe a head-and-shoulder shot of a person talking as 'all content, no action'. It fit." Later that year, the band recorded a series of demos for CBS, but did not receive a record contract. However, they drew a following and signed to Sire Records in November 1976. They released their first single in February the following year, "Love → Building on Fire". In March 1977, they added Jerry Harrison, formerly of Jonathan Richman's band the Modern Lovers, on keyboards, guitar, and backing vocals. The first Talking Heads album, Talking Heads: 77, received acclaim and produced their first charting single, "Psycho Killer". Many connected the song to the serial killer known as the Son of Sam, who had been terrorizing New York City months earlier; however, Byrne said he had written the song years prior. Weymouth and Frantz married in 1977. 1978–1980: Collaborations with Brian Eno More Songs About Buildings and Food (1978) was Talking Heads' first collaboration with the producer Brian Eno, who had previously worked with Roxy Music, David Bowie, John Cale and Robert Fripp; the title of Eno's 1977 song "King's Lead Hat" is an anagram of the band's name. Eno's unusual style meshed with the group's artistic sensibilities, and they began to explore an increasingly diverse range of musical directions, from post-punk to psychedelic funk to African music, influenced prominently by Fela Kuti and Parliament-Funkadelic. This recording also established the band's relationship with Compass Point Studios in Nassau, Bahamas. More Songs About Buildings and Food included a cover of Al Green's "Take Me to the River". This took Talking Heads into the public consciousness and gave them their first Billboard Top 30 hit. The collaboration continued with Fear of Music (1979), with the darker stylings of post-punk rock, mixed with white funkadelia and subliminal references to the geopolitical instability of the late 1970s. Music journalist Simon Reynolds cited Fear of Music as representing the Eno-Talking Heads collaboration "at its most mutually fruitful and equitable". The single "Life During Wartime" produced the catchphrase "This ain't no party, this ain't no disco". The song refers to the Mudd Club and CBGB, two popular New York nightclubs of the time. Remain in Light (1980) was heavily influenced by the afrobeat of the Nigerian bandleader Fela Kuti, whose music Eno had introduced to the band. It explored West African polyrhythms, weaving these together with Arabic music from North Africa, disco funk, and "found" voices. These combinations foreshadowed Byrne's later interest in world music. In order to perform these more complex arrangements, the band toured with an expanded group, including Adrian Belew and Bernie Worrell, among others, first at the Heatwave festival in August, and later in their concert film Stop Making Sense. During this period, Weymouth and Frantz formed a commercially successful splinter group, Tom Tom Club, influenced by the foundational elements of hip hop, and Harrison released his first solo album, The Red and the Black. Byrne and Eno released My Life in the Bush of Ghosts, which incorporated world music, found sounds and a number of other prominent international and post-punk musicians. Remain in Lights lead single, "Once in a Lifetime", became a Top 20 hit in the UK, but initially failed to make an impression in the USA. It grew into a popular standard over the next few years on the strength of its music video, which Time named one of the greatest of all time. 1981–1991: Commercial peak and breakup After releasing four albums in barely four years, the group went into hiatus, and nearly three years passed before their next release, although Frantz and Weymouth continued to record with the Tom Tom Club. In the meantime, Talking Heads released a live album The Name of This Band Is Talking Heads, toured the United States and Europe as an eight-piece group, and parted ways with Eno, who went on to produce albums with U2. 1983 saw the release of Speaking in Tongues, a commercial breakthrough that produced the band's only American Top 10 hit, "Burning Down the House". Once again, a striking video was inescapable owing to its heavy rotation on MTV. The following tour was documented in Jonathan Demme's Stop Making Sense, which generated another live album of the same name. The tour in support of Speaking in Tongues was their last. Three more albums followed: 1985's Little Creatures (which featured the hit singles "And She Was" and "Road to Nowhere"), 1986's True Stories (Talking Heads covering all the soundtrack songs of Byrne's musical comedy film, in which the band also appeared), and 1988's Naked. Little Creatures offered a much more American pop-rock sound as opposed to previous efforts. Similar in genre, True Stories hatched one of the group's most successful hits, "Wild Wild Life", and the accordion-driven track "Radio Head". Naked explored politics, sex, and death, and showed heavy African influence with polyrhythmic styles like those seen on Remain in Light. During that time, the group was falling increasingly under David Byrne's control and, after Naked, the band went on "hiatus". In 1987 Talking Heads released a book by David Byrne called What the Songs Look Like: Contemporary Artists Interpret Talking Heads Songs with HarperCollins that contained artwork by some of the top New York visual artists of the decade. In December 1991, Talking Heads announced that they had disbanded. Frantz said that he learned that Byrne had left from an article in the Los Angeles Times, and said: "As far as we're concerned, the band never really broke up. David just decided to leave." Their final release was "Sax and Violins", an original song that had appeared earlier that year on the soundtrack to Wim Wenders' Until the End of the World. Byrne continued his solo career, releasing Rei Momo in 1989 and The Forest in 1991. This period also saw a revived flourish from both Tom Tom Club (Boom Boom Chi Boom Boom and Dark Sneak Love Action) and Harrison (Casual Gods and Walk on Water), who toured together in 1990. 1992–2002: Post-breakup and final reunion Weymouth, Frantz, and Harrison toured without Byrne as Shrunken Heads in the early 90s. In 1996, they released an album, No Talking, Just Head, under the name the Heads. The album featured a number of vocalists, including Gavin Friday of The Virgin Prunes, Debbie Harry of Blondie, Johnette Napolitano of Concrete Blonde, Andy Partridge of XTC, Gordon Gano of Violent Femmes, Michael Hutchence of INXS, Ed Kowalczyk of Live, Shaun Ryder of Happy Mondays, Richard Hell, and Maria McKee. It was accompanied by a tour with Napolitano as the vocalist. Byrne took legal action to prevent the band using the name The Heads, which he saw as "a pretty obvious attempt to cash in on the Talking Heads name". The band briefly reunited in 1999 to promote the 15th anniversary re-release of Stop Making Sense, but did not perform together. Harrison produced records including the Violent Femmes' The Blind Leading the Naked, the Fine Young Cannibals' The Raw and the Cooked, General Public's Rub It Better, Crash Test Dummies' God Shuffled His Feet, Live's Mental Jewelry, Throwing Copper and The Distance to Here, No Doubt's song "New" from Return of Saturn. Frantz and Weymouth have produced several artists, including Happy Mondays and Ziggy Marley. The Tom Tom Club continue to record and tour intermittently. Talking Heads reunited to play "Life During Wartime", "Psycho Killer", and "Burning Down the House" on March 18, 2002, at the ceremony of their induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, joined on stage by former touring members Bernie Worrell and Steve Scales. Byrne said further work together was unlikely, due to "bad blood" and being musically "miles apart". Weymouth has been critical of Byrne, describing him as "a man incapable of returning friendship" and saying that he doesn't "love" her, Frantz, and Harrison. Influence AllMusic stated that Talking Heads, one of the most celebrated bands of the 1970s and 1980s, by the time of their breakup "had recorded everything from art-funk to polyrhythmic worldbeat explorations and simple, melodic guitar pop". Talking Heads' art pop innovations have had a long-lasting impact. Along with other groups such as Devo, Ramones, and Blondie, they helped define the new wave genre in the United States. Meanwhile, their more cosmopolitan hits like 1980's Remain in Light helped bring African rock to the western world. Their 1984 concert film Stop Making Sense, directed by Jonathan Demme, is considered one of the best concert films ever released. Talking Heads have been cited as an influence by many artists, including Eddie Vedder,LCD Soundsystem, Foals, the Weeknd, Vampire Weekend, Primus, Bell X1, the 1975, the Ting Tings, Nelly Furtado, Kesha, St. Vincent, Danny Brown, Trent Reznor and Franz Ferdinand. Radiohead took their name from the 1986 Talking Heads song "Radio Head", and cited Remain in Light as a critical influence on their 2000 album Kid A. The Italian filmmaker and director Paolo Sorrentino, receiving the Oscar for his film La Grande Bellezza in 2014, thanked Talking Heads, among others, as his sources of inspiration. Members David Byrne – lead vocals, guitar (1975–1991, 2002) Chris Frantz – drums, percussion, backing vocals (1975–1991, 2002) Tina Weymouth – bass, backing vocals (1975–1991, 2002) Jerry Harrison – keyboards, guitar, backing vocals (1977–1991, 2002) Additional musicians Adrian Belew – lead guitar, vocals (1980–1981) Alex Weir – guitar, vocals (1982–1984) Bernie Worrell – keyboards, backing vocals (1980–1984, 2002; died 2016) Raymond Jones – keyboards (1982) Busta Jones – bass (1980–1981; died 1995) Steve Scales – percussion, backing vocals (1980–1984, 2002) Dolette McDonald – vocals, cowbell (1980–1982) Nona Hendryx – vocals (1980, 1982) Ednah Holt – vocals (1983) Lynn Mabry – vocals (1983–1984) Stephanie Spruill - vocals (1984) Timeline Discography Talking Heads: 77 (1977) More Songs About Buildings and Food (1978) Fear of Music (1979) Remain in Light (1980) Speaking in Tongues (1983) Little Creatures (1985) True Stories (1986) Naked (1988) See also List of dance-rock artists List of funk rock bands List of new wave artists and bands List of post-punk bands References Further reading Krista Reese, The Name of This Book is Talking Heads (London: Proteus Books, 1982). . Sytze Steenstra, Song and Circumstance: The Work of David Byrne from Talking Heads to the Present (New York and London: Continuum Books, 2010). . Talking Heads and Frank Olinsky, What the Songs Look Like: Contemporary Artists Interpret Talking Heads Songs (New York: Harper & Row, 1987). . External links Entry at 45cat.com Category:American new wave musical groups Category:American post-punk music groups Category:Art pop groups Category:American art rock groups Category:Dance-rock musical groups Category:Funk rock musical groups Category:Musical groups disestablished in 1991 Category:Musical groups established in 1975 Category:Musical groups from New York City Category:Musical quartets Category:Punk rock groups from New York (state) Category:Sire Records artists Category:Philips Records artists Category:EMI Records artists Category:Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners Category:1975 establishments in New York City
[ { "text": "The following list includes notable dance-rock artists.\n\nArtists\n\n!!!\nABC\nAnd Then There Were None\nThe B-52's\nBelouis Some\nBig Audio Dynamite\nThe Big Pink\nBodyRockers\nA Certain Ratio\nThe Charlatans\nDepeche Mode\nDevo\nDuran Duran\nElectronic\nEMF\nEurythmics\nThe Farm\nFine Young Cannibals\nFrankie Goes to Hollywood\nFranz Ferdinand\nFriendly Fires\nGang of Four\nGarbage\nHall & Oates\nHappy Mondays\nHot Chelle Rae\nHot Chip\nBilly Idol\nINXS\nMick Jagger\nJesus Jones\nThe Killers\nLCD Soundsystem\nLiquid Liquid\nThe New Cities\nNew Order\nNo Doubt\nOingo Boingo\nRobert Palmer\nPet Shop Boys\nPrimal Scream\nThe Prodigy\nPseudo Echo\nPublic Image Ltd\nRogue Traders\nScissor Sisters\nThe Shamen\nSimple Minds\nThe Stone Roses\nTalking Heads\nTom Tom Club\nU2\nWalk the Moon\nWas (Not Was)\nThe White Tie Affair\nRobbie Williams\n\nReferences\n\n \nDance-rock\nDance-rock", "title": "List of dance-rock artists" }, { "text": "The following is a list of post-punk bands. Post-punk is a musical movement that began at the end of the 1970s, following on the heels of the initial punk rock movement. The essential period that is most commonly cited as post-punk falls between 1978 and 1984.\n\nNote: ≠ indicates a member of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame\n\n0–9\n23 Skidoo\n\nA\n\nAdam and the Ants\nThe Alarm\n...And the Native Hipsters\nThe Art Attacks\nArtery\nAssociates\nAu Pairs\nAztec Camera\n\nB\n\nThe B-52's\nThe Batfish Boys\nBauhaus\nBhopal Stiffs\nBig Black\nThe Birthday Party\nThe Blackouts\nBlam Blam Blam\nBlue Orchids\nBlyth Power\nBuerak\nBush Tetras\n\nC\n\nCabaret Voltaire\nCapital Inicial\nCardiacs\nA Certain Ratio\nThe Chameleons\nJames Chance and the Contortions\nThe Chills\nCircus Mort\n≠The Clash \nThe Clean\nClock DVA\nCocteau Twins\nThe Comsat Angels\nThe Cult\n≠The Cure\n\nD\n\nDA!\nDalek I Love You\nDamien Done\nDead Can Dance\nThe Deep Freeze Mice\nThe Del-Byzanteens\nDelta 5\n≠Depeche Mode\nDesperate Bicycles\nDeutsch Amerikanische Freundschaft (D.A.F.)\nDevo\nDinosaur Jr.\nDo-Re-Mi\nThe Dream Syndicate\nThe Durutti Column\n\nE\n\nEcho & the Bunnymen\nESG\nEssential Logic\nEurogliders\nThe Ex\nEyeless in Gaza\n\nF\n\nFactrix\nFaith No More (as Faith No Man)\nThe Fall\nFamily Fodder\nThe Feelies\nFelt\nThe Fire Engines\nFlipper\nThe Flying Lizards\nFor Against\nFra Lippo Lippi (early work)\n\nG\n\nGang of Four\nGene Loves Jezebel\nGirls at Our Best!\nGlaxo Babies\nGreen River\nThe Gun Club\n\nH\n\nHalf Man Half Biscuit\nHeaven 17\nThe Higsons\nThe Human League\nHüsker Dü\n\nI\n\nI'm So Hollow\nIn Camera\n\nJ\n\nThe Jam\nJapan\nThe Jesus Lizard\nThe Jesus and Mary Chain\nJosef K\nJoy Division\n\nK\n\nKilling Joke\nKino\n\nL\n\nLaughing Clowns\nLiLiPUT\nThe Lords of the New Church\nLove and Rockets\nLowlife\nLudus\n\nM\n\nMolchat Doma\nMagazine\nMaximum Joy\nMeat Puppets\nThe Mekons\nMelvins\nThe Membranes\nThe Method Actors\nMidnight Oil (early work)\nMinimal Compact\nMinny Pops\nMission of Burma\nMo-dettes\nModels\nModern English\nModern Eon\nThe Monochrome Set\n\nN\n\nNaked Raygun\nThe Names\nNew Model Army\nNew Order\nNick Cave and the Bad Seeds\nThe Nightingales\n\nO\n\nThe Opposition\nOrange Juice\n\nP\n\nPalais Schaumburg\nThe Passage\nThe Passions\nPel Mel\nPere Ubu\nPhantom Tollbooth\nPigbag\nPink Military\nPloho\nThe Pogues\n≠The Police\nThe Pop Group\nPrimitive Calculators\nThe Proclaimers\nThe Psychedelic Furs\nPublic Image Ltd\nPylon\n\nR\n\nThe Raincoats\nRank and File\nRed Lorry Yellow Lorry\nRema-Rema\n≠R.E.M.\nThe Residents\nRip Rig + Panic\nRomeo Void\n\nS\n\nSad Lovers & Giants\nSavage Republic\nThe Scientists\nScratch Acid\nScritti Politti\nSection 25\nSex Gang Children\nSielun Veljet\nSimple Minds\nSiouxsie and the Banshees\nThe Sisters of Mercy\nThe Sleepers\nThe Slits\nThe Smiths\nThe Soft Boys\nThe Sound\nSouthern Death Cult\nSqueeze\nStreet eaters\nSubway Sect\nSunnyboys\nSwell Maps\n\nT\n\n≠Talking Heads\nThe Teardrop Explodes\nTelevision\nTelevision Personalities\nThe The\nTheatre of Hate\nThis Heat\nThompson Twins (early work)\nThe Three Johns\nThrobbing Gristle\nTin Huey\nTones on Tail\nTransvision Vamp\nTuxedomoon\n\nU\n\n≠U2\nUK Decay\nUltravox\n\nV\n\nThe Veils\nViolent Femmes\nVoigt/465\nVolcano Suns\n\nW\n\nThe Wake\nWall of Voodoo\nThe Wedding Present\nWhirlywirld\nWire\n\nX\n\nXero\nXTC\n\nY\nYoung Marble Giants\n\nZ\nZounds\n\nPost-punk revival bands\n\nSee also\nList of gothic rock artists\nList of new wave artists and bands\nList of punk rock bands, 0–K\nList of punk rock bands, L–Z\nList of post-hardcore bands\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\n \nPost-punk\nPost punk", "title": "List of post-punk bands" } ]
[ "The text does not provide information on what happened in 1981.", "The height of Talking Heads' commercial success came with the release of the album Speaking in Tongues in 1983, which produced the band's only American Top 10 hit, \"Burning Down the House\".", "The text does not provide information on any awards received by Talking Heads.", "Talking Heads officially announced their break up in December 1991.", "The group was falling increasingly under the control of David Byrne and after the release of their album, Naked, the band went on \"hiatus\". However, the actual cause of the break up is not specified in the context provided.", "The context does not provide specific information on the length of the hiatus Talking Heads took after the release of their album, Naked.", "Other interesting information in this section includes the band's evolution in musical style over the years, the various solo and side projects of the band members during break periods, and the influence of their music on other artists, as evidenced by the track \"Radio Head\" which became the etymon of the band of the same name." ]
[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Neutral", "No" ]
C_0f20336bb8b74b4c9fc81bf48d2e34e7_0
Phillis Wheatley
Although the date and place of her birth are not documented, scholars believe that Phillis Wheatley was born in 1753 in West Africa, most likely in present-day Gambia or Senegal. Wheatley was sold by a local chief to a visiting trader, who took her to Boston in the British colony of Massachusetts, on July 11, 1761, on a ship called The Phillis. It was owned by Timothy Fitch and captained by Peter Gwinn. On arrival she was re-sold to the wealthy Boston merchant and tailor John Wheatley, who bought the young girl as a servant for his wife Susanna.
Style, structure, and influences on poetry
Wheatley believed that the power of poetry is immeasurable. John C. Shields notes that her poetry did not simply reflect the literature that she read but was based on her personal ideas and beliefs. Shields writes, "Wheatley had more in mind than simple conformity. It will be shown later that her allusions to the sun god and to the goddess of the morn, always appearing as they do here in close association with her quest for poetic inspiration, are of central importance to her." This poem is arranged into three stanzas of four lines in iambic tetrameter followed by a concluding couplet in iambic pentameter. The rhyme scheme is ababcc. She used three primary elements: Christianity, classicism, and hierophantic solar worship. The hierophantic solar worship is what she brought with her from Africa; the worship of sun gods is expressed as part of her African culture. As her parents were sun worshipers, it may be why she used so many different words for the sun. For instance, she uses Aurora eight times, "Apollo seven, Phoebus twelve, and Sol twice." Shields believes that the word "light" is significant to her as it marks her African history, a past that she has left physically behind. He notes that Sun is a homonym for Son, and that Wheatley intended a double reference to Christ. Wheatley also refers to "heav'nly muse" in two of her poems: "To a Clergy Man on the Death of his Lady" and "Isaiah LXIII," signifying her idea of the Christian deity. Shields believes that her use of classicism set her work apart from that of her contemporaries. He writes, "Wheatley's use of classicism distinguishes her work as original and unique and deserves extended treatment." Shields sums up Wheatley's writing by characterizing it as "contemplative and reflective rather than brilliant and shimmering." CANNOTANSWER
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[ "What influence did Wheatley have on poetry?", "Did she win any awards for her work?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Did she have works published?" ]
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Phillis Wheatley Peters, also spelled Phyllis and Wheatly ( – December 5, 1784) was an American author who is considered the first African-American author of a published book of poetry. Born in West Africa, she was kidnapped and subsequently sold into enslavement at the age of seven or eight and transported to North America, where she was bought by the Wheatley family of Boston. After she learned to read and write, they encouraged her poetry when they saw her talent. On a 1773 trip to London with the Wheatleys' son, seeking publication of her work, Wheatley met prominent people who became her patrons. The publication in London of her Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral on September 1, 1773, brought her fame both in England and the American colonies. Prominent figures, such as George Washington, praised her work. A few years later, African-American poet Jupiter Hammon praised her work in a poem of his own. Wheatley was emancipated by the Wheatleys shortly after the publication of her book of poems. The Wheatleys died soon thereafter and Phillis Wheatley married John Peters, a poor grocer. They lost three children, who all died young. Wheatley-Peters died in poverty and obscurity at the age of 31. Early life Although the date and place of her birth are not documented, scholars believe that Wheatley was born in 1753 in West Africa, most likely in present-day Gambia or Senegal. She was sold by a local chief to a visiting trader, who took her to Boston in the then British Colony of Massachusetts, on July 11, 1761, on a slave ship called The Phillis. The vessel was owned by Timothy Fitch and captained by Peter Gwinn. On arrival in Boston, Wheatley was bought by the wealthy Boston merchant and tailor John Wheatley as a slave for his wife Susanna. The Wheatleys named her Phillis, after the ship that had transported her to North America. She was given their last name of Wheatley, as was a common custom if any surname was used for enslaved people. The Wheatleys' 18-year-old daughter, Mary, was Phillis's first tutor in reading and writing. Their son, Nathaniel, also tutored her. John Wheatley was known as a progressive throughout New England; his family afforded Phillis an unprecedented education for an enslaved person, and one unusual for a woman of any race at the time. By the age of 12, Phillis was reading Greek and Latin classics in their original languages, as well as difficult passages from the Bible. At the age of 14, she wrote her first poem, "To the University of Cambridge [Harvard], in New England". Recognizing her literary ability, the Wheatley family supported Phillis's education and left household labor to their other domestic enslaved workers. The Wheatleys often exhibited Phillis's abilities to friends and family. Strongly influenced by her readings of the works of Alexander Pope, John Milton, Homer, Horace and Virgil, Phillis began to write poetry. Later life In 1773, at the age of 20, Phillis accompanied Nathaniel Wheatley to London in part for her health (she suffered from chronic asthma), but primarlily because Susanna believed Phillis would have a better chance of publishing her book of poems there than in the colonies. Phillis had an audience with Frederick Bull, who was the Lord Mayor of London, and other prominent members of British society. (An audience with King George III was arranged, but Phillis had returned to Boston before it could take place.) Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon, became interested in the talented young African woman and subsidized the publication of Wheatley's volume of poems, which appeared in London in the summer of 1773. As Hastings was ill, the two never met. After Phillis's book was published, by November 1773, the Wheatleys manumitted Phillis. Susanna Wheatley died in the spring of 1774, and John in 1778. Shortly after, Phillis met and married John Peters, an impoverished free black grocer. They lived in poor conditions and two of their babies died. John was improvident and was imprisoned for debt in 1784. With a sickly infant son to provide for, Phillis became a scullery maid at a boarding house, doing work she had never done before. Phillis died on December 5, 1784, at the age of 31. Her infant son died soon after. Other writings Wheatley wrote a letter to Reverend Samson Occom, commending him on his ideas and beliefs stating that enslaved people should be given their natural-born rights in America. Wheatley also exchanged letters with the British philanthropist John Thornton, who discussed Wheatley and her poetry in correspondence with John Newton. Through her letter writing, Wheatley was able to express her thoughts, comments and concerns to others. In 1775, she sent a copy of a poem entitled "To His Excellency, George Washington" to the then-military general. The following year, Washington invited Wheatley to visit him at his headquarters in Cambridge, Massachusetts, which she did in March 1776. Thomas Paine republished the poem in the Pennsylvania Gazette in April 1776. In 1779, Wheatley issued a proposal for a second volume of poems but was unable to publish it because she had lost her patrons after her emancipation; publication of books was often based on gaining subscriptions for guaranteed sales beforehand. The American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) was also a factor. However, some of her poems that were to be included in the second volume were later published in pamphlets and newspapers. Poetry In 1768, Wheatley wrote "To the King's Most Excellent Majesty", in which she praised King George III for repealing the Stamp Act. But while discussing the idea of freedom, Wheatley was able subtly to raise the idea of freedom for enslaved subjects of the king as well: As the American Revolution gained strength, Wheatley's writing turned to themes that expressed ideas of the rebellious colonists. In 1770, she wrote a poetic tribute to the evangelist George Whitefield. Her poetry expressed Christian themes, and many poems were dedicated to famous figures. Over one-third consist of elegies, the remainder being on religious, classical and abstract themes. She seldom referred to her own life in her poems. One example of a poem on slavery is "On being brought from Africa to America": Many colonists found it difficult to believe that an African slave was writing "excellent" poetry. Wheatley had to defend her authorship of her poetry in court in 1772. She was examined by a group of Boston luminaries, including John Erving, Reverend Charles Chauncey, John Hancock, Thomas Hutchinson, the governor of Massachusetts, and his lieutenant governor Andrew Oliver. They concluded she had written the poems ascribed to her and signed an attestation, which was included in the preface of her book of collected works: Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral, published in London in 1773. Publishers in Boston had declined to publish it, but her work was of great interest to influential people in London. There, Selina, Countess of Huntingdon and the Earl of Dartmouth acted as patrons to help Wheatley gain publication. Her poetry received comment in The London Magazine in 1773, which published her poem "Hymn to the Morning" as a specimen of her work, writing: "[t]hese poems display no astonishing power of genius; but when we consider them as the productions of a young untutored African, who wrote them after six months casual study of the English language and of writing, we cannot suppress our admiration of talents so vigorous and lively." Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral was printed in 11 editions until 1816. In 1778, the African-American poet Jupiter Hammon wrote an ode to Wheatley ("An Address to Miss Phillis Wheatley"). His master Lloyd had temporarily moved with his slaves to Hartford, Connecticut, during the Revolutionary War. Hammon thought that Wheatley had succumbed to what he believed were pagan influences in her writing, and so his "Address" consisted of 21 rhyming quatrains, each accompanied by a related Bible verse, that he thought would compel Wheatley to return to a Christian path in life. In 1838, Boston-based publisher and abolitionist Isaac Knapp published a collection of Wheatley's poetry, along with that of enslaved North Carolina poet George Moses Horton, under the title Memoir and Poems of Phillis Wheatley, A Native African and a Slave. Also, Poems by a Slave. Wheatley's memoir was earlier published in 1834 by Geo W. Light but did not include poems by Horton. Thomas Jefferson, in his book Notes on the State of Virginia, was unwilling to acknowledge the value of her work or the work of any black poet. He wrote:Misery is often the parent of the most affecting touches in poetry. Among the blacks is misery enough, God knows, but no poetry. Love is the peculiar oestrum of the poet. Their love is ardent, but it kindles the senses only, not the imagination. Religion indeed has produced a Phyllis Whately but it could not produce a poet. The compositions published under her name are below the dignity of criticism. Style, structure, and influences on poetry Wheatley believed that the power of poetry was immeasurable. John C. Shields, noting that her poetry did not simply reflect the literature she read but was based on her personal ideas and beliefs, writes: Wheatley had more in mind than simple conformity. It will be shown later that her allusions to the sun god and to the goddess of the morn, always appearing as they do here in close association with her quest for poetic inspiration, are of central importance to her. This poem is arranged into three stanzas of four lines in iambic tetrameter, followed by a concluding couplet in iambic pentameter. The rhyme scheme is ABABCC. Shields sums up her writing as being "contemplative and reflective rather than brilliant and shimmering." She repeated three primary elements: Christianity, classicism and hierophantic solar worship. The hierophantic solar worship was part of what she brought with her from Africa; the worship of sun gods is expressed as part of her African culture, which may be why she used so many different words for the sun. For instance, she uses Aurora eight times, "Apollo seven, Phoebus twelve, and Sol twice." Shields believes that the word "light" is significant to her as it marks her African history, a past that she has left physically behind. He notes that Sun is a homonym for Son, and that Wheatley intended a double reference to Christ. Wheatley also refers to "heav'nly muse" in two of her poems: "To a Clergy Man on the Death of his Lady" and "Isaiah LXIII," signifying her idea of the Christian deity. Classical allusions are prominent in Wheatley's poetry, which Shields argues set her work apart from that of her contemporaries: "Wheatley's use of classicism distinguishes her work as original and unique and deserves extended treatment." Particularly extended engagement with the Classics can be found in the poem "To Maecenas", where Wheatley uses references to Maecenas to depict the relationship between her and her own patrons, as well as making reference to Achilles and Patroclus, Homer and Virgil. At the same time, Wheatley indicates to the complexity of her relationship with Classical texts by pointing to the sole example of Terence as an ancestor for her works: While some scholars have argued that Wheatley's allusions to classical material are based on the reading of other neoclassical poetry (such as the works of Alexander Pope), Emily Greenwood has demonstrated that Wheatley's work demonstrates persistent linguistic engagement with Latin texts, suggesting good familiarity with the ancient works themselves. Both Shields and Greenwood have argued that Wheatley's use of classical imagery and ideas was designed to deliver "subversive" messages to her educated, majority white audience, and argue for the freedom of Wheatley herself and other enslaved people. Scholarly critique Black literary scholars from the 1960s to the present in critiquing Wheatley's writing have noted the absence in it of her sense of identity as a black enslaved person. A number of black literary scholars have viewed her work—and its widespread admiration—as a barrier to the development of black people during her time and as a prime example of Uncle Tom syndrome, believing that Wheatley's lack of awareness of her condition of enslavement furthers this syndrome among descendants of Africans in the Americas. Some scholars thought Wheatley's perspective came from her upbringing. Writing in 1974, Eleanor Smith argued that the Wheatley family took interest in her at a young age because of her timid and submissive nature. Using this to their advantage, the Wheatley family was able to mold and shape her into a person of their liking. The family separated her from other slaves in the home and she was prevented from doing anything other than very light housework. This shaping prevented Phillis from ever becoming a threat to the Wheatley family or other people from the white community. As a result, Phillis was allowed to attend white social events and this created a misconception of the relationship between black and white people for her. The matter of Wheatley's biography, "a white woman's memoir", has been a subject of investigation. In 2020, American poet Honorée Fanonne Jeffers published her The Age of Phillis, based on the understanding that Margaretta Matilda Odell's account of Wheatley's life portrayed Wheatley inaccurately, and as a character in a sentimental novel; the poems by Jeffers attempt to fill in the gaps and recreate a more realistic portrait of Wheatley. Legacy and honors With the 1773 publication of Wheatley's book Poems on Various Subjects, she "became the most famous African on the face of the earth." Voltaire stated in a letter to a friend that Wheatley had proved that black people could write poetry. John Paul Jones asked a fellow officer to deliver some of his personal writings to "Phillis the African favorite of the Nine (muses) and Apollo." She was honored by many of America's founding fathers, including George Washington, who wrote to her (after she wrote a poem in his honor) that "the style and manner [of your poetry] exhibit a striking proof of your great poetical Talents." Critics consider her work fundamental to the genre of African-American literature, and she is honored as the first African-American woman to publish a book of poetry and the first to make a living from her writing. In 2002, the scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Phillis Wheatley as one of his 100 Greatest African Americans. Wheatley is featured, along with Abigail Adams and Lucy Stone, in the Boston Women's Memorial, a 2003 sculpture on Commonwealth Avenue in Boston, Massachusetts. In 2012, Robert Morris University named the new building for their School of Communications and Information Sciences after Phillis Wheatley. Wheatley Hall at UMass Boston is named for Phillis Wheatley. In 1892 a Phyllis Wheatley Circle was formed in Greenville, Mississippi. and in 1896 the Phyllis Wheatley Circle. She is commemorated on the Boston Women's Heritage Trail. The Phyllis Wheatley YWCA in Washington, D.C., and the Phillis Wheatley High School in Houston, Texas, are named for her, as was the historic Phillis Wheatley School in Jensen Beach, Florida, now the oldest building on the campus of American Legion Post 126 (Jensen Beach, Florida). A branch of the Richland County Library in Columbia, South Carolina, which offered the first library services to black citizens, is named for her. Phillis Wheatley Elementary School, New Orleans, opened in 1954 in Tremé, one of the oldest African-American neighborhoods in the US. The Phillis Wheatley Community Center opened in 1920 in Greenville, South Carolina, and in 1924 (spelled "Phyllis") in Minneapolis, Minnesota. On July 16, 2019, at the London site where A. Bell Booksellers published Wheatley's first book in September 1773 (8 Aldgate, now the location of the Dorsett City Hotel), the unveiling took place of a commemorative blue plaque honoring her, organized by the Nubian Jak Community Trust and Black History Walks. Wheatley is the subject of a project and play by British-Nigerian writer Ade Solanke entitled Phillis in London, which was showcased at the Greenwich Book Festival in June 2018. See also African-American literature AALBC.com Elijah McCoy List of 18th-century British working-class writers Phillis Wheatley Club Slave narrative References Further reading Primary materials Wheatley, Phillis (1988). John C. Shields, ed. The Collected Works of Phillis Wheatley. New York: Oxford University Press. Wheatley, Phillis (2001). Vincent Carretta, ed. Complete Writings. New York: Penguin Books. Biographies Borland, Kathryn Kilby and Speicher, Helen Ross (1968). Phillis Wheatley: Young Colonial Poet. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. Carretta, Vincent (2011). Phillis Wheatley: Biography of A Genius in Bondage. Athens: University of Georgia Press. Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (2003). The Trials of Phillis Wheatley: America's First Black Poet and Her Encounters with the Founding Fathers, New York: Basic Civitas Books. Richmond, M. A. (1988). Phillis Wheatley. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. Waldstreicher, David (2023). The Odyssey of Phillis Wheatley: A Poet's Journeys Through American Slavery and Independence. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. . Review Secondary materials Abcarian, Richard and Marvin Klotz. "Phillis Wheatley," In Literature: The Human Experience, 9th edition. New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2006: p. 1606. Barker-Benfield, Graham J. Phillis Wheatley Chooses Freedom: History, Poetry, and the Ideals of the American Revolution (NYU Press, 2018). Bassard, Katherine Clay (1999). Spiritual Interrogations: Culture, Gender, and Community in Early African American Women's Writing. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Chowdhury, Rowshan Jahan. "Restriction, Resistance, and Humility: A Feminist Approach to Anne Bradstreet and Phillis Wheatley’s Literary Works." Crossings 10 (2019) 47–56 online Engberg, Kathrynn Seidler, The Right to Write: The Literary Politics of Anne Bradstreet and Phillis Wheatley. Washington, D.C.: University Press of America, 2009. Langley, April C. E. (2008). The Black Aesthetic Unbound: Theorizing the Dilemma of Eighteenth-century African American Literature. Columbus: Ohio State University Press. Ogude, S. E. (1983). Genius in Bondage: A Study of the Origins of African Literature in English. Ile-Ife, Nigeria: University of Ife Press. Reising, Russel J. (1996). Loose Ends: Closure and Crisis in the American Social Text. Durham: Duke University Press. Robinson, William Henry (1981). Phillis Wheatley: A Bio-bibliography. Boston: GK Hall. Robinson, William Henry (1982). Critical Essays on Phillis Wheatley. Boston: GK Hall. Robinson, William Henry (1984). Phillis Wheatley and Her Writings. New York: Garland. Shockley, Ann Allen (1988). Afro-American Women Writers, 1746–1933: An Anthology and Critical Guide. Boston: GK Hall. Waldstreicher, David. "The Wheatleyan Moment." Early American Studies (2011): 522–551. online Waldstreicher, David. "Ancients, Moderns, and Africans: Phillis Wheatley and the Politics of Empire and Slavery in the American Revolution." Journal of the Early Republic 37.4 (2017): 701–733. online Zuck, Rochelle Raineri. "Poetic Economics: Phillis Wheatley and the Production of the Black Artist in the Early Atlantic World." Ethnic Studies Review 33.2 (2010): 143–168 online. Poetry (inspired by Wheatley) Clarke, Alison (2020). Phillis. University of Calgary Press. Jeffers, Honorée Fanonne (2020). The Age of Phillis. Wesleyan University Press. External links "Phillis Wheatley" National Women's History Museum Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University: Phillis Wheatley collection, 1757–1773 Category:1753 births Category:1784 deaths Category:Deaths in childbirth Category:American women poets Category:American people of Senegalese descent Category:American people of Gambian descent Category:American Congregationalists Category:Cultural history of Boston Category:Writers from Boston Category:People of colonial Massachusetts Category:People of Massachusetts in the American Revolution Category:African-American women writers Category:African-American poets Category:Colonial American poets Category:18th-century American poets Category:People from colonial Boston Category:African-American Christians Category:18th-century American women writers Category:Free Negroes Category:Black Patriots Category:18th-century African-American women Category:Literate American slaves Category:Colonial American expatriates in Great Britain
[]
[ "The text does not provide specific information on the influence Wheatley had on poetry.", "The text does not provide information on whether Wheatley won any awards for her work.", "The article provides interesting insights into Wheatley's work and her writing approach. She used three primary elements in her poems: Christianity, classicism, and hierophantic solar worship. The last one, hierophantic solar worship, reflects her African background as her parents were sun worshipers. She often referenced to the sun god and goddess of the morn in her quest for poetic inspiration. John C. Shields, who analyzed Wheatley's work, noticed that her use of classicism set her poems apart from those of her contemporaries. He described her writing as \"contemplative and reflective rather than brilliant and shimmering.\"", "The text does not provide information on whether Wheatley had works published." ]
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C_0f20336bb8b74b4c9fc81bf48d2e34e7_1
Phillis Wheatley
Although the date and place of her birth are not documented, scholars believe that Phillis Wheatley was born in 1753 in West Africa, most likely in present-day Gambia or Senegal. Wheatley was sold by a local chief to a visiting trader, who took her to Boston in the British colony of Massachusetts, on July 11, 1761, on a ship called The Phillis. It was owned by Timothy Fitch and captained by Peter Gwinn. On arrival she was re-sold to the wealthy Boston merchant and tailor John Wheatley, who bought the young girl as a servant for his wife Susanna.
Later life
In 1773, at the age of 20, Phillis accompanied Nathaniel Wheatley to London in part for her health, but also because Susanna believed she would have a better chance publishing her book of poems there. She had an audience with the Lord Mayor of London (an audience with George III was arranged, but Phillis returned home beforehand), as well as with other significant members of British society. Unfortunately, she was never able to personally meet Selina Hastings, the Countess of Huntingdon, who served as the patron of Wheatley's volume of poems, which was published in the summer of 1773. In 1774, Phillis Wheatley wrote a letter to Reverend Samson Occom, commending him on his ideas and beliefs of how the slaves should be given their natural born rights in America. Wheatley also exchanged letters with the British philanthropist John Thornton, who in turn discussed Wheatley and her poetry in his correspondence with John Newton. Along with her poetry, she was able to express her thoughts, comments and concerns to others. In 1775, Phillis Wheatley sent a copy of a poem entitled, "To His Excellency, George Washington" to him. In 1776, Washington invited Wheatley to visit him at his headquarters in Cambridge, Massachusetts, which she did in March 1776. Thomas Paine republished the poem in the Pennsylvania Gazette in April 1776. In 1773, sometime between July and October, Wheatley was emancipated by the Wheatley family shortly after her book, Poems on Subjects Religious and Moral, was published in London. Susanna Wheatley died in the spring of 1774. John Wheatley's death followed in 1778. Shortly after, Phillis Wheatley met and married John Peters, a free black grocer. They struggled with poor living conditions and the deaths of two babies. In 1779, Wheatley submitted a proposal for a second volume of poems, but was unable to publish it because of her financial circumstances, the loss of patrons after her emancipation (often publication of books was based on gaining subscriptions for guaranteed sales beforehand), and the Revolutionary War. However, some of her poems that were to be published in that volume were later published in pamphlets and newspapers. Her husband John Peters was improvident, and imprisoned for debt in 1784, leaving an impoverished Wheatley with a sickly infant son. She went to work as a scullery maid at a boarding house to support them, a kind of domestic labor that she had not been accustomed to, even before becoming a free person. Wheatley died on December 5, 1784, at the age of 31. CANNOTANSWER
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Phillis Wheatley Peters, also spelled Phyllis and Wheatly ( – December 5, 1784) was an American author who is considered the first African-American author of a published book of poetry. Born in West Africa, she was kidnapped and subsequently sold into enslavement at the age of seven or eight and transported to North America, where she was bought by the Wheatley family of Boston. After she learned to read and write, they encouraged her poetry when they saw her talent. On a 1773 trip to London with the Wheatleys' son, seeking publication of her work, Wheatley met prominent people who became her patrons. The publication in London of her Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral on September 1, 1773, brought her fame both in England and the American colonies. Prominent figures, such as George Washington, praised her work. A few years later, African-American poet Jupiter Hammon praised her work in a poem of his own. Wheatley was emancipated by the Wheatleys shortly after the publication of her book of poems. The Wheatleys died soon thereafter and Phillis Wheatley married John Peters, a poor grocer. They lost three children, who all died young. Wheatley-Peters died in poverty and obscurity at the age of 31. Early life Although the date and place of her birth are not documented, scholars believe that Wheatley was born in 1753 in West Africa, most likely in present-day Gambia or Senegal. She was sold by a local chief to a visiting trader, who took her to Boston in the then British Colony of Massachusetts, on July 11, 1761, on a slave ship called The Phillis. The vessel was owned by Timothy Fitch and captained by Peter Gwinn. On arrival in Boston, Wheatley was bought by the wealthy Boston merchant and tailor John Wheatley as a slave for his wife Susanna. The Wheatleys named her Phillis, after the ship that had transported her to North America. She was given their last name of Wheatley, as was a common custom if any surname was used for enslaved people. The Wheatleys' 18-year-old daughter, Mary, was Phillis's first tutor in reading and writing. Their son, Nathaniel, also tutored her. John Wheatley was known as a progressive throughout New England; his family afforded Phillis an unprecedented education for an enslaved person, and one unusual for a woman of any race at the time. By the age of 12, Phillis was reading Greek and Latin classics in their original languages, as well as difficult passages from the Bible. At the age of 14, she wrote her first poem, "To the University of Cambridge [Harvard], in New England". Recognizing her literary ability, the Wheatley family supported Phillis's education and left household labor to their other domestic enslaved workers. The Wheatleys often exhibited Phillis's abilities to friends and family. Strongly influenced by her readings of the works of Alexander Pope, John Milton, Homer, Horace and Virgil, Phillis began to write poetry. Later life In 1773, at the age of 20, Phillis accompanied Nathaniel Wheatley to London in part for her health (she suffered from chronic asthma), but primarlily because Susanna believed Phillis would have a better chance of publishing her book of poems there than in the colonies. Phillis had an audience with Frederick Bull, who was the Lord Mayor of London, and other prominent members of British society. (An audience with King George III was arranged, but Phillis had returned to Boston before it could take place.) Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon, became interested in the talented young African woman and subsidized the publication of Wheatley's volume of poems, which appeared in London in the summer of 1773. As Hastings was ill, the two never met. After Phillis's book was published, by November 1773, the Wheatleys manumitted Phillis. Susanna Wheatley died in the spring of 1774, and John in 1778. Shortly after, Phillis met and married John Peters, an impoverished free black grocer. They lived in poor conditions and two of their babies died. John was improvident and was imprisoned for debt in 1784. With a sickly infant son to provide for, Phillis became a scullery maid at a boarding house, doing work she had never done before. Phillis died on December 5, 1784, at the age of 31. Her infant son died soon after. Other writings Wheatley wrote a letter to Reverend Samson Occom, commending him on his ideas and beliefs stating that enslaved people should be given their natural-born rights in America. Wheatley also exchanged letters with the British philanthropist John Thornton, who discussed Wheatley and her poetry in correspondence with John Newton. Through her letter writing, Wheatley was able to express her thoughts, comments and concerns to others. In 1775, she sent a copy of a poem entitled "To His Excellency, George Washington" to the then-military general. The following year, Washington invited Wheatley to visit him at his headquarters in Cambridge, Massachusetts, which she did in March 1776. Thomas Paine republished the poem in the Pennsylvania Gazette in April 1776. In 1779, Wheatley issued a proposal for a second volume of poems but was unable to publish it because she had lost her patrons after her emancipation; publication of books was often based on gaining subscriptions for guaranteed sales beforehand. The American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) was also a factor. However, some of her poems that were to be included in the second volume were later published in pamphlets and newspapers. Poetry In 1768, Wheatley wrote "To the King's Most Excellent Majesty", in which she praised King George III for repealing the Stamp Act. But while discussing the idea of freedom, Wheatley was able subtly to raise the idea of freedom for enslaved subjects of the king as well: As the American Revolution gained strength, Wheatley's writing turned to themes that expressed ideas of the rebellious colonists. In 1770, she wrote a poetic tribute to the evangelist George Whitefield. Her poetry expressed Christian themes, and many poems were dedicated to famous figures. Over one-third consist of elegies, the remainder being on religious, classical and abstract themes. She seldom referred to her own life in her poems. One example of a poem on slavery is "On being brought from Africa to America": Many colonists found it difficult to believe that an African slave was writing "excellent" poetry. Wheatley had to defend her authorship of her poetry in court in 1772. She was examined by a group of Boston luminaries, including John Erving, Reverend Charles Chauncey, John Hancock, Thomas Hutchinson, the governor of Massachusetts, and his lieutenant governor Andrew Oliver. They concluded she had written the poems ascribed to her and signed an attestation, which was included in the preface of her book of collected works: Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral, published in London in 1773. Publishers in Boston had declined to publish it, but her work was of great interest to influential people in London. There, Selina, Countess of Huntingdon and the Earl of Dartmouth acted as patrons to help Wheatley gain publication. Her poetry received comment in The London Magazine in 1773, which published her poem "Hymn to the Morning" as a specimen of her work, writing: "[t]hese poems display no astonishing power of genius; but when we consider them as the productions of a young untutored African, who wrote them after six months casual study of the English language and of writing, we cannot suppress our admiration of talents so vigorous and lively." Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral was printed in 11 editions until 1816. In 1778, the African-American poet Jupiter Hammon wrote an ode to Wheatley ("An Address to Miss Phillis Wheatley"). His master Lloyd had temporarily moved with his slaves to Hartford, Connecticut, during the Revolutionary War. Hammon thought that Wheatley had succumbed to what he believed were pagan influences in her writing, and so his "Address" consisted of 21 rhyming quatrains, each accompanied by a related Bible verse, that he thought would compel Wheatley to return to a Christian path in life. In 1838, Boston-based publisher and abolitionist Isaac Knapp published a collection of Wheatley's poetry, along with that of enslaved North Carolina poet George Moses Horton, under the title Memoir and Poems of Phillis Wheatley, A Native African and a Slave. Also, Poems by a Slave. Wheatley's memoir was earlier published in 1834 by Geo W. Light but did not include poems by Horton. Thomas Jefferson, in his book Notes on the State of Virginia, was unwilling to acknowledge the value of her work or the work of any black poet. He wrote:Misery is often the parent of the most affecting touches in poetry. Among the blacks is misery enough, God knows, but no poetry. Love is the peculiar oestrum of the poet. Their love is ardent, but it kindles the senses only, not the imagination. Religion indeed has produced a Phyllis Whately but it could not produce a poet. The compositions published under her name are below the dignity of criticism. Style, structure, and influences on poetry Wheatley believed that the power of poetry was immeasurable. John C. Shields, noting that her poetry did not simply reflect the literature she read but was based on her personal ideas and beliefs, writes: Wheatley had more in mind than simple conformity. It will be shown later that her allusions to the sun god and to the goddess of the morn, always appearing as they do here in close association with her quest for poetic inspiration, are of central importance to her. This poem is arranged into three stanzas of four lines in iambic tetrameter, followed by a concluding couplet in iambic pentameter. The rhyme scheme is ABABCC. Shields sums up her writing as being "contemplative and reflective rather than brilliant and shimmering." She repeated three primary elements: Christianity, classicism and hierophantic solar worship. The hierophantic solar worship was part of what she brought with her from Africa; the worship of sun gods is expressed as part of her African culture, which may be why she used so many different words for the sun. For instance, she uses Aurora eight times, "Apollo seven, Phoebus twelve, and Sol twice." Shields believes that the word "light" is significant to her as it marks her African history, a past that she has left physically behind. He notes that Sun is a homonym for Son, and that Wheatley intended a double reference to Christ. Wheatley also refers to "heav'nly muse" in two of her poems: "To a Clergy Man on the Death of his Lady" and "Isaiah LXIII," signifying her idea of the Christian deity. Classical allusions are prominent in Wheatley's poetry, which Shields argues set her work apart from that of her contemporaries: "Wheatley's use of classicism distinguishes her work as original and unique and deserves extended treatment." Particularly extended engagement with the Classics can be found in the poem "To Maecenas", where Wheatley uses references to Maecenas to depict the relationship between her and her own patrons, as well as making reference to Achilles and Patroclus, Homer and Virgil. At the same time, Wheatley indicates to the complexity of her relationship with Classical texts by pointing to the sole example of Terence as an ancestor for her works: While some scholars have argued that Wheatley's allusions to classical material are based on the reading of other neoclassical poetry (such as the works of Alexander Pope), Emily Greenwood has demonstrated that Wheatley's work demonstrates persistent linguistic engagement with Latin texts, suggesting good familiarity with the ancient works themselves. Both Shields and Greenwood have argued that Wheatley's use of classical imagery and ideas was designed to deliver "subversive" messages to her educated, majority white audience, and argue for the freedom of Wheatley herself and other enslaved people. Scholarly critique Black literary scholars from the 1960s to the present in critiquing Wheatley's writing have noted the absence in it of her sense of identity as a black enslaved person. A number of black literary scholars have viewed her work—and its widespread admiration—as a barrier to the development of black people during her time and as a prime example of Uncle Tom syndrome, believing that Wheatley's lack of awareness of her condition of enslavement furthers this syndrome among descendants of Africans in the Americas. Some scholars thought Wheatley's perspective came from her upbringing. Writing in 1974, Eleanor Smith argued that the Wheatley family took interest in her at a young age because of her timid and submissive nature. Using this to their advantage, the Wheatley family was able to mold and shape her into a person of their liking. The family separated her from other slaves in the home and she was prevented from doing anything other than very light housework. This shaping prevented Phillis from ever becoming a threat to the Wheatley family or other people from the white community. As a result, Phillis was allowed to attend white social events and this created a misconception of the relationship between black and white people for her. The matter of Wheatley's biography, "a white woman's memoir", has been a subject of investigation. In 2020, American poet Honorée Fanonne Jeffers published her The Age of Phillis, based on the understanding that Margaretta Matilda Odell's account of Wheatley's life portrayed Wheatley inaccurately, and as a character in a sentimental novel; the poems by Jeffers attempt to fill in the gaps and recreate a more realistic portrait of Wheatley. Legacy and honors With the 1773 publication of Wheatley's book Poems on Various Subjects, she "became the most famous African on the face of the earth." Voltaire stated in a letter to a friend that Wheatley had proved that black people could write poetry. John Paul Jones asked a fellow officer to deliver some of his personal writings to "Phillis the African favorite of the Nine (muses) and Apollo." She was honored by many of America's founding fathers, including George Washington, who wrote to her (after she wrote a poem in his honor) that "the style and manner [of your poetry] exhibit a striking proof of your great poetical Talents." Critics consider her work fundamental to the genre of African-American literature, and she is honored as the first African-American woman to publish a book of poetry and the first to make a living from her writing. In 2002, the scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Phillis Wheatley as one of his 100 Greatest African Americans. Wheatley is featured, along with Abigail Adams and Lucy Stone, in the Boston Women's Memorial, a 2003 sculpture on Commonwealth Avenue in Boston, Massachusetts. In 2012, Robert Morris University named the new building for their School of Communications and Information Sciences after Phillis Wheatley. Wheatley Hall at UMass Boston is named for Phillis Wheatley. In 1892 a Phyllis Wheatley Circle was formed in Greenville, Mississippi. and in 1896 the Phyllis Wheatley Circle. She is commemorated on the Boston Women's Heritage Trail. The Phyllis Wheatley YWCA in Washington, D.C., and the Phillis Wheatley High School in Houston, Texas, are named for her, as was the historic Phillis Wheatley School in Jensen Beach, Florida, now the oldest building on the campus of American Legion Post 126 (Jensen Beach, Florida). A branch of the Richland County Library in Columbia, South Carolina, which offered the first library services to black citizens, is named for her. Phillis Wheatley Elementary School, New Orleans, opened in 1954 in Tremé, one of the oldest African-American neighborhoods in the US. The Phillis Wheatley Community Center opened in 1920 in Greenville, South Carolina, and in 1924 (spelled "Phyllis") in Minneapolis, Minnesota. On July 16, 2019, at the London site where A. Bell Booksellers published Wheatley's first book in September 1773 (8 Aldgate, now the location of the Dorsett City Hotel), the unveiling took place of a commemorative blue plaque honoring her, organized by the Nubian Jak Community Trust and Black History Walks. Wheatley is the subject of a project and play by British-Nigerian writer Ade Solanke entitled Phillis in London, which was showcased at the Greenwich Book Festival in June 2018. See also African-American literature AALBC.com Elijah McCoy List of 18th-century British working-class writers Phillis Wheatley Club Slave narrative References Further reading Primary materials Wheatley, Phillis (1988). John C. Shields, ed. The Collected Works of Phillis Wheatley. New York: Oxford University Press. Wheatley, Phillis (2001). Vincent Carretta, ed. Complete Writings. New York: Penguin Books. Biographies Borland, Kathryn Kilby and Speicher, Helen Ross (1968). Phillis Wheatley: Young Colonial Poet. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. Carretta, Vincent (2011). Phillis Wheatley: Biography of A Genius in Bondage. Athens: University of Georgia Press. Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (2003). The Trials of Phillis Wheatley: America's First Black Poet and Her Encounters with the Founding Fathers, New York: Basic Civitas Books. Richmond, M. A. (1988). Phillis Wheatley. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. Waldstreicher, David (2023). The Odyssey of Phillis Wheatley: A Poet's Journeys Through American Slavery and Independence. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. . Review Secondary materials Abcarian, Richard and Marvin Klotz. "Phillis Wheatley," In Literature: The Human Experience, 9th edition. New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2006: p. 1606. Barker-Benfield, Graham J. Phillis Wheatley Chooses Freedom: History, Poetry, and the Ideals of the American Revolution (NYU Press, 2018). Bassard, Katherine Clay (1999). Spiritual Interrogations: Culture, Gender, and Community in Early African American Women's Writing. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Chowdhury, Rowshan Jahan. "Restriction, Resistance, and Humility: A Feminist Approach to Anne Bradstreet and Phillis Wheatley’s Literary Works." Crossings 10 (2019) 47–56 online Engberg, Kathrynn Seidler, The Right to Write: The Literary Politics of Anne Bradstreet and Phillis Wheatley. Washington, D.C.: University Press of America, 2009. Langley, April C. E. (2008). The Black Aesthetic Unbound: Theorizing the Dilemma of Eighteenth-century African American Literature. Columbus: Ohio State University Press. Ogude, S. E. (1983). Genius in Bondage: A Study of the Origins of African Literature in English. Ile-Ife, Nigeria: University of Ife Press. Reising, Russel J. (1996). Loose Ends: Closure and Crisis in the American Social Text. Durham: Duke University Press. Robinson, William Henry (1981). Phillis Wheatley: A Bio-bibliography. Boston: GK Hall. Robinson, William Henry (1982). Critical Essays on Phillis Wheatley. Boston: GK Hall. Robinson, William Henry (1984). Phillis Wheatley and Her Writings. New York: Garland. Shockley, Ann Allen (1988). Afro-American Women Writers, 1746–1933: An Anthology and Critical Guide. Boston: GK Hall. Waldstreicher, David. "The Wheatleyan Moment." Early American Studies (2011): 522–551. online Waldstreicher, David. "Ancients, Moderns, and Africans: Phillis Wheatley and the Politics of Empire and Slavery in the American Revolution." Journal of the Early Republic 37.4 (2017): 701–733. online Zuck, Rochelle Raineri. "Poetic Economics: Phillis Wheatley and the Production of the Black Artist in the Early Atlantic World." Ethnic Studies Review 33.2 (2010): 143–168 online. Poetry (inspired by Wheatley) Clarke, Alison (2020). Phillis. University of Calgary Press. Jeffers, Honorée Fanonne (2020). The Age of Phillis. Wesleyan University Press. External links "Phillis Wheatley" National Women's History Museum Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University: Phillis Wheatley collection, 1757–1773 Category:1753 births Category:1784 deaths Category:Deaths in childbirth Category:American women poets Category:American people of Senegalese descent Category:American people of Gambian descent Category:American Congregationalists Category:Cultural history of Boston Category:Writers from Boston Category:People of colonial Massachusetts Category:People of Massachusetts in the American Revolution Category:African-American women writers Category:African-American poets Category:Colonial American poets Category:18th-century American poets Category:People from colonial Boston Category:African-American Christians Category:18th-century American women writers Category:Free Negroes Category:Black Patriots Category:18th-century African-American women Category:Literate American slaves Category:Colonial American expatriates in Great Britain
[]
[ "Later in life, Phillis Wheatley struggled with poor living conditions and the deaths of two infants. She attempted to publish a second volume of poems in 1779, but was unable to due to financial constraints, loss of patrons, and the Revolutionary War. Instead, some of the poems were published in pamphlets and newspapers. Her husband was imprisoned for debt in 1784, and she took up work as a scullery maid at a boarding house. She died in 1784 at the age of 31.", "While Phillis Wheatley was unable to publish her second volume of poems as a book, some of the poems that were intended for this volume were later published in pamphlets and newspapers.", "Other than trying to publish her second volume of poems, Phillis Wheatley also engaged in letter exchanges with notable persons like Reverend Samson Occom and John Thornton, expressing her thoughts and beliefs. Additionally, she wrote a poem entitled \"To His Excellency, George Washington\" and even visited him in Massachusetts in 1776. Following the passing of her former owners, the Wheatleys, she married John Peters, a free black grocer. After her husband was imprisoned for debt, she worked as a scullery maid at a boarding house to support herself and her sickly infant son.", "The text does not provide specific details on how Phillis Wheatley was emancipated by the Wheatley family. It only mentions that her emancipation occurred sometime between July and October 1773, shortly after her book, Poems on Subjects Religious and Moral, was published in London." ]
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C_1ce021c9f9be430fa9bea0f6f3712c4b_0
Erich Ludendorff
Ludendorff was born on 9 April 1865 in Kruszewnia near Posen, Province of Posen, Kingdom of Prussia (now Poznan County, Poland), the third of six children of August Wilhelm Ludendorff (1833-1905). His father was descended from Pomeranian merchants who had achieved the prestigious status of Junker. Erich's mother, Klara Jeanette Henriette von Tempelhoff (1840-1914), was the daughter of the noble but impoverished Friedrich August Napoleon von Tempelhoff (1804-1868) and his wife Jeannette Wilhelmine von Dziembowska (1816-1854), who came from a Germanized Polish landed family on the side of her father Stephan von Dziembowski (1779-1859). Through Dziembowski's wife Johanna Wilhelmine von Unruh (1793-1862), Erich was a remote descendant of the Counts of Donhoff, the Dukes of Duchy of Liegnitz and Duchy of Brieg and the Marquesses and Electors of Brandenburg.
Military duumvirate with Hindenburg
In the West in 1916 the Germans attacked unsuccessfully at Verdun and soon were reeling under British and French blows along the Somme. Ludendorff's friends at OHL, led by Max Bauer, lobbied for him relentlessly. The balance was tipped when Romania entered the war, thrusting into Hungary. Falkenhayn was replaced as Chief of the General Staff by Field Marshal Hindenburg on 29 August 1916. Ludendorff was his chief of staff as first Quartermaster general, with the stipulation that he would have joint responsibility. He was promoted to General of the Infantry. Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg warned the War Cabinet: "You don't know Ludendorff, who is only great at a time of success. If things go badly he loses his nerve." Their first concern was the sizable Romanian Army, so troops sent from the Western Front checked Romanian and Russian incursions into Hungary. Then Romania was invaded from the south by German, Austro-Hungarian, Bulgarian, and Ottoman troops commanded by August von Mackensen and from the north by a German and Austro-Hungarian army commanded by Falkenhayn. Bucharest fell in December 1916. According to Mackensen, Ludendorff's distant management consisted of "floods of telegrams, as superfluous as they were offensive." When sure that the Romanians would be defeated OHL moved west, retaining the previous staff except for the operations officer, blamed for Verdun. They toured the Western Front meeting --and evaluating-- commanders, learning about their problems and soliciting their opinions. At each meeting Ludendorff did most of the commander's talking. There would be no further attacks at Verdun and the Somme would be defended by revised tactics that exposed fewer men to British shells. A new backup defensive line would be built, like the one they had constructed in the east. The Allies called the new fortifications the Hindenburg Line. The German goal was victory, which they defined as a Germany with extended borders that could be more easily defended in the next war. Hindenburg was given titular command over all of the forces of the Central Powers. Ludendorff's hand was everywhere. Every day he was on the telephone with the staffs of their armies and the Army was deluged with "Ludendorff's paper barrage" of orders, instructions and demands for information. His finger extended into every aspect of the German war effort. He issued the two daily communiques, and often met with the newspaper and newsreel reporters. Before long the public idolized him as their Army's brain. CANNOTANSWER
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Erich Friedrich Wilhelm Ludendorff (; 9 April 1865 – 20 December 1937) was a German general, politician and military theorist. He achieved fame during World War I for his central role in the German victories at Liège and Tannenberg in 1914. Following his appointment as First Quartermaster-general () of the Imperial Army's Great General Staff in 1916, he became the chief policymaker in a de facto military dictatorship that dominated Germany for the rest of the war. After Germany's defeat, he contributed significantly to the Nazis' rise to power. Erich Ludendorff came from a family of the minor nobility in Ludendorff (now Kruszewnia), located in the Prussian province of Posen. After completing his education as a cadet, he received his commission as a junior officer in 1885. Later in 1893, Ludendorff was admitted to the prestigious German War Academy and was recommended by its commandant to the General Staff Corps only a year later. By 1904, he had rapidly risen in rank to become a member of the Army's Great General Staff, where he oversaw the development of the Schlieffen Plan. Despite being temporarily removed from the Great General Staff for meddling in German politics, Ludendorff restored his standing in the army through his success as a commander in World War I. On 16 August 1914, he led the successful German assault on Liège, a feat for which he earned the Pour le Mérite. Upon being transferred to the Eastern Front under the command of General Paul von Hindenburg, Ludendorff was instrumental in inflicting a series of crushing defeats against the Russians, including at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes. By 29 August 1916, he had successfully lobbied for Hindenburg's appointment as Supreme Commander of the German Army as well as his own promotion to Quartermaster General of the army high command. Once he and Hindenburg had established what some authors describe as a de facto military dictatorship, Ludendorff directed Germany's entire military strategy and war effort until the end of the conflict. In this capacity, he secured Russia's defeat in the east and launched a new wave of offensives on the Western Front resulting in advances not seen since the war's outbreak. However, by the end of 1918, all improvements in Germany's fortunes were reversed after its forces' decisive defeat in the Second Battle of the Marne and the Allies' Hundred Days Offensive. Faced with the war effort's collapse and a growing popular revolution, the German Emperor, Wilhelm II, forced Ludendorff to resign. After the war, Ludendorff became a prominent nationalist leader, and a promoter of the stab-in-the-back myth, which posited that Germany's defeat and the settlement reached at Versailles were the result of a treasonous conspiracy by Marxists, Freemasons and Jews. He also took part in the failed 1920 Kapp Putsch and 1923 Beer Hall Putsch before unsuccessfully standing for election for President against Field Marshal Hindenburg, his wartime superior. Thereafter, he retired from politics and devoted his final years to the study of military theory. His most famous work in this field was (The Total War), where he argued that a nation's entire physical and moral resources should remain forever poised for mobilization because peace was merely an interval in a never-ending chain of wars. Ludendorff died of liver cancer in Munich in 1937. Early life Ludendorff was born on 9 April 1865 in Ludendorff near , in the Province of Posen and Kingdom of Prussia (now Kruszewnia, County, Poland), the third of six children of August Wilhelm Ludendorff (1833–1905). His father was descended from Pomeranian merchants who had been raised to the status of a Junker. Erich's mother, Klara Jeanette Henriette von Tempelhoff (1840–1914), was the daughter of the noble but impoverished Friedrich August Napoleon von Tempelhoff (1804–1868) and his wife Jeannette Wilhelmine von Dziembowska (1816–1854), who came from a Germanized Polish landed family on the side of her father Stephan von Dziembowski (1779–1859). Through Dziembowski's wife Johanna Wilhelmine von Unruh (1793–1862), Erich was a remote descendant of the Counts of , the Dukes of Liegnitz and Brieg and the Margraves and Electors of Brandenburg. Ludendorff had a stable and comfortable childhood, growing up on a small family farm. He received his early schooling from a maternal aunt and had a gift for mathematics, as did his younger brother Hans, who became a distinguished astronomer. Upon passing the entrance exam for the Cadet School at with distinction, he was put in a class two years ahead of his age group, and thereafter he was consistently first in his class. The famous World War II General Heinz Guderian attended the same Cadet School, which produced many well-trained German officers. Ludendorff's education continued at the at near Berlin through to 1882. Pre-war military career In 1885, Ludendorff was commissioned as a subaltern into the 57th Infantry Regiment, then at Wesel. Over the next eight years, he was promoted to lieutenant and saw further service in the 2nd Marine Battalion, based at Kiel and Wilhelmshaven, and in the 8th Grenadier Guards at Frankfurt on the Oder. His service reports reveal the highest praise, with frequent commendations. In 1893, he entered the War Academy, where the commandant, General Meckel, recommended him to the General Staff, to which he was appointed in 1894. He rose rapidly and was a senior staff officer at the headquarters of V Corps from 1902 to 1904. Next he joined the Great General Staff in Berlin, which was commanded by Alfred von Schlieffen, Ludendorff directed the Second or Mobilization Section from 1904 to 1913. Soon he was joined by Max Bauer, a brilliant artillery officer, who became a close friend. In 1910 at age 45 "the 'old sinner', as he liked to hear himself called" married the daughter of a wealthy factory owner, Margarethe Schmidt (1875–1936). They met in a rainstorm when he offered his umbrella. She divorced to marry him, bringing three stepsons and a stepdaughter. Their marriage pleased both families and he was devoted to his stepchildren. By 1911, Ludendorff was a full colonel. His section was responsible for writing the mass of detailed orders needed to bring the mobilized troops into position to implement the Plan. For this they covertly surveyed frontier fortifications in Russia, France and Belgium. For instance, in 1911 Ludendorff visited the key Belgian fortress city of Liège. Before the war, he was an Oberst in General Staff who studied the march route of the army in case of war. Deputies of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, which became the largest party in the after the German federal elections of 1912, seldom gave priority to army expenditures, whether to build up its reserves or to fund advanced weaponry such as Krupp's siege cannons. Instead, they preferred to concentrate military spending on the Imperial German Navy. Ludendorff's calculations showed that to properly implement the Schlieffen Plan the Army lacked six corps. Members of the General Staff were instructed to keep out of politics and the public eye, but Ludendorff shrugged off such restrictions. With a retired general, August Keim, and the head of the Pan-German League, Heinrich Class, he vigorously lobbied the for the additional men. In 1913 funding was approved for four additional corps but Ludendorff was transferred to regimental duties as commander of the 39th (Lower Rhine) Fusiliers, stationed at Düsseldorf. "I attributed the change partly for my having pressed for those three additional army corps." Barbara Tuchman characterizes Ludendorff in her book The Guns of August as Schlieffen's devoted disciple who was a glutton for work and a man of granite character but who was deliberately friendless and forbidding and therefore remained little known or liked. It is true that as his wife testified, "Anyone who knows Ludendorff knows that he has not a spark of humor...". He was voluble nonetheless, although he shunned small talk. John Lee, states that while Ludendorff was with his Fusiliers, "he became the perfect regimental commander ... the younger officers came to adore him." His adjutant, Wilhelm Breucker, became a devoted lifelong friend. World War I Battle of Liège At the outbreak of war in the summer of 1914 Ludendorff was appointed Deputy Chief of Staff to the German Second Army under General Karl von Bülow. His assignment was largely due to his previous work investigating defenses of Liège, Belgium. At the beginning of the Battle of Liège, Ludendorff was an observer with the 14th Brigade, which was to infiltrate the city at night and secure the bridges before they could be destroyed. The brigade commander was killed on 5 August, so Ludendorff led the successful assault to occupy the city and its citadel. In the following days, two of the forts guarding the city were taken by desperate frontal infantry attacks, while the remaining forts were smashed by huge Krupp 42-cm and Austro-Hungarian Škoda 30.5-cm howitzers. By 16 August, all the forts around Liège had fallen, allowing the German First Army to advance. As the victor of Liège, Ludendorff was awarded Germany's highest military decoration for gallantry, the Pour le Mérite, presented by Kaiser Wilhelm II himself on 22 August. Command in the East German mobilization earmarked a single army, the Eighth, to defend their eastern frontier. When two Russian armies invaded East Prussia earlier than expected the command of the Eighth Army, Maximilian von Prittwitz with Georg von Waldersee as Chief of Staff, performed subpar and reportedly panicked. They accordingly were dismissed from command by the (OHL), the German Supreme Army Command. The War Cabinet chose a retired general, Paul von Hindenburg, as commander, while the OHL assigned Ludendorff as his new chief of staff. Hindenburg and Ludendorff first met on their private train heading east. They agreed that they must annihilate the nearest Russian army before they tackled the second. On arrival, they discovered that Max Hoffmann had already shifted much of the 8th Army by rail to the south to do just that, in an amazing feat of logistical planning. Nine days later the Eighth Army surrounded most of a Russian army at Tannenberg, taking 92,000 prisoners in one of the great victories in German history. Twice during the battle Ludendorff wanted to break off, fearing that the second Russian army was about to strike their rear, but Hindenburg held firm. The Germans turned on the second invading army in the Battle of the Masurian Lakes; it fled with heavy losses to escape encirclement. During the rest of 1914, commanding an Army Group, Hindenburg and Ludendorff staved off the projected invasion of German Silesia by dexterously moving their outnumbered forces into Russian Poland, fighting the battle of the Vistula River, which ended with a brilliantly executed withdrawal during which they destroyed the Polish railway lines and bridges needed for an invasion. When the Russians had repaired most of the damage the Germans struck their flank in the battle of Łódź, where they almost surrounded another Russian army. Masters of surprise and deft maneuver, the pair argued that if properly reinforced they could trap the entire Russian army in Poland. During the winter of 1914–15 they lobbied passionately for this strategy, but were rebuffed by the OHL. Early in 1915 Hindenburg and Ludendorff surprised the Russian army that still held a toehold in East Prussia by attacking in a snowstorm and surrounding it in the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes. The OHL then transferred Ludendorff, but Hindenburg's personal plea to the Kaiser reunited them. Erich von Falkenhayn, supreme commander at the OHL, came east to attack the flank of the Russian army that was pushing through the Carpathian passes towards Hungary. Employing overwhelming artillery, the Germans and Austro-Hungarians broke through the line between and and kept pushing until the Russians were driven out of most of Galicia, in Austro-Hungarian Poland. During this advance Falkenhayn rejected schemes to try to cut off the Russians in Poland, preferring direct frontal attacks. Outgunned, during the summer of 1915 the Russian commander Grand Duke Nicholas shortened his lines by withdrawing from most of Poland, destroying railroads, bridges, and many buildings while driving 743,000 Poles, 350,000 Jews, 300,000 Lithuanians and 250,000 Latvians into Russia. During the winter of 1915–16 Ludendorff's headquarters was in Kaunas. The Germans occupied present-day Lithuania, western Latvia, and north eastern Poland, an area almost the size of France. Ludendorff demanded Germanization of the conquered territories and far-ranging annexations, offering land to German settlers; see . Far-reaching plans envisioned Courland and Lithuania turned into border states ruled by German military governors answerable only to the Kaiser. He proposed massive annexations and colonization in Eastern Europe in the event of the victory of the German Reich, and was one of the main supporters of the Polish Border Strip. Ludendorff planned to combine German settlement and Germanisation in conquered areas with expulsions of native populations; and envisioned an eastern German empire whose resources would be used in future war with Great Britain and the United States Ludendorff's plans went as far as making Crimea a German colony. As to the various nations and ethnic groups in conquered territories, Ludendorff believed they were "incapable of producing real culture" On 16 March 1916, the Russians, now with adequate supplies of cannons and shells, attacked parts of the new German defenses, intending to penetrate at two points and then to pocket the defenders. They attacked almost daily until the end of the month, but the Lake Naroch Offensive failed, "choked in swamp and blood". The Russians did better attacking the Austro-Hungarians in the south; the Brusilov Offensive cracked their lines with a well-prepared surprise wide-front attack led by well-schooled assault troops. The breakthrough was finally stemmed by Austro-Hungarian troops recalled from Italy stiffened with German advisers and reserves. In July, Russian attacks on the Germans in the north were beaten back. On 27 July 1916, Hindenburg was given command of all troops on the Eastern Front from the Baltic to Brody in the Ukraine. Ludendorff and Hindenburg visited their new command on a special train, and then set up headquarters in Brest-Litovsk. By August 1916 their front was holding everywhere. Promotion to First Quartermaster-General In the West in 1916 the Germans attacked unsuccessfully at Verdun and soon were reeling under British and French blows along the Somme. Ludendorff's friends at the OHL, led by Max Bauer, lobbied for him relentlessly. The balance was tipped when Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente, thrusting into Hungary. Falkenhayn was replaced as Chief of the General Staff by Hindenburg on 29 August 1916. Ludendorff was again his chief of staff as first Quartermaster general, with the stipulation that he would have joint responsibility. He was promoted to General of the Infantry. Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg warned the War Cabinet: "You don't know Ludendorff, who is only great at a time of success. If things go badly he loses his nerve." Their first concern was the sizable Romanian Army, so troops sent from the Western Front checked Romanian and Russian incursions into Hungary. Then Romania was invaded from the south by German, Austro-Hungarian, Bulgarian, and Ottoman troops commanded by August von Mackensen and from the north by a German and Austro-Hungarian army commanded by Falkenhayn. Bucharest fell in December 1916. According to Mackensen, Ludendorff's distant management consisted of "floods of telegrams, as superfluous as they were offensive." When sure that the Romanians would be defeated the OHL moved west, retaining the previous staff except for the operations officer, blamed for Verdun. They toured the Western Front meeting—and evaluating—commanders, learning about their problems and soliciting their opinions. At each meeting Ludendorff did most of talking for Hindenburg. There would be no further attacks at Verdun and the Somme would be defended by revised tactics that exposed fewer men to British shells. A new backup defensive line would be built, like the one they had constructed in the east. The Allies would call the new fortifications the Hindenburg Line. The German goal was victory, which they defined as a Germany with extended borders that could be more easily defended in the next war. Hindenburg was given titular command over all of the forces of the Central Powers. Ludendorff's hand was everywhere. Every day he was on the telephone with the staffs of their armies and the Army was deluged with "Ludendorff's paper barrage" of orders, instructions and demands for information. His finger extended into every aspect of the German war effort. He issued the two daily communiques, and often met with the newspaper and newsreel reporters. Before long the public idolized him as the German Army's brain. The Home Front Ludendorff had a goal: "One thing was certain—the power must be in my hands." As stipulated by the Constitution of the German Empire the government was run by civil servants appointed by the Kaiser. Confident that army officers were superior to civilians, the OHL volunteered to oversee the economy: procurement, raw materials, labor, and food. Max Bauer, with his industrialist friends, began by setting overambitious targets for military production in what they called the Hindenburg Program. Ludendorff enthusiastically participated in meetings on economic policy—loudly, sometimes pummeling the table with his fists. Implementation of the Program was assigned to General Groener, a staff officer who had directed the Field Railway Service effectively. His office was in the (civilian) War Ministry, not in the OHL as Ludendorff had wanted. Therefore, he assigned staff officers to most government ministries, so he knew what was going on and could press his demands. War industry's major problem was the scarcity of skilled workers, therefore 125,000 men were released from the armed forces and trained workers were no longer conscripted. The OHL wanted to enroll most German men and women into national service, but the Reichstag legislated that only males 17–60 were subject to "patriotic service" and refused to bind war workers to their jobs. Groener realized that they needed the support of the workers, so he insisted that union representatives be included on industrial dispute boards. He also advocated an excess profits tax. The industrialists were incensed. On 16 August 1917, Ludendorff telegraphed an order reassigning Groener to command the 33rd Infantry Division. Overall, "unable to control labour and unwilling to control industry, the army failed miserably". To the public it seemed that Ludendorff was running the nation as well as the war. According to Ludendorff, "the authorities ... represented me as a dictator". He would not become Chancellor because the demands for running the war were too great. The historian Frank Tipton argues that while not technically a dictator, Ludendorff was "unquestionably the most powerful man in Germany" in 1917–18. The OHL did nothing to mitigate the crisis of growing food shortages in Germany. Despite the Allied blockade, everyone could have been fed adequately, but supplies were not managed effectively or fairly. In spring 1918, half of all the meat, eggs, and fruit consumed in Berlin were sold on the black market. In government The Navy advocated unrestricted submarine warfare, which would surely bring the United States into the war. At the Kaiser's request, his commanders met with his friend, the eminent chemist Walther Nernst, who knew America well, and who warned against the idea. Ludendorff promptly ended the meeting; it was "incompetent nonsense with which a civilian was wasting his time." Unrestricted submarine warfare began in February 1917, with the OHL’s strong support. This fatal mistake reflected poor military judgment in uncritically accepting the Navy’s contention that there were no effective potential countermeasures, like convoying, and confidence that the American armed forces were too feeble to fight effectively. By the end of the war, Germany would be at war with 27 nations. Ludendorff, with the Kaiser's blessing, helped Lenin and other 30 or so revolutionaries in exile return to Russia. Ludendorff agreed to send the Bolsheviks in Switzerland by train through Germany from where they would then travel to Russia via Sweden. Lenin, however, still took some convincing, insisting that he be sent on a sealed train. Lenin ultimately agreed on 31 March, and would depart Switzerland on 8 April. In the spring of 1917 the Reichstag passed a resolution for peace without annexations or indemnities. They would be content with the successful defensive war undertaken in 1914. The OHL was unable to defeat the resolution or to have it substantially watered down. The commanders despised Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg as weak, so they forced his resignation by repeatedly threatening to resign themselves, despite the Kaiser's admonition that this was not their business. Bethmann Hollweg was replaced by a minor functionary, Georg Michaelis, the food minister, who announced that he would deal with the resolution as "in his own fashion". Despite this put-down, the Reichstag voted the financial credits needed for continuing the war. Following the overthrow of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, the new Russian government launched the Kerensky Offensive in July 1917, attacking the Austro-Hungarian lines in Galicia. After minor successes the Russians were driven back and many of their soldiers refused to fight. The counterattack was halted only after the line was pushed eastwards. The Germans capped the year in the East by capturing the strong Russian fortress of Riga in September 1917, starting with a brief, overwhelming artillery barrage using many gas shells then followed by infiltrating infantry. The Bolsheviks seized power and soon were at the peace table. Ludendorff insisted on the huge territorial losses forced on Russia in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, even though this required that a million German soldiers remain in the east. During the peace negotiations with Russia, his representative kept demanding the economic concessions coveted by German industrialists. The commanders kept blocking attempts to frame a plausible peace offer to the western powers by insisting on borders expanded for future defense. Ludendorff regarded the Germans as the "master race" and after victory planned to settle ex-soldiers in the Baltic states and in Alsace-Lorraine, where they would take over property seized from Balts and the French. One after another the OHL toppled government ministers they regarded as weak. Western Front (1916–1917) In contrast to the OHL's questionable interventions in politics and diplomacy, their armies continued to excel. The commanders would agree on what was to be done and then Ludendorff and the OHL staff produced the mass of orders specifying exactly what was to be accomplished. On the western front they stopped packing defenders in the front line, which reduced losses to enemy artillery. They issued a directive on elastic defense, in which attackers who penetrated a lightly held front line entered a battle zone in which they were punished by artillery and counterattacks. It remained German Army doctrine through World War II; schools taught the new tactics to all ranks. Its effectiveness is illustrated by comparing the first half of 1916 in which 77 German soldiers died or went missing for every 100 British to the second half when 55 Germans were lost for every 100 British. By February 1917 the OHL was sure that the new French commander, General Robert Nivelle, would attack, and correctly foresaw that he would try to pinch off the German salient between Arras and Noyon. So the OHL withdrew German forces to the segment of the Hindenburg line across the base of the salient in , leaving the ground they gave up as a depopulated waste land. The Nivelle Offensive in April 1917 was blunted by mobile defense in depth. Many French units mutinied, though the OHL never grasped the extent of the disarray. The British supported their allies with a successful attack near Arras and had another success in June 1917 at Messines Ridge in Flanders. Then at the end of July 1917, the British attacked Passchendaele Ridge. At first the defense was directed by General von Lossberg, a pioneer in defense in depth, but when the British adjusted their tactics, Ludendorff took over day-to-day control. The British eventually took Passchendaele Ridge at great cost. Ludendorff worried about declining morale, so in July 1917 OHL established a propaganda unit. In October 1917 they began mandatory patriotic lectures to the troops, who were assured that if the war was lost they would "become slaves of international capital". The lecturers were to "ensure that a fight is kept up against all agitators, croakers, and weaklings". To bolster the wobbling Austro-Hungarian government, the Germans provided some troops and led a joint attack in Italy in October. They sliced through the Italian lines in the mountains at Caporetto. Two hundred and fifty thousand Italians were captured and the rest of Italian Army was forced to retreat to the Grappa-Piave defensive line. On 20 November 1917, the British achieved a total surprise by attacking at Cambrai. A short, intense bombardment preceded an attack by tanks, which led the infantry through the German wire. It was Ludendorff's 52nd birthday, but he was too upset to attend the celebratory dinner. The British were not organized to exploit their breakthrough, and German reserves counterattacked, in some places driving the British back beyond their starting lines. At the beginning of 1918 almost a million munition workers struck; one demand was peace without annexations. OHL ordered that all strikers fit to bear arms' be sent to the front, thereby degrading military service." Western Front (1918) With Russia out of the war, the Germans outnumbered the Allies on the Western Front. After extensive consultations, OHL planned a series of attacks to drive the British out of the war. During the winter all ranks were schooled in the innovative tactics proven at Caporetto and Riga. The first attack, Operation Michael, was on 21 March 1918 near Cambrai. After an effective hurricane bombardment coordinated by Colonel Bruchmüller, they slashed through the British lines, surmounting the obstacles that had thwarted their enemies for three years. On the first day they occupied as large an area as the Allies had won on the Somme after 140 days. The Allies were aghast, but it was not the triumph OHL had hoped for: they had planned another Tannenberg by surrounding tens of thousands of British troops in the Cambrai salient, but had been thwarted by stout defense and fighting withdrawal. They lost as many men as the defenders—the first day was the bloodiest of the war. Among the dead was Ludendorff’s oldest stepson; a younger had been killed earlier. The Germans were unable to cut any vital railway. When Ludendorff motored near the front he was displeased by seeing how: "The numerous slightly wounded made things difficult by the stupid and displeasing way in which they hurried to the rear." The Americans doubled the number of troops being sent to France. Their next attack was in Flanders. Again they broke through, advancing , and forcing the British to give back all of the ground that they had won the preceding year after weeks of battle. But the Germans were stopped short of the rail junction that was their goal. Next, to draw French reserves south, they struck along the . In their most successful attack yet they advanced on the first day, crossing the Marne but stopping from Paris. However each German triumph weakened their army and its morale. From 20 March 1918 to 25 June the German front lengthened from to . Then the Germans struck near Reims, to seize additional railway lines for use in the salient, but were foiled by brilliant French elastic tactics. Undeterred, on 18 July 1918 Ludendorff, still "aggressive and confident", traveled to Flanders to confer about the next attack there. A telephone call reported that the French and Americans, led by a mass of tanks, had smashed through the right flank of their salient pointing toward Paris, on the opening day of the Battle of Soissons. Everyone present realized that surely they had lost the war. Ludendorff was shattered. OHL began to withdraw step by step to new defensive lines, first evacuating all of their wounded and supplies. Ludendorff's communiques, which hitherto had been largely factual, now distorted the news, for instance claiming that American troops had to be herded onto troop ships by special police. On 8 August 1918, the Germans were completely surprised at Amiens when British tanks broke through the defenses and intact German formations surrendered. To Ludendorff it was the "black day in the history of the German Army". The German retreats continued, pressed by Allied attacks. OHL still vigorously opposed offering to give up the territory they desired in France and Belgium, so the German government was unable to make a plausible peace proposal. Ludendorff became increasingly cantankerous, railing at his staff without cause, publicly accusing Hindenburg of talking nonsense, and sometimes bursting into tears. Bauer wanted him replaced, but instead a doctor, Hochheimer, was brought to OHL. He had worked closely with Ludendorff in Poland during the winter of 1915–16 on plans to bring in German colonists. Before the war he had a practice in nervous diseases. Hochheimer "spoke as a friend and he listened as a friend", convincing Ludendorff that he could not work effectively with one hour of sleep a night and that he must relearn how to relax. After a month away from headquarters Ludendorff had recovered from the severest symptoms of battle fatigue. Downfall On 29 September 1918, Ludendorff and Hindenburg suddenly told an incredulous Kaiser that they could not guarantee the integrity of the Western front "for two hours" and they must have an immediate armistice. A new Chancellor, Prince Maximilian of Baden, approached President Woodrow Wilson, but Wilson's terms were unacceptable to the German leadership, and so the German army fought on. The chancellor told the Kaiser that he and his cabinet would resign unless Ludendorff was removed, but that Hindenburg must remain to hold the army together. The Kaiser called his commanders in, curtly accepting Ludendorff's resignation and then rejecting Hindenburg's. Fuming, Ludendorff would not accompany the field marshal back to headquarters: "I refused to ride with you because you have treated me so shabbily". Ludendorff had assiduously sought all of the credit; now he was rewarded with all of the blame. Widely despised, and with revolution breaking out, he was hidden by his brother and a network of friends until he slipped out of Germany disguised in blue spectacles and a false beard and fake Finnish passport, settling in a Swedish admirer's country home until the Swedish government asked him to leave in February 1919. Within seven months, he wrote two volumes of detailed memoirs. Friends, led by Breucker, provided him with documents and negotiated with publishers. Groener (who is not mentioned in the book) characterized it as a showcase of his "caesar-mania". He was a brilliant general, according to John Wheeler-Bennett, stating that he was "certainly one of the greatest routine military organizers that the world has ever seen", but he also said he was a ruinous political meddler. The influential military analyst Hans Delbrück concluded that "The Empire was built by Moltke and Bismarck, destroyed by Tirpitz and Ludendorff." After the Great War In exile, Ludendorff wrote numerous books and articles about the German military's conduct of the war while forming the foundation for the , the "stab-in-the-back theory," for which he is considered largely responsible, insisting that a domestic crisis had sparked Germany's surrender while the military situation held firm, ignoring that he himself had pressed the politicians for an armistice on military grounds. Ludendorff was convinced that Germany had fought a defensive war and, in his opinion, that Kaiser Wilhelm II had failed to organize a proper counter-propaganda campaign or provide efficient leadership. Ludendorff was extremely suspicious of the Social Democrats and leftists, whom he blamed for the humiliation of Germany through the Versailles Treaty. Ludendorff claimed that he paid close attention to the business element (especially the Jews), and saw them turn their backs on the war effort by—as he saw it—letting profit, rather than patriotism, dictate production and financing. Again focusing on the left, Ludendorff was appalled by the strikes that took place towards the end of the war and the way that the home front collapsed before the military front did, with the former poisoning the morale of soldiers on temporary leave. Most importantly, Ludendorff felt that the German people as a whole had underestimated what was at stake in the war; he was convinced that the Entente had started the war and was determined to dismantle Germany completely. Ludendorff wrote: Political career in the Republic Ludendorff returned to Berlin in February 1919. Staying at the Adlon Hotel, he talked with another resident, Sir Neill Malcolm, the head of the British Military Mission. After Ludendorff presented his excuses for the German defeat Malcolm said, "You mean that you were stabbed in the back?" coining a key catchphrase for the German right wing. On 12 March 1920, 5,000 troops under the command of Walther von Lüttwitz marched on the Chancellery, forcing the government led by Friedrich Ebert and Gustav Bauer to flee the city. The putschists proclaimed a new government with a right-wing politician, Wolfgang Kapp as the new "chancellor". Ludendorff and Max Bauer were part of the putsch. The Kapp Putsch was soon defeated by a general strike that brought Berlin to a standstill. The leaders fled, Ludendorff to Bavaria, where a right-wing coup had succeeded. He published two volumes of annotatedand in a few instances pruneddocuments and commentaries documenting his war service. He reconciled with Hindenburg, who began to visit every year. In May 1923 Ludendorff had an agreeable first meeting with Adolf Hitler, and soon he had regular contacts with Nazis. On 8 November 1923, the Bavarian Gustav von Kahr was addressing a jammed meeting in a large beer hall, the Bürgerbräukeller. Hitler, waving a pistol, jumped onto the stage, announcing that the national revolution was underway. The hall was occupied by armed men who covered the audience with a machine gun, the first move in the Beer Hall Putsch. Hitler announced that he would lead the Reich Government and Ludendorff would command the army. He addressed the now enthusiastically supportive audience and then spent the night in the War Ministry, unsuccessfully trying to obtain the army's backing. The next morning 3,000 armed Nazis formed outside of the Bürgerbräukeller and marched into central Munich, the leaders just behind the flag bearers. They were blocked by a cordon of police, and firing broke out for less than a minute. Several of the Nazis in front were hit or dropped to the ground. Ludendorff and his adjutant Major Streck marched to the police line where they pushed aside the rifle barrels. He was respectfully arrested. He was indignant when he was sent home while the other leaders remained in custody. Four police officers and 16 Nazis had been killed, including Ludendorff's servant. They were tried in early 1924. Ludendorff was acquitted, but Heinz Pernet, Ludendorff's stepson, was convicted of "aiding and abetting treason," given a fifteen-month sentence. Hitler went to prison but was released after nine months. Ludendorff's 60th birthday was celebrated by massed bands and a large torchlight parade. In 1924, he was elected to the Reichstag as a representative of the NSFB (a coalition of the German Freedom Party (DVFP) and members of the Nazi Party), serving until 1928. In 1925, he founded the Tannenbergbund, a German nationalist organization which was both anti-Semitic and anti-Catholic, and published literature espousing conspiracy theories involving Jews, Catholics—especially Jesuits—and Freemasons. As his views became more extreme under the influence of his wife, Mathilde von Kemnitz, Ludendorff gradually began to part company with Hitler, who was surreptitiously working to undermine the reputation of his one serious rival for the leadership of the extreme right in Germany. Nonetheless, Ludendorff was persuaded to run for President of the Republic in the March 1925 election as the DVFP candidate, in alliance with the Nazis, but received only 1.1 per cent of the vote; there is some evidence that Hitler himself persuaded Ludendorff to run, knowing that the results would be humiliating. No one had a majority in the initial round of the election, so a second round was needed; Hindenburg entered the race and was narrowly elected. Ludendorff was so humiliated by what he saw as a betrayal by his old friend that he broke off relations with Hindenburg, and in 1927 refused to even stand beside the field marshal at the dedication of the Tannenberg memorial. He attacked Hindenburg abusively for not having acted in a "nationalistic soldier-like fashion". The Berlin-based liberal newspaper states in its article "Ludendorff's hate tirades against Hindenburg—Poisonous gas from Hitler's camp" that Ludendorff was, as of 29 March 1930, deeply grounded in Nazi ideology. Tipton notes that Ludendorff was a social Darwinist who believed that war was the "foundation of human society", and that military dictatorship was the normal form of government in a society in which every resource must be mobilized. The historian Margaret L. Anderson notes that after the war, Ludendorff wanted Germany to go to war against all of Europe, and that he became a pagan worshipper of the Nordic god Wotan (Odin); he detested not only Judaism, but also Christianity, which he regarded as a weakening force. Retirement and death In 1926, Ludendorff divorced Margarethe Schmidt and married his second wife Mathilde von Kemnitz (1877–1966). They published books and essays claiming that the world's problems were the result of Christianity, especially the Jesuits and Catholics, but also conspiracies by Jews and the Freemasons. They founded the (Society for the Knowledge of God), a small and rather obscure esoterical society of Theists that survives to this day. He launched several abusive attacks on his former superior Hindenburg for not having acted in a "nationalistic soldier-like fashion". By the time Hitler came to power, Ludendorff was no longer sympathetic to him. The Nazis distanced themselves from Ludendorff because of his eccentric conspiracy theories. On 30 January 1933, the occasion of Hitler's appointment as Chancellor by President Hindenburg, Ludendorff allegedly sent the following telegram to Hindenburg: Some historians consider this text to be a forgery. In an attempt to regain Ludendorff's favor, Hitler arrived unannounced at Ludendorff's home on his 70th birthday in 1935 to promote him to field marshal. Infuriated, Ludendorff allegedly rebuffed Hitler by telling him: "An officer is named General Field-Marshal on the battlefield! Not at a birthday tea-party in the midst of peace." He wrote two further books on military themes. Ludendorff died of liver cancer in the private clinic in Munich, on 20 December 1937 at the age of 72. He was given—against his explicit wishes—a state funeral organized and attended by Hitler, who declined to speak at his eulogy. He was buried in the in Tutzing in Bavaria. In popular culture The Ludendorff Bridge, also known as the Bridge at Remagen, was named after him. The 1974 British television drama Fall of Eagles features actor Michael Bates as Ludendorff. The 2003 Canadian TV miniseries Hitler: The Rise of Evil depicts the early relation between Hitler and Ludendorff, who is portrayed by Austrian actor Friedrich von Thun. A highly fictionalized version of Ludendorff, which bears little resemblance in terms of appearance or biography, is portrayed by Danny Huston in the 2017 Warner Bros./DCEU film Wonder Woman. In a second-season episode of the television series Babylon Berlin, members of the Black Reichswehr hatch a plan to overthrow the Weimar Republic and restore the German Empire with Ludendorff as Chancellor. Decorations and awards He received the following honours: Knight of the Military Order of Max Joseph (Bavaria) Grand Commander's Cross of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern, with Star (Prussia) (military), 8 August 1914; with Oak Leaves, 23 February 1915 (Prussia) Grand Cross of the Iron Cross, 24 March 1918 (Prussia) Iron Cross (1914) 1st and 2nd Classes Commander of the Order of the Zähringer Lion, 2nd Class (Baden) Knight of the Military Order of St. Henry (Saxony) Knight of the Military Merit Order () Knight Grand Cross of the House and Merit Order of Peter Frederick Louis, with Swords and Laurels (Oldenburg) Military Merit Cross, 2nd class () Military Merit Cross, 1st Class, with War Decoration (Austria-Hungary) Commander of the Imperial Austrian Order of Franz Joseph, with Star, 1913 (Austria-Hungary) Grand Cross of the Austrian Imperial Order of Leopold, 1917 (Austria-Hungary) Gold Military Merit Medal (, Austria-Hungary) Cross for Merit in War (Saxe-) Grand Cross of the Order of the Cross of Liberty, with Swords (Finland) Writings Books (selection) 1919: Meine Kriegserinnerungen 1914–1918. Berlin: Mittler & Sohn (republished 1936) 1933: Mein militärischer Werdegang. Blätter der Erinnerung an unser stolzes Heer. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag 1937: with Mitarbeitern: Mathilde Ludendorff – ihr Werk und Wirken. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag 1937: Auf dem Weg zur Feldherrnhalle. Lebenserinnerungen an die Zeit des 9. November 1923. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag 1939: with Mathilde Ludendorff: Die Judenmacht, ihr Wesen und Ende. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag Smaller publications 1926: Die Revolution von oben. Das Kriegsende und die Vorgänge beim Waffenstillstand. Zwei Vorträge. Lorch: Karl Rohm 1932: Schändliche Geheimnisse der Hochgrade. Ludendorffs Verlag, Munchen 1934: Wie der Weltkrieg 1914 „gemacht“ wurde. Munich: Völkischer Verlag 1934: Das Marne-Drama. Der Fall Moltke-Hentsch. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag 1934: "Tannenberg". Zum 20. Jahrestag der Schlacht. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag 1934: Die politischen Hintergründe des 9. November 1923. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag 1935: Über Unbotmäßigkeit im Kriege. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag 1935: Französische Fälschung meiner Denkschrift von 1912 über den drohenden Krieg. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag 1938–40: Feldherrnworte. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag 1939: Tannenberg. Geschichtliche Wahrheit über die Schlacht. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag As publisher 1929–1933 (banned): Ludendorffs Volkswarte ("Ludendorff's Peoples' Viewpoint"; weekly) Munich References Sources Primary sources Ludendorff, Erich. The Coming War. Faber and Faber, 1931. () Ludendorff, Erich. The Nation at War. Hutchinson, London, 1936. () Secondary sources Astore, William J. "The Tragic Pursuit of Total Victory." MHQ: Quarterly Journal of Military History (Autumn 2007) 20#1) pp. 64–73. Brownell, William and Denise Drace-Brownell. The First Nazi: Erich Ludendorff, The Man Who Made Hitler Possible (Berkeley: Counterpoint, 2016). 356 pp highly negative online review Jones, LTC William A. Ludendorff: Strategist (Pickle Partners Publishing, 2015) online. Showalter, Dennis, and William J. Astore. Hindenburg: Icon of German Militarism (2005) excerpt Amm, Bettina: Ludendorff-Bewegung. In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Judenfeindlichkeit in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Band 5: Organisationen, Institutionen, Bewegungen. De Gruyter, Berlin 2012. pp. 393 ff. . Gruchmann, Lothar: Ludendorffs „prophetischer“ Brief an Hindenburg vom Januar/Februar 1933. Eine Legende. In: Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte. Band 47, 1999. pp. 559–562. Nebelin, Manfred: Ludendorff. Diktator im Ersten Weltkrieg. Siedler, München 2011. . Pöhlmann, Markus: Der moderne Alexander im Maschinenkrieg. In: Stig Förster (Hrsg.): Kriegsherren der Weltgeschichte. 22 historische Porträts. Beck, München 2006. pp. 268–286. Puschner, Uwe; Vollnhals, Clemens (Hrgb.); Die völkisch-religiöse Bewegung im Nationalsozialismus; Göttingen 2012 . Schwab, Andreas: Vom totalen Krieg zur deutschen Gotterkenntnis. Die Weltanschauung Erich Ludendorffs. In: Schriftenreihe der Eidgenössischen Militärbibliothek und des Historischen Dienstes. Nr. 17, Bern 2005. Wegehaupt, Phillip: "Ludendorff, Erich". In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Bd. 2: Personen. De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2009, , pp. 494 ff. (retrieved über Verlag Walter de Gruyter Online). External links Ludendorff by H. L. Mencken published in the June 1917 edition of the Atlantic Monthly Biography of Erich Ludendorff from Spartacus Educational My War Memories by Erich Ludendorff at archive.org Category:1865 births Category:1937 deaths Category:Anti-Masonry Category:Antisemitism in Germany Category:Candidates for President of Germany Category:German critics of Christianity Category:Critics of the Catholic Church Category:Deaths from cancer in Germany Category:Deaths from liver cancer Category:Esotericism Category:Generals of Infantry (Prussia) Category:German anti-communists Category:German Army generals of World War I Category:German conspiracy theorists Category:German fascists Category:German nationalists Category:German modern pagans Category:German people of Polish descent Category:German Völkisch Freedom Party politicians Category:Kapp Putsch participants Category:Ludendorff family Category:Members of the Reichstag of the Weimar Republic Category:National Socialist Freedom Movement politicians Category:Nazi Party officials Category:Nazi Party politicians Category:Nazis who participated in the Beer Hall Putsch Category:Occultism in Nazism Category:Nobility in the Nazi Party Category:People acquitted of treason Category:People from Swarzędz Category:People from the Province of Posen Category:Quartermasters Category:Converts to pagan religions from Protestantism Category:Adherents of Germanic neopaganism Category:Recipients of the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross Category:Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (military class) Category:Knights of the Military Order of Max Joseph Category:Officers Crosses of the Military Merit Order (Bavaria) Category:Commanders of the Order of Franz Joseph Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of the Cross of Liberty Category:Converts to pagan religions from Christianity
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[ "Ludendorff was with Hindenburg starting from 29 August 1916, when Hindenburg became the Chief of the General Staff and Ludendorff became his chief of staff as first Quartermaster general.", "Yes, the article provides an insight into Ludendorff's role and management style during the war. It describes him as a dominant figure who was deeply involved in the war effort, speaking for commanders during meetings, authoring a barrage of orders, instructions, and demands for information, and even regularly interacting with media. It also mentions Ludendorff's reception by the public, who idolized him as the brain of their army. Moreover, the article discusses the strategic approach employed during the war, such as the creation of a new defensive line known as the Hindenburg Line, and the ultimate goal of Germany for broader borders. The Chancellor's warning about Ludendorff's tendency to lose his nerve during challenging times is another interesting aspect of the article.", "During this time, Ludendorff was promoted to General of the Infantry.", "The context does not provide a specific location for Ludendorff and Hindenburg, but it mentions them engaging in battles along the Western Front, managing troops in Hungary, Romania, and later moving west. The Western front typically refers to the region of northern France where much of the fighting of World War I took place.", "Their mission was to achieve victory in the war, which the Germans defined as extending their borders to create a Germany that could be more easily defended in any potential future wars. This involved a number of strategic decisions, like shifting towards defensive tactics on the Somme, stopping attacks at Verdun, and building what came to be known as the Hindenburg Line, a new backup defensive fortification.", "Apart from Ludendorff and Hindenburg, other key individuals mentioned as part of the war effort included Field Marshal August von Mackensen and Erich von Falkenhayn who commanded troops against Romania. Max Bauer, Ludendorff's friend, who lobbied for Ludendorff, is also mentioned. Additionally, there were commanders, staff, and troops of the German, Austro-Hungarian, Bulgarian, and Ottoman forces.", "Ludendorff's role as chief of staff was extensive and involved great responsibility. He had joint responsibility with Hindenburg and was deeply involved in all aspects of the German war effort, being described as having his \"hand everywhere\". He issued orders, instructions, and demands for information in what was described as a \"paper barrage\". Furthermore, Ludendorff largely dominated meetings with commanders, doing most of the talking and learning about their problems. He also issued the two daily communiques and was often in contact with newspaper and newsreel reporters. He was seen by the public as the brain behind their army.", "The context indicates that Ludendorff was deeply involved, proactive, and took charge in his position as chief of staff. He was idolized by the public as the brain of their army. However, there was criticism too. Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg warned that Ludendorff was only great at a time of success, implying that he might struggle with challenging situations. Also, Field Marshal August von Mackensen characterized Ludendorff's management style as consisting of \"floods of telegrams, as superfluous as they were offensive.\" So, while he was effective and recognized, there were also concerns and criticism about his methods and performance under pressure.", "Yes, other countries were involved in the war effort at this time. Apart from Germany, troops from the Austro-Hungarian, Bulgarian, and Ottoman empires were mentioned as participating in military operations. These nations, alongside Germany, were part of the Central Powers in World War I. Furthermore, Romania and Russia were mentioned as countries against which military operations were directed.", "The context does not specify if Ludendorff directly fought in any battles on the front line. It does indicate he was heavily involved in overseeing and managing military operations, including decisions about defensive tactics on the Somme and ending attacks at Verdun. He was also involved in efforts to check Romanian and Russian incursions into Hungary. However, these responsibilities seem to relate more to commanding, directing, and strategizing, rather than personally fighting on the front line." ]
[ "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]
C_d450781ff6344c4eaf78809a6e1c77e1_0
De La Soul
De La Soul is an American hip hop trio formed in 1987 on Long Island, New York. The group is best known for their eclectic sampling, quirky lyrics, and their contributions to the evolution of the jazz rap and alternative hip hop subgenres. The members are Posdnuos, Trugoy the Dove and Maseo. The three formed the group in high school and caught the attention of producer Prince Paul with a demo tape of the song "Plug Tunin'".
Middle period
The group's third studio release, 1993's Buhloone Mindstate, saw the group evolve a new sound as they continued to grow stylistically and musically. There were several moments on the album which proved the band had matured. "I Be Blowin'" was a departure as the track was an instrumental featuring saxophone playing by Maceo Parker. The introspective "I Am I Be" showed De La Soul at their most self-referential to date with subject matter about Pos' daughter Ayana Monet as well as his grandmother. "Long Island Wildin'" was a collaboration with Japanese hip hop artists Kan Takagi (Major Force) and trio Scha Dara Parr (SDP). The album's first single, "Breakadawn", used a sample of Michael Jackson's "I Can't Help It" and Smokey Robinson's "Quiet Storm". De La Soul collaborated for the first time with Gang Starr's Guru on "Patti Dooke", female MC Shortie No Mas, a cousin of Posdnuos, was prominent on many tracks on the album, showcased particularly "In The Woods". The album ended with an old school Biz Markie collaboration called "Stone Age". Missing from vocal duties is Mase, whose voice can only be heard on "Area" in a break near the end of the track. Also rarely featured is his scratching which was heard often on previous albums, with only "In the Woods" showcasing his talent in that area. The album was a critical success, but it was the biggest commercial failure for the group at the time of its release. Many publications, such as Rolling Stone, have listed this album as one of the best hip hop albums of all time. In 1994, 500 copies of a promotional EP called Clear Lake Audiotorium were released on clear vinyl and CD. The 6 track EP contained edited versions of tracks off of Buhloone Mindstate but also featured the tracks "Sh.Fe.MC's" (Shocking Female MC's) which was a collaboration with A Tribe Called Quest, and Stix & Stonz which featured old-school hip hop artists Grandmaster Caz, Tito of Fearless Four, Whipper Whip, LA Sunshine and Superstar. The EP was widely bootlegged afterwards. Stakes Is High (1996) was the first album not produced by Prince Paul, with overall production credits given solely to the trio. Although it was met with poor sales, it has been critically lauded for its music, lyricism, and its overall message concerning the artistic decline rap music began to face in the mid-90s. The title track and first single, produced by J Dilla, was not a hit, but the album's second single, "Itzsoweezee (HOT)", with only Dave on vocals, did fare better due to its creative music video. The album spawned a third single "4 More", featuring Zhane which peaked at #52 in the UK. The album did provide a launching pad for future star rapper and actor Mos Def, who appeared on the track "Big Brother Beat". The album also featured collaborations with Common, Truth Enola, and the Jazzyfatnastees. CANNOTANSWER
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De La Soul () is an American hip hop group formed in 1988 the village of Amityville on Long Island, New York. They are best known for their eclectic sampling, quirky lyrics, and contributions to the evolution of the jazz rap and alternative hip hop subgenres. Kelvin "Posdnuos" Mercer, David "Trugoy the Dove" Jolicoeur, and Vincent "Maseo" Mason formed the group in high school and caught the attention of producer Prince Paul with a demo tape of the song "Plug Tunin'". With its playful wordplay, innovative sampling, and witty skits, the group's debut album, 3 Feet High and Rising (1989), has been called "a hip hop masterpiece". It remains their biggest commercial success, though subsequent albums have continued to receive acclaim. De La Soul is the second-longest-standing Native Tongues group, after the Jungle Brothers. In 2006, the group won a Grammy for their collaboration with Gorillaz on their single "Feel Good Inc." The group released a Kickstarter-funded album, And the Anonymous Nobody..., in 2016. The album features guest appearances from artists such as Damon Albarn, Little Dragon, David Byrne, 2 Chainz, and Snoop Dogg. Trugoy the Dove died in 2023. History 1989–1993: 3 Feet High and Rising and De La Soul Is Dead De La Soul's debut album, 3 Feet High and Rising, released in 1989, was a critical smash hit in the hip hop genre. They quickly became prominent members of the Native Tongues Posse along with A Tribe Called Quest, Black Sheep, Queen Latifah, and the Jungle Brothers among others. The single "Me Myself and I" became a huge hit, further cementing the group's popularity. However, the sixties pop group The Turtles sued De La Soul for using a sample from their 1969 hit "You Showed Me" for the interlude track "Transmitting Live from Mars". Lyrically, much of 3 Feet High and Rising focused on striving for peace and harmony. 3 Feet High and Rising also introduced De La Soul's concept of the "D.A.I.S.Y. Age" (an acronym standing for "da inner sound, y'all"). As a result, audiences were quick to peg the members of De La Soul as hippies. This stereotype greatly agitated the group's members, as they always envisioned their career as a constantly changing style; this frustration would influence their next recording sessions. In the press kit for 3 Feet High and Rising, the members explained their stage names: Trugoy when reversed spells yogurt, because he likes yogurt, and Posdnuos spelled backwards is "sound sop". The album artwork was designed by radical British artist collective the Grey Organisation. De La Soul's second album, De La Soul Is Dead (1991), was a much more mature album. It featured a wealth of material that criticized the violent, careless direction that hip hop was heading in at the time, though it still managed to maintain a light, absurd sense of humor. The cover of the album features a broken daisy flower pot, symbolizing the death of the "D.A.I.S.Y. Age" and the imagery that went along with it. The album spawned several singles, including the dark "Millie Pulled a Pistol on Santa", a tale of a young girl who could no longer take the sexual abuse from her father, and the lead single "Ring Ring Ring (Ha Ha Hey)", a story about people using the group's recent fame to try to launch their own careers. De La Soul collaborated with Black Sheep on "Fanatic of the B Word" and Q-Tip from A Tribe Called Quest on "A Roller Skating Jam Named 'Saturdays'"; Prince Paul makes an appearance on the mic in "Pass the Plugs" with a verse of his own. The album also more prominently featured Maseo as a rapper, providing verses of his own on "Bitties in the BK Lounge", "Afro Connections at a Hi-5", and "Ring Ring Ring (Ha Ha Hey)". Though it received mixed reviews and did not sell as well as 3 Feet High and Rising it eventually became a cult classic. The Source magazine listed the album as one of their top 100 hip hop albums of all time, stating that "its true genius is rarely understood" . There are several major differences between the CD version of this album and the other formats, as the tracks "Johnny's Dead AKA Vincent Mason", "My Brother's a Basehead", "Kicked Out the House", and "Who Do U Worship?" are only available on the CD. The limited edition double vinyl promotional copies of the album distributed to the media before the official release did not feature these. 1993–2000: Buhloone Mindstate and Stakes Is High The group's third studio release, 1993's Buhloone Mindstate, saw the group evolve a new sound as they continued to grow stylistically and musically. There were several moments on the album which proved the band had matured. "I Be Blowin'" was a departure as the track was an instrumental featuring saxophone playing by Maceo Parker. The introspective "I Am I Be" showed De La Soul at their most self-referential to date with subject matter about Pos' daughter Ayana Monet as well as his grandmother. "Long Island Wildin'" was a collaboration with Japanese hip hop artists Kan Takagi (Major Force) and trio Scha Dara Parr (SDP). The album's first single, "Breakadawn", used a sample of Michael Jackson's "I Can't Help It" and Smokey Robinson's "Quiet Storm". De La Soul collaborated for the first time with Gang Starr's Guru on "Patti Dooke", female MC Shortie No Mas, a cousin of Posdnuos, was prominent on many tracks on the album, showcased particularly "In The Woods". The album ended with an old school Biz Markie collaboration called "Stone Age". Missing from vocal duties is Mase, whose voice can only be heard on "Area" in a break near the end of the track. Also rarely featured is his scratching which was heard often on previous albums, with only "In the Woods" showcasing his talent in that area. The album was a critical success, but it was the biggest commercial failure for the group at the time of its release. Many publications, such as Rolling Stone, have listed this album as one of the best hip hop albums of all time. In 1994, 500 copies of a promotional EP called Clear Lake Audiotorium were released on clear vinyl and CD. The 6 track EP contained edited versions of tracks off of Buhloone Mindstate but also featured the tracks "Sh.Fe.MC's" (Shocking Female MC's) which was a collaboration with A Tribe Called Quest, and "Stix & Stonz" which featured old-school hip hop artists Grandmaster Caz, Tito of Fearless Four, Whipper Whip, LA Sunshine and Superstar. The EP was widely bootlegged afterwards. Stakes Is High (1996) was the first album not produced by Prince Paul, with overall production credits given solely to the trio. Although it was met with poor sales, it has been critically lauded for its music, lyricism, and its overall message concerning the artistic decline rap music began to face in the mid-90s. The title track and first single, produced by J Dilla, was not a hit, but the album's second single, "Itzsoweezee (HOT)", with only Dave on vocals, did fare better due to its creative music video. The album spawned a third single "4 More", featuring Zhane which peaked at #52 in the UK. The album did provide a launching pad for future star rapper and actor Mos Def, who appeared on the track "Big Brother Beat". The album also featured collaborations with Common, Truth Enola, and the Jazzyfatnastees. 2000–2005: Art Official Intelligence and The Grind Date Four years later, De La Soul announced that they would release a triple album series entitled "Art Official Intelligence" (or AOI). All three albums were intended to be released within a year, beginning with the release of Art Official Intelligence: Mosaic Thump. This was followed by AOI: Bionix in late 2001. After this, however, the third and final album in the AOI series was never released. For the next two years, the only De La Soul releases were singles or remix compilations. David "Trugoy the Dove" Jolicoeur stated in an interview that it usually takes about four years for the group to record an album, promote it with advertisements, touring and so on. The group was having trouble finishing the last AOI installment for many reasons, one of which being an ongoing struggle with Tommy Boy Records, which had been releasing its albums ever since its debut. In the summer of 2002, De La Soul toured with Cake, Modest Mouse, The Flaming Lips, Kinky, and the Hackensaw Boys during the Unlimited Sunshine Tour. The band was briefly featured in the video game PaRappa the Rapper 2 with the song "Say "I Gotta Believe!"", featuring Double, and also appeared on the soundtrack of the game. In 2004, De La Soul released a new full album: The Grind Date on Sanctuary/BMG Records because the venture between Tommy Boy and Warner Bros. Records was shut down and the group's contract was shopped to the other WEA labels. The band thought about having its contract absorbed by Elektra Records, but it decided to leave WEA altogether. Although it was not the third AOI album fans had been expecting, the album was released to some critical acclaim and was well received by most fans. The album features guests MF Doom, Ghostface Killah, Butta Verses and Flavor Flav, with production from 9th Wonder, Jake One, Madlib and more. The lead single "Shopping Bags (She Got from You)" did not fare very well and set the tone for disappointing commercial acceptance. In conjunction with the album's release, the group also offered up the track "Come on Down" featuring Flavor Flav for remixing on Sony's Acid Planet website. The winning remix was "Come On Down (KY Raised NY Glazed)" by Interlude Jones who said he tried to "take the influential sound of old New York hip hop and marry it back to its roots." 2005–present: Features, And the Anonymous Nobody... and the death of Trugoy the Dove In 2005, De La Soul collaborated with Gorillaz on the hit single "Feel Good Inc.", which won a Grammy for Best Pop Vocal Collaboration (the first Grammy win in the group's career) after being nominated for a total of three Grammys. De La Soul also appeared on the LA Symphony single "Universal" and Posdnuos collaborated with the Portuguese MC Boss AC on a track called "Yo (Não Brinques Com Esta Merda)". The following year they released mixtapes Hip-Hop Mixtape, a covermount with British dance magazine Mixmag, and The Impossible: Mission TV Series – Pt. 1, a release on the group's own AOI Records label. De La Soul collaborated with the athletic sneaker company Nike to produce two versions of the Nike Dunk under their skateboarding division, Nike SB. In 2008, the group joined A Tribe Called Quest, Nas, Tech N9ne, The Pharcyde and others on the annual Rock the Bells tour and were honored at the 5th Annual VH1 Hip Hop Honors. Later in the year they collaborated with dan le sac vs Scroobius Pip on a re-recording of the British group's debut single "Thou Shalt Always Kill". De La Soul returned as a guest on the third Gorillaz studio album, Plastic Beach alongside Super Furry Animals frontman Gruff Rhys on the song "Superfast Jellyfish". Two other collaborations were recorded, but did not make the final cut for the album. They were supposed to appear on a track entitled "Sloped Tropics", though this song did not make the final cut. The group remixed indie rockers Yo La Tengo's single, "Here To Fall for the Here To Fall" remixes EP which included remixes by RJD2 and Pete Rock, and were featured on a remix of Matt & Kim's single "Daylight" by DJ Troublemaker. In 2011, the group earned Top 5 rankings on both NPR and Soul Train's year end "Best of" lists with the Amerigo Gazaway produced De La Soul/Fela Kuti mashup, Fela Soul. De La Soul and Nike released Are You In?: Nike+ Original Run, which was the group's first original material since The Impossible: Mission TV Series – Pt. 1. The album features Raheem DeVaughn as well as production from the Chicago-based duo Flosstradamus. The recording is a single-track recording at 44 minutes, 17 seconds, part of a continuing series of releases through the "Nike+ Sport Music" section of the online store. The group released De La Soul's Plug 1 & Plug 2 presents... First Serve in April 2012, an album that did not feature any contributions from Maseo. With little promotion, the album was released to positive reviews. This was followed by releasing one track a month during 2013. In March 2015, De La Soul created a Kickstarter to help fund their upcoming album. It surpassed the original goal of $110,000 in under ten hours. The resulting album, And the Anonymous Nobody..., was released in August 2016. Originally planned for an April release, but delayed due to rights issues, the album was preceded by a four track EP For Your Pain & Suffering and the single "Pain", featuring Snoop Dogg. The album was nominated at the 59th Grammy Awards for Best Rap Album. De La Soul was featured on the track "Momentz" on Gorillaz’ 2017 album Humanz, on Leap of Faith by Mr. Jukes, alongside Horace Andy, and on Tom Misch's 2018 single "It Runs Through Me". A tenth studio album, featuring production contributions from Pete Rock and DJ Premier, will reportedly be released by Mass Appeal Records. At the 65th Grammy Awards on February 5, 2023, Posdnuos performed a segment of "Buddy" as part of the ceremony’s tribute to fifty years of hip-hop. Days later, Trugoy the Dove died on February 12, 2023, at the age of 54. He had been suffering from congestive heart failure since 2017. His death came only weeks before the release of De La Soul's music on streaming platforms following their long-fought catalogue disputes. The remaining members of De La Soul and other artists including Nas, Chuck D, and LL Cool J came together for "The DA.I.S.Y Experience", a tribute concert to Trugoy, on March 2, the day before De La Soul's music was released digitally. The re-release of their music led to the group charting in the United Kingdom for the first time since 1990. On February 27, 2023, Gorillaz released the deluxe edition of their album Cracker Island, featuring De La Soul on the song "Crocadillaz", being Trugoy’s final recording credit with De La Soul. Catalog dispute De La Soul's back catalog was not released on audio streaming services or digital media stores until 2023. 3 Feet High and Rising, however, was in 2012 put on the band's official website as a free MP3 download. Until 2017, it was owned by Warner Music Group, which, according to Posdnuos, had been reluctant to clear samples and renegotiate contracts. The samples used in De La Soul's music were only cleared for physical media distribution; the wording of their contracts is not vague enough to enable them to distribute the music digitally on unforeseen technologies. In 2017, De La Soul's catalog was purchased by Tommy Boy Records. In February 2019, De La Soul announced that their catalog would soon be available on digital services. However, as they were unhappy receiving 10% of the revenue, with the rest for Tommy Boy, the release was postponed pending further negotiations. Hip hop artists including Nas, Pete Rock, and Questlove called for a boycott of Tommy Boy. In August, De La Soul announced they had been unable to settle the dispute with Tommy Boy and ended negotiations. In February 2020, Posdnuos said that Tommy Boy "sort of came back to the table, we are looking to sort of get it going". In April, Rostrum Records head Benjy Grinberg said he was attempting to buy Tommy Boy to return the master recordings to De La Soul. Tommy Boy enlisted the music licensing company DMG Clearances to secure clearance for the samples, but talks failed with many of the copyright holders, as they were reticent to become involved with the conflicts between De La Soul and Tommy Boy. On June 4, 2021, Reservoir Media acquired Tommy Boy for USD$100 million. On August 8, Talib Kweli announced that De La Soul had gained ownership over their music. In January 2022, DMG Clearances restarted talks with sample copyright owners. It took around a year to license most of the samples; De La Soul interpolated or replayed samples that could not be cleared. On January 3, 2023, it was announced that the group's first six albums would be released on audio streaming services on March 3, 2023, the 34th anniversary of 3 Feet High and Rising. All their Tommy Boy releases are now owned by De La Soul's company A.O.I., LLC, and are licensed to Chrysalis Records, which, like Tommy Boy, is also owned by Reservoir. Filmography Chappelle's Show as themselves Teen Titans Go! as themselves Discography 3 Feet High and Rising (1989) De La Soul Is Dead (1991) Buhloone Mindstate (1993) Stakes Is High (1996) Art Official Intelligence: Mosaic Thump (2000) AOI: Bionix (2001) The Grind Date (2004) Plug 1 & Plug 2 Present... First Serve (2012) And the Anonymous Nobody... (2016) Awards and nominations Grammy Awards !Ref. |- | 1990 | "Me Myself and I" | Best Rap Performance | | |- | 2001 | "Oooh." (featuring Redman) | Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group | | |- | rowspan="3"|2006 | rowspan="3"|"Feel Good Inc." <small>(with Gorillaz) | Record of the Year | | style="text-align:center;" rowspan="3"| |- | Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals | |- | Best Short Form Music Video | |- |2017 |And the Anonymous Nobody... | Best Rap Album | | style="text-align:center;"| References Further reading External links Category:Native Tongues Posse Category:Alternative hip hop groups Category:East Coast hip hop groups Category:American dance music groups Category:Grammy Award winners Category:Tommy Boy Records artists Category:Big Life artists Category:Musical groups from Long Island
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C_d450781ff6344c4eaf78809a6e1c77e1_1
De La Soul
De La Soul is an American hip hop trio formed in 1987 on Long Island, New York. The group is best known for their eclectic sampling, quirky lyrics, and their contributions to the evolution of the jazz rap and alternative hip hop subgenres. The members are Posdnuos, Trugoy the Dove and Maseo. The three formed the group in high school and caught the attention of producer Prince Paul with a demo tape of the song "Plug Tunin'".
Early period
De La Soul's debut album, 3 Feet High and Rising, released in 1989, was a critical smash hit in the hip hop genre. They quickly became prominent members of the Native Tongues Posse along with A Tribe Called Quest, Black Sheep, Queen Latifah, the Jungle Brothers and others. The single "Me Myself and I" became a huge hit, further cementing the group's popularity. However, the sixties pop group The Turtles sued De La Soul for using a sample from their 1969 hit "You Showed Me" for the interlude track "Transmitting Live from Mars", despite the fact that The Turtles did not actually write the original song. Lyrically, much of 3 Feet High and Rising focused on striving for peace and harmony. 3 Feet High and Rising also introduced De La Soul's concept of the "D.A.I.S.Y. Age" (an acronym standing for "da inner sound, y'all"). As a result, audiences were quick to peg the members of De La Soul as hippies. This stereotype greatly agitated the group's members, as they always envisioned their career as a constantly changing style; this frustration would influence their next recording sessions. In the press kit for 3 Feet High and Rising, the members explained their stage names: Trugoy when reversed spells yogurt, because he likes yogurt, and Posdnuos spelled backwards is "sound sop". The album artwork was designed by radical British artist collective the Grey Organisation De La Soul's second album, De La Soul Is Dead (1991) was a much more mature album. It featured a wealth of material that criticized the violent, careless direction that hip hop was heading in at the time, though it still managed to maintain a light, absurd sense of humor. The cover of the album features a broken daisy flower pot, symbolizing the death of the "D.A.I.S.Y. Age" and the imagery that went along with it. The album spawned several singles, including the dark "Millie Pulled a Pistol on Santa", a tale of a young girl who could no longer take the sexual abuse from her father, and the lead single "Ring Ring Ring (Ha Ha Hey)", a story about the people rated with the Black Sheep on "Fanatic of the B Word," Q-Tip from A Tribe Called Quest on "A Roller Skating Jam Named 'Saturdays'", and Prince Paul makes an appearance on the mic in "Pass the Plugs" with a verse of his own. The album also more prominently featured Vincent Mason as a rapper, providing verses of his own on "Bitties in the BK Lounge," "Afro Connections at a Hi-5," and "Ring Ring Ring (Ha Ha Hey)". Though it received mixed reviews and did not sell as well as 3 Feet High and Rising it eventually became a cult classic. The Source magazine listed the album as one of their top 100 hip hop albums of all time, stating that "its true genius is rarely understood". There are several major differences between the CD version of this album and the other formats, as the tracks "Johnny's Dead AKA Vincent Mason", "My Brother's a Basehead", "Kicked Out the House", and "Who Do U Worship?" are only available on the CD. The limited edition double vinyl promotional copies of the album distributed to the media before the official release did not feature these. CANNOTANSWER
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De La Soul () is an American hip hop group formed in 1988 the village of Amityville on Long Island, New York. They are best known for their eclectic sampling, quirky lyrics, and contributions to the evolution of the jazz rap and alternative hip hop subgenres. Kelvin "Posdnuos" Mercer, David "Trugoy the Dove" Jolicoeur, and Vincent "Maseo" Mason formed the group in high school and caught the attention of producer Prince Paul with a demo tape of the song "Plug Tunin'". With its playful wordplay, innovative sampling, and witty skits, the group's debut album, 3 Feet High and Rising (1989), has been called "a hip hop masterpiece". It remains their biggest commercial success, though subsequent albums have continued to receive acclaim. De La Soul is the second-longest-standing Native Tongues group, after the Jungle Brothers. In 2006, the group won a Grammy for their collaboration with Gorillaz on their single "Feel Good Inc." The group released a Kickstarter-funded album, And the Anonymous Nobody..., in 2016. The album features guest appearances from artists such as Damon Albarn, Little Dragon, David Byrne, 2 Chainz, and Snoop Dogg. Trugoy the Dove died in 2023. History 1989–1993: 3 Feet High and Rising and De La Soul Is Dead De La Soul's debut album, 3 Feet High and Rising, released in 1989, was a critical smash hit in the hip hop genre. They quickly became prominent members of the Native Tongues Posse along with A Tribe Called Quest, Black Sheep, Queen Latifah, and the Jungle Brothers among others. The single "Me Myself and I" became a huge hit, further cementing the group's popularity. However, the sixties pop group The Turtles sued De La Soul for using a sample from their 1969 hit "You Showed Me" for the interlude track "Transmitting Live from Mars". Lyrically, much of 3 Feet High and Rising focused on striving for peace and harmony. 3 Feet High and Rising also introduced De La Soul's concept of the "D.A.I.S.Y. Age" (an acronym standing for "da inner sound, y'all"). As a result, audiences were quick to peg the members of De La Soul as hippies. This stereotype greatly agitated the group's members, as they always envisioned their career as a constantly changing style; this frustration would influence their next recording sessions. In the press kit for 3 Feet High and Rising, the members explained their stage names: Trugoy when reversed spells yogurt, because he likes yogurt, and Posdnuos spelled backwards is "sound sop". The album artwork was designed by radical British artist collective the Grey Organisation. De La Soul's second album, De La Soul Is Dead (1991), was a much more mature album. It featured a wealth of material that criticized the violent, careless direction that hip hop was heading in at the time, though it still managed to maintain a light, absurd sense of humor. The cover of the album features a broken daisy flower pot, symbolizing the death of the "D.A.I.S.Y. Age" and the imagery that went along with it. The album spawned several singles, including the dark "Millie Pulled a Pistol on Santa", a tale of a young girl who could no longer take the sexual abuse from her father, and the lead single "Ring Ring Ring (Ha Ha Hey)", a story about people using the group's recent fame to try to launch their own careers. De La Soul collaborated with Black Sheep on "Fanatic of the B Word" and Q-Tip from A Tribe Called Quest on "A Roller Skating Jam Named 'Saturdays'"; Prince Paul makes an appearance on the mic in "Pass the Plugs" with a verse of his own. The album also more prominently featured Maseo as a rapper, providing verses of his own on "Bitties in the BK Lounge", "Afro Connections at a Hi-5", and "Ring Ring Ring (Ha Ha Hey)". Though it received mixed reviews and did not sell as well as 3 Feet High and Rising it eventually became a cult classic. The Source magazine listed the album as one of their top 100 hip hop albums of all time, stating that "its true genius is rarely understood" . There are several major differences between the CD version of this album and the other formats, as the tracks "Johnny's Dead AKA Vincent Mason", "My Brother's a Basehead", "Kicked Out the House", and "Who Do U Worship?" are only available on the CD. The limited edition double vinyl promotional copies of the album distributed to the media before the official release did not feature these. 1993–2000: Buhloone Mindstate and Stakes Is High The group's third studio release, 1993's Buhloone Mindstate, saw the group evolve a new sound as they continued to grow stylistically and musically. There were several moments on the album which proved the band had matured. "I Be Blowin'" was a departure as the track was an instrumental featuring saxophone playing by Maceo Parker. The introspective "I Am I Be" showed De La Soul at their most self-referential to date with subject matter about Pos' daughter Ayana Monet as well as his grandmother. "Long Island Wildin'" was a collaboration with Japanese hip hop artists Kan Takagi (Major Force) and trio Scha Dara Parr (SDP). The album's first single, "Breakadawn", used a sample of Michael Jackson's "I Can't Help It" and Smokey Robinson's "Quiet Storm". De La Soul collaborated for the first time with Gang Starr's Guru on "Patti Dooke", female MC Shortie No Mas, a cousin of Posdnuos, was prominent on many tracks on the album, showcased particularly "In The Woods". The album ended with an old school Biz Markie collaboration called "Stone Age". Missing from vocal duties is Mase, whose voice can only be heard on "Area" in a break near the end of the track. Also rarely featured is his scratching which was heard often on previous albums, with only "In the Woods" showcasing his talent in that area. The album was a critical success, but it was the biggest commercial failure for the group at the time of its release. Many publications, such as Rolling Stone, have listed this album as one of the best hip hop albums of all time. In 1994, 500 copies of a promotional EP called Clear Lake Audiotorium were released on clear vinyl and CD. The 6 track EP contained edited versions of tracks off of Buhloone Mindstate but also featured the tracks "Sh.Fe.MC's" (Shocking Female MC's) which was a collaboration with A Tribe Called Quest, and "Stix & Stonz" which featured old-school hip hop artists Grandmaster Caz, Tito of Fearless Four, Whipper Whip, LA Sunshine and Superstar. The EP was widely bootlegged afterwards. Stakes Is High (1996) was the first album not produced by Prince Paul, with overall production credits given solely to the trio. Although it was met with poor sales, it has been critically lauded for its music, lyricism, and its overall message concerning the artistic decline rap music began to face in the mid-90s. The title track and first single, produced by J Dilla, was not a hit, but the album's second single, "Itzsoweezee (HOT)", with only Dave on vocals, did fare better due to its creative music video. The album spawned a third single "4 More", featuring Zhane which peaked at #52 in the UK. The album did provide a launching pad for future star rapper and actor Mos Def, who appeared on the track "Big Brother Beat". The album also featured collaborations with Common, Truth Enola, and the Jazzyfatnastees. 2000–2005: Art Official Intelligence and The Grind Date Four years later, De La Soul announced that they would release a triple album series entitled "Art Official Intelligence" (or AOI). All three albums were intended to be released within a year, beginning with the release of Art Official Intelligence: Mosaic Thump. This was followed by AOI: Bionix in late 2001. After this, however, the third and final album in the AOI series was never released. For the next two years, the only De La Soul releases were singles or remix compilations. David "Trugoy the Dove" Jolicoeur stated in an interview that it usually takes about four years for the group to record an album, promote it with advertisements, touring and so on. The group was having trouble finishing the last AOI installment for many reasons, one of which being an ongoing struggle with Tommy Boy Records, which had been releasing its albums ever since its debut. In the summer of 2002, De La Soul toured with Cake, Modest Mouse, The Flaming Lips, Kinky, and the Hackensaw Boys during the Unlimited Sunshine Tour. The band was briefly featured in the video game PaRappa the Rapper 2 with the song "Say "I Gotta Believe!"", featuring Double, and also appeared on the soundtrack of the game. In 2004, De La Soul released a new full album: The Grind Date on Sanctuary/BMG Records because the venture between Tommy Boy and Warner Bros. Records was shut down and the group's contract was shopped to the other WEA labels. The band thought about having its contract absorbed by Elektra Records, but it decided to leave WEA altogether. Although it was not the third AOI album fans had been expecting, the album was released to some critical acclaim and was well received by most fans. The album features guests MF Doom, Ghostface Killah, Butta Verses and Flavor Flav, with production from 9th Wonder, Jake One, Madlib and more. The lead single "Shopping Bags (She Got from You)" did not fare very well and set the tone for disappointing commercial acceptance. In conjunction with the album's release, the group also offered up the track "Come on Down" featuring Flavor Flav for remixing on Sony's Acid Planet website. The winning remix was "Come On Down (KY Raised NY Glazed)" by Interlude Jones who said he tried to "take the influential sound of old New York hip hop and marry it back to its roots." 2005–present: Features, And the Anonymous Nobody... and the death of Trugoy the Dove In 2005, De La Soul collaborated with Gorillaz on the hit single "Feel Good Inc.", which won a Grammy for Best Pop Vocal Collaboration (the first Grammy win in the group's career) after being nominated for a total of three Grammys. De La Soul also appeared on the LA Symphony single "Universal" and Posdnuos collaborated with the Portuguese MC Boss AC on a track called "Yo (Não Brinques Com Esta Merda)". The following year they released mixtapes Hip-Hop Mixtape, a covermount with British dance magazine Mixmag, and The Impossible: Mission TV Series – Pt. 1, a release on the group's own AOI Records label. De La Soul collaborated with the athletic sneaker company Nike to produce two versions of the Nike Dunk under their skateboarding division, Nike SB. In 2008, the group joined A Tribe Called Quest, Nas, Tech N9ne, The Pharcyde and others on the annual Rock the Bells tour and were honored at the 5th Annual VH1 Hip Hop Honors. Later in the year they collaborated with dan le sac vs Scroobius Pip on a re-recording of the British group's debut single "Thou Shalt Always Kill". De La Soul returned as a guest on the third Gorillaz studio album, Plastic Beach alongside Super Furry Animals frontman Gruff Rhys on the song "Superfast Jellyfish". Two other collaborations were recorded, but did not make the final cut for the album. They were supposed to appear on a track entitled "Sloped Tropics", though this song did not make the final cut. The group remixed indie rockers Yo La Tengo's single, "Here To Fall for the Here To Fall" remixes EP which included remixes by RJD2 and Pete Rock, and were featured on a remix of Matt & Kim's single "Daylight" by DJ Troublemaker. In 2011, the group earned Top 5 rankings on both NPR and Soul Train's year end "Best of" lists with the Amerigo Gazaway produced De La Soul/Fela Kuti mashup, Fela Soul. De La Soul and Nike released Are You In?: Nike+ Original Run, which was the group's first original material since The Impossible: Mission TV Series – Pt. 1. The album features Raheem DeVaughn as well as production from the Chicago-based duo Flosstradamus. The recording is a single-track recording at 44 minutes, 17 seconds, part of a continuing series of releases through the "Nike+ Sport Music" section of the online store. The group released De La Soul's Plug 1 & Plug 2 presents... First Serve in April 2012, an album that did not feature any contributions from Maseo. With little promotion, the album was released to positive reviews. This was followed by releasing one track a month during 2013. In March 2015, De La Soul created a Kickstarter to help fund their upcoming album. It surpassed the original goal of $110,000 in under ten hours. The resulting album, And the Anonymous Nobody..., was released in August 2016. Originally planned for an April release, but delayed due to rights issues, the album was preceded by a four track EP For Your Pain & Suffering and the single "Pain", featuring Snoop Dogg. The album was nominated at the 59th Grammy Awards for Best Rap Album. De La Soul was featured on the track "Momentz" on Gorillaz’ 2017 album Humanz, on Leap of Faith by Mr. Jukes, alongside Horace Andy, and on Tom Misch's 2018 single "It Runs Through Me". A tenth studio album, featuring production contributions from Pete Rock and DJ Premier, will reportedly be released by Mass Appeal Records. At the 65th Grammy Awards on February 5, 2023, Posdnuos performed a segment of "Buddy" as part of the ceremony’s tribute to fifty years of hip-hop. Days later, Trugoy the Dove died on February 12, 2023, at the age of 54. He had been suffering from congestive heart failure since 2017. His death came only weeks before the release of De La Soul's music on streaming platforms following their long-fought catalogue disputes. The remaining members of De La Soul and other artists including Nas, Chuck D, and LL Cool J came together for "The DA.I.S.Y Experience", a tribute concert to Trugoy, on March 2, the day before De La Soul's music was released digitally. The re-release of their music led to the group charting in the United Kingdom for the first time since 1990. On February 27, 2023, Gorillaz released the deluxe edition of their album Cracker Island, featuring De La Soul on the song "Crocadillaz", being Trugoy’s final recording credit with De La Soul. Catalog dispute De La Soul's back catalog was not released on audio streaming services or digital media stores until 2023. 3 Feet High and Rising, however, was in 2012 put on the band's official website as a free MP3 download. Until 2017, it was owned by Warner Music Group, which, according to Posdnuos, had been reluctant to clear samples and renegotiate contracts. The samples used in De La Soul's music were only cleared for physical media distribution; the wording of their contracts is not vague enough to enable them to distribute the music digitally on unforeseen technologies. In 2017, De La Soul's catalog was purchased by Tommy Boy Records. In February 2019, De La Soul announced that their catalog would soon be available on digital services. However, as they were unhappy receiving 10% of the revenue, with the rest for Tommy Boy, the release was postponed pending further negotiations. Hip hop artists including Nas, Pete Rock, and Questlove called for a boycott of Tommy Boy. In August, De La Soul announced they had been unable to settle the dispute with Tommy Boy and ended negotiations. In February 2020, Posdnuos said that Tommy Boy "sort of came back to the table, we are looking to sort of get it going". In April, Rostrum Records head Benjy Grinberg said he was attempting to buy Tommy Boy to return the master recordings to De La Soul. Tommy Boy enlisted the music licensing company DMG Clearances to secure clearance for the samples, but talks failed with many of the copyright holders, as they were reticent to become involved with the conflicts between De La Soul and Tommy Boy. On June 4, 2021, Reservoir Media acquired Tommy Boy for USD$100 million. On August 8, Talib Kweli announced that De La Soul had gained ownership over their music. In January 2022, DMG Clearances restarted talks with sample copyright owners. It took around a year to license most of the samples; De La Soul interpolated or replayed samples that could not be cleared. On January 3, 2023, it was announced that the group's first six albums would be released on audio streaming services on March 3, 2023, the 34th anniversary of 3 Feet High and Rising. All their Tommy Boy releases are now owned by De La Soul's company A.O.I., LLC, and are licensed to Chrysalis Records, which, like Tommy Boy, is also owned by Reservoir. Filmography Chappelle's Show as themselves Teen Titans Go! as themselves Discography 3 Feet High and Rising (1989) De La Soul Is Dead (1991) Buhloone Mindstate (1993) Stakes Is High (1996) Art Official Intelligence: Mosaic Thump (2000) AOI: Bionix (2001) The Grind Date (2004) Plug 1 & Plug 2 Present... First Serve (2012) And the Anonymous Nobody... (2016) Awards and nominations Grammy Awards !Ref. |- | 1990 | "Me Myself and I" | Best Rap Performance | | |- | 2001 | "Oooh." (featuring Redman) | Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group | | |- | rowspan="3"|2006 | rowspan="3"|"Feel Good Inc." <small>(with Gorillaz) | Record of the Year | | style="text-align:center;" rowspan="3"| |- | Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals | |- | Best Short Form Music Video | |- |2017 |And the Anonymous Nobody... | Best Rap Album | | style="text-align:center;"| References Further reading External links Category:Native Tongues Posse Category:Alternative hip hop groups Category:East Coast hip hop groups Category:American dance music groups Category:Grammy Award winners Category:Tommy Boy Records artists Category:Big Life artists Category:Musical groups from Long Island
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C_1ce021c9f9be430fa9bea0f6f3712c4b_1
Erich Ludendorff
Ludendorff was born on 9 April 1865 in Kruszewnia near Posen, Province of Posen, Kingdom of Prussia (now Poznan County, Poland), the third of six children of August Wilhelm Ludendorff (1833-1905). His father was descended from Pomeranian merchants who had achieved the prestigious status of Junker. Erich's mother, Klara Jeanette Henriette von Tempelhoff (1840-1914), was the daughter of the noble but impoverished Friedrich August Napoleon von Tempelhoff (1804-1868) and his wife Jeannette Wilhelmine von Dziembowska (1816-1854), who came from a Germanized Polish landed family on the side of her father Stephan von Dziembowski (1779-1859). Through Dziembowski's wife Johanna Wilhelmine von Unruh (1793-1862), Erich was a remote descendant of the Counts of Donhoff, the Dukes of Duchy of Liegnitz and Duchy of Brieg and the Marquesses and Electors of Brandenburg.
Pre-war military career
In 1885, Ludendorff was commissioned as a subaltern into the 57th Infantry Regiment, then at Wesel. Over the next eight years, he was promoted to lieutenant and saw further service in the 2nd Marine Battalion, based at Kiel and Wilhelmshaven, and in the 8th Grenadier Guards at Frankfurt on the Oder. His service reports reveal the highest praise, with frequent commendations. In 1893, he entered the War Academy, where the commandant, General Meckel, recommended him to the General Staff, to which he was appointed in 1894. He rose rapidly and was a senior staff officer at the headquarters of V Corps from 1902 to 1904. Next he joined the Great General Staff in Berlin, which was commanded by Alfred von Schlieffen, Ludendorff directed the Second or Mobilization Section from 1904-13. Soon he was joined by Max Bauer, a brilliant artillery officer, who became a close friend. By 1911, Ludendorff was a full colonel. His section was responsible for writing the mass of detailed orders needed to bring the mobilized troops into position to implement the Schlieffen Plan. For this they covertly surveyed frontier fortifications in Russia, France and Belgium. For instance, in 1911 Ludendorff visited the key Belgian fortress city of Liege. Deputies of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, which became the largest party in the Reichstag after the German federal elections of 1912, seldom gave priority to army expenditures, whether to build up its reserves or to fund advanced weaponry such as Krupp's siege cannons. Instead, they preferred to concentrate military spending on the Imperial German Navy. Ludendorff's calculations showed that to properly implement the Schlieffen Plan the Army lacked six corps. Members of the General Staff were instructed to keep out of politics and the public eye, but Ludendorff shrugged off such restrictions. With a retired general, August Keim, and the head of the Pan-German League, Heinrich Class, he vigorously lobbied the Reichstag for the additional men. In 1913 funding was approved for four additional corps but Ludendorff was transferred to regimental duties as commander of the 39th (Lower Rhine) Fusiliers, stationed at Dusseldorf. "I attributed the change partly for my having pressed for those three additional army corps." Barbara Tuchman characterizes Ludendorff in her book The Guns of August as Schlieffen's devoted disciple who was a glutton for work and a man of granite character but who was deliberately friendless and forbidding and therefore remained little known or liked. It is true that as his wife testified, "Anyone who knows Ludendorff knows that he has not a spark of humor...". He was voluble nonetheless, although he shunned small talk. John Lee, states that while Ludendorff was with his Fusiliers, "he became the perfect regimental commander ... the younger officers came to adore him." His adjutant, Wilhelm Breucker, became a devoted lifelong friend. CANNOTANSWER
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Erich Friedrich Wilhelm Ludendorff (; 9 April 1865 – 20 December 1937) was a German general, politician and military theorist. He achieved fame during World War I for his central role in the German victories at Liège and Tannenberg in 1914. Following his appointment as First Quartermaster-general () of the Imperial Army's Great General Staff in 1916, he became the chief policymaker in a de facto military dictatorship that dominated Germany for the rest of the war. After Germany's defeat, he contributed significantly to the Nazis' rise to power. Erich Ludendorff came from a family of the minor nobility in Ludendorff (now Kruszewnia), located in the Prussian province of Posen. After completing his education as a cadet, he received his commission as a junior officer in 1885. Later in 1893, Ludendorff was admitted to the prestigious German War Academy and was recommended by its commandant to the General Staff Corps only a year later. By 1904, he had rapidly risen in rank to become a member of the Army's Great General Staff, where he oversaw the development of the Schlieffen Plan. Despite being temporarily removed from the Great General Staff for meddling in German politics, Ludendorff restored his standing in the army through his success as a commander in World War I. On 16 August 1914, he led the successful German assault on Liège, a feat for which he earned the Pour le Mérite. Upon being transferred to the Eastern Front under the command of General Paul von Hindenburg, Ludendorff was instrumental in inflicting a series of crushing defeats against the Russians, including at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes. By 29 August 1916, he had successfully lobbied for Hindenburg's appointment as Supreme Commander of the German Army as well as his own promotion to Quartermaster General of the army high command. Once he and Hindenburg had established what some authors describe as a de facto military dictatorship, Ludendorff directed Germany's entire military strategy and war effort until the end of the conflict. In this capacity, he secured Russia's defeat in the east and launched a new wave of offensives on the Western Front resulting in advances not seen since the war's outbreak. However, by the end of 1918, all improvements in Germany's fortunes were reversed after its forces' decisive defeat in the Second Battle of the Marne and the Allies' Hundred Days Offensive. Faced with the war effort's collapse and a growing popular revolution, the German Emperor, Wilhelm II, forced Ludendorff to resign. After the war, Ludendorff became a prominent nationalist leader, and a promoter of the stab-in-the-back myth, which posited that Germany's defeat and the settlement reached at Versailles were the result of a treasonous conspiracy by Marxists, Freemasons and Jews. He also took part in the failed 1920 Kapp Putsch and 1923 Beer Hall Putsch before unsuccessfully standing for election for President against Field Marshal Hindenburg, his wartime superior. Thereafter, he retired from politics and devoted his final years to the study of military theory. His most famous work in this field was (The Total War), where he argued that a nation's entire physical and moral resources should remain forever poised for mobilization because peace was merely an interval in a never-ending chain of wars. Ludendorff died of liver cancer in Munich in 1937. Early life Ludendorff was born on 9 April 1865 in Ludendorff near , in the Province of Posen and Kingdom of Prussia (now Kruszewnia, County, Poland), the third of six children of August Wilhelm Ludendorff (1833–1905). His father was descended from Pomeranian merchants who had been raised to the status of a Junker. Erich's mother, Klara Jeanette Henriette von Tempelhoff (1840–1914), was the daughter of the noble but impoverished Friedrich August Napoleon von Tempelhoff (1804–1868) and his wife Jeannette Wilhelmine von Dziembowska (1816–1854), who came from a Germanized Polish landed family on the side of her father Stephan von Dziembowski (1779–1859). Through Dziembowski's wife Johanna Wilhelmine von Unruh (1793–1862), Erich was a remote descendant of the Counts of , the Dukes of Liegnitz and Brieg and the Margraves and Electors of Brandenburg. Ludendorff had a stable and comfortable childhood, growing up on a small family farm. He received his early schooling from a maternal aunt and had a gift for mathematics, as did his younger brother Hans, who became a distinguished astronomer. Upon passing the entrance exam for the Cadet School at with distinction, he was put in a class two years ahead of his age group, and thereafter he was consistently first in his class. The famous World War II General Heinz Guderian attended the same Cadet School, which produced many well-trained German officers. Ludendorff's education continued at the at near Berlin through to 1882. Pre-war military career In 1885, Ludendorff was commissioned as a subaltern into the 57th Infantry Regiment, then at Wesel. Over the next eight years, he was promoted to lieutenant and saw further service in the 2nd Marine Battalion, based at Kiel and Wilhelmshaven, and in the 8th Grenadier Guards at Frankfurt on the Oder. His service reports reveal the highest praise, with frequent commendations. In 1893, he entered the War Academy, where the commandant, General Meckel, recommended him to the General Staff, to which he was appointed in 1894. He rose rapidly and was a senior staff officer at the headquarters of V Corps from 1902 to 1904. Next he joined the Great General Staff in Berlin, which was commanded by Alfred von Schlieffen, Ludendorff directed the Second or Mobilization Section from 1904 to 1913. Soon he was joined by Max Bauer, a brilliant artillery officer, who became a close friend. In 1910 at age 45 "the 'old sinner', as he liked to hear himself called" married the daughter of a wealthy factory owner, Margarethe Schmidt (1875–1936). They met in a rainstorm when he offered his umbrella. She divorced to marry him, bringing three stepsons and a stepdaughter. Their marriage pleased both families and he was devoted to his stepchildren. By 1911, Ludendorff was a full colonel. His section was responsible for writing the mass of detailed orders needed to bring the mobilized troops into position to implement the Plan. For this they covertly surveyed frontier fortifications in Russia, France and Belgium. For instance, in 1911 Ludendorff visited the key Belgian fortress city of Liège. Before the war, he was an Oberst in General Staff who studied the march route of the army in case of war. Deputies of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, which became the largest party in the after the German federal elections of 1912, seldom gave priority to army expenditures, whether to build up its reserves or to fund advanced weaponry such as Krupp's siege cannons. Instead, they preferred to concentrate military spending on the Imperial German Navy. Ludendorff's calculations showed that to properly implement the Schlieffen Plan the Army lacked six corps. Members of the General Staff were instructed to keep out of politics and the public eye, but Ludendorff shrugged off such restrictions. With a retired general, August Keim, and the head of the Pan-German League, Heinrich Class, he vigorously lobbied the for the additional men. In 1913 funding was approved for four additional corps but Ludendorff was transferred to regimental duties as commander of the 39th (Lower Rhine) Fusiliers, stationed at Düsseldorf. "I attributed the change partly for my having pressed for those three additional army corps." Barbara Tuchman characterizes Ludendorff in her book The Guns of August as Schlieffen's devoted disciple who was a glutton for work and a man of granite character but who was deliberately friendless and forbidding and therefore remained little known or liked. It is true that as his wife testified, "Anyone who knows Ludendorff knows that he has not a spark of humor...". He was voluble nonetheless, although he shunned small talk. John Lee, states that while Ludendorff was with his Fusiliers, "he became the perfect regimental commander ... the younger officers came to adore him." His adjutant, Wilhelm Breucker, became a devoted lifelong friend. World War I Battle of Liège At the outbreak of war in the summer of 1914 Ludendorff was appointed Deputy Chief of Staff to the German Second Army under General Karl von Bülow. His assignment was largely due to his previous work investigating defenses of Liège, Belgium. At the beginning of the Battle of Liège, Ludendorff was an observer with the 14th Brigade, which was to infiltrate the city at night and secure the bridges before they could be destroyed. The brigade commander was killed on 5 August, so Ludendorff led the successful assault to occupy the city and its citadel. In the following days, two of the forts guarding the city were taken by desperate frontal infantry attacks, while the remaining forts were smashed by huge Krupp 42-cm and Austro-Hungarian Škoda 30.5-cm howitzers. By 16 August, all the forts around Liège had fallen, allowing the German First Army to advance. As the victor of Liège, Ludendorff was awarded Germany's highest military decoration for gallantry, the Pour le Mérite, presented by Kaiser Wilhelm II himself on 22 August. Command in the East German mobilization earmarked a single army, the Eighth, to defend their eastern frontier. When two Russian armies invaded East Prussia earlier than expected the command of the Eighth Army, Maximilian von Prittwitz with Georg von Waldersee as Chief of Staff, performed subpar and reportedly panicked. They accordingly were dismissed from command by the (OHL), the German Supreme Army Command. The War Cabinet chose a retired general, Paul von Hindenburg, as commander, while the OHL assigned Ludendorff as his new chief of staff. Hindenburg and Ludendorff first met on their private train heading east. They agreed that they must annihilate the nearest Russian army before they tackled the second. On arrival, they discovered that Max Hoffmann had already shifted much of the 8th Army by rail to the south to do just that, in an amazing feat of logistical planning. Nine days later the Eighth Army surrounded most of a Russian army at Tannenberg, taking 92,000 prisoners in one of the great victories in German history. Twice during the battle Ludendorff wanted to break off, fearing that the second Russian army was about to strike their rear, but Hindenburg held firm. The Germans turned on the second invading army in the Battle of the Masurian Lakes; it fled with heavy losses to escape encirclement. During the rest of 1914, commanding an Army Group, Hindenburg and Ludendorff staved off the projected invasion of German Silesia by dexterously moving their outnumbered forces into Russian Poland, fighting the battle of the Vistula River, which ended with a brilliantly executed withdrawal during which they destroyed the Polish railway lines and bridges needed for an invasion. When the Russians had repaired most of the damage the Germans struck their flank in the battle of Łódź, where they almost surrounded another Russian army. Masters of surprise and deft maneuver, the pair argued that if properly reinforced they could trap the entire Russian army in Poland. During the winter of 1914–15 they lobbied passionately for this strategy, but were rebuffed by the OHL. Early in 1915 Hindenburg and Ludendorff surprised the Russian army that still held a toehold in East Prussia by attacking in a snowstorm and surrounding it in the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes. The OHL then transferred Ludendorff, but Hindenburg's personal plea to the Kaiser reunited them. Erich von Falkenhayn, supreme commander at the OHL, came east to attack the flank of the Russian army that was pushing through the Carpathian passes towards Hungary. Employing overwhelming artillery, the Germans and Austro-Hungarians broke through the line between and and kept pushing until the Russians were driven out of most of Galicia, in Austro-Hungarian Poland. During this advance Falkenhayn rejected schemes to try to cut off the Russians in Poland, preferring direct frontal attacks. Outgunned, during the summer of 1915 the Russian commander Grand Duke Nicholas shortened his lines by withdrawing from most of Poland, destroying railroads, bridges, and many buildings while driving 743,000 Poles, 350,000 Jews, 300,000 Lithuanians and 250,000 Latvians into Russia. During the winter of 1915–16 Ludendorff's headquarters was in Kaunas. The Germans occupied present-day Lithuania, western Latvia, and north eastern Poland, an area almost the size of France. Ludendorff demanded Germanization of the conquered territories and far-ranging annexations, offering land to German settlers; see . Far-reaching plans envisioned Courland and Lithuania turned into border states ruled by German military governors answerable only to the Kaiser. He proposed massive annexations and colonization in Eastern Europe in the event of the victory of the German Reich, and was one of the main supporters of the Polish Border Strip. Ludendorff planned to combine German settlement and Germanisation in conquered areas with expulsions of native populations; and envisioned an eastern German empire whose resources would be used in future war with Great Britain and the United States Ludendorff's plans went as far as making Crimea a German colony. As to the various nations and ethnic groups in conquered territories, Ludendorff believed they were "incapable of producing real culture" On 16 March 1916, the Russians, now with adequate supplies of cannons and shells, attacked parts of the new German defenses, intending to penetrate at two points and then to pocket the defenders. They attacked almost daily until the end of the month, but the Lake Naroch Offensive failed, "choked in swamp and blood". The Russians did better attacking the Austro-Hungarians in the south; the Brusilov Offensive cracked their lines with a well-prepared surprise wide-front attack led by well-schooled assault troops. The breakthrough was finally stemmed by Austro-Hungarian troops recalled from Italy stiffened with German advisers and reserves. In July, Russian attacks on the Germans in the north were beaten back. On 27 July 1916, Hindenburg was given command of all troops on the Eastern Front from the Baltic to Brody in the Ukraine. Ludendorff and Hindenburg visited their new command on a special train, and then set up headquarters in Brest-Litovsk. By August 1916 their front was holding everywhere. Promotion to First Quartermaster-General In the West in 1916 the Germans attacked unsuccessfully at Verdun and soon were reeling under British and French blows along the Somme. Ludendorff's friends at the OHL, led by Max Bauer, lobbied for him relentlessly. The balance was tipped when Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente, thrusting into Hungary. Falkenhayn was replaced as Chief of the General Staff by Hindenburg on 29 August 1916. Ludendorff was again his chief of staff as first Quartermaster general, with the stipulation that he would have joint responsibility. He was promoted to General of the Infantry. Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg warned the War Cabinet: "You don't know Ludendorff, who is only great at a time of success. If things go badly he loses his nerve." Their first concern was the sizable Romanian Army, so troops sent from the Western Front checked Romanian and Russian incursions into Hungary. Then Romania was invaded from the south by German, Austro-Hungarian, Bulgarian, and Ottoman troops commanded by August von Mackensen and from the north by a German and Austro-Hungarian army commanded by Falkenhayn. Bucharest fell in December 1916. According to Mackensen, Ludendorff's distant management consisted of "floods of telegrams, as superfluous as they were offensive." When sure that the Romanians would be defeated the OHL moved west, retaining the previous staff except for the operations officer, blamed for Verdun. They toured the Western Front meeting—and evaluating—commanders, learning about their problems and soliciting their opinions. At each meeting Ludendorff did most of talking for Hindenburg. There would be no further attacks at Verdun and the Somme would be defended by revised tactics that exposed fewer men to British shells. A new backup defensive line would be built, like the one they had constructed in the east. The Allies would call the new fortifications the Hindenburg Line. The German goal was victory, which they defined as a Germany with extended borders that could be more easily defended in the next war. Hindenburg was given titular command over all of the forces of the Central Powers. Ludendorff's hand was everywhere. Every day he was on the telephone with the staffs of their armies and the Army was deluged with "Ludendorff's paper barrage" of orders, instructions and demands for information. His finger extended into every aspect of the German war effort. He issued the two daily communiques, and often met with the newspaper and newsreel reporters. Before long the public idolized him as the German Army's brain. The Home Front Ludendorff had a goal: "One thing was certain—the power must be in my hands." As stipulated by the Constitution of the German Empire the government was run by civil servants appointed by the Kaiser. Confident that army officers were superior to civilians, the OHL volunteered to oversee the economy: procurement, raw materials, labor, and food. Max Bauer, with his industrialist friends, began by setting overambitious targets for military production in what they called the Hindenburg Program. Ludendorff enthusiastically participated in meetings on economic policy—loudly, sometimes pummeling the table with his fists. Implementation of the Program was assigned to General Groener, a staff officer who had directed the Field Railway Service effectively. His office was in the (civilian) War Ministry, not in the OHL as Ludendorff had wanted. Therefore, he assigned staff officers to most government ministries, so he knew what was going on and could press his demands. War industry's major problem was the scarcity of skilled workers, therefore 125,000 men were released from the armed forces and trained workers were no longer conscripted. The OHL wanted to enroll most German men and women into national service, but the Reichstag legislated that only males 17–60 were subject to "patriotic service" and refused to bind war workers to their jobs. Groener realized that they needed the support of the workers, so he insisted that union representatives be included on industrial dispute boards. He also advocated an excess profits tax. The industrialists were incensed. On 16 August 1917, Ludendorff telegraphed an order reassigning Groener to command the 33rd Infantry Division. Overall, "unable to control labour and unwilling to control industry, the army failed miserably". To the public it seemed that Ludendorff was running the nation as well as the war. According to Ludendorff, "the authorities ... represented me as a dictator". He would not become Chancellor because the demands for running the war were too great. The historian Frank Tipton argues that while not technically a dictator, Ludendorff was "unquestionably the most powerful man in Germany" in 1917–18. The OHL did nothing to mitigate the crisis of growing food shortages in Germany. Despite the Allied blockade, everyone could have been fed adequately, but supplies were not managed effectively or fairly. In spring 1918, half of all the meat, eggs, and fruit consumed in Berlin were sold on the black market. In government The Navy advocated unrestricted submarine warfare, which would surely bring the United States into the war. At the Kaiser's request, his commanders met with his friend, the eminent chemist Walther Nernst, who knew America well, and who warned against the idea. Ludendorff promptly ended the meeting; it was "incompetent nonsense with which a civilian was wasting his time." Unrestricted submarine warfare began in February 1917, with the OHL’s strong support. This fatal mistake reflected poor military judgment in uncritically accepting the Navy’s contention that there were no effective potential countermeasures, like convoying, and confidence that the American armed forces were too feeble to fight effectively. By the end of the war, Germany would be at war with 27 nations. Ludendorff, with the Kaiser's blessing, helped Lenin and other 30 or so revolutionaries in exile return to Russia. Ludendorff agreed to send the Bolsheviks in Switzerland by train through Germany from where they would then travel to Russia via Sweden. Lenin, however, still took some convincing, insisting that he be sent on a sealed train. Lenin ultimately agreed on 31 March, and would depart Switzerland on 8 April. In the spring of 1917 the Reichstag passed a resolution for peace without annexations or indemnities. They would be content with the successful defensive war undertaken in 1914. The OHL was unable to defeat the resolution or to have it substantially watered down. The commanders despised Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg as weak, so they forced his resignation by repeatedly threatening to resign themselves, despite the Kaiser's admonition that this was not their business. Bethmann Hollweg was replaced by a minor functionary, Georg Michaelis, the food minister, who announced that he would deal with the resolution as "in his own fashion". Despite this put-down, the Reichstag voted the financial credits needed for continuing the war. Following the overthrow of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, the new Russian government launched the Kerensky Offensive in July 1917, attacking the Austro-Hungarian lines in Galicia. After minor successes the Russians were driven back and many of their soldiers refused to fight. The counterattack was halted only after the line was pushed eastwards. The Germans capped the year in the East by capturing the strong Russian fortress of Riga in September 1917, starting with a brief, overwhelming artillery barrage using many gas shells then followed by infiltrating infantry. The Bolsheviks seized power and soon were at the peace table. Ludendorff insisted on the huge territorial losses forced on Russia in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, even though this required that a million German soldiers remain in the east. During the peace negotiations with Russia, his representative kept demanding the economic concessions coveted by German industrialists. The commanders kept blocking attempts to frame a plausible peace offer to the western powers by insisting on borders expanded for future defense. Ludendorff regarded the Germans as the "master race" and after victory planned to settle ex-soldiers in the Baltic states and in Alsace-Lorraine, where they would take over property seized from Balts and the French. One after another the OHL toppled government ministers they regarded as weak. Western Front (1916–1917) In contrast to the OHL's questionable interventions in politics and diplomacy, their armies continued to excel. The commanders would agree on what was to be done and then Ludendorff and the OHL staff produced the mass of orders specifying exactly what was to be accomplished. On the western front they stopped packing defenders in the front line, which reduced losses to enemy artillery. They issued a directive on elastic defense, in which attackers who penetrated a lightly held front line entered a battle zone in which they were punished by artillery and counterattacks. It remained German Army doctrine through World War II; schools taught the new tactics to all ranks. Its effectiveness is illustrated by comparing the first half of 1916 in which 77 German soldiers died or went missing for every 100 British to the second half when 55 Germans were lost for every 100 British. By February 1917 the OHL was sure that the new French commander, General Robert Nivelle, would attack, and correctly foresaw that he would try to pinch off the German salient between Arras and Noyon. So the OHL withdrew German forces to the segment of the Hindenburg line across the base of the salient in , leaving the ground they gave up as a depopulated waste land. The Nivelle Offensive in April 1917 was blunted by mobile defense in depth. Many French units mutinied, though the OHL never grasped the extent of the disarray. The British supported their allies with a successful attack near Arras and had another success in June 1917 at Messines Ridge in Flanders. Then at the end of July 1917, the British attacked Passchendaele Ridge. At first the defense was directed by General von Lossberg, a pioneer in defense in depth, but when the British adjusted their tactics, Ludendorff took over day-to-day control. The British eventually took Passchendaele Ridge at great cost. Ludendorff worried about declining morale, so in July 1917 OHL established a propaganda unit. In October 1917 they began mandatory patriotic lectures to the troops, who were assured that if the war was lost they would "become slaves of international capital". The lecturers were to "ensure that a fight is kept up against all agitators, croakers, and weaklings". To bolster the wobbling Austro-Hungarian government, the Germans provided some troops and led a joint attack in Italy in October. They sliced through the Italian lines in the mountains at Caporetto. Two hundred and fifty thousand Italians were captured and the rest of Italian Army was forced to retreat to the Grappa-Piave defensive line. On 20 November 1917, the British achieved a total surprise by attacking at Cambrai. A short, intense bombardment preceded an attack by tanks, which led the infantry through the German wire. It was Ludendorff's 52nd birthday, but he was too upset to attend the celebratory dinner. The British were not organized to exploit their breakthrough, and German reserves counterattacked, in some places driving the British back beyond their starting lines. At the beginning of 1918 almost a million munition workers struck; one demand was peace without annexations. OHL ordered that all strikers fit to bear arms' be sent to the front, thereby degrading military service." Western Front (1918) With Russia out of the war, the Germans outnumbered the Allies on the Western Front. After extensive consultations, OHL planned a series of attacks to drive the British out of the war. During the winter all ranks were schooled in the innovative tactics proven at Caporetto and Riga. The first attack, Operation Michael, was on 21 March 1918 near Cambrai. After an effective hurricane bombardment coordinated by Colonel Bruchmüller, they slashed through the British lines, surmounting the obstacles that had thwarted their enemies for three years. On the first day they occupied as large an area as the Allies had won on the Somme after 140 days. The Allies were aghast, but it was not the triumph OHL had hoped for: they had planned another Tannenberg by surrounding tens of thousands of British troops in the Cambrai salient, but had been thwarted by stout defense and fighting withdrawal. They lost as many men as the defenders—the first day was the bloodiest of the war. Among the dead was Ludendorff’s oldest stepson; a younger had been killed earlier. The Germans were unable to cut any vital railway. When Ludendorff motored near the front he was displeased by seeing how: "The numerous slightly wounded made things difficult by the stupid and displeasing way in which they hurried to the rear." The Americans doubled the number of troops being sent to France. Their next attack was in Flanders. Again they broke through, advancing , and forcing the British to give back all of the ground that they had won the preceding year after weeks of battle. But the Germans were stopped short of the rail junction that was their goal. Next, to draw French reserves south, they struck along the . In their most successful attack yet they advanced on the first day, crossing the Marne but stopping from Paris. However each German triumph weakened their army and its morale. From 20 March 1918 to 25 June the German front lengthened from to . Then the Germans struck near Reims, to seize additional railway lines for use in the salient, but were foiled by brilliant French elastic tactics. Undeterred, on 18 July 1918 Ludendorff, still "aggressive and confident", traveled to Flanders to confer about the next attack there. A telephone call reported that the French and Americans, led by a mass of tanks, had smashed through the right flank of their salient pointing toward Paris, on the opening day of the Battle of Soissons. Everyone present realized that surely they had lost the war. Ludendorff was shattered. OHL began to withdraw step by step to new defensive lines, first evacuating all of their wounded and supplies. Ludendorff's communiques, which hitherto had been largely factual, now distorted the news, for instance claiming that American troops had to be herded onto troop ships by special police. On 8 August 1918, the Germans were completely surprised at Amiens when British tanks broke through the defenses and intact German formations surrendered. To Ludendorff it was the "black day in the history of the German Army". The German retreats continued, pressed by Allied attacks. OHL still vigorously opposed offering to give up the territory they desired in France and Belgium, so the German government was unable to make a plausible peace proposal. Ludendorff became increasingly cantankerous, railing at his staff without cause, publicly accusing Hindenburg of talking nonsense, and sometimes bursting into tears. Bauer wanted him replaced, but instead a doctor, Hochheimer, was brought to OHL. He had worked closely with Ludendorff in Poland during the winter of 1915–16 on plans to bring in German colonists. Before the war he had a practice in nervous diseases. Hochheimer "spoke as a friend and he listened as a friend", convincing Ludendorff that he could not work effectively with one hour of sleep a night and that he must relearn how to relax. After a month away from headquarters Ludendorff had recovered from the severest symptoms of battle fatigue. Downfall On 29 September 1918, Ludendorff and Hindenburg suddenly told an incredulous Kaiser that they could not guarantee the integrity of the Western front "for two hours" and they must have an immediate armistice. A new Chancellor, Prince Maximilian of Baden, approached President Woodrow Wilson, but Wilson's terms were unacceptable to the German leadership, and so the German army fought on. The chancellor told the Kaiser that he and his cabinet would resign unless Ludendorff was removed, but that Hindenburg must remain to hold the army together. The Kaiser called his commanders in, curtly accepting Ludendorff's resignation and then rejecting Hindenburg's. Fuming, Ludendorff would not accompany the field marshal back to headquarters: "I refused to ride with you because you have treated me so shabbily". Ludendorff had assiduously sought all of the credit; now he was rewarded with all of the blame. Widely despised, and with revolution breaking out, he was hidden by his brother and a network of friends until he slipped out of Germany disguised in blue spectacles and a false beard and fake Finnish passport, settling in a Swedish admirer's country home until the Swedish government asked him to leave in February 1919. Within seven months, he wrote two volumes of detailed memoirs. Friends, led by Breucker, provided him with documents and negotiated with publishers. Groener (who is not mentioned in the book) characterized it as a showcase of his "caesar-mania". He was a brilliant general, according to John Wheeler-Bennett, stating that he was "certainly one of the greatest routine military organizers that the world has ever seen", but he also said he was a ruinous political meddler. The influential military analyst Hans Delbrück concluded that "The Empire was built by Moltke and Bismarck, destroyed by Tirpitz and Ludendorff." After the Great War In exile, Ludendorff wrote numerous books and articles about the German military's conduct of the war while forming the foundation for the , the "stab-in-the-back theory," for which he is considered largely responsible, insisting that a domestic crisis had sparked Germany's surrender while the military situation held firm, ignoring that he himself had pressed the politicians for an armistice on military grounds. Ludendorff was convinced that Germany had fought a defensive war and, in his opinion, that Kaiser Wilhelm II had failed to organize a proper counter-propaganda campaign or provide efficient leadership. Ludendorff was extremely suspicious of the Social Democrats and leftists, whom he blamed for the humiliation of Germany through the Versailles Treaty. Ludendorff claimed that he paid close attention to the business element (especially the Jews), and saw them turn their backs on the war effort by—as he saw it—letting profit, rather than patriotism, dictate production and financing. Again focusing on the left, Ludendorff was appalled by the strikes that took place towards the end of the war and the way that the home front collapsed before the military front did, with the former poisoning the morale of soldiers on temporary leave. Most importantly, Ludendorff felt that the German people as a whole had underestimated what was at stake in the war; he was convinced that the Entente had started the war and was determined to dismantle Germany completely. Ludendorff wrote: Political career in the Republic Ludendorff returned to Berlin in February 1919. Staying at the Adlon Hotel, he talked with another resident, Sir Neill Malcolm, the head of the British Military Mission. After Ludendorff presented his excuses for the German defeat Malcolm said, "You mean that you were stabbed in the back?" coining a key catchphrase for the German right wing. On 12 March 1920, 5,000 troops under the command of Walther von Lüttwitz marched on the Chancellery, forcing the government led by Friedrich Ebert and Gustav Bauer to flee the city. The putschists proclaimed a new government with a right-wing politician, Wolfgang Kapp as the new "chancellor". Ludendorff and Max Bauer were part of the putsch. The Kapp Putsch was soon defeated by a general strike that brought Berlin to a standstill. The leaders fled, Ludendorff to Bavaria, where a right-wing coup had succeeded. He published two volumes of annotatedand in a few instances pruneddocuments and commentaries documenting his war service. He reconciled with Hindenburg, who began to visit every year. In May 1923 Ludendorff had an agreeable first meeting with Adolf Hitler, and soon he had regular contacts with Nazis. On 8 November 1923, the Bavarian Gustav von Kahr was addressing a jammed meeting in a large beer hall, the Bürgerbräukeller. Hitler, waving a pistol, jumped onto the stage, announcing that the national revolution was underway. The hall was occupied by armed men who covered the audience with a machine gun, the first move in the Beer Hall Putsch. Hitler announced that he would lead the Reich Government and Ludendorff would command the army. He addressed the now enthusiastically supportive audience and then spent the night in the War Ministry, unsuccessfully trying to obtain the army's backing. The next morning 3,000 armed Nazis formed outside of the Bürgerbräukeller and marched into central Munich, the leaders just behind the flag bearers. They were blocked by a cordon of police, and firing broke out for less than a minute. Several of the Nazis in front were hit or dropped to the ground. Ludendorff and his adjutant Major Streck marched to the police line where they pushed aside the rifle barrels. He was respectfully arrested. He was indignant when he was sent home while the other leaders remained in custody. Four police officers and 16 Nazis had been killed, including Ludendorff's servant. They were tried in early 1924. Ludendorff was acquitted, but Heinz Pernet, Ludendorff's stepson, was convicted of "aiding and abetting treason," given a fifteen-month sentence. Hitler went to prison but was released after nine months. Ludendorff's 60th birthday was celebrated by massed bands and a large torchlight parade. In 1924, he was elected to the Reichstag as a representative of the NSFB (a coalition of the German Freedom Party (DVFP) and members of the Nazi Party), serving until 1928. In 1925, he founded the Tannenbergbund, a German nationalist organization which was both anti-Semitic and anti-Catholic, and published literature espousing conspiracy theories involving Jews, Catholics—especially Jesuits—and Freemasons. As his views became more extreme under the influence of his wife, Mathilde von Kemnitz, Ludendorff gradually began to part company with Hitler, who was surreptitiously working to undermine the reputation of his one serious rival for the leadership of the extreme right in Germany. Nonetheless, Ludendorff was persuaded to run for President of the Republic in the March 1925 election as the DVFP candidate, in alliance with the Nazis, but received only 1.1 per cent of the vote; there is some evidence that Hitler himself persuaded Ludendorff to run, knowing that the results would be humiliating. No one had a majority in the initial round of the election, so a second round was needed; Hindenburg entered the race and was narrowly elected. Ludendorff was so humiliated by what he saw as a betrayal by his old friend that he broke off relations with Hindenburg, and in 1927 refused to even stand beside the field marshal at the dedication of the Tannenberg memorial. He attacked Hindenburg abusively for not having acted in a "nationalistic soldier-like fashion". The Berlin-based liberal newspaper states in its article "Ludendorff's hate tirades against Hindenburg—Poisonous gas from Hitler's camp" that Ludendorff was, as of 29 March 1930, deeply grounded in Nazi ideology. Tipton notes that Ludendorff was a social Darwinist who believed that war was the "foundation of human society", and that military dictatorship was the normal form of government in a society in which every resource must be mobilized. The historian Margaret L. Anderson notes that after the war, Ludendorff wanted Germany to go to war against all of Europe, and that he became a pagan worshipper of the Nordic god Wotan (Odin); he detested not only Judaism, but also Christianity, which he regarded as a weakening force. Retirement and death In 1926, Ludendorff divorced Margarethe Schmidt and married his second wife Mathilde von Kemnitz (1877–1966). They published books and essays claiming that the world's problems were the result of Christianity, especially the Jesuits and Catholics, but also conspiracies by Jews and the Freemasons. They founded the (Society for the Knowledge of God), a small and rather obscure esoterical society of Theists that survives to this day. He launched several abusive attacks on his former superior Hindenburg for not having acted in a "nationalistic soldier-like fashion". By the time Hitler came to power, Ludendorff was no longer sympathetic to him. The Nazis distanced themselves from Ludendorff because of his eccentric conspiracy theories. On 30 January 1933, the occasion of Hitler's appointment as Chancellor by President Hindenburg, Ludendorff allegedly sent the following telegram to Hindenburg: Some historians consider this text to be a forgery. In an attempt to regain Ludendorff's favor, Hitler arrived unannounced at Ludendorff's home on his 70th birthday in 1935 to promote him to field marshal. Infuriated, Ludendorff allegedly rebuffed Hitler by telling him: "An officer is named General Field-Marshal on the battlefield! Not at a birthday tea-party in the midst of peace." He wrote two further books on military themes. Ludendorff died of liver cancer in the private clinic in Munich, on 20 December 1937 at the age of 72. He was given—against his explicit wishes—a state funeral organized and attended by Hitler, who declined to speak at his eulogy. He was buried in the in Tutzing in Bavaria. In popular culture The Ludendorff Bridge, also known as the Bridge at Remagen, was named after him. The 1974 British television drama Fall of Eagles features actor Michael Bates as Ludendorff. The 2003 Canadian TV miniseries Hitler: The Rise of Evil depicts the early relation between Hitler and Ludendorff, who is portrayed by Austrian actor Friedrich von Thun. A highly fictionalized version of Ludendorff, which bears little resemblance in terms of appearance or biography, is portrayed by Danny Huston in the 2017 Warner Bros./DCEU film Wonder Woman. In a second-season episode of the television series Babylon Berlin, members of the Black Reichswehr hatch a plan to overthrow the Weimar Republic and restore the German Empire with Ludendorff as Chancellor. Decorations and awards He received the following honours: Knight of the Military Order of Max Joseph (Bavaria) Grand Commander's Cross of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern, with Star (Prussia) (military), 8 August 1914; with Oak Leaves, 23 February 1915 (Prussia) Grand Cross of the Iron Cross, 24 March 1918 (Prussia) Iron Cross (1914) 1st and 2nd Classes Commander of the Order of the Zähringer Lion, 2nd Class (Baden) Knight of the Military Order of St. Henry (Saxony) Knight of the Military Merit Order () Knight Grand Cross of the House and Merit Order of Peter Frederick Louis, with Swords and Laurels (Oldenburg) Military Merit Cross, 2nd class () Military Merit Cross, 1st Class, with War Decoration (Austria-Hungary) Commander of the Imperial Austrian Order of Franz Joseph, with Star, 1913 (Austria-Hungary) Grand Cross of the Austrian Imperial Order of Leopold, 1917 (Austria-Hungary) Gold Military Merit Medal (, Austria-Hungary) Cross for Merit in War (Saxe-) Grand Cross of the Order of the Cross of Liberty, with Swords (Finland) Writings Books (selection) 1919: Meine Kriegserinnerungen 1914–1918. Berlin: Mittler & Sohn (republished 1936) 1933: Mein militärischer Werdegang. Blätter der Erinnerung an unser stolzes Heer. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag 1937: with Mitarbeitern: Mathilde Ludendorff – ihr Werk und Wirken. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag 1937: Auf dem Weg zur Feldherrnhalle. Lebenserinnerungen an die Zeit des 9. November 1923. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag 1939: with Mathilde Ludendorff: Die Judenmacht, ihr Wesen und Ende. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag Smaller publications 1926: Die Revolution von oben. Das Kriegsende und die Vorgänge beim Waffenstillstand. Zwei Vorträge. Lorch: Karl Rohm 1932: Schändliche Geheimnisse der Hochgrade. Ludendorffs Verlag, Munchen 1934: Wie der Weltkrieg 1914 „gemacht“ wurde. Munich: Völkischer Verlag 1934: Das Marne-Drama. Der Fall Moltke-Hentsch. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag 1934: "Tannenberg". Zum 20. Jahrestag der Schlacht. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag 1934: Die politischen Hintergründe des 9. November 1923. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag 1935: Über Unbotmäßigkeit im Kriege. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag 1935: Französische Fälschung meiner Denkschrift von 1912 über den drohenden Krieg. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag 1938–40: Feldherrnworte. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag 1939: Tannenberg. Geschichtliche Wahrheit über die Schlacht. Munich: Ludendorffs Verlag As publisher 1929–1933 (banned): Ludendorffs Volkswarte ("Ludendorff's Peoples' Viewpoint"; weekly) Munich References Sources Primary sources Ludendorff, Erich. The Coming War. Faber and Faber, 1931. () Ludendorff, Erich. The Nation at War. Hutchinson, London, 1936. () Secondary sources Astore, William J. "The Tragic Pursuit of Total Victory." MHQ: Quarterly Journal of Military History (Autumn 2007) 20#1) pp. 64–73. Brownell, William and Denise Drace-Brownell. The First Nazi: Erich Ludendorff, The Man Who Made Hitler Possible (Berkeley: Counterpoint, 2016). 356 pp highly negative online review Jones, LTC William A. Ludendorff: Strategist (Pickle Partners Publishing, 2015) online. Showalter, Dennis, and William J. Astore. Hindenburg: Icon of German Militarism (2005) excerpt Amm, Bettina: Ludendorff-Bewegung. In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Judenfeindlichkeit in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Band 5: Organisationen, Institutionen, Bewegungen. De Gruyter, Berlin 2012. pp. 393 ff. . Gruchmann, Lothar: Ludendorffs „prophetischer“ Brief an Hindenburg vom Januar/Februar 1933. Eine Legende. In: Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte. Band 47, 1999. pp. 559–562. Nebelin, Manfred: Ludendorff. Diktator im Ersten Weltkrieg. Siedler, München 2011. . Pöhlmann, Markus: Der moderne Alexander im Maschinenkrieg. In: Stig Förster (Hrsg.): Kriegsherren der Weltgeschichte. 22 historische Porträts. Beck, München 2006. pp. 268–286. Puschner, Uwe; Vollnhals, Clemens (Hrgb.); Die völkisch-religiöse Bewegung im Nationalsozialismus; Göttingen 2012 . Schwab, Andreas: Vom totalen Krieg zur deutschen Gotterkenntnis. Die Weltanschauung Erich Ludendorffs. In: Schriftenreihe der Eidgenössischen Militärbibliothek und des Historischen Dienstes. Nr. 17, Bern 2005. Wegehaupt, Phillip: "Ludendorff, Erich". In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Bd. 2: Personen. De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2009, , pp. 494 ff. (retrieved über Verlag Walter de Gruyter Online). External links Ludendorff by H. L. Mencken published in the June 1917 edition of the Atlantic Monthly Biography of Erich Ludendorff from Spartacus Educational My War Memories by Erich Ludendorff at archive.org Category:1865 births Category:1937 deaths Category:Anti-Masonry Category:Antisemitism in Germany Category:Candidates for President of Germany Category:German critics of Christianity Category:Critics of the Catholic Church Category:Deaths from cancer in Germany Category:Deaths from liver cancer Category:Esotericism Category:Generals of Infantry (Prussia) Category:German anti-communists Category:German Army generals of World War I Category:German conspiracy theorists Category:German fascists Category:German nationalists Category:German modern pagans Category:German people of Polish descent Category:German Völkisch Freedom Party politicians Category:Kapp Putsch participants Category:Ludendorff family Category:Members of the Reichstag of the Weimar Republic Category:National Socialist Freedom Movement politicians Category:Nazi Party officials Category:Nazi Party politicians Category:Nazis who participated in the Beer Hall Putsch Category:Occultism in Nazism Category:Nobility in the Nazi Party Category:People acquitted of treason Category:People from Swarzędz Category:People from the Province of Posen Category:Quartermasters Category:Converts to pagan religions from Protestantism Category:Adherents of Germanic neopaganism Category:Recipients of the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross Category:Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (military class) Category:Knights of the Military Order of Max Joseph Category:Officers Crosses of the Military Merit Order (Bavaria) Category:Commanders of the Order of Franz Joseph Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of the Cross of Liberty Category:Converts to pagan religions from Christianity
[]
[ "Ludendorff's pre-war military career was quite notable. He served in the 57th Infantry Regiment, the 2nd Marine Battalion, and the 8th Grenadier Guards. He was known to have received frequent commendations during his service. He also joined the Great General Staff in Berlin where he held a senior position, directing the Second or Mobilization Section. This section was responsible for writing the mass of detailed orders needed to implement the Schlieffen Plan. Furthermore, Ludendorff was not afraid to get involved in politics for the benefit of the army. Despite the restrictions imposed on members of the General Staff, he lobbied the Reichstag for additional men that he believed were needed to properly implement the Schlieffen Plan.", "After his lobbying efforts, Ludendorff was transferred to regimental duties as commander of the 39th (Lower Rhine) Fusiliers, stationed at Dusseldorf.", "The context does not provide information on the highest rank achieved by Ludendorff.", "Yes, Ludendorff went to the War Academy in 1893, where he was recommended to the General Staff by General Meckel, the commandant of the academy.", "After 1904, Ludendorff joined the Great General Staff in Berlin, which was commanded by Alfred von Schlieffen. He directed the Second or Mobilization Section from 1904-1913. Along with Max Bauer, he covertly surveyed frontier fortifications in Russia, France, and Belgium, as part of the implementation of the Schlieffen Plan. In 1911, he was promoted to full colonel. He also visited the key Belgian fortress city of Liege. Ludendorff lobbied the Reichstag for additional men and in 1913, despite successfully securing funding for four additional corps, he was transferred to regimental duties as commander of the 39th (Lower Rhine) Fusiliers, stationed at Dusseldorf.", "While Ludendorff was a commander of the 39th (Lower Rhine) Fusiliers, it's mentioned that he was considered the perfect regimental commander and was adored by his younger officers. His adjutant, Wilhelm Breucker, became a devoted lifelong friend.", "Yes, Ludendorff confronted the Reichstag by lobbying for additional men that he believed were needed to properly implement the Schlieffen Plan. This lobbying flew in the face of instructions given to members of the General Staff to stay out of politics. After securing funding for four additional corps in 1913, Ludendorff was transferred to regimental duties, a move he partly attributed to his lobbying efforts.", "Ludendorff closely worked with several individuals during his pre-war military career. At the Great General Staff in Berlin, he was joined by Max Bauer, a brilliant artillery officer who became a close friend. During his lobbying efforts to the Reichstag for additional men, he teamed up with a retired general, August Keim, and the head of the Pan-German League, Heinrich Class. While serving as the commander of the 39th (Lower Rhine) Fusiliers, his adjutant, Wilhelm Breucker, became a devoted lifelong friend.", "Yes, during Ludendorff's early service in the 57th Infantry Regiment, 2nd Marine Battalion, and the 8th Grenadier Guards, his service reports reveal the highest praise, with frequent commendations.", "When Ludendorff lobbied the Reichstag for additional men to implement the Schlieffen Plan, funding was approved for four additional corps. However, Ludendorff had initially calculated that the plan lacked six corps, indicating that he did not secure all the additional manpower he had hoped for." ]
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Sherlock Holmes
Sherlock Holmes () is a fictional private detective created by British author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. Referring to himself as a "consulting detective" in the stories, Holmes is known for his proficiency with observation, forensic science, and logical reasoning that borders on the fantastic, which he employs when investigating cases for a wide variety of clients, including Scotland Yard. First appearing in print in 1887 (in A Study in Scarlet), the character's popularity became widespread with the first series of short stories in The Strand Magazine, beginning with "A Scandal in Bohemia" in 1891; additional tales appeared from then until 1927, eventually totalling four novels and 56 short stories. All but one are set in the Victorian or Edwardian eras, between about 1880 and 1914.
Inspiration for the character
Edgar Allan Poe's C. Auguste Dupin is generally acknowledged as the first detective in fiction and served as the prototype for many that were created later, including Holmes. Conan Doyle once wrote, "Each [of Poe's detective stories] is a root from which a whole literature has developed... Where was the detective story until Poe breathed the breath of life into it?" Similarly, the stories of Emile Gaboriau's Monsieur Lecoq were extremely popular at the time Conan Doyle began writing Holmes, and Holmes' speech and behaviour sometimes follow that of Lecoq. Both Dupin and Lecoq are referenced at the beginning of A Study in Scarlet. Conan Doyle repeatedly said that Holmes was inspired by the real-life figure of Joseph Bell, a surgeon at the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, whom Doyle met in 1877 and had worked for as a clerk. Like Holmes, Bell was noted for drawing broad conclusions from minute observations. However, he later wrote to Doyle: "You are yourself Sherlock Holmes and well you know it". Sir Henry Littlejohn, Chair of Medical Jurisprudence at the University of Edinburgh Medical School, is also cited as an inspiration for Holmes. Littlejohn, who was also Police Surgeon and Medical Officer of Health in Edinburgh, provided Doyle with a link between medical investigation and the detection of crime. Other inspirations have been considered. One is thought to be Francis "Tanky" Smith, a policeman and master of disguise who went on to become Leicester's first private detective. Another might be Maximilien Heller, by French author Henry Cauvain. It is not known if Conan Doyle read Maximilien Heller, but in this 1871 novel (sixteen years before the first adventure of Sherlock Holmes), Henry Cauvain imagined a depressed, anti-social, polymath, cat-loving, and opium-smoking Paris-based detective. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "Who was the inspiration for the Holmes?", "How did Poe inspire Holmes?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "What other inspirations have been considered?", "Who was Joseph Bell?", "Is there anything else you can tell me about Bell?", "Did he have any other inspirations?", "How did LittleJohn inspire Holmes?" ]
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Sherlock Holmes () is a fictional detective created by British author Arthur Conan Doyle. Referring to himself as a "consulting detective" in the stories, Holmes is known for his proficiency with observation, deduction, forensic science and logical reasoning that borders on the fantastic, which he employs when investigating cases for a wide variety of clients, including Scotland Yard. First appearing in print in 1887's A Study in Scarlet, the character's popularity became widespread with the first series of short stories in The Strand Magazine, beginning with "A Scandal in Bohemia" in 1891; additional tales appeared from then until 1927, eventually totalling four novels and 56 short stories. All but one are set in the Victorian or Edwardian eras, between about 1880 and 1914. Most are narrated by the character of Holmes's friend and biographer Dr. John H. Watson, who usually accompanies Holmes during his investigations and often shares quarters with him at the address of 221B Baker Street, London, where many of the stories begin. Though not the first fictional detective, Sherlock Holmes is arguably the best known. By the 1990s, there were already over 25,000 stage adaptations, films, television productions and publications featuring the detective, and Guinness World Records lists him as the most portrayed human literary character in film and television history. Holmes's popularity and fame are such that many have believed him to be not a fictional character but a real individual; numerous literary and fan societies have been founded on this pretence. Avid readers of the Holmes stories helped create the modern practice of fandom. The character and stories have had a profound and lasting effect on mystery writing and popular culture as a whole, with the original tales as well as thousands written by authors other than Conan Doyle being adapted into stage and radio plays, television, films, video games, and other media for over one hundred years. Inspiration for the character Edgar Allan Poe's C. Auguste Dupin is generally acknowledged as the first detective in fiction and served as the prototype for many later characters, including Holmes. Conan Doyle once wrote, "Each [of Poe's detective stories] is a root from which a whole literature has developed ... Where was the detective story until Poe breathed the breath of life into it?" Similarly, the stories of Émile Gaboriau's Monsieur Lecoq were extremely popular at the time Conan Doyle began writing Holmes, and Holmes's speech and behaviour sometimes follow those of Lecoq. Doyle has his main characters discuss these literary antecedents near the beginning of A Study in Scarlet, which is set soon after Watson is first introduced to Holmes. Watson attempts to compliment Holmes by comparing him to Dupin, to which Holmes replies that he found Dupin to be "a very inferior fellow" and Lecoq to be "a miserable bungler". Conan Doyle repeatedly said that Holmes was inspired by the real-life figure of Joseph Bell, a surgeon at the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, whom Conan Doyle met in 1877 and had worked for as a clerk. Like Holmes, Bell was noted for drawing broad conclusions from minute observations. However, he later wrote to Conan Doyle: "You are yourself Sherlock Holmes and well you know it". Sir Henry Littlejohn, Chair of Medical Jurisprudence at the University of Edinburgh Medical School, is also cited as an inspiration for Holmes. Littlejohn, who was also Police Surgeon and Medical Officer of Health in Edinburgh, provided Conan Doyle with a link between medical investigation and the detection of crime. Other possible inspirations have been proposed, though never acknowledged by Doyle, such as Maximilien Heller, by French author Henry Cauvain. In this 1871 novel (sixteen years before the first appearance of Sherlock Holmes), Henry Cauvain imagined a depressed, anti-social, opium-smoking polymath detective, operating in Paris. It is not known if Conan Doyle read the novel, but he was fluent in French. Similarly, Michael Harrison suggested that a German self-styled "consulting detective" named Walter Scherer may have been the model for Holmes. Fictional character biography Family and early life Details of Sherlock Holmes's life in Conan Doyle's stories are scarce and often vague. Nevertheless, mentions of his early life and extended family paint a loose biographical picture of the detective. A statement of Holmes's age in "His Last Bow" places his year of birth at 1854; the story, set in August 1914, describes him as sixty years of age. His parents are not mentioned, although Holmes mentions that his "ancestors" were "country squires". In "The Adventure of the Greek Interpreter", he claims that his grandmother was sister to the French artist Vernet, without clarifying whether this was Claude Joseph, Carle, or Horace Vernet. Holmes's brother Mycroft, seven years his senior, is a government official. Mycroft has a unique civil service position as a kind of human database for all aspects of government policy. Sherlock describes his brother as the more intelligent of the two, but notes that Mycroft lacks any interest in physical investigation, preferring to spend his time at the Diogenes Club. Holmes says that he first developed his methods of deduction as an undergraduate; his earliest cases, which he pursued as an amateur, came from fellow university students. A meeting with a classmate's father led him to adopt detection as a profession. Life with Watson In the first Holmes tale, A Study in Scarlet, financial difficulties lead Holmes and Dr. Watson to share rooms together at 221B Baker Street, London. Their residence is maintained by their landlady, Mrs. Hudson. Holmes works as a detective for twenty-three years, with Watson assisting him for seventeen of those years. Most of the stories are frame narratives written from Watson's point of view, as summaries of the detective's most interesting cases. Holmes frequently calls Watson's records of Holmes's cases sensational and populist, suggesting that they fail to accurately and objectively report the "science" of his craft: Nevertheless, when Holmes recorded a case himself, he was forced to concede that he could more easily understand the need to write it in a manner that would appeal to the public rather than his intention to focus on his own technical skill. Holmes's friendship with Watson is his most significant relationship. When Watson is injured by a bullet, although the wound turns out to be "quite superficial", Watson is moved by Holmes's reaction: After confirming Watson's assessment of the wound, Holmes makes it clear to their opponent that the man would not have left the room alive if he genuinely had killed Watson. Practice Holmes's clients vary from the most powerful monarchs and governments of Europe, to wealthy aristocrats and industrialists, to impoverished pawnbrokers and governesses. He is known only in select professional circles at the beginning of the first story, but is already collaborating with Scotland Yard. However, his continued work and the publication of Watson's stories raise Holmes's profile, and he rapidly becomes well known as a detective; so many clients ask for his help instead of (or in addition to) that of the police that, Watson writes, by 1887 "Europe was ringing with his name" and by 1895 Holmes has "an immense practice". Police outside London ask Holmes for assistance if he is nearby. A Prime Minister and the King of Bohemia visit 221B Baker Street in person to request Holmes's assistance; the President of France awards him the Legion of Honour for capturing an assassin; the King of Scandinavia is a client; and he aids the Vatican at least twice. The detective acts on behalf of the British government in matters of national security several times, and declines a knighthood "for services which may perhaps some day be described". However, he does not actively seek fame and is usually content to let the police take public credit for his work. The Great Hiatus The first set of Holmes stories was published between 1887 and 1893. Conan Doyle killed off Holmes in a final battle with the criminal mastermind Professor James Moriarty in "The Final Problem" (published 1893, but set in 1891), as Conan Doyle felt that "my literary energies should not be directed too much into one channel." However, the reaction of the public surprised Doyle very much. Distressed readers wrote anguished letters to The Strand Magazine, which suffered a terrible blow when 20,000 people cancelled their subscriptions to the magazine in protest. Conan Doyle himself received many protest letters, and one lady even began her letter with "You brute". Legend has it that Londoners were so distraught upon hearing the news of Holmes's death that they wore black armbands in mourning, though there is no known contemporary source for this; the earliest known reference to such events comes from 1949. However, the recorded public reaction to Holmes's death was unlike anything previously seen for fictional events. After resisting public pressure for eight years, Conan Doyle wrote The Hound of the Baskervilles (serialised in 1901–02, with an implicit setting before Holmes's death). In 1903, Conan Doyle wrote "The Adventure of the Empty House"; set in 1894, Holmes reappears, explaining to a stunned Watson that he had faked his death to fool his enemies. Following "The Adventure of the Empty House", Conan Doyle would sporadically write new Holmes stories until 1927. Holmes aficionados refer to the period from 1891 to 1894—between his disappearance and presumed death in "The Final Problem" and his reappearance in "The Adventure of the Empty House"—as the Great Hiatus. The earliest known use of this expression dates to 1946. Retirement In His Last Bow, the reader is told that Holmes has retired to a small farm on the Sussex Downs and taken up beekeeping as his primary occupation. The move is not dated precisely, but can be presumed to be no later than 1904 (since it is referred to retrospectively in "The Adventure of the Second Stain", first published that year). The story features Holmes and Watson coming out of retirement to aid the British war effort. Only one other adventure, "The Adventure of the Lion's Mane", takes place during the detective's retirement. Personality and habits Watson describes Holmes as "bohemian" in his habits and lifestyle. Said to have a "cat-like" love of personal cleanliness, at the same time Holmes is an eccentric with no regard for contemporary standards of tidiness or good order. Watson describes him as While Holmes can be dispassionate and cold, during an investigation he is animated and excitable. He has a flair for showmanship, often keeping his methods and evidence hidden until the last possible moment so as to impress observers. His companion condones the detective's willingness to bend the truth (or break the law) on behalf of a client—lying to the police, concealing evidence or breaking into houses—when he feels it morally justifiable. Except for that of Watson, Holmes avoids casual company. In "The Gloria Scott", he tells the doctor that during two years at college he made only one friend: "I was never a very sociable fellow, Watson ... I never mixed much with the men of my year". The detective goes without food at times of intense intellectual activity, believing that "the faculties become refined when you starve them." At times Holmes relaxes with music, either playing the violin, or enjoying the works of composers such as Wagner and Pablo de Sarasate. Drug use Holmes occasionally uses addictive drugs, especially in the absence of stimulating cases. He sometimes used morphine and sometimes cocaine, the latter of which he injects in a seven-percent solution; both drugs were legal in 19th-century England. As a physician, Watson strongly disapproves of his friend's cocaine habit, describing it as the detective's only vice, and concerned about its effect on Holmes's mental health and intellect. In "The Adventure of the Missing Three-Quarter", Watson says that although he has "weaned" Holmes from drugs, the detective remains an addict whose habit is "not dead, but merely sleeping". Watson and Holmes both use tobacco, smoking cigarettes, cigars, and pipes. Although his chronicler does not consider Holmes's smoking a vice per se, Watson—a physician—does criticise the detective for creating a "poisonous atmosphere" in their confined quarters. Finances Holmes is known to charge clients for his expenses and claim any reward offered for a problem's solution, such as in "The Adventure of the Speckled Band", "The Red-Headed League", and "The Adventure of the Beryl Coronet". The detective states at one point that "My professional charges are upon a fixed scale. I do not vary them, save when I remit them altogether". In this context, a client is offering to double his fee, and it is implied that wealthy clients habitually pay Holmes more than his standard rate. In "The Adventure of the Priory School", Holmes earns a £6,000 fee (at a time where annual expenses for a rising young professional were in the area of £500). However, Watson notes that Holmes would refuse to help even the wealthy and powerful if their cases did not interest him. Attitudes towards women As Conan Doyle wrote to Joseph Bell, "Holmes is as inhuman as a Babbage's Calculating Machine and just about as likely to fall in love". Holmes says of himself that he is "not a whole-souled admirer of womankind", and that he finds "the motives of women ... inscrutable. ... How can you build on such quicksand? Their most trivial actions may mean volumes..." In The Sign of Four, he says, "Women are never to be entirely trusted—not the best of them", a feeling Watson notes as an "atrocious sentiment". In "The Adventure of the Lion's Mane", Holmes writes, "Women have seldom been an attraction to me, for my brain has always governed my heart". At the end of The Sign of Four, Holmes states that "love is an emotional thing, and whatever is emotional is opposed to that true, cold reason which I place above all things. I should never marry myself, lest I bias my judgement." Ultimately, Holmes claims outright that "I have never loved". But while Watson says that the detective has an "aversion to women", he also notes Holmes as having "a peculiarly ingratiating way with [them]". Watson notes that their housekeeper Mrs. Hudson is fond of Holmes because of his "remarkable gentleness and courtesy in his dealings with women. He disliked and distrusted the sex, but he was always a chivalrous opponent". However, in "The Adventure of Charles Augustus Milverton", the detective becomes engaged under false pretenses in order to obtain information about a case, abandoning the woman once he has the information he requires. Irene Adler Irene Adler is a retired American opera singer and actress who appears in "A Scandal in Bohemia". Although this is her only appearance, she is one of only a handful of people who best Holmes in a battle of wits, and the only woman. For this reason, Adler is the frequent subject of pastiche writing. The beginning of the story describes the high regard in which Holmes holds her: Five years before the story's events, Adler had a brief liaison with Crown Prince of Bohemia Wilhelm von Ormstein. As the story opens, the Prince is engaged to another. Fearful that the marriage would be called off if his fiancée's family learns of this past impropriety, Ormstein hires Holmes to regain a photograph of Adler and himself. Adler slips away before Holmes can succeed. Her memory is kept alive by the photograph of Adler that Holmes received for his part in the case. Knowledge and skills Shortly after meeting Holmes in the first story, A Study in Scarlet (generally assumed to be 1881, though the exact date is not given), Watson assesses the detective's abilities: In A Study in Scarlet, Holmes claims to be unaware that the earth revolves around the sun since such information is irrelevant to his work; after hearing that fact from Watson, he says he will immediately try to forget it. The detective believes that the mind has a finite capacity for information storage, and learning useless things reduces one's ability to learn useful things. The later stories move away from this notion: in The Valley of Fear, he says, "All knowledge comes useful to the detective", and in "The Adventure of the Lion's Mane", the detective calls himself "an omnivorous reader with a strangely retentive memory for trifles". Looking back on the development of the character in 1912, Conan Doyle wrote that "In the first one, the Study in Scarlet, [Holmes] was a mere calculating machine, but I had to make him more of an educated human being as I went on with him." Despite Holmes's supposed ignorance of politics, in "A Scandal in Bohemia" he immediately recognises the true identity of the disguised "Count von Kramm". At the end of A Study in Scarlet, Holmes demonstrates a knowledge of Latin. The detective cites Hafez, Goethe, as well as a letter from Gustave Flaubert to George Sand in the original French. In The Hound of the Baskervilles, the detective recognises works by Godfrey Kneller and Joshua Reynolds: "Watson won't allow that I know anything of art, but that is mere jealousy since our views upon the subject differ". In "The Adventure of the Bruce-Partington Plans", Watson says that "Holmes lost himself in a monograph which he had undertaken upon the Polyphonic Motets of Lassus", considered "the last word" on the subject—which must have been the result of an intensive and very specialized musicological study which could have had no possible application to the solution of criminal mysteries. Holmes is a cryptanalyst, telling Watson that "I am fairly familiar with all forms of secret writing, and am myself the author of a trifling monograph upon the subject, in which I analyse one hundred and sixty separate ciphers". Holmes also demonstrates a knowledge of psychology in "A Scandal in Bohemia", luring Irene Adler into betraying where she hid a photograph based on the premise that a woman will rush to save her most valued possession from a fire. Another example is in "The Adventure of the Blue Carbuncle", where Holmes obtains information from a salesman with a wager: "When you see a man with whiskers of that cut and the 'Pink 'un' protruding out of his pocket, you can always draw him by a bet .... I daresay that if I had put 100 pounds down in front of him, that man would not have given me such complete information as was drawn from him by the idea that he was doing me on a wager". Maria Konnikova points out in an interview with D. J. Grothe that Holmes practises what is now called mindfulness, concentrating on one thing at a time, and almost never "multitasks". She adds that in this he predates the science showing how helpful this is to the brain. Holmesian deduction Holmes observes the dress and attitude of his clients and suspects, noting skin marks (such as tattoos), contamination (such as ink stains or clay on boots), emotional state, and physical condition in order to deduce their origins and recent history. The style and state of wear of a person's clothes and personal items are also commonly relied on; in the stories Holmes is seen applying his method to items such as walking sticks, pipes, and hats. For example, in "A Scandal in Bohemia", Holmes infers that Watson had got wet lately and had "a most clumsy and careless servant girl". When Watson asks how Holmes knows this, the detective answers: In the first Holmes story, A Study in Scarlet, Dr. Watson compares Holmes to C. Auguste Dupin, Edgar Allan Poe's fictional detective, who employed a similar methodology. Alluding to an episode in "The Murders in the Rue Morgue", where Dupin determines what his friend is thinking despite their having walked together in silence for a quarter of an hour, Holmes remarks: "That trick of his breaking in on his friend's thoughts with an apropos remark... is really very showy and superficial". Nevertheless, Holmes later performs the same 'trick' on Watson in "The Cardboard Box" and "The Adventure of the Dancing Men". Though the stories always refer to Holmes's intellectual detection method as "deduction", he primarily relies on abduction: inferring an explanation for observed details. "From a drop of water", he writes, "a logician could infer the possibility of an Atlantic or a Niagara without having seen or heard of one or the other". However, Holmes does employ deductive reasoning as well. The detective's guiding principle, as he says in The Sign of Four, is: "When you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth." Despite Holmes's remarkable reasoning abilities, Conan Doyle still paints him as fallible in this regard (this being a central theme of "The Yellow Face"). Forensic science Though Holmes is famed for his reasoning capabilities, his investigative technique relies heavily on the acquisition of hard evidence. Many of the techniques he employs in the stories were at the time in their infancy. The detective is particularly skilled in the analysis of trace evidence and other physical evidence, including latent prints (such as footprints, hoof prints, and shoe and tire impressions) to identify actions at a crime scene; using tobacco ashes and cigarette butts to identify criminals; handwriting analysis and graphology; comparing typewritten letters to expose a fraud; using gunpowder residue to expose two murderers; and analyzing small pieces of human remains to expose two murders. Because of the small scale of much of his evidence, the detective often uses a magnifying glass at the scene and an optical microscope at his Baker Street lodgings. He uses analytical chemistry for blood residue analysis and toxicology to detect poisons; Holmes's home chemistry laboratory is mentioned in "The Naval Treaty". Ballistics feature in "The Adventure of the Empty House" when spent bullets are recovered to be matched with a suspected murder weapon, a practice which became regular police procedure only some fifteen years after the story was published. Laura J. Snyder has examined Holmes's methods in the context of mid- to late-19th-century criminology, demonstrating that, while sometimes in advance of what official investigative departments were formally using at the time, they were based upon existing methods and techniques. For example, fingerprints were proposed to be distinct in Conan Doyle's day, and while Holmes used a thumbprint to solve a crime in "The Adventure of the Norwood Builder" (generally held to be set in 1895), the story was published in 1903, two years after Scotland Yard's fingerprint bureau opened. Though the effect of the Holmes stories on the development of forensic science has thus often been overstated, Holmes inspired future generations of forensic scientists to think scientifically and analytically. Disguises Holmes displays a strong aptitude for acting and disguise. In several stories ("The Sign of Four", "The Adventure of Charles Augustus Milverton", "The Man with the Twisted Lip", "The Adventure of the Empty House" and "A Scandal in Bohemia"), to gather evidence undercover he uses disguises so convincing that Watson fails to recognise him. In others ("The Adventure of the Dying Detective" and "A Scandal in Bohemia"), Holmes feigns injury or illness to incriminate the guilty. In the latter story, Watson says, "The stage lost a fine actor ... when [Holmes] became a specialist in crime". Guy Mankowski has said of Holmes that his ability to change his appearance to blend into any situation "helped him personify the idea of the English eccentric chameleon, in a way that prefigured the likes of David Bowie." Agents Until Watson's arrival at Baker Street, Holmes largely worked alone, only occasionally employing agents from the city's underclass. These agents included a variety of informants, such as Langdale Pike, a "human book of reference upon all matters of social scandal", and Shinwell Johnson, who acted as Holmes's "agent in the huge criminal underworld of London". The best known of Holmes's agents are a group of street children he called "the Baker Street Irregulars". Combat Pistols Holmes and Watson often carry pistols with them to confront criminals—in Watson's case, his old service weapon (probably a Mark III Adams revolver, issued to British troops during the 1870s). Holmes and Watson shoot the eponymous hound in The Hound of the Baskervilles, and in "The Adventure of the Empty House" Watson pistol-whips Colonel Sebastian Moran. In "The Problem of Thor Bridge", Holmes uses Watson's revolver to solve the case through an experiment. Other weapons As a gentleman, Holmes often carries a stick or cane. He is described by Watson as an expert at singlestick, and uses his cane twice as a weapon. In A Study in Scarlet, Watson describes Holmes as an expert swordsman, and in "The Gloria Scott" the detective says he practised fencing while at university. In several stories ("A Case of Identity", "The Red-Headed League", "The Adventure of the Six Napoleons") Holmes wields a riding crop, described in the latter story as his "favourite weapon". Personal combat The detective is described (or demonstrated) as possessing above-average physical strength. In "The Yellow Face", Holmes's chronicler says, "Few men were capable of greater muscular effort." In "The Adventure of the Speckled Band", Dr. Roylott demonstrates his strength by bending a fire poker in half. Watson describes Holmes as laughing, "'if he had remained I might have shown him that my grip was not much more feeble than his own.' As he spoke he picked up the steel poker and, with a sudden effort, straightened it out again." Holmes is an adept bare-knuckle fighter; "The Gloria Scott" mentions that Holmes boxed while at university. In The Sign of Four, he introduces himself to McMurdo, a prize fighter, as "the amateur who fought three rounds with you at Alison's rooms on the night of your benefit four years back." McMurdo remembers: "Ah, you're one that has wasted your gifts, you have! You might have aimed high if you had joined the fancy." In "The Yellow Face", Watson says: "He was undoubtedly one of the finest boxers of his weight that I have ever seen". In "The Solitary Cyclist" Holmes visits a country pub to make enquiries regarding a certain Mr Woodley which resulted in violence. Mr Woodley, Holmes tells Watson, Another character subsequently refers to Mr Woodley as looking "much disfigured" as a result of his encounter with Holmes. In "The Adventure of the Empty House", Holmes tells Watson that he used a Japanese martial art known as baritsu to fling Moriarty to his death in the Reichenbach Falls. "Baritsu" is Conan Doyle's version of bartitsu, which combines jujitsu with boxing and cane fencing. Reception Popularity The first two Sherlock Holmes stories, the novels A Study in Scarlet (1887) and The Sign of the Four (1890), were moderately well received, but Holmes first became very popular early in 1891 when the first six short stories featuring the character were published in The Strand Magazine. Holmes became widely known in Britain and America. The character was so well known that in 1893 when Arthur Conan Doyle killed Holmes in the short story "The Final Problem", the strongly negative response from readers was unlike any previous public reaction to a fictional event. The Strand reportedly lost more than 20,000 subscribers as a result of Holmes's death. Public pressure eventually contributed to Conan Doyle writing another Holmes story in 1901 and resurrecting the character in a story published in 1903. In Japan, Sherlock Holmes (and Alice from Alice's Adventures in Wonderland) became immensely popular in the country in the 1890s as it was opening up to the West, and they are cited as two British fictional Victorians who left an enormous creative and cultural legacy there. Many fans of Sherlock Holmes have written letters to Holmes's address, 221B Baker Street. Though the address 221B Baker Street did not exist when the stories were first published, letters began arriving to the large Abbey National building which first encompassed that address almost as soon as it was built in 1932. Fans continue to send letters to Sherlock Holmes; these letters are now delivered to the Sherlock Holmes Museum. Some of the people who have sent letters to 221B Baker Street believe Holmes is real. Members of the general public have also believed Holmes actually existed. In a 2008 survey of British teenagers, 58 percent of respondents believed that Sherlock Holmes was a real individual. The Sherlock Holmes stories continue to be widely read. Holmes's continuing popularity has led to many reimaginings of the character in adaptations. Guinness World Records, which awarded Sherlock Holmes the title for "most portrayed literary human character in film & TV" in 2012, released a statement saying that the title "reflects his enduring appeal and demonstrates that his detective talents are as compelling today as they were 125 years ago." Honours The London Metropolitan Railway named one of its twenty electric locomotives deployed in the 1920s for Sherlock Holmes. He was the only fictional character so honoured, along with eminent Britons such as Lord Byron, Benjamin Disraeli, and Florence Nightingale. A number of London streets are associated with Holmes. York Mews South, off Crawford Street, was renamed Sherlock Mews, and Watson's Mews is near Crawford Place. The Sherlock Holmes is a public house in Northumberland Street in London which contains a large collection of memorabilia related to Holmes, the original collection having been put together for display in Baker Street during the Festival of Britain in 1951. In 2002, the Royal Society of Chemistry bestowed an honorary fellowship on Holmes for his use of forensic science and analytical chemistry in popular literature, making him (as of 2019) the only fictional character thus honoured. Holmes has been commemorated numerous times on a UK postage stamp issued by the Royal Mail, most recently in their August 2020 series to celebrate the Sherlock television series. There are multiple statues of Sherlock Holmes around the world. The first, sculpted by John Doubleday, was unveiled in Meiringen, Switzerland, in September 1988. The second was unveiled in October 1988 in Karuizawa, Japan, and was sculpted by Yoshinori Satoh. The third was installed in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1989, and was sculpted by Gerald Laing. In 1999, a statue of Sherlock Holmes in London, also by John Doubleday, was unveiled near the fictional detective's address, 221B Baker Street. In 2001, a sculpture of Holmes and Arthur Conan Doyle by Irena Sedlecká was unveiled in a statue collection in Warwickshire, England. A sculpture depicting both Holmes and Watson was unveiled in 2007 in Moscow, Russia, based partially on Sidney Paget's illustrations and partially on the actors in The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson. In 2015, a sculpture of Holmes by Jane DeDecker was installed in the police headquarters of Edmond, Oklahoma, United States. In 2019, a statue of Holmes was unveiled in Chester, Illinois, United States, as part of a series of statues honouring cartoonist E. C. Segar and his characters. The statue is titled "Sherlock & Segar", and the face of the statue was modelled on Segar. Societies In 1934, the Sherlock Holmes Society (in London) and the Baker Street Irregulars (in New York) were founded. The latter is still active. The Sherlock Holmes Society was dissolved later in the 1930s, but was succeeded by a society with a slightly different name, the Sherlock Holmes Society of London, which was founded in 1951 and remains active. These societies were followed by many more, first in the U.S. (where they are known as "scion societies"—offshoots—of the Baker Street Irregulars) and then in England and Denmark. There are at least 250 societies worldwide, including Australia, Canada (such as The Bootmakers of Toronto), India, and Japan. Fans tend to be called "Holmesians" in the U.K. and "Sherlockians" in the U.S., though recently "Sherlockian" has also come to refer to fans of the Benedict Cumberbatch-led BBC series regardless of location. Legacy The detective story Although Holmes is not the original fictional detective, his name has become synonymous with the role. Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories introduced multiple literary devices that have become major conventions in detective fiction, such as the companion character who is not as clever as the detective and has solutions explained to him (thus informing the reader as well), as with Dr. Watson in the Holmes stories. Other conventions introduced by Doyle include the arch-criminal who is too clever for the official police to defeat, like Holmes's adversary Professor Moriarty, and the use of forensic science to solve cases. The Sherlock Holmes stories established crime fiction as a respectable genre popular with readers of all backgrounds, and Doyle's success inspired many contemporary detective stories. Holmes influenced the creation of other "eccentric gentleman detective" characters, like Agatha Christie's fictional detective Hercule Poirot, introduced in 1920. Holmes also inspired a number of anti-hero characters "almost as an antidote to the masterful detective", such as the gentleman thief characters A. J. Raffles (created by E. W. Hornung in 1898) and Arsène Lupin (created by Maurice Leblanc in 1905). "Elementary, my dear Watson" The phrase "Elementary, my dear Watson" has become one of the most quoted and iconic aspects of the character. However, although Holmes often observes that his conclusions are "elementary", and occasionally calls Watson "my dear Watson", the phrase "Elementary, my dear Watson" is never uttered in any of the sixty stories by Conan Doyle. One of the nearest approximations of the phrase appears in "The Adventure of the Crooked Man" (1893) when Holmes explains a deduction: Excellent!' I cried. 'Elementary,' said he." William Gillette is widely considered to have originated the phrase with the formulation, "Oh, this is elementary, my dear fellow", allegedly in his 1899 play Sherlock Holmes. However, the script was revised numerous times over the course of some three decades of revivals and publications, and the phrase is present in some versions of the script, but not others. The appearance of the line "Elementary, my dear Potson" in a Sherlock Holmes parody from 1901 has led some authors to speculate that, rather than this being an incidental formulation, the parodist drew upon an already well-established occurrences of "Elementary, my dear Watson." The exact phrase, as well as close variants, can be seen in newspaper and journal articles as early as 1909. It was also used by P. G. Wodehouse in his novel Psmith, Journalist, which was first serialised in The Captain magazine between October 1909 and February 1910; the phrase occurred in the January 1910 instalment. The phrase became familiar with the American public in part due to its use in the Rathbone-Bruce series of films from 1939 to 1946. The Great Game Conan Doyle's 56 short stories and four novels are known as the "canon" by Holmes aficionados. The Great Game (also known as the Holmesian Game, the Sherlockian Game, or simply the Game, also the Higher Criticism) applies the methods of literary and especially Biblical criticism to the canon, operating on the pretense that Holmes and Watson were real people and that Conan Doyle was not the author of the stories but Watson's literary agent. From this basis, it attempts to resolve or explain away contradictions in the canon—such as the location of Watson's war wound, described as being in his shoulder in A Study in Scarlet and in his leg in The Sign of Four—and clarify details about Holmes, Watson and their world, such as the exact dates of events in the stories, combining historical research with references from the stories to construct scholarly analyses. For example, one detail analyzed in the Game is Holmes's birth date. The chronology of the stories is notoriously difficult, with many stories lacking dates and many others containing contradictory ones. Christopher Morley and William Baring-Gould contend that the detective was born on 6 January 1854, the year being derived from the statement in "His Last Bow" that he was 60 years of age in 1914, while the precise day is derived from broader, non-canonical speculation. This is the date the Baker Street Irregulars work from, with their annual dinner being held each January. Laurie R. King instead argues that details in "The Gloria Scott" (a story with no precise internal date) indicate that Holmes finished his second (and final) year of university in 1880 or 1885. If he began university at age 17, his birth year could be as late as 1868. Museums and special collections For the 1951 Festival of Britain, Holmes's living room was reconstructed as part of a Sherlock Holmes exhibition, with a collection of original material. After the festival, items were transferred to The Sherlock Holmes (a London pub) and the Conan Doyle collection housed in Lucens, Switzerland by the author's son, Adrian. Both exhibitions, each with a Baker Street sitting-room reconstruction, are open to the public. In 1969, the Toronto Reference Library began a collection of materials related to Conan Doyle. Stored today in Room 221B, this vast collection is accessible to the public. Similarly, in 1974 the University of Minnesota founded a collection that is now "the world's largest gathering of material related to Sherlock Holmes and his creator". Access is closed to the general public, but is occasionally open to tours. In 1990, the Sherlock Holmes Museum opened on Baker Street in London, followed the next year by a museum in Meiringen (near the Reichenbach Falls) dedicated to the detective. A private Conan Doyle collection is a permanent exhibit at the Portsmouth City Museum, where the author lived and worked as a physician. Postcolonial criticism The Sherlock Holmes stories have been scrutinized by a few academics for themes of empire and colonialism. Susan Cannon Harris claims that themes of contagion and containment are common in the Holmes series, including the metaphors of Eastern foreigners as the root cause of "infection" within and around Europe. Lauren Raheja, writing in the Marxist journal Nature, Society, and Thought, claims that Doyle used these characteristics to paint eastern colonies in a negative light, through their continually being the source of threats. For example, in one story Doyle makes mention of the Sumatran cannibals (also known as Batak) who throw poisonous darts, in "The Adventure of the Devil's Foot" a character employs a deadly West African poison, and in "The Speckled Band" a "long residence in the tropics" was a negative influence on one antagonist's bad temper. Yumna Siddiqi argues that Doyle depicted returned colonials as "marginal, physically ravaged characters that threaten the peace," while putting non-colonials in a much more positive light. Adaptations and derived works The popularity of Sherlock Holmes has meant that many writers other than Arthur Conan Doyle have created tales of the detective in a wide variety of different media, with varying degrees of fidelity to the original characters, stories, and setting. The first known period pastiche dates from 1891. Titled "The Late Sherlock Holmes", it was written by Conan Doyle's close friend, J. M. Barrie. Adaptations have seen the character taken in radically different directions or placed in different times or even universes. For example, Holmes falls in love and marries in Laurie R. King's Mary Russell series, is re-animated after his death to fight future crime in the animated series Sherlock Holmes in the 22nd Century, and is meshed with the setting of H. P. Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos in Neil Gaiman's "A Study in Emerald" (which won the 2004 Hugo Award for Best Short Story). An especially influential pastiche was Nicholas Meyer's The Seven-Per-Cent Solution, a 1974 New York Times bestselling novel (made into the 1976 film of the same name) in which Holmes's cocaine addiction has progressed to the point of endangering his career. It served to popularize the trend of incorporating clearly identified and contemporaneous historical figures (such as Oscar Wilde, Aleister Crowley, Sigmund Freud, or Jack the Ripper) into Holmesian pastiches, something Conan Doyle himself never did. Another common pastiche approach is to create a new story fully detailing an otherwise-passing canonical reference (such as an aside by Conan Doyle mentioning the "giant rat of Sumatra, a story for which the world is not yet prepared" in "The Adventure of the Sussex Vampire"). Related and derivative writings In addition to the Holmes canon, Conan Doyle's 1898 "The Lost Special" features an unnamed "amateur reasoner" intended to be identified as Holmes by his readers. The author's explanation of a baffling disappearance argued in Holmesian style poked fun at his own creation. Similar Conan Doyle short stories are "The Field Bazaar", "The Man with the Watches", and 1924's "How Watson Learned the Trick", a parody of the Watson–Holmes breakfast-table scenes. The author wrote other material featuring Holmes, especially plays: 1899's Sherlock Holmes (with William Gillette), 1910's The Speckled Band, and 1921's The Crown Diamond (the basis for "The Adventure of the Mazarin Stone"). These non-canonical works have been collected in several works released since Conan Doyle's death. In terms of writers other than Conan Doyle, authors as diverse as Anthony Burgess, Neil Gaiman, Dorothy B. Hughes, Stephen King, Tanith Lee, A. A. Milne, and P. G. Wodehouse have all written Sherlock Holmes pastiches. Contemporary with Conan Doyle, Maurice Leblanc directly featured Holmes in his popular series about the gentleman thief, Arsène Lupin, though legal objections from Conan Doyle forced Leblanc to modify the name to "Herlock Sholmes" in reprints and later stories. Famed American mystery writer John Dickson Carr collaborated with Arthur Conan Doyle's son, Adrian Conan Doyle, on The Exploits of Sherlock Holmes, a pastiche collection from 1954. In 2011, Anthony Horowitz published a Sherlock Holmes novel, The House of Silk, presented as a continuation of Conan Doyle's work and with the approval of the Conan Doyle estate; a follow-up, Moriarty, appeared in 2014. The "MX Book of New Sherlock Holmes Stories" series of pastiches, edited by David Marcum and published by MX Publishing, has reached over thirty volumes and features hundreds of stories echoing the original canon which were compiled for the restoration of Undershaw and the support of Stepping Stones School, now housed in it. Some authors have written tales centred on characters from the canon other than Holmes. Anthologies edited by Michael Kurland and George Mann are entirely devoted to stories told from the perspective of characters other than Holmes and Watson. John Gardner, Michael Kurland, and Kim Newman, amongst many others, have all written tales in which Holmes's nemesis Professor Moriarty is the main character. Mycroft Holmes has been the subject of several efforts: Enter the Lion by Michael P. Hodel and Sean M. Wright (1979), a four-book series by Quinn Fawcett, and 2015's Mycroft Holmes, by Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and Anna Waterhouse. M. J. Trow has written a series of seventeen books using Inspector Lestrade as the central character, beginning with The Adventures of Inspector Lestrade in 1985. Carole Nelson Douglas' Irene Adler series is based on "the woman" from "A Scandal in Bohemia", with the first book (1990's Good Night, Mr. Holmes) retelling that story from Adler's point of view. Martin Davies has written three novels where Baker Street housekeeper Mrs. Hudson is the protagonist. In 1980's The Name of the Rose, Italian author Umberto Eco creates a Sherlock Holmes of the 1320s in the form of a Franciscan friar and main protagonist named Brother William of Baskerville, his name a clear reference to Holmes per The Hound of the Baskervilles. Brother William investigates a series of murders in the abbey alongside his novice Adso of Melk, who acts as his Dr. Watson. Furthermore, Umberto Eco's description of Brother William bears marked similarities in both physique and personality to Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's description of Sherlock Holmes in A Study in Scarlet. Laurie R. King recreated Holmes in her Mary Russell series (beginning with 1994's The Beekeeper's Apprentice), set during the First World War and the 1920s. Her Holmes, semi-retired in Sussex, meets a teenaged American girl. Recognising a kindred spirit, he trains her as his apprentice and subsequently marries her. As of 2021, the series includes seventeen base novels and additional writings. Short stories featuring sage-detective Zavant Konniger and his halfling manservant Vido, written by fantasy authors Gordon Rennie and Josh Reynolds for the Warhammer Fantasy universe, were published by Black Library from 2002 to 2018, including "How Vido Learned the Trick" ("How Watson Learned the Trick") and "The Problem of Three-Toll Bridge" ("The Problem of Thor Bridge"). The Final Solution, a 2004 novella by Michael Chabon, concerns an unnamed but long-retired detective interested in beekeeping who tackles the case of a missing parrot belonging to a Jewish refugee boy. Mitch Cullin's novel A Slight Trick of the Mind (2005) takes place two years after the end of the Second World War, and explores an old and frail Sherlock Holmes (now 93) as he comes to terms with a life spent in emotionless logic; this was also adapted into a film, 2015's Mr. Holmes. There have been many scholarly works dealing with Sherlock Holmes, some working within the bounds of the Great Game, and some written from the perspective that Holmes is a fictional character. In particular, there have been three major annotated editions of the complete series. The first was William Baring-Gould's 1967 The Annotated Sherlock Holmes. This two-volume set was ordered to fit Baring-Gould's preferred chronology, and was written from a Great Game perspective. The second was 1993's The Oxford Sherlock Holmes (general editor: Owen Dudley Edwards), a nine-volume set written in a straight scholarly manner. The most recent is Leslie Klinger's The New Annotated Sherlock Holmes (2004–05), a three-volume set that returns to a Great Game perspective. Adaptations in other media In 2012, Guinness World Records listed Holmes as the most portrayed literary human character in film and television history, with more than 75 actors playing the part in over 250 productions. The 1899 play Sherlock Holmes, by Conan Doyle and William Gillette, was a synthesis of several Conan Doyle stories. In addition to its popularity, the play is significant because it, rather than the original stories, introduced one of the key visual qualities commonly associated with Holmes today: his calabash pipe; the play also formed the basis for Gillette's 1916 film, Sherlock Holmes. Gillette performed as Holmes some 1,300 times. In the early 1900s, H. A. Saintsbury took over the role from Gillette for a tour of the play. Between this play and Conan Doyle's own stage adaptation of "The Adventure of the Speckled Band", Saintsbury portrayed Holmes over 1,000 times. Holmes's first screen appearance was in the 1900 Mutoscope film, Sherlock Holmes Baffled. From 1921 to 1923, Eille Norwood played Holmes in forty-seven silent films (45 shorts and two features), in a series of performances that Conan Doyle spoke highly of. 1929's The Return of Sherlock Holmes was the first sound title to feature Holmes. From 1939 to 1946, Basil Rathbone played Holmes and Nigel Bruce played Watson in fourteen U.S. films (two for 20th Century Fox and a dozen for Universal Pictures) and in The New Adventures of Sherlock Holmes radio show. While the Fox films were period pieces, the Universal films abandoned Victorian Britain and moved to a then-contemporary setting in which Holmes occasionally battled Nazis. The character has also enjoyed numerous radio adaptations, beginning with Edith Meiser's The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes, which ran from 1930 to 1936. Basil Rathbone and Nigel Bruce continued with their roles for most of the run of The New Adventures of Sherlock Holmes, airing from 1939 to 1950. Bert Coules, having dramatised the entire Holmes canon for BBC Radio Four from 1989 to 1998, penned The Further Adventures of Sherlock Holmes between 2002 and 2010. This pastiche series also aired on Radio Four, and starred Clive Merrison as Holmes and Michael Williams and then Andrew Sachs as Watson. The 1984–85 Italian/Japanese anime series Sherlock Hound adapted the Holmes stories for children, with its characters being anthropomorphic dogs. The series was co-directed by Hayao Miyazaki. Between 1979 and 1986, the Soviet studio Lenfilm produced a series of five television films, The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson. The series were split into eleven episodes and starred Vasily Livanov as Holmes and Vitaly Solomin as Watson. For his performance, in 2006 Livanov was appointed an Honorary Member of the Order of the British Empire. Jeremy Brett played the detective in Sherlock Holmes for Granada Television from 1984 to 1994. Watson was played by David Burke (in the first two series) and Edward Hardwicke (in the remainder). Brett and Hardwicke also appeared on stage in 1988–89 in The Secret of Sherlock Holmes, directed by Patrick Garland. The 2009 film Sherlock Holmes earned Robert Downey Jr. a Golden Globe Award for his portrayal of Holmes and co-starred Jude Law as Watson. Downey and Law returned for a 2011 sequel, Sherlock Holmes: A Game of Shadows. Benedict Cumberbatch plays a modern version of the detective and Martin Freeman as a modern version of John Watson in the BBC One TV series Sherlock, which premiered in 2010. In the series, created by Mark Gatiss and Steven Moffat, the stories' original Victorian setting is replaced by present-day London, with Watson a veteran of the modern War in Afghanistan. Similarly, Elementary premiered on CBS in 2012, and ran for seven seasons, until 2019. Set in contemporary New York, the series featured Jonny Lee Miller as Sherlock Holmes and Lucy Liu as a female Dr. Joan Watson. With 24 episodes per season, by the end of season two, Miller became the actor who had portrayed Sherlock Holmes the most in television and/or film. The 2015 film Mr. Holmes starred Ian McKellen as a retired Sherlock Holmes living in Sussex, in 1947, who grapples with an unsolved case involving a beautiful woman. The film is based on Mitch Cullin's 2005 novel A Slight Trick of the Mind. The 2018 television adaptation, Miss Sherlock, was a Japanese-language production, and the first adaptation with a woman (portrayed by Yūko Takeuchi) in the signature role. The episodes were based in modern-day Tokyo, with many references to Conan Doyle's stories. Holmes has also appeared in video games, including the Sherlock Holmes series of eight main titles. According to the publisher, Frogwares, by 2017 the series sold over seven million copies. Copyright issues The copyright for Conan Doyle's works expired in the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia at the end of 1980, fifty years after Conan Doyle's death. In the United Kingdom it was revived in 1996 due to new provisions harmonising UK law with that of the European Union, and expired again at the end of 2000 (seventy years after Conan Doyle's death). The author's works are now in the public domain in those countries. In the United States, all works published before 1923 entered public domain by 1998, but, as ten Holmes stories were published after that date, the Conan Doyle estate maintained that the Holmes and Watson characters as a whole were still under copyright. On 14 February 2013, Leslie S. Klinger (lawyer and editor of The New Annotated Sherlock Holmes) filed a declaratory judgement suit against the Conan Doyle estate asking the court to acknowledge that the characters of Holmes and Watson were public domain in the U.S. The court ruled in Klinger's favour on 23 December, and the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed its decision on 16 June 2014. The case was appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court, which declined to hear the case, letting the appeals court's ruling stand. This resulted in the characters from the Holmes stories being in the public domain in the U.S. The stories still under copyright due to the ruling, as of that time, were those collected in The Case-Book of Sherlock Holmes other than "The Adventure of the Mazarin Stone" and "The Problem of Thor Bridge": a total of ten stories. In 2020, although the United States court ruling and the passage of time meant that most of the Holmes stories and characters were in the public domain in that country, the Doyle estate legally challenged the use of Sherlock Holmes in the film Enola Holmes in a complaint filed in the United States. The Doyle estate alleged that the film depicts Holmes with personality traits that were only exhibited by the character in the stories still under copyright. On 18 December 2020, the lawsuit was dismissed with prejudice by stipulation of all parties. The remaining ten Holmes stories moved out of copyright between 1 January 2019 and 1 January 2023, leaving the stories and characters completely in the public domain in the United States as of the latter date. Works Novels A Study in Scarlet (published November 1887 in Beeton's Christmas Annual) The Sign of the Four (published February 1890 in Lippincott's Monthly Magazine) The Hound of the Baskervilles (serialised 1901–1902 in The Strand) The Valley of Fear (serialised 1914–1915 in The Strand) Short story collections The short stories, originally published in magazines, were later collected in five anthologies: The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes (stories published 1891–1892 in The Strand) The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes (stories published 1892–1893 in The Strand) The Return of Sherlock Holmes (stories published 1903–1904 in The Strand) His Last Bow: Some Later Reminiscences of Sherlock Holmes (stories published 1908–1917) The Case-Book of Sherlock Holmes (stories published 1921–1927) See also List of Holmesian studies Popular culture references to Sherlock Holmes Sherlock Holmes fandom Notes Sherlock Holmes story references Klinger, Leslie (ed.). The New Annotated Sherlock Holmes, Volume I (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005). ("Klinger I") Klinger, Leslie (ed.). The New Annotated Sherlock Holmes, Volume II (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005). ("Klinger II") Klinger, Leslie (ed.). The New Annotated Sherlock Holmes, Volume III (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006). ("Klinger III") Citations Further reading Fenoli Marc, Qui a tué Sherlock Holmes ? [Who shot Sherlock Holmes ?], Review L'Alpe 45, Glénat-Musée Dauphinois, Grenoble-France, 2009. Lieboe, Eli. Doctor Joe Bell: Model for Sherlock Holmes. Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green University Popular Press, 1982; Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2007. Previously published as chapter 2, pp. 17–52 of External links The Sherlock Holmes Museum 221b Baker Street London NW1 6XE England. at Internet Archive Sherlock Holmes plaques on openplaques.org Discovering Sherlock Holmes at Stanford University Chess and Sherlock Holmes essay by Edward Winter "The Burden of Holmes" – 23.12.09 article in The Wall Street Journal Sir Arthur Conan Doyle audio books by Lit2Go from the University of South Florida Category:British male characters in television Category:Crime film characters Category:Edwardian era Category:Fictional beekeepers Category:Fictional chemists Category:Fictional cocaine users Category:Fictional criminologists Category:Fictional opioid users Category:Fictional English people Category:Fictional gentleman detectives Category:Fictional private investigators Category:Fictional secret agents and spies Category:Fictional violinists Category:Literary characters introduced in 1887 Category:Male characters in film Category:Male characters in literature Category:Male characters in television Category:Martial artist characters in literature Category:Sherlock Holmes characters Category:Thriller film characters Category:Victorian culture Category:Fictional people from the 19th-century Category:Fictional characters incorrectly presumed dead
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[ "The inspiration for Holmes came from several sources. One of them was C. Auguste Dupin, a character created by Edgar Allan Poe, and another was Monsieur Lecoq from Emile Gaboriau's stories. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle also claimed that the character was inspired by the real-life figure of Joseph Bell, a surgeon at the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, whom Doyle met and worked for. Sir Henry Littlejohn, Chair of Medical Jurisprudence at the University of Edinburgh Medical School, is also cited as an inspiration for Holmes. There are thoughts that Francis \"Tanky\" Smith and Maximilien Heller could also have contributed to inspiring the Holmes character.", "Poe's character C. Auguste Dupin is acknowledged as the first detective in fiction and thus served as a prototype for many detectives created later, including Holmes.", "The article mentions several potential inspirations for the character of Sherlock Holmes. Apart from Edgar Allan Poe's character Dupin and Emile Gaboriau's Monsieur Lecoq, Arthur Conan Doyle was also inspired by real-life individuals. One of them was Joseph Bell, a surgeon Doyle worked for, who was known for drawing broad conclusions from minute observations. Another was Sir Henry Littlejohn, who provided Doyle with a link between medical investigation and crime detection. Doyle may also have taken inspiration from a policeman named Francis \"Tanky\" Smith, who was known for his disguise skills, and a fictional character named Maximilien Heller, who shared many characteristics with Holmes.", "Other potential inspirations for Sherlock Holmes have been considered to be Francis \"Tanky\" Smith, a policeman known for his masterful disguises who later became Leicester's first private detective, and a character named Maximilien Heller from a novel by French author Henry Cauvain, who was a depressed, anti-social, polymath, cat-loving, and opium-smoking Paris-based detective.", "Joseph Bell was a surgeon at the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, whom Arthur Conan Doyle met in 1877 and had worked for as a clerk. Bell was known for drawing broad conclusions from minute observations and is cited as one of the inspirations for the character of Sherlock Holmes.", "Based on the provided context, the only other information available about Joseph Bell is a quote he wrote to Doyle: \"You are yourself Sherlock Holmes and well you know it\". There is no additional information available in the given passage.", "Aside from Joseph Bell, other inspirations for the character of Sherlock Holmes include the fictional detective characters C. Auguste Dupin from Edgar Allan Poe's stories and Monsieur Lecoq from Emile Gaboriau's stories. Another source of inspiration was Sir Henry Littlejohn, Chair of Medical Jurisprudence at the University of Edinburgh Medical School. Some people think that Francis \"Tanky\" Smith, a master of disguise and Leicester's first private detective, as well as Maximilien Heller, a character in a novel by French author Henry Cauvain, may have also inspired the creation of Sherlock Holmes.", "Sir Henry Littlejohn, who was Chair of Medical Jurisprudence at the University of Edinburgh Medical School, Police Surgeon, and Medical Officer of Health in Edinburgh, is cited as an inspiration for Holmes as he provided Arthur Conan Doyle with a link between medical investigation and the detection of crime." ]
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Sherlock Holmes
Sherlock Holmes () is a fictional private detective created by British author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. Referring to himself as a "consulting detective" in the stories, Holmes is known for his proficiency with observation, forensic science, and logical reasoning that borders on the fantastic, which he employs when investigating cases for a wide variety of clients, including Scotland Yard. First appearing in print in 1887 (in A Study in Scarlet), the character's popularity became widespread with the first series of short stories in The Strand Magazine, beginning with "A Scandal in Bohemia" in 1891; additional tales appeared from then until 1927, eventually totalling four novels and 56 short stories. All but one are set in the Victorian or Edwardian eras, between about 1880 and 1914.
Family and early life
Details about Sherlock Holmes's life, except for the adventures in the books, are scarce in Conan Doyle's original stories. Nevertheless, mentions of his early life and extended family paint a loose biographical picture of the detective. An estimate of Holmes's age in "His Last Bow" places his year of birth at 1854; the story, set in August 1914, describes him as sixty years of age. His parents are not mentioned in the stories, although Holmes mentions that his "ancestors" were "country squires". In "The Adventure of the Greek Interpreter", he claims that his grandmother was sister to the French artist Vernet, without further clarifying whether this was Claude Joseph, Carle, or Horace Vernet. Holmes's brother Mycroft, seven years his senior, is a government official who appears in "The Adventure of the Greek Interpreter", "The Final Problem", and "The Adventure of the Bruce-Partington Plans" and is mentioned in "The Adventure of the Empty House". Mycroft has a unique civil service position as a kind of human database for all aspects of government policy. He lacks Sherlock's interest in physical investigation, however, preferring to spend his time at the Diogenes Club. Holmes says that he first developed his methods of deduction as an undergraduate; his earliest cases, which he pursued as an amateur, came from fellow university students. A meeting with a classmate's father led him to adopt detection as a profession, and he spent six years after university as a consultant before financial difficulties led him to accept John H. Watson as a fellow lodger in 1881 (when the first published story, A Study in Scarlet, begins). The two take lodgings at 221B Baker Street, London, an apartment at the upper (north) end of the street, up seventeen steps. CANNOTANSWER
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Sherlock Holmes () is a fictional detective created by British author Arthur Conan Doyle. Referring to himself as a "consulting detective" in the stories, Holmes is known for his proficiency with observation, deduction, forensic science and logical reasoning that borders on the fantastic, which he employs when investigating cases for a wide variety of clients, including Scotland Yard. First appearing in print in 1887's A Study in Scarlet, the character's popularity became widespread with the first series of short stories in The Strand Magazine, beginning with "A Scandal in Bohemia" in 1891; additional tales appeared from then until 1927, eventually totalling four novels and 56 short stories. All but one are set in the Victorian or Edwardian eras, between about 1880 and 1914. Most are narrated by the character of Holmes's friend and biographer Dr. John H. Watson, who usually accompanies Holmes during his investigations and often shares quarters with him at the address of 221B Baker Street, London, where many of the stories begin. Though not the first fictional detective, Sherlock Holmes is arguably the best known. By the 1990s, there were already over 25,000 stage adaptations, films, television productions and publications featuring the detective, and Guinness World Records lists him as the most portrayed human literary character in film and television history. Holmes's popularity and fame are such that many have believed him to be not a fictional character but a real individual; numerous literary and fan societies have been founded on this pretence. Avid readers of the Holmes stories helped create the modern practice of fandom. The character and stories have had a profound and lasting effect on mystery writing and popular culture as a whole, with the original tales as well as thousands written by authors other than Conan Doyle being adapted into stage and radio plays, television, films, video games, and other media for over one hundred years. Inspiration for the character Edgar Allan Poe's C. Auguste Dupin is generally acknowledged as the first detective in fiction and served as the prototype for many later characters, including Holmes. Conan Doyle once wrote, "Each [of Poe's detective stories] is a root from which a whole literature has developed ... Where was the detective story until Poe breathed the breath of life into it?" Similarly, the stories of Émile Gaboriau's Monsieur Lecoq were extremely popular at the time Conan Doyle began writing Holmes, and Holmes's speech and behaviour sometimes follow those of Lecoq. Doyle has his main characters discuss these literary antecedents near the beginning of A Study in Scarlet, which is set soon after Watson is first introduced to Holmes. Watson attempts to compliment Holmes by comparing him to Dupin, to which Holmes replies that he found Dupin to be "a very inferior fellow" and Lecoq to be "a miserable bungler". Conan Doyle repeatedly said that Holmes was inspired by the real-life figure of Joseph Bell, a surgeon at the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, whom Conan Doyle met in 1877 and had worked for as a clerk. Like Holmes, Bell was noted for drawing broad conclusions from minute observations. However, he later wrote to Conan Doyle: "You are yourself Sherlock Holmes and well you know it". Sir Henry Littlejohn, Chair of Medical Jurisprudence at the University of Edinburgh Medical School, is also cited as an inspiration for Holmes. Littlejohn, who was also Police Surgeon and Medical Officer of Health in Edinburgh, provided Conan Doyle with a link between medical investigation and the detection of crime. Other possible inspirations have been proposed, though never acknowledged by Doyle, such as Maximilien Heller, by French author Henry Cauvain. In this 1871 novel (sixteen years before the first appearance of Sherlock Holmes), Henry Cauvain imagined a depressed, anti-social, opium-smoking polymath detective, operating in Paris. It is not known if Conan Doyle read the novel, but he was fluent in French. Similarly, Michael Harrison suggested that a German self-styled "consulting detective" named Walter Scherer may have been the model for Holmes. Fictional character biography Family and early life Details of Sherlock Holmes's life in Conan Doyle's stories are scarce and often vague. Nevertheless, mentions of his early life and extended family paint a loose biographical picture of the detective. A statement of Holmes's age in "His Last Bow" places his year of birth at 1854; the story, set in August 1914, describes him as sixty years of age. His parents are not mentioned, although Holmes mentions that his "ancestors" were "country squires". In "The Adventure of the Greek Interpreter", he claims that his grandmother was sister to the French artist Vernet, without clarifying whether this was Claude Joseph, Carle, or Horace Vernet. Holmes's brother Mycroft, seven years his senior, is a government official. Mycroft has a unique civil service position as a kind of human database for all aspects of government policy. Sherlock describes his brother as the more intelligent of the two, but notes that Mycroft lacks any interest in physical investigation, preferring to spend his time at the Diogenes Club. Holmes says that he first developed his methods of deduction as an undergraduate; his earliest cases, which he pursued as an amateur, came from fellow university students. A meeting with a classmate's father led him to adopt detection as a profession. Life with Watson In the first Holmes tale, A Study in Scarlet, financial difficulties lead Holmes and Dr. Watson to share rooms together at 221B Baker Street, London. Their residence is maintained by their landlady, Mrs. Hudson. Holmes works as a detective for twenty-three years, with Watson assisting him for seventeen of those years. Most of the stories are frame narratives written from Watson's point of view, as summaries of the detective's most interesting cases. Holmes frequently calls Watson's records of Holmes's cases sensational and populist, suggesting that they fail to accurately and objectively report the "science" of his craft: Nevertheless, when Holmes recorded a case himself, he was forced to concede that he could more easily understand the need to write it in a manner that would appeal to the public rather than his intention to focus on his own technical skill. Holmes's friendship with Watson is his most significant relationship. When Watson is injured by a bullet, although the wound turns out to be "quite superficial", Watson is moved by Holmes's reaction: After confirming Watson's assessment of the wound, Holmes makes it clear to their opponent that the man would not have left the room alive if he genuinely had killed Watson. Practice Holmes's clients vary from the most powerful monarchs and governments of Europe, to wealthy aristocrats and industrialists, to impoverished pawnbrokers and governesses. He is known only in select professional circles at the beginning of the first story, but is already collaborating with Scotland Yard. However, his continued work and the publication of Watson's stories raise Holmes's profile, and he rapidly becomes well known as a detective; so many clients ask for his help instead of (or in addition to) that of the police that, Watson writes, by 1887 "Europe was ringing with his name" and by 1895 Holmes has "an immense practice". Police outside London ask Holmes for assistance if he is nearby. A Prime Minister and the King of Bohemia visit 221B Baker Street in person to request Holmes's assistance; the President of France awards him the Legion of Honour for capturing an assassin; the King of Scandinavia is a client; and he aids the Vatican at least twice. The detective acts on behalf of the British government in matters of national security several times, and declines a knighthood "for services which may perhaps some day be described". However, he does not actively seek fame and is usually content to let the police take public credit for his work. The Great Hiatus The first set of Holmes stories was published between 1887 and 1893. Conan Doyle killed off Holmes in a final battle with the criminal mastermind Professor James Moriarty in "The Final Problem" (published 1893, but set in 1891), as Conan Doyle felt that "my literary energies should not be directed too much into one channel." However, the reaction of the public surprised Doyle very much. Distressed readers wrote anguished letters to The Strand Magazine, which suffered a terrible blow when 20,000 people cancelled their subscriptions to the magazine in protest. Conan Doyle himself received many protest letters, and one lady even began her letter with "You brute". Legend has it that Londoners were so distraught upon hearing the news of Holmes's death that they wore black armbands in mourning, though there is no known contemporary source for this; the earliest known reference to such events comes from 1949. However, the recorded public reaction to Holmes's death was unlike anything previously seen for fictional events. After resisting public pressure for eight years, Conan Doyle wrote The Hound of the Baskervilles (serialised in 1901–02, with an implicit setting before Holmes's death). In 1903, Conan Doyle wrote "The Adventure of the Empty House"; set in 1894, Holmes reappears, explaining to a stunned Watson that he had faked his death to fool his enemies. Following "The Adventure of the Empty House", Conan Doyle would sporadically write new Holmes stories until 1927. Holmes aficionados refer to the period from 1891 to 1894—between his disappearance and presumed death in "The Final Problem" and his reappearance in "The Adventure of the Empty House"—as the Great Hiatus. The earliest known use of this expression dates to 1946. Retirement In His Last Bow, the reader is told that Holmes has retired to a small farm on the Sussex Downs and taken up beekeeping as his primary occupation. The move is not dated precisely, but can be presumed to be no later than 1904 (since it is referred to retrospectively in "The Adventure of the Second Stain", first published that year). The story features Holmes and Watson coming out of retirement to aid the British war effort. Only one other adventure, "The Adventure of the Lion's Mane", takes place during the detective's retirement. Personality and habits Watson describes Holmes as "bohemian" in his habits and lifestyle. Said to have a "cat-like" love of personal cleanliness, at the same time Holmes is an eccentric with no regard for contemporary standards of tidiness or good order. Watson describes him as While Holmes can be dispassionate and cold, during an investigation he is animated and excitable. He has a flair for showmanship, often keeping his methods and evidence hidden until the last possible moment so as to impress observers. His companion condones the detective's willingness to bend the truth (or break the law) on behalf of a client—lying to the police, concealing evidence or breaking into houses—when he feels it morally justifiable. Except for that of Watson, Holmes avoids casual company. In "The Gloria Scott", he tells the doctor that during two years at college he made only one friend: "I was never a very sociable fellow, Watson ... I never mixed much with the men of my year". The detective goes without food at times of intense intellectual activity, believing that "the faculties become refined when you starve them." At times Holmes relaxes with music, either playing the violin, or enjoying the works of composers such as Wagner and Pablo de Sarasate. Drug use Holmes occasionally uses addictive drugs, especially in the absence of stimulating cases. He sometimes used morphine and sometimes cocaine, the latter of which he injects in a seven-percent solution; both drugs were legal in 19th-century England. As a physician, Watson strongly disapproves of his friend's cocaine habit, describing it as the detective's only vice, and concerned about its effect on Holmes's mental health and intellect. In "The Adventure of the Missing Three-Quarter", Watson says that although he has "weaned" Holmes from drugs, the detective remains an addict whose habit is "not dead, but merely sleeping". Watson and Holmes both use tobacco, smoking cigarettes, cigars, and pipes. Although his chronicler does not consider Holmes's smoking a vice per se, Watson—a physician—does criticise the detective for creating a "poisonous atmosphere" in their confined quarters. Finances Holmes is known to charge clients for his expenses and claim any reward offered for a problem's solution, such as in "The Adventure of the Speckled Band", "The Red-Headed League", and "The Adventure of the Beryl Coronet". The detective states at one point that "My professional charges are upon a fixed scale. I do not vary them, save when I remit them altogether". In this context, a client is offering to double his fee, and it is implied that wealthy clients habitually pay Holmes more than his standard rate. In "The Adventure of the Priory School", Holmes earns a £6,000 fee (at a time where annual expenses for a rising young professional were in the area of £500). However, Watson notes that Holmes would refuse to help even the wealthy and powerful if their cases did not interest him. Attitudes towards women As Conan Doyle wrote to Joseph Bell, "Holmes is as inhuman as a Babbage's Calculating Machine and just about as likely to fall in love". Holmes says of himself that he is "not a whole-souled admirer of womankind", and that he finds "the motives of women ... inscrutable. ... How can you build on such quicksand? Their most trivial actions may mean volumes..." In The Sign of Four, he says, "Women are never to be entirely trusted—not the best of them", a feeling Watson notes as an "atrocious sentiment". In "The Adventure of the Lion's Mane", Holmes writes, "Women have seldom been an attraction to me, for my brain has always governed my heart". At the end of The Sign of Four, Holmes states that "love is an emotional thing, and whatever is emotional is opposed to that true, cold reason which I place above all things. I should never marry myself, lest I bias my judgement." Ultimately, Holmes claims outright that "I have never loved". But while Watson says that the detective has an "aversion to women", he also notes Holmes as having "a peculiarly ingratiating way with [them]". Watson notes that their housekeeper Mrs. Hudson is fond of Holmes because of his "remarkable gentleness and courtesy in his dealings with women. He disliked and distrusted the sex, but he was always a chivalrous opponent". However, in "The Adventure of Charles Augustus Milverton", the detective becomes engaged under false pretenses in order to obtain information about a case, abandoning the woman once he has the information he requires. Irene Adler Irene Adler is a retired American opera singer and actress who appears in "A Scandal in Bohemia". Although this is her only appearance, she is one of only a handful of people who best Holmes in a battle of wits, and the only woman. For this reason, Adler is the frequent subject of pastiche writing. The beginning of the story describes the high regard in which Holmes holds her: Five years before the story's events, Adler had a brief liaison with Crown Prince of Bohemia Wilhelm von Ormstein. As the story opens, the Prince is engaged to another. Fearful that the marriage would be called off if his fiancée's family learns of this past impropriety, Ormstein hires Holmes to regain a photograph of Adler and himself. Adler slips away before Holmes can succeed. Her memory is kept alive by the photograph of Adler that Holmes received for his part in the case. Knowledge and skills Shortly after meeting Holmes in the first story, A Study in Scarlet (generally assumed to be 1881, though the exact date is not given), Watson assesses the detective's abilities: In A Study in Scarlet, Holmes claims to be unaware that the earth revolves around the sun since such information is irrelevant to his work; after hearing that fact from Watson, he says he will immediately try to forget it. The detective believes that the mind has a finite capacity for information storage, and learning useless things reduces one's ability to learn useful things. The later stories move away from this notion: in The Valley of Fear, he says, "All knowledge comes useful to the detective", and in "The Adventure of the Lion's Mane", the detective calls himself "an omnivorous reader with a strangely retentive memory for trifles". Looking back on the development of the character in 1912, Conan Doyle wrote that "In the first one, the Study in Scarlet, [Holmes] was a mere calculating machine, but I had to make him more of an educated human being as I went on with him." Despite Holmes's supposed ignorance of politics, in "A Scandal in Bohemia" he immediately recognises the true identity of the disguised "Count von Kramm". At the end of A Study in Scarlet, Holmes demonstrates a knowledge of Latin. The detective cites Hafez, Goethe, as well as a letter from Gustave Flaubert to George Sand in the original French. In The Hound of the Baskervilles, the detective recognises works by Godfrey Kneller and Joshua Reynolds: "Watson won't allow that I know anything of art, but that is mere jealousy since our views upon the subject differ". In "The Adventure of the Bruce-Partington Plans", Watson says that "Holmes lost himself in a monograph which he had undertaken upon the Polyphonic Motets of Lassus", considered "the last word" on the subject—which must have been the result of an intensive and very specialized musicological study which could have had no possible application to the solution of criminal mysteries. Holmes is a cryptanalyst, telling Watson that "I am fairly familiar with all forms of secret writing, and am myself the author of a trifling monograph upon the subject, in which I analyse one hundred and sixty separate ciphers". Holmes also demonstrates a knowledge of psychology in "A Scandal in Bohemia", luring Irene Adler into betraying where she hid a photograph based on the premise that a woman will rush to save her most valued possession from a fire. Another example is in "The Adventure of the Blue Carbuncle", where Holmes obtains information from a salesman with a wager: "When you see a man with whiskers of that cut and the 'Pink 'un' protruding out of his pocket, you can always draw him by a bet .... I daresay that if I had put 100 pounds down in front of him, that man would not have given me such complete information as was drawn from him by the idea that he was doing me on a wager". Maria Konnikova points out in an interview with D. J. Grothe that Holmes practises what is now called mindfulness, concentrating on one thing at a time, and almost never "multitasks". She adds that in this he predates the science showing how helpful this is to the brain. Holmesian deduction Holmes observes the dress and attitude of his clients and suspects, noting skin marks (such as tattoos), contamination (such as ink stains or clay on boots), emotional state, and physical condition in order to deduce their origins and recent history. The style and state of wear of a person's clothes and personal items are also commonly relied on; in the stories Holmes is seen applying his method to items such as walking sticks, pipes, and hats. For example, in "A Scandal in Bohemia", Holmes infers that Watson had got wet lately and had "a most clumsy and careless servant girl". When Watson asks how Holmes knows this, the detective answers: In the first Holmes story, A Study in Scarlet, Dr. Watson compares Holmes to C. Auguste Dupin, Edgar Allan Poe's fictional detective, who employed a similar methodology. Alluding to an episode in "The Murders in the Rue Morgue", where Dupin determines what his friend is thinking despite their having walked together in silence for a quarter of an hour, Holmes remarks: "That trick of his breaking in on his friend's thoughts with an apropos remark... is really very showy and superficial". Nevertheless, Holmes later performs the same 'trick' on Watson in "The Cardboard Box" and "The Adventure of the Dancing Men". Though the stories always refer to Holmes's intellectual detection method as "deduction", he primarily relies on abduction: inferring an explanation for observed details. "From a drop of water", he writes, "a logician could infer the possibility of an Atlantic or a Niagara without having seen or heard of one or the other". However, Holmes does employ deductive reasoning as well. The detective's guiding principle, as he says in The Sign of Four, is: "When you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth." Despite Holmes's remarkable reasoning abilities, Conan Doyle still paints him as fallible in this regard (this being a central theme of "The Yellow Face"). Forensic science Though Holmes is famed for his reasoning capabilities, his investigative technique relies heavily on the acquisition of hard evidence. Many of the techniques he employs in the stories were at the time in their infancy. The detective is particularly skilled in the analysis of trace evidence and other physical evidence, including latent prints (such as footprints, hoof prints, and shoe and tire impressions) to identify actions at a crime scene; using tobacco ashes and cigarette butts to identify criminals; handwriting analysis and graphology; comparing typewritten letters to expose a fraud; using gunpowder residue to expose two murderers; and analyzing small pieces of human remains to expose two murders. Because of the small scale of much of his evidence, the detective often uses a magnifying glass at the scene and an optical microscope at his Baker Street lodgings. He uses analytical chemistry for blood residue analysis and toxicology to detect poisons; Holmes's home chemistry laboratory is mentioned in "The Naval Treaty". Ballistics feature in "The Adventure of the Empty House" when spent bullets are recovered to be matched with a suspected murder weapon, a practice which became regular police procedure only some fifteen years after the story was published. Laura J. Snyder has examined Holmes's methods in the context of mid- to late-19th-century criminology, demonstrating that, while sometimes in advance of what official investigative departments were formally using at the time, they were based upon existing methods and techniques. For example, fingerprints were proposed to be distinct in Conan Doyle's day, and while Holmes used a thumbprint to solve a crime in "The Adventure of the Norwood Builder" (generally held to be set in 1895), the story was published in 1903, two years after Scotland Yard's fingerprint bureau opened. Though the effect of the Holmes stories on the development of forensic science has thus often been overstated, Holmes inspired future generations of forensic scientists to think scientifically and analytically. Disguises Holmes displays a strong aptitude for acting and disguise. In several stories ("The Sign of Four", "The Adventure of Charles Augustus Milverton", "The Man with the Twisted Lip", "The Adventure of the Empty House" and "A Scandal in Bohemia"), to gather evidence undercover he uses disguises so convincing that Watson fails to recognise him. In others ("The Adventure of the Dying Detective" and "A Scandal in Bohemia"), Holmes feigns injury or illness to incriminate the guilty. In the latter story, Watson says, "The stage lost a fine actor ... when [Holmes] became a specialist in crime". Guy Mankowski has said of Holmes that his ability to change his appearance to blend into any situation "helped him personify the idea of the English eccentric chameleon, in a way that prefigured the likes of David Bowie." Agents Until Watson's arrival at Baker Street, Holmes largely worked alone, only occasionally employing agents from the city's underclass. These agents included a variety of informants, such as Langdale Pike, a "human book of reference upon all matters of social scandal", and Shinwell Johnson, who acted as Holmes's "agent in the huge criminal underworld of London". The best known of Holmes's agents are a group of street children he called "the Baker Street Irregulars". Combat Pistols Holmes and Watson often carry pistols with them to confront criminals—in Watson's case, his old service weapon (probably a Mark III Adams revolver, issued to British troops during the 1870s). Holmes and Watson shoot the eponymous hound in The Hound of the Baskervilles, and in "The Adventure of the Empty House" Watson pistol-whips Colonel Sebastian Moran. In "The Problem of Thor Bridge", Holmes uses Watson's revolver to solve the case through an experiment. Other weapons As a gentleman, Holmes often carries a stick or cane. He is described by Watson as an expert at singlestick, and uses his cane twice as a weapon. In A Study in Scarlet, Watson describes Holmes as an expert swordsman, and in "The Gloria Scott" the detective says he practised fencing while at university. In several stories ("A Case of Identity", "The Red-Headed League", "The Adventure of the Six Napoleons") Holmes wields a riding crop, described in the latter story as his "favourite weapon". Personal combat The detective is described (or demonstrated) as possessing above-average physical strength. In "The Yellow Face", Holmes's chronicler says, "Few men were capable of greater muscular effort." In "The Adventure of the Speckled Band", Dr. Roylott demonstrates his strength by bending a fire poker in half. Watson describes Holmes as laughing, "'if he had remained I might have shown him that my grip was not much more feeble than his own.' As he spoke he picked up the steel poker and, with a sudden effort, straightened it out again." Holmes is an adept bare-knuckle fighter; "The Gloria Scott" mentions that Holmes boxed while at university. In The Sign of Four, he introduces himself to McMurdo, a prize fighter, as "the amateur who fought three rounds with you at Alison's rooms on the night of your benefit four years back." McMurdo remembers: "Ah, you're one that has wasted your gifts, you have! You might have aimed high if you had joined the fancy." In "The Yellow Face", Watson says: "He was undoubtedly one of the finest boxers of his weight that I have ever seen". In "The Solitary Cyclist" Holmes visits a country pub to make enquiries regarding a certain Mr Woodley which resulted in violence. Mr Woodley, Holmes tells Watson, Another character subsequently refers to Mr Woodley as looking "much disfigured" as a result of his encounter with Holmes. In "The Adventure of the Empty House", Holmes tells Watson that he used a Japanese martial art known as baritsu to fling Moriarty to his death in the Reichenbach Falls. "Baritsu" is Conan Doyle's version of bartitsu, which combines jujitsu with boxing and cane fencing. Reception Popularity The first two Sherlock Holmes stories, the novels A Study in Scarlet (1887) and The Sign of the Four (1890), were moderately well received, but Holmes first became very popular early in 1891 when the first six short stories featuring the character were published in The Strand Magazine. Holmes became widely known in Britain and America. The character was so well known that in 1893 when Arthur Conan Doyle killed Holmes in the short story "The Final Problem", the strongly negative response from readers was unlike any previous public reaction to a fictional event. The Strand reportedly lost more than 20,000 subscribers as a result of Holmes's death. Public pressure eventually contributed to Conan Doyle writing another Holmes story in 1901 and resurrecting the character in a story published in 1903. In Japan, Sherlock Holmes (and Alice from Alice's Adventures in Wonderland) became immensely popular in the country in the 1890s as it was opening up to the West, and they are cited as two British fictional Victorians who left an enormous creative and cultural legacy there. Many fans of Sherlock Holmes have written letters to Holmes's address, 221B Baker Street. Though the address 221B Baker Street did not exist when the stories were first published, letters began arriving to the large Abbey National building which first encompassed that address almost as soon as it was built in 1932. Fans continue to send letters to Sherlock Holmes; these letters are now delivered to the Sherlock Holmes Museum. Some of the people who have sent letters to 221B Baker Street believe Holmes is real. Members of the general public have also believed Holmes actually existed. In a 2008 survey of British teenagers, 58 percent of respondents believed that Sherlock Holmes was a real individual. The Sherlock Holmes stories continue to be widely read. Holmes's continuing popularity has led to many reimaginings of the character in adaptations. Guinness World Records, which awarded Sherlock Holmes the title for "most portrayed literary human character in film & TV" in 2012, released a statement saying that the title "reflects his enduring appeal and demonstrates that his detective talents are as compelling today as they were 125 years ago." Honours The London Metropolitan Railway named one of its twenty electric locomotives deployed in the 1920s for Sherlock Holmes. He was the only fictional character so honoured, along with eminent Britons such as Lord Byron, Benjamin Disraeli, and Florence Nightingale. A number of London streets are associated with Holmes. York Mews South, off Crawford Street, was renamed Sherlock Mews, and Watson's Mews is near Crawford Place. The Sherlock Holmes is a public house in Northumberland Street in London which contains a large collection of memorabilia related to Holmes, the original collection having been put together for display in Baker Street during the Festival of Britain in 1951. In 2002, the Royal Society of Chemistry bestowed an honorary fellowship on Holmes for his use of forensic science and analytical chemistry in popular literature, making him (as of 2019) the only fictional character thus honoured. Holmes has been commemorated numerous times on a UK postage stamp issued by the Royal Mail, most recently in their August 2020 series to celebrate the Sherlock television series. There are multiple statues of Sherlock Holmes around the world. The first, sculpted by John Doubleday, was unveiled in Meiringen, Switzerland, in September 1988. The second was unveiled in October 1988 in Karuizawa, Japan, and was sculpted by Yoshinori Satoh. The third was installed in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1989, and was sculpted by Gerald Laing. In 1999, a statue of Sherlock Holmes in London, also by John Doubleday, was unveiled near the fictional detective's address, 221B Baker Street. In 2001, a sculpture of Holmes and Arthur Conan Doyle by Irena Sedlecká was unveiled in a statue collection in Warwickshire, England. A sculpture depicting both Holmes and Watson was unveiled in 2007 in Moscow, Russia, based partially on Sidney Paget's illustrations and partially on the actors in The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson. In 2015, a sculpture of Holmes by Jane DeDecker was installed in the police headquarters of Edmond, Oklahoma, United States. In 2019, a statue of Holmes was unveiled in Chester, Illinois, United States, as part of a series of statues honouring cartoonist E. C. Segar and his characters. The statue is titled "Sherlock & Segar", and the face of the statue was modelled on Segar. Societies In 1934, the Sherlock Holmes Society (in London) and the Baker Street Irregulars (in New York) were founded. The latter is still active. The Sherlock Holmes Society was dissolved later in the 1930s, but was succeeded by a society with a slightly different name, the Sherlock Holmes Society of London, which was founded in 1951 and remains active. These societies were followed by many more, first in the U.S. (where they are known as "scion societies"—offshoots—of the Baker Street Irregulars) and then in England and Denmark. There are at least 250 societies worldwide, including Australia, Canada (such as The Bootmakers of Toronto), India, and Japan. Fans tend to be called "Holmesians" in the U.K. and "Sherlockians" in the U.S., though recently "Sherlockian" has also come to refer to fans of the Benedict Cumberbatch-led BBC series regardless of location. Legacy The detective story Although Holmes is not the original fictional detective, his name has become synonymous with the role. Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories introduced multiple literary devices that have become major conventions in detective fiction, such as the companion character who is not as clever as the detective and has solutions explained to him (thus informing the reader as well), as with Dr. Watson in the Holmes stories. Other conventions introduced by Doyle include the arch-criminal who is too clever for the official police to defeat, like Holmes's adversary Professor Moriarty, and the use of forensic science to solve cases. The Sherlock Holmes stories established crime fiction as a respectable genre popular with readers of all backgrounds, and Doyle's success inspired many contemporary detective stories. Holmes influenced the creation of other "eccentric gentleman detective" characters, like Agatha Christie's fictional detective Hercule Poirot, introduced in 1920. Holmes also inspired a number of anti-hero characters "almost as an antidote to the masterful detective", such as the gentleman thief characters A. J. Raffles (created by E. W. Hornung in 1898) and Arsène Lupin (created by Maurice Leblanc in 1905). "Elementary, my dear Watson" The phrase "Elementary, my dear Watson" has become one of the most quoted and iconic aspects of the character. However, although Holmes often observes that his conclusions are "elementary", and occasionally calls Watson "my dear Watson", the phrase "Elementary, my dear Watson" is never uttered in any of the sixty stories by Conan Doyle. One of the nearest approximations of the phrase appears in "The Adventure of the Crooked Man" (1893) when Holmes explains a deduction: Excellent!' I cried. 'Elementary,' said he." William Gillette is widely considered to have originated the phrase with the formulation, "Oh, this is elementary, my dear fellow", allegedly in his 1899 play Sherlock Holmes. However, the script was revised numerous times over the course of some three decades of revivals and publications, and the phrase is present in some versions of the script, but not others. The appearance of the line "Elementary, my dear Potson" in a Sherlock Holmes parody from 1901 has led some authors to speculate that, rather than this being an incidental formulation, the parodist drew upon an already well-established occurrences of "Elementary, my dear Watson." The exact phrase, as well as close variants, can be seen in newspaper and journal articles as early as 1909. It was also used by P. G. Wodehouse in his novel Psmith, Journalist, which was first serialised in The Captain magazine between October 1909 and February 1910; the phrase occurred in the January 1910 instalment. The phrase became familiar with the American public in part due to its use in the Rathbone-Bruce series of films from 1939 to 1946. The Great Game Conan Doyle's 56 short stories and four novels are known as the "canon" by Holmes aficionados. The Great Game (also known as the Holmesian Game, the Sherlockian Game, or simply the Game, also the Higher Criticism) applies the methods of literary and especially Biblical criticism to the canon, operating on the pretense that Holmes and Watson were real people and that Conan Doyle was not the author of the stories but Watson's literary agent. From this basis, it attempts to resolve or explain away contradictions in the canon—such as the location of Watson's war wound, described as being in his shoulder in A Study in Scarlet and in his leg in The Sign of Four—and clarify details about Holmes, Watson and their world, such as the exact dates of events in the stories, combining historical research with references from the stories to construct scholarly analyses. For example, one detail analyzed in the Game is Holmes's birth date. The chronology of the stories is notoriously difficult, with many stories lacking dates and many others containing contradictory ones. Christopher Morley and William Baring-Gould contend that the detective was born on 6 January 1854, the year being derived from the statement in "His Last Bow" that he was 60 years of age in 1914, while the precise day is derived from broader, non-canonical speculation. This is the date the Baker Street Irregulars work from, with their annual dinner being held each January. Laurie R. King instead argues that details in "The Gloria Scott" (a story with no precise internal date) indicate that Holmes finished his second (and final) year of university in 1880 or 1885. If he began university at age 17, his birth year could be as late as 1868. Museums and special collections For the 1951 Festival of Britain, Holmes's living room was reconstructed as part of a Sherlock Holmes exhibition, with a collection of original material. After the festival, items were transferred to The Sherlock Holmes (a London pub) and the Conan Doyle collection housed in Lucens, Switzerland by the author's son, Adrian. Both exhibitions, each with a Baker Street sitting-room reconstruction, are open to the public. In 1969, the Toronto Reference Library began a collection of materials related to Conan Doyle. Stored today in Room 221B, this vast collection is accessible to the public. Similarly, in 1974 the University of Minnesota founded a collection that is now "the world's largest gathering of material related to Sherlock Holmes and his creator". Access is closed to the general public, but is occasionally open to tours. In 1990, the Sherlock Holmes Museum opened on Baker Street in London, followed the next year by a museum in Meiringen (near the Reichenbach Falls) dedicated to the detective. A private Conan Doyle collection is a permanent exhibit at the Portsmouth City Museum, where the author lived and worked as a physician. Postcolonial criticism The Sherlock Holmes stories have been scrutinized by a few academics for themes of empire and colonialism. Susan Cannon Harris claims that themes of contagion and containment are common in the Holmes series, including the metaphors of Eastern foreigners as the root cause of "infection" within and around Europe. Lauren Raheja, writing in the Marxist journal Nature, Society, and Thought, claims that Doyle used these characteristics to paint eastern colonies in a negative light, through their continually being the source of threats. For example, in one story Doyle makes mention of the Sumatran cannibals (also known as Batak) who throw poisonous darts, in "The Adventure of the Devil's Foot" a character employs a deadly West African poison, and in "The Speckled Band" a "long residence in the tropics" was a negative influence on one antagonist's bad temper. Yumna Siddiqi argues that Doyle depicted returned colonials as "marginal, physically ravaged characters that threaten the peace," while putting non-colonials in a much more positive light. Adaptations and derived works The popularity of Sherlock Holmes has meant that many writers other than Arthur Conan Doyle have created tales of the detective in a wide variety of different media, with varying degrees of fidelity to the original characters, stories, and setting. The first known period pastiche dates from 1891. Titled "The Late Sherlock Holmes", it was written by Conan Doyle's close friend, J. M. Barrie. Adaptations have seen the character taken in radically different directions or placed in different times or even universes. For example, Holmes falls in love and marries in Laurie R. King's Mary Russell series, is re-animated after his death to fight future crime in the animated series Sherlock Holmes in the 22nd Century, and is meshed with the setting of H. P. Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos in Neil Gaiman's "A Study in Emerald" (which won the 2004 Hugo Award for Best Short Story). An especially influential pastiche was Nicholas Meyer's The Seven-Per-Cent Solution, a 1974 New York Times bestselling novel (made into the 1976 film of the same name) in which Holmes's cocaine addiction has progressed to the point of endangering his career. It served to popularize the trend of incorporating clearly identified and contemporaneous historical figures (such as Oscar Wilde, Aleister Crowley, Sigmund Freud, or Jack the Ripper) into Holmesian pastiches, something Conan Doyle himself never did. Another common pastiche approach is to create a new story fully detailing an otherwise-passing canonical reference (such as an aside by Conan Doyle mentioning the "giant rat of Sumatra, a story for which the world is not yet prepared" in "The Adventure of the Sussex Vampire"). Related and derivative writings In addition to the Holmes canon, Conan Doyle's 1898 "The Lost Special" features an unnamed "amateur reasoner" intended to be identified as Holmes by his readers. The author's explanation of a baffling disappearance argued in Holmesian style poked fun at his own creation. Similar Conan Doyle short stories are "The Field Bazaar", "The Man with the Watches", and 1924's "How Watson Learned the Trick", a parody of the Watson–Holmes breakfast-table scenes. The author wrote other material featuring Holmes, especially plays: 1899's Sherlock Holmes (with William Gillette), 1910's The Speckled Band, and 1921's The Crown Diamond (the basis for "The Adventure of the Mazarin Stone"). These non-canonical works have been collected in several works released since Conan Doyle's death. In terms of writers other than Conan Doyle, authors as diverse as Anthony Burgess, Neil Gaiman, Dorothy B. Hughes, Stephen King, Tanith Lee, A. A. Milne, and P. G. Wodehouse have all written Sherlock Holmes pastiches. Contemporary with Conan Doyle, Maurice Leblanc directly featured Holmes in his popular series about the gentleman thief, Arsène Lupin, though legal objections from Conan Doyle forced Leblanc to modify the name to "Herlock Sholmes" in reprints and later stories. Famed American mystery writer John Dickson Carr collaborated with Arthur Conan Doyle's son, Adrian Conan Doyle, on The Exploits of Sherlock Holmes, a pastiche collection from 1954. In 2011, Anthony Horowitz published a Sherlock Holmes novel, The House of Silk, presented as a continuation of Conan Doyle's work and with the approval of the Conan Doyle estate; a follow-up, Moriarty, appeared in 2014. The "MX Book of New Sherlock Holmes Stories" series of pastiches, edited by David Marcum and published by MX Publishing, has reached over thirty volumes and features hundreds of stories echoing the original canon which were compiled for the restoration of Undershaw and the support of Stepping Stones School, now housed in it. Some authors have written tales centred on characters from the canon other than Holmes. Anthologies edited by Michael Kurland and George Mann are entirely devoted to stories told from the perspective of characters other than Holmes and Watson. John Gardner, Michael Kurland, and Kim Newman, amongst many others, have all written tales in which Holmes's nemesis Professor Moriarty is the main character. Mycroft Holmes has been the subject of several efforts: Enter the Lion by Michael P. Hodel and Sean M. Wright (1979), a four-book series by Quinn Fawcett, and 2015's Mycroft Holmes, by Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and Anna Waterhouse. M. J. Trow has written a series of seventeen books using Inspector Lestrade as the central character, beginning with The Adventures of Inspector Lestrade in 1985. Carole Nelson Douglas' Irene Adler series is based on "the woman" from "A Scandal in Bohemia", with the first book (1990's Good Night, Mr. Holmes) retelling that story from Adler's point of view. Martin Davies has written three novels where Baker Street housekeeper Mrs. Hudson is the protagonist. In 1980's The Name of the Rose, Italian author Umberto Eco creates a Sherlock Holmes of the 1320s in the form of a Franciscan friar and main protagonist named Brother William of Baskerville, his name a clear reference to Holmes per The Hound of the Baskervilles. Brother William investigates a series of murders in the abbey alongside his novice Adso of Melk, who acts as his Dr. Watson. Furthermore, Umberto Eco's description of Brother William bears marked similarities in both physique and personality to Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's description of Sherlock Holmes in A Study in Scarlet. Laurie R. King recreated Holmes in her Mary Russell series (beginning with 1994's The Beekeeper's Apprentice), set during the First World War and the 1920s. Her Holmes, semi-retired in Sussex, meets a teenaged American girl. Recognising a kindred spirit, he trains her as his apprentice and subsequently marries her. As of 2021, the series includes seventeen base novels and additional writings. Short stories featuring sage-detective Zavant Konniger and his halfling manservant Vido, written by fantasy authors Gordon Rennie and Josh Reynolds for the Warhammer Fantasy universe, were published by Black Library from 2002 to 2018, including "How Vido Learned the Trick" ("How Watson Learned the Trick") and "The Problem of Three-Toll Bridge" ("The Problem of Thor Bridge"). The Final Solution, a 2004 novella by Michael Chabon, concerns an unnamed but long-retired detective interested in beekeeping who tackles the case of a missing parrot belonging to a Jewish refugee boy. Mitch Cullin's novel A Slight Trick of the Mind (2005) takes place two years after the end of the Second World War, and explores an old and frail Sherlock Holmes (now 93) as he comes to terms with a life spent in emotionless logic; this was also adapted into a film, 2015's Mr. Holmes. There have been many scholarly works dealing with Sherlock Holmes, some working within the bounds of the Great Game, and some written from the perspective that Holmes is a fictional character. In particular, there have been three major annotated editions of the complete series. The first was William Baring-Gould's 1967 The Annotated Sherlock Holmes. This two-volume set was ordered to fit Baring-Gould's preferred chronology, and was written from a Great Game perspective. The second was 1993's The Oxford Sherlock Holmes (general editor: Owen Dudley Edwards), a nine-volume set written in a straight scholarly manner. The most recent is Leslie Klinger's The New Annotated Sherlock Holmes (2004–05), a three-volume set that returns to a Great Game perspective. Adaptations in other media In 2012, Guinness World Records listed Holmes as the most portrayed literary human character in film and television history, with more than 75 actors playing the part in over 250 productions. The 1899 play Sherlock Holmes, by Conan Doyle and William Gillette, was a synthesis of several Conan Doyle stories. In addition to its popularity, the play is significant because it, rather than the original stories, introduced one of the key visual qualities commonly associated with Holmes today: his calabash pipe; the play also formed the basis for Gillette's 1916 film, Sherlock Holmes. Gillette performed as Holmes some 1,300 times. In the early 1900s, H. A. Saintsbury took over the role from Gillette for a tour of the play. Between this play and Conan Doyle's own stage adaptation of "The Adventure of the Speckled Band", Saintsbury portrayed Holmes over 1,000 times. Holmes's first screen appearance was in the 1900 Mutoscope film, Sherlock Holmes Baffled. From 1921 to 1923, Eille Norwood played Holmes in forty-seven silent films (45 shorts and two features), in a series of performances that Conan Doyle spoke highly of. 1929's The Return of Sherlock Holmes was the first sound title to feature Holmes. From 1939 to 1946, Basil Rathbone played Holmes and Nigel Bruce played Watson in fourteen U.S. films (two for 20th Century Fox and a dozen for Universal Pictures) and in The New Adventures of Sherlock Holmes radio show. While the Fox films were period pieces, the Universal films abandoned Victorian Britain and moved to a then-contemporary setting in which Holmes occasionally battled Nazis. The character has also enjoyed numerous radio adaptations, beginning with Edith Meiser's The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes, which ran from 1930 to 1936. Basil Rathbone and Nigel Bruce continued with their roles for most of the run of The New Adventures of Sherlock Holmes, airing from 1939 to 1950. Bert Coules, having dramatised the entire Holmes canon for BBC Radio Four from 1989 to 1998, penned The Further Adventures of Sherlock Holmes between 2002 and 2010. This pastiche series also aired on Radio Four, and starred Clive Merrison as Holmes and Michael Williams and then Andrew Sachs as Watson. The 1984–85 Italian/Japanese anime series Sherlock Hound adapted the Holmes stories for children, with its characters being anthropomorphic dogs. The series was co-directed by Hayao Miyazaki. Between 1979 and 1986, the Soviet studio Lenfilm produced a series of five television films, The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson. The series were split into eleven episodes and starred Vasily Livanov as Holmes and Vitaly Solomin as Watson. For his performance, in 2006 Livanov was appointed an Honorary Member of the Order of the British Empire. Jeremy Brett played the detective in Sherlock Holmes for Granada Television from 1984 to 1994. Watson was played by David Burke (in the first two series) and Edward Hardwicke (in the remainder). Brett and Hardwicke also appeared on stage in 1988–89 in The Secret of Sherlock Holmes, directed by Patrick Garland. The 2009 film Sherlock Holmes earned Robert Downey Jr. a Golden Globe Award for his portrayal of Holmes and co-starred Jude Law as Watson. Downey and Law returned for a 2011 sequel, Sherlock Holmes: A Game of Shadows. Benedict Cumberbatch plays a modern version of the detective and Martin Freeman as a modern version of John Watson in the BBC One TV series Sherlock, which premiered in 2010. In the series, created by Mark Gatiss and Steven Moffat, the stories' original Victorian setting is replaced by present-day London, with Watson a veteran of the modern War in Afghanistan. Similarly, Elementary premiered on CBS in 2012, and ran for seven seasons, until 2019. Set in contemporary New York, the series featured Jonny Lee Miller as Sherlock Holmes and Lucy Liu as a female Dr. Joan Watson. With 24 episodes per season, by the end of season two, Miller became the actor who had portrayed Sherlock Holmes the most in television and/or film. The 2015 film Mr. Holmes starred Ian McKellen as a retired Sherlock Holmes living in Sussex, in 1947, who grapples with an unsolved case involving a beautiful woman. The film is based on Mitch Cullin's 2005 novel A Slight Trick of the Mind. The 2018 television adaptation, Miss Sherlock, was a Japanese-language production, and the first adaptation with a woman (portrayed by Yūko Takeuchi) in the signature role. The episodes were based in modern-day Tokyo, with many references to Conan Doyle's stories. Holmes has also appeared in video games, including the Sherlock Holmes series of eight main titles. According to the publisher, Frogwares, by 2017 the series sold over seven million copies. Copyright issues The copyright for Conan Doyle's works expired in the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia at the end of 1980, fifty years after Conan Doyle's death. In the United Kingdom it was revived in 1996 due to new provisions harmonising UK law with that of the European Union, and expired again at the end of 2000 (seventy years after Conan Doyle's death). The author's works are now in the public domain in those countries. In the United States, all works published before 1923 entered public domain by 1998, but, as ten Holmes stories were published after that date, the Conan Doyle estate maintained that the Holmes and Watson characters as a whole were still under copyright. On 14 February 2013, Leslie S. Klinger (lawyer and editor of The New Annotated Sherlock Holmes) filed a declaratory judgement suit against the Conan Doyle estate asking the court to acknowledge that the characters of Holmes and Watson were public domain in the U.S. The court ruled in Klinger's favour on 23 December, and the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed its decision on 16 June 2014. The case was appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court, which declined to hear the case, letting the appeals court's ruling stand. This resulted in the characters from the Holmes stories being in the public domain in the U.S. The stories still under copyright due to the ruling, as of that time, were those collected in The Case-Book of Sherlock Holmes other than "The Adventure of the Mazarin Stone" and "The Problem of Thor Bridge": a total of ten stories. In 2020, although the United States court ruling and the passage of time meant that most of the Holmes stories and characters were in the public domain in that country, the Doyle estate legally challenged the use of Sherlock Holmes in the film Enola Holmes in a complaint filed in the United States. The Doyle estate alleged that the film depicts Holmes with personality traits that were only exhibited by the character in the stories still under copyright. On 18 December 2020, the lawsuit was dismissed with prejudice by stipulation of all parties. The remaining ten Holmes stories moved out of copyright between 1 January 2019 and 1 January 2023, leaving the stories and characters completely in the public domain in the United States as of the latter date. Works Novels A Study in Scarlet (published November 1887 in Beeton's Christmas Annual) The Sign of the Four (published February 1890 in Lippincott's Monthly Magazine) The Hound of the Baskervilles (serialised 1901–1902 in The Strand) The Valley of Fear (serialised 1914–1915 in The Strand) Short story collections The short stories, originally published in magazines, were later collected in five anthologies: The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes (stories published 1891–1892 in The Strand) The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes (stories published 1892–1893 in The Strand) The Return of Sherlock Holmes (stories published 1903–1904 in The Strand) His Last Bow: Some Later Reminiscences of Sherlock Holmes (stories published 1908–1917) The Case-Book of Sherlock Holmes (stories published 1921–1927) See also List of Holmesian studies Popular culture references to Sherlock Holmes Sherlock Holmes fandom Notes Sherlock Holmes story references Klinger, Leslie (ed.). The New Annotated Sherlock Holmes, Volume I (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005). ("Klinger I") Klinger, Leslie (ed.). The New Annotated Sherlock Holmes, Volume II (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005). ("Klinger II") Klinger, Leslie (ed.). The New Annotated Sherlock Holmes, Volume III (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006). ("Klinger III") Citations Further reading Fenoli Marc, Qui a tué Sherlock Holmes ? [Who shot Sherlock Holmes ?], Review L'Alpe 45, Glénat-Musée Dauphinois, Grenoble-France, 2009. Lieboe, Eli. Doctor Joe Bell: Model for Sherlock Holmes. Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green University Popular Press, 1982; Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2007. Previously published as chapter 2, pp. 17–52 of External links The Sherlock Holmes Museum 221b Baker Street London NW1 6XE England. at Internet Archive Sherlock Holmes plaques on openplaques.org Discovering Sherlock Holmes at Stanford University Chess and Sherlock Holmes essay by Edward Winter "The Burden of Holmes" – 23.12.09 article in The Wall Street Journal Sir Arthur Conan Doyle audio books by Lit2Go from the University of South Florida Category:British male characters in television Category:Crime film characters Category:Edwardian era Category:Fictional beekeepers Category:Fictional chemists Category:Fictional cocaine users Category:Fictional criminologists Category:Fictional opioid users Category:Fictional English people Category:Fictional gentleman detectives Category:Fictional private investigators Category:Fictional secret agents and spies Category:Fictional violinists Category:Literary characters introduced in 1887 Category:Male characters in film Category:Male characters in literature Category:Male characters in television Category:Martial artist characters in literature Category:Sherlock Holmes characters Category:Thriller film characters Category:Victorian culture Category:Fictional people from the 19th-century Category:Fictional characters incorrectly presumed dead
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[ "No, this is about the character Sherlock Holmes's family and early life.", "The context does not provide information on whether Sherlock Holmes was married.", "Sherlock Holmes mentions that his \"ancestors\" were \"country squires\", but it is not specified where they were from.", "Claude Joseph is mentioned as one of the possible Vernets that could be Sherlock Holmes's grandmother's brother. The context does not specify who Claude Joseph is.", "According to the text, Sherlock Holmes is estimated to have been born in 1854, he developed his methods of deduction as an undergraduate, and his earliest cases came from fellow university students. He later chose to become a detective after a meeting with a classmate's father. After working as a consultant for six years, financial difficulties led him to take in John H. Watson as a fellow lodger. They lived together at 221B Baker Street in London.", "The context does not provide information on whether Sherlock Holmes had any children.", "The context does not provide specific information on where Sherlock Holmes went to school. However, it does mention that he was an undergraduate, suggesting that he attended university. The particular institution is not named.", "The context does not provide information on how old Sherlock Holmes was when he took his first case." ]
[ "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]
C_ca39bc01bfb047f687650f5d6bc7ec9b_0
The Outfield
The Outfield were an English rock band based in London, England. The band achieved success in the mid-1980s and are best remembered for their hit single, "Your Love". The band's lineup consisted of guitarist John Spinks, vocalist and bassist Tony Lewis, and drummer Alan Jackman. They had an unusual experience for a British band in that they enjoyed commercial success in the US, but never in their homeland.
Subsequent efforts and continued success (1987-1991)
1987 saw the release of their second album, Bangin'. This album did not achieve the acclaim of Play Deep, but it did spawn a Top 40 single "Since You've Been Gone" (not to be confused with the 1970s Rainbow and Head East hit of the same name) and the minor radio/MTV hit "No Surrender", and the album was certified Gold in the US A US summer tour opening for Night Ranger followed. For the group's third album, 1989's Voices of Babylon, a new producer (David Kahne) and sound was evident. The title track was a Top 25 single and "My Paradise" was a mid-sized album-rock hit, but overall the group's popularity continued to decline. After the Babylon LP, Alan Jackman parted ways with the band and was replaced for a concert tour by Paul Read. Spinks and Lewis continued as a duo, switched labels and began recording Diamond Days for MCA. Playing drums on the disc was session drummer Simon Dawson. The LP, released in 1990, produced a Top 30 US hit, "For You". Quick to follow was "One Hot Country", included on the soundtrack for the 1991 action film If Looks Could Kill. The Outfield returned with 1992's Rockeye. Its leadoff single, "Closer to Me", was a near Top 40 hit, and a second release, "Winning It All", gained some notice due to extensive play during NBC's NBA Finals coverage, NBA Superstars series featuring Larry Bird, the 1992 Barcelona Summer Olympics and the film The Mighty Ducks. Simon Dawson, who played on Rockeye, would eventually become the band's official third member. CANNOTANSWER
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The Outfield were an English rock band based in London. The band achieved success in the mid-1980s and are best remembered for their hit single, "Your Love". The band's lineup consisted of guitarist John Spinks, vocalist and bassist Tony Lewis, and drummer Alan Jackman. They had an unusual experience for a British band in that they enjoyed commercial success in the US, but never in their homeland. The band began recording during the mid-1980s, and released their first album, Play Deep, in 1985 through Columbia Records. The album reached No. 9 on the Billboard 200 list and then reached triple platinum in the United States. The band's single "Your Love" reached No. 6 on the Billboard Hot 100 as well as No. 7 on the Mainstream Rock chart, and it became their signature song. The band continued to record and tour through the 1980s and then into the early 1990s. While subsequent albums Bangin' (1987) and Voices of Babylon (1989) saw some chart successes, the group's popularity waned. Drummer Alan Jackman left and now as a duo, they recorded Diamond Days in 1991. After the disappointing response to their 1992 album Rockeye, which represented a shift towards progressive rock and arena rock, the group essentially disbanded in the 1990s. They resumed touring in 1998, and thereafter released two live albums via their website, along with a new studio album, Any Time Now in 2004, which was later re-released in 2006. In 2011, the band released their final album, Replay, with original drummer Alan Jackman re-joining the band. Spinks died in 2014 after which the group officially disbanded. On 22 March 2018, lead singer/bassist Tony Lewis announced a solo album called Out of the Darkness, which was released on 29 June 2018 through Madison Records. Lewis died on October 19, 2020, aged 62. History Formation and commercial success (1984–1986) Bassist/singer Tony Lewis, guitarist/keyboardist and songwriter John Spinks and drummer Alan Jackman played together in the late 1970s in a straightforward power pop band called Sirius B. After rehearsing for about six months and playing several gigs, their style did not match the punk rock that was surging in popularity in England and they broke up. Several years afterward, the three gathered back together in London's East End under the name the Baseball Boys. They performed in and around England until a demo got them signed to Columbia/CBS Records in 1984. Spinks adopted the name 'Baseball Boys' from a teen gang called "The Baseball Furies" in the cult film The Warriors, a movie that he had just seen. Although he used the name as a joke and "just to be outrageous", record company people responded favourably. The band got a reputation as a very "American-sounding" group and signed in the US after playing for just a few months in England. Their manager, an American living in England, recommended a new band name with a similar attitude since 'Baseball Boys' seemed too "tacky" and "tongue-in-cheek". Spinks has said, "The Outfield was the most left-wing kind of thing we liked." Spinks expressed an interest in the American sport of baseball, while also being a devoted fan of association football. He claimed that the group "didn't know what an outfield was" until they visited the U.S., and that, "We're just learning about baseball. It's an acquired taste and we're trying to acquire a taste for it." He expounded upon this in a Chicago Tribune piece: Play Deep Their debut album, Play Deep produced by William Wittman, was issued in 1985 and was a success. The album reached triple platinum sales status and the top 10 in the US album charts; it also featured a top 10 single entry with "Your Love", which peaked at No. 6. It went on to be featured in a number of 80s-themed compilation albums, and over 1,000 covers and remixes by other artists have been released physically and/or online. The band toured extensively, opening for Journey and Starship. Spinks made a point of mentioning in interviews that the band was "totally into not smoking or doing drugs". Bangin’ 1987 saw the release of their second album, Bangin'. This album did not achieve the acclaim of Play Deep, but it did spawn a top 40 single, "Since You've Been Gone" (not to be confused with the 1970s Rainbow and Head East hit of the same name), which also hit No. 11 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Songs chart. Furthermore, they had a minor radio/MTV hit with "No Surrender". The album sold reasonably well and was certified gold in the United States. A US summer tour opening for Night Ranger followed. Voices of Babylon For the group's third album, 1989's Voices of Babylon, a new producer (David Kahne) and sound was evident. The title track was a top 25 single and hit No. 2 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Songs chart. The follow-up song, "My Paradise", was a mid-sized album-rock hit reaching No. 34 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Songs chart, but overall the group's popularity continued to decline. Diamond Days After the Babylon LP, Alan Jackman parted ways with the band and was replaced for a concert tour by Paul Read. Spinks and Lewis continued as a duo, switched labels and began recording Diamond Days for MCA. Playing drums on the disc was session drummer Simon Dawson. The LP, released in 1990, produced a top 30 US hit, "For You". Quick to follow was "One Hot Country", included on the soundtrack to the 1991 action film If Looks Could Kill. Later years and aftermath The Outfield returned with 1992's Rockeye. Its leadoff single, "Closer to Me", was a near top 40 hit, and a second release, "Winning It All", gained some notice due to extensive play during NBC's NBA Finals coverage, the NBA Superstars series featuring Larry Bird, the 1992 Summer Olympics, Chicago Bulls championship ring ceremonies and the film The Mighty Ducks. Simon Dawson, who played on Rockeye, would eventually become the band's official third member. The band took an extended hiatus during the mid-1990s as changing musical fashions, especially the popularity of edgier bands such as Nirvana and Pearl Jam, made life difficult for older bands with a less fashionable aesthetic. The Outfield returned to their East End roots, and often played low-key gigs at a local pub, where much of the clientele were unaware that the group had sold millions of records in the US. Unfortunately, this situation was typical of the problems the Outfield had faced in their homeland: little recognition and a much smaller following than they had experienced in the US. Nevertheless, the band would reappear with a fan-club-only release, entitled It Ain't Over..., and resume touring. Soon thereafter, in 1999, they released Extra Innings, an odds-and-ends compilation of new and older, unreleased songs. In the early 2000s, the band issued two live collections via their official website: Live in Brazil and The Outfield Live. In 2004, the band released Any Time Now, a new studio album, through Tower Records, and later released a new version of the album in March 2006 through Sidewinder Records. In 2009, the original line up of John Spinks, Tony Lewis and Alan Jackman returned to a London recording studio to record their first album together since Voices of Babylon was recorded in 1988. In addition, the Outfield announced Brent Bitner had taken over the band's management and launched their official Facebook, Twitter, YouTube and Myspace pages in November 2009. On 22 March 2011, the Outfield announced that their upcoming album would be called Replay. Replay was recorded in various studios in the south of England that included production work at the legendary Abbey Road Studios. Replay was produced by the Outfield and Brent Bitner with executive production by John Spinks. On 28 June 2011, Replay was released to rave reviews. The lead single, "California Sun", was a regional number one AOR chart hit and has subsequently been the second most added song on AC radio as of 15 August 2011. A limited advanced release of the band's possible second single, "A Long, Long Time Ago", reached number one on Worldwide FM ClassX Radio's AOR chart in the second week of August 2011. In 2013, the band rerecorded vocals to their single "Your Love" to be incorporated into American DJ Morgan Page's reworking of the song, which was released in the summer of that year. Though credited to Page, the single was listed as featuring the Outfield. On 9 July 2014, John Spinks died of liver cancer. He was 60 years old. After taking a few years off from music, lead singer/bassist Tony Lewis announced his return with a solo album, Out of the Darkness, which was released on 29 June 2018 through Madison Records and with the help of his wife Carol and their collaborative songwriting. On 19 October 2020, singer Tony Lewis died suddenly and unexpectedly at his home near London. leaving only Alan Jackman as the last surviving member. Style and influences The Outfield were considered a pop rock, power pop, or a new wave group. Annelise Wamsley of the Tampa Bay Times described the band's style in 1987: "the Outfield specializes in what you could call an early '80s American Sound. It's music by recipe: You to take hyper-macho hard rock and tone it down so it will appeal to the over-17 set. You need a simple hook that can be repeated a dozen or so times, lots of electric guitar solos, a standard rock beat and basic lyrics." John Spinks said in 1986 interview with the Los Angeles Times that he was very influenced by "the music that gives me a rush" and that he "grew up on the Beatles". Interestingly, it was also said that the band wanted to be a "car stereo sort of poppy version of the band Rush. "61 Seconds and "Mystery Man" are evidence of this. He also cited contemporaries Journey, Foreigner, and Mr. Mister – particularly the latter's hit "Broken Wings". In that interview, he expanded upon the band's strong foundation in melody: Wamsely made a similar remark, writing, "This is the stuff people listen to in their cars, on the way to work or play at high school dances." Criticism often centered on their generic sound. "The music is hopelessly, numbingly derivative of just about every Journey/Foreigner/Cars cliché in the book — with none of the style that makes those bands special," said Matt Damsker, rock critic for the Hartford Courant. Members Final known lineup Tony Lewis – vocals, bass guitar (1984–2014; died 2020) John Spinks – guitar, keyboards, vocals (1984–2014; died 2014) Alan Jackman – drums, percussion (1984–1989, 2009–2014) Former member Simon Dawson – drums (1989–2009) Discography Studio albums Compilations Playing the Field (1992) Big Innings: The Best of The Outfield (1996) Super Hits (1998) Demo and Rarities (2010) Playlist: The Very Best of The Outfield (2011) The Baseball Boys: Early Demos and Rare Tracks (2020) Final Innings (2021) Live albums Live in Brazil (2001) The Outfield Live (2005) Singles Featured singles Music videos References External links Tony Lewis's official website The Outfield at AllMusic The Outfield at Legacy Recordings The Outfield at 45cat.com Category:English pop rock music groups Category:English new wave musical groups Category:English power pop groups Category:Musical groups from London Category:Musical groups established in 1983 Category:Musical groups disestablished in 2014 Category:Columbia Records artists Category:MCA Records artists Category:1983 establishments in England Category:2014 disestablishments in England Category:Second British Invasion artists
[]
[ "The band released several albums including 'Bangin', 'Voices of Babylon', and 'Diamond Days'. They also had a US summer tour. They changed their producer to David Kahne for the 'Voices of Babylon' album. After Alan Jackman parted ways with the band, Paul Read replaced him for a concert tour. The band also switched labels and began recording 'Diamond Days' for MCA. Their next album 'Rockeye' featured session drummer Simon Dawson, who eventually became the band's official third member.", "Yes, there are several interesting aspects in the article. For instance, the band had a few hits, including \"Since You've Been Gone\", the title track from 'Voices of Babylon', \"For You\" from 'Diamond Days', and \"Closer to Me\" from 'Rockeye'. Their song \"Winning It All\" received extensive play during NBC's coverage of various sports events such as the NBA Finals and the Summer Olympics, as well in the movie 'The Mighty Ducks'. It is also notable that their albums received differing levels of success and acclaim, and that members of the band changed over time.", "The text does not provide information on the band winning any awards.", "The text does not explicitly state what the band's biggest success was. However, it does mention that their song \"Winning It All\" gained some notice due to extensive play during NBC's NBA Finals coverage, the NBA Superstars series, the 1992 Barcelona Summer Olympics and the film 'The Mighty Ducks'. It also mentions several songs that were hits in the Top 30 and Top 40 charts, and that their album 'Bangin'' was certified Gold in the US.", "The text does not provide information on whether the band broke up at any point.", "The text mentions a US summer tour where the band performed as the opening act for Night Ranger. No other specific locations or venues where they played are provided in the text.", "The text does not provide information on the band playing anywhere else other than their US summer tour." ]
[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes" ]
C_ca39bc01bfb047f687650f5d6bc7ec9b_1
The Outfield
The Outfield were an English rock band based in London, England. The band achieved success in the mid-1980s and are best remembered for their hit single, "Your Love". The band's lineup consisted of guitarist John Spinks, vocalist and bassist Tony Lewis, and drummer Alan Jackman. They had an unusual experience for a British band in that they enjoyed commercial success in the US, but never in their homeland.
Formation and commercial success (1984-1986)
Bassist/singer Tony Lewis, guitarist/keyboardist and songwriter John Spinks and drummer Alan Jackman played together in the late 1970s in a straightforward power pop band called Sirius B. After rehearsing for about six months and playing several gigs, their style did not match the punk rock that was surging in popularity in England and they broke up. Several years afterward, the three gathered back together in London's East End under the name The Baseball Boys. They performed in and around England until a demo got them signed to Columbia/CBS Records in 1984. Spinks adopted the name 'Baseball Boys' from a teen gang called "The Baseball Furies" in the cult film The Warriors, a movie that he had just seen. Although he used the name as a joke and "just to be outrageous", record company people responded favourably. The band got a reputation as a very "American-sounding" group and signed in the US after playing for just a few months in England. Their manager, an American living in England, recommended a new band name with a similar attitude since 'Baseball Boys' seemed too "tacky" and "tongue-in-cheek". Spinks has said, "the Outfield was the most left-wing kind of thing we liked." Spinks expressed an interest for the American sport of baseball, while also being a devoted fan of association football. He claimed that the group "didn't know what an outfield was" until they came to the US, and that "We're just learning about baseball. It's an acquired taste and we're trying to acquire a taste for it." He expounded upon this in a Chicago Tribune piece: The thing about American sports - baseball and football - is that they're far more show business, far more a spectacle, than British sports. In England, it's just sort of everyday soccer matches. You get 30,000 people in the freezing cold in the middle of winter watching guys chase around in mud. In America, you have the sunny days, and the baseball diamond is really nicely laid out. In England, you'd see these guys covered in mud within 10 minutes. It's not such a nice spectacle to watch. Their debut album, Play Deep, produced by William Wittman, was issued in 1985, and was a success. The album would go on to reach triple platinum sales status and the Top 10 in the US album charts; it also featured a Top 10 single entry with "Your Love", which peaked at No. 6. It went on to be featured in a number of 80s-themed compilation albums, and over 1,000 covers and remixes by other artists have been released physically and/or online. The band toured extensively, opening for Journey and Starship. Spinks made a point of mentioning in interviews that the band was "totally into not smoking or doing drugs". CANNOTANSWER
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[ "How was it formed?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "What style did they match?", "Did they have any hits?", "What were their successes?", "Can you tell me more about how the band formed?", "Did they bring anyone else in to the fold?" ]
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The Outfield were an English rock band based in London. The band achieved success in the mid-1980s and are best remembered for their hit single, "Your Love". The band's lineup consisted of guitarist John Spinks, vocalist and bassist Tony Lewis, and drummer Alan Jackman. They had an unusual experience for a British band in that they enjoyed commercial success in the US, but never in their homeland. The band began recording during the mid-1980s, and released their first album, Play Deep, in 1985 through Columbia Records. The album reached No. 9 on the Billboard 200 list and then reached triple platinum in the United States. The band's single "Your Love" reached No. 6 on the Billboard Hot 100 as well as No. 7 on the Mainstream Rock chart, and it became their signature song. The band continued to record and tour through the 1980s and then into the early 1990s. While subsequent albums Bangin' (1987) and Voices of Babylon (1989) saw some chart successes, the group's popularity waned. Drummer Alan Jackman left and now as a duo, they recorded Diamond Days in 1991. After the disappointing response to their 1992 album Rockeye, which represented a shift towards progressive rock and arena rock, the group essentially disbanded in the 1990s. They resumed touring in 1998, and thereafter released two live albums via their website, along with a new studio album, Any Time Now in 2004, which was later re-released in 2006. In 2011, the band released their final album, Replay, with original drummer Alan Jackman re-joining the band. Spinks died in 2014 after which the group officially disbanded. On 22 March 2018, lead singer/bassist Tony Lewis announced a solo album called Out of the Darkness, which was released on 29 June 2018 through Madison Records. Lewis died on October 19, 2020, aged 62. History Formation and commercial success (1984–1986) Bassist/singer Tony Lewis, guitarist/keyboardist and songwriter John Spinks and drummer Alan Jackman played together in the late 1970s in a straightforward power pop band called Sirius B. After rehearsing for about six months and playing several gigs, their style did not match the punk rock that was surging in popularity in England and they broke up. Several years afterward, the three gathered back together in London's East End under the name the Baseball Boys. They performed in and around England until a demo got them signed to Columbia/CBS Records in 1984. Spinks adopted the name 'Baseball Boys' from a teen gang called "The Baseball Furies" in the cult film The Warriors, a movie that he had just seen. Although he used the name as a joke and "just to be outrageous", record company people responded favourably. The band got a reputation as a very "American-sounding" group and signed in the US after playing for just a few months in England. Their manager, an American living in England, recommended a new band name with a similar attitude since 'Baseball Boys' seemed too "tacky" and "tongue-in-cheek". Spinks has said, "The Outfield was the most left-wing kind of thing we liked." Spinks expressed an interest in the American sport of baseball, while also being a devoted fan of association football. He claimed that the group "didn't know what an outfield was" until they visited the U.S., and that, "We're just learning about baseball. It's an acquired taste and we're trying to acquire a taste for it." He expounded upon this in a Chicago Tribune piece: Play Deep Their debut album, Play Deep produced by William Wittman, was issued in 1985 and was a success. The album reached triple platinum sales status and the top 10 in the US album charts; it also featured a top 10 single entry with "Your Love", which peaked at No. 6. It went on to be featured in a number of 80s-themed compilation albums, and over 1,000 covers and remixes by other artists have been released physically and/or online. The band toured extensively, opening for Journey and Starship. Spinks made a point of mentioning in interviews that the band was "totally into not smoking or doing drugs". Bangin’ 1987 saw the release of their second album, Bangin'. This album did not achieve the acclaim of Play Deep, but it did spawn a top 40 single, "Since You've Been Gone" (not to be confused with the 1970s Rainbow and Head East hit of the same name), which also hit No. 11 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Songs chart. Furthermore, they had a minor radio/MTV hit with "No Surrender". The album sold reasonably well and was certified gold in the United States. A US summer tour opening for Night Ranger followed. Voices of Babylon For the group's third album, 1989's Voices of Babylon, a new producer (David Kahne) and sound was evident. The title track was a top 25 single and hit No. 2 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Songs chart. The follow-up song, "My Paradise", was a mid-sized album-rock hit reaching No. 34 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Songs chart, but overall the group's popularity continued to decline. Diamond Days After the Babylon LP, Alan Jackman parted ways with the band and was replaced for a concert tour by Paul Read. Spinks and Lewis continued as a duo, switched labels and began recording Diamond Days for MCA. Playing drums on the disc was session drummer Simon Dawson. The LP, released in 1990, produced a top 30 US hit, "For You". Quick to follow was "One Hot Country", included on the soundtrack to the 1991 action film If Looks Could Kill. Later years and aftermath The Outfield returned with 1992's Rockeye. Its leadoff single, "Closer to Me", was a near top 40 hit, and a second release, "Winning It All", gained some notice due to extensive play during NBC's NBA Finals coverage, the NBA Superstars series featuring Larry Bird, the 1992 Summer Olympics, Chicago Bulls championship ring ceremonies and the film The Mighty Ducks. Simon Dawson, who played on Rockeye, would eventually become the band's official third member. The band took an extended hiatus during the mid-1990s as changing musical fashions, especially the popularity of edgier bands such as Nirvana and Pearl Jam, made life difficult for older bands with a less fashionable aesthetic. The Outfield returned to their East End roots, and often played low-key gigs at a local pub, where much of the clientele were unaware that the group had sold millions of records in the US. Unfortunately, this situation was typical of the problems the Outfield had faced in their homeland: little recognition and a much smaller following than they had experienced in the US. Nevertheless, the band would reappear with a fan-club-only release, entitled It Ain't Over..., and resume touring. Soon thereafter, in 1999, they released Extra Innings, an odds-and-ends compilation of new and older, unreleased songs. In the early 2000s, the band issued two live collections via their official website: Live in Brazil and The Outfield Live. In 2004, the band released Any Time Now, a new studio album, through Tower Records, and later released a new version of the album in March 2006 through Sidewinder Records. In 2009, the original line up of John Spinks, Tony Lewis and Alan Jackman returned to a London recording studio to record their first album together since Voices of Babylon was recorded in 1988. In addition, the Outfield announced Brent Bitner had taken over the band's management and launched their official Facebook, Twitter, YouTube and Myspace pages in November 2009. On 22 March 2011, the Outfield announced that their upcoming album would be called Replay. Replay was recorded in various studios in the south of England that included production work at the legendary Abbey Road Studios. Replay was produced by the Outfield and Brent Bitner with executive production by John Spinks. On 28 June 2011, Replay was released to rave reviews. The lead single, "California Sun", was a regional number one AOR chart hit and has subsequently been the second most added song on AC radio as of 15 August 2011. A limited advanced release of the band's possible second single, "A Long, Long Time Ago", reached number one on Worldwide FM ClassX Radio's AOR chart in the second week of August 2011. In 2013, the band rerecorded vocals to their single "Your Love" to be incorporated into American DJ Morgan Page's reworking of the song, which was released in the summer of that year. Though credited to Page, the single was listed as featuring the Outfield. On 9 July 2014, John Spinks died of liver cancer. He was 60 years old. After taking a few years off from music, lead singer/bassist Tony Lewis announced his return with a solo album, Out of the Darkness, which was released on 29 June 2018 through Madison Records and with the help of his wife Carol and their collaborative songwriting. On 19 October 2020, singer Tony Lewis died suddenly and unexpectedly at his home near London. leaving only Alan Jackman as the last surviving member. Style and influences The Outfield were considered a pop rock, power pop, or a new wave group. Annelise Wamsley of the Tampa Bay Times described the band's style in 1987: "the Outfield specializes in what you could call an early '80s American Sound. It's music by recipe: You to take hyper-macho hard rock and tone it down so it will appeal to the over-17 set. You need a simple hook that can be repeated a dozen or so times, lots of electric guitar solos, a standard rock beat and basic lyrics." John Spinks said in 1986 interview with the Los Angeles Times that he was very influenced by "the music that gives me a rush" and that he "grew up on the Beatles". Interestingly, it was also said that the band wanted to be a "car stereo sort of poppy version of the band Rush. "61 Seconds and "Mystery Man" are evidence of this. He also cited contemporaries Journey, Foreigner, and Mr. Mister – particularly the latter's hit "Broken Wings". In that interview, he expanded upon the band's strong foundation in melody: Wamsely made a similar remark, writing, "This is the stuff people listen to in their cars, on the way to work or play at high school dances." Criticism often centered on their generic sound. "The music is hopelessly, numbingly derivative of just about every Journey/Foreigner/Cars cliché in the book — with none of the style that makes those bands special," said Matt Damsker, rock critic for the Hartford Courant. Members Final known lineup Tony Lewis – vocals, bass guitar (1984–2014; died 2020) John Spinks – guitar, keyboards, vocals (1984–2014; died 2014) Alan Jackman – drums, percussion (1984–1989, 2009–2014) Former member Simon Dawson – drums (1989–2009) Discography Studio albums Compilations Playing the Field (1992) Big Innings: The Best of The Outfield (1996) Super Hits (1998) Demo and Rarities (2010) Playlist: The Very Best of The Outfield (2011) The Baseball Boys: Early Demos and Rare Tracks (2020) Final Innings (2021) Live albums Live in Brazil (2001) The Outfield Live (2005) Singles Featured singles Music videos References External links Tony Lewis's official website The Outfield at AllMusic The Outfield at Legacy Recordings The Outfield at 45cat.com Category:English pop rock music groups Category:English new wave musical groups Category:English power pop groups Category:Musical groups from London Category:Musical groups established in 1983 Category:Musical groups disestablished in 2014 Category:Columbia Records artists Category:MCA Records artists Category:1983 establishments in England Category:2014 disestablishments in England Category:Second British Invasion artists
[]
[ "The band was formed when bassist/singer Tony Lewis, guitarist/keyboardist John Spinks and drummer Alan Jackman, who had previously played together in a band called Sirius B in the late 1970s, reunited several years after their initial band broke up due to their style not fitting with the punk rock scene. They began performing under the name The Baseball Boys in London's East End and around England until a demo got them signed to Columbia/CBS Records in 1984. Their manager suggested a new name, leading to the choice of 'the Outfield'.", "Yes, there are several interesting aspects in the article. For instance, it's intriguing how the name 'The Baseball Boys' was initially chosen as a joke after a gang in the movie The Warriors, but ended up being received positively by their record company. Their transformation into an \"American-sounding\" group shortly after forming is also noteworthy, as is their rapid rise to success in the US with their debut album reaching triple platinum sales status and featuring a Top 10 single. Additionally, it's interesting to read about Spinks's comparative views of American and British sports and how their public commitment to a clean lifestyle, free of smoking and drugs, set them apart.", "The style of the band, led by Tony Lewis, John Spinks, and Alan Jackman, was not explicitly stated in the context. However, they were defined as a very \"American-sounding\" group. Their initial band, Sirius B, was referred to as a straightforward power pop band. However, they did not match the punk rock style that was popular in England during the late 1970s, leading to their breakup before they reunited to form what would become The Outfield.", "Yes, with their debut album, Play Deep, the band had a Top 10 single entry called \"Your Love\", which peaked at No. 6. The success of this single helped the album reach triple platinum sales status and the Top 10 in the US album charts. Furthermore, \"Your Love\" has been featured in numerous 80s-themed compilation albums and has been covered or remixed by other artists over 1,000 times.", "The Outfield achieved significant success with their debut album, Play Deep, which was issued in 1985. The album reached triple platinum sales status and made it to the Top 10 in the US album charts. They also had a Top 10 single with the song \"Your Love\", which peaked at No. 6. The song was featured in numerous 80s-themed compilation albums and has been covered and remixed physically or online over 1,000 times by other artists. Additionally, the band had the opportunity to tour extensively, opening for popular bands such as Journey and Starship.", "The band was originally formed in the late 1970s as Sirius B, a power pop band featuring Tony Lewis, John Spinks, and Alan Jackman. However, their style didn't match the rising punk rock scene in England, so they disbanded after about six months of rehearsal and a few gigs. Several years later, they regrouped in London's East End, now performing under the name The Baseball Boys and their musical style evolved. After performing around England, a demo of their music led to them being signed by Columbia/CBS Records in 1984. The band got a reputation for sounding very American and subsequently got signed in the US. Following their manager's advice, they changed their band name to 'the Outfield', a name that reflected their interest in American baseball and also had a similar attitude to their previous name, ‘Baseball Boys’.", "The context provided does not mention any additional members being brought into the band beyond the original trio of Tony Lewis, John Spinks, and Alan Jackman." ]
[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "Yes" ]
C_072df7f0df60447fbdbcf45dd6d9fda1_1
Frank Lloyd Wright
Frank Lloyd Wright (born Frank Lincoln Wright, June 8, 1867 - April 9, 1959) was an American architect, interior designer, writer and educator, who designed more than 1,000 structures, 532 of which were completed. Wright believed in designing structures that were in harmony with humanity and its environment, a philosophy he called organic architecture. This philosophy was best exemplified by Fallingwater (1935), which has been called "the best all-time work of American architecture". His creative period spanned more than 70 years.
Childhood
According to Wright's autobiography, his mother declared when she was expecting that her first child would grow up to build beautiful buildings. She decorated his nursery with engravings of English cathedrals torn from a periodical to encourage the infant's ambition. In 1870 the family moved to Weymouth, Massachusetts, where William ministered to a small congregation. In 1876, Anna visited the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia where she saw an exhibit of educational blocks created by Friedrich Wilhelm August Frobel. The blocks, known as Froebel Gifts, were the foundation of his innovative kindergarten curriculum. Anna, a trained teacher, was excited by the program and bought a set with which young Wright spent much time playing. The blocks in the set were geometrically shaped and could be assembled in various combinations to form three-dimensional compositions. In his autobiography, Wright described the influence of these exercises on his approach to design: "For several years I sat at the little Kindergarten table-top... and played... with the cube, the sphere and the triangle--these smooth wooden maple blocks... All are in my fingers to this day... " Many of Wright's buildings are notable for their geometrical clarity. The Wright family struggled financially in Weymouth and returned to Spring Green, Wisconsin, where the supportive Lloyd Jones clan could help William find employment. They settled in Madison, where William taught music lessons and served as the secretary to the newly formed Unitarian society. Although William was a distant parent, he shared his love of music, especially the works of Johann Sebastian Bach, with his children. Soon after Wright turned 14, his parents separated. Anna had been unhappy for some time with William's inability to provide for his family and asked him to leave. The divorce was finalized in 1885 after William sued Anna for lack of physical affection. William left Wisconsin after the divorce and Wright claimed he never saw his father again. At this time he changed his middle name from Lincoln to Lloyd in honor of his mother's family, the Lloyd Joneses. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "Where did Wright grow up?", "What did he do here?", "What happened after this?", "What did Wright do after?", "What about his education?", "Is there anything else significant about his childhood?" ]
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{ "answer_starts": [ 1315, 1728, 1839, 1929, 2134, 268 ], "texts": [ "Spring Green, Wisconsin, where the supportive Lloyd Jones clan could help William find employment. They settled in Madison,", "Anna had been unhappy for some time with William's inability to provide for his family and asked him to leave.", "The divorce was finalized in 1885 after William sued Anna for lack of physical affection.", "William left Wisconsin after the divorce and Wright claimed he never saw his father again.", "CANNOTANSWER", "In 1870 the family moved to Weymouth, Massachusetts, where William ministered to a small congregation." ] }
Frank Lloyd Wright (June 8, 1867 – April 9, 1959) was an American architect, designer, writer, and educator. He designed more than 1,000 structures over a creative period of 70 years. Wright played a key role in the architectural movements of the twentieth century, influencing architects worldwide through his works and hundreds of apprentices in his Taliesin Fellowship. Wright believed in designing in harmony with humanity and the environment, a philosophy he called organic architecture. This philosophy was exemplified in Fallingwater (1935), which has been called "the best all-time work of American architecture". Wright was the pioneer of what came to be called the Prairie School movement of architecture and also developed the concept of the Usonian home in Broadacre City, his vision for urban planning in the United States. He also designed original and innovative offices, churches, schools, skyscrapers, hotels, museums, and other commercial projects. Wright-designed interior elements (including leaded glass windows, floors, furniture and even tableware) were integrated into these structures. He wrote several books and numerous articles and was a popular lecturer in the United States and in Europe. Wright was recognized in 1991 by the American Institute of Architects as "the greatest American architect of all time". In 2019, a selection of his work became a listed World Heritage Site as The 20th-Century Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright. Raised in rural Wisconsin, Wright studied civil engineering at the University of Wisconsin and then apprenticed in Chicago, briefly with Joseph Lyman Silsbee, and then with Louis Sullivan at Adler & Sullivan. Wright opened his own successful Chicago practice in 1893 and established a studio in his Oak Park, Illinois home in 1898. His fame increased and his personal life sometimes made headlines: leaving his first wife Catherine Tobin for Mamah Cheney in 1909; the murder of Mamah and her children and others at his Taliesin estate by a staff member in 1914; his tempestuous marriage with second wife Miriam Noel (m. 1923–1927); and his courtship and marriage with Olgivanna Lazović (m. 1928–1959). Early life and education Childhood (1867–1885) Wright was born on June 8, 1867, in the town of Richland Center, Wisconsin, but maintained throughout his life that he was born in 1869. In 1987 a biographer of Wright suggested that he may have been christened as "Frank Lincoln Wright" or "Franklin Lincoln Wright" but these assertions were not supported by any evidence. Wright's father, William Cary Wright (1825–1904), was a "gifted musician, orator, and sometime preacher who had been admitted to the bar in 1857." He was also a published composer. Originally from Massachusetts, William Wright had been a Baptist minister, but he later joined his wife's family in the Unitarian faith. Wright's mother, Anna Lloyd Jones (1838/39–1923) was a teacher and a member of the Lloyd Jones clan; her parents had emigrated from Wales to Wisconsin. One of Anna's brothers was Jenkin Lloyd Jones, an important figure in the spread of the Unitarian faith in the Midwest. According to Wright's autobiography, his mother declared when she was expecting that her first child would grow up to build beautiful buildings. She decorated his nursery with engravings of English cathedrals torn from a periodical to encourage the infant's ambition. Wright grew up in an "unstable household, [...] constant lack of resources, [...] unrelieved poverty and anxiety" and had a "deeply disturbed and obviously unhappy childhood". His father held pastorates in McGregor, Iowa (1869), Pawtucket, Rhode Island (1871), and Weymouth, Massachusetts (1874). Because the Wright family struggled financially also in Weymouth, they returned to Spring Green, where the supportive Lloyd Jones family could help William find employment. In 1877, they settled in Madison, where William gave music lessons and served as the secretary to the newly formed Unitarian society. Although William was a distant parent, he shared his love of music with his children. In 1876, Anna saw an exhibit of educational blocks called the Froebel Gifts, the foundation of an innovative kindergarten curriculum. Anna, a trained teacher, was excited by the program and bought a set with which the 9-year old Wright spent much time playing. The blocks in the set were geometrically shaped and could be assembled in various combinations to form two- and three-dimensional compositions. In his autobiography, Wright described the influence of these exercises on his approach to design: "For several years, I sat at the little kindergarten table-top... and played... with the cube, the sphere and the trianglethese smooth wooden maple blocks... All are in my fingers to this day... " In 1881, soon after Wright turned 14, his parents separated. In 1884, his father sued for a divorce from Anna on the grounds of "... emotional cruelty and physical violence and spousal abandonment". Wright attended Madison High School, but there is no evidence that he graduated. His father left Wisconsin after the divorce was granted in 1885. Wright said that he never saw his father again. Education (1885–1887) In 1886, at age 19, Wright was admitted to the University of Wisconsin–Madison as a special student and worked under Allan D. Conover, a professor of civil engineering, before leaving the school without taking a degree. Wright was granted an honorary doctorate of fine arts from the university in 1955. In 1886 Wright collaborated with the Chicago architectural firm of Joseph Lyman Silsbeeaccredited as draftsman and construction supervisoron the 1886 Unity Chapel for Wright's family in Spring Green, Wisconsin. Career Silsbee and other early work experience (1887–1888) In 1887, Wright arrived in Chicago in search of employment. As a result of the devastating Great Chicago Fire of 1871 and a population boom, new development was plentiful. Wright later recorded in his autobiography that his first impression of Chicago was as an ugly and chaotic city. Within days of his arrival, and after interviews with several prominent firms, he was hired as a draftsman with Joseph Lyman Silsbee. While with the firm, he also worked on two other family projects: All Souls Church in Chicago for his uncle, Jenkin Lloyd Jones, and the Hillside Home School I in Spring Green for two of his aunts. Other draftsmen who worked for Silsbee in 1887 included future architects Cecil Corwin, George W. Maher, and George G. Elmslie. Wright soon befriended Corwin, with whom he lived until he found a permanent home. Feeling that he was underpaid for the quality of his work for Silsbee at $8 a week, the young draftsman quit and found work as an architectural designer at the firm of Beers, Clay, and Dutton. However, Wright soon realized that he was not ready to handle building design by himself; he left his new job to return to Joseph Silsbeethis time with a raise in salary. Although Silsbee adhered mainly to Victorian and Revivalist architecture, Wright found his work to be more "gracefully picturesque" than the other "brutalities" of the period. Adler & Sullivan (1888–1893) Wright learned that the Chicago firm of Adler & Sullivan was "... looking for someone to make the finished drawings for the interior of the Auditorium Building". Wright demonstrated that he was a competent impressionist of Louis Sullivan's ornamental designs and two short interviews later, was an official apprentice in the firm. Wright did not get along well with Sullivan's other draftsmen; he wrote that several violent altercations occurred between them during the first years of his apprenticeship. For that matter, Sullivan showed very little respect for his own employees as well. In spite of this, "Sullivan took [Wright] under his wing and gave him great design responsibility." As an act of respect, Wright would later refer to Sullivan as (German for "Dear Master"). He also formed a bond with office foreman Paul Mueller. Wright later engaged Mueller in the construction of several of his public and commercial buildings between 1903 and 1923. By 1890, Wright had an office next to Sullivan's that he shared with friend and draftsman George Elmslie, who had been hired by Sullivan at Wright's request. Wright had risen to head draftsman and handled all residential design work in the office. As a general rule, the firm of Adler & Sullivan did not design or build houses, but would oblige when asked by the clients of their important commercial projects. Wright was occupied by the firm's major commissions during office hours, so house designs were relegated to evening and weekend overtime hours at his home studio. He later claimed total responsibility for the design of these houses, but a careful inspection of their architectural style (and accounts from historian Robert Twombly) suggests that Sullivan dictated the overall form and motifs of the residential works; Wright's design duties were often reduced to detailing the projects from Sullivan's sketches. During this time, Wright worked on Sullivan's bungalow (1890) and the James A. Charnley bungalow (1890) in Ocean Springs, Mississippi, the Berry-MacHarg House, James A. Charnley House (both 1891), and the Louis Sullivan House (1892), all in Chicago. Despite Sullivan's loan and overtime salary, Wright was constantly short on funds. Wright admitted that his poor finances were likely due to his expensive tastes in wardrobe and vehicles, and the extra luxuries he designed into his house. To supplement his income and repay his debts, Wright accepted independent commissions for at least nine houses. These "bootlegged" houses, as he later called them, were conservatively designed in variations of the fashionable Queen Anne and Colonial Revival styles. Nevertheless, unlike the prevailing architecture of the period, each house emphasized simple geometric massing and contained features such as bands of horizontal windows, occasional cantilevers, and open floor plans, which would become hallmarks of his later work. Eight of these early houses remain today, including the Thomas Gale, Robert Parker, George Blossom, and Walter Gale houses. As with the residential projects for Adler & Sullivan, he designed his bootleg houses on his own time. Sullivan knew nothing of the independent works until 1893, when he recognized that one of the houses was unmistakably a Frank Lloyd Wright design. This particular house, built for Allison Harlan, was only blocks away from Sullivan's townhouse in the Chicago community of Kenwood. Aside from the location, the geometric purity of the composition and balcony tracery in the same style as the Charnley House likely gave away Wright's involvement. Since Wright's five-year contract forbade any outside work, the incident led to his departure from Sullivan's firm. Several stories recount the break in the relationship between Sullivan and Wright; even Wright later told two different versions of the occurrence. In An Autobiography, Wright claimed that he was unaware that his side ventures were a breach of his contract. When Sullivan learned of them, he was angered and offended; he prohibited any further outside commissions and refused to issue Wright the deed to his Oak Park house until after he completed his five years. Wright could not bear the new hostility from his master and thought that the situation was unjust. He "... threw down [his] pencil and walked out of the Adler & Sullivan office never to return". Dankmar Adler, who was more sympathetic to Wright's actions, later sent him the deed. However, Wright told his Taliesin apprentices (as recorded by Edgar Tafel) that Sullivan fired him on the spot upon learning of the Harlan House. Tafel also recounted that Wright had Cecil Corwin sign several of the bootleg jobs, indicating that Wright was aware of their forbidden nature. Regardless of the correct series of events, Wright and Sullivan did not meet or speak for 12 years. Transition and experimentation (1893–1900) After leaving Adler & Sullivan, Wright established his own practice on the top floor of the Sullivan-designed Schiller Building on Randolph Street in Chicago. Wright chose to locate his office in the building because the tower location reminded him of the office of Adler & Sullivan. Cecil Corwin followed Wright and set up his architecture practice in the same office, but the two worked independently and did not consider themselves partners. In 1896, Wright moved from the Schiller Building to the nearby and newly completed Steinway Hall building. The loft space was shared with Robert C. Spencer, Jr., Myron Hunt, and Dwight H. Perkins. These young architects, inspired by the Arts and Crafts Movement and the philosophies of Louis Sullivan, formed what became known as the Prairie School. They were joined by Perkins' apprentice Marion Mahony, who in 1895 transferred to Wright's team of drafters and took over production of his presentation drawings and watercolor renderings. Mahony, the third woman to be licensed as an architect in Illinois and one of the first licensed female architects in the U.S., also designed furniture, leaded glass windows, and light fixtures, among other features, for Wright's houses. Between 1894 and the early 1910s, several other leading Prairie School architects and many of Wright's future employees launched their careers in the offices of Steinway Hall. Wright's projects during this period followed two basic models. His first independent commission, the Winslow House, combined Sullivanesque ornamentation with the emphasis on simple geometry and horizontal lines. The Francis Apartments (1895, demolished 1971), Heller House (1896), Rollin Furbeck House (1897) and Husser House (1899, demolished 1926) were designed in the same mode. For his more conservative clients, Wright designed more traditional dwellings. These included the Dutch Colonial Revival style Bagley House (1894), Tudor Revival style Moore House I (1895), and Queen Anne style Charles E. Roberts House (1896). While Wright could not afford to turn down clients over disagreements in taste, even his most conservative designs retained simplified massing and occasional Sullivan-inspired details. Soon after the completion of the Winslow House in 1894, Edward Waller, a friend and former client, invited Wright to meet Chicago architect and planner Daniel Burnham. Burnham had been impressed by the Winslow House and other examples of Wright's work; he offered to finance a four-year education at the and two years in Rome. To top it off, Wright would have a position in Burnham's firm upon his return. In spite of guaranteed success and support of his family, Wright declined the offer. Burnham, who had directed the classical design of the World's Columbian Exposition and was a major proponent of the Beaux Arts movement, thought that Wright was making a foolish mistake. Yet for Wright, the classical education of the lacked creativity and was altogether at odds with his vision of modern American architecture. Wright relocated his practice to his home in 1898 to bring his work and family lives closer. This move made further sense as the majority of the architect's projects at that time were in Oak Park or neighboring River Forest. The birth of three more children prompted Wright to sacrifice his original home studio space for additional bedrooms and necessitated his design and construction of an expansive studio addition to the north of the main house. The space, which included a hanging balcony within the two-story drafting room, was one of Wright's first experiments with innovative structure. The studio embodied Wright's developing aesthetics and would become the laboratory from which his next 10 years of architectural creations would emerge. Prairie Style houses (1900–1914) By 1901, Wright had completed about 50 projects, including many houses in Oak Park. As his son John Lloyd Wright wrote: William Eugene Drummond, Francis Barry Byrne, Walter Burley Griffin, Albert Chase McArthur, Marion Mahony, Isabel Roberts, and George Willis were the draftsmen. Five men, two women. They wore flowing ties, and smocks suitable to the realm. The men wore their hair like Papa, all except Albert, he didn't have enough hair. They worshiped Papa! Papa liked them! I know that each one of them was then making valuable contributions to the pioneering of the modern American architecture for which my father gets the full glory, headaches, and recognition today! Between 1900 and 1901, Frank Lloyd Wright completed four houses, which have since been identified as the onset of the "Prairie Style". Two, the Hickox and Bradley Houses, were the last transitional step between Wright's early designs and the Prairie creations. Meanwhile, the Thomas House and Willits House received recognition as the first mature examples of the new style. At the same time, Wright gave his new ideas for the American house widespread awareness through two publications in the Ladies' Home Journal. The articles were in response to an invitation from the president of Curtis Publishing Company, Edward Bok, as part of a project to improve modern house design. "A Home in a Prairie Town" and "A Small House with Lots of Room in it" appeared respectively in the February and July 1901 issues of the journal. Although neither of the affordable house plans was ever constructed, Wright received increased requests for similar designs in following years. Wright came to Buffalo and designed homes for three of the company's executives: the Darwin D. Martin House (1904), the William R. Heath House 1905), and the Walter V. Davidson House (1908). Other Wright houses considered to be masterpieces of the Prairie Style are the Frederick Robie House in Chicago and the Avery and Queene Coonley House in Riverside, Illinois. The Robie House, with its extended cantilevered roof lines supported by a 110-foot-long (34 m) channel of steel, is the most dramatic. Its living and dining areas form virtually one uninterrupted space. With this and other buildings, included in the publication of the Wasmuth Portfolio (1910), Wright's work became known to European architects and had a profound influence on them after World War I. Wright's residential designs of this era were known as "prairie houses" because the designs complemented the land around Chicago. Prairie Style houses often have a combination of these features: one or two stories with one-story projections, an open floor plan, low-pitched roofs with broad, overhanging eaves, strong horizontal lines, ribbons of windows (often casements), a prominent central chimney, built-in stylized cabinetry, and a wide use of natural materialsespecially stone and wood. By 1909, Wright had begun to reject the upper-middle-class Prairie Style single-family house model, shifting his focus to a more democratic architecture. Wright went to Europe in 1909 with a portfolio of his work and presented it to Berlin publisher Ernst Wasmuth. Studies and Executed Buildings of Frank Lloyd Wright, published in 1911, was the first major exposure of Wright's work in Europe. The work contained more than 100 lithographs of Wright's designs and is commonly known as the Wasmuth Portfolio. Notable public works (1900–1917) Wright designed the house of Cornell's chapter of Alpha Delta Phi literary society (1900), the Hillside Home School II (built for his aunts) in Spring Green, Wisconsin (1901) and the Unity Temple (1905) in Oak Park, Illinois. As a lifelong Unitarian and member of Unity Temple, Wright offered his services to the congregation after their church burned down, working on the building from 1905 to 1909. Wright later said that Unity Temple was the edifice in which he ceased to be an architect of structure, and became an architect of space. Some other early notable public buildings and projects in this era: the Larkin Administration Building (1905); the Geneva Inn (Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, 1911); the Midway Gardens (Chicago, Illinois, 1913); the Banff National Park Pavilion (Alberta, Canada, 1914). Designing in Japan (1917–1922) While working in Japan, Wright left an impressive architectural heritage. The Imperial Hotel, completed in 1923, is the most important. Thanks to its solid foundations and steel construction, the hotel survived the Great Kanto Earthquake almost unscathed. The hotel was damaged during the bombing of Tokyo and by the subsequent US military occupation of it after World War II. As land in the center of Tokyo increased in value the hotel was deemed obsolete and was demolished in 1968 but the lobby was saved and later re-constructed at the Meiji Mura architecture museum in Nagoya in 1976. Jiyu Gakuen was founded as a girls' school in 1921. The construction of the main building began in 1921 under Wright's direction and, after his departure, was continued by Endo. The school building, like the Imperial Hotel, is covered with Ōya stones. The Yodoko Guesthouse (designed in 1918 and completed in 1924) was built as the summer villa for Tadzaemon Yamamura. Frank Lloyd Wright's architecture had a strong influence on young Japanese architects. The Japanese architects Wright commissioned to carry out his designs were Arata Endo, Takehiko Okami, Taue Sasaki and Kameshiro Tsuchiura. Endo supervised the completion of the Imperial Hotel after Wright's departure in 1922 and also supervised the construction of the Jiyu Gakuen Girls' School and the Yodokō Guest House. Tsuchiura went on to create so-called "light" buildings, which had similarities to Wright's later work. Textile concrete block system In the early 1920s, Wright designed a "textile" concrete block system. The system of precast blocks, reinforced by an internal system of bars, enabled "fabrication as infinite in color, texture, and variety as in that rug." Wright first used his textile block system on the Millard House in Pasadena, California, in 1923. Typically Wrightian is the joining of the structure to its site by a series of terraces that reach out into and reorder the landscape, making it an integral part of the architect's vision. With the Ennis House and the Samuel Freeman House (both 1923), Wright had further opportunities to test the limits of the textile block system, including limited use in the Arizona Biltmore Hotel in 1927. The Ennis house is often used in films, television, and print media to represent the future. Wright's son, Lloyd Wright, supervised construction for the Storer, Freeman, and Ennis Houses. Architectural historian Thomas Hines has suggested that Lloyd's contribution to these projects is often overlooked. After World War II, Wright updated the concrete block system, calling it the Usonian Automatic system, resulting in the construction of several notable homes. As he explained in The Natural House (1954), "The original blocks are made on the site by ramming concrete into wood or metal wrap-around forms, with one outside face (which may be pattered), and one rear or inside face, generally coffered, for lightness." Midlife problems Family turmoil In 1903, while Wright was designing a house for Edwin Cheney (a neighbor in Oak Park), he became enamored of Cheney's wife, Mamah. Mamah Borthwick Cheney was a modern woman with interests outside the home. She was an early feminist, and Wright viewed her as his intellectual equal. Their relationship became the talk of the town; they often could be seen taking rides in Wright's automobile through Oak Park. In 1909, Wright and Mamah Cheney met up in Europe, leaving their spouses and children behind. Wright remained in Europe for almost a year, first in Florence, Italy (where he lived with his eldest son Lloyd) and, later, in Fiesole, Italy, where he lived with Mamah. During this time, Edwin Cheney granted Mamah a divorce, though Kitty still refused to grant one to her husband. After Wright returned to the United States in October 1910, he persuaded his mother to buy land for him in Spring Green, Wisconsin. The land, bought on April 10, 1911, was adjacent to land held by his mother's family, the Lloyd-Joneses. Wright began to build himself a new home, which he called , by May 1911. The recurring theme of also came from his mother's side: in Welsh mythology was a poet, magician, and priest. The family motto, "" ("The Truth Against the World"), was taken from the Welsh poet , who also had a son named Taliesin. The motto is still used today as the cry of the druids and chief bard of the in Wales. Tragedy at Taliesin On August 15, 1914, while Wright was working in Chicago, a servant (Julian Carlton) set fire to the living quarters of Taliesin and then murdered seven people with an axe as the fire burned. The dead included Mamah; her two children, John and Martha Cheney; a gardener (David Lindblom); a draftsman (Emil Brodelle); a workman (Thomas Brunker); and another workman's son (Ernest Weston). Two people survived the mayhem, one of whom, William Weston, helped to put out the fire that almost completely consumed the residential wing of the house. Carlton swallowed hydrochloric acid immediately following the attack in an attempt to kill himself. He was nearly lynched on the spot, but was taken to the Dodgeville jail. Carlton died from starvation seven weeks after the attack, despite medical attention. Divorces In 1922, Kitty Wright finally granted Wright a divorce. Under the terms of the divorce, Wright was required to wait one year before he could marry his then-mistress, Maude "Miriam" Noel. In 1923, Wright's mother, Anna (Lloyd Jones) Wright, died. Wright wed Miriam Noel in November 1923, but her addiction to morphine led to the failure of the marriage in less than one year. In 1924, after the separation, but while still married, Wright met Olga (Olgivanna) Lazovich Hinzenburg. They moved in together at Taliesin in 1925, and soon after Olgivanna became pregnant. Their daughter, Iovanna, was born on December 3, 1925. On April 20, 1925, another fire destroyed the bungalow at Taliesin. Crossed wires from a newly installed telephone system were deemed to be responsible for the blaze, which destroyed a collection of Japanese prints that Wright estimated to be worth $250,000 to $500,000 ($ to $ in ). Wright rebuilt the living quarters, naming the home "Taliesin III". In 1926, Olga's ex-husband, Vlademar Hinzenburg, sought custody of his daughter, Svetlana. In October 1926, Wright and Olgivanna were accused of violating the Mann Act and arrested in Tonka Bay, Minnesota. The charges were later dropped. Wright and Miriam Noel's divorce was finalized in 1927. Wright was again required to wait for one year before remarrying. Wright and Olgivanna married in 1928. Later career Taliesin Fellowship In 1932, Wright and his wife Olgivanna put out a call for students to come to Taliesin to study and work under Wright while they learned architecture and spiritual development. Olgivanna Wright had been a student of G. I. Gurdjieff who had previously established a similar school. Twenty-three came to live and work that year, including John (Jack) H. Howe, who would become Wright's chief draftsman. A total of 625 people joined The Fellowship in Wright's lifetime. The Fellowship was a source of workers for Wright's later projects, including: Fallingwater; The Johnson Wax Headquarters; and The Guggenheim Museum in New York City. Considerable controversy exists over the living conditions and education of the fellows. Wright was reputedly a difficult person to work with. One apprentice wrote: "He is devoid of consideration and has a blind spot regarding others' qualities. Yet I believe, that a year in his studio would be worth any sacrifice." The Fellowship evolved into The School of Architecture at Taliesin which was an accredited school until it closed under acrimonious circumstances in 2020.Taking on the name "The School of Architecture" in June 2020, the school moved to the Cosanti Foundation, which it had worked with in the past. Usonian Houses Wright is responsible for a series of concepts of suburban development united under the term Broadacre City. He proposed the idea in his book The Disappearing City in 1932 and unveiled a model of this community of the future, showing it in several venues in the following years. Concurrent with the development of Broadacre City, also referred to as Usonia, Wright conceived a new type of dwelling that came to be known as the Usonian House. Although an early version of the form can be seen in the Malcolm Willey House (1934) in Minneapolis, the Usonian ideal emerged most completely in the Herbert and Katherine Jacobs First House (1937) in Madison, Wisconsin. Designed on a gridded concrete slab that integrated the house's radiant heating system, the house featured new approaches to construction, including walls composed of a "sandwich" of wood siding, plywood cores and building papera significant change from typically framed walls. Usonian houses commonly featured flat roofs and were usually constructed without basements or attics, all features that Wright had been promoting since the early 20th century. Usonian houses were Wright's response to the transformation of domestic life that occurred in the early 20th century when servants had become less prominent or completely absent from most American households. By developing homes with progressively more open plans, Wright allotted the woman of the house a "workspace", as he often called the kitchen, where she could keep track of and be available for the children and/or guests in the dining room. As in the Prairie Houses, Usonian living areas had a fireplace as a point of focus. Bedrooms, typically isolated and relatively small, encouraged the family to gather in the main living areas. The conception of spaces instead of rooms was a development of the Prairie ideal. The built-in furnishings related to the Arts and Crafts movement's principles that influenced Wright's early work. Spatially and in terms of their construction, the Usonian houses represented a new model for independent living and allowed dozens of clients to live in a Wright-designed house at relatively low cost. His Usonian homes set a new style for suburban design that influenced countless postwar developers. Many features of modern American homes date back to Wright: open plans, slab-on-grade foundations, and simplified construction techniques that allowed more mechanization and efficiency in building. Significant later works Fallingwater, one of Wright's most famous private residences (completed 1937), was built for Mr. and Mrs. Edgar J. Kaufmann, Sr., at Mill Run, Pennsylvania. Constructed over a 30-foot waterfall, it was designed according to Wright's desire to place the occupants close to the natural surroundings. The house was intended to be more of a family getaway, rather than a live-in home. The construction is a series of cantilevered balconies and terraces, using limestone for all verticals and concrete for the horizontals. The house cost $155,000 (), including the architect's fee of $8,000 (). It was one of Wright's most expensive pieces. Kaufmann's own engineers argued that the design was not sound. They were overruled by Wright, but the contractor secretly added extra steel to the horizontal concrete elements. In 1994, Robert Silman and Associates examined the building and developed a plan to restore the structure. In the late 1990s, steel supports were added under the lowest cantilever until a detailed structural analysis could be done. In March 2002, post-tensioning of the lowest terrace was completed. Taliesin West, Wright's winter home and studio complex in Scottsdale, Arizona, was a laboratory for Wright from 1937 to his death in 1959. It is now the home of the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation. The design and construction of the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City occupied Wright from 1943 until 1959 and is probably his most recognized masterpiece. The building's unique central geometry was meant to allow visitors to easily experience Guggenheim's collection of nonobjective geometric paintings by taking an elevator to the top level and then viewing artworks by walking down the slowly descending, central spiral ramp. The only realized skyscraper designed by Wright is the Price Tower, a 19-story tower in Bartlesville, Oklahoma. It is also one of the two existing vertically oriented Wright structures (the other is the S.C. Johnson Wax Research Tower in Racine, Wisconsin). The Price Tower was commissioned by Harold C. Price of the H. C. Price Company, a local oil pipeline and chemical firm. On March 29, 2007, Price Tower was designated a National Historic Landmark by the United States Department of the Interior, one of only 20 such properties in Oklahoma. Monona Terrace, originally designed in 1937 as municipal offices for Madison, Wisconsin, was completed in 1997 on the original site, using a variation of Wright's final design for the exterior, with the interior design altered by its new purpose as a convention center. The "as-built" design was carried out by Wright's apprentice Tony Puttnam. Monona Terrace was accompanied by controversy throughout the 60 years between the original design and the completion of the structure. Florida Southern College, located in Lakeland, Florida, constructed 12 (out of 18 planned) Frank Lloyd Wright buildings between 1941 and 1958 as part of the Child of the Sun project. It is the world's largest single-site collection of Frank Lloyd Wright architecture. Personal style and concepts Design elements His Prairie houses use themed, coordinated design elements (often based on plant forms) that are repeated in windows, carpets, and other fittings. He made innovative use of new building materials such as precast concrete blocks, glass bricks, and zinc cames (instead of the traditional lead) for his leadlight windows, and he famously used Pyrex glass tubing as a major element in the Johnson Wax Headquarters. Wright was also one of the first architects to design and install custom-made electric light fittings, including some of the first electric floor lamps, and his very early use of the then-novel spherical glass lampshade (a design previously not possible due to the physical restrictions of gas lighting). In 1897, Wright received a patent for "Prism Glass Tiles" that were used in storefronts to direct light toward the interior. Wright fully embraced glass in his designs and found that it fit well into his philosophy of organic architecture. According to Wright's organic theory, all components of the building should appear unified, as though they belong together. Nothing should be attached to it without considering the effect on the whole. To unify the house to its site, Wright often used large expanses of glass to blur the boundary between the indoors and outdoors. Glass allowed for interaction and viewing of the outdoors while still protecting from the elements. In 1928, Wright wrote an essay on glass in which he compared it to the mirrors of nature: lakes, rivers and ponds. One of Wright's earliest uses of glass in his works was to string panes of glass along whole walls in an attempt to create light screens to join solid walls. By using this large amount of glass, Wright sought to achieve a balance between the lightness and airiness of the glass and the solid, hard walls. Arguably, Wright's best-known art glass is that of the Prairie style. The simple geometric shapes that yield to very ornate and intricate windows represent some of the most integral ornamentation of his career. Wright also designed some of his own clothing. Influences and collaborations Wright strongly believed in individualism and did not affiliate with the American Institute of Architects during his career, going so far as to call the organization "a harbor of refuge for the incompetent," and "a form of refined gangsterism". When an associate referred to him as "an old amateur" Wright confirmed, "I am the oldest." Wright rarely credited any influences on his designs, but most architects, historians and scholars agree he had five major influences: Louis Sullivan, whom he considered to be his Lieber Meister (dear master) Nature, particularly shapes/forms and colors/patterns of plant life Music (his favorite composer was Ludwig van Beethoven) Japanese art, prints and buildings Froebel gifts Wright was given a set of Froebel gifts at about age nine, and in his autobiography he cited them indirectly in explaining that he learned the geometry of architecture in kindergarten play: Wright later wrote, "The virtue of all this lay in the awakening of the child-mind to rhythmic structures in Nature… I soon became susceptible to constructive pattern evolving in everything I saw." He routinely claimed the work of architects and architectural designers who were his employees as his own designs, and believed that the rest of the Prairie School architects were merely his followers, imitators, and subordinates. As with any architect, though, Wright worked in a collaborative process and drew his ideas from the work of others. In his earlier days, Wright worked with some of the top architects of the Chicago School, including Sullivan. In his Prairie School days, Wright's office was populated by many talented architects, including William Eugene Drummond, John Van Bergen, Isabel Roberts, Francis Barry Byrne, Albert McArthur, Marion Mahony Griffin, and Walter Burley Griffin. The Czech-born architect Antonin Raymond worked for Wright at Taliesin and led the construction of the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo. He subsequently stayed in Japan and opened his own practice. Rudolf Schindler also worked for Wright on the Imperial Hotel and his own work is often credited as influencing Wright's Usonian houses. Schindler's friend Richard Neutra also worked briefly for Wright and became an internationally successful architect. In the Taliesin days, Wright employed many architects and artists who later become notable, such as Aaron Green, John Lautner, E. Fay Jones, Henry Klumb, William Bernoudy, John Underhill Ottenheimer, and Paolo Soleri. Japanese art Wright was a passionate Japanophile — he once proclaimed Japan to be "the most romantic, artistic, nature-inspired country on earth" — and throughout his entire career, Japanese art and architecture held a strong sway over him. He was particularly interested in woodblock prints, to which he claimed he was "enslaved." Wright spent much of his free time selling, collecting, and appreciating these prints — he held parties and other events centered around them, proclaiming their pedagogical value to his guests and students, and before arriving in Japan, his impressions of the nation were based almost entirely on them. Wright found particular inspiration in the formal aspects of Japanese art. He described prints as "organic," because of their understatedness, harmony, and ability to be appreciated on a purely aesthetic level. Additionally, he cherished their freeform compositions, where elements of the scene would frequently breach in front of one another, and their lack of extraneous detail, which he called a "gospel of elimination." His interpretation of (tea ceremony venues), mediated by the ideas of Okakura Kakuzō, was that of an architecture which emphasized openness, the "vacant space between the roof and walls." Wright applied these principles on a large scale, and they became trademarks of his practice. Wright's floor plans exhibit strong similarities to their presumed Japanese forebears. The open living spaces of his early homes were likely appropriated from the World's Columbian Exposition's Ho-O-Den Pavilion, whose sliding-screen dividers were removed in preparation for the event. Likewise, Unity Temple follows a layout, characteristic of Shinto shrines and likely inspired by his 1905 visit to the Rinnō-ji temple complex, and the shape of many of his cantilevered towers, including the Johnson Research Tower, may have been inspired by Japanese pagodas. Wright's ornamental flourishes, as seen in his leaded glass windows and lively architectural drawings, demonstrate a technical indebtedness to . One modern commentator, discussing the Robie House, suggests that such elements combined allow Wright's architecture to exhibit , a particularly Japanese aesthetic value marked by a subdued stylishness. His ideas about the art of Japan appear to have drawn greatly from the activities of Ernest Fenollosa, whose work he likely first encountered between 1890 and 1893. Many of Fenollosa's ideas are quite similar to those of Wright: these include his view of architecture as a "mother art," his condemnation of the West's "separation of construction and decoration," and his identification of an "organic wholeness" within prints. Also like Wright, Fenollosa perceived a "degeneracy" in Western architecture, with particular emphasis on Renaissance architecture; Wright himself admitted that Japanese prints helped to "vulgarize" the Renaissance for him. Wright's art criticism treatise, The Japanese Print: An Interpretation, may be read as a straightforward expansion upon Fenollosa's ideas. Though Wright always acknowledged his indebtedness to Japanese art and architecture, he took offense to claims that he copied or adapted it. In his view, Japanese art simply validated his personal principles especially well, and as such it was not a source of special inspiration. Responding to a claim by Charles Robert Ashbee that he was "trying to adapt Japanese forms to the United States," Wright said that such borrowing was "against [his] very religion." Nonetheless, his insistence did not stop others from observing the same throughout his life. Community planning Frank Lloyd Wright was interested in site and community planning throughout his career. His commissions and theories on urban design began as early as 1900 and continued until his death. He had 41 commissions on the scale of community planning or urban design. His thoughts on suburban design started in 1900 with a proposed subdivision layout for Charles E. Roberts entitled the "Quadruple Block Plan". This design strayed from traditional suburban lot layouts and set houses on small square blocks of four equal-sized lots surrounded on all sides by roads instead of straight rows of houses on parallel streets. The houses, which used the same design as published in "A Home in a Prairie Town" from the Ladies' Home Journal, were set toward the center of the block to maximize the yard space and included private space in the center. This also allowed for far more interesting views from each house. Although this plan was never realized, Wright published the design in the Wasmuth Portfolio in 1910. The more ambitious designs of entire communities were exemplified by his entry into the City Club of Chicago Land Development Competition in 1913. The contest was for the development of a suburban quarter section. This design expanded on the Quadruple Block Plan and included several social levels. The design shows the placement of the upscale homes in the most desirable areas and the blue collar homes and apartments separated by parks and common spaces. The design also included all the amenities of a small city: schools, museums, markets, etc. This view of decentralization was later reinforced by theoretical Broadacre City design. The philosophy behind his community planning was decentralization. The new development must be away from the cities. In this decentralized America, all services and facilities could coexist "factories side by side with farm and home". Notable community planning designs: 1900–03 – Quadruple Block Plan, 24 homes in Oak Park, Illinois (unbuilt); 1909 – Como Orchard Summer Colony, town site development for new town in the Bitterroot Valley, Montana; 1913 – Chicago Land Development competition, suburban Chicago quarter section; 1934–59 – Broadacre City, theoretical decentralized city plan, exhibits of large-scale model; 1938 – Suntop Homes, also known as Cloverleaf Quadruple Housing Project – commission from Federal Works Agency, Division of Defense Housing, a low-cost multifamily housing alternative to suburban development; 1942 – Cooperative Homesteads, commissioned by a group of auto workers, teachers and other professionals, 160-acre farm co-op was to be the pioneer of rammed earth and earth berm construction (unbuilt); 1945 – Usonia Homes, 47 homes (three designed by Wright) in Pleasantville, New York; 1949 – The Acres, also known as Galesburg Country Homes, five homes (four designed by Wright) in Charleston Township, Michigan; 1949 – Parkwyn neighborhood, a plat in Kalamazoo, Michigan, developed by Wright containing mostly Usonian homes on circular lots with common spaces in between (since replatted). Personal life and death Wright's fashion sense was unique and he usually wore expensive suits, flowing neckties, and capes. He also had a fascination with automobiles, purchasing his first car in 1909, a Stoddard-Dayton roadster, and owned many exotic vehicles over the years. During the cash-strapped Depression, Wright drove cheaper vehicles. Some of his last cars in the 1950s included four Volkswagens and a Chevrolet Nomad station wagon along with flashier articles such as a Jaguar Mark VII. He owned some 50 cars between 1909 and his death, of which 10 are known to survive. Family Frank Lloyd Wright was married three times, fathering four sons and three daughters. He also adopted Svetlana Milanoff, the daughter of his third wife, Olgivanna Lloyd Wright. His wives were: Catherine "Kitty" (Tobin) Wright (1871–1959); social worker, socialite (married in June 1889; divorced November 1922) Maude "Miriam" (Noel) Wright (1869–1930), artist (married in November 1923; divorced August 1927) Olga Ivanovna "Olgivanna" (Lazovich Milanoff) Lloyd Wright (1897–1985), dancer and writer (married in August 1928) His children with Catherine were: Frank Lloyd Wright Jr., known as Lloyd Wright (1890–1978), became a notable architect in Los Angeles. Lloyd's son, Eric Lloyd Wright (1929–2023), was an architect in Malibu, California, specializing in residences, but also designed civic and commercial buildings. John Lloyd Wright (1892–1972), invented Lincoln Logs in 1918, and practiced architecture extensively in the San Diego area. John's daughter, Elizabeth Wright Ingraham (1922–2013), was an architect in Colorado Springs, Colorado. She was the mother of Christine, an interior designer in Connecticut, and Catherine, an architecture professor at the Pratt Institute. Catherine Wright Baxter (1894–1979) was a homemaker and the mother of Oscar-winning actress Anne Baxter. David Samuel Wright (1895–1997) was a building-products representative for whom Wright designed the David & Gladys Wright House, which was rescued from demolition and given to the Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture. Frances Wright Caroe (1898–1959) was an arts administrator. Robert Llewellyn Wright (1903–1986) was an attorney for whom Wright designed a house in Bethesda, Maryland. His children with Olgivanna were: Svetlana Peters (1917–1946, adopted daughter of Olgivanna) was a musician who died in an automobile accident with her son Daniel. After Svetlana's death her other son, Brandoch Peters (1942– ), was raised by Frank and Olgivanna. Svetlana's widower, William Wesley Peters, was later briefly married to Svetlana Alliluyeva, the youngest child and only daughter of Joseph Stalin. Peters served as chairman of the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation from 1985 to 1991. Iovanna Lloyd Wright (1925–2015) was an artist and musician. As an art dealer Though most famous as an architect, Wright was also an active dealer in Japanese art, primarily . He frequently served as both architect and art dealer to the same clients: he designed a home, then provided the art to fill it. For a time, Wright made more from selling art than from his work as an architect. He also kept a personal collection, which he used as a teaching aid with his apprentices in what were called "print parties," and to better suit his taste, he sometimes modified these personal prints using colored pencils and crayons. Wright owned prints from masters such as Okumura Masanobu, Torii Kiyomasu I, Katsukawa Shunshō, Utagawa Toyoharu, Utagawa Kunisada, Katsushika Hokusai, and Utagawa Hiroshige; he was especially fond of Hiroshige, whom he considered "the greatest artist in the world." Wright first traveled to Japan in 1905, where he bought hundreds of prints. The following year, he helped organize the world's first retrospective exhibition on Hiroshige, held at the Art Institute of Chicago, a job which strengthened his reputation as an expert in Japanese art. Wright did not cease buying prints in his return trips to Japan, and for many years, he was a major presence in the art world, selling a great number of works both to prominent private collectors and to museums such as the Metropolitan Museum of Art. In sum, Wright spent over five hundred thousand dollars on prints between 1905 and 1923. He penned a book on Japanese art, The Japanese Print: An Interpretation, in 1912. In 1920, many of the prints Wright sold had been found to exhibit signs of retouching, including pinholes and unoriginal pigments. These retouched prints were likely made in retribution by some of his Japanese dealers, who were disgruntled by the architect's under-the-table sales. In an attempt to clear his name, Wright took one of his dealers, Kyūgo Hayashi, to court over the issue; Hayashi was subsequently sentenced to one year in prison, and barred from selling prints for an extended period of time. Though Wright protested his innocence, and provided his clients with genuine prints as replacements for those he was accused of retouching, the incident marked the end of the high point of his career as an art dealer. He was forced to sell off much of his art collection to pay off outstanding debts: in 1928, the Bank of Wisconsin claimed Taliesin and sold thousands of his prints — for only one dollar a piece — to collector Edward Burr Van Vleck. Nonetheless, Wright continued to collect and deal in prints until his death in 1959, using them as bartering chips and collateral for loans; he often relied upon his art business to remain financially solvent. He once claimed that Taliesin I and II were "practically built" by his prints. The extent of his dealings in Japanese art went largely unknown, or underestimated, among art historians for decades. In 1980, Julia Meech, then associate curator of Japanese art at the Metropolitan Museum, began researching the history of the museum's collection of Japanese prints. She discovered "a three-inch-deep 'clump of 400 cards' from 1918, each listing a print bought from the same seller — 'F. L. Wright'" — and a number of letters exchanged between Wright and the museum's first curator of Far Eastern Art, Sigisbert C. Bosch Reitz. These discoveries and subsequent research led to a renewed understanding of Wright's career as an art dealer. Death On April 4, 1959, Wright was hospitalized for abdominal pains and was operated on April 6. He seemed to be recovering, but he died quietly on April 9 at the age of 91 years. The New York Times then reported he was 89. After his death, Wright's legacy was plagued with turmoil for years. His third wife Olgivanna's dying wish had been that she and Wright, and her daughter by her first marriage, would all be cremated and interred together in a memorial garden being built at Taliesin West. According to his own wishes, Wright's body had lain in the Lloyd-Jones cemetery, next to the Unity Chapel, within view of Taliesin in Wisconsin. Although Olgivanna had taken no legal steps to move Wright's remains (and against the wishes of other family members and the Wisconsin legislature), his remains were removed from his grave in 1985 by members of the Taliesin Fellowship. They were cremated and sent to Scottsdale where they were later interred as per Olgivanna's instructions. The original grave site in Wisconsin is now empty but is still marked with Wright's name. Legacy Archives After Wright's death, most of his archives were stored at the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation in Taliesin (in Wisconsin), and Taliesin West (in Arizona). These collections included more than 23,000 architectural drawings, some 44,000 photographs, 600 manuscripts, and more than 300,000 pieces of office and personal correspondence. It also contained about 40 large-scale architectural models, most of which were constructed for MoMA's retrospective of Wright in 1940. In 2012, to guarantee a high level of conservation and access, as well as to transfer the considerable financial burden of maintaining the archive, the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation partnered with the Museum of Modern Art and the Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library to move the archive's content to New York. Wright's furniture and art collection remains with the foundation, which will also have a role in monitoring the archive. These three parties established an advisory group to oversee exhibitions, symposiums, events, and publications. Photographs and other archival materials are held by the Ryerson and Burnham Libraries at the Art Institute of Chicago. The architect's personal archives are located at Taliesin West in Scottsdale, Arizona. The Frank Lloyd Wright archives include photographs of his drawings, indexed correspondence beginning in the 1880s and continuing through Wright's life, and other ephemera. The Getty Research Center, Los Angeles, also has copies of Wright's correspondence and photographs of his drawings in their Frank Lloyd Wright Special Collection. Wright's correspondence is indexed in An Index to the Taliesin Correspondence, ed. by Professor Anthony Alofsin, which is available at larger libraries. Destroyed Wright buildings Wright designed over 400 built structures of which about 300 survived . At least five have been lost to forces of nature: the waterfront house for W. L. Fuller in Pass Christian, Mississippi, destroyed by Hurricane Camille in August 1969; the Louis Sullivan Bungalow of Ocean Springs, Mississippi, destroyed by Hurricane Katrina in 2005; and the Arinobu Fukuhara House (1918) in Hakone, Japan, destroyed in the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake. In January 2006, the Wilbur Wynant House in Gary, Indiana was destroyed by fire. In 2018 the Arch Oboler complex in Malibu, California was gutted in the Woolsey Fire. Many other notable Wright buildings were intentionally demolished: Midway Gardens (built 1913, demolished 1929), the Larkin Administration Building (built 1903, demolished 1950), the Francis Apartments and Francisco Terrace Apartments (Chicago, built 1895, demolished 1971 and 1974, respectively), the Geneva Inn (Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, built 1911, demolished 1970), and the Banff National Park Pavilion (built 1914, demolished 1934). The Imperial Hotel (built 1923) survived the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake, but was demolished in 1968 due to urban developmental pressures. The Hoffman Auto Showroom in New York City (built 1954) was demolished in 2013. Unbuilt, or posthumously built Several of Wright's projects were either built after his death, or remain unbuilt. These include: Crystal Heights, a large mixed-use development in Washington, D.C., 1940 (unbuilt) The Illinois, mile-high tower in Chicago, 1956 (unbuilt) Marin County Civic Center, a municipal complex in San Rafael, California; groundbreaking occurred just one year after Wright's death Monona Terrace, convention center in Madison, Wisconsin; designed 1938–1959, built in 1997 Clubhouse at the Nakoma Golf Resort, Plumas County, California; designed in 1923, opened in 2000 Passive Solar Hemi-Cycle Home in Hawaii; designed in 1954, built in 1995 Recognition Later in his life (and after his death in 1959), Wright was accorded significant honorary recognition for his lifetime achievements. He received a Gold Medal award from The Royal Institute of British Architects in 1941. The American Institute of Architects awarded him the AIA Gold Medal in 1949. That medal was a symbolic "burying the hatchet" between Wright and the AIA. In a radio interview, he commented, "Well, the AIA I never joined, and they know why. When they gave me the gold medal in Houston, I told them frankly why. Feeling that the architecture profession is all that's the matter with architecture, why should I join them?" He was awarded the Franklin Institute's Frank P. Brown Medal in 1953. He received honorary degrees from several universities (including his alma mater, the University of Wisconsin), and several nations named him as an honorary board member to their national academies of art and/or architecture. In 2000, Fallingwater was named "The Building of the 20th century" in an unscientific "Top-Ten" poll taken by members attending the AIA annual convention in Philadelphia. On that list, Wright was listed along with many of the USA's other greatest architects including Eero Saarinen, I.M. Pei, Louis Kahn, Philip Johnson, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe; he was the only architect who had more than one building on the list. The other three buildings were the Guggenheim Museum, the Frederick C. Robie House, and the Johnson Wax Building. In 1992, the Madison Opera in Madison, Wisconsin, commissioned and premiered the opera Shining Brow, by composer Daron Hagen and librettist Paul Muldoon based on events early in Wright's life. The work has since received numerous revivals, including a June 2013 revival at Fallingwater, in Bull Run, Pennsylvania, by Opera Theater of Pittsburgh. In 2000, Work Song: Three Views of Frank Lloyd Wright, a play based on the relationship between the personal and working aspects of Wright's life, debuted at the Milwaukee Repertory Theater. In 1966, the United States Postal Service honored Wright with a Prominent Americans series 2¢ postage stamp. "So Long, Frank Lloyd Wright" is a song written by Paul Simon. Art Garfunkel has stated that the origin of the song came from his request that Simon write a song about the famous architect Frank Lloyd Wright. Simon himself stated that he knew nothing about Wright, but proceeded to write the song anyway. In 1957, Arizona made plans to construct a new capitol building. Believing that the submitted plans for the new capitol were tombs to the past, Frank Lloyd Wright offered Oasis as an alternative to the people of Arizona. In 2004, one of the spires included in his design was erected in Scottsdale. The city of Scottsdale, Arizona renamed a portion of Bell Road, a major east–west thoroughfare in the Phoenix metropolitan area, in honor of Frank Lloyd Wright. Eight of Wright's buildings – Fallingwater, the Guggenheim Museum, the Hollyhock House, the Jacobs House, the Robie House, Taliesin, Taliesin West, and the Unity Temple – were inscribed on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites under the title The 20th-century Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright in July 2019. UNESCO stated that these buildings were "innovative solutions to the needs for housing, worship, work or leisure" and "had a strong impact on the development of modern architecture in Europe". Selected works Books Ausgeführte Bauten und Entwürfe von Frank Lloyd Wright (Wasmuth Portfolio) (1910) An Organic Architecture: The Architecture of Democracy (1939) In the Cause of Architecture: Essays by Frank Lloyd Wright for Architectural Record 1908–1952 (1987) Visions of Wright: Photographs by Farrell Grehan, Introduction by Terence Riley (1997) Buildings Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio, Oak Park, Illinois, 1889–1909 William H. Winslow House, River Forest, Illinois, 1894 Frank Thomas House, Oak Park, Illinois, 1901 Ward Winfield Willits Residence, and Gardener's Cottage and Stables, Highland Park, Illinois, 1901 Dana–Thomas House, Springfield, Illinois, 1902 Larkin Administration Building, Buffalo, New York, 1903 (demolished, 1950) Darwin D. Martin House, Buffalo, New York, 1903–1905 Unity Temple, Oak Park, Illinois, 1904 Dr. G.C. Stockman House, Mason City, Iowa, 1908 Cedar Rock, Lowell E. Walter House, Quasqueton, Iowa, 1950 Douglas and Charlotte Grant House, Marion, Iowa, 1951 Edward E. Boynton House, Rochester, New York, 1908 Frederick C. Robie Residence, Chicago, Illinois, 1909 Park Inn Hotel, the last standing Wright designed hotel, Mason City, Iowa, 1910 Taliesin, Spring Green, Wisconsin, 1911 & 1925 Midway Gardens, Chicago, Illinois, 1913 (demolished, 1929) Hollyhock House (Aline Barnsdall Residence), Los Angeles, 1919–1921 Ennis House, Los Angeles, 1923 Imperial Hotel, Tokyo, Japan, 1923 (demolished, 1968; entrance hall reconstructed at Meiji Mura near Nagoya, Japan, 1976) Graycliff, Derby, New York, 1926 Westhope (Richard Lloyd Jones Residence, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 1929 Malcolm Willey House 1934, Minneapolis, Minnesota Fallingwater (Edgar J. Kaufmann Sr. Residence), Mill Run, Pennsylvania, 1935–1937 Johnson Wax Headquarters, Racine, Wisconsin, 1936 First Jacobs House, Madison, Wisconsin, 1936–1937 Usonian homes, various locations, 1930s–1950s Taliesin West, Scottsdale, Arizona, 1937 Herbert F. Johnson Residence ("Wingspread"), Wind Point, Wisconsin, 1937 Ben Rebhuhn House, Great Neck Estates, New York, 1938 Pope–Leighey House, Alexandria, Virginia, 1941 Child of the Sun, Florida Southern College, Lakeland, Florida, 1941–1958, site of the largest collection of the architect's work First Unitarian Society of Madison, Shorewood Hills, Wisconsin, 1947 V. C. Morris Gift Shop, San Francisco, 1948 Kenneth Laurent House, Rockford, Illinois, only home Wright designed to be handicapped accessible, 1951 Patrick and Margaret Kinney House, Lancaster, Wisconsin, 1951–1953 Lindholm House (Mäntylä), Minnesota, 1952 Bachman-Wilson House, 1952 (Reconstructed at Crystal Bridges Museum of Art, Bentonville, Arkansas 2015) Price Tower, Bartlesville, Oklahoma, 1952–1956 Beth Sholom Synagogue, Elkins Park, Pennsylvania, 1954 Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church, Wauwatosa, Wisconsin, 1956–1961 Kentuck Knob, Ohiopyle, Pennsylvania, 1956 Marshall Erdman Prefab Houses, various locations, 1956–1960 Duncan House, Lisle, Illinois, 1957 Marin County Civic Center, San Rafael, California, 1957–1966 R.W. Lindholm Service Station, Cloquet, Minnesota, 1958 Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York City, 1956–1959 Gammage Auditorium, Tempe, Arizona, 1959–1964 See also Richard Bock Frank Lloyd Wright Building Conservancy Frank Lloyd Wright-Prairie School of Architecture Historic District George Mann Niedecken List of Frank Lloyd Wright works List of Frank Lloyd Wright works by location Jaroslav Joseph Polivka Roman brick The 20th-century Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright (UNESCO World Heritage site) :Category:Frank Lloyd Wright buildings References Further reading Wright's philosophy Hoffmann, Donald. Understanding Frank Lloyd Wright's Architecture. New York: Dover Publications, 1995. Kienitz, John Fabian. "Fifty-two years of Frank Lloyd Wright's progressivism, 1893–1945". Wisconsin Magazine of History, vol. 29, no. 1 (September 1945):61–71. McCarter, Robert (ed.). Frank Lloyd Wright: A Primer on Architectural Principles. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1991. Meehan, Patrick, ed. Truth Against the World: Frank Lloyd Wright Speaks for an Organic Architecture. New York: Wiley, 1987. Rosenbaum, Alvin. Usonia : Frank Lloyd Wright's Design for America. Washington, DC: Preservation Press, 1993. Sergeant, John. Frank Lloyd Wright's Usonian Houses: The Case for Organic Architecture. New York: Watson-Guptill, 1984. Wright, Frank Lloyd. "In the Cause of Architecture", Architectural Record, March 1908. Reprinted in Frank Lloyd Wright: Collected Writings, vol. 1: 1894–1930. New York: Rizzoli, 1992. Wright, Frank Lloyd. The Natural House. New York: Horizon Press, 1954. Biographies Alofsin, Anthony. Frank Lloyd Wright: the Lost Years, 1910–1922: A Study of Influence. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. Alofsin, Anthony. Wright and New York: The Making of America's Architect. Yale University Press, 2019. Farr, Finis. Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography. New York: Scribner, 1961. Friedland, Roger and Harold Zellman. The Fellowship: The Untold Story of Frank Lloyd Wright and the Taliesin Fellowship. New York: Regan Books, 2006. Gill, Brendan. Many Masks: A Life of Frank Lloyd Wright. New York: Putnam, 1987. Huxtable, Ada Louise. Frank Lloyd Wright. New York: Lipper/Viking, 2004. Nisbet, Earl. Taliesin Reflections: My Years Before, During, and After Living with Frank Lloyd Wright. Petaluma, Calif.: Meridian Press, 2006. Russell, Virginia L. "You Dear Old Prima Donna: The Letters of Frank Lloyd Wright and Jens Jensen", Landscape Journal, 20.2 (2001): 141–155. Seckel, Harry. "Frank Lloyd Wright". The North American Review, vol. 246, no. 1 (1938): 48–64. Secrest, Meryle. Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography. New York: Knopf, 1992. Treiber, Daniel. Frank Lloyd Wright. 2nd ed. Basel: Birkhäuser, 2008. Twombly, Robert C. Frank Lloyd Wright: His Life and Architecture. New York: Wiley, 1979. Wright, Frank Lloyd. Frank Lloyd Wright: An Autobiography. New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1943. Wright, Iovanna Lloyd. Architecture: Man in Possession of His Earth. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1962. Wright, John Lloyd. My Father Who Is On Earth. New York: G.P. Putnam's sons, 1946. Frank Lloyd Wright – American Architect Surveys of Wright's work Clearly, Richard. Frank Lloyd Wright: From Within Outward. Skira Rizzoli, 2009. Betsky, Aaron, Gideon Fink Shapiro, Andrew Pielage. 50 Lessons to Learn from Frank Lloyd Wright: Rizzoli, 2021. Aguar, Charles and Berdeana Aguar. Wrightscapes: Frank Lloyd Wright's Landscape Designs. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002. Blake, Peter. Frank Lloyd Wright: Architecture and Space. Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1964. Fell, Derek. The Gardens of Frank Lloyd Wright. London: Frances Lincoln, 2009. Heinz, Thomas A. Frank Lloyd Wright Field Guide. Chichester, West Sussex: Academy Editions, 1999. Hildebrand, Grant. The Wright Space: Pattern and Meaning in Frank Lloyd Wright's Houses. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991. Larkin, David and Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer. Frank Lloyd Wright: The Masterworks. New York: Rizzoli, 1993. Levine, Neil. The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996. Lind, Carla. Frank Lloyd Wright's Glass Designs. San Francisco: Pomegranate Artbooks, 1995. McCarter, Robert. Frank Lloyd Wright. London: Phaidon Press, 1997. Pfeiffer, Bruce Brooks. Frank Lloyd Wright, 1867–1959: Building for Democracy. Los Angeles: Taschen, 2004. Pfeiffer, Bruce Brooks and Peter Gössel (eds.). Frank Lloyd Wright: The Complete Works. Los Angeles: Taschen, 2009. Riley, Terence and Peter Reed (eds.). Frank Lloyd Wright: Architect. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1994. Smith, Kathryn. Frank Lloyd Wright: America's Master Architect. New York: Abbeville Press, 1998. Storrer, William Allin. The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright: A Complete Catalog. 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007. Storrer, William Allin. The Frank Lloyd Wright Companion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. Selected books about specific Wright projects Lind, Carla. Frank Lloyd Wright's Usonian Houses. San Francisco: Promegranate Artbooks, 1994. Toker, Franklin. Fallingwater Rising: Frank Lloyd Wright, E. J. Kaufmann, and America's Most Extraordinary House. New York: Alford A. Knopf, 2003. Whiting, Henry, II. At Nature's Edge: Frank Lloyd Wright's Artist Studio. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2007. The women in his life External links Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation official website Guide to the Photographs of Frank Lloyd Wright 1950 May 16 Taliesin Preservation, stewards of Wright's home Taliesin The Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation Archives at Columbia University Frank Lloyd Wright documents at the Wisconsin Historical Society Frank Lloyd Wright Building Conservancy Frank Lloyd Wright Preservation Trust – FLW Home and Studio, Robie House Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture Frank Lloyd Wright Wisconsin Heritage Tourism Program Frank Lloyd Wright – PBS documentary by Ken Burns and resources Frank Lloyd Wright. Designs for an American Landscape 1922–1932 Frank Lloyd Wright Buildings Recorded by the Historic American Buildings Survey Frank Lloyd Wright – Famous Interior Designers Complete list of Wright buildings by location Sullivan, Wright, Prairie School, & Organic Architecture Audio interview with Martin Filler on Frank Lloyd Wright from The New York Review of Books Frank Lloyd Wright and Quebec Frank Lloyd Wright interviewed by Mike Wallace on The Mike Wallace Interview recorded September 1 & 28, 1957 Interactive Map of Frank Lloyd Wright Buildings, created in the Harvard WorldMap Platform Map of the Frank Lloyd Wright works – Wikiartmap, the art map of the public space Fay Jones and Frank Lloyd Wright: Organic Architecture Comes to Arkansas digital exhibit, University of Arkansas Libraries Frank Lloyd Wright's Personal Manuscripts and Letters Passive Solar Hemi-Cycle Home in Hawaii, designed in 1954, built in 1995; only Wright home in Hawaii. Interactive Tour. Taylor A. Woolley Papers at University of Utah Digital Library, Marriott Library Special Collections Wright's TokaidoFLLW's annotated Hiroshige albumdocumentary at hiroshige.org.uk Category:1867 births Category:1959 deaths Category:20th-century American architects Category:American architecture writers Category:American Christian pacifists Category:American furniture designers Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:American people of English descent Category:American people of Welsh descent Category:American stained glass artists and manufacturers Category:American Unitarians Category:Architects from Chicago Category:Architects from Wisconsin Category:Architectural theoreticians Category:Architecture educators Category:Artists from Oak Park, Illinois Category:Artists from Phoenix, Arizona Category:Modernist architects from the United States Category:Organic architecture Category:People from Richland Center, Wisconsin Category:People from Scottsdale, Arizona Category:People from Spring Green, Wisconsin Category:Prairie School architecture Category:Recipients of the Royal Gold Medal Category:University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni Category:Writers from Oak Park, Illinois Category:Recipients of the AIA Gold Medal Category:Authors of utopian literature
[]
[ "Wright grew up in Weymouth, Massachusetts, and later in Spring Green, Wisconsin.", "The text does not provide specific details on what Wright did while growing up in Weymouth, Massachusetts, and Spring Green, Wisconsin.", "After his family returned to Spring Green, Wisconsin from Weymouth, they settled in Madison where his father, William, taught music lessons and served as the secretary to the newly formed Unitarian society. When Wright turned 14, his parents separated and finalized their divorce in 1885, after which Wright claimed he never saw his father again. At this time, he changed his middle name from Lincoln to Lloyd in honor of his mother's family, the Lloyd Joneses.", "The text does not provide specific information on what Wright did after changing his middle name from Lincoln to Lloyd and his parents' separation.", "The text does not provide information about Wright's education.", "Yes, there is a significant element in his childhood related to his mother Anna, who exposed him to the world of design early on. She visited the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia where she bought an educational toy, the Froebel Gifts. These were a set of blocks created by Friedrich Wilhelm August Frobel as part of his innovative kindergarten curriculum. The set contained geometrically shaped blocks that could be assembled into three-dimensional compositions. Wright spent much time playing with these blocks, and he later acknowledged in his autobiography that these exercises had a deep influence on his approach to design. Many of Wright's buildings are notable for their geometrical clarity, which can be traced back to his experiences with Froebel's blocks." ]
[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "no", "Yes", "No" ]
C_297932ffbf9f4c9da98b47ca92639d95_0
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, (1 May 1769 - 14 September 1852), was an Anglo-Irish soldier and statesman who was one of the leading military and political figures of 19th-century Britain, serving twice as Prime Minister. His defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 puts him in the first rank of Britain's military heroes. Wellesley was born in Dublin, into the Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. He was commissioned as an ensign in the British Army in 1787, serving in Ireland as aide-de-camp to two successive Lords Lieutenant of Ireland.
Early career
Despite his new promise, he had yet to find a job and his family was still short of money, so upon the advice of his mother, his brother Richard asked his friend the Duke of Rutland (then Lord Lieutenant of Ireland) to consider Arthur for a commission in the Army. Soon afterward, on 7 March 1787, he was gazetted ensign in the 73rd Regiment of Foot. In October, with the assistance of his brother, he was assigned as aide-de-camp, on ten shillings a day (twice his pay as an ensign), to the new Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Buckingham. He was also transferred to the new 76th Regiment forming in Ireland and on Christmas Day, 1787, was promoted to lieutenant. During his time in Dublin his duties were mainly social; attending balls, entertaining guests and providing advice to Buckingham. While in Ireland, he overextended himself in borrowing due to his occasional gambling, but in his defence stated that "I have often known what it was to be in want of money, but I have never got helplessly into debt". On 23 January 1788, he transferred into the 41st Regiment of Foot, then again on 25 June 1789, still a lieutenant, he transferred to the 12th (Prince of Wales's) Regiment of (Light) Dragoons and, according to military historian Richard Holmes, he also dipped a reluctant toe into politics. Shortly before the general election of 1789, he went to the rotten borough of Trim to speak against the granting of the title "Freeman" of Dublin to the parliamentary leader of the Irish Patriot Party, Henry Grattan. Succeeding, he was later nominated and duly elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Trim in the Irish House of Commons. Because of the limited suffrage at the time, he sat in a parliament where at least two-thirds of the members owed their election to the landowners of fewer than a hundred boroughs. Wellesley continued to serve at Dublin Castle, voting with the government in the Irish parliament over the next two years. He became a captain on 30 January 1791, and was transferred to the 58th Regiment of Foot. On 31 October, he transferred to the 18th Light Dragoons and it was during this period that he grew increasingly attracted to Kitty Pakenham, the daughter of Edward Pakenham, 2nd Baron Longford. She was described as being full of 'gaiety and charm'. In 1793, he sought her hand, but was turned down by her brother Thomas, Earl of Longford, who considered Wellesley to be a young man, in debt, with very poor prospects. An aspiring amateur musician, Wellesley, devastated by the rejection, burnt his violins in anger, and resolved to pursue a military career in earnest. He became a major by purchase in the 33rd Regiment in 1793. A few months later, in September, his brother lent him more money and with it he purchased a lieutenant-colonelcy in the 33rd. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "What did important role did Wellesley have early in his career?", "How did his role in the Army help shape his career later in life?", "were there anyone who opposed his views or role?", "did he win any awards or recognition for his role?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "did he have any children or marry?", "Did he ever change careers or levels of interest?", "did his parents support his growing role?", "How was his personality was he a likable character?" ]
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Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, (1 May 1769 – 14 September 1852) was a Anglo-Irish statesman, soldier, and Tory politician who was one of the leading military and political figures of 19th-century Britain, serving twice as prime minister of the United Kingdom. He is among the commanders who won and ended the Napoleonic Wars when the Seventh Coalition defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. Wellesley was born in Dublin into the Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. He was commissioned as an ensign in the British Army in 1787, serving in Ireland as aide-de-camp to two successive lords lieutenant of Ireland. He was also elected as a member of Parliament in the Irish House of Commons. He was a colonel by 1796 and saw action in the Netherlands and in India, where he fought in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War at the Battle of Seringapatam. He was appointed governor of Seringapatam and Mysore in 1799 and, as a newly appointed major-general, won a decisive victory over the Maratha Confederacy at the Battle of Assaye in 1803. Wellesley rose to prominence as a general during the Peninsular campaign of the Napoleonic Wars, and was promoted to the rank of field marshal after leading the allied forces to victory against the French Empire at the Battle of Vitoria in 1813. Following Napoleon's exile in 1814, he served as the ambassador to France and was granted a dukedom. During the Hundred Days in 1815, he commanded the allied army which, together with a Prussian Army under Field Marshal Gebhard von Blücher, defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. Wellington's battle record is exemplary; he ultimately participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career. Wellington is famous for his adaptive defensive style of warfare, resulting in several victories against numerically superior forces while minimising his own losses. He is regarded as one of the greatest defensive commanders of all time, and many of his tactics and battle plans are still studied in military academies around the world. After the end of his active military career, he returned to politics. He was twice British prime minister as a member of the Tory party from 1828 to 1830 and for a little less than a month in 1834. He oversaw the passage of the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, but opposed the Reform Act 1832. He continued as one of the leading figures in the House of Lords until his retirement and remained Commander-in-Chief of the British Army until his death. Early life Family Wellesley was born into an aristocratic Anglo-Irish family, belonging to the Protestant Ascendancy, in Ireland as The Hon. Arthur Wesley. Wellesley was born the son of Anne Wellesley, Countess of Mornington and Garret Wesley, 1st Earl of Mornington. His father, Garret Wesley, was the son of Richard Wesley, 1st Baron Mornington and had a short career in politics representing the constituency Trim in the Irish House of Commons before succeeding his father as 2nd Baron Mornington in 1758. Garret Wesley was also an accomplished composer and in recognition of his musical and philanthropic achievements was elevated to the rank of Earl of Mornington in 1760. Wellesley's mother was the eldest daughter of Arthur Hill-Trevor, 1st Viscount Dungannon, after whom Wellesley was named. Wellesley was the sixth of nine children born to the Earl and Countess of Mornington. His siblings included Richard, Viscount Wellesley (1760–1842); later 1st Marquess Wellesley, 2nd Earl of Mornington, Baron Maryborough. Birth date and place The exact date and location of Wellesley's birth is not known; however, biographers mostly follow the same contemporary newspaper evidence which states that he was born on 1 May 1769, the day before he was baptised in St Peters Church, Dublin. However, states "registry of St. Peter's Church, Dublin, shows that he was christened there on 30 April 1769". His baptismal font was donated to St. Nahi's Church in Dundrum, Dublin, in 1914. As to the place of Wellesley's birth, he was most likely born at his parents' townhouse, 24 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin, now the Merrion Hotel. This contrasts with reports that his mother Anne, Countess of Mornington, recalled in 1815 that he had been born at 6 Merrion Street, Dublin. Other places have been put forward as the location of his birth, including Mornington House (the house next door on Upper Merrion), as his father had asserted and the Dublin packet boat. Childhood Wellesley spent most of his childhood at his family's two homes, the first a large house in Dublin and the second Dangan Castle, north of Summerhill in County Meath. In 1781, Arthur's father died and his eldest brother Richard inherited his father's earldom. He went to the diocesan school in Trim when at Dangan, Mr Whyte's Academy when in Dublin, and Brown's School in Chelsea when in London. He then enrolled at Eton College, where he studied from 1781 to 1784. His loneliness there caused him to hate it, and makes it highly unlikely that he actually said "The Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton", a quotation which is often attributed to him. Moreover, Eton had no playing fields at the time. In 1785, a lack of success at Eton, combined with a shortage of family funds due to his father's death, forced the young Wellesley and his mother to move to Brussels. Until his early twenties, Arthur showed little sign of distinction and his mother grew increasingly concerned at his idleness, stating, "I don't know what I shall do with my awkward son Arthur." In 1786, Arthur enrolled in the French Royal Academy of Equitation in Angers, where he progressed significantly, becoming a good horseman and learning French, which later proved very useful. Upon returning to England later the same year, he astonished his mother with his improvement. Early military career United Kingdom Despite his new promise, Wellesley had yet to find a job and his family was still short of money, so upon the advice of his mother, his brother Richard asked his friend the Duke of Rutland (then Lord Lieutenant of Ireland) to consider Arthur for a commission in the Army. Soon afterward, on 7 March 1787, he was gazetted ensign in the 73rd Regiment of Foot. In October, with the assistance of his brother, he was assigned as aide-de-camp, on ten shillings a day (twice his pay as an ensign), to the new Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Buckingham. He was also transferred to the new 76th Regiment forming in Ireland and on Christmas Day, 1787, was promoted lieutenant. During his time in Dublin his duties were mainly social; attending balls, entertaining guests and providing advice to Buckingham. While in Ireland, he overextended himself in borrowing due to his occasional gambling, but in his defence stated that "I have often known what it was to be in want of money, but I have never got helplessly into debt". On 23 January 1788, he transferred into the 41st Regiment of Foot, then again on 25 June 1789 he transferred to the 12th (Prince of Wales's) Regiment of (Light) Dragoons and, according to military historian Richard Holmes, he also reluctantly entered politics. Shortly before the general election of 1789, he went to the rotten borough of Trim to speak against the granting of the title "Freeman" of Dublin to the parliamentary leader of the Irish Patriot Party, Henry Grattan. Succeeding, he was later nominated and duly elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Trim in the Irish House of Commons. Because of the limited suffrage at the time, he sat in a parliament where at least two-thirds of the members owed their election to the landowners of fewer than a hundred boroughs. Wellesley continued to serve at Dublin Castle, voting with the government in the Irish parliament over the next two years. He became a captain on 30 January 1791, and was transferred to the 58th Regiment of Foot. On 31 October, he transferred to the 18th Light Dragoons and it was during this period that he grew increasingly attracted to Kitty Pakenham, the daughter of Edward Pakenham, 2nd Baron Longford. She was described as being full of 'gaiety and charm'. In 1793, he proposed, but was turned down by her brother Thomas, Earl of Longford, who considered Wellesley to be a young man, in debt, with very poor prospects. An aspiring amateur musician, Wellesley, devastated by the rejection, burnt his violins in anger, and resolved to pursue a military career in earnest. He became a major by purchase in the 33rd Regiment in 1793. A few months later, in September, his brother lent him more money and with it he purchased a lieutenant-colonelcy in the 33rd. Netherlands In 1793, the Duke of York was sent to Flanders in command of the British contingent of an allied force destined for the invasion of France. In June 1794, Wellesley with the 33rd regiment set sail from Cork bound for Ostend as part of an expedition bringing reinforcements for the army in Flanders. They arrived too late to participate, and joined the Duke of York as he was pulling back towards the Netherlands. On 15 September 1794, at the Battle of Boxtel, east of Breda, Wellington, in temporary command of his brigade, had his first experience of battle. During General Abercromby's withdrawal in the face of superior French forces, the 33rd held off enemy cavalry, allowing neighbouring units to retreat safely. During the extremely harsh winter that followed, Wellesley and his regiment formed part of an allied force holding the defence line along the Waal River. The 33rd, along with the rest of the army, suffered heavy losses from attrition and illness. Wellesley's health was also affected by the damp environment. Though the campaign was to end disastrously, with the British army driven out of the United Provinces into the German states, Wellesley became more aware of battle tactics, including the use of lines of infantry against advancing columns, and the merits of supporting sea-power. He understood that the failure of the campaign was due in part to the faults of the leaders and the poor organisation at headquarters. He remarked later of his time in the Netherlands that "At least I learned what not to do, and that is always a valuable lesson". Returning to England in March 1795, he was reinstated as a member of parliament for Trim for a second time. He hoped to be given the position of secretary of war in the new Irish government but the new lord-lieutenant, Lord Camden, was only able to offer him the post of Surveyor-General of the Ordnance. Declining the post, he returned to his regiment, now at Southampton preparing to set sail for the West Indies. After seven weeks at sea, a storm forced the fleet back to Poole. The 33rd was given time to recuperate and a few months later, Whitehall decided to send the regiment to India. Wellesley was promoted full colonel by seniority on 3 May 1796 and a few weeks later set sail for Calcutta with his regiment. India Arriving in Calcutta in February 1797 he spent 5 months there, before being sent in August to a brief expedition to the Philippines, where he established a list of new hygiene precautions for his men to deal with the unfamiliar climate. Returning in November to India, he learnt that his elder brother Richard, now known as Lord Mornington, had been appointed as the new Governor-General of India. In 1798, he changed the spelling of his surname to "Wellesley"; up to this time he was still known as Wesley, which his eldest brother considered the ancient and proper spelling. Fourth Anglo-Mysore War As part of the campaign to extend the rule of the British East India Company, the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War broke out in 1798 against the Sultan of Mysore, Tipu Sultan. Arthur's brother Richard ordered that an armed force be sent to capture Seringapatam and defeat Tipu. During the war, rockets were used on several occasions. Wellesley was almost defeated by Tipu's Diwan, Purnaiah, at the Battle of Sultanpet Tope. Quoting Forrest, At this point (near the village of Sultanpet, Figure 5) there was a large tope, or grove, which gave shelter to Tipu's rocketmen and had obviously to be cleaned out before the siege could be pressed closer to Srirangapattana island. The commander chosen for this operation was Col. Wellesley, but advancing towards the tope after dark on the 5th April 1799, he was set upon with rockets and musket-fires, lost his way and, as Beatson politely puts it, had to "postpone the attack" until a more favourable opportunity should offer. The following day, Wellesley launched a fresh attack with a larger force, and took the whole position without any killed in action. On 22 April 1799, twelve days before the main battle, rocketeers maneuvered to the rear of the British encampment, then 'threw a great number of rockets at the same instant' to signal the beginning of an assault by 6,000 Indian infantry and a corps of Frenchmen, all ordered by Mir Golam Hussain and Mohomed Hulleen Mir Miran. The rockets had a range of about 1,000 yards. Some burst in the air like shells. Others, called ground rockets, would rise again on striking the ground and bound along in a serpentine motion until their force was spent. According to one British observer, a young English officer named Bayly: "So pestered were we with the rocket boys that there was no moving without danger from the destructive missiles ...". He continued: The rockets and musketry from 20,000 of the enemy were incessant. No hail could be thicker. Every illumination of blue lights was accompanied by a shower of rockets, some of which entered the head of the column, passing through to the rear, causing death, wounds, and dreadful lacerations from the long bamboos of twenty or thirty feet, which are invariably attached to them. Under the command of General Harris, some 24,000 troops were dispatched to Madras (to join an equal force being sent from Bombay in the west). Arthur and the 33rd sailed to join them in August. After extensive and careful logistic preparation (which would become one of Wellesley's main attributes) the 33rd left with the main force in December and travelled across of jungle from Madras to Mysore. On account of his brother, during the journey, Wellesley was given an additional command, that of chief advisor to the Nizam of Hyderabad's army (sent to accompany the British force). This position was to cause friction among many of the senior officers (some of whom were senior to Wellesley). Much of this friction was put to rest after the Battle of Mallavelly, some from Seringapatam, in which Harris' army attacked a large part of the sultan's army. During the battle, Wellesley led his men, in a line of battle of two ranks, against the enemy to a gentle ridge and gave the order to fire. After an extensive repetition of volleys, followed by a bayonet charge, the 33rd, in conjunction with the rest of Harris's force, forced Tipu's infantry to retreat. Seringapatam Immediately after their arrival at Seringapatam on 5 April 1799, the Battle of Seringapatam began and Wellesley was ordered to lead a night attack on the village of Sultanpettah, adjacent to the fortress to clear the way for the artillery. Because of a variety of factors including the Mysorean army's strong defensive preparations and the darkness the attack failed with 25 casualties due to confusion among the British. Wellesley suffered a minor injury to his knee from a spent musket-ball. Although they would re-attack successfully the next day, after time to scout ahead the enemy's positions, the affair affected Wellesley. He resolved "never to attack an enemy who is preparing and strongly posted, and whose posts have not been reconnoitred by daylight". Lewin Bentham Bowring gives this alternative account: One of these groves, called the Sultanpet Tope, was intersected by deep ditches, watered from a channel running in an easterly direction about a mile from the fort. General Baird was directed to scour this grove and dislodge the enemy, but on his advancing with this object on the night of the 5th, he found the tope unoccupied. The next day, however, the Mysore troops again took possession of the ground, and as it was absolutely necessary to expel them, two columns were detached at sunset for the purpose. The first of these, under Colonel Shawe, got possession of a ruined village, which it successfully held. The second column, under Colonel Wellesley, on advancing into the tope, was at once attacked in the darkness of night by a tremendous fire of musketry and rockets. The men, floundering about amidst the trees and the water-courses, at last broke, and fell back in disorder, some being killed and a few taken prisoners. In the confusion Colonel Wellesley was himself struck on the knee by a spent ball, and narrowly escaped falling into the hands of the enemy. A few weeks later, after extensive artillery bombardment, a breach was opened in the main walls of the fortress of Seringapatam. An attack led by Major-General Baird secured the fortress. Wellesley secured the rear of the advance, posting guards at the breach and then stationed his regiment at the main palace. After hearing news of the death of the Tipu Sultan, Wellesley was the first at the scene to confirm his death, checking his pulse. Over the coming day, Wellesley grew increasingly concerned over the lack of discipline among his men, who drank and pillaged the fortress and city. To restore order, several soldiers were flogged and four hanged. After battle and the resulting end of the war, the main force under General Harris left Seringapatam and Wellesley, aged 30, stayed behind to command the area as the new Governor of Seringapatam and Mysore. While in India, Wellesley was ill for a considerable time, first with severe diarrhoea from the water and then with fever, followed by a serious skin infection caused by trichophyton. Wellesley was in charge of raising an Anglo-Indian expeditionary force in Trincomali in early 1801 for the capture of Batavia and Mauritius from the French. However, on the eve of its departure, orders arrived from England that it was to be sent to Egypt to co-operate with Sir Ralph Abercromby in the expulsion of the French from Egypt. Wellesley had been appointed second in command to Baird, but owing to ill health did not accompany the expedition on 9 April 1801. This was fortunate for Wellesley, since the very vessel on which he was to have sailed sank in the Red Sea. He was promoted to brigadier-general on 17 July 1801. He took residence within the Sultan's summer palace and reformed the tax and justice systems in his province to maintain order and prevent bribery. He also defeated the rebel warlord Dhoondiah Waugh in the Battle of Conaghull, after the latter had escaped from prison in Seringapatam during the battle there. Dhoondiah Waugh insurgency In 1800, whilst serving as Governor of Mysore, Wellesley was tasked with putting down an insurgency led by Dhoondiah Waugh, formerly a Patan trooper for Tipu Sultan. After the fall of Seringapatam he became a powerful brigand, raiding villages along the Maratha–Mysore border region. Despite initial setbacks, the East India Company having pursued and destroyed his forces once already, forcing him into retreat in August 1799, he raised a sizeable force composed of disbanded Mysore soldiers, captured small outposts and forts in Mysore, and was receiving the support of several Maratha killedars opposed to British occupation. This drew the attention of the British administration, who were beginning to recognise him as more than just a bandit, as his raids, expansion and threats to destabilise British authority suddenly increased in 1800. The death of Tipu Sultan had created a power vacuum and Waugh was seeking to fill it. Given independent command of a combined East India Company and British Army force, Wellesley ventured north to confront Waugh in June 1800, with an army of 8,000 infantry and cavalry, having learnt that Waugh's forces numbered over 50,000, although the majority (around 30,000) were irregular light cavalry and unlikely to pose a serious threat to British infantry and artillery. Throughout June–August 1800, Wellesley advanced through Waugh's territory, his troops escalading forts in turn and capturing each one with "trifling loss". The forts generally offered little resistance due to their poor construction and design. Wellesley did not have sufficient troops to garrison each fort and had to clear the surrounding area of insurgents before advancing to the next fort. On 31 July, he had "taken and destroyed Dhoondiah's baggage and six guns, and driven into the Malpoorba (where they were drowned) about five thousand people". Dhoondiah continued to retreat, but his forces were rapidly deserting, he had no infantry and due to the monsoon weather flooding river crossings he could no longer outpace the British advance. On 10 September, at the Battle of Conaghul, Wellesley personally led a charge of 1,400 British dragoons and Indian cavalry, in single line with no reserve, against Dhoondiah and his remaining 5,000 cavalry. Dhoondiah was killed during the clash, his body was discovered and taken to the British camp tied to a cannon. With this victory, Wellesley's campaign was concluded, and British authority had been restored. Wellesley, with command of four regiments, had defeated Dhoondiah's larger rebel force, along with Dhoondiah himself, who was killed in the final battle. Wellesley then paid for the future upkeep of Dhoondiah's orphaned son. Second Anglo-Maratha War In September 1802, Wellesley learnt that he had been promoted to the rank of major-general. He had been gazetted on 29 April 1802, but the news took several months to reach him by sea. He remained at Mysore until November when he was sent to command an army in the Second Anglo-Maratha War. When he determined that a long defensive war would ruin his army, Wellesley decided to act boldly to defeat the numerically larger force of the Maratha Empire. With the logistic assembly of his army complete (24,000 men in total) he gave the order to break camp and attack the nearest Maratha fort on 8 August 1803. The fort surrendered on 12 August after an infantry attack had exploited an artillery-made breach in the wall. With the fort now in British control Wellesley was able to extend control southwards to the river Godavari. Assaye, Argaum and Gawilghur Splitting his army into two forces, to pursue and locate the main Marathas army, (the second force, commanded by Colonel Stevenson was far smaller) Wellesley was preparing to rejoin his forces on 24 September. His intelligence, however, reported the location of the Marathas' main army, between two rivers near Assaye. If he waited for the arrival of his second force, the Marathas would be able to mount a retreat, so Wellesley decided to launch an attack immediately. On 23 September, Wellesley led his forces over a ford in the river Kaitna and the Battle of Assaye commenced. After crossing the ford the infantry was reorganised into several lines and advanced against the Maratha infantry. Wellesley ordered his cavalry to exploit the flank of the Maratha army just near the village. During the battle Wellesley himself came under fire; two of his horses were shot from under him and he had to mount a third. At a crucial moment, Wellesley regrouped his forces and ordered Colonel Maxwell (later killed in the attack) to attack the eastern end of the Maratha position while Wellesley himself directed a renewed infantry attack against the centre. An officer in the attack wrote of the importance of Wellesley's personal leadership: "The General was in the thick of the action the whole time ... I never saw a man so cool and collected as he was ... though I can assure you, 'til our troops got the order to advance the fate of the day seemed doubtful ..." With some 6,000 Marathas killed or wounded, the enemy was routed, though Wellesley's force was in no condition to pursue. British casualties were heavy: the British losses amounted to 428 killed, 1,138 wounded and 18 missing (the British casualty figures were taken from Wellesley's own despatch). Wellesley was troubled by the loss of men and remarked that he hoped "I should not like to see again such loss as I sustained on 23 September, even if attended by such gain". Years later, however, he remarked that Assaye, and not Waterloo, was the best battle he ever fought. Despite the damage done to the Maratha army, the battle did not end the war. A few months later in November, Wellesley attacked a larger force near Argaum, leading his army to victory again, with an astonishing 5,000 enemy dead at the cost of only 361 British casualties. A further successful attack at the fortress at Gawilghur, combined with the victory of General Lake at Delhi forced the Maratha to sign a peace settlement at Anjangaon (not concluded until a year later) called the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon. Military historian Richard Holmes remarked that Wellesley's experiences in India had an important influence on his personality and military tactics, teaching him much about military matters that would prove vital to his success in the Peninsular War. These included a strong sense of discipline through drill and order, the use of diplomacy to gain allies, and the vital necessity of a secure supply line. He also established high regard for the acquisition of intelligence through scouts and spies. His personal tastes also developed, including dressing himself in white trousers, a dark tunic, with Hessian boots and black cocked hat (that later became synonymous as his style). Leaving India Wellesley had grown tired of his time in India, remarking "I have served as long in India as any man ought who can serve anywhere else". In June 1804 he applied for permission to return home and as a reward for his service in India he was made a Knight of the Bath in September. While in India, Wellesley had amassed a fortune of £42,000 (considerable at the time), consisting mainly of prize money from his campaign. When his brother's term as Governor-General of India ended in March 1805, the brothers returned together to England on HMS Howe. Wellesley, coincidentally, stopped on his voyage at the island of Saint Helena and stayed in the same building in which Napoleon I would live during his later exile. Return to Britain Meeting Nelson In September 1805, Major-General Wellesley was newly returned from his campaigns in India and was not yet particularly well known to the public. He reported to the office of the Secretary of State for War and the Colonies to request a new assignment. In the waiting room, he met Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson, already a known figure after his victories at the Nile and Copenhagen, who was briefly in England after months pursuing the French Toulon fleet to the West Indies and back. Some 30 years later, Wellington recalled a conversation that Nelson began with him which Wellesley found "almost all on his side in a style so vain and silly as to surprise and almost disgust me". Nelson left the room to inquire who the young general was and, on his return, switched to a very different tone, discussing the war, the state of the colonies, and the geopolitical situation as between equals. On this second discussion, Wellington recalled, "I don't know that I ever had a conversation that interested me more". This was the only time that the two men met; Nelson was killed at his victory at Trafalgar seven weeks later. Wellesley then served in the abortive Anglo-Russian expedition to north Germany in 1805, taking a brigade to Elbe. He then took a period of extended leave from the army and was elected as a Tory member of the British parliament for Rye in January 1806. A year later, he was elected MP for Newport on the Isle of Wight, and was then appointed to serve as Chief Secretary for Ireland under the Duke of Richmond. At the same time, he was made a privy counsellor. While in Ireland, he gave a verbal promise that the remaining Penal Laws would be enforced with great moderation, perhaps an indication of his later willingness to support Catholic emancipation. War against Denmark-Norway Wellesley was in Ireland in May 1807 when he heard of the British expedition to Denmark-Norway. He decided to go, while maintaining his political appointments, and was appointed to command an infantry brigade in the Second Battle of Copenhagen, which took place in August. He fought at Køge, during which the men under his command took 1,500 prisoners, with Wellesley later present during the surrender. By 30 September, he had returned to England and was raised to the rank of lieutenant general on 25 April 1808. In June 1808 he accepted the command of an expedition of 9,000 men. Preparing to sail for an attack on the Spanish colonies in South America (to assist the Latin American patriot Francisco de Miranda) his force was instead ordered to sail for Portugal, to take part in the Peninsular Campaign and rendezvous with 5,000 troops from Gibraltar. Peninsular War 1808–1809 Ready for battle, Wellesley left Cork on 12 July 1808 to participate in the war against French forces in the Iberian Peninsula, with his skills as a commander tested and developed.According to the historian Robin Neillands: Wellesley defeated the French at the Battle of Roliça and the Battle of Vimeiro in 1808 but was superseded in command immediately after the latter battle. General Dalrymple then signed the controversial Convention of Sintra, which stipulated that the Royal Navy transport the French army out of Lisbon with all their loot, and insisted on the association of the only available government minister, Wellesley. Dalrymple and Wellesley were recalled to Britain to face a Court of Enquiry. Wellesley had agreed to sign the preliminary armistice, but had not signed the convention, and was cleared. Simultaneously, Napoleon entered Spain with his veteran troops to put down the revolt; the new commander of the British forces in the Peninsula, Sir John Moore, died during the Battle of Corunna in January 1809. Although overall the land war with France was not going well from a British perspective, the Peninsula was the one theatre where they, with the Portuguese, had provided strong resistance against France and her allies. This contrasted with the disastrous Walcheren expedition, which was typical of the mismanaged British operations of the time. Wellesley submitted a memorandum to Lord Castlereagh on the defence of Portugal. He stressed its mountainous frontiers and advocated Lisbon as the main base because the Royal Navy could help to defend it. Castlereagh and the cabinet approved the memo and appointed him head of all British forces in Portugal. Wellesley arrived in Lisbon on 22 April 1809 on board HMS Surveillante, after narrowly escaping shipwreck. Reinforced, he took to the offensive. In the Second Battle of Porto he crossed the Douro river in a daylight coup de main, and routed Marshal Soult's French troops in Porto. With Portugal secured, Wellesley advanced into Spain to unite with General Cuesta's forces. The combined allied force prepared for an assault on Marshal Victor's I Corps at Talavera, 23 July. Cuesta, however, was reluctant to agree, and was only persuaded to advance on the following day. The delay allowed the French to withdraw, but Cuesta sent his army headlong after Victor, and found himself faced by almost the entire French army in New Castile—Victor had been reinforced by the Toledo and Madrid garrisons. The Spanish retreated precipitously, necessitating the advance of two British divisions to cover their retreat. The next day, 27 July, at the Battle of Talavera the French advanced in three columns and were repulsed several times throughout the day by Wellesley, but at a heavy cost to the British force. In the aftermath Marshal Soult's army was discovered to be advancing south, threatening to cut Wellesley off from Portugal. Wellesley moved east on 3 August to block it, leaving 1,500 wounded in the care of the Spanish, intending to confront Soult before finding out that the French were in fact 30,000 strong. The British commander sent the Light Brigade on a dash to hold the bridge over the Tagus at Almaraz. With communications and supply from Lisbon secured for now, Wellesley considered joining with Cuesta again but found out that his Spanish ally had abandoned the British wounded to the French and was thoroughly uncooperative, promising and then refusing to supply the British forces, aggravating Wellesley and causing considerable friction between the British and their Spanish allies. The lack of supplies, coupled with the threat of French reinforcement (including the possible inclusion of Napoleon himself) in the spring, led to the British deciding to retreat into Portugal. Following his victory at Talavera, Wellesley was elevated to the Peerage of the United Kingdom on 26 August 1809 as Viscount Wellington of Talavera and of Wellington, in the County of Somerset, with the subsidiary title of Baron Douro of Wellesley. 1810–1812 In 1810, a newly enlarged French army under Marshal André Masséna invaded Portugal. British opinion was negative and there were suggestions to evacuate Portugal. Instead, Lord Wellington first slowed the French at Buçaco; he then prevented them from taking the Lisbon Peninsula by the construction of massive earthworks, known as the Lines of Torres Vedras, which had been assembled in complete secrecy with their flanks guarded by the Royal Navy. The baffled and starving French invasion forces retreated after six months. Wellington's pursuit was hindered by a series of reverses inflicted by Marshal Ney in a much-lauded rear guard campaign. In 1811, Masséna returned toward Portugal to relieve Almeida; Wellington narrowly checked the French at the Battle of Fuentes de Oñoro. Simultaneously, his subordinate, Viscount Beresford, fought Soult's 'Army of the South' to a bloody stalemate at the Battle of Albuera in May. Wellington was promoted to full general on 31 July for his services. The French abandoned Almeida, avoiding British pursuit, but retained the twin Spanish fortresses of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, the 'Keys' guarding the roads through the mountain passes into Portugal. In 1812, Wellington finally captured Ciudad Rodrigo via a rapid movement as the French went into winter quarters, storming it before they could react. He then moved south quickly, besieged the fortress of Badajoz for a month and captured it during the night on 6 April 1812. On viewing the aftermath of the Storming of Badajoz, Wellington lost his composure and cried at the sight of the British dead in the breaches. His army now was a veteran British force reinforced by units of the retrained Portuguese army. Campaigning in Spain, he was made Earl of Wellington in the county of Somerset on 22 February 1812. He routed the French at the Battle of Salamanca, taking advantage of a minor French mispositioning. The victory liberated the Spanish capital of Madrid. He was later made Marquess of Wellington, in the said county on 18 August 1812. Wellington attempted to take the vital fortress of Burgos, which linked Madrid to France. He failed, due in part to a lack of siege guns, forcing him into a headlong retreat with the loss of over 2,000 casualties. The French abandoned Andalusia, and combined the troops of Soult and Marmont. Thus combined, the French outnumbered the British, putting the British forces in a precarious position. Wellington withdrew his army and, joined by the smaller corps under the command of Rowland Hill, which had been moved to Madrid, began to retreat to Portugal. Marshal Soult declined to attack. 1813–1814 In 1813, Wellington led a new offensive, this time against the French line of communications. He struck through the hills north of Burgos, the Tras os Montes, and switched his supply line from Portugal to Santander on Spain's north coast; this led to the French abandoning Madrid and Burgos. Continuing to outflank the French lines, Wellington caught up with and routed the army of King Joseph Bonaparte in the Battle of Vitoria, for which he was promoted to field marshal on 21 June. He personally led a column against the French centre, while other columns commanded by Sir Thomas Graham, Rowland Hill and the Earl of Dalhousie looped around the French right and left (this battle became the subject of Beethoven's orchestral piece, the Wellington's Victory (Opus 91). The British troops broke ranks to loot the abandoned French wagons instead of pursuing the beaten foe. When troops failed to return to their units and began harassing the locals, an enraged Wellington to write in a famous despatch to Earl Bathurst, "We have in the service the scum of the earth as common soldiers". Although later, when his temper had cooled, he extended his comment to praise the men under his command saying that though many of the men were, "the scum of the earth; it is really wonderful that we should have made them to the fine fellows they are". After taking the small fortresses of Pamplona, Wellington invested San Sebastián but was frustrated by the obstinate French garrison, losing 693 dead and 316 captured in a failed assault and suspending the siege at the end of July. Soult's relief attempt was blocked by the Spanish Army of Galicia at San Marcial, allowing the Allies to consolidate their position and tighten the ring around the city, which fell in September after a second spirited defence. Wellington then forced Soult's demoralised and battered army into a fighting retreat into France, punctuated by battles at the Pyrenees, Bidassoa and Nivelle. Wellington invaded southern France, winning at the Nive and Orthez. Wellington's final battle against his rival Soult occurred at Toulouse, where the Allied divisions were badly mauled storming the French redoubts, losing some 4,600 men. Despite this momentary victory, news arrived of Napoleon's defeat and abdication and Soult, seeing no reason to continue the fighting, agreed on a ceasefire with Wellington, allowing Soult to evacuate the city. Hailed as the conquering hero by the British, on 3 May 1814 Wellington was made Duke of Wellington, in the county of Somerset, together with the subsidiary title of Marquess Douro, in said County. He received some recognition during his lifetime (the title of "Duque de Ciudad Rodrigo" and "Grandee of Spain") and the Spanish King Ferdinand VII allowed him to keep part of the works of art from the Royal Collection which he had recovered from the French. His equestrian portrait features prominently in the Monument to the Battle of Vitoria, in present-day Vitoria-Gasteiz. His popularity in Britain was due to his image and his appearance as well as to his military triumphs. His victory fitted well with the passion and intensity of the Romantic movement, with its emphasis on individuality. His personal style influenced the fashions in Britain at the time: his tall, lean figure and his plumed black hat and grand yet classic uniform and white trousers became very popular. In late 1814, the Prime Minister wanted him to take command in Canada with the assignment of winning the War of 1812 against the United States. Wellesley replied that he would go to America, but he believed that he was needed more in Europe. He stated: He was appointed Ambassador to France, then took Lord Castlereagh's place as first plenipotentiary to the Congress of Vienna. On 2 January 1815, the title of his Knighthood of the Bath was converted to Knight Grand Cross upon the expansion of that order. Hundred Days Facing Napoleon On 26 February 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France. He regained control of the country by May and faced a renewed alliance against him. Wellington left Vienna for what became known as the Waterloo Campaign. He arrived in the Netherlands to take command of the British-German army and their allied Dutch, all stationed alongside the Prussian forces of Generalfeldmarschall Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher. Napoleon's strategy was to isolate the Allied and Prussian armies and annihilate each one separately before the Austrians and Russians arrived. In doing so the vast superiority in numbers of the Coalition would be greatly diminished. He would then seek the possibility of peace with Austria and Russia. The French invaded the Netherlands, with Napoleon defeating the Prussians at Ligny, and Marshal Ney engaging indecisively with Wellington at the Battle of Quatre Bras. The Prussians retreated 18 miles north to Wavre whilst Wellington's Anglo-Allied army withdrew 15 miles north to a site he had noted the previous year as favourable for a battle: the north ridge of a shallow valley on the Brussels road, just south of the small town of Waterloo. On 17 June there was torrential rain, which severely hampered movement. and had a considerable effect the next day, 18 June, when the Battle of Waterloo was fought. This was the first time Wellington had encountered Napoleon; he commanded an Anglo-Dutch-German army that consisted of approximately 73,000 troops, 26,000 of whom were British. Approximately 30 percent of that 26,000 were Irish. Battle of Waterloo The Battle of Waterloo was fought on Sunday 18 June 1815, near Waterloo (at that time in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, now in Belgium). It commenced with a diversionary attack on Hougoumont by a division of French soldiers. After a barrage of 80 cannons, the first French infantry attack was launched by Comte D'Erlon's I Corps. D'Erlon's troops advanced through the Allied centre, resulting in Allied troops in front of the ridge retreating in disorder through the main position. D'Erlon's corps stormed the most fortified Allied position, La Haye Sainte, but failed to take it. An Allied division under Thomas Picton met the remainder of D'Erlon's corps head to head, engaging them in an infantry duel in which Picton was killed. During this struggle Lord Uxbridge launched two of his cavalry brigades at the enemy, catching the French infantry off guard, driving them to the bottom of the slope, and capturing two French Imperial Eagles. The charge, however, over-reached itself, and the British cavalry, crushed by fresh French horsemen sent at them by Napoleon, were driven back, suffering tremendous losses. Shortly before 16:00, Marshal Ney noted an apparent withdrawal from Wellington's centre. He mistook the movement of casualties to the rear for the beginnings of a retreat, and sought to exploit it. Ney at this time had few infantry reserves left, as most of the infantry had been committed either to the futile Hougoumont attack or to the defence of the French right. Ney, therefore, tried to break Wellington's centre with a cavalry charge alone. At about 16:30, the first Prussian corps arrived. Commanded by Freiherr von Bülow, IV Corps arrived as the French cavalry attack was in full spate. Bülow sent the 15th Brigade to link up with Wellington's left flank in the Frichermont–La Haie area while the brigade's horse artillery battery and additional brigade artillery deployed to its left in support. Napoleon sent Lobau's corps to intercept the rest of Bülow's IV Corps proceeding to Plancenoit. The 15th Brigade sent Lobau's corps into retreat to the Plancenoit area. Von Hiller's 16th Brigade also pushed forward with six battalions against Plancenoit. Napoleon had dispatched all eight battalions of the Young Guard to reinforce Lobau, who was now seriously pressed by the enemy. Napoleon's Young Guard counter-attacked and, after very hard fighting, secured Plancenoit, but were themselves counter-attacked and driven out. Napoleon then resorted to sending two battalions of the Middle and Old Guard into Plancenoit and after ferocious fighting they recaptured the village. The French cavalry attacked the British infantry squares many times, each at a heavy cost to the French but with few British casualties. Ney himself was displaced from his horse four times. Eventually, it became obvious, even to Ney, that cavalry alone were achieving little. Belatedly, he organised a combined-arms attack, using Bachelu's division and Tissot's regiment of Foy's division from Reille's II Corps plus those French cavalry that remained in a fit state to fight. This assault was directed along much the same route as the previous heavy cavalry attacks. Meanwhile, at approximately the same time as Ney's combined-arms assault on the centre-right of Wellington's line, Napoleon ordered Ney to capture La Haye Sainte at whatever the cost. Ney accomplished this with what was left of D'Erlon's corps soon after 18:00. Ney then moved horse artillery up towards Wellington's centre and began to attack the infantry squares at short-range with canister. This all but destroyed the 27th (Inniskilling) Regiment, and the 30th and 73rd Regiments suffered such heavy losses that they had to combine to form a viable square. Wellington's centre was now on the verge of collapse and wide open to an attack from the French. Luckily for Wellington, Pirch I's and Zieten's corps of the Prussian Army were now at hand. Zieten's corps permitted the two fresh cavalry brigades of Vivian and Vandeleur on Wellington's extreme left to be moved and posted behind the depleted centre. Pirch I Corps then proceeded to support Bülow and together they regained possession of Plancenoit, and once more the Charleroi road was swept by Prussian round shot. The value of this reinforcement is held in high regard. The French army now fiercely attacked the Coalition all along the line with the culminating point being reached when Napoleon sent forward the Imperial Guard at 19:30. The attack of the Imperial Guards was mounted by five battalions of the Middle Guard, and not by the Grenadiers or Chasseurs of the Old Guard. Marching through a hail of canister and skirmisher fire and severely outnumbered, the 3,000 or so Middle Guardsmen advanced to the west of La Haye Sainte and proceeded to separate into three distinct attack forces. One, consisting of two battalions of Grenadiers, defeated the Coalition's first line and marched on. Chassé's relatively fresh Dutch division was sent against them, and Allied artillery fired into the victorious Grenadiers' flank. This still could not stop the Guard's advance, so Chassé ordered his first brigade to charge the outnumbered French, who faltered and broke. Further to the west, 1,500 British Foot Guards under Maitland were lying down to protect themselves from the French artillery. As two battalions of Chasseurs approached, the second prong of the Imperial Guard's attack, Maitland's guardsmen rose and devastated them with point-blank volleys. The Chasseurs deployed to counter-attack but began to waver. A bayonet charge by the Foot Guards then broke them. The third prong, a fresh Chasseur battalion, now came up in support. The British guardsmen retreated with these Chasseurs in pursuit, but the latter were halted as the 52nd Light Infantry wheeled in line onto their flank and poured a devastating fire into them and then charged. Under this onslaught, they too broke. The last of the Guard retreated headlong. Mass panic ensued through the French lines as the news spread: "La Garde recule. Sauve qui peut!" ("The Guard is retreating. Every man for himself!"). Wellington then stood up in Copenhagen's stirrups, and waved his hat in the air to signal an advance of the Allied line just as the Prussians were overrunning the French positions to the east. What remained of the French army then abandoned the field in disorder. Wellington and Blücher met at the inn of La Belle Alliance, on the north–south road which bisected the battlefield, and it was agreed that the Prussians should pursue the retreating French army back to France. The Treaty of Paris was signed on 20 November 1815. After the victory, the Duke supported proposals that a medal be awarded to all British soldiers who participated in the Waterloo campaign, and on 28 June 1815, he wrote to the Duke of York suggesting: ... the expediency of giving to the non-commissioned officers and soldiers engaged in the Battle of Waterloo a medal. I am convinced it would have the best effect in the army, and if the battle should settle our concerns, they will well deserve it.The Waterloo Medal was duly authorised and distributed to all ranks in 1816. Controversy Much historical discussion has been made about Napoleon's decision to send 33,000 troops under Marshal Grouchy to intercept the Prussians, but—having defeated Blücher at Ligny on 16 June and forced the Allies to retreat in divergent directions—Napoleon may have been strategically astute in a judgement that he would have been unable to beat the combined Allied forces on one battlefield. Wellington's comparable strategic gamble was to leave 17,000 troops and artillery, mostly Dutch, away at Hal, north-west of Mont-Saint-Jean, in case of a French advance up the Mons-Hal-Brussels road. The campaign led to numerous other controversies. Issues concerning Wellington's troop dispositions prior to Napoleon's invasion of the Netherlands, whether Wellington misled or betrayed Blücher by promising, then failing, to come directly to Blücher's aid at Ligny, and credit for the victory between Wellington and the Prussians. These and other such issues concerning Blücher's, Wellington's, and Napoleon's decisions during the campaign were the subject of a strategic-level study by the Prussian political-military theorist Carl von Clausewitz, Feldzug von 1815: Strategische Uebersicht des Feldzugs von 1815, (English title: The Campaign of 1815: Strategic Overview of the Campaign.) This study was Clausewitz's last such work and is widely considered to be the best example of Clausewitz's mature theories concerning such analyses. It attracted the attention of Wellington's staff, who prompted the Duke to write a published essay on the campaign (other than his immediate, official after-action report, "The Waterloo Dispatch".) This was published as the 1842 "Memorandum on the Battle of Waterloo". While Wellington disputed Clausewitz on several points, Clausewitz largely absolved Wellington of accusations levelled against him. This exchange with Clausewitz was quite famous in Britain in the 19th century, particularly in Charles Cornwallis Chesney's work the Waterloo Lectures, but was largely ignored in the 20th century due to hostilities between Britain and Germany. Politics Prime Minister Wellington entered politics again when he was appointed Master-General of the Ordnance in the Tory government of Lord Liverpool on 26 December 1818. He also became Governor of Plymouth on 9 October 1819. He was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Army on 22 January 1827 and Constable of the Tower of London on 5 February 1827. Along with Robert Peel, Wellington became an increasingly influential member of the Tory party, and in 1828 he resigned as Commander-in-Chief and became prime minister. During his first seven months as prime minister, he chose not to live in the official residence at 10 Downing Street, finding it too small. He moved in only because his own home, Apsley House, required extensive renovations. During this time he was largely instrumental in the foundation of King's College London. On 20 January 1829 Wellington was appointed Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. Reform His term was marked by Roman Catholic Emancipation: the restoration of most civil rights to Roman Catholics in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The change was prompted by the landslide by-election win of Daniel O'Connell, a Roman Catholic Irish proponent of emancipation, who was elected despite not being legally allowed to sit in Parliament. In the House of Lords, facing stiff opposition, Wellington spoke for Catholic Emancipation, and according to some sources, gave one of the best speeches of his career. Wellington was born in Ireland and so had some understanding of the grievances of the Roman Catholic majority there; as Chief Secretary, he had given an undertaking that the remaining Penal Laws would only be enforced as "mildly" as possible. In 1811 Catholic soldiers were given freedom of worship and 18 years later the Catholic Relief Act 1829 was passed with a majority of 105. Many Tories voted against the Act, and it passed only with the help of the Whigs. Wellington had threatened to resign as prime minister if King George IV did not give Royal Assent. The Earl of Winchilsea accused the Duke of "an insidious design for the infringement of our liberties and the introduction of Popery into every department of the State". Wellington responded by immediately challenging Winchilsea to a duel. On 21 March 1829, Wellington and Winchilsea met on Battersea fields. When the time came to fire, the Duke took aim and Winchilsea kept his arm down. The Duke fired wide to the right. Accounts differ as to whether he missed on purpose, an act known in duelling as a delope. Wellington claimed he did. However, he was noted for his poor aim and reports more sympathetic to Winchilsea claimed he had aimed to kill. Winchilsea discharged his pistol into the air, a plan he and his second had almost certainly decided upon before the duel. Honour was saved and Winchilsea wrote Wellington an apology. The nickname "Iron Duke" originated from this period, when he experienced a high degree of personal and political unpopularity. Its repeated use in Freeman's Journal throughout June 1830 appears to bear reference to his resolute political will, with taints of disapproval from its Irish editors. During this time, Wellington was greeted by a hostile reaction from the crowds at the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. Wellington's government fell in 1830. In the summer and autumn of that year, a wave of riots swept the country. The Whigs had been out of power for most years since the 1770s, and saw political reform in response to the unrest as the key to their return. Wellington stuck to the Tory policy of no reform and no expansion of suffrage, and as a result, lost a vote of no confidence on 15 November 1830. The Whigs introduced the first Reform Bill while Wellington and the Tories worked to prevent its passage. The Whigs could not get the bill past its second reading in the British House of Commons, and the attempt failed. An election followed in direct response and the Whigs were returned with a landslide majority. A second Reform Act was introduced and passed in the House of Commons but was defeated in the Tory-controlled House of Lords. Another wave of near-insurrection swept the country. Wellington's residence at Apsley House was targeted by a mob of demonstrators on 27 April 1831 and again on 12 October, leaving his windows smashed. Iron shutters were installed in June 1832 to prevent further damage by crowds angry over rejection of the Reform Bill, which he strongly opposed. The Whig Government fell in 1832 and Wellington was unable to form a Tory Government partly because of a run on the Bank of England. This left King William IV no choice but to restore Earl Grey to the premiership. Eventually, the bill passed the House of Lords after the King threatened to fill that House with newly created Whig peers if it were not. Wellington was never reconciled to the change; when Parliament first met after the first election under the widened franchise, Wellington is reported to have said "I never saw so many shocking bad hats in my life". Wellington opposed the Jewish Civil Disabilities Repeal Bill, and he stated in Parliament on 1 August 1833 that England "is a Christian country and a Christian legislature, and that the effect of this measure would be to remove that peculiar character." The Bill was defeated by 104 votes to 54. Government Wellington was gradually superseded as leader of the Tories by Robert Peel, while the party evolved into the Conservatives. When the Tories were returned to power in 1834, Wellington declined to become prime minister because he thought membership in the House of Commons had become essential. The king reluctantly approved Peel, who was in Italy. Hence, Wellington acted as interim leader for three weeks in November and December 1834, taking the responsibilities of prime minister and most of the other ministries. In Peel's first cabinet (1834–1835), Wellington became foreign secretary, while in the second (1841–1846) he was a minister without portfolio and Leader of the House of Lords. Wellington was also re-appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Army on 15 August 1842 following the resignation of Lord Hill. Wellington served as the leader of the Conservative party in the House of Lords from 1828 to 1846. Some historians have belittled him as a befuddled reactionary, but a consensus in the late 20th century depicts him as a shrewd operator who hid his cleverness behind the façade of a poorly informed old soldier. Wellington worked to transform the Lords from unstinting support of the Crown to an active player in political manoeuvering, with a commitment to the landed aristocracy. He used his London residence as a venue for intimate dinners and private consultations, together with extensive correspondence that kept him in close touch with party leaders in the Commons, and the main persona in the Lords. He gave public rhetorical support to Ultra-Tory anti-reform positions, but then deftly changed positions toward the party's centre, especially when Peel needed support from the upper house. Wellington's success was based on the 44 elected peers from Scotland and Ireland, whose elections he controlled. Later life Family Wellesley was married by his brother Gerald, a clergyman, to Kitty Pakenham in St George's Church, Dublin on 10 April 1806. They had two children: Arthur was born in 1807 and Charles was born in 1808. The marriage proved unsatisfactory and the two spent years apart, while Wellesley was campaigning and afterwards. Kitty grew depressed, and Wellesley pursued other sexual and romantic partners. The couple largely lived apart, with Kitty spending most of her time at their country home, Stratfield Saye House and Wellesley at their London home, Apsley House. Kitty's brother Edward Pakenham served under Wellesley throughout the Peninsular War, and Wellesley's regard for him helped to smooth his relations with Kitty, until Pakenham's death at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815. Retirement Wellington retired from political life in 1846, although he remained Commander-in-Chief, and returned briefly to the public eye in 1848 when he helped organise a military force to protect London during the year of European revolution. The Conservative Party had split over the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, with Wellington and most of the former Cabinet still supporting Peel, but most of the MPs led by Lord Derby supporting a protectionist stance. Early in 1852 Wellington, by then very deaf, gave Derby's first government its nickname by shouting "Who? Who?" as the list of inexperienced Cabinet ministers was read out in the House of Lords. He became Chief Ranger and Keeper of Hyde Park and St James's Park on 31 August 1850. He remained colonel of the 33rd Regiment of Foot from 1 February 1806 and colonel of the Grenadier Guards from 22 January 1827. Kitty died of cancer in 1831; despite their generally unhappy relations, which had led to an effective separation, Wellington was said to have been greatly saddened by her death, his one comfort being that after "half a lifetime together, they had come to understand each other at the end". He had found consolation for his unhappy marriage in his warm friendship with the diarist Harriet Arbuthnot, wife of his colleague Charles Arbuthnot. Harriet's death in the cholera epidemic of 1834 was almost as great a blow to Wellington as it was to her husband. The two widowers spent their last years together at Apsley House. Death and funeral Wellington died at Walmer Castle in Kent, his residence as Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports and reputedly his favourite home, on 14 September 1852. He was found to be unwell on that morning and was helped from his campaign bed, which he had used throughout his military career, and seated in his chair where he died. His death was recorded as being due to the after-effects of a stroke culminating in a series of seizures. He was aged 83. Although in life he hated travelling by rail, having witnessed the death of William Huskisson, one of the first railway accident casualties, his body was taken by train to London, where he was given a state funeral – one of a small number of British subjects to be so honoured (other examples include Lord Nelson and Sir Winston Churchill). The funeral took place on 18 November 1852. Before the funeral, the Duke's body lay in state at the Royal Hospital Chelsea. Members of the royal family, including Queen Victoria, the Prince Consort, the Prince of Wales, and the Princess Royal, visited to pay their respects. When viewing opened to the public, crowds thronged to visit and several people were killed in the crush. He was buried in St Paul's Cathedral, and during his funeral, there was little space to stand due to the number of attendees. A bronze memorial was sculpted by Alfred Stevens, and features two intricate supports: "Truth tearing the tongue out of the mouth of False-hood", and "Valour trampling Cowardice underfoot". Stevens did not live to see it placed in its home under one of the arches of the cathedral. Wellington's casket was decorated with banners which were made for his funeral procession. Originally, there was one from Prussia, which was removed during World War I and never reinstated. In the procession, the "Great Banner" was carried by General Sir James Charles Chatterton of the 4th Dragoon Guards on the orders of Queen Victoria. Most of the book A Biographical Sketch of the Military and Political Career of the Late Duke of Wellington by Weymouth newspaper proprietor Joseph Drew is a detailed contemporary account of his death, lying in state and funeral. After his death, Irish and English newspapers disputed whether Wellington had been born an Irishman or an Englishman. In 2002, he was number 15 in the BBC's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons. Owing to its links with Wellington, as the former commanding officer and colonel of the regiment, the title "33rd (The Duke of Wellington's) Regiment" was granted to the 33rd Regiment of Foot, on 18 June 1853 (the 38th anniversary of the Battle of Waterloo) by Queen Victoria. Wellington's battle record is exemplary; he participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career. Personality Wellington always rose early; he "couldn't bear to lie awake in bed", even if the army was not on the march. Even when he returned to civilian life after 1815, he slept in a camp bed, reflecting his lack of regard for creature comforts. General Miguel de Álava complained that Wellington said so often that the army would march "at daybreak" and dine on "cold meat" that he began to dread those two phrases. While on campaign, he seldom ate anything between breakfast and dinner. During the retreat to Portugal in 1811, he subsisted on "cold meat and bread", to the despair of his staff who dined with him. He was, however, renowned for the quality of the wine that he drank and served, often drinking a bottle with his dinner (not a great quantity by the standards of his day). Álava was a witness to an incident just before the Battle of Salamanca. Wellington was eating a chicken leg while observing the manoeuvres of the French army through a spyglass. He spotted an overextension in the French left flank, and realised that he could launch a successful attack there. He exclaimed "By God, that will do!" and threw the drumstick in the air. After the Battle of Toulouse, Colonel Frederick Ponsonby brought him the news of Napoleon's abdication, and Wellington broke into an impromptu flamenco dance, spinning around on his heels and clicking his fingers. Military historian Charles Dalton recorded that, after a hard-fought battle in Spain, a young officer made the comment, "I am going to dine with Wellington tonight", which was overheard by the Duke as he rode by. "Give me at least the prefix of Mr. before my name," Wellington said. "My Lord," replied the officer, "we do not speak of Mr. Caesar or Mr. Alexander, so why should I speak of Mr. Wellington?" While known for his stern countenance and iron-handed discipline, Wellington was by no means unfeeling. While he is said to have disapproved of soldiers cheering as "too nearly an expression of opinion". Wellington nevertheless cared for his men: he refused to pursue the French after the battles of Porto and Salamanca, foreseeing an inevitable cost to his army in chasing a diminished enemy through rough terrain. The only time that he ever showed grief in public was after the storming of Badajoz: he cried at the sight of the British dead in the breaches.In this context, his famous despatch after the Battle of Vitoria, calling them the "scum of the earth" can be seen to be fuelled as much by disappointment at their breaking ranks as by anger. He shed tears after Waterloo on the presentation of the list of British fallen by Dr John Hume. Later with his family, unwilling to be congratulated for his victory, he broke down in tears, his fighting spirit diminished by the high cost of the battle and great personal loss. Wellington's soldier servant, a gruff German called Beckerman, and his long-serving valet, James Kendall, who served him for 25 years and was with him when he died, were both devoted to him. (A story that he never spoke to his servants and preferred instead to write his orders on a notepad on his dressing table in fact probably refers to his son, the 2nd Duke. It was recorded by the 3rd Duke's niece, Viva Seton Montgomerie (1879–1959), as being an anecdote she heard from an old retainer, Charles Holman, who was said greatly to resemble Napoleon.) Following an incident when, as Master-General of the Ordnance he had been close to a large explosion, Wellington began to experience deafness and other ear-related problems. In 1822, he had an operation to improve the hearing of the left ear. The result, however, was that he became permanently deaf on that side. It is claimed that he was "never quite well afterwards". Wellington came to enjoy the company of a variety of intellectual and attractive women and had many amorous liaisons, particularly after the Battle of Waterloo and his subsequent ambassadorial position in Paris. In the days following Waterloo he had an affair with the notorious Lady Caroline Lamb, sister of one of his severely wounded officers and favourites, Col Frederick Ponsonby. He corresponded for many years with Lady Georgiana Lennox, later Lady de Ros, 26 years his junior and daughter of the Duchess of Richmond (who held the famous ball on the eve of Waterloo) and, though there are hints, it has not been clearly determined if the relationship was ever sexual. The British press lampooned the amorous side of the national hero. In 1824, one liaison came back to haunt him, when Wellington received a letter from a publisher, John Joseph Stockdale offering to refrain from issuing an edition of the rather racy memoirs of one of his mistresses Harriette Wilson, in exchange for money. It is said that the Duke promptly returned the letter, after scrawling across it, "Publish and be damned". However, Hibbert notes in his biography that the letter can be found among the Duke's papers, with nothing written on it. It is certain that Wellington reply, and the tone of a further letter from the publisher, quoted by Longford, suggests that he had refused in the strongest language to submit to blackmail. He was also a remarkably practical man who spoke concisely. In 1851, it was discovered that there were a great many sparrows flying about in the Crystal Palace just before the Great Exhibition was to open. His advice to Queen Victoria was "Sparrowhawks, ma'am". Wellington has often been portrayed as a defensive general, even though many, perhaps most, of his battles were offensive (Argaum, Assaye, Oporto, Salamanca, Vitoria, Toulouse). However, for most of the Peninsular War, where he earned his fame, his army lacked the numbers for a strategically offensive posture. Titles and tributes Nicknames The Iron Duke This commonly used nickname originally related to his consistent political resolve rather than to any particular incident. In various cases its editorial use appears to be disparaging. It is likely that its use became more widespread after an incident in 1832 in which he installed metal shutters to prevent rioters breaking windows at Apsley House. The term may have been made increasingly popular by Punch cartoons published in 1844–45. Other nicknames In the popular ballads of the day Wellington was called "Nosey" or "Old Nosey". Tsar Alexander I of Russia called Wellington "Le vainqueur du vainqueur du monde", the conqueror of the world's conqueror, the phrase "the world's conqueror" referring to Napoleon. Lord Tennyson uses a similar reference in his "Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington", referring to him as "the great World-victor's victor". Officers under his command called him "The Beau", as he was a fine dresser. Spanish troops called him "The Eagle", while Portuguese troops called him "Douro Douro" after his river crossing at Oporto in 1809. "Beau Douro"; Wellington found this amusing when hearing it used by a Colonel of the Coldstream Guards. "Sepoy General"; Napoleon used this term as an insult to Wellington's military service in India, publicly considering him an unworthy opponent. The name was used in the French newspaper Le Moniteur Universel, as a means of propaganda. "The Beef"; It is a theory that the Beef Wellington dish is a reference to Wellington, although some chefs dispute this. "Europe's Liberator" "Saviour of the Nations" See also Military career of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington Army Gold Medal Military General Service Medal Seringapatam medal Cotiote War References Notes Citations Sources Books . Online resources . Journals and magazines Primary sources Further reading This on-line text contains Clausewitz's 58-chapter study of the Campaign of 1815 and Wellington's lengthy 1842 essay written in response to Clausewitz, as well as supporting documents and essays by the editors. Goldsmith, Thomas. "The Duke of Wellington and British Foreign Policy 1814-1830." (PhD Diss. University of East Anglia, 2016). online Lambert, A. "Politics, administration and decision-making: Wellington and the navy, 1828–30" Wellington Studies IV, ed. C. M. Woolgar, (Southampton, 2008), pp. 185–243. Longford, Elizabeth. Wellington: Pillar of State (1972), vol 2 of her biography; online External links Records and images from the UK Parliament Collections The life of Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington Duke of Wellington's Regiment – West Riding Papers of Arthur Wellesley, first Duke of Wellington (MS 61) at the University of Southampton More about Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington on the Downing Street website "Napoleon and Wellington", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Andrew Roberts, Mike Broer and Belinda Beaton (In Our Time, 25 October 2001) Category:1769 births Category:1852 deaths Category:19th-century Anglo-Irish people Category:19th-century prime ministers of the United Kingdom Wellesley Arthur Wellesley, Arthur Category:Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to France Category:British Army commanders of the Napoleonic Wars Category:British Army personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars Category:British Army personnel of the Peninsular War Category:British Secretaries of State for Foreign Affairs Category:British Secretaries of State Category:British field marshals Category:British military personnel of the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War Category:British military personnel of the Second Anglo-Maratha War Category:Burials at St Paul's Cathedral Category:Chancellors of the University of Oxford Category:Chief Secretaries for Ireland Category:Commissioners of the Treasury for Ireland Category:Constables of the Tower of London Category:Cotiote War Category:Diplomatic peers Category:British duellists Category:Duke of Wellington's Regiment officers Category:Dukes da Vitória Category:Dukes of Ciudad Rodrigo 101 Wellesley, Arthur 1 Category:Fellows of the Royal Society Category:Field marshals of Portugal Category:Field marshals of Russia Category:Grandees of Spain Category:Grenadier Guards officers Category:Irish Anglicans Wellesley, Arthur Category:Irish expatriates in England Category:Irish expatriates in France Category:Irish expatriates in India Category:Irish expatriates in Portugal Category:Irish expatriates in Spain Category:Irish expatriates in the Netherlands Category:Irish officers in the British Army Category:Leaders of the Conservative Party (UK) Category:Lord High Constables of England Category:Lord-Lieutenants of Hampshire Category:Lord-Lieutenants of the Tower Hamlets Category:Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports Category:MPs for rotten boroughs Category:Members of Trinity House Wellesley, Arthur Wellesley, Arthur Wellesley, Arthur Category:Members of the Privy Council of Ireland Category:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Category:Peers of the United Kingdom created by George III Category:People associated with King's College London Category:People educated at Eton College Wellesley, Arthur Category:Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom Category:Princes of Waterloo Category:Regency era Category:Royal Horse Guards officers Category:Spanish captain generals Category:Tory prime ministers of the United Kingdom Wellesley, Arthur Wellesley, Arthur Category:UK MPs who were granted peerages Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington Category:Younger sons of earls Category:Knights of the Garter Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath Category:Recipients of the Army Gold Cross Category:Recipients of the Waterloo Medal Category:Grand Crosses of the Military Order of Maria Theresa Category:Grand Crosses of the Military Order of Max Joseph Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Military Order of William Category:Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 1st class Category:Recipients of the Order of St. George of the First Degree Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain Category:Grand Crosses of the Royal and Military Order of San Hermenegild Category:Laureate Cross of Saint Ferdinand Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword Category:Leaders of the House of Lords W
[ { "text": "101 may refer to:\n\n 101 (number), the number\n AD 101, a year in the 2nd century AD\n 101 BC, a year in the 2nd century BC\n\nIt may also refer to:\n\nEntertainment \n 101 (album), a live album and documentary by Depeche Mode \n \"101\" (song), a 1988 song and single by Sheena Easton\n \"101\", a song on the Girl on Fire album by Alicia Keys\n The 101 Network, former name of Audience, an American pay television channel\n\nTransportation \n List of highways numbered 101, several roads, including:\n U.S. Route 101, often called \"The 101\"\n 101 series, a commuter multiple unit train introduced in 1958 by Japan National Railways\n TMK 101, a tramcar type which was used in Zagreb, Croatia, from 1951 until December 2008\n McDonnell F-101 Voodoo fighter aircraft\n McDonnell CF-101 Voodoo Canadian variant of the F-101\n Fisher FP-101 kit aircraft\n\nOther uses \n101 (slang), a term used to indicate an introduction to a body of knowledge\n101st Airborne Division\nBell 101 modem a late 1950s communications modem\nBill 101 or Law 101, the Charter of the French Language in Québec\nPolice 101, the single non-emergency number used by all UK territorial police authorities\nTaipei 101, the tallest skyscraper in the world from 2004 to 2010\nMendelevium, chemical element with atomic number 101\n101 Dalmatians (disambiguation)\n\nSee also \n \n \n IOI (disambiguation) \n Room 101 (disambiguation)", "title": "101" }, { "text": "Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, (1 May 1769 – 14 September 1852) was a Anglo-Irish statesman, soldier, and Tory politician who was one of the leading military and political figures of 19th-century Britain, serving twice as prime minister of the United Kingdom. He is among the commanders who won and ended the Napoleonic Wars when the Seventh Coalition defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.\n\nWellesley was born in Dublin into the Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. He was commissioned as an ensign in the British Army in 1787, serving in Ireland as aide-de-camp to two successive lords lieutenant of Ireland. He was also elected as a member of Parliament in the Irish House of Commons. He was a colonel by 1796 and saw action in the Netherlands and in India, where he fought in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War at the Battle of Seringapatam. He was appointed governor of Seringapatam and Mysore in 1799 and, as a newly appointed major-general, won a decisive victory over the Maratha Confederacy at the Battle of Assaye in 1803.\n\nWellesley rose to prominence as a general during the Peninsular campaign of the Napoleonic Wars, and was promoted to the rank of field marshal after leading the allied forces to victory against the French Empire at the Battle of Vitoria in 1813. Following Napoleon's exile in 1814, he served as the ambassador to France and was granted a dukedom. During the Hundred Days in 1815, he commanded the allied army which, together with a Prussian Army under Field Marshal Gebhard von Blücher, defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. Wellington's battle record is exemplary; he ultimately participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career.\n\nWellington is famous for his adaptive defensive style of warfare, resulting in several victories against numerically superior forces while minimising his own losses. He is regarded as one of the greatest defensive commanders of all time, and many of his tactics and battle plans are still studied in military academies around the world. After the end of his active military career, he returned to politics. He was twice British prime minister as a member of the Tory party from 1828 to 1830 and for a little less than a month in 1834. He oversaw the passage of the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, but opposed the Reform Act 1832. He continued as one of the leading figures in the House of Lords until his retirement and remained Commander-in-Chief of the British Army until his death.\n\nEarly life\n\nFamily \nWellesley was born into an aristocratic Anglo-Irish family, belonging to the Protestant Ascendancy, in Ireland as The Hon. Arthur Wesley. Wellesley was born the son of Anne Wellesley, Countess of Mornington and Garret Wesley, 1st Earl of Mornington. His father, Garret Wesley, was the son of Richard Wesley, 1st Baron Mornington and had a short career in politics representing the constituency Trim in the Irish House of Commons before succeeding his father as 2nd Baron Mornington in 1758. Garret Wesley was also an accomplished composer and in recognition of his musical and philanthropic achievements was elevated to the rank of Earl of Mornington in 1760. Wellesley's mother was the eldest daughter of Arthur Hill-Trevor, 1st Viscount Dungannon, after whom Wellesley was named.\n\nWellesley was the sixth of nine children born to the Earl and Countess of Mornington. His siblings included Richard, Viscount Wellesley (1760–1842); later 1st Marquess Wellesley, 2nd Earl of Mornington, Baron Maryborough.\n\nBirth date and place \nThe exact date and location of Wellesley's birth is not known; however, biographers mostly follow the same contemporary newspaper evidence which states that he was born on 1 May 1769, the day before he was baptised in St Peters Church, Dublin. However, states \"registry of St. Peter's Church, Dublin, shows that he was christened there on 30 April 1769\". His baptismal font was donated to St. Nahi's Church in Dundrum, Dublin, in 1914. As to the place of Wellesley's birth, he was most likely born at his parents' townhouse, 24 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin, now the Merrion Hotel. This contrasts with reports that his mother Anne, Countess of Mornington, recalled in 1815 that he had been born at 6 Merrion Street, Dublin. Other places have been put forward as the location of his birth, including Mornington House (the house next door on Upper Merrion), as his father had asserted and the Dublin packet boat.\n\nChildhood \n\nWellesley spent most of his childhood at his family's two homes, the first a large house in Dublin and the second Dangan Castle, north of Summerhill in County Meath. In 1781, Arthur's father died and his eldest brother Richard inherited his father's earldom.\n\nHe went to the diocesan school in Trim when at Dangan, Mr Whyte's Academy when in Dublin, and Brown's School in Chelsea when in London. He then enrolled at Eton College, where he studied from 1781 to 1784. His loneliness there caused him to hate it, and makes it highly unlikely that he actually said \"The Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton\", a quotation which is often attributed to him. Moreover, Eton had no playing fields at the time. In 1785, a lack of success at Eton, combined with a shortage of family funds due to his father's death, forced the young Wellesley and his mother to move to Brussels. Until his early twenties, Arthur showed little sign of distinction and his mother grew increasingly concerned at his idleness, stating, \"I don't know what I shall do with my awkward son Arthur.\"\n\nIn 1786, Arthur enrolled in the French Royal Academy of Equitation in Angers, where he progressed significantly, becoming a good horseman and learning French, which later proved very useful. Upon returning to England later the same year, he astonished his mother with his improvement.\n\nEarly military career\n\nUnited Kingdom\n\nDespite his new promise, Wellesley had yet to find a job and his family was still short of money, so upon the advice of his mother, his brother Richard asked his friend the Duke of Rutland (then Lord Lieutenant of Ireland) to consider Arthur for a commission in the Army. Soon afterward, on 7 March 1787, he was gazetted ensign in the 73rd Regiment of Foot. In October, with the assistance of his brother, he was assigned as aide-de-camp, on ten shillings a day (twice his pay as an ensign), to the new Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Buckingham. He was also transferred to the new 76th Regiment forming in Ireland and on Christmas Day, 1787, was promoted lieutenant. During his time in Dublin his duties were mainly social; attending balls, entertaining guests and providing advice to Buckingham. While in Ireland, he overextended himself in borrowing due to his occasional gambling, but in his defence stated that \"I have often known what it was to be in want of money, but I have never got helplessly into debt\".\n\nOn 23 January 1788, he transferred into the 41st Regiment of Foot, then again on 25 June 1789 he transferred to the 12th (Prince of Wales's) Regiment of (Light) Dragoons and, according to military historian Richard Holmes, he also reluctantly entered politics. Shortly before the general election of 1789, he went to the rotten borough of Trim to speak against the granting of the title \"Freeman\" of Dublin to the parliamentary leader of the Irish Patriot Party, Henry Grattan. Succeeding, he was later nominated and duly elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Trim in the Irish House of Commons. Because of the limited suffrage at the time, he sat in a parliament where at least two-thirds of the members owed their election to the landowners of fewer than a hundred boroughs. Wellesley continued to serve at Dublin Castle, voting with the government in the Irish parliament over the next two years. He became a captain on 30 January 1791, and was transferred to the 58th Regiment of Foot.\n\nOn 31 October, he transferred to the 18th Light Dragoons and it was during this period that he grew increasingly attracted to Kitty Pakenham, the daughter of Edward Pakenham, 2nd Baron Longford. She was described as being full of 'gaiety and charm'. In 1793, he proposed, but was turned down by her brother Thomas, Earl of Longford, who considered Wellesley to be a young man, in debt, with very poor prospects. An aspiring amateur musician, Wellesley, devastated by the rejection, burnt his violins in anger, and resolved to pursue a military career in earnest. He became a major by purchase in the 33rd Regiment in 1793. A few months later, in September, his brother lent him more money and with it he purchased a lieutenant-colonelcy in the 33rd.\n\nNetherlands\n\nIn 1793, the Duke of York was sent to Flanders in command of the British contingent of an allied force destined for the invasion of France. In June 1794, Wellesley with the 33rd regiment set sail from Cork bound for Ostend as part of an expedition bringing reinforcements for the army in Flanders. They arrived too late to participate, and joined the Duke of York as he was pulling back towards the Netherlands. On 15 September 1794, at the Battle of Boxtel, east of Breda, Wellington, in temporary command of his brigade, had his first experience of battle. During General Abercromby's withdrawal in the face of superior French forces, the 33rd held off enemy cavalry, allowing neighbouring units to retreat safely. During the extremely harsh winter that followed, Wellesley and his regiment formed part of an allied force holding the defence line along the Waal River. The 33rd, along with the rest of the army, suffered heavy losses from attrition and illness. Wellesley's health was also affected by the damp environment. Though the campaign was to end disastrously, with the British army driven out of the United Provinces into the German states, Wellesley became more aware of battle tactics, including the use of lines of infantry against advancing columns, and the merits of supporting sea-power. He understood that the failure of the campaign was due in part to the faults of the leaders and the poor organisation at headquarters. He remarked later of his time in the Netherlands that \"At least I learned what not to do, and that is always a valuable lesson\".\nReturning to England in March 1795, he was reinstated as a member of parliament for Trim for a second time. He hoped to be given the position of secretary of war in the new Irish government but the new lord-lieutenant, Lord Camden, was only able to offer him the post of Surveyor-General of the Ordnance. Declining the post, he returned to his regiment, now at Southampton preparing to set sail for the West Indies. After seven weeks at sea, a storm forced the fleet back to Poole. The 33rd was given time to recuperate and a few months later, Whitehall decided to send the regiment to India. Wellesley was promoted full colonel by seniority on 3 May 1796 and a few weeks later set sail for Calcutta with his regiment.\n\nIndia\nArriving in Calcutta in February 1797 he spent 5 months there, before being sent in August to a brief expedition to the Philippines, where he established a list of new hygiene precautions for his men to deal with the unfamiliar climate. Returning in November to India, he learnt that his elder brother Richard, now known as Lord Mornington, had been appointed as the new Governor-General of India.\n\nIn 1798, he changed the spelling of his surname to \"Wellesley\"; up to this time he was still known as Wesley, which his eldest brother considered the ancient and proper spelling.\n\nFourth Anglo-Mysore War\n\nAs part of the campaign to extend the rule of the British East India Company, the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War broke out in 1798 against the Sultan of Mysore, Tipu Sultan. Arthur's brother Richard ordered that an armed force be sent to capture Seringapatam and defeat Tipu. During the war, rockets were used on several occasions. Wellesley was almost defeated by Tipu's Diwan, Purnaiah, at the Battle of Sultanpet Tope. Quoting Forrest,\nAt this point (near the village of Sultanpet, Figure 5) there was a large tope, or grove, which gave shelter to Tipu's rocketmen and had obviously to be cleaned out before the siege could be pressed closer to Srirangapattana island. The commander chosen for this operation was Col. Wellesley, but advancing towards the tope after dark on the 5th April 1799, he was set upon with rockets and musket-fires, lost his way and, as Beatson politely puts it, had to \"postpone the attack\" until a more favourable opportunity should offer.\n\nThe following day, Wellesley launched a fresh attack with a larger force, and took the whole position without any killed in action. On 22 April 1799, twelve days before the main battle, rocketeers maneuvered to the rear of the British encampment, then 'threw a great number of rockets at the same instant' to signal the beginning of an assault by 6,000 Indian infantry and a corps of Frenchmen, all ordered by Mir Golam Hussain and Mohomed Hulleen Mir Miran. The rockets had a range of about 1,000 yards. Some burst in the air like shells. Others, called ground rockets, would rise again on striking the ground and bound along in a serpentine motion until their force was spent. According to one British observer, a young English officer named Bayly: \"So pestered were we with the rocket boys that there was no moving without danger from the destructive missiles ...\". He continued:\nThe rockets and musketry from 20,000 of the enemy were incessant. No hail could be thicker. Every illumination of blue lights was accompanied by a shower of rockets, some of which entered the head of the column, passing through to the rear, causing death, wounds, and dreadful lacerations from the long bamboos of twenty or thirty feet, which are invariably attached to them.\nUnder the command of General Harris, some 24,000 troops were dispatched to Madras (to join an equal force being sent from Bombay in the west). Arthur and the 33rd sailed to join them in August.\n\nAfter extensive and careful logistic preparation (which would become one of Wellesley's main attributes) the 33rd left with the main force in December and travelled across of jungle from Madras to Mysore. On account of his brother, during the journey, Wellesley was given an additional command, that of chief advisor to the Nizam of Hyderabad's army (sent to accompany the British force). This position was to cause friction among many of the senior officers (some of whom were senior to Wellesley). Much of this friction was put to rest after the Battle of Mallavelly, some from Seringapatam, in which Harris' army attacked a large part of the sultan's army. During the battle, Wellesley led his men, in a line of battle of two ranks, against the enemy to a gentle ridge and gave the order to fire. After an extensive repetition of volleys, followed by a bayonet charge, the 33rd, in conjunction with the rest of Harris's force, forced Tipu's infantry to retreat.\n\nSeringapatam\nImmediately after their arrival at Seringapatam on 5 April 1799, the Battle of Seringapatam began and Wellesley was ordered to lead a night attack on the village of Sultanpettah, adjacent to the fortress to clear the way for the artillery. Because of a variety of factors including the Mysorean army's strong defensive preparations and the darkness the attack failed with 25 casualties due to confusion among the British. Wellesley suffered a minor injury to his knee from a spent musket-ball. Although they would re-attack successfully the next day, after time to scout ahead the enemy's positions, the affair affected Wellesley. He resolved \"never to attack an enemy who is preparing and strongly posted, and whose posts have not been reconnoitred by daylight\".\nLewin Bentham Bowring gives this alternative account:\n\nOne of these groves, called the Sultanpet Tope, was intersected by deep ditches, watered from a channel running in an easterly direction about a mile from the fort. General Baird was directed to scour this grove and dislodge the enemy, but on his advancing with this object on the night of the 5th, he found the tope unoccupied. The next day, however, the Mysore troops again took possession of the ground, and as it was absolutely necessary to expel them, two columns were detached at sunset for the purpose. The first of these, under Colonel Shawe, got possession of a ruined village, which it successfully held. The second column, under Colonel Wellesley, on advancing into the tope, was at once attacked in the darkness of night by a tremendous fire of musketry and rockets. The men, floundering about amidst the trees and the water-courses, at last broke, and fell back in disorder, some being killed and a few taken prisoners. In the confusion Colonel Wellesley was himself struck on the knee by a spent ball, and narrowly escaped falling into the hands of the enemy.\n\nA few weeks later, after extensive artillery bombardment, a breach was opened in the main walls of the fortress of Seringapatam. An attack led by Major-General Baird secured the fortress. Wellesley secured the rear of the advance, posting guards at the breach and then stationed his regiment at the main palace. After hearing news of the death of the Tipu Sultan, Wellesley was the first at the scene to confirm his death, checking his pulse. Over the coming day, Wellesley grew increasingly concerned over the lack of discipline among his men, who drank and pillaged the fortress and city. To restore order, several soldiers were flogged and four hanged.\n\nAfter battle and the resulting end of the war, the main force under General Harris left Seringapatam and Wellesley, aged 30, stayed behind to command the area as the new Governor of Seringapatam and Mysore. While in India, Wellesley was ill for a considerable time, first with severe diarrhoea from the water and then with fever, followed by a serious skin infection caused by trichophyton.\n\nWellesley was in charge of raising an Anglo-Indian expeditionary force in Trincomali in early 1801 for the capture of Batavia and Mauritius from the French. However, on the eve of its departure, orders arrived from England that it was to be sent to Egypt to co-operate with Sir Ralph Abercromby in the expulsion of the French from Egypt. Wellesley had been appointed second in command to Baird, but owing to ill health did not accompany the expedition on 9 April 1801. This was fortunate for Wellesley, since the very vessel on which he was to have sailed sank in the Red Sea.\n\nHe was promoted to brigadier-general on 17 July 1801. He took residence within the Sultan's summer palace and reformed the tax and justice systems in his province to maintain order and prevent bribery. He also defeated the rebel warlord Dhoondiah Waugh in the Battle of Conaghull, after the latter had escaped from prison in Seringapatam during the battle there.\n\nDhoondiah Waugh insurgency\nIn 1800, whilst serving as Governor of Mysore, Wellesley was tasked with putting down an insurgency led by Dhoondiah Waugh, formerly a Patan trooper for Tipu Sultan. After the fall of Seringapatam he became a powerful brigand, raiding villages along the Maratha–Mysore border region. Despite initial setbacks, the East India Company having pursued and destroyed his forces once already, forcing him into retreat in August 1799, he raised a sizeable force composed of disbanded Mysore soldiers, captured small outposts and forts in Mysore, and was receiving the support of several Maratha killedars opposed to British occupation. This drew the attention of the British administration, who were beginning to recognise him as more than just a bandit, as his raids, expansion and threats to destabilise British authority suddenly increased in 1800. The death of Tipu Sultan had created a power vacuum and Waugh was seeking to fill it.\n\nGiven independent command of a combined East India Company and British Army force, Wellesley ventured north to confront Waugh in June 1800, with an army of 8,000 infantry and cavalry, having learnt that Waugh's forces numbered over 50,000, although the majority (around 30,000) were irregular light cavalry and unlikely to pose a serious threat to British infantry and artillery.\n\nThroughout June–August 1800, Wellesley advanced through Waugh's territory, his troops escalading forts in turn and capturing each one with \"trifling loss\". The forts generally offered little resistance due to their poor construction and design. Wellesley did not have sufficient troops to garrison each fort and had to clear the surrounding area of insurgents before advancing to the next fort. On 31 July, he had \"taken and destroyed Dhoondiah's baggage and six guns, and driven into the Malpoorba (where they were drowned) about five thousand people\". Dhoondiah continued to retreat, but his forces were rapidly deserting, he had no infantry and due to the monsoon weather flooding river crossings he could no longer outpace the British advance. On 10 September, at the Battle of Conaghul, Wellesley personally led a charge of 1,400 British dragoons and Indian cavalry, in single line with no reserve, against Dhoondiah and his remaining 5,000 cavalry. Dhoondiah was killed during the clash, his body was discovered and taken to the British camp tied to a cannon. With this victory, Wellesley's campaign was concluded, and British authority had been restored.\n\nWellesley, with command of four regiments, had defeated Dhoondiah's larger rebel force, along with Dhoondiah himself, who was killed in the final battle. Wellesley then paid for the future upkeep of Dhoondiah's orphaned son.\n\nSecond Anglo-Maratha War\n\nIn September 1802, Wellesley learnt that he had been promoted to the rank of major-general. He had been gazetted on 29 April 1802, but the news took several months to reach him by sea. He remained at Mysore until November when he was sent to command an army in the Second Anglo-Maratha War.\n\nWhen he determined that a long defensive war would ruin his army, Wellesley decided to act boldly to defeat the numerically larger force of the Maratha Empire. With the logistic assembly of his army complete (24,000 men in total) he gave the order to break camp and attack the nearest Maratha fort on 8 August 1803. The fort surrendered on 12 August after an infantry attack had exploited an artillery-made breach in the wall. With the fort now in British control Wellesley was able to extend control southwards to the river Godavari.\n\nAssaye, Argaum and Gawilghur\n\nSplitting his army into two forces, to pursue and locate the main Marathas army, (the second force, commanded by Colonel Stevenson was far smaller) Wellesley was preparing to rejoin his forces on 24 September. His intelligence, however, reported the location of the Marathas' main army, between two rivers near Assaye. If he waited for the arrival of his second force, the Marathas would be able to mount a retreat, so Wellesley decided to launch an attack immediately.\n\nOn 23 September, Wellesley led his forces over a ford in the river Kaitna and the Battle of Assaye commenced. After crossing the ford the infantry was reorganised into several lines and advanced against the Maratha infantry. Wellesley ordered his cavalry to exploit the flank of the Maratha army just near the village. During the battle Wellesley himself came under fire; two of his horses were shot from under him and he had to mount a third. At a crucial moment, Wellesley regrouped his forces and ordered Colonel Maxwell (later killed in the attack) to attack the eastern end of the Maratha position while Wellesley himself directed a renewed infantry attack against the centre.\n\nAn officer in the attack wrote of the importance of Wellesley's personal leadership: \"The General was in the thick of the action the whole time ... I never saw a man so cool and collected as he was ... though I can assure you, 'til our troops got the order to advance the fate of the day seemed doubtful ...\" With some 6,000 Marathas killed or wounded, the enemy was routed, though Wellesley's force was in no condition to pursue. British casualties were heavy: the British losses amounted to 428 killed, 1,138 wounded and 18 missing (the British casualty figures were taken from Wellesley's own despatch). Wellesley was troubled by the loss of men and remarked that he hoped \"I should not like to see again such loss as I sustained on 23 September, even if attended by such gain\". Years later, however, he remarked that Assaye, and not Waterloo, was the best battle he ever fought.\n\nDespite the damage done to the Maratha army, the battle did not end the war. A few months later in November, Wellesley attacked a larger force near Argaum, leading his army to victory again, with an astonishing 5,000 enemy dead at the cost of only 361 British casualties. A further successful attack at the fortress at Gawilghur, combined with the victory of General Lake at Delhi forced the Maratha to sign a peace settlement at Anjangaon (not concluded until a year later) called the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon.\n\nMilitary historian Richard Holmes remarked that Wellesley's experiences in India had an important influence on his personality and military tactics, teaching him much about military matters that would prove vital to his success in the Peninsular War. These included a strong sense of discipline through drill and order, the use of diplomacy to gain allies, and the vital necessity of a secure supply line. He also established high regard for the acquisition of intelligence through scouts and spies. His personal tastes also developed, including dressing himself in white trousers, a dark tunic, with Hessian boots and black cocked hat (that later became synonymous as his style).\n\nLeaving India\n\nWellesley had grown tired of his time in India, remarking \"I have served as long in India as any man ought who can serve anywhere else\". In June 1804 he applied for permission to return home and as a reward for his service in India he was made a Knight of the Bath in September. While in India, Wellesley had amassed a fortune of £42,000 (considerable at the time), consisting mainly of prize money from his campaign. When his brother's term as Governor-General of India ended in March 1805, the brothers returned together to England on HMS Howe. Wellesley, coincidentally, stopped on his voyage at the island of Saint Helena and stayed in the same building in which Napoleon I would live during his later exile.\n\nReturn to Britain\n\nMeeting Nelson \nIn September 1805, Major-General Wellesley was newly returned from his campaigns in India and was not yet particularly well known to the public. He reported to the office of the Secretary of State for War and the Colonies to request a new assignment. In the waiting room, he met Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson, already a known figure after his victories at the Nile and Copenhagen, who was briefly in England after months pursuing the French Toulon fleet to the West Indies and back. Some 30 years later, Wellington recalled a conversation that Nelson began with him which Wellesley found \"almost all on his side in a style so vain and silly as to surprise and almost disgust me\". Nelson left the room to inquire who the young general was and, on his return, switched to a very different tone, discussing the war, the state of the colonies, and the geopolitical situation as between equals. On this second discussion, Wellington recalled, \"I don't know that I ever had a conversation that interested me more\". This was the only time that the two men met; Nelson was killed at his victory at Trafalgar seven weeks later.\n\nWellesley then served in the abortive Anglo-Russian expedition to north Germany in 1805, taking a brigade to Elbe.\n\nHe then took a period of extended leave from the army and was elected as a Tory member of the British parliament for Rye in January 1806. A year later, he was elected MP for Newport on the Isle of Wight, and was then appointed to serve as Chief Secretary for Ireland under the Duke of Richmond. At the same time, he was made a privy counsellor. While in Ireland, he gave a verbal promise that the remaining Penal Laws would be enforced with great moderation, perhaps an indication of his later willingness to support Catholic emancipation.\n\nWar against Denmark-Norway \n\nWellesley was in Ireland in May 1807 when he heard of the British expedition to Denmark-Norway. He decided to go, while maintaining his political appointments, and was appointed to command an infantry brigade in the Second Battle of Copenhagen, which took place in August. He fought at Køge, during which the men under his command took 1,500 prisoners, with Wellesley later present during the surrender.\n\nBy 30 September, he had returned to England and was raised to the rank of lieutenant general on 25 April 1808. In June 1808 he accepted the command of an expedition of 9,000 men. Preparing to sail for an attack on the Spanish colonies in South America (to assist the Latin American patriot Francisco de Miranda) his force was instead ordered to sail for Portugal, to take part in the Peninsular Campaign and rendezvous with 5,000 troops from Gibraltar.\n\nPeninsular War\n\n1808–1809 \nReady for battle, Wellesley left Cork on 12 July 1808 to participate in the war against French forces in the Iberian Peninsula, with his skills as a commander tested and developed.According to the historian Robin Neillands:\n\nWellesley defeated the French at the Battle of Roliça and the Battle of Vimeiro in 1808 but was superseded in command immediately after the latter battle. General Dalrymple then signed the controversial Convention of Sintra, which stipulated that the Royal Navy transport the French army out of Lisbon with all their loot, and insisted on the association of the only available government minister, Wellesley.\nDalrymple and Wellesley were recalled to Britain to face a Court of Enquiry. Wellesley had agreed to sign the preliminary armistice, but had not signed the convention, and was cleared.\n\nSimultaneously, Napoleon entered Spain with his veteran troops to put down the revolt; the new commander of the British forces in the Peninsula, Sir John Moore, died during the Battle of Corunna in January 1809.\n\nAlthough overall the land war with France was not going well from a British perspective, the Peninsula was the one theatre where they, with the Portuguese, had provided strong resistance against France and her allies. This contrasted with the disastrous Walcheren expedition, which was typical of the mismanaged British operations of the time. Wellesley submitted a memorandum to Lord Castlereagh on the defence of Portugal. He stressed its mountainous frontiers and advocated Lisbon as the main base because the Royal Navy could help to defend it. Castlereagh and the cabinet approved the memo and appointed him head of all British forces in Portugal.\n\nWellesley arrived in Lisbon on 22 April 1809 on board HMS Surveillante, after narrowly escaping shipwreck. Reinforced, he took to the offensive. In the Second Battle of Porto he crossed the Douro river in a daylight coup de main, and routed Marshal Soult's French troops in Porto.\n\nWith Portugal secured, Wellesley advanced into Spain to unite with General Cuesta's forces. The combined allied force prepared for an assault on Marshal Victor's I Corps at Talavera, 23 July. Cuesta, however, was reluctant to agree, and was only persuaded to advance on the following day. The delay allowed the French to withdraw, but Cuesta sent his army headlong after Victor, and found himself faced by almost the entire French army in New Castile—Victor had been reinforced by the Toledo and Madrid garrisons. The Spanish retreated precipitously, necessitating the advance of two British divisions to cover their retreat.\n\nThe next day, 27 July, at the Battle of Talavera the French advanced in three columns and were repulsed several times throughout the day by Wellesley, but at a heavy cost to the British force. In the aftermath Marshal Soult's army was discovered to be advancing south, threatening to cut Wellesley off from Portugal. Wellesley moved east on 3 August to block it, leaving 1,500 wounded in the care of the Spanish, intending to confront Soult before finding out that the French were in fact 30,000 strong. The British commander sent the Light Brigade on a dash to hold the bridge over the Tagus at Almaraz. With communications and supply from Lisbon secured for now, Wellesley considered joining with Cuesta again but found out that his Spanish ally had abandoned the British wounded to the French and was thoroughly uncooperative, promising and then refusing to supply the British forces, aggravating Wellesley and causing considerable friction between the British and their Spanish allies. The lack of supplies, coupled with the threat of French reinforcement (including the possible inclusion of Napoleon himself) in the spring, led to the British deciding to retreat into Portugal.\n\nFollowing his victory at Talavera, Wellesley was elevated to the Peerage of the United Kingdom on 26 August 1809 as Viscount Wellington of Talavera and of Wellington, in the County of Somerset, with the subsidiary title of Baron Douro of Wellesley.\n\n1810–1812 \nIn 1810, a newly enlarged French army under Marshal André Masséna invaded Portugal. British opinion was negative and there were suggestions to evacuate Portugal. Instead, Lord Wellington first slowed the French at Buçaco; he then prevented them from taking the Lisbon Peninsula by the construction of massive earthworks, known as the Lines of Torres Vedras, which had been assembled in complete secrecy with their flanks guarded by the Royal Navy. The baffled and starving French invasion forces retreated after six months. Wellington's pursuit was hindered by a series of reverses inflicted by Marshal Ney in a much-lauded rear guard campaign.\n\nIn 1811, Masséna returned toward Portugal to relieve Almeida; Wellington narrowly checked the French at the Battle of Fuentes de Oñoro. Simultaneously, his subordinate, Viscount Beresford, fought Soult's 'Army of the South' to a bloody stalemate at the Battle of Albuera in May. Wellington was promoted to full general on 31 July for his services. The French abandoned Almeida, avoiding British pursuit, but retained the twin Spanish fortresses of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, the 'Keys' guarding the roads through the mountain passes into Portugal.\n\nIn 1812, Wellington finally captured Ciudad Rodrigo via a rapid movement as the French went into winter quarters, storming it before they could react. He then moved south quickly, besieged the fortress of Badajoz for a month and captured it during the night on 6 April 1812. On viewing the aftermath of the Storming of Badajoz, Wellington lost his composure and cried at the sight of the British dead in the breaches.\n\nHis army now was a veteran British force reinforced by units of the retrained Portuguese army. Campaigning in Spain, he was made Earl of Wellington in the county of Somerset on 22 February 1812. He routed the French at the Battle of Salamanca, taking advantage of a minor French mispositioning. The victory liberated the Spanish capital of Madrid. He was later made Marquess of Wellington, in the said county on 18 August 1812.\n\nWellington attempted to take the vital fortress of Burgos, which linked Madrid to France. He failed, due in part to a lack of siege guns, forcing him into a headlong retreat with the loss of over 2,000 casualties.\n\nThe French abandoned Andalusia, and combined the troops of Soult and Marmont. Thus combined, the French outnumbered the British, putting the British forces in a precarious position. Wellington withdrew his army and, joined by the smaller corps under the command of Rowland Hill, which had been moved to Madrid, began to retreat to Portugal. Marshal Soult declined to attack.\n\n1813–1814 \nIn 1813, Wellington led a new offensive, this time against the French line of communications. He struck through the hills north of Burgos, the Tras os Montes, and switched his supply line from Portugal to Santander on Spain's north coast; this led to the French abandoning Madrid and Burgos. Continuing to outflank the French lines, Wellington caught up with and routed the army of King Joseph Bonaparte in the Battle of Vitoria, for which he was promoted to field marshal on 21 June. He personally led a column against the French centre, while other columns commanded by Sir Thomas Graham, Rowland Hill and the Earl of Dalhousie looped around the French right and left (this battle became the subject of Beethoven's orchestral piece, the Wellington's Victory (Opus 91). The British troops broke ranks to loot the abandoned French wagons instead of pursuing the beaten foe. When troops failed to return to their units and began harassing the locals, an enraged Wellington to write in a famous despatch to Earl Bathurst, \"We have in the service the scum of the earth as common soldiers\".\n\nAlthough later, when his temper had cooled, he extended his comment to praise the men under his command saying that though many of the men were, \"the scum of the earth; it is really wonderful that we should have made them to the fine fellows they are\".\n\nAfter taking the small fortresses of Pamplona, Wellington invested San Sebastián but was frustrated by the obstinate French garrison, losing 693 dead and 316 captured in a failed assault and suspending the siege at the end of July. Soult's relief attempt was blocked by the Spanish Army of Galicia at San Marcial, allowing the Allies to consolidate their position and tighten the ring around the city, which fell in September after a second spirited defence. Wellington then forced Soult's demoralised and battered army into a fighting retreat into France, punctuated by battles at the Pyrenees, Bidassoa and Nivelle. Wellington invaded southern France, winning at the Nive and Orthez. Wellington's final battle against his rival Soult occurred at Toulouse, where the Allied divisions were badly mauled storming the French redoubts, losing some 4,600 men. Despite this momentary victory, news arrived of Napoleon's defeat and abdication and Soult, seeing no reason to continue the fighting, agreed on a ceasefire with Wellington, allowing Soult to evacuate the city.\n\nHailed as the conquering hero by the British, on 3 May 1814 Wellington was made Duke of Wellington, in the county of Somerset, together with the subsidiary title of Marquess Douro, in said County.\n\nHe received some recognition during his lifetime (the title of \"Duque de Ciudad Rodrigo\" and \"Grandee of Spain\") and the Spanish King Ferdinand VII allowed him to keep part of the works of art from the Royal Collection which he had recovered from the French. His equestrian portrait features prominently in the Monument to the Battle of Vitoria, in present-day Vitoria-Gasteiz.\n His popularity in Britain was due to his image and his appearance as well as to his military triumphs. His victory fitted well with the passion and intensity of the Romantic movement, with its emphasis on individuality. His personal style influenced the fashions in Britain at the time: his tall, lean figure and his plumed black hat and grand yet classic uniform and white trousers became very popular.\n\nIn late 1814, the Prime Minister wanted him to take command in Canada with the assignment of winning the War of 1812 against the United States. Wellesley replied that he would go to America, but he believed that he was needed more in Europe. He stated:\n\nHe was appointed Ambassador to France, then took Lord Castlereagh's place as first plenipotentiary to the Congress of Vienna.\n\nOn 2 January 1815, the title of his Knighthood of the Bath was converted to Knight Grand Cross upon the expansion of that order.\n\nHundred Days\n\nFacing Napoleon\n\nOn 26 February 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France. He regained control of the country by May and faced a renewed alliance against him. Wellington left Vienna for what became known as the Waterloo Campaign. He arrived in the Netherlands to take command of the British-German army and their allied Dutch, all stationed alongside the Prussian forces of Generalfeldmarschall Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher.\n\nNapoleon's strategy was to isolate the Allied and Prussian armies and annihilate each one separately before the Austrians and Russians arrived. In doing so the vast superiority in numbers of the Coalition would be greatly diminished. He would then seek the possibility of peace with Austria and Russia.\n\nThe French invaded the Netherlands, with Napoleon defeating the Prussians at Ligny, and Marshal Ney engaging indecisively with Wellington at the Battle of Quatre Bras. The Prussians retreated 18 miles north to Wavre whilst Wellington's Anglo-Allied army withdrew 15 miles north to a site he had noted the previous year as favourable for a battle: the north ridge of a shallow valley on the Brussels road, just south of the small town of Waterloo. On 17 June there was torrential rain, which severely hampered movement. and had a considerable effect the next day, 18 June, when the Battle of Waterloo was fought. This was the first time Wellington had encountered Napoleon; he commanded an Anglo-Dutch-German army that consisted of approximately 73,000 troops, 26,000 of whom were British. Approximately 30 percent of that 26,000 were Irish.\n\nBattle of Waterloo\n\nThe Battle of Waterloo was fought on Sunday 18 June 1815, near Waterloo (at that time in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, now in Belgium). It commenced with a diversionary attack on Hougoumont by a division of French soldiers. After a barrage of 80 cannons, the first French infantry attack was launched by Comte D'Erlon's I Corps. D'Erlon's troops advanced through the Allied centre, resulting in Allied troops in front of the ridge retreating in disorder through the main position. D'Erlon's corps stormed the most fortified Allied position, La Haye Sainte, but failed to take it. An Allied division under Thomas Picton met the remainder of D'Erlon's corps head to head, engaging them in an infantry duel in which Picton was killed. During this struggle Lord Uxbridge launched two of his cavalry brigades at the enemy, catching the French infantry off guard, driving them to the bottom of the slope, and capturing two French Imperial Eagles. The charge, however, over-reached itself, and the British cavalry, crushed by fresh French horsemen sent at them by Napoleon, were driven back, suffering tremendous losses.\n\nShortly before 16:00, Marshal Ney noted an apparent withdrawal from Wellington's centre. He mistook the movement of casualties to the rear for the beginnings of a retreat, and sought to exploit it. Ney at this time had few infantry reserves left, as most of the infantry had been committed either to the futile Hougoumont attack or to the defence of the French right. Ney, therefore, tried to break Wellington's centre with a cavalry charge alone.\n\nAt about 16:30, the first Prussian corps arrived. Commanded by Freiherr von Bülow, IV Corps arrived as the French cavalry attack was in full spate. Bülow sent the 15th Brigade to link up with Wellington's left flank in the Frichermont–La Haie area while the brigade's horse artillery battery and additional brigade artillery deployed to its left in support. Napoleon sent Lobau's corps to intercept the rest of Bülow's IV Corps proceeding to Plancenoit. The 15th Brigade sent Lobau's corps into retreat to the Plancenoit area. Von Hiller's 16th Brigade also pushed forward with six battalions against Plancenoit. Napoleon had dispatched all eight battalions of the Young Guard to reinforce Lobau, who was now seriously pressed by the enemy. Napoleon's Young Guard counter-attacked and, after very hard fighting, secured Plancenoit, but were themselves counter-attacked and driven out. Napoleon then resorted to sending two battalions of the Middle and Old Guard into Plancenoit and after ferocious fighting they recaptured the village.\nThe French cavalry attacked the British infantry squares many times, each at a heavy cost to the French but with few British casualties. Ney himself was displaced from his horse four times. Eventually, it became obvious, even to Ney, that cavalry alone were achieving little. Belatedly, he organised a combined-arms attack, using Bachelu's division and Tissot's regiment of Foy's division from Reille's II Corps plus those French cavalry that remained in a fit state to fight. This assault was directed along much the same route as the previous heavy cavalry attacks.\n\nMeanwhile, at approximately the same time as Ney's combined-arms assault on the centre-right of Wellington's line, Napoleon ordered Ney to capture La Haye Sainte at whatever the cost. Ney accomplished this with what was left of D'Erlon's corps soon after 18:00. Ney then moved horse artillery up towards Wellington's centre and began to attack the infantry squares at short-range with canister. This all but destroyed the 27th (Inniskilling) Regiment, and the 30th and 73rd Regiments suffered such heavy losses that they had to combine to form a viable square. Wellington's centre was now on the verge of collapse and wide open to an attack from the French. Luckily for Wellington, Pirch I's and Zieten's corps of the Prussian Army were now at hand. Zieten's corps permitted the two fresh cavalry brigades of Vivian and Vandeleur on Wellington's extreme left to be moved and posted behind the depleted centre. Pirch I Corps then proceeded to support Bülow and together they regained possession of Plancenoit, and once more the Charleroi road was swept by Prussian round shot. The value of this reinforcement is held in high regard.\n\nThe French army now fiercely attacked the Coalition all along the line with the culminating point being reached when Napoleon sent forward the Imperial Guard at 19:30. The attack of the Imperial Guards was mounted by five battalions of the Middle Guard, and not by the Grenadiers or Chasseurs of the Old Guard. Marching through a hail of canister and skirmisher fire and severely outnumbered, the 3,000 or so Middle Guardsmen advanced to the west of La Haye Sainte and proceeded to separate into three distinct attack forces. One, consisting of two battalions of Grenadiers, defeated the Coalition's first line and marched on. Chassé's relatively fresh Dutch division was sent against them, and Allied artillery fired into the victorious Grenadiers' flank. This still could not stop the Guard's advance, so Chassé ordered his first brigade to charge the outnumbered French, who faltered and broke.\n\nFurther to the west, 1,500 British Foot Guards under Maitland were lying down to protect themselves from the French artillery. As two battalions of Chasseurs approached, the second prong of the Imperial Guard's attack, Maitland's guardsmen rose and devastated them with point-blank volleys. The Chasseurs deployed to counter-attack but began to waver. A bayonet charge by the Foot Guards then broke them. The third prong, a fresh Chasseur battalion, now came up in support. The British guardsmen retreated with these Chasseurs in pursuit, but the latter were halted as the 52nd Light Infantry wheeled in line onto their flank and poured a devastating fire into them and then charged. Under this onslaught, they too broke.\n\nThe last of the Guard retreated headlong. Mass panic ensued through the French lines as the news spread: \"La Garde recule. Sauve qui peut!\" (\"The Guard is retreating. Every man for himself!\"). Wellington then stood up in Copenhagen's stirrups, and waved his hat in the air to signal an advance of the Allied line just as the Prussians were overrunning the French positions to the east. What remained of the French army then abandoned the field in disorder. Wellington and Blücher met at the inn of La Belle Alliance, on the north–south road which bisected the battlefield, and it was agreed that the Prussians should pursue the retreating French army back to France. The Treaty of Paris was signed on 20 November 1815.\n\nAfter the victory, the Duke supported proposals that a medal be awarded to all British soldiers who participated in the Waterloo campaign, and on 28 June 1815, he wrote to the Duke of York suggesting: ... the expediency of giving to the non-commissioned officers and soldiers engaged in the Battle of Waterloo a medal. I am convinced it would have the best effect in the army, and if the battle should settle our concerns, they will well deserve it.The Waterloo Medal was duly authorised and distributed to all ranks in 1816.\n\nControversy\nMuch historical discussion has been made about Napoleon's decision to send 33,000 troops under Marshal Grouchy to intercept the Prussians, but—having defeated Blücher at Ligny on 16 June and forced the Allies to retreat in divergent directions—Napoleon may have been strategically astute in a judgement that he would have been unable to beat the combined Allied forces on one battlefield. Wellington's comparable strategic gamble was to leave 17,000 troops and artillery, mostly Dutch, away at Hal, north-west of Mont-Saint-Jean, in case of a French advance up the Mons-Hal-Brussels road.\n\nThe campaign led to numerous other controversies. Issues concerning Wellington's troop dispositions prior to Napoleon's invasion of the Netherlands, whether Wellington misled or betrayed Blücher by promising, then failing, to come directly to Blücher's aid at Ligny, and credit for the victory between Wellington and the Prussians. These and other such issues concerning Blücher's, Wellington's, and Napoleon's decisions during the campaign were the subject of a strategic-level study by the Prussian political-military theorist Carl von Clausewitz, Feldzug von 1815: Strategische Uebersicht des Feldzugs von 1815, (English title: The Campaign of 1815: Strategic Overview of the Campaign.) This study was Clausewitz's last such work and is widely considered to be the best example of Clausewitz's mature theories concerning such analyses. It attracted the attention of Wellington's staff, who prompted the Duke to write a published essay on the campaign (other than his immediate, official after-action report, \"The Waterloo Dispatch\".) This was published as the 1842 \"Memorandum on the Battle of Waterloo\". While Wellington disputed Clausewitz on several points, Clausewitz largely absolved Wellington of accusations levelled against him. This exchange with Clausewitz was quite famous in Britain in the 19th century, particularly in Charles Cornwallis Chesney's work the Waterloo Lectures, but was largely ignored in the 20th century due to hostilities between Britain and Germany.\n\nPolitics\n\nPrime Minister\n\nWellington entered politics again when he was appointed Master-General of the Ordnance in the Tory government of Lord Liverpool on 26 December 1818. He also became Governor of Plymouth on 9 October 1819. He was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Army on 22 January 1827 and Constable of the Tower of London on 5 February 1827.\n\nAlong with Robert Peel, Wellington became an increasingly influential member of the Tory party, and in 1828 he resigned as Commander-in-Chief and became prime minister.\n\nDuring his first seven months as prime minister, he chose not to live in the official residence at 10 Downing Street, finding it too small. He moved in only because his own home, Apsley House, required extensive renovations. During this time he was largely instrumental in the foundation of King's College London. On 20 January 1829 Wellington was appointed Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports.\n\nReform\n\nHis term was marked by Roman Catholic Emancipation: the restoration of most civil rights to Roman Catholics in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The change was prompted by the landslide by-election win of Daniel O'Connell, a Roman Catholic Irish proponent of emancipation, who was elected despite not being legally allowed to sit in Parliament. In the House of Lords, facing stiff opposition, Wellington spoke for Catholic Emancipation, and according to some sources, gave one of the best speeches of his career. Wellington was born in Ireland and so had some understanding of the grievances of the Roman Catholic majority there; as Chief Secretary, he had given an undertaking that the remaining Penal Laws would only be enforced as \"mildly\" as possible. In 1811 Catholic soldiers were given freedom of worship and 18 years later the Catholic Relief Act 1829 was passed with a majority of 105. Many Tories voted against the Act, and it passed only with the help of the Whigs. Wellington had threatened to resign as prime minister if King George IV did not give Royal Assent.\n\nThe Earl of Winchilsea accused the Duke of \"an insidious design for the infringement of our liberties and the introduction of Popery into every department of the State\". Wellington responded by immediately challenging Winchilsea to a duel. On 21 March 1829, Wellington and Winchilsea met on Battersea fields. When the time came to fire, the Duke took aim and Winchilsea kept his arm down. The Duke fired wide to the right. Accounts differ as to whether he missed on purpose, an act known in duelling as a delope. Wellington claimed he did. However, he was noted for his poor aim and reports more sympathetic to Winchilsea claimed he had aimed to kill. Winchilsea discharged his pistol into the air, a plan he and his second had almost certainly decided upon before the duel. Honour was saved and Winchilsea wrote Wellington an apology.\n\nThe nickname \"Iron Duke\" originated from this period, when he experienced a high degree of personal and political unpopularity. Its repeated use in Freeman's Journal throughout June 1830 appears to bear reference to his resolute political will, with taints of disapproval from its Irish editors. During this time, Wellington was greeted by a hostile reaction from the crowds at the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.\n\nWellington's government fell in 1830. In the summer and autumn of that year, a wave of riots swept the country. The Whigs had been out of power for most years since the 1770s, and saw political reform in response to the unrest as the key to their return. Wellington stuck to the Tory policy of no reform and no expansion of suffrage, and as a result, lost a vote of no confidence on 15 November 1830.\n\nThe Whigs introduced the first Reform Bill while Wellington and the Tories worked to prevent its passage. The Whigs could not get the bill past its second reading in the British House of Commons, and the attempt failed. An election followed in direct response and the Whigs were returned with a landslide majority. A second Reform Act was introduced and passed in the House of Commons but was defeated in the Tory-controlled House of Lords. Another wave of near-insurrection swept the country. Wellington's residence at Apsley House was targeted by a mob of demonstrators on 27 April 1831 and again on 12 October, leaving his windows smashed. Iron shutters were installed in June 1832 to prevent further damage by crowds angry over rejection of the Reform Bill, which he strongly opposed. The Whig Government fell in 1832 and Wellington was unable to form a Tory Government partly because of a run on the Bank of England. This left King William IV no choice but to restore Earl Grey to the premiership. Eventually, the bill passed the House of Lords after the King threatened to fill that House with newly created Whig peers if it were not. Wellington was never reconciled to the change; when Parliament first met after the first election under the widened franchise, Wellington is reported to have said \"I never saw so many shocking bad hats in my life\".\n\nWellington opposed the Jewish Civil Disabilities Repeal Bill, and he stated in Parliament on 1 August 1833 that England \"is a Christian country and a Christian legislature, and that the effect of this measure would be to remove that peculiar character.\" The Bill was defeated by 104 votes to 54.\n\nGovernment\n\nWellington was gradually superseded as leader of the Tories by Robert Peel, while the party evolved into the Conservatives. When the Tories were returned to power in 1834, Wellington declined to become prime minister because he thought membership in the House of Commons had become essential. The king reluctantly approved Peel, who was in Italy. Hence, Wellington acted as interim leader for three weeks in November and December 1834, taking the responsibilities of prime minister and most of the other ministries. In Peel's first cabinet (1834–1835), Wellington became foreign secretary, while in the second (1841–1846) he was a minister without portfolio and Leader of the House of Lords. Wellington was also re-appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Army on 15 August 1842 following the resignation of Lord Hill.\n\nWellington served as the leader of the Conservative party in the House of Lords from 1828 to 1846. Some historians have belittled him as a befuddled reactionary, but a consensus in the late 20th century depicts him as a shrewd operator who hid his cleverness behind the façade of a poorly informed old soldier. Wellington worked to transform the Lords from unstinting support of the Crown to an active player in political manoeuvering, with a commitment to the landed aristocracy. He used his London residence as a venue for intimate dinners and private consultations, together with extensive correspondence that kept him in close touch with party leaders in the Commons, and the main persona in the Lords. He gave public rhetorical support to Ultra-Tory anti-reform positions, but then deftly changed positions toward the party's centre, especially when Peel needed support from the upper house. Wellington's success was based on the 44 elected peers from Scotland and Ireland, whose elections he controlled.\n\nLater life\n\nFamily \n\nWellesley was married by his brother Gerald, a clergyman, to Kitty Pakenham in St George's Church, Dublin on 10 April 1806. They had two children: Arthur was born in 1807 and Charles was born in 1808. The marriage proved unsatisfactory and the two spent years apart, while Wellesley was campaigning and afterwards. Kitty grew depressed, and Wellesley pursued other sexual and romantic partners. The couple largely lived apart, with Kitty spending most of her time at their country home, Stratfield Saye House and Wellesley at their London home, Apsley House. Kitty's brother Edward Pakenham served under Wellesley throughout the Peninsular War, and Wellesley's regard for him helped to smooth his relations with Kitty, until Pakenham's death at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815.\n\nRetirement\nWellington retired from political life in 1846, although he remained Commander-in-Chief, and returned briefly to the public eye in 1848 when he helped organise a military force to protect London during the year of European revolution. The Conservative Party had split over the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, with Wellington and most of the former Cabinet still supporting Peel, but most of the MPs led by Lord Derby supporting a protectionist stance. Early in 1852 Wellington, by then very deaf, gave Derby's first government its nickname by shouting \"Who? Who?\" as the list of inexperienced Cabinet ministers was read out in the House of Lords. He became Chief Ranger and Keeper of Hyde Park and St James's Park on 31 August 1850. He remained colonel of the 33rd Regiment of Foot from 1 February 1806 and colonel of the Grenadier Guards from 22 January 1827. Kitty died of cancer in 1831; despite their generally unhappy relations, which had led to an effective separation, Wellington was said to have been greatly saddened by her death, his one comfort being that after \"half a lifetime together, they had come to understand each other at the end\". He had found consolation for his unhappy marriage in his warm friendship with the diarist Harriet Arbuthnot, wife of his colleague Charles Arbuthnot. Harriet's death in the cholera epidemic of 1834 was almost as great a blow to Wellington as it was to her husband. The two widowers spent their last years together at Apsley House.\n\nDeath and funeral\n\nWellington died at Walmer Castle in Kent, his residence as Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports and reputedly his favourite home, on 14 September 1852. He was found to be unwell on that morning and was helped from his campaign bed, which he had used throughout his military career, and seated in his chair where he died. His death was recorded as being due to the after-effects of a stroke culminating in a series of seizures. He was aged 83.\n\nAlthough in life he hated travelling by rail, having witnessed the death of William Huskisson, one of the first railway accident casualties, his body was taken by train to London, where he was given a state funeral – one of a small number of British subjects to be so honoured (other examples include Lord Nelson and Sir Winston Churchill). The funeral took place on 18 November 1852. Before the funeral, the Duke's body lay in state at the Royal Hospital Chelsea. Members of the royal family, including Queen Victoria, the Prince Consort, the Prince of Wales, and the Princess Royal, visited to pay their respects. When viewing opened to the public, crowds thronged to visit and several people were killed in the crush.\n\nHe was buried in St Paul's Cathedral, and during his funeral, there was little space to stand due to the number of attendees. A bronze memorial was sculpted by Alfred Stevens, and features two intricate supports: \"Truth tearing the tongue out of the mouth of False-hood\", and \"Valour trampling Cowardice underfoot\". Stevens did not live to see it placed in its home under one of the arches of the cathedral.\n\nWellington's casket was decorated with banners which were made for his funeral procession. Originally, there was one from Prussia, which was removed during World War I and never reinstated. In the procession, the \"Great Banner\" was carried by General Sir James Charles Chatterton of the 4th Dragoon Guards on the orders of Queen Victoria.\n\nMost of the book A Biographical Sketch of the Military and Political Career of the Late Duke of Wellington by Weymouth newspaper proprietor Joseph Drew is a detailed contemporary account of his death, lying in state and funeral.\n\nAfter his death, Irish and English newspapers disputed whether Wellington had been born an Irishman or an Englishman. In 2002, he was number 15 in the BBC's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons.\n\nOwing to its links with Wellington, as the former commanding officer and colonel of the regiment, the title \"33rd (The Duke of Wellington's) Regiment\" was granted to the 33rd Regiment of Foot, on 18 June 1853 (the 38th anniversary of the Battle of Waterloo) by Queen Victoria. Wellington's battle record is exemplary; he participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career.\n\nPersonality\n\nWellington always rose early; he \"couldn't bear to lie awake in bed\", even if the army was not on the march. Even when he returned to civilian life after 1815, he slept in a camp bed, reflecting his lack of regard for creature comforts. General Miguel de Álava complained that Wellington said so often that the army would march \"at daybreak\" and dine on \"cold meat\" that he began to dread those two phrases. While on campaign, he seldom ate anything between breakfast and dinner. During the retreat to Portugal in 1811, he subsisted on \"cold meat and bread\", to the despair of his staff who dined with him. He was, however, renowned for the quality of the wine that he drank and served, often drinking a bottle with his dinner (not a great quantity by the standards of his day).\n\nÁlava was a witness to an incident just before the Battle of Salamanca. Wellington was eating a chicken leg while observing the manoeuvres of the French army through a spyglass. He spotted an overextension in the French left flank, and realised that he could launch a successful attack there. He exclaimed \"By God, that will do!\" and threw the drumstick in the air. After the Battle of Toulouse, Colonel Frederick Ponsonby brought him the news of Napoleon's abdication, and Wellington broke into an impromptu flamenco dance, spinning around on his heels and clicking his fingers.\n\nMilitary historian Charles Dalton recorded that, after a hard-fought battle in Spain, a young officer made the comment, \"I am going to dine with Wellington tonight\", which was overheard by the Duke as he rode by. \"Give me at least the prefix of Mr. before my name,\" Wellington said. \"My Lord,\" replied the officer, \"we do not speak of Mr. Caesar or Mr. Alexander, so why should I speak of Mr. Wellington?\"\n\nWhile known for his stern countenance and iron-handed discipline, Wellington was by no means unfeeling. While he is said to have disapproved of soldiers cheering as \"too nearly an expression of opinion\". Wellington nevertheless cared for his men: he refused to pursue the French after the battles of Porto and Salamanca, foreseeing an inevitable cost to his army in chasing a diminished enemy through rough terrain. The only time that he ever showed grief in public was after the storming of Badajoz: he cried at the sight of the British dead in the breaches.In this context, his famous despatch after the Battle of Vitoria, calling them the \"scum of the earth\" can be seen to be fuelled as much by disappointment at their breaking ranks as by anger. He shed tears after Waterloo on the presentation of the list of British fallen by Dr John Hume. Later with his family, unwilling to be congratulated for his victory, he broke down in tears, his fighting spirit diminished by the high cost of the battle and great personal loss.\n\nWellington's soldier servant, a gruff German called Beckerman, and his long-serving valet, James Kendall, who served him for 25 years and was with him when he died, were both devoted to him. (A story that he never spoke to his servants and preferred instead to write his orders on a notepad on his dressing table in fact probably refers to his son, the 2nd Duke. It was recorded by the 3rd Duke's niece, Viva Seton Montgomerie (1879–1959), as being an anecdote she heard from an old retainer, Charles Holman, who was said greatly to resemble Napoleon.)\n\nFollowing an incident when, as Master-General of the Ordnance he had been close to a large explosion, Wellington began to experience deafness and other ear-related problems. In 1822, he had an operation to improve the hearing of the left ear. The result, however, was that he became permanently deaf on that side. It is claimed that he was \"never quite well afterwards\".\n\nWellington came to enjoy the company of a variety of intellectual and attractive women and had many amorous liaisons, particularly after the Battle of Waterloo and his subsequent ambassadorial position in Paris. In the days following Waterloo he had an affair with the notorious Lady Caroline Lamb, sister of one of his severely wounded officers and favourites, Col Frederick Ponsonby. He corresponded for many years with Lady Georgiana Lennox, later Lady de Ros, 26 years his junior and daughter of the Duchess of Richmond (who held the famous ball on the eve of Waterloo) and, though there are hints, it has not been clearly determined if the relationship was ever sexual. The British press lampooned the amorous side of the national hero. In 1824, one liaison came back to haunt him, when Wellington received a letter from a publisher, John Joseph Stockdale offering to refrain from issuing an edition of the rather racy memoirs of one of his mistresses Harriette Wilson, in exchange for money. It is said that the Duke promptly returned the letter, after scrawling across it, \"Publish and be damned\". However, Hibbert notes in his biography that the letter can be found among the Duke's papers, with nothing written on it. It is certain that Wellington reply, and the tone of a further letter from the publisher, quoted by Longford, suggests that he had refused in the strongest language to submit to blackmail.\n\nHe was also a remarkably practical man who spoke concisely. In 1851, it was discovered that there were a great many sparrows flying about in the Crystal Palace just before the Great Exhibition was to open. His advice to Queen Victoria was \"Sparrowhawks, ma'am\".\n\nWellington has often been portrayed as a defensive general, even though many, perhaps most, of his battles were offensive (Argaum, Assaye, Oporto, Salamanca, Vitoria, Toulouse). However, for most of the Peninsular War, where he earned his fame, his army lacked the numbers for a strategically offensive posture.\n\nTitles and tributes\n\nNicknames\n\nThe Iron Duke\n\nThis commonly used nickname originally related to his consistent political resolve rather than to any particular incident. In various cases its editorial use appears to be disparaging.\n\nIt is likely that its use became more widespread after an incident in 1832 in which he installed metal shutters to prevent rioters breaking windows at Apsley House. The term may have been made increasingly popular by Punch cartoons published in 1844–45.\n\nOther nicknames\n In the popular ballads of the day Wellington was called \"Nosey\" or \"Old Nosey\".\n Tsar Alexander I of Russia called Wellington \"Le vainqueur du vainqueur du monde\", the conqueror of the world's conqueror, the phrase \"the world's conqueror\" referring to Napoleon. Lord Tennyson uses a similar reference in his \"Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington\", referring to him as \"the great World-victor's victor\".\n Officers under his command called him \"The Beau\", as he was a fine dresser.\n Spanish troops called him \"The Eagle\", while Portuguese troops called him \"Douro Douro\" after his river crossing at Oporto in 1809.\n \"Beau Douro\"; Wellington found this amusing when hearing it used by a Colonel of the Coldstream Guards.\n \"Sepoy General\"; Napoleon used this term as an insult to Wellington's military service in India, publicly considering him an unworthy opponent. The name was used in the French newspaper Le Moniteur Universel, as a means of propaganda.\n \"The Beef\"; It is a theory that the Beef Wellington dish is a reference to Wellington, although some chefs dispute this.\n \"Europe's Liberator\"\n \"Saviour of the Nations\"\n\nSee also\n\n Military career of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington\n Army Gold Medal\n Military General Service Medal\n Seringapatam medal\n Cotiote War\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nCitations\n\nSources\nBooks\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n .\n \n\nOnline resources\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nJournals and magazines\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nPrimary sources\n\nFurther reading\n\n \n \n This on-line text contains Clausewitz's 58-chapter study of the Campaign of 1815 and Wellington's lengthy 1842 essay written in response to Clausewitz, as well as supporting documents and essays by the editors.\n \n \n \n Goldsmith, Thomas. \"The Duke of Wellington and British Foreign Policy 1814-1830.\" (PhD Diss. University of East Anglia, 2016). online\n \n \n \n Lambert, A. \"Politics, administration and decision-making: Wellington and the navy, 1828–30\" Wellington Studies IV, ed. C. M. Woolgar, (Southampton, 2008), pp. 185–243.\n Longford, Elizabeth. Wellington: Pillar of State (1972), vol 2 of her biography; online\n\nExternal links\n\n Records and images from the UK Parliament Collections\n The life of Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington\n Duke of Wellington's Regiment – West Riding\n Papers of Arthur Wellesley, first Duke of Wellington (MS 61) at the University of Southampton\n \n \n \n More about Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington on the Downing Street website\n \n \n \n \"Napoleon and Wellington\", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Andrew Roberts, Mike Broer and Belinda Beaton (In Our Time, 25 October 2001)\n\n \nCategory:1769 births\nCategory:1852 deaths\nCategory:19th-century Anglo-Irish people\nCategory:19th-century prime ministers of the United Kingdom\nWellesley Arthur\nWellesley, Arthur\nCategory:Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to France\nCategory:British Army commanders of the Napoleonic Wars\nCategory:British Army personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars\nCategory:British Army personnel of the Peninsular War\nCategory:British Secretaries of State for Foreign Affairs\nCategory:British Secretaries of State\nCategory:British field marshals\nCategory:British military personnel of the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War\nCategory:British military personnel of the Second Anglo-Maratha War\nCategory:Burials at St Paul's Cathedral\nCategory:Chancellors of the University of Oxford\nCategory:Chief Secretaries for Ireland\nCategory:Commissioners of the Treasury for Ireland\nCategory:Constables of the Tower of London\nCategory:Cotiote War\nCategory:Diplomatic peers\nCategory:British duellists\nCategory:Duke of Wellington's Regiment officers\nCategory:Dukes da Vitória\nCategory:Dukes of Ciudad Rodrigo\n101\nWellesley, Arthur 1\nCategory:Fellows of the Royal Society\nCategory:Field marshals of Portugal\nCategory:Field marshals of Russia\nCategory:Grandees of Spain\nCategory:Grenadier Guards officers\nCategory:Irish Anglicans\nWellesley, Arthur\nCategory:Irish expatriates in England\nCategory:Irish expatriates in France\nCategory:Irish expatriates in India\nCategory:Irish expatriates in Portugal\nCategory:Irish expatriates in Spain\nCategory:Irish expatriates in the Netherlands\nCategory:Irish officers in the British Army\nCategory:Leaders of the Conservative Party (UK)\nCategory:Lord High Constables of England\nCategory:Lord-Lieutenants of Hampshire\nCategory:Lord-Lieutenants of the Tower Hamlets\nCategory:Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports\nCategory:MPs for rotten boroughs\nCategory:Members of Trinity House\nWellesley, Arthur\nWellesley, Arthur\nWellesley, Arthur\nCategory:Members of the Privy Council of Ireland\nCategory:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom\nCategory:Peers of the United Kingdom created by George III\nCategory:People associated with King's College London\nCategory:People educated at Eton College\nWellesley, Arthur\nCategory:Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom\nCategory:Princes of Waterloo\nCategory:Regency era\nCategory:Royal Horse Guards officers\nCategory:Spanish captain generals\nCategory:Tory prime ministers of the United Kingdom\nWellesley, Arthur\nWellesley, Arthur\nCategory:UK MPs who were granted peerages\nArthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington\nCategory:Younger sons of earls\n\nCategory:Knights of the Garter\nCategory:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath\nCategory:Recipients of the Army Gold Cross\nCategory:Recipients of the Waterloo Medal\nCategory:Grand Crosses of the Military Order of Maria Theresa\nCategory:Grand Crosses of the Military Order of Max Joseph\nCategory:Knights Grand Cross of the Military Order of William\nCategory:Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 1st class\nCategory:Recipients of the Order of St. George of the First Degree\nCategory:Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain\nCategory:Grand Crosses of the Royal and Military Order of San Hermenegild\nCategory:Laureate Cross of Saint Ferdinand\nCategory:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword\nCategory:Leaders of the House of Lords\nW", "title": "Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington" }, { "text": "W, or w, is the twenty-third and fourth-to-last letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. It represents a consonant, but in some languages it represents a vowel. Its name in English is double-u, plural double-ues.\n\nHistory\n\nThe classical Latin alphabet, from which the modern European alphabets derived, did not have the \"W\" character. The \"W\" sounds were represented by the Latin letter \"V\" (at the time, not yet distinct from \"U\").\n\nThe sounds (spelled ) and (spelled ) of Classical Latin developed into the voiced bilabial fricative between vowels in Early Medieval Latin. Therefore, no longer adequately represented the voiced labial-velar approximant sound of Germanic phonology.\n\nThe Germanic phoneme was, therefore, written as or ( and becoming distinct only by the Early Modern period) by the earliest writers of Old English and Old High German, in the 7th or 8th centuries. Gothic (not Latin-based), by contrast, had simply used a letter based on the Greek Υ for the same sound in the 4th century. The digraph / was also used in Medieval Latin to represent Germanic names, including Gothic ones like Wamba.\n\nIt is from this digraph that the modern name \"double U\" derives. The digraph was commonly used in the spelling of Old High German but only in the earliest texts in Old English, where the sound soon came to be represented by borrowing the rune , adapted as the Latin letter wynn: . In early Middle English, following the 11th-century Norman Conquest, regained popularity; by 1300, it had taken wynn's place in common use.\n\nScribal realisation of the digraph could look like a pair of Vs whose branches crossed in the middle: both forms (separate and crossed) appear, for instance, in the \"running text\" (in Latin) of the Bayeux tapestry in proper names such as EDVVARDVS and VVILLELMVS (or the same with crossed Vs). Another realisation (common in roundhand, kurrent and blackletter) takes the form of an whose rightmost branch curved around, as in a cursive (viz. ) It was used up to the nineteenth century in Britain and continues to be familiar in Germany.\n\nThus, the shift from the digraph to the distinct ligature was gradual and was only apparent in abecedaria, explicit listings of all individual letters. It was probably considered a separate letter by the 14th century in both Middle English and Middle German orthography. However, it remained an outsider, not really considered part of the Latin alphabet proper, as expressed by Valentin Ickelshamer in the 16th century, who complained that:\n\nIn Middle High German (and possibly already in late Old High German), the West Germanic phoneme became realized as ; this is why, today, the German represents that sound.\n\nPronunciation and use\n\nEnglish\nEnglish uses to represent . There are also a number of words beginning with a written that is silent in most dialects before a (pronounced) , remaining from usage in Old English in which the was pronounced: wreak, wrap, wreck, wrench, wroth, wrinkle, etc. Certain dialects of Scottish English still distinguish this digraph. represents a vowel sound, , in the word pwn, and in the Welsh loanwords cwm and crwth it retains the Welsh pronunciation, . is also used in digraphs: , , , wherein it is usually an orthographic allograph of in final positions. It is the fifteenth most frequently used letter in the English language, with a frequency of about 2.56% in words.\n\nOther languages\nIn Europe languages with in native words are in a central-western European zone between Cornwall and Poland: English, German, Low German, Dutch, Frisian, Welsh, Cornish, Breton, Walloon, Polish, Kashubian, Sorbian, Wymysorys, Resian and Scandinavian dialects. German, Polish, Wymysorys and Kashubian use it for the voiced labiodental fricative (with Polish, related Kashubian and Wymysorys using Ł for , except in conservative and some eastern Polish speech, where Ł still represents the dark L sound.), and Dutch uses it for . Unlike its use in other languages, the letter is used in Welsh and Cornish to represent the vowel as well as the related approximant consonant .\n\nThe following languages historically used for in native words, but later replaced it by : Swedish, Finnish, Czech, Slovak, Latvian, Lithuanian, Estonian, Ukrainian Łatynka and Belarusian Łacinka. It is also used in modern systems of Romanization of Belarusian for the letter , for example in the BGN/PCGN system, in contrast to the letter , which is used in the Instruction on transliteration of Belarusian geographical names with letters of Latin script.\n\nIn Swedish and Finnish, traces of this old usage may still be found in proper names. In Hungarian remains in some aristocratic surnames, e.g. Wesselényi.\n\nModern German dialects generally have only or for West Germanic , but or is still heard allophonically for , especially in the clusters , , and . Some Bavarian dialects preserve a \"light\" initial , such as in wuoz (Standard German weiß '[I] know'). The Classical Latin is heard in the Southern German greeting Servus ('hello' or 'goodbye').\n\nIn Dutch, became a labiodental approximant (with the exception of words with -, which have , or other diphthongs containing -). In many Dutch-speaking areas, such as Flanders and Suriname, the pronunciation (or in some areas a pronunciation, e.g. Belgian-Dutch water \"water\", wit \"white\", eeuw \"century\", etc.) is used at all times.\n\nIn Finnish, is sometimes seen as a variant of and not a separate letter, but it is a part of official alphabet. It is, however, recognized and maintained in the spelling of some old names, reflecting an earlier German spelling standard, and in some modern loan words. In all cases, it is pronounced . The first edition of the Kalevala had its title spelled Kalewala.\n\nIn Danish, Norwegian and Swedish, is named double-v and not double-u. In these languages, the letter only exists in old names, loanwords and foreign words. (Foreign words are distinguished from loanwords by having a significantly lower level of integration in the language.) It is usually pronounced , but in some words of English origin it may be pronounced . The letter was officially introduced in the Danish and Swedish alphabets as late as 1980 and 2006, respectively, despite having been in use for much longer. It had been recognized since the conception of modern Norwegian, with the earliest official orthography rules of 1907. was earlier seen as a variant of , and as a letter (double-v) is still commonly replaced by in speech (e.g. WC being pronounced as VC, www as VVV, WHO as VHO, etc.) The two letters were sorted as equals before was officially recognized, and that practice is still recommended when sorting names in Sweden. In modern slang, some native speakers may pronounce more closely to the origin of the loanword than the official pronunciation.\n\nMultiple dialects of Swedish and Danish use the sound however. In Denmark notably in Jutland, where the northern half use it extensively in traditional dialect, and multiple places in Sweden. It is used in southern Swedish, for example in Halland where the words \"wesp\" (wisp) and \"wann\" (water) are traditionally used. In northern and western Sweden there are also dialects with . Elfdalian is a good example, which is one of many dialects where the Old Norse difference between v () and f ( or ) is preserved. Thus \"warg\" from Old Norse \"vargr\", but \"åvå\" from Old Norse \"hafa\".\n\nIn the alphabets of most modern Romance languages, is used mostly in foreign names and words recently borrowed (Italian il watt, Spanish el kiwi). In Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese, is a non-syllabic variant of , spelled . In Italian, while the letter is not considered part of the standard Italian alphabet, the character is often used in place of Viva (hooray for...), generally in the form in which the branches of the Vs cross in the middle, at least in handwriting (in fact it could be considered a monogram). The same symbol written upside down indicates abbasso (down with...). In French, is also used mostly in foreign names and words recently borrowed such as wagon or week-end, but in the first case it is pronounced (except in Picard and in Walloon) and in the second . In most northern French dialects the former turned finally to , but still exists as a remnant in the place-names of Romance Flanders, Picardie, Artois, Champagne, Romance Lorraine and sometimes elsewhere (Normandy, Île-de-France), and in the surnames from the same regions. Walloon as it sounds conserves the pronounced . The digraph is used to render in rare French words such as ouest \"west\" and to spell Arabic names transliterated -wi in English, but -oui in French (compare Arabic surname Badawi / Badaoui). In all these languages, as in Scandinavian languages mentioned above, the letter is named \"double v\" (French , Spanish ) though in Walloon and Picard the name is also used.\n\nIn Indonesian, the letter \"W\" is called 'wé'. The letter names in Indonesian are always the same with the sounds they produce, especially the consonants.\n\nThe Japanese language uses \"W\", pronounced /daburu/, as an ideogram meaning \"double\". It is also used in internet slang to indicate laughter (like LOL), derived from the word warau (笑う, meaning \"to laugh\").\n\nIn Italian, while the letter is not considered part of the standard Italian alphabet, the character is often used in place of Viva (hooray for...), generally in the form in which the branches of the Vs cross in the middle, at least in handwriting (in fact it could be considered a monogram). The same symbol written upside down indicates abbasso (down with...)\n\nIn the Kokborok language, represents the open-mid back rounded vowel .\n\nIn Turkey the use of the w was banned between 1928 and 2013 which was a problem for the Kurdish population in Turkey as the w was a letter of the Kurdish alphabet. The use of the letter w in the word Newroz, the Kurdish new year was forbidden and names which included the letter were not able to be used. In 2008, a court in Gaziantep reasoned the use of the letter w would incite civil unrest. Nevertheless, the w was used in water closets throughout Turkey.\n\nIn Vietnamese, is called , from the French . It is not included in the standard Vietnamese alphabet, but it is often used as a substitute for qu- in literary dialect and very informal writing. It's also commonly used for abbreviating Ư in formal documents, for example Trung Ương is abbreviated as TW even in official documents and document ID number\n\n\"W\" is the 24th letter in the Modern Filipino Alphabet and has its English name. However, in the old Filipino alphabet, Abakada, it was the 19th letter and had the name \"wah\".\n\nIn Washo, lower-case represents a typical sound, while upper-case represents a voiceless w sound, like the difference between English weather and whether for those who maintain the distinction.\n\nOther systems\nIn the International Phonetic Alphabet, is used for the voiced labial-velar approximant.\n\nOther uses\n\nW is the symbol for the chemical element tungsten, after its German (and alternative English) name, . It is also the SI symbol for the watt, the standard unit of power. It is also often used as a variable in mathematics, especially to represent a complex number or a vector.\n\nIn recent years, the letters L and W have become an internet meme, respectively standing for loss and win.\n\nName \nDouble-u, whose name reflects stages in the letter's evolution when it was considered two of the same letter, a double U, is the only modern English letter whose name has more than one syllable. It is also the only English letter whose name is not pronounced with any of the sounds that the letter typically makes in words, with the exception of H for some speakers.\n\nSome speakers shorten the name \"double u\" into \"dub-u\" or just \"dub\"; for example, University of Wisconsin, University of Washington, University of Wyoming, University of Waterloo, University of the Western Cape and University of Western Australia are all known colloquially as \"U Dub\", and the automobile company Volkswagen, abbreviated \"VW\", is sometimes pronounced \"V-Dub\". The fact that many website URLs require a \"www.\" prefix has been influential in promoting these shortened pronunciations.\n\nIn other Germanic languages, including German (but not Dutch, in which it is pronounced wé), its name is similar to that of English V. In many languages, its name literally means \"double v\": Portuguese duplo vê, Spanish doble ve (though it can be spelled uve doble), French double vé, Icelandic tvöfalt vaff, Czech dvojité vé, Estonian kaksisvee, Finnish kaksois-vee, etc.\n\nFormer U.S. president George W. Bush was given the nickname \"Dubya\" after the colloquial pronunciation of his middle initial in Texas, where he spent much of his childhood.\n\nRelated characters\n\nAncestors, descendants and siblings\n𐤅: Semitic letter Waw, from which the following symbols originally derive\nU : Latin letter U\nV : Latin letter V\nⱲ ⱳ : W with hook\nꝠ ꝡ : Latin letter VY\nꟂ ꟃ : Anglicana W, used in medieval English and Cornish\nIPA-specific symbols related to W: \nUralic Phonetic Alphabet-specific symbols related to W: and \nʷ : Modifier letter small w is used in Indo-European studies\nꭩ : Modifier letter small turned w is used in linguistic transcriptions of Scots\nW with diacritics: Ẃ ẃ Ẁ ẁ Ŵ ŵ Ẅ ẅ Ẇ ẇ Ẉ ẉ ẘ\nװ (double vav): the Yiddish and Hebrew equivalent of W\nArabic و, has the same origin despite bearing little resemblance to W\n\nLigatures and abbreviations\n₩ : Won sign, capital letter W with double stroke\n\nComputing codes\n\n 1\n\nOther representations\n\nSee also\n Digamma (Ϝ), the archaic Greek letter for /w/\nVoiced labio-velar approximant\nWh (digraph)\n W stands for Work in physics\n W is the symbol for \"watt\" in the International System of Units (SI)\n\nReferences\nInformational notes\n\nCitations\n\nExternal links\n\nCategory:ISO basic Latin letters\nCategory:Latin-script ligatures\nCategory:Vowel letters", "title": "W" } ]
[ "Wellesley served as aide-de-camp to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Buckingham, early in his career. He was also gazetted ensign in the 73rd Regiment of Foot and subsequently promoted to lieutenant. Later, he became a Member of Parliament (MP) for Trim in the Irish House of Commons and voted with the government in the Irish parliament.", "The context does not provide information on how Wellesley's role in the Army helped shape his career later in life.", "The context does not provide information on anyone opposing Wellesley's views or role.", "The context does not provide information on Wellesley winning any awards or recognition for his role.", "The context mentions a few interesting aspects about Wellesley's personal life such as his overextension in borrowing due to his occasional gambling, his interest in amateur music and the burning of his violins in anger following romantic rejection, and his aspirations in a military career. His romantic interest in Kitty Pakenham, who rejected his marriage proposal, is also noted. His transfer to different regiments within the Army and his entry into politics are also key points in the context.", "The context does not provide information on whether Wellesley had any children or got married.", "Yes, Wellesley showed a change in levels of interest. Initially interested in amateur music, a romantic rejection led him to burn his violins in anger and he resolved to pursue a military career in earnest. Additionally, he transitioned into politics, being elected as a Member of Parliament for Trim in the Irish House of Commons. However, the context does not note a complete career change.", "The context does not provide information on his parents' support or lack of support for his growing role.", "The context does not provide information on Wellesley's personality or how likable he was as a character." ]
[ "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No" ]
C_072df7f0df60447fbdbcf45dd6d9fda1_0
Frank Lloyd Wright
Frank Lloyd Wright (born Frank Lincoln Wright, June 8, 1867 - April 9, 1959) was an American architect, interior designer, writer and educator, who designed more than 1,000 structures, 532 of which were completed. Wright believed in designing structures that were in harmony with humanity and its environment, a philosophy he called organic architecture. This philosophy was best exemplified by Fallingwater (1935), which has been called "the best all-time work of American architecture". His creative period spanned more than 70 years.
Prairie houses (1900-1914)
By 1901, Wright had completed about 50 projects, including many houses in Oak Park. As his son John Lloyd Wright wrote: "William Eugene Drummond, Francis Barry Byrne, Walter Burley Griffin, Albert Chase McArthur, Marion Mahony, Isabel Roberts and George Willis were the draftsmen. Five men, two women. They wore flowing ties, and smocks suitable to the realm. The men wore their hair like Papa, all except Albert, he didn't have enough hair. They worshiped Papa! Papa liked them! I know that each one of them was then making valuable contributions to the pioneering of the modern American architecture for which my father gets the full glory, headaches and recognition today!" Between 1900 and 1901, Frank Lloyd Wright completed four houses which have since been identified as the onset of the "Prairie style". Two, the Hickox and Bradley Houses, were the last transitional step between Wright's early designs and the Prairie creations. Meanwhile, the Thomas House and Willits House received recognition as the first mature examples of the new style. At the same time, Wright gave his new ideas for the American house widespread awareness through two publications in the Ladies' Home Journal. The articles were in response to an invitation from the president of Curtis Publishing Company, Edward Bok, as part of a project to improve modern house design. "A Home in a Prairie Town" and "A Small House with Lots of Room in it" appeared respectively in the February and July 1901 issues of the journal. Although neither of the affordable house plans was ever constructed, Wright received increased requests for similar designs in following years. Wright came to Buffalo and designed homes for three of the company's executives including the Darwin D. Martin House in 1904. Other Wright houses considered to be masterpieces of the Prairie Style are the Frederick Robie House in Chicago and the Avery and Queene Coonley House in Riverside, Illinois. The Robie House, with its soaring, cantilevered roof lines, supported by a 110-foot-long (34 m) channel of steel, is the most dramatic. Its living and dining areas form virtually one uninterrupted space. With this and other buildings, included in the publication of the Wasmuth Portfolio (1910), Wright's work became known to European architects and had a profound influence on them after World War I. It is sometimes called the "cornerstone of modernism". Wright's residential designs of this era were known as "prairie houses" because the designs complemented the land around Chicago. Prairie style houses often have a combination of these features: One or two-stories with one-story projections, an open floor plan, low-pitched roofs with broad overhanging eaves, strong horizontal lines, ribbons of windows (often casements), a prominent central chimney, built-in stylized cabinetry, and a wide use of natural materials--especially stone and wood. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "What was his dealings with the Prairie Houses?", "What was special about this style?", "What about the design was different?", "Was there different designs?", "What features were most common?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?" ]
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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 679 ], [ 813 ], [ 1948 ], [ 2536 ], [ 2601 ], [ 2741 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Between 1900 and 1901, Frank Lloyd Wright completed four houses which have since been identified as the onset of the \"Prairie style\"." ], [ "Two, the Hickox and Bradley Houses, were the last transitional step between Wright's early designs and the Prairie creations." ], [ "The Robie House, with its soaring, cantilevered roof lines, supported by a 110-foot-long (34 m) channel of steel, is the most dramatic." ], [ "Prairie style houses often have a combination of these features:" ], [ "One or two-stories with one-story projections, an open floor plan, low-pitched roofs with broad overhanging eaves, strong horizontal lines," ], [ "ribbons of windows (often casements), a prominent central chimney, built-in stylized cabinetry, and a wide use of natural materials--especially stone and wood." ] ] }
{ "answer_starts": [ 679, 813, 1948, 2536, 2601, 2741 ], "texts": [ "Between 1900 and 1901, Frank Lloyd Wright completed four houses which have since been identified as the onset of the \"Prairie style\".", "Two, the Hickox and Bradley Houses, were the last transitional step between Wright's early designs and the Prairie creations.", "The Robie House, with its soaring, cantilevered roof lines, supported by a 110-foot-long (34 m) channel of steel, is the most dramatic.", "Prairie style houses often have a combination of these features:", "One or two-stories with one-story projections, an open floor plan, low-pitched roofs with broad overhanging eaves, strong horizontal lines,", "ribbons of windows (often casements), a prominent central chimney, built-in stylized cabinetry, and a wide use of natural materials--especially stone and wood." ] }
Frank Lloyd Wright (June 8, 1867 – April 9, 1959) was an American architect, designer, writer, and educator. He designed more than 1,000 structures over a creative period of 70 years. Wright played a key role in the architectural movements of the twentieth century, influencing architects worldwide through his works and hundreds of apprentices in his Taliesin Fellowship. Wright believed in designing in harmony with humanity and the environment, a philosophy he called organic architecture. This philosophy was exemplified in Fallingwater (1935), which has been called "the best all-time work of American architecture". Wright was the pioneer of what came to be called the Prairie School movement of architecture and also developed the concept of the Usonian home in Broadacre City, his vision for urban planning in the United States. He also designed original and innovative offices, churches, schools, skyscrapers, hotels, museums, and other commercial projects. Wright-designed interior elements (including leaded glass windows, floors, furniture and even tableware) were integrated into these structures. He wrote several books and numerous articles and was a popular lecturer in the United States and in Europe. Wright was recognized in 1991 by the American Institute of Architects as "the greatest American architect of all time". In 2019, a selection of his work became a listed World Heritage Site as The 20th-Century Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright. Raised in rural Wisconsin, Wright studied civil engineering at the University of Wisconsin and then apprenticed in Chicago, briefly with Joseph Lyman Silsbee, and then with Louis Sullivan at Adler & Sullivan. Wright opened his own successful Chicago practice in 1893 and established a studio in his Oak Park, Illinois home in 1898. His fame increased and his personal life sometimes made headlines: leaving his first wife Catherine Tobin for Mamah Cheney in 1909; the murder of Mamah and her children and others at his Taliesin estate by a staff member in 1914; his tempestuous marriage with second wife Miriam Noel (m. 1923–1927); and his courtship and marriage with Olgivanna Lazović (m. 1928–1959). Early life and education Childhood (1867–1885) Wright was born on June 8, 1867, in the town of Richland Center, Wisconsin, but maintained throughout his life that he was born in 1869. In 1987 a biographer of Wright suggested that he may have been christened as "Frank Lincoln Wright" or "Franklin Lincoln Wright" but these assertions were not supported by any evidence. Wright's father, William Cary Wright (1825–1904), was a "gifted musician, orator, and sometime preacher who had been admitted to the bar in 1857." He was also a published composer. Originally from Massachusetts, William Wright had been a Baptist minister, but he later joined his wife's family in the Unitarian faith. Wright's mother, Anna Lloyd Jones (1838/39–1923) was a teacher and a member of the Lloyd Jones clan; her parents had emigrated from Wales to Wisconsin. One of Anna's brothers was Jenkin Lloyd Jones, an important figure in the spread of the Unitarian faith in the Midwest. According to Wright's autobiography, his mother declared when she was expecting that her first child would grow up to build beautiful buildings. She decorated his nursery with engravings of English cathedrals torn from a periodical to encourage the infant's ambition. Wright grew up in an "unstable household, [...] constant lack of resources, [...] unrelieved poverty and anxiety" and had a "deeply disturbed and obviously unhappy childhood". His father held pastorates in McGregor, Iowa (1869), Pawtucket, Rhode Island (1871), and Weymouth, Massachusetts (1874). Because the Wright family struggled financially also in Weymouth, they returned to Spring Green, where the supportive Lloyd Jones family could help William find employment. In 1877, they settled in Madison, where William gave music lessons and served as the secretary to the newly formed Unitarian society. Although William was a distant parent, he shared his love of music with his children. In 1876, Anna saw an exhibit of educational blocks called the Froebel Gifts, the foundation of an innovative kindergarten curriculum. Anna, a trained teacher, was excited by the program and bought a set with which the 9-year old Wright spent much time playing. The blocks in the set were geometrically shaped and could be assembled in various combinations to form two- and three-dimensional compositions. In his autobiography, Wright described the influence of these exercises on his approach to design: "For several years, I sat at the little kindergarten table-top... and played... with the cube, the sphere and the trianglethese smooth wooden maple blocks... All are in my fingers to this day... " In 1881, soon after Wright turned 14, his parents separated. In 1884, his father sued for a divorce from Anna on the grounds of "... emotional cruelty and physical violence and spousal abandonment". Wright attended Madison High School, but there is no evidence that he graduated. His father left Wisconsin after the divorce was granted in 1885. Wright said that he never saw his father again. Education (1885–1887) In 1886, at age 19, Wright was admitted to the University of Wisconsin–Madison as a special student and worked under Allan D. Conover, a professor of civil engineering, before leaving the school without taking a degree. Wright was granted an honorary doctorate of fine arts from the university in 1955. In 1886 Wright collaborated with the Chicago architectural firm of Joseph Lyman Silsbeeaccredited as draftsman and construction supervisoron the 1886 Unity Chapel for Wright's family in Spring Green, Wisconsin. Career Silsbee and other early work experience (1887–1888) In 1887, Wright arrived in Chicago in search of employment. As a result of the devastating Great Chicago Fire of 1871 and a population boom, new development was plentiful. Wright later recorded in his autobiography that his first impression of Chicago was as an ugly and chaotic city. Within days of his arrival, and after interviews with several prominent firms, he was hired as a draftsman with Joseph Lyman Silsbee. While with the firm, he also worked on two other family projects: All Souls Church in Chicago for his uncle, Jenkin Lloyd Jones, and the Hillside Home School I in Spring Green for two of his aunts. Other draftsmen who worked for Silsbee in 1887 included future architects Cecil Corwin, George W. Maher, and George G. Elmslie. Wright soon befriended Corwin, with whom he lived until he found a permanent home. Feeling that he was underpaid for the quality of his work for Silsbee at $8 a week, the young draftsman quit and found work as an architectural designer at the firm of Beers, Clay, and Dutton. However, Wright soon realized that he was not ready to handle building design by himself; he left his new job to return to Joseph Silsbeethis time with a raise in salary. Although Silsbee adhered mainly to Victorian and Revivalist architecture, Wright found his work to be more "gracefully picturesque" than the other "brutalities" of the period. Adler & Sullivan (1888–1893) Wright learned that the Chicago firm of Adler & Sullivan was "... looking for someone to make the finished drawings for the interior of the Auditorium Building". Wright demonstrated that he was a competent impressionist of Louis Sullivan's ornamental designs and two short interviews later, was an official apprentice in the firm. Wright did not get along well with Sullivan's other draftsmen; he wrote that several violent altercations occurred between them during the first years of his apprenticeship. For that matter, Sullivan showed very little respect for his own employees as well. In spite of this, "Sullivan took [Wright] under his wing and gave him great design responsibility." As an act of respect, Wright would later refer to Sullivan as (German for "Dear Master"). He also formed a bond with office foreman Paul Mueller. Wright later engaged Mueller in the construction of several of his public and commercial buildings between 1903 and 1923. By 1890, Wright had an office next to Sullivan's that he shared with friend and draftsman George Elmslie, who had been hired by Sullivan at Wright's request. Wright had risen to head draftsman and handled all residential design work in the office. As a general rule, the firm of Adler & Sullivan did not design or build houses, but would oblige when asked by the clients of their important commercial projects. Wright was occupied by the firm's major commissions during office hours, so house designs were relegated to evening and weekend overtime hours at his home studio. He later claimed total responsibility for the design of these houses, but a careful inspection of their architectural style (and accounts from historian Robert Twombly) suggests that Sullivan dictated the overall form and motifs of the residential works; Wright's design duties were often reduced to detailing the projects from Sullivan's sketches. During this time, Wright worked on Sullivan's bungalow (1890) and the James A. Charnley bungalow (1890) in Ocean Springs, Mississippi, the Berry-MacHarg House, James A. Charnley House (both 1891), and the Louis Sullivan House (1892), all in Chicago. Despite Sullivan's loan and overtime salary, Wright was constantly short on funds. Wright admitted that his poor finances were likely due to his expensive tastes in wardrobe and vehicles, and the extra luxuries he designed into his house. To supplement his income and repay his debts, Wright accepted independent commissions for at least nine houses. These "bootlegged" houses, as he later called them, were conservatively designed in variations of the fashionable Queen Anne and Colonial Revival styles. Nevertheless, unlike the prevailing architecture of the period, each house emphasized simple geometric massing and contained features such as bands of horizontal windows, occasional cantilevers, and open floor plans, which would become hallmarks of his later work. Eight of these early houses remain today, including the Thomas Gale, Robert Parker, George Blossom, and Walter Gale houses. As with the residential projects for Adler & Sullivan, he designed his bootleg houses on his own time. Sullivan knew nothing of the independent works until 1893, when he recognized that one of the houses was unmistakably a Frank Lloyd Wright design. This particular house, built for Allison Harlan, was only blocks away from Sullivan's townhouse in the Chicago community of Kenwood. Aside from the location, the geometric purity of the composition and balcony tracery in the same style as the Charnley House likely gave away Wright's involvement. Since Wright's five-year contract forbade any outside work, the incident led to his departure from Sullivan's firm. Several stories recount the break in the relationship between Sullivan and Wright; even Wright later told two different versions of the occurrence. In An Autobiography, Wright claimed that he was unaware that his side ventures were a breach of his contract. When Sullivan learned of them, he was angered and offended; he prohibited any further outside commissions and refused to issue Wright the deed to his Oak Park house until after he completed his five years. Wright could not bear the new hostility from his master and thought that the situation was unjust. He "... threw down [his] pencil and walked out of the Adler & Sullivan office never to return". Dankmar Adler, who was more sympathetic to Wright's actions, later sent him the deed. However, Wright told his Taliesin apprentices (as recorded by Edgar Tafel) that Sullivan fired him on the spot upon learning of the Harlan House. Tafel also recounted that Wright had Cecil Corwin sign several of the bootleg jobs, indicating that Wright was aware of their forbidden nature. Regardless of the correct series of events, Wright and Sullivan did not meet or speak for 12 years. Transition and experimentation (1893–1900) After leaving Adler & Sullivan, Wright established his own practice on the top floor of the Sullivan-designed Schiller Building on Randolph Street in Chicago. Wright chose to locate his office in the building because the tower location reminded him of the office of Adler & Sullivan. Cecil Corwin followed Wright and set up his architecture practice in the same office, but the two worked independently and did not consider themselves partners. In 1896, Wright moved from the Schiller Building to the nearby and newly completed Steinway Hall building. The loft space was shared with Robert C. Spencer, Jr., Myron Hunt, and Dwight H. Perkins. These young architects, inspired by the Arts and Crafts Movement and the philosophies of Louis Sullivan, formed what became known as the Prairie School. They were joined by Perkins' apprentice Marion Mahony, who in 1895 transferred to Wright's team of drafters and took over production of his presentation drawings and watercolor renderings. Mahony, the third woman to be licensed as an architect in Illinois and one of the first licensed female architects in the U.S., also designed furniture, leaded glass windows, and light fixtures, among other features, for Wright's houses. Between 1894 and the early 1910s, several other leading Prairie School architects and many of Wright's future employees launched their careers in the offices of Steinway Hall. Wright's projects during this period followed two basic models. His first independent commission, the Winslow House, combined Sullivanesque ornamentation with the emphasis on simple geometry and horizontal lines. The Francis Apartments (1895, demolished 1971), Heller House (1896), Rollin Furbeck House (1897) and Husser House (1899, demolished 1926) were designed in the same mode. For his more conservative clients, Wright designed more traditional dwellings. These included the Dutch Colonial Revival style Bagley House (1894), Tudor Revival style Moore House I (1895), and Queen Anne style Charles E. Roberts House (1896). While Wright could not afford to turn down clients over disagreements in taste, even his most conservative designs retained simplified massing and occasional Sullivan-inspired details. Soon after the completion of the Winslow House in 1894, Edward Waller, a friend and former client, invited Wright to meet Chicago architect and planner Daniel Burnham. Burnham had been impressed by the Winslow House and other examples of Wright's work; he offered to finance a four-year education at the and two years in Rome. To top it off, Wright would have a position in Burnham's firm upon his return. In spite of guaranteed success and support of his family, Wright declined the offer. Burnham, who had directed the classical design of the World's Columbian Exposition and was a major proponent of the Beaux Arts movement, thought that Wright was making a foolish mistake. Yet for Wright, the classical education of the lacked creativity and was altogether at odds with his vision of modern American architecture. Wright relocated his practice to his home in 1898 to bring his work and family lives closer. This move made further sense as the majority of the architect's projects at that time were in Oak Park or neighboring River Forest. The birth of three more children prompted Wright to sacrifice his original home studio space for additional bedrooms and necessitated his design and construction of an expansive studio addition to the north of the main house. The space, which included a hanging balcony within the two-story drafting room, was one of Wright's first experiments with innovative structure. The studio embodied Wright's developing aesthetics and would become the laboratory from which his next 10 years of architectural creations would emerge. Prairie Style houses (1900–1914) By 1901, Wright had completed about 50 projects, including many houses in Oak Park. As his son John Lloyd Wright wrote: William Eugene Drummond, Francis Barry Byrne, Walter Burley Griffin, Albert Chase McArthur, Marion Mahony, Isabel Roberts, and George Willis were the draftsmen. Five men, two women. They wore flowing ties, and smocks suitable to the realm. The men wore their hair like Papa, all except Albert, he didn't have enough hair. They worshiped Papa! Papa liked them! I know that each one of them was then making valuable contributions to the pioneering of the modern American architecture for which my father gets the full glory, headaches, and recognition today! Between 1900 and 1901, Frank Lloyd Wright completed four houses, which have since been identified as the onset of the "Prairie Style". Two, the Hickox and Bradley Houses, were the last transitional step between Wright's early designs and the Prairie creations. Meanwhile, the Thomas House and Willits House received recognition as the first mature examples of the new style. At the same time, Wright gave his new ideas for the American house widespread awareness through two publications in the Ladies' Home Journal. The articles were in response to an invitation from the president of Curtis Publishing Company, Edward Bok, as part of a project to improve modern house design. "A Home in a Prairie Town" and "A Small House with Lots of Room in it" appeared respectively in the February and July 1901 issues of the journal. Although neither of the affordable house plans was ever constructed, Wright received increased requests for similar designs in following years. Wright came to Buffalo and designed homes for three of the company's executives: the Darwin D. Martin House (1904), the William R. Heath House 1905), and the Walter V. Davidson House (1908). Other Wright houses considered to be masterpieces of the Prairie Style are the Frederick Robie House in Chicago and the Avery and Queene Coonley House in Riverside, Illinois. The Robie House, with its extended cantilevered roof lines supported by a 110-foot-long (34 m) channel of steel, is the most dramatic. Its living and dining areas form virtually one uninterrupted space. With this and other buildings, included in the publication of the Wasmuth Portfolio (1910), Wright's work became known to European architects and had a profound influence on them after World War I. Wright's residential designs of this era were known as "prairie houses" because the designs complemented the land around Chicago. Prairie Style houses often have a combination of these features: one or two stories with one-story projections, an open floor plan, low-pitched roofs with broad, overhanging eaves, strong horizontal lines, ribbons of windows (often casements), a prominent central chimney, built-in stylized cabinetry, and a wide use of natural materialsespecially stone and wood. By 1909, Wright had begun to reject the upper-middle-class Prairie Style single-family house model, shifting his focus to a more democratic architecture. Wright went to Europe in 1909 with a portfolio of his work and presented it to Berlin publisher Ernst Wasmuth. Studies and Executed Buildings of Frank Lloyd Wright, published in 1911, was the first major exposure of Wright's work in Europe. The work contained more than 100 lithographs of Wright's designs and is commonly known as the Wasmuth Portfolio. Notable public works (1900–1917) Wright designed the house of Cornell's chapter of Alpha Delta Phi literary society (1900), the Hillside Home School II (built for his aunts) in Spring Green, Wisconsin (1901) and the Unity Temple (1905) in Oak Park, Illinois. As a lifelong Unitarian and member of Unity Temple, Wright offered his services to the congregation after their church burned down, working on the building from 1905 to 1909. Wright later said that Unity Temple was the edifice in which he ceased to be an architect of structure, and became an architect of space. Some other early notable public buildings and projects in this era: the Larkin Administration Building (1905); the Geneva Inn (Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, 1911); the Midway Gardens (Chicago, Illinois, 1913); the Banff National Park Pavilion (Alberta, Canada, 1914). Designing in Japan (1917–1922) While working in Japan, Wright left an impressive architectural heritage. The Imperial Hotel, completed in 1923, is the most important. Thanks to its solid foundations and steel construction, the hotel survived the Great Kanto Earthquake almost unscathed. The hotel was damaged during the bombing of Tokyo and by the subsequent US military occupation of it after World War II. As land in the center of Tokyo increased in value the hotel was deemed obsolete and was demolished in 1968 but the lobby was saved and later re-constructed at the Meiji Mura architecture museum in Nagoya in 1976. Jiyu Gakuen was founded as a girls' school in 1921. The construction of the main building began in 1921 under Wright's direction and, after his departure, was continued by Endo. The school building, like the Imperial Hotel, is covered with Ōya stones. The Yodoko Guesthouse (designed in 1918 and completed in 1924) was built as the summer villa for Tadzaemon Yamamura. Frank Lloyd Wright's architecture had a strong influence on young Japanese architects. The Japanese architects Wright commissioned to carry out his designs were Arata Endo, Takehiko Okami, Taue Sasaki and Kameshiro Tsuchiura. Endo supervised the completion of the Imperial Hotel after Wright's departure in 1922 and also supervised the construction of the Jiyu Gakuen Girls' School and the Yodokō Guest House. Tsuchiura went on to create so-called "light" buildings, which had similarities to Wright's later work. Textile concrete block system In the early 1920s, Wright designed a "textile" concrete block system. The system of precast blocks, reinforced by an internal system of bars, enabled "fabrication as infinite in color, texture, and variety as in that rug." Wright first used his textile block system on the Millard House in Pasadena, California, in 1923. Typically Wrightian is the joining of the structure to its site by a series of terraces that reach out into and reorder the landscape, making it an integral part of the architect's vision. With the Ennis House and the Samuel Freeman House (both 1923), Wright had further opportunities to test the limits of the textile block system, including limited use in the Arizona Biltmore Hotel in 1927. The Ennis house is often used in films, television, and print media to represent the future. Wright's son, Lloyd Wright, supervised construction for the Storer, Freeman, and Ennis Houses. Architectural historian Thomas Hines has suggested that Lloyd's contribution to these projects is often overlooked. After World War II, Wright updated the concrete block system, calling it the Usonian Automatic system, resulting in the construction of several notable homes. As he explained in The Natural House (1954), "The original blocks are made on the site by ramming concrete into wood or metal wrap-around forms, with one outside face (which may be pattered), and one rear or inside face, generally coffered, for lightness." Midlife problems Family turmoil In 1903, while Wright was designing a house for Edwin Cheney (a neighbor in Oak Park), he became enamored of Cheney's wife, Mamah. Mamah Borthwick Cheney was a modern woman with interests outside the home. She was an early feminist, and Wright viewed her as his intellectual equal. Their relationship became the talk of the town; they often could be seen taking rides in Wright's automobile through Oak Park. In 1909, Wright and Mamah Cheney met up in Europe, leaving their spouses and children behind. Wright remained in Europe for almost a year, first in Florence, Italy (where he lived with his eldest son Lloyd) and, later, in Fiesole, Italy, where he lived with Mamah. During this time, Edwin Cheney granted Mamah a divorce, though Kitty still refused to grant one to her husband. After Wright returned to the United States in October 1910, he persuaded his mother to buy land for him in Spring Green, Wisconsin. The land, bought on April 10, 1911, was adjacent to land held by his mother's family, the Lloyd-Joneses. Wright began to build himself a new home, which he called , by May 1911. The recurring theme of also came from his mother's side: in Welsh mythology was a poet, magician, and priest. The family motto, "" ("The Truth Against the World"), was taken from the Welsh poet , who also had a son named Taliesin. The motto is still used today as the cry of the druids and chief bard of the in Wales. Tragedy at Taliesin On August 15, 1914, while Wright was working in Chicago, a servant (Julian Carlton) set fire to the living quarters of Taliesin and then murdered seven people with an axe as the fire burned. The dead included Mamah; her two children, John and Martha Cheney; a gardener (David Lindblom); a draftsman (Emil Brodelle); a workman (Thomas Brunker); and another workman's son (Ernest Weston). Two people survived the mayhem, one of whom, William Weston, helped to put out the fire that almost completely consumed the residential wing of the house. Carlton swallowed hydrochloric acid immediately following the attack in an attempt to kill himself. He was nearly lynched on the spot, but was taken to the Dodgeville jail. Carlton died from starvation seven weeks after the attack, despite medical attention. Divorces In 1922, Kitty Wright finally granted Wright a divorce. Under the terms of the divorce, Wright was required to wait one year before he could marry his then-mistress, Maude "Miriam" Noel. In 1923, Wright's mother, Anna (Lloyd Jones) Wright, died. Wright wed Miriam Noel in November 1923, but her addiction to morphine led to the failure of the marriage in less than one year. In 1924, after the separation, but while still married, Wright met Olga (Olgivanna) Lazovich Hinzenburg. They moved in together at Taliesin in 1925, and soon after Olgivanna became pregnant. Their daughter, Iovanna, was born on December 3, 1925. On April 20, 1925, another fire destroyed the bungalow at Taliesin. Crossed wires from a newly installed telephone system were deemed to be responsible for the blaze, which destroyed a collection of Japanese prints that Wright estimated to be worth $250,000 to $500,000 ($ to $ in ). Wright rebuilt the living quarters, naming the home "Taliesin III". In 1926, Olga's ex-husband, Vlademar Hinzenburg, sought custody of his daughter, Svetlana. In October 1926, Wright and Olgivanna were accused of violating the Mann Act and arrested in Tonka Bay, Minnesota. The charges were later dropped. Wright and Miriam Noel's divorce was finalized in 1927. Wright was again required to wait for one year before remarrying. Wright and Olgivanna married in 1928. Later career Taliesin Fellowship In 1932, Wright and his wife Olgivanna put out a call for students to come to Taliesin to study and work under Wright while they learned architecture and spiritual development. Olgivanna Wright had been a student of G. I. Gurdjieff who had previously established a similar school. Twenty-three came to live and work that year, including John (Jack) H. Howe, who would become Wright's chief draftsman. A total of 625 people joined The Fellowship in Wright's lifetime. The Fellowship was a source of workers for Wright's later projects, including: Fallingwater; The Johnson Wax Headquarters; and The Guggenheim Museum in New York City. Considerable controversy exists over the living conditions and education of the fellows. Wright was reputedly a difficult person to work with. One apprentice wrote: "He is devoid of consideration and has a blind spot regarding others' qualities. Yet I believe, that a year in his studio would be worth any sacrifice." The Fellowship evolved into The School of Architecture at Taliesin which was an accredited school until it closed under acrimonious circumstances in 2020.Taking on the name "The School of Architecture" in June 2020, the school moved to the Cosanti Foundation, which it had worked with in the past. Usonian Houses Wright is responsible for a series of concepts of suburban development united under the term Broadacre City. He proposed the idea in his book The Disappearing City in 1932 and unveiled a model of this community of the future, showing it in several venues in the following years. Concurrent with the development of Broadacre City, also referred to as Usonia, Wright conceived a new type of dwelling that came to be known as the Usonian House. Although an early version of the form can be seen in the Malcolm Willey House (1934) in Minneapolis, the Usonian ideal emerged most completely in the Herbert and Katherine Jacobs First House (1937) in Madison, Wisconsin. Designed on a gridded concrete slab that integrated the house's radiant heating system, the house featured new approaches to construction, including walls composed of a "sandwich" of wood siding, plywood cores and building papera significant change from typically framed walls. Usonian houses commonly featured flat roofs and were usually constructed without basements or attics, all features that Wright had been promoting since the early 20th century. Usonian houses were Wright's response to the transformation of domestic life that occurred in the early 20th century when servants had become less prominent or completely absent from most American households. By developing homes with progressively more open plans, Wright allotted the woman of the house a "workspace", as he often called the kitchen, where she could keep track of and be available for the children and/or guests in the dining room. As in the Prairie Houses, Usonian living areas had a fireplace as a point of focus. Bedrooms, typically isolated and relatively small, encouraged the family to gather in the main living areas. The conception of spaces instead of rooms was a development of the Prairie ideal. The built-in furnishings related to the Arts and Crafts movement's principles that influenced Wright's early work. Spatially and in terms of their construction, the Usonian houses represented a new model for independent living and allowed dozens of clients to live in a Wright-designed house at relatively low cost. His Usonian homes set a new style for suburban design that influenced countless postwar developers. Many features of modern American homes date back to Wright: open plans, slab-on-grade foundations, and simplified construction techniques that allowed more mechanization and efficiency in building. Significant later works Fallingwater, one of Wright's most famous private residences (completed 1937), was built for Mr. and Mrs. Edgar J. Kaufmann, Sr., at Mill Run, Pennsylvania. Constructed over a 30-foot waterfall, it was designed according to Wright's desire to place the occupants close to the natural surroundings. The house was intended to be more of a family getaway, rather than a live-in home. The construction is a series of cantilevered balconies and terraces, using limestone for all verticals and concrete for the horizontals. The house cost $155,000 (), including the architect's fee of $8,000 (). It was one of Wright's most expensive pieces. Kaufmann's own engineers argued that the design was not sound. They were overruled by Wright, but the contractor secretly added extra steel to the horizontal concrete elements. In 1994, Robert Silman and Associates examined the building and developed a plan to restore the structure. In the late 1990s, steel supports were added under the lowest cantilever until a detailed structural analysis could be done. In March 2002, post-tensioning of the lowest terrace was completed. Taliesin West, Wright's winter home and studio complex in Scottsdale, Arizona, was a laboratory for Wright from 1937 to his death in 1959. It is now the home of the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation. The design and construction of the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City occupied Wright from 1943 until 1959 and is probably his most recognized masterpiece. The building's unique central geometry was meant to allow visitors to easily experience Guggenheim's collection of nonobjective geometric paintings by taking an elevator to the top level and then viewing artworks by walking down the slowly descending, central spiral ramp. The only realized skyscraper designed by Wright is the Price Tower, a 19-story tower in Bartlesville, Oklahoma. It is also one of the two existing vertically oriented Wright structures (the other is the S.C. Johnson Wax Research Tower in Racine, Wisconsin). The Price Tower was commissioned by Harold C. Price of the H. C. Price Company, a local oil pipeline and chemical firm. On March 29, 2007, Price Tower was designated a National Historic Landmark by the United States Department of the Interior, one of only 20 such properties in Oklahoma. Monona Terrace, originally designed in 1937 as municipal offices for Madison, Wisconsin, was completed in 1997 on the original site, using a variation of Wright's final design for the exterior, with the interior design altered by its new purpose as a convention center. The "as-built" design was carried out by Wright's apprentice Tony Puttnam. Monona Terrace was accompanied by controversy throughout the 60 years between the original design and the completion of the structure. Florida Southern College, located in Lakeland, Florida, constructed 12 (out of 18 planned) Frank Lloyd Wright buildings between 1941 and 1958 as part of the Child of the Sun project. It is the world's largest single-site collection of Frank Lloyd Wright architecture. Personal style and concepts Design elements His Prairie houses use themed, coordinated design elements (often based on plant forms) that are repeated in windows, carpets, and other fittings. He made innovative use of new building materials such as precast concrete blocks, glass bricks, and zinc cames (instead of the traditional lead) for his leadlight windows, and he famously used Pyrex glass tubing as a major element in the Johnson Wax Headquarters. Wright was also one of the first architects to design and install custom-made electric light fittings, including some of the first electric floor lamps, and his very early use of the then-novel spherical glass lampshade (a design previously not possible due to the physical restrictions of gas lighting). In 1897, Wright received a patent for "Prism Glass Tiles" that were used in storefronts to direct light toward the interior. Wright fully embraced glass in his designs and found that it fit well into his philosophy of organic architecture. According to Wright's organic theory, all components of the building should appear unified, as though they belong together. Nothing should be attached to it without considering the effect on the whole. To unify the house to its site, Wright often used large expanses of glass to blur the boundary between the indoors and outdoors. Glass allowed for interaction and viewing of the outdoors while still protecting from the elements. In 1928, Wright wrote an essay on glass in which he compared it to the mirrors of nature: lakes, rivers and ponds. One of Wright's earliest uses of glass in his works was to string panes of glass along whole walls in an attempt to create light screens to join solid walls. By using this large amount of glass, Wright sought to achieve a balance between the lightness and airiness of the glass and the solid, hard walls. Arguably, Wright's best-known art glass is that of the Prairie style. The simple geometric shapes that yield to very ornate and intricate windows represent some of the most integral ornamentation of his career. Wright also designed some of his own clothing. Influences and collaborations Wright strongly believed in individualism and did not affiliate with the American Institute of Architects during his career, going so far as to call the organization "a harbor of refuge for the incompetent," and "a form of refined gangsterism". When an associate referred to him as "an old amateur" Wright confirmed, "I am the oldest." Wright rarely credited any influences on his designs, but most architects, historians and scholars agree he had five major influences: Louis Sullivan, whom he considered to be his Lieber Meister (dear master) Nature, particularly shapes/forms and colors/patterns of plant life Music (his favorite composer was Ludwig van Beethoven) Japanese art, prints and buildings Froebel gifts Wright was given a set of Froebel gifts at about age nine, and in his autobiography he cited them indirectly in explaining that he learned the geometry of architecture in kindergarten play: Wright later wrote, "The virtue of all this lay in the awakening of the child-mind to rhythmic structures in Nature… I soon became susceptible to constructive pattern evolving in everything I saw." He routinely claimed the work of architects and architectural designers who were his employees as his own designs, and believed that the rest of the Prairie School architects were merely his followers, imitators, and subordinates. As with any architect, though, Wright worked in a collaborative process and drew his ideas from the work of others. In his earlier days, Wright worked with some of the top architects of the Chicago School, including Sullivan. In his Prairie School days, Wright's office was populated by many talented architects, including William Eugene Drummond, John Van Bergen, Isabel Roberts, Francis Barry Byrne, Albert McArthur, Marion Mahony Griffin, and Walter Burley Griffin. The Czech-born architect Antonin Raymond worked for Wright at Taliesin and led the construction of the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo. He subsequently stayed in Japan and opened his own practice. Rudolf Schindler also worked for Wright on the Imperial Hotel and his own work is often credited as influencing Wright's Usonian houses. Schindler's friend Richard Neutra also worked briefly for Wright and became an internationally successful architect. In the Taliesin days, Wright employed many architects and artists who later become notable, such as Aaron Green, John Lautner, E. Fay Jones, Henry Klumb, William Bernoudy, John Underhill Ottenheimer, and Paolo Soleri. Japanese art Wright was a passionate Japanophile — he once proclaimed Japan to be "the most romantic, artistic, nature-inspired country on earth" — and throughout his entire career, Japanese art and architecture held a strong sway over him. He was particularly interested in woodblock prints, to which he claimed he was "enslaved." Wright spent much of his free time selling, collecting, and appreciating these prints — he held parties and other events centered around them, proclaiming their pedagogical value to his guests and students, and before arriving in Japan, his impressions of the nation were based almost entirely on them. Wright found particular inspiration in the formal aspects of Japanese art. He described prints as "organic," because of their understatedness, harmony, and ability to be appreciated on a purely aesthetic level. Additionally, he cherished their freeform compositions, where elements of the scene would frequently breach in front of one another, and their lack of extraneous detail, which he called a "gospel of elimination." His interpretation of (tea ceremony venues), mediated by the ideas of Okakura Kakuzō, was that of an architecture which emphasized openness, the "vacant space between the roof and walls." Wright applied these principles on a large scale, and they became trademarks of his practice. Wright's floor plans exhibit strong similarities to their presumed Japanese forebears. The open living spaces of his early homes were likely appropriated from the World's Columbian Exposition's Ho-O-Den Pavilion, whose sliding-screen dividers were removed in preparation for the event. Likewise, Unity Temple follows a layout, characteristic of Shinto shrines and likely inspired by his 1905 visit to the Rinnō-ji temple complex, and the shape of many of his cantilevered towers, including the Johnson Research Tower, may have been inspired by Japanese pagodas. Wright's ornamental flourishes, as seen in his leaded glass windows and lively architectural drawings, demonstrate a technical indebtedness to . One modern commentator, discussing the Robie House, suggests that such elements combined allow Wright's architecture to exhibit , a particularly Japanese aesthetic value marked by a subdued stylishness. His ideas about the art of Japan appear to have drawn greatly from the activities of Ernest Fenollosa, whose work he likely first encountered between 1890 and 1893. Many of Fenollosa's ideas are quite similar to those of Wright: these include his view of architecture as a "mother art," his condemnation of the West's "separation of construction and decoration," and his identification of an "organic wholeness" within prints. Also like Wright, Fenollosa perceived a "degeneracy" in Western architecture, with particular emphasis on Renaissance architecture; Wright himself admitted that Japanese prints helped to "vulgarize" the Renaissance for him. Wright's art criticism treatise, The Japanese Print: An Interpretation, may be read as a straightforward expansion upon Fenollosa's ideas. Though Wright always acknowledged his indebtedness to Japanese art and architecture, he took offense to claims that he copied or adapted it. In his view, Japanese art simply validated his personal principles especially well, and as such it was not a source of special inspiration. Responding to a claim by Charles Robert Ashbee that he was "trying to adapt Japanese forms to the United States," Wright said that such borrowing was "against [his] very religion." Nonetheless, his insistence did not stop others from observing the same throughout his life. Community planning Frank Lloyd Wright was interested in site and community planning throughout his career. His commissions and theories on urban design began as early as 1900 and continued until his death. He had 41 commissions on the scale of community planning or urban design. His thoughts on suburban design started in 1900 with a proposed subdivision layout for Charles E. Roberts entitled the "Quadruple Block Plan". This design strayed from traditional suburban lot layouts and set houses on small square blocks of four equal-sized lots surrounded on all sides by roads instead of straight rows of houses on parallel streets. The houses, which used the same design as published in "A Home in a Prairie Town" from the Ladies' Home Journal, were set toward the center of the block to maximize the yard space and included private space in the center. This also allowed for far more interesting views from each house. Although this plan was never realized, Wright published the design in the Wasmuth Portfolio in 1910. The more ambitious designs of entire communities were exemplified by his entry into the City Club of Chicago Land Development Competition in 1913. The contest was for the development of a suburban quarter section. This design expanded on the Quadruple Block Plan and included several social levels. The design shows the placement of the upscale homes in the most desirable areas and the blue collar homes and apartments separated by parks and common spaces. The design also included all the amenities of a small city: schools, museums, markets, etc. This view of decentralization was later reinforced by theoretical Broadacre City design. The philosophy behind his community planning was decentralization. The new development must be away from the cities. In this decentralized America, all services and facilities could coexist "factories side by side with farm and home". Notable community planning designs: 1900–03 – Quadruple Block Plan, 24 homes in Oak Park, Illinois (unbuilt); 1909 – Como Orchard Summer Colony, town site development for new town in the Bitterroot Valley, Montana; 1913 – Chicago Land Development competition, suburban Chicago quarter section; 1934–59 – Broadacre City, theoretical decentralized city plan, exhibits of large-scale model; 1938 – Suntop Homes, also known as Cloverleaf Quadruple Housing Project – commission from Federal Works Agency, Division of Defense Housing, a low-cost multifamily housing alternative to suburban development; 1942 – Cooperative Homesteads, commissioned by a group of auto workers, teachers and other professionals, 160-acre farm co-op was to be the pioneer of rammed earth and earth berm construction (unbuilt); 1945 – Usonia Homes, 47 homes (three designed by Wright) in Pleasantville, New York; 1949 – The Acres, also known as Galesburg Country Homes, five homes (four designed by Wright) in Charleston Township, Michigan; 1949 – Parkwyn neighborhood, a plat in Kalamazoo, Michigan, developed by Wright containing mostly Usonian homes on circular lots with common spaces in between (since replatted). Personal life and death Wright's fashion sense was unique and he usually wore expensive suits, flowing neckties, and capes. He also had a fascination with automobiles, purchasing his first car in 1909, a Stoddard-Dayton roadster, and owned many exotic vehicles over the years. During the cash-strapped Depression, Wright drove cheaper vehicles. Some of his last cars in the 1950s included four Volkswagens and a Chevrolet Nomad station wagon along with flashier articles such as a Jaguar Mark VII. He owned some 50 cars between 1909 and his death, of which 10 are known to survive. Family Frank Lloyd Wright was married three times, fathering four sons and three daughters. He also adopted Svetlana Milanoff, the daughter of his third wife, Olgivanna Lloyd Wright. His wives were: Catherine "Kitty" (Tobin) Wright (1871–1959); social worker, socialite (married in June 1889; divorced November 1922) Maude "Miriam" (Noel) Wright (1869–1930), artist (married in November 1923; divorced August 1927) Olga Ivanovna "Olgivanna" (Lazovich Milanoff) Lloyd Wright (1897–1985), dancer and writer (married in August 1928) His children with Catherine were: Frank Lloyd Wright Jr., known as Lloyd Wright (1890–1978), became a notable architect in Los Angeles. Lloyd's son, Eric Lloyd Wright (1929–2023), was an architect in Malibu, California, specializing in residences, but also designed civic and commercial buildings. John Lloyd Wright (1892–1972), invented Lincoln Logs in 1918, and practiced architecture extensively in the San Diego area. John's daughter, Elizabeth Wright Ingraham (1922–2013), was an architect in Colorado Springs, Colorado. She was the mother of Christine, an interior designer in Connecticut, and Catherine, an architecture professor at the Pratt Institute. Catherine Wright Baxter (1894–1979) was a homemaker and the mother of Oscar-winning actress Anne Baxter. David Samuel Wright (1895–1997) was a building-products representative for whom Wright designed the David & Gladys Wright House, which was rescued from demolition and given to the Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture. Frances Wright Caroe (1898–1959) was an arts administrator. Robert Llewellyn Wright (1903–1986) was an attorney for whom Wright designed a house in Bethesda, Maryland. His children with Olgivanna were: Svetlana Peters (1917–1946, adopted daughter of Olgivanna) was a musician who died in an automobile accident with her son Daniel. After Svetlana's death her other son, Brandoch Peters (1942– ), was raised by Frank and Olgivanna. Svetlana's widower, William Wesley Peters, was later briefly married to Svetlana Alliluyeva, the youngest child and only daughter of Joseph Stalin. Peters served as chairman of the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation from 1985 to 1991. Iovanna Lloyd Wright (1925–2015) was an artist and musician. As an art dealer Though most famous as an architect, Wright was also an active dealer in Japanese art, primarily . He frequently served as both architect and art dealer to the same clients: he designed a home, then provided the art to fill it. For a time, Wright made more from selling art than from his work as an architect. He also kept a personal collection, which he used as a teaching aid with his apprentices in what were called "print parties," and to better suit his taste, he sometimes modified these personal prints using colored pencils and crayons. Wright owned prints from masters such as Okumura Masanobu, Torii Kiyomasu I, Katsukawa Shunshō, Utagawa Toyoharu, Utagawa Kunisada, Katsushika Hokusai, and Utagawa Hiroshige; he was especially fond of Hiroshige, whom he considered "the greatest artist in the world." Wright first traveled to Japan in 1905, where he bought hundreds of prints. The following year, he helped organize the world's first retrospective exhibition on Hiroshige, held at the Art Institute of Chicago, a job which strengthened his reputation as an expert in Japanese art. Wright did not cease buying prints in his return trips to Japan, and for many years, he was a major presence in the art world, selling a great number of works both to prominent private collectors and to museums such as the Metropolitan Museum of Art. In sum, Wright spent over five hundred thousand dollars on prints between 1905 and 1923. He penned a book on Japanese art, The Japanese Print: An Interpretation, in 1912. In 1920, many of the prints Wright sold had been found to exhibit signs of retouching, including pinholes and unoriginal pigments. These retouched prints were likely made in retribution by some of his Japanese dealers, who were disgruntled by the architect's under-the-table sales. In an attempt to clear his name, Wright took one of his dealers, Kyūgo Hayashi, to court over the issue; Hayashi was subsequently sentenced to one year in prison, and barred from selling prints for an extended period of time. Though Wright protested his innocence, and provided his clients with genuine prints as replacements for those he was accused of retouching, the incident marked the end of the high point of his career as an art dealer. He was forced to sell off much of his art collection to pay off outstanding debts: in 1928, the Bank of Wisconsin claimed Taliesin and sold thousands of his prints — for only one dollar a piece — to collector Edward Burr Van Vleck. Nonetheless, Wright continued to collect and deal in prints until his death in 1959, using them as bartering chips and collateral for loans; he often relied upon his art business to remain financially solvent. He once claimed that Taliesin I and II were "practically built" by his prints. The extent of his dealings in Japanese art went largely unknown, or underestimated, among art historians for decades. In 1980, Julia Meech, then associate curator of Japanese art at the Metropolitan Museum, began researching the history of the museum's collection of Japanese prints. She discovered "a three-inch-deep 'clump of 400 cards' from 1918, each listing a print bought from the same seller — 'F. L. Wright'" — and a number of letters exchanged between Wright and the museum's first curator of Far Eastern Art, Sigisbert C. Bosch Reitz. These discoveries and subsequent research led to a renewed understanding of Wright's career as an art dealer. Death On April 4, 1959, Wright was hospitalized for abdominal pains and was operated on April 6. He seemed to be recovering, but he died quietly on April 9 at the age of 91 years. The New York Times then reported he was 89. After his death, Wright's legacy was plagued with turmoil for years. His third wife Olgivanna's dying wish had been that she and Wright, and her daughter by her first marriage, would all be cremated and interred together in a memorial garden being built at Taliesin West. According to his own wishes, Wright's body had lain in the Lloyd-Jones cemetery, next to the Unity Chapel, within view of Taliesin in Wisconsin. Although Olgivanna had taken no legal steps to move Wright's remains (and against the wishes of other family members and the Wisconsin legislature), his remains were removed from his grave in 1985 by members of the Taliesin Fellowship. They were cremated and sent to Scottsdale where they were later interred as per Olgivanna's instructions. The original grave site in Wisconsin is now empty but is still marked with Wright's name. Legacy Archives After Wright's death, most of his archives were stored at the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation in Taliesin (in Wisconsin), and Taliesin West (in Arizona). These collections included more than 23,000 architectural drawings, some 44,000 photographs, 600 manuscripts, and more than 300,000 pieces of office and personal correspondence. It also contained about 40 large-scale architectural models, most of which were constructed for MoMA's retrospective of Wright in 1940. In 2012, to guarantee a high level of conservation and access, as well as to transfer the considerable financial burden of maintaining the archive, the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation partnered with the Museum of Modern Art and the Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library to move the archive's content to New York. Wright's furniture and art collection remains with the foundation, which will also have a role in monitoring the archive. These three parties established an advisory group to oversee exhibitions, symposiums, events, and publications. Photographs and other archival materials are held by the Ryerson and Burnham Libraries at the Art Institute of Chicago. The architect's personal archives are located at Taliesin West in Scottsdale, Arizona. The Frank Lloyd Wright archives include photographs of his drawings, indexed correspondence beginning in the 1880s and continuing through Wright's life, and other ephemera. The Getty Research Center, Los Angeles, also has copies of Wright's correspondence and photographs of his drawings in their Frank Lloyd Wright Special Collection. Wright's correspondence is indexed in An Index to the Taliesin Correspondence, ed. by Professor Anthony Alofsin, which is available at larger libraries. Destroyed Wright buildings Wright designed over 400 built structures of which about 300 survived . At least five have been lost to forces of nature: the waterfront house for W. L. Fuller in Pass Christian, Mississippi, destroyed by Hurricane Camille in August 1969; the Louis Sullivan Bungalow of Ocean Springs, Mississippi, destroyed by Hurricane Katrina in 2005; and the Arinobu Fukuhara House (1918) in Hakone, Japan, destroyed in the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake. In January 2006, the Wilbur Wynant House in Gary, Indiana was destroyed by fire. In 2018 the Arch Oboler complex in Malibu, California was gutted in the Woolsey Fire. Many other notable Wright buildings were intentionally demolished: Midway Gardens (built 1913, demolished 1929), the Larkin Administration Building (built 1903, demolished 1950), the Francis Apartments and Francisco Terrace Apartments (Chicago, built 1895, demolished 1971 and 1974, respectively), the Geneva Inn (Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, built 1911, demolished 1970), and the Banff National Park Pavilion (built 1914, demolished 1934). The Imperial Hotel (built 1923) survived the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake, but was demolished in 1968 due to urban developmental pressures. The Hoffman Auto Showroom in New York City (built 1954) was demolished in 2013. Unbuilt, or posthumously built Several of Wright's projects were either built after his death, or remain unbuilt. These include: Crystal Heights, a large mixed-use development in Washington, D.C., 1940 (unbuilt) The Illinois, mile-high tower in Chicago, 1956 (unbuilt) Marin County Civic Center, a municipal complex in San Rafael, California; groundbreaking occurred just one year after Wright's death Monona Terrace, convention center in Madison, Wisconsin; designed 1938–1959, built in 1997 Clubhouse at the Nakoma Golf Resort, Plumas County, California; designed in 1923, opened in 2000 Passive Solar Hemi-Cycle Home in Hawaii; designed in 1954, built in 1995 Recognition Later in his life (and after his death in 1959), Wright was accorded significant honorary recognition for his lifetime achievements. He received a Gold Medal award from The Royal Institute of British Architects in 1941. The American Institute of Architects awarded him the AIA Gold Medal in 1949. That medal was a symbolic "burying the hatchet" between Wright and the AIA. In a radio interview, he commented, "Well, the AIA I never joined, and they know why. When they gave me the gold medal in Houston, I told them frankly why. Feeling that the architecture profession is all that's the matter with architecture, why should I join them?" He was awarded the Franklin Institute's Frank P. Brown Medal in 1953. He received honorary degrees from several universities (including his alma mater, the University of Wisconsin), and several nations named him as an honorary board member to their national academies of art and/or architecture. In 2000, Fallingwater was named "The Building of the 20th century" in an unscientific "Top-Ten" poll taken by members attending the AIA annual convention in Philadelphia. On that list, Wright was listed along with many of the USA's other greatest architects including Eero Saarinen, I.M. Pei, Louis Kahn, Philip Johnson, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe; he was the only architect who had more than one building on the list. The other three buildings were the Guggenheim Museum, the Frederick C. Robie House, and the Johnson Wax Building. In 1992, the Madison Opera in Madison, Wisconsin, commissioned and premiered the opera Shining Brow, by composer Daron Hagen and librettist Paul Muldoon based on events early in Wright's life. The work has since received numerous revivals, including a June 2013 revival at Fallingwater, in Bull Run, Pennsylvania, by Opera Theater of Pittsburgh. In 2000, Work Song: Three Views of Frank Lloyd Wright, a play based on the relationship between the personal and working aspects of Wright's life, debuted at the Milwaukee Repertory Theater. In 1966, the United States Postal Service honored Wright with a Prominent Americans series 2¢ postage stamp. "So Long, Frank Lloyd Wright" is a song written by Paul Simon. Art Garfunkel has stated that the origin of the song came from his request that Simon write a song about the famous architect Frank Lloyd Wright. Simon himself stated that he knew nothing about Wright, but proceeded to write the song anyway. In 1957, Arizona made plans to construct a new capitol building. Believing that the submitted plans for the new capitol were tombs to the past, Frank Lloyd Wright offered Oasis as an alternative to the people of Arizona. In 2004, one of the spires included in his design was erected in Scottsdale. The city of Scottsdale, Arizona renamed a portion of Bell Road, a major east–west thoroughfare in the Phoenix metropolitan area, in honor of Frank Lloyd Wright. Eight of Wright's buildings – Fallingwater, the Guggenheim Museum, the Hollyhock House, the Jacobs House, the Robie House, Taliesin, Taliesin West, and the Unity Temple – were inscribed on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites under the title The 20th-century Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright in July 2019. UNESCO stated that these buildings were "innovative solutions to the needs for housing, worship, work or leisure" and "had a strong impact on the development of modern architecture in Europe". Selected works Books Ausgeführte Bauten und Entwürfe von Frank Lloyd Wright (Wasmuth Portfolio) (1910) An Organic Architecture: The Architecture of Democracy (1939) In the Cause of Architecture: Essays by Frank Lloyd Wright for Architectural Record 1908–1952 (1987) Visions of Wright: Photographs by Farrell Grehan, Introduction by Terence Riley (1997) Buildings Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio, Oak Park, Illinois, 1889–1909 William H. Winslow House, River Forest, Illinois, 1894 Frank Thomas House, Oak Park, Illinois, 1901 Ward Winfield Willits Residence, and Gardener's Cottage and Stables, Highland Park, Illinois, 1901 Dana–Thomas House, Springfield, Illinois, 1902 Larkin Administration Building, Buffalo, New York, 1903 (demolished, 1950) Darwin D. Martin House, Buffalo, New York, 1903–1905 Unity Temple, Oak Park, Illinois, 1904 Dr. G.C. Stockman House, Mason City, Iowa, 1908 Cedar Rock, Lowell E. Walter House, Quasqueton, Iowa, 1950 Douglas and Charlotte Grant House, Marion, Iowa, 1951 Edward E. Boynton House, Rochester, New York, 1908 Frederick C. Robie Residence, Chicago, Illinois, 1909 Park Inn Hotel, the last standing Wright designed hotel, Mason City, Iowa, 1910 Taliesin, Spring Green, Wisconsin, 1911 & 1925 Midway Gardens, Chicago, Illinois, 1913 (demolished, 1929) Hollyhock House (Aline Barnsdall Residence), Los Angeles, 1919–1921 Ennis House, Los Angeles, 1923 Imperial Hotel, Tokyo, Japan, 1923 (demolished, 1968; entrance hall reconstructed at Meiji Mura near Nagoya, Japan, 1976) Graycliff, Derby, New York, 1926 Westhope (Richard Lloyd Jones Residence, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 1929 Malcolm Willey House 1934, Minneapolis, Minnesota Fallingwater (Edgar J. Kaufmann Sr. Residence), Mill Run, Pennsylvania, 1935–1937 Johnson Wax Headquarters, Racine, Wisconsin, 1936 First Jacobs House, Madison, Wisconsin, 1936–1937 Usonian homes, various locations, 1930s–1950s Taliesin West, Scottsdale, Arizona, 1937 Herbert F. Johnson Residence ("Wingspread"), Wind Point, Wisconsin, 1937 Ben Rebhuhn House, Great Neck Estates, New York, 1938 Pope–Leighey House, Alexandria, Virginia, 1941 Child of the Sun, Florida Southern College, Lakeland, Florida, 1941–1958, site of the largest collection of the architect's work First Unitarian Society of Madison, Shorewood Hills, Wisconsin, 1947 V. C. Morris Gift Shop, San Francisco, 1948 Kenneth Laurent House, Rockford, Illinois, only home Wright designed to be handicapped accessible, 1951 Patrick and Margaret Kinney House, Lancaster, Wisconsin, 1951–1953 Lindholm House (Mäntylä), Minnesota, 1952 Bachman-Wilson House, 1952 (Reconstructed at Crystal Bridges Museum of Art, Bentonville, Arkansas 2015) Price Tower, Bartlesville, Oklahoma, 1952–1956 Beth Sholom Synagogue, Elkins Park, Pennsylvania, 1954 Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church, Wauwatosa, Wisconsin, 1956–1961 Kentuck Knob, Ohiopyle, Pennsylvania, 1956 Marshall Erdman Prefab Houses, various locations, 1956–1960 Duncan House, Lisle, Illinois, 1957 Marin County Civic Center, San Rafael, California, 1957–1966 R.W. Lindholm Service Station, Cloquet, Minnesota, 1958 Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York City, 1956–1959 Gammage Auditorium, Tempe, Arizona, 1959–1964 See also Richard Bock Frank Lloyd Wright Building Conservancy Frank Lloyd Wright-Prairie School of Architecture Historic District George Mann Niedecken List of Frank Lloyd Wright works List of Frank Lloyd Wright works by location Jaroslav Joseph Polivka Roman brick The 20th-century Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright (UNESCO World Heritage site) :Category:Frank Lloyd Wright buildings References Further reading Wright's philosophy Hoffmann, Donald. Understanding Frank Lloyd Wright's Architecture. New York: Dover Publications, 1995. Kienitz, John Fabian. "Fifty-two years of Frank Lloyd Wright's progressivism, 1893–1945". Wisconsin Magazine of History, vol. 29, no. 1 (September 1945):61–71. McCarter, Robert (ed.). Frank Lloyd Wright: A Primer on Architectural Principles. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1991. Meehan, Patrick, ed. Truth Against the World: Frank Lloyd Wright Speaks for an Organic Architecture. New York: Wiley, 1987. Rosenbaum, Alvin. Usonia : Frank Lloyd Wright's Design for America. Washington, DC: Preservation Press, 1993. Sergeant, John. Frank Lloyd Wright's Usonian Houses: The Case for Organic Architecture. New York: Watson-Guptill, 1984. Wright, Frank Lloyd. "In the Cause of Architecture", Architectural Record, March 1908. Reprinted in Frank Lloyd Wright: Collected Writings, vol. 1: 1894–1930. New York: Rizzoli, 1992. Wright, Frank Lloyd. The Natural House. New York: Horizon Press, 1954. Biographies Alofsin, Anthony. Frank Lloyd Wright: the Lost Years, 1910–1922: A Study of Influence. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. Alofsin, Anthony. Wright and New York: The Making of America's Architect. Yale University Press, 2019. Farr, Finis. Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography. New York: Scribner, 1961. Friedland, Roger and Harold Zellman. The Fellowship: The Untold Story of Frank Lloyd Wright and the Taliesin Fellowship. New York: Regan Books, 2006. Gill, Brendan. Many Masks: A Life of Frank Lloyd Wright. New York: Putnam, 1987. Huxtable, Ada Louise. Frank Lloyd Wright. New York: Lipper/Viking, 2004. Nisbet, Earl. Taliesin Reflections: My Years Before, During, and After Living with Frank Lloyd Wright. Petaluma, Calif.: Meridian Press, 2006. Russell, Virginia L. "You Dear Old Prima Donna: The Letters of Frank Lloyd Wright and Jens Jensen", Landscape Journal, 20.2 (2001): 141–155. Seckel, Harry. "Frank Lloyd Wright". The North American Review, vol. 246, no. 1 (1938): 48–64. Secrest, Meryle. Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography. New York: Knopf, 1992. Treiber, Daniel. Frank Lloyd Wright. 2nd ed. Basel: Birkhäuser, 2008. Twombly, Robert C. Frank Lloyd Wright: His Life and Architecture. New York: Wiley, 1979. Wright, Frank Lloyd. Frank Lloyd Wright: An Autobiography. New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1943. Wright, Iovanna Lloyd. Architecture: Man in Possession of His Earth. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1962. Wright, John Lloyd. My Father Who Is On Earth. New York: G.P. Putnam's sons, 1946. Frank Lloyd Wright – American Architect Surveys of Wright's work Clearly, Richard. Frank Lloyd Wright: From Within Outward. Skira Rizzoli, 2009. Betsky, Aaron, Gideon Fink Shapiro, Andrew Pielage. 50 Lessons to Learn from Frank Lloyd Wright: Rizzoli, 2021. Aguar, Charles and Berdeana Aguar. Wrightscapes: Frank Lloyd Wright's Landscape Designs. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002. Blake, Peter. Frank Lloyd Wright: Architecture and Space. Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1964. Fell, Derek. The Gardens of Frank Lloyd Wright. London: Frances Lincoln, 2009. Heinz, Thomas A. Frank Lloyd Wright Field Guide. Chichester, West Sussex: Academy Editions, 1999. Hildebrand, Grant. The Wright Space: Pattern and Meaning in Frank Lloyd Wright's Houses. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991. Larkin, David and Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer. Frank Lloyd Wright: The Masterworks. New York: Rizzoli, 1993. Levine, Neil. The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996. Lind, Carla. Frank Lloyd Wright's Glass Designs. San Francisco: Pomegranate Artbooks, 1995. McCarter, Robert. Frank Lloyd Wright. London: Phaidon Press, 1997. Pfeiffer, Bruce Brooks. Frank Lloyd Wright, 1867–1959: Building for Democracy. Los Angeles: Taschen, 2004. Pfeiffer, Bruce Brooks and Peter Gössel (eds.). Frank Lloyd Wright: The Complete Works. Los Angeles: Taschen, 2009. Riley, Terence and Peter Reed (eds.). Frank Lloyd Wright: Architect. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1994. Smith, Kathryn. Frank Lloyd Wright: America's Master Architect. New York: Abbeville Press, 1998. Storrer, William Allin. The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright: A Complete Catalog. 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007. Storrer, William Allin. The Frank Lloyd Wright Companion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. Selected books about specific Wright projects Lind, Carla. Frank Lloyd Wright's Usonian Houses. San Francisco: Promegranate Artbooks, 1994. Toker, Franklin. Fallingwater Rising: Frank Lloyd Wright, E. J. Kaufmann, and America's Most Extraordinary House. New York: Alford A. Knopf, 2003. Whiting, Henry, II. At Nature's Edge: Frank Lloyd Wright's Artist Studio. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2007. The women in his life External links Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation official website Guide to the Photographs of Frank Lloyd Wright 1950 May 16 Taliesin Preservation, stewards of Wright's home Taliesin The Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation Archives at Columbia University Frank Lloyd Wright documents at the Wisconsin Historical Society Frank Lloyd Wright Building Conservancy Frank Lloyd Wright Preservation Trust – FLW Home and Studio, Robie House Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture Frank Lloyd Wright Wisconsin Heritage Tourism Program Frank Lloyd Wright – PBS documentary by Ken Burns and resources Frank Lloyd Wright. Designs for an American Landscape 1922–1932 Frank Lloyd Wright Buildings Recorded by the Historic American Buildings Survey Frank Lloyd Wright – Famous Interior Designers Complete list of Wright buildings by location Sullivan, Wright, Prairie School, & Organic Architecture Audio interview with Martin Filler on Frank Lloyd Wright from The New York Review of Books Frank Lloyd Wright and Quebec Frank Lloyd Wright interviewed by Mike Wallace on The Mike Wallace Interview recorded September 1 & 28, 1957 Interactive Map of Frank Lloyd Wright Buildings, created in the Harvard WorldMap Platform Map of the Frank Lloyd Wright works – Wikiartmap, the art map of the public space Fay Jones and Frank Lloyd Wright: Organic Architecture Comes to Arkansas digital exhibit, University of Arkansas Libraries Frank Lloyd Wright's Personal Manuscripts and Letters Passive Solar Hemi-Cycle Home in Hawaii, designed in 1954, built in 1995; only Wright home in Hawaii. Interactive Tour. Taylor A. Woolley Papers at University of Utah Digital Library, Marriott Library Special Collections Wright's TokaidoFLLW's annotated Hiroshige albumdocumentary at hiroshige.org.uk Category:1867 births Category:1959 deaths Category:20th-century American architects Category:American architecture writers Category:American Christian pacifists Category:American furniture designers Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:American people of English descent Category:American people of Welsh descent Category:American stained glass artists and manufacturers Category:American Unitarians Category:Architects from Chicago Category:Architects from Wisconsin Category:Architectural theoreticians Category:Architecture educators Category:Artists from Oak Park, Illinois Category:Artists from Phoenix, Arizona Category:Modernist architects from the United States Category:Organic architecture Category:People from Richland Center, Wisconsin Category:People from Scottsdale, Arizona Category:People from Spring Green, Wisconsin Category:Prairie School architecture Category:Recipients of the Royal Gold Medal Category:University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni Category:Writers from Oak Park, Illinois Category:Recipients of the AIA Gold Medal Category:Authors of utopian literature
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[ "Frank Lloyd Wright completed four houses between 1900 and 1901 that signaled the onset of the \"Prairie style\". Hickox and Bradley Houses were the last transitional step before Wright fully adopted this style, with the Thomas House and Willits House being recognized as the first mature examples. Wright then popularized his ideas for the American house through articles in the Ladies' Home Journal, which subsequently increased requests for similar designs. Notable prairie style houses by Wright include the Darwin D. Martin House, the Frederick Robie House, and the Avery and Queene Coonley House. These homes, known as \"prairie houses\", often feature one or two-stories with one-story projections, open floor plans, low roofs with broad eaves, horizontal lines, ribbons of windows, prominent central chimneys, built-in stylized cabinetry, and natural materials. His work had a profound influence on European architects after World War I and is considered the cornerstone of modernism.", "The \"Prairie style\" designed by Frank Lloyd Wright was special due to its unique features which complemented the land around Chicago. These included one or two-stories with one-story projections, an open floor plan, low-pitched roofs with broad overhanging eaves, strong horizontal lines, ribbons of windows (often casements), a prominent central chimney, built-in stylized cabinetry, and a wide use of natural materials like stone and wood. The style was seen as innovative and represented a radical departure from traditional residential architectural design. Its influence extended to European architects after World War I and it even came to be known as the cornerstone of modernism.", "The \"Prairie style\" was different in its innovative use of space and form. Features like one or two-story projections, open floor plans, and the combination of living and dining areas into virtually one uninterrupted space, represented a departure from traditional residential architectural design. The use of low-pitched roofs with wide, overhanging eaves, as well as the extensive use of natural materials like wood and stone, helped the buildings blend with their surrounding landscape. Other unique features included prominent central chimneys, built-in stylized cabinetry and ribbons of windows, which showcased strong horizontal lines, often giving the illusion of the buildings being more expansive.", "Yes, there were different designs within the \"Prairie style\". While they all followed the general features of the style, such as open floor plans, low roofs, and the use of natural materials, individual houses had their distinct characteristics. For example, the Frederick Robie House is noted for its dramatic, cantilevered roof lines supported by a 110-foot-long channel of steel and virtually uninterrupted living and dining spaces. The Darwin D. Martin House, another example, while not detailed in the text, would also have its unique features. Despite these differences, they all stuck to the principles of the Prairie style, forming a coherent body of work in Frank Lloyd Wright's portfolio.", "The most common features of the \"Prairie style\" as designed by Frank Lloyd Wright include one or two-stories with one-story projections, an open floor plan, low-pitched roofs with broad, overhanging eaves, strong horizontal lines, ribbons of windows (often casements), a prominent central chimney, built-in stylized cabinetry, and a wide use of natural materials--especially stone and wood. These features were designed to complement the land around Chicago, giving the style its name.", "Apart from the specific content about the \"Prairie style\", an interesting aspect to note is Frank Lloyd Wright's significant influence on modern architecture, with his work being referred to as the \"cornerstone of modernism\". The article also indicates the global reach of his work as his designs became known to European architects and profoundly influenced them after World War I. Moreover, it reveals how Wright publicized his ideas through publications such as the Ladies' Home Journal, showing his engagement with a wider public beyond the architectural community." ]
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C_b3715204c684455fa3eef156b1af1a57_0
Tennessee Williams
Thomas Lanier "Tennessee" Williams III (March 26, 1911 - February 25, 1983) was an American playwright. Along with Eugene O'Neill and Arthur Miller, he is considered among the three foremost playwrights of 20th-century American drama. After years of obscurity, he became suddenly famous with The Glass Menagerie (1944), a play that closely reflected his own unhappy family background. This heralded a string of successes, including A Streetcar Named Desire (1947), Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1955), and Sweet Bird of Youth (1959).
Education
From 1929 to 1931, he attended the University of Missouri, in Columbia, where he enrolled in journalism classes. Williams found his classes boring, however, and was distracted by his unrequited love for a girl. He was soon entering his poetry, essays, stories, and plays in writing contests, hoping to earn extra income. His first submitted play was Beauty Is the Word (1930), followed by Hot Milk at Three in the Morning (1932). As recognition for Beauty, a play about rebellion against religious upbringing, he became the first freshman to receive honorable mention in a writing competition. At University of Missouri, Williams joined the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity, but he did not fit in well with his fraternity brothers. According to Hale, the "brothers found him shy and socially backward, a loner who spent most of his time at the typewriter." After he failed a military training course in his junior year, his father pulled him out of school and put him to work at the International Shoe Company factory. Although Williams, then 21, hated the monotony, the job "forced him out of the pretentious gentility" of his upbringing, which had, according to Hale, "tinged him with [his mother's] snobbery and detachment from reality." His dislike of his new nine-to-five routine drove him to write even more than before, and he set himself a goal of writing one story a week, working on Saturday and Sunday, often late into the night. His mother recalled his intensity: "Tom would go to his room with black coffee and cigarettes and I would hear the typewriter clicking away at night in the silent house. Some mornings when I walked in to wake him for work, I would find him sprawled fully dressed across the bed, too tired to remove his clothes." Overworked, unhappy and lacking any further success with his writing, by his twenty-fourth birthday he had suffered a nervous breakdown and left his job. Memories of this period, and a particular factory co-worker, became part of the character Stanley Kowalski in A Streetcar Named Desire. By the mid-1930s his father's increasing alcoholism and abusive temper (he had part of his ear bitten off in a poker game fight) finally led Edwina to separate from him, although they never divorced. In 1936, Williams enrolled at Washington University in St. Louis where he wrote the play Me, Vashya (1937). By 1938 he had moved on to University of Iowa, where he completed his undergraduate degree and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in English. He later studied at the Dramatic Workshop of The New School in New York City. Speaking of his early days as a playwright and referring to an early collaborative play called Cairo, Shanghai, Bombay!, produced while he was a part of an amateur summer theater group in Memphis, Tennessee, Williams wrote, "The laughter ... enchanted me. Then and there the theatre and I found each other for better and for worse. I know it's the only thing that saved my life." Around 1939, he adopted "Tennessee Williams" as his professional name. CANNOTANSWER
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Thomas Lanier Williams III (March 26, 1911 – February 25, 1983), known by his pen name Tennessee Williams, was an American playwright and screenwriter. Along with contemporaries Eugene O'Neill and Arthur Miller, he is considered among the three foremost playwrights of 20th-century American drama. At age 33, after years of obscurity, Williams suddenly became famous with the success of The Glass Menagerie (1944) in New York City. He introduced "plastic theatre" in this play and it closely reflected his own unhappy family background. It was the first of a string of successes, including A Streetcar Named Desire (1947), Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1955), Sweet Bird of Youth (1959), and The Night of the Iguana (1961). With his later work, Williams attempted a new style that did not appeal as widely to audiences. His drama A Streetcar Named Desire is often numbered on short lists of the finest American plays of the 20th century alongside Eugene O'Neill's Long Day's Journey into Night and Arthur Miller's Death of a Salesman. Much of Williams's most acclaimed work has been adapted for the cinema. He also wrote short stories, poetry, essays, and a volume of memoirs. In 1979, four years before his death, Williams was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame. Early life Thomas Lanier Williams III was born in Columbus, Mississippi, of English, Welsh, and Huguenot ancestry, the second child of Edwina Dakin (August 9, 1884 – June 1, 1980) and Cornelius Coffin "C. C." Williams (August 21, 1879 – March 27, 1957). His father was a traveling shoe salesman who became an alcoholic and was frequently away from home. His mother, Edwina, was the daughter of Rose O. Dakin, a music teacher, and the Reverend Walter Dakin, an Episcopal priest from Illinois who was assigned to a parish in Clarksdale, Mississippi, shortly after Williams's birth. Williams lived in his grandfather's Episcopalian rectory with his family for much of his early childhood and was close to his grandparents. Among his ancestors was musician and poet Sidney Lanier. He had two siblings, older sister Rose Isabel Williams (1909–1996) and younger brother Walter Dakin Williams (1919–2008). As a young child, Williams nearly died from a case of diphtheria that left him frail and virtually confined to his house during a year of recuperation. At least partly due to his illness, he was considered a weak child by his father. Cornelius Williams, a descendant of hardy East Tennessee pioneer stock, had a violent temper and was prone to use his fists. He regarded what he thought was his son's effeminacy with disdain. Edwina, locked in an unhappy marriage, focused her attention almost entirely on her frail young son. Critics and historians agree that Williams drew from his own dysfunctional family in much of his writing and that his desire to break free from his puritan upbringing propelled him towards writing. When Williams was eight years old, his father was promoted to a job at the home office of the International Shoe Company in St. Louis. His mother's continual search for a more appropriate home, as well as his father's heavy drinking and loudly turbulent behavior, caused them to move numerous times around St. Louis. Williams attended Soldan High School, a setting he referred to in his play The Glass Menagerie. Later he studied at University City High School. At age 16, Williams won third prize for an essay published in Smart Set, titled "Can a Good Wife Be a Good Sport?" A year later, his short story "The Vengeance of Nitocris" was published (as by "Thomas Lanier Williams") in the August 1928 issue of the magazine Weird Tales. These early publications did not lead to any significant recognition or appreciation of Williams's talent, and he would struggle for more than a decade to establish his writing career. Later, in 1928, Williams first visited Europe with his maternal grandfather Dakin. Education From 1929 to 1931, Williams attended the University of Missouri in Columbia, where he enrolled in journalism classes. He was bored by his classes and distracted by unrequited love for a girl. Soon he began entering his poetry, essays, stories, and plays in writing contests, hoping to earn extra income. His first submitted play was Beauty Is the Word (1930), followed by Hot Milk at Three in the Morning (1932). As recognition for Beauty, a play about rebellion against religious upbringing, he became the first freshman to receive honorable mention in a writing competition. At University of Missouri, Williams joined the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity, but he did not fit in well with his fraternity brothers. After he failed a military training course in his junior year, his father pulled him out of school and put him to work at the International Shoe Company factory. Although Williams hated the monotony, the job forced him out of the gentility of his upbringing. His dislike of his new 9-to-5 routine drove Williams to write prodigiously. He set a goal of writing one story a week. Williams often worked on weekends and late into the night. His mother recalled his intensity: Tom would go to his room with black coffee and cigarettes and I would hear the typewriter clicking away at night in the silent house. Some mornings when I walked in to wake him for work, I would find him sprawled fully dressed across the bed, too tired to remove his clothes. Overworked, unhappy, and lacking further success with his writing, by his 24th birthday Williams had suffered a nervous breakdown and left his job. He drew from memories of this period, and a particular factory co-worker, to create the character Stanley Kowalski in A Streetcar Named Desire. By the mid-1930s his mother separated from his father due to his worsening alcoholism and abusive temper. They never divorced. In 1936, Williams enrolled at Washington University in St. Louis where he wrote the play Me, Vashya (1937). After not winning the school's poetry prize, he decided to drop out. In the autumn of 1937, he transferred to the University of Iowa in Iowa City, where he graduated with a B.A. in English in August 1938. He later studied at the Dramatic Workshop of The New School in New York City. Speaking of his early days as a playwright and an early collaborative play called Cairo, Shanghai, Bombay!, Williams wrote, "The laughter ... enchanted me. Then and there the theatre and I found each other for better and for worse. I know it's the only thing that saved my life." Around 1939, he adopted Tennessee Williams as his professional name. Literary influences Williams's writings reference some of the poets and writers he most admired in his early years: Hart Crane, Arthur Rimbaud, Anton Chekhov (from the age of ten), William Shakespeare, Clarence Darrow, D. H. Lawrence, Katherine Mansfield, August Strindberg, William Faulkner, Thomas Wolfe, Emily Dickinson, William Inge, James Joyce, and Ernest Hemingway. Career As Williams was struggling to gain production and an audience for his work in the late 1930s, he worked at a string of menial jobs that included a stint as caretaker on a chicken ranch in Laguna Beach, California. In 1939, with the help of his agent Audrey Wood, Williams was awarded a $1,000 grant from the Rockefeller Foundation in recognition of his play Battle of Angels. It was produced in Boston, Massachusetts in 1940 and was poorly received. Using some of the Rockefeller funds, Williams moved to New Orleans in 1939 to write for the Works Progress Administration (WPA), a federally funded program begun by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to put people to work. Williams lived for a time in New Orleans' French Quarter, including 722 Toulouse Street, the setting of his 1977 play Vieux Carré. The building is now part of The Historic New Orleans Collection. The Rockefeller grant brought him to the attention of the Hollywood film industry and Williams received a six-month contract as a writer from the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer film studio, earning $250 weekly. During the winter of 1944–45, his memory play The Glass Menagerie developed from his 1943 short story "Portrait of a Girl in Glass", was produced in Chicago and garnered good reviews. It moved to New York where it became an instant hit and enjoyed a long Broadway run. Elia Kazan (who directed many of Williams's greatest successes) said of Williams: "Everything in his life is in his plays, and everything in his plays is in his life." The Glass Menagerie won the award for the best play of the season, the New York Drama Critics' Circle Award. The huge success of his next play, A Streetcar Named Desire, cemented his reputation as a great playwright in 1947. During the late 1940s and 1950s, Williams began to travel widely with his partner Frank Merlo (1922 – September 21, 1963), often spending summers in Europe. He moved often to stimulate his writing, living in New York, New Orleans, Key West, Rome, Barcelona, and London. Williams wrote, "Only some radical change can divert the downward course of my spirit, some startling new place or people to arrest the drift, the drag." Between 1948 and 1959 Williams had seven of his plays produced on Broadway: Summer and Smoke (1948), The Rose Tattoo (1951), Camino Real (1953), Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1955), Orpheus Descending (1957), Garden District (1958), and Sweet Bird of Youth (1959). By 1959, he had earned two Pulitzer Prizes, three New York Drama Critics' Circle Awards, three Donaldson Awards, and a Tony Award. Williams's work reached wider audiences in the early 1950s when The Glass Menagerie and A Streetcar Named Desire were adapted into motion pictures. Later plays also adapted for the screen included Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, The Rose Tattoo, Orpheus Descending, The Night of the Iguana, Sweet Bird of Youth, and Summer and Smoke. After the extraordinary successes of the 1940s and 1950s, he had more personal turmoil and theatrical failures in the 1960s and 1970s. Although he continued to write every day, the quality of his work suffered from his increasing alcohol and drug consumption, as well as occasional poor choices of collaborators. In 1963, his partner Frank Merlo died. Consumed by depression over the loss, and in and out of treatment facilities while under the control of his mother and brother Dakin, Williams spiraled downward. His plays Kingdom of Earth (1967), In the Bar of a Tokyo Hotel (1969), Small Craft Warnings (1973), The Two Character Play (also called Out Cry, 1973), The Red Devil Battery Sign (1976), Vieux Carré (1978), Clothes for a Summer Hotel (1980), and others were all box office failures. Negative press notices wore down his spirit. His last play, A House Not Meant to Stand, was produced in Chicago in 1982. Despite largely positive reviews, it ran for only 40 performances. Critics and audiences alike failed to appreciate Williams's new style and the approach to theater he developed during the 1970s. In 1974, Williams received the St. Louis Literary Award from the Saint Louis University Library Associates. In 1979, four years before his death, he was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame. Personal life Throughout his life Williams remained close to his sister, Rose, who was diagnosed with schizophrenia as a young woman. In 1943, as her behavior became increasingly disturbing, she was subjected to a lobotomy, requiring her to be institutionalised for the rest of her life. As soon as he was financially able, Williams moved Rose to a private institution just north of New York City, where he often visited her. He gave her a percentage interest in several of his most successful plays, the royalties from which were applied toward her care. The devastating effects of Rose's treatment may have contributed to Williams' alcoholism and his dependence on various combinations of amphetamines and barbiturates. After some early attempts at relationships with women, by the late 1930s, Williams began exploring his homosexuality. In New York City, he joined a gay social circle that included fellow writer and close friend Donald Windham (1920–2010) and Windham's then-boyfriend Fred Melton. In the summer of 1940, Williams initiated a relationship with Kip Kiernan (1918–1944), a young dancer he met in Provincetown, Massachusetts. When Kiernan left him to marry a woman, Williams was distraught. Kiernan's death four years later at age 26 was another heavy blow. On a 1945 visit to Taos, New Mexico, Williams met Pancho Rodríguez y González, a hotel clerk of Mexican heritage. Rodríguez was prone to jealous rages and excessive drinking, and their relationship was tempestuous. In February 1946, Rodríguez left New Mexico to join Williams in his New Orleans apartment. They lived and traveled together until late 1947, when Williams ended the relationship. Rodríguez and Williams remained friends, however, and were in contact as late as the 1970s. Williams spent the spring and summer of 1948 in Rome in the company of a young man named "Rafaello" in Williams' Memoirs. He provided financial assistance to the younger man for several years afterward. Williams drew from this for his first novel, The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone. When he returned to New York City that spring, Williams met and fell in love with Frank Merlo (1921–1963). An occasional actor of Sicilian ancestry, he had served in the U.S. Navy during World War II. This was the enduring romantic relationship of Williams' life, and it lasted 14 years until infidelities and drug abuse on both sides ended it. Merlo, who had become Williams' personal secretary, took on most of the details of their domestic life. He provided a period of happiness and stability, acting as a balance to the playwright's frequent bouts with depression. Williams feared that, like his sister Rose, he would fall into insanity. His years with Merlo, in an apartment in Manhattan and a modest house in Key West, Florida were Williams's happiest and most productive. Shortly after their breakup, Merlo was diagnosed with inoperable lung cancer. Williams returned to him and cared for him until his death on September 20, 1963. In the years following Merlo's death, Williams descended into a period of nearly catatonic depression and increasing drug use, which resulted in several hospitalizations and commitments to mental health facilities. He submitted to injections by Dr. Max Jacobson, known popularly as Dr. Feelgood, who used increasing amounts of amphetamines to overcome his depression. Jacobson combined these with prescriptions for the sedative Seconal to relieve his insomnia. During this time, influenced by his brother, a Roman Catholic convert, Williams joined the Catholic Church, though he later claimed that he never took his conversion seriously. He was never truly able to recoup his earlier success, or to entirely overcome his dependence on prescription drugs. As Williams grew older, he felt increasingly alone; he feared old age and losing his sexual appeal to younger gay men. In the 1970s, when he was in his 60s, Williams had a lengthy relationship with Robert Carroll, a Vietnam War veteran and aspiring writer in his 20s. Williams had deep affection for Carroll and respect for what he saw as the younger man's talents. Along with Williams's sister Rose, Carroll was one of the two people who received a bequest in Williams's will. Williams described Carroll's behavior as a combination of "sweetness" and "beastliness". Because Carroll had a drug problem, as did Williams, friends including Maria Britneva saw the relationship as destructive. Williams wrote that Carroll played on his "acute loneliness" as an aging gay man. When the two men broke up in 1979, Williams called Carroll a "twerp", but they remained friends until Williams died four years later. Death On February 25, 1983, Williams was found dead at age 71 in his suite at the Hotel Elysée in New York City. Chief Medical Examiner of New York City Elliot M. Gross reported that Williams had choked to death from inhaling the plastic cap of a bottle of the type used on bottles of nasal spray or eye solution. The report was later corrected on August 14, 1983, to state that Williams had been using the plastic cap found in his mouth to ingest barbiturates and had actually died from a toxic level of Seconal. He wrote in his will in 1972: But his brother Dakin Williams arranged for him to be buried at Calvary Cemetery in St. Louis, Missouri, where his mother is buried. Williams left his literary rights to The University of the South in Sewanee, Tennessee, an Episcopal school, in honor of his maternal grandfather, Walter Dakin, an alumnus of the university. The funds support a creative writing program. When his sister Rose died in 1996 after many years in a mental institution, she bequeathed $7 million from her part of the Williams estate to The University of the South. Posthumous recognition From February 1 to July 21, 2011, to commemorate the 100th anniversary of his birth, the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin, the home of Williams's archive, exhibited 250 of his personal items. The exhibit, titled "Becoming Tennessee Williams", included a collection of Williams manuscripts, correspondence, photographs and artwork. The Ransom Center holds the earliest and largest collections of Williams's papers, including all of his earliest manuscripts, the papers of his mother Edwina Williams, and those of his long-time agent Audrey Wood. In late 2009, Williams was inducted into the Poets' Corner at the Cathedral of Saint John the Divine in New York. Performers and artists who took part in his induction included Vanessa Redgrave, playwright John Guare, Eli Wallach, Sylvia Miles, Gregory Mosher, and Ben (Griessmeyer) Berry. The Tennessee Williams Theatre in Key West, Florida, is named for him. The Tennessee Williams Key West Exhibit on Truman Avenue houses rare Williams memorabilia, photographs, and pictures including his famous typewriter. At the time of his death, Williams had been working on a final play, In Masks Outrageous and Austere, which attempted to reconcile certain forces and facts of his own life. This was a continuing theme in his work. As of September 2007, author Gore Vidal was completing the play, and Peter Bogdanovich was slated to direct its Broadway debut. The play received its world premiere in New York City in April 2012, directed by David Schweizer and starring Shirley Knight as Babe. The rectory of St. Paul's Episcopal Church in Columbus, Mississippi, where Williams's grandfather Dakin was rector at the time of Williams's birth, was moved to another location in 1993 for preservation. It was newly renovated in 2010 for use by the City of Columbus as the Tennessee Williams Welcome Center. Williams's literary legacy is represented by the literary agency headed by Georges Borchardt. In 1985, French author-composer Michel Berger wrote a song dedicated to Tennessee Williams, "Quelque chose de Tennessee" (Something of Tennessee), for Johnny Hallyday. It became one of the singer's more famous songs. Since 1986, the Tennessee Williams New Orleans Literary Festival has been held annually in New Orleans, Louisiana, in commemoration of the playwright. The festival takes place at the end of March to coincide with Williams's birthday. The Tennessee Williams Songbook is a one woman show written and directed by David Kaplan, a Williams scholar and curator of Provincetown's Tennessee Williams Festival, and starring Tony Award nominated actress Alison Fraser. The show features songs taken from plays of Williams's canon, woven together with text to create a new narrative. The show premiered at the Tennessee Williams/New Orleans Literary Festival. The show was recorded on CD and distributed by Ghostlight Records. In 2014 Williams was one of the inaugural honorees in the Rainbow Honor Walk, a walk of fame in San Francisco's Castro neighborhood noting LGBTQ people who have "made significant contributions in their fields." In 2015, The Tennessee Williams Theatre Company of New Orleans was founded by Co-Artistic Directors Nick Shackleford and Augustin J Correro. The New Orleans based non-profit theatre company is the first year-round professional theatre company that focuses exclusively on the works of Williams. Since 2016, St. Louis, Missouri has held an annual Tennessee Williams Festival, featuring a main production and related events such as literary discussions and new plays inspired by his work. In 2018 the festival produced A Streetcar Named Desire. The U.S. Postal Service honored Williams on a stamp issued on October 13, 1995 as part of its literary arts series. Williams is honored with a star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame. He is also inducted into the Clarksdale Walk of Fame. On October 17, 2019, the Mississippi Writers Trail installed a historical marker commemorating William's literary contributions during his namesake festival produced by the City of Clarksdale, Mississippi. Works Characters in his plays are often seen as representations of his family members. Laura Wingfield in The Glass Menagerie is thought to be modeled on his sister Rose. Some biographers believed that the character of Blanche DuBois in A Streetcar Named Desire also is based on her and that the mental deterioration of Blanche's character is inspired by Rose's mental health struggles. Amanda Wingfield in The Glass Menagerie generally was taken to represent Williams's mother Edwina. Characters such as Tom Wingfield in The Glass Menagerie and Sebastian in Suddenly, Last Summer were understood to represent Williams himself. In addition, he used a lobotomy as a motif in Suddenly, Last Summer. The Pulitzer Prize for Drama was awarded to A Streetcar Named Desire in 1948 and to Cat on a Hot Tin Roof in 1955. These two plays later were adapted as highly successful films by noted directors Elia Kazan (Streetcar), with whom Williams developed a very close artistic relationship, and Richard Brooks (Cat). Both plays included references to elements of Williams's life such as homosexuality, mental instability, and alcoholism. Although The Flowering Peach by Clifford Odets was the preferred choice of the Pulitzer Prize jury in 1955, and Cat on a Hot Tin Roof was at first considered the weakest of the five shortlisted nominees, Joseph Pulitzer Jr., chairman of the Board, had seen Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and thought it worthy of the drama prize. The Board went along with him after considerable discussion. Williams wrote The Parade, or Approaching the End of a Summer when he was 29, and worked on it sporadically throughout his life. A semi-autobiographical depiction of his 1940 romance with Kip Kiernan in Provincetown, Massachusetts, it was produced for the first time on October 1, 2006, in Provincetown by the Shakespeare on the Cape production company. This was part of the First Annual Provincetown Tennessee Williams Festival. Something Cloudy, Something Clear (1981) is also based on his memories of Provincetown in the 1940s. His last play went through many drafts as he was trying to reconcile what would be the end of his life. There are many versions of it, but it is referred to as In Masks Outrageous and Austere. Plays Candles to the Sun (1936) Fugitive Kind (1937) Spring Storm (1937) Me Vashya (1937)' Not About Nightingales (1938) Battle of Angels (1940) I Rise in Flame, Cried the Phoenix (1941) The Glass Menagerie (1944) You Touched Me (1945) Stairs to the Roof (1947) A Streetcar Named Desire (1947) Summer and Smoke (1948) The Rose Tattoo (1951) Camino Real (1953) Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1955) Orpheus Descending (1957) Suddenly Last Summer (1958) Sweet Bird of Youth (1959) Period of Adjustment (1960) The Night of the Iguana (1961) The Eccentricities of a Nightingale (1962, rewriting of Summer and Smoke) The Milk Train Doesn't Stop Here Anymore (1963) The Mutilated (1965) The Seven Descents of Myrtle (1968, aka Kingdom of Earth) In the Bar of a Tokyo Hotel (1969) Will Mr. Merriweather Return from Memphis? (1969) Small Craft Warnings (1972) The Two-Character Play (1973) Out Cry (1973, rewriting of The Two-Character Play) The Red Devil Battery Sign (1975) This Is (An Entertainment) (1976) Vieux Carré (1977) Tiger Tail (1978) A Lovely Sunday for Creve Coeur (1979) Clothes for a Summer Hotel (1980) The Notebook of Trigorin (1980) Something Cloudy, Something Clear (1981) A House Not Meant to Stand (1982) In Masks Outrageous and Austere (1983) Novels The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone (1950, adapted for films in 1961 and 2003) Moise and the World of Reason (1975) Screenplays and teleplays The Glass Menagerie (1950) A Streetcar Named Desire (1951) The Rose Tattoo (1955) Baby Doll (1956) Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1958) Suddenly, Last Summer (1959) The Fugitive Kind (1959) Ten Blocks on the Camino Real (1966) Boom! (1968) Stopped Rocking and Other Screenplays (1984) The Loss of a Teardrop Diamond (2009; screenplay from 1957) Short stories "The Vengeance of Nitocris" (1928) "The Field of Blue Children" (1939) "Oriflamme" (1944) "The Resemblance Between a Violin Case and a Coffin" (1951) One Arm and Other Stories (1948) "One Arm" "The Malediction" "The Poet" "Chronicle of a Demise" "Desire and the Black Masseur" "Portrait of a Girl in Glass" "The Important Thing" "The Angel in the Alcove" "The Field of Blue Children" "The Night of the Iguana" "The Yellow Bird" Hard Candy: A Book of Stories (1954) Three Players of a Summer Game Two on a Party The Resemblance between a Violin Case and a Coffin Hard Candy Rubio y Morena The Mattress by the Tomato Patch The Coming of Something to the Widow Holly The Vine The Mysteries of the Joy Rio The Knightly Quest: a Novella and Four Short Stories (1966) The Knightly Quest Mama's Old Stucco House Man Bring This Up Road The Kingdom of Earth "Grand" Eight Mortal Ladies Possessed: a Book of Stories (1974) Happy August the Tenth The Inventory at Fontana Belle Miss Coynte of Greeme Sabbatha and Solitude Completed Oriflamme Tent Worms (1980) It Happened the Day the Sun Rose (1981), published by Sylvester & Orphanos Collected Stories (1985) (New Directions) One-act plays Williams wrote over 70 one-act plays during his lifetime. The one-acts explored many of the same themes that dominated his longer works. Williams's major collections are published by New Directions in New York City. American Blues (1948) Mister Paradise and Other One-Act Plays (2005) Dragon Country: a book of one-act plays (1970) The Traveling Companion and Other Plays (2008) The Magic Tower and Other One-Act Plays (2011) At Liberty (1939) The Magic Tower (1936) Me, Vashya (1937) Curtains for the Gentleman (1936) In Our Profession (1938) Every Twenty Minutes (1938) Honor the Living (1937) The Case of the Crushed Petunias (1941) Moony's Kid Don't Cry (1936) The Dark Room (1939) The Pretty Trap (1944) Interior: Panic (1946) Kingdom of Earth (1967) I Never Get Dressed Till After Dark on Sundays (1973) Some Problems for the Moose Lodge (1980) 27 Wagons Full of Cotton and Other Plays (1946 and 1953) «Something wild...» (introduction) (1953) 27 Wagons Full of Cotton (1946 and 1953) The Purification (1946 and 1953) The Lady of Larkspur Lotion (1946 and 1953) The Last of My Solid Gold Watches (1946 and 1953) Portrait of a Madonna (1946 and 1953) Auto-da-Fé (1946 and 1953) Lord Byron's Love Letter (1946 and 1953) The Strangest Kind of Romance (1946 and 1953) The Long Goodbye (1946 and 1953) At Liberty (1946) Moony's Kid Don't Cry (1946) Hello from Bertha (1946 and 1953) This Property Is Condemned (1946 and 1953) Talk to Me Like the Rain and Let Me Listen... (1953) Something Unspoken (1953) Now the Cats with Jeweled Claws and Other One-Act Plays (2016) A Recluse and His Guest (1982) Now the Cats with Jeweled Claws (1981) Steps Must Be Gentle (1980) Ivan's Widow (1982) This Is the Peaceable Kingdom (1981) Aimez-vous Ionesco? (c.1975) The Demolition Downtown (1971) Lifeboat Drill (1979) Once in a Lifetime (1939) The Strange Play (1939) The Theatre of Tennessee Williams, Volume VI The Theatre of Tennessee Williams, Volume VIIPoetry In the Winter of Cities (1956) Androgyne, Mon Amour (1977) The Collected Poems of Tennessee Williams (2002) Non-fiction Memoirs (1975) New Selected Essays: Where I Live (2009) Selected works Gussow, Mel and Holditch, Kenneth, eds. Tennessee Williams, Plays 1937–1955 (Library of America, 2000) . Spring Storm Not About Nightingales Battle of Angels I Rise in Flame, Cried the Phoenix From 27 Wagons Full of Cotton (1946) 27 Wagons Full of Cotton The Lady of Larkspur Lotion The Last of My Solid Gold Watches Portrait of a Madonna Auto-da-Fé Lord Byron's Love Letter This Property Is Condemned The Glass Menagerie A Streetcar Named Desire Summer and Smoke The Rose Tattoo Camino Real From 27 Wagons Full of Cotton (1953) "Something Wild" Talk to Me Like the Rain and Let Me Listen Something Unspoken Cat on a Hot Tin Roof Gussow, Mel and Holditch, Kenneth, eds. Tennessee Williams, Plays 1957–1980 (Library of America, 2000) . Orpheus Descending Suddenly, Last Summer Sweet Bird of Youth Period of Adjustment The Night of the Iguana The Eccentricities of a Nightingale The Milk Train Doesn't Stop Here Anymore The Mutilated Kingdom of Earth (The Seven Descents of Myrtle) Small Craft Warnings Out Cry Vieux Carré A Lovely Sunday for Creve Coeur "Crazy Night" See also Lanier family tree Tennessee Williams/New Orleans Literary Festival Virginia Spencer Carr, friend and biographer of Williams Audrey Wood References Further reading Grissom, James. Follies of God: Tennessee Williams and the Women of the Fog. Knopf, 2015. ISBN 9781101972779 Gross, Robert F., ed. Tennessee Williams: A Casebook. Routledge (2002). Print. . Jacobus, Lee. The Bedford Introduction to Drama. Bedford: Boston. Print. 2009. Lahr, John. Tennessee Williams: Mad Pilgrimage of the Flesh. W. W. Norton & Co. New York. Print. 2014. . Leverich, Lyle. Tom: The Unknown Tennessee Williams. W. W. Norton & Company. Reprint. 1997. . Saddik, Annette. The Politics of Reputation: The Critical Reception of Tennessee Williams' Later Plays. Associated University Presses. London. 1999. Spoto, Donald. The Kindness of Strangers: The Life of Tennessee Williams. Da Capo Press. Reprint. 1997. . Williams, Tennessee. Memoirs. Doubleday. Print. 1975. . Williams, Dakin. His Brother's Keeper: The Life and Murder of Tennessee Williams''. Dakin's Corner Press. First Edition. Print. 1983. External links Tennessee Williams Collection and Research Guide, as well as Kate Medina Collection of Tennessee Williams at the Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin Tennessee Williams Papers at Columbia University. Rare Book and Manuscript Library Tennessee Williams manuscripts, 1972–1974, held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts Tennessee Williams collection from Special Collections, University of Delaware Library The Paris Review interview Category:1911 births Category:1983 deaths Category:20th-century American dramatists and playwrights Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American novelists Category:20th-century American screenwriters Category:20th-century American short story writers Category:Accidental deaths in New York (state) Category:Actors Studio alumni Category:American former Protestants Category:American male dramatists and playwrights Category:American male novelists Category:American male screenwriters Category:American male short story writers Category:American people of English descent Category:American people of Welsh descent Category:Barbiturates-related deaths Category:Burials at Calvary Cemetery (St. Louis) Category:Catholics from Massachusetts Category:Catholics from Mississippi Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from Anglicanism Category:Deaths from choking Category:Drug-related deaths in New York City Category:Former Anglicans Category:American gay writers Category:Harper's Magazine people Category:Kennedy Center honorees Category:American LGBT dramatists and playwrights Category:Gay memoirists Category:LGBT people from Mississippi Category:LGBT Roman Catholics Category:Novelists from Louisiana Category:People from Clarksdale, Mississippi Category:People from Columbus, Mississippi Category:People from Provincetown, Massachusetts Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients Category:Pulitzer Prize for Drama winners Category:Screenwriters from Massachusetts Category:Screenwriters from Mississippi Category:Sewanee: The University of the South Category:University of Iowa alumni Category:University of Missouri alumni Category:Washington University in St. Louis alumni Category:Writers from Mississippi Category:Writers from New Orleans Category:Writers from St. Louis Category:Writers of American Southern literature
[]
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C_b3715204c684455fa3eef156b1af1a57_1
Tennessee Williams
Thomas Lanier "Tennessee" Williams III (March 26, 1911 - February 25, 1983) was an American playwright. Along with Eugene O'Neill and Arthur Miller, he is considered among the three foremost playwrights of 20th-century American drama. After years of obscurity, he became suddenly famous with The Glass Menagerie (1944), a play that closely reflected his own unhappy family background. This heralded a string of successes, including A Streetcar Named Desire (1947), Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1955), and Sweet Bird of Youth (1959).
Childhood
Thomas Lanier Williams III was born in Columbus, Mississippi, of English, Welsh, and Huguenot ancestry, the second child of Edwina Dakin (1884-1980) and Cornelius Coffin "C. C." Williams (1879-1957). His father was an alcoholic traveling shoe salesman who spent much of his time away from home. His mother, Edwina, was the daughter of Rose O. Dakin, a music teacher, and the Reverend Walter Dakin, an Episcopal priest who was assigned to a parish in Clarksdale, Mississippi, shortly after Williams' birth. Williams' early childhood was spent in the parsonage there. Williams had two siblings, sister Rose Isabel Williams (1909-1996) and brother Walter Dakin Williams (1919-2008). As a small child Williams suffered from a case of diphtheria which nearly ended his life, leaving him weak and virtually confined to his house during a period of recuperation that lasted a year. At least in part as a result of his illness, he was less robust as a child than his father wished. Cornelius Williams, a descendant of hearty East Tennessee pioneer stock (hence Williams' professional name), had a violent temper and was a man prone to use his fists. He regarded his son's effeminacy with disdain, and his mother Edwina, locked in an unhappy marriage, focused her overbearing attention almost entirely on her frail young son. Many critics and historians note that Williams found inspiration for much of his writing in his own dysfunctional family. When Williams was eight years old, his father was promoted to a job at the home office of the International Shoe Company in St. Louis, Missouri. His mother's continual search for what she considered to be an appropriate address, as well as his father's heavy drinking and loudly turbulent behavior, caused them to move numerous times around the city. He attended Soldan High School, a setting he referred to in his play The Glass Menagerie. Later he studied at University City High School. At age 16, Williams won third prize (five dollars, = $70+- in 2017) for an essay published in Smart Set titled, "Can a Good Wife Be a Good Sport?" A year later, his short story "The Vengeance of Nitocris" was published in the August 1928 issue of the magazine Weird Tales. That same year he first visited Europe with his grandfather. CANNOTANSWER
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Thomas Lanier Williams III (March 26, 1911 – February 25, 1983), known by his pen name Tennessee Williams, was an American playwright and screenwriter. Along with contemporaries Eugene O'Neill and Arthur Miller, he is considered among the three foremost playwrights of 20th-century American drama. At age 33, after years of obscurity, Williams suddenly became famous with the success of The Glass Menagerie (1944) in New York City. He introduced "plastic theatre" in this play and it closely reflected his own unhappy family background. It was the first of a string of successes, including A Streetcar Named Desire (1947), Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1955), Sweet Bird of Youth (1959), and The Night of the Iguana (1961). With his later work, Williams attempted a new style that did not appeal as widely to audiences. His drama A Streetcar Named Desire is often numbered on short lists of the finest American plays of the 20th century alongside Eugene O'Neill's Long Day's Journey into Night and Arthur Miller's Death of a Salesman. Much of Williams's most acclaimed work has been adapted for the cinema. He also wrote short stories, poetry, essays, and a volume of memoirs. In 1979, four years before his death, Williams was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame. Early life Thomas Lanier Williams III was born in Columbus, Mississippi, of English, Welsh, and Huguenot ancestry, the second child of Edwina Dakin (August 9, 1884 – June 1, 1980) and Cornelius Coffin "C. C." Williams (August 21, 1879 – March 27, 1957). His father was a traveling shoe salesman who became an alcoholic and was frequently away from home. His mother, Edwina, was the daughter of Rose O. Dakin, a music teacher, and the Reverend Walter Dakin, an Episcopal priest from Illinois who was assigned to a parish in Clarksdale, Mississippi, shortly after Williams's birth. Williams lived in his grandfather's Episcopalian rectory with his family for much of his early childhood and was close to his grandparents. Among his ancestors was musician and poet Sidney Lanier. He had two siblings, older sister Rose Isabel Williams (1909–1996) and younger brother Walter Dakin Williams (1919–2008). As a young child, Williams nearly died from a case of diphtheria that left him frail and virtually confined to his house during a year of recuperation. At least partly due to his illness, he was considered a weak child by his father. Cornelius Williams, a descendant of hardy East Tennessee pioneer stock, had a violent temper and was prone to use his fists. He regarded what he thought was his son's effeminacy with disdain. Edwina, locked in an unhappy marriage, focused her attention almost entirely on her frail young son. Critics and historians agree that Williams drew from his own dysfunctional family in much of his writing and that his desire to break free from his puritan upbringing propelled him towards writing. When Williams was eight years old, his father was promoted to a job at the home office of the International Shoe Company in St. Louis. His mother's continual search for a more appropriate home, as well as his father's heavy drinking and loudly turbulent behavior, caused them to move numerous times around St. Louis. Williams attended Soldan High School, a setting he referred to in his play The Glass Menagerie. Later he studied at University City High School. At age 16, Williams won third prize for an essay published in Smart Set, titled "Can a Good Wife Be a Good Sport?" A year later, his short story "The Vengeance of Nitocris" was published (as by "Thomas Lanier Williams") in the August 1928 issue of the magazine Weird Tales. These early publications did not lead to any significant recognition or appreciation of Williams's talent, and he would struggle for more than a decade to establish his writing career. Later, in 1928, Williams first visited Europe with his maternal grandfather Dakin. Education From 1929 to 1931, Williams attended the University of Missouri in Columbia, where he enrolled in journalism classes. He was bored by his classes and distracted by unrequited love for a girl. Soon he began entering his poetry, essays, stories, and plays in writing contests, hoping to earn extra income. His first submitted play was Beauty Is the Word (1930), followed by Hot Milk at Three in the Morning (1932). As recognition for Beauty, a play about rebellion against religious upbringing, he became the first freshman to receive honorable mention in a writing competition. At University of Missouri, Williams joined the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity, but he did not fit in well with his fraternity brothers. After he failed a military training course in his junior year, his father pulled him out of school and put him to work at the International Shoe Company factory. Although Williams hated the monotony, the job forced him out of the gentility of his upbringing. His dislike of his new 9-to-5 routine drove Williams to write prodigiously. He set a goal of writing one story a week. Williams often worked on weekends and late into the night. His mother recalled his intensity: Tom would go to his room with black coffee and cigarettes and I would hear the typewriter clicking away at night in the silent house. Some mornings when I walked in to wake him for work, I would find him sprawled fully dressed across the bed, too tired to remove his clothes. Overworked, unhappy, and lacking further success with his writing, by his 24th birthday Williams had suffered a nervous breakdown and left his job. He drew from memories of this period, and a particular factory co-worker, to create the character Stanley Kowalski in A Streetcar Named Desire. By the mid-1930s his mother separated from his father due to his worsening alcoholism and abusive temper. They never divorced. In 1936, Williams enrolled at Washington University in St. Louis where he wrote the play Me, Vashya (1937). After not winning the school's poetry prize, he decided to drop out. In the autumn of 1937, he transferred to the University of Iowa in Iowa City, where he graduated with a B.A. in English in August 1938. He later studied at the Dramatic Workshop of The New School in New York City. Speaking of his early days as a playwright and an early collaborative play called Cairo, Shanghai, Bombay!, Williams wrote, "The laughter ... enchanted me. Then and there the theatre and I found each other for better and for worse. I know it's the only thing that saved my life." Around 1939, he adopted Tennessee Williams as his professional name. Literary influences Williams's writings reference some of the poets and writers he most admired in his early years: Hart Crane, Arthur Rimbaud, Anton Chekhov (from the age of ten), William Shakespeare, Clarence Darrow, D. H. Lawrence, Katherine Mansfield, August Strindberg, William Faulkner, Thomas Wolfe, Emily Dickinson, William Inge, James Joyce, and Ernest Hemingway. Career As Williams was struggling to gain production and an audience for his work in the late 1930s, he worked at a string of menial jobs that included a stint as caretaker on a chicken ranch in Laguna Beach, California. In 1939, with the help of his agent Audrey Wood, Williams was awarded a $1,000 grant from the Rockefeller Foundation in recognition of his play Battle of Angels. It was produced in Boston, Massachusetts in 1940 and was poorly received. Using some of the Rockefeller funds, Williams moved to New Orleans in 1939 to write for the Works Progress Administration (WPA), a federally funded program begun by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to put people to work. Williams lived for a time in New Orleans' French Quarter, including 722 Toulouse Street, the setting of his 1977 play Vieux Carré. The building is now part of The Historic New Orleans Collection. The Rockefeller grant brought him to the attention of the Hollywood film industry and Williams received a six-month contract as a writer from the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer film studio, earning $250 weekly. During the winter of 1944–45, his memory play The Glass Menagerie developed from his 1943 short story "Portrait of a Girl in Glass", was produced in Chicago and garnered good reviews. It moved to New York where it became an instant hit and enjoyed a long Broadway run. Elia Kazan (who directed many of Williams's greatest successes) said of Williams: "Everything in his life is in his plays, and everything in his plays is in his life." The Glass Menagerie won the award for the best play of the season, the New York Drama Critics' Circle Award. The huge success of his next play, A Streetcar Named Desire, cemented his reputation as a great playwright in 1947. During the late 1940s and 1950s, Williams began to travel widely with his partner Frank Merlo (1922 – September 21, 1963), often spending summers in Europe. He moved often to stimulate his writing, living in New York, New Orleans, Key West, Rome, Barcelona, and London. Williams wrote, "Only some radical change can divert the downward course of my spirit, some startling new place or people to arrest the drift, the drag." Between 1948 and 1959 Williams had seven of his plays produced on Broadway: Summer and Smoke (1948), The Rose Tattoo (1951), Camino Real (1953), Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1955), Orpheus Descending (1957), Garden District (1958), and Sweet Bird of Youth (1959). By 1959, he had earned two Pulitzer Prizes, three New York Drama Critics' Circle Awards, three Donaldson Awards, and a Tony Award. Williams's work reached wider audiences in the early 1950s when The Glass Menagerie and A Streetcar Named Desire were adapted into motion pictures. Later plays also adapted for the screen included Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, The Rose Tattoo, Orpheus Descending, The Night of the Iguana, Sweet Bird of Youth, and Summer and Smoke. After the extraordinary successes of the 1940s and 1950s, he had more personal turmoil and theatrical failures in the 1960s and 1970s. Although he continued to write every day, the quality of his work suffered from his increasing alcohol and drug consumption, as well as occasional poor choices of collaborators. In 1963, his partner Frank Merlo died. Consumed by depression over the loss, and in and out of treatment facilities while under the control of his mother and brother Dakin, Williams spiraled downward. His plays Kingdom of Earth (1967), In the Bar of a Tokyo Hotel (1969), Small Craft Warnings (1973), The Two Character Play (also called Out Cry, 1973), The Red Devil Battery Sign (1976), Vieux Carré (1978), Clothes for a Summer Hotel (1980), and others were all box office failures. Negative press notices wore down his spirit. His last play, A House Not Meant to Stand, was produced in Chicago in 1982. Despite largely positive reviews, it ran for only 40 performances. Critics and audiences alike failed to appreciate Williams's new style and the approach to theater he developed during the 1970s. In 1974, Williams received the St. Louis Literary Award from the Saint Louis University Library Associates. In 1979, four years before his death, he was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame. Personal life Throughout his life Williams remained close to his sister, Rose, who was diagnosed with schizophrenia as a young woman. In 1943, as her behavior became increasingly disturbing, she was subjected to a lobotomy, requiring her to be institutionalised for the rest of her life. As soon as he was financially able, Williams moved Rose to a private institution just north of New York City, where he often visited her. He gave her a percentage interest in several of his most successful plays, the royalties from which were applied toward her care. The devastating effects of Rose's treatment may have contributed to Williams' alcoholism and his dependence on various combinations of amphetamines and barbiturates. After some early attempts at relationships with women, by the late 1930s, Williams began exploring his homosexuality. In New York City, he joined a gay social circle that included fellow writer and close friend Donald Windham (1920–2010) and Windham's then-boyfriend Fred Melton. In the summer of 1940, Williams initiated a relationship with Kip Kiernan (1918–1944), a young dancer he met in Provincetown, Massachusetts. When Kiernan left him to marry a woman, Williams was distraught. Kiernan's death four years later at age 26 was another heavy blow. On a 1945 visit to Taos, New Mexico, Williams met Pancho Rodríguez y González, a hotel clerk of Mexican heritage. Rodríguez was prone to jealous rages and excessive drinking, and their relationship was tempestuous. In February 1946, Rodríguez left New Mexico to join Williams in his New Orleans apartment. They lived and traveled together until late 1947, when Williams ended the relationship. Rodríguez and Williams remained friends, however, and were in contact as late as the 1970s. Williams spent the spring and summer of 1948 in Rome in the company of a young man named "Rafaello" in Williams' Memoirs. He provided financial assistance to the younger man for several years afterward. Williams drew from this for his first novel, The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone. When he returned to New York City that spring, Williams met and fell in love with Frank Merlo (1921–1963). An occasional actor of Sicilian ancestry, he had served in the U.S. Navy during World War II. This was the enduring romantic relationship of Williams' life, and it lasted 14 years until infidelities and drug abuse on both sides ended it. Merlo, who had become Williams' personal secretary, took on most of the details of their domestic life. He provided a period of happiness and stability, acting as a balance to the playwright's frequent bouts with depression. Williams feared that, like his sister Rose, he would fall into insanity. His years with Merlo, in an apartment in Manhattan and a modest house in Key West, Florida were Williams's happiest and most productive. Shortly after their breakup, Merlo was diagnosed with inoperable lung cancer. Williams returned to him and cared for him until his death on September 20, 1963. In the years following Merlo's death, Williams descended into a period of nearly catatonic depression and increasing drug use, which resulted in several hospitalizations and commitments to mental health facilities. He submitted to injections by Dr. Max Jacobson, known popularly as Dr. Feelgood, who used increasing amounts of amphetamines to overcome his depression. Jacobson combined these with prescriptions for the sedative Seconal to relieve his insomnia. During this time, influenced by his brother, a Roman Catholic convert, Williams joined the Catholic Church, though he later claimed that he never took his conversion seriously. He was never truly able to recoup his earlier success, or to entirely overcome his dependence on prescription drugs. As Williams grew older, he felt increasingly alone; he feared old age and losing his sexual appeal to younger gay men. In the 1970s, when he was in his 60s, Williams had a lengthy relationship with Robert Carroll, a Vietnam War veteran and aspiring writer in his 20s. Williams had deep affection for Carroll and respect for what he saw as the younger man's talents. Along with Williams's sister Rose, Carroll was one of the two people who received a bequest in Williams's will. Williams described Carroll's behavior as a combination of "sweetness" and "beastliness". Because Carroll had a drug problem, as did Williams, friends including Maria Britneva saw the relationship as destructive. Williams wrote that Carroll played on his "acute loneliness" as an aging gay man. When the two men broke up in 1979, Williams called Carroll a "twerp", but they remained friends until Williams died four years later. Death On February 25, 1983, Williams was found dead at age 71 in his suite at the Hotel Elysée in New York City. Chief Medical Examiner of New York City Elliot M. Gross reported that Williams had choked to death from inhaling the plastic cap of a bottle of the type used on bottles of nasal spray or eye solution. The report was later corrected on August 14, 1983, to state that Williams had been using the plastic cap found in his mouth to ingest barbiturates and had actually died from a toxic level of Seconal. He wrote in his will in 1972: But his brother Dakin Williams arranged for him to be buried at Calvary Cemetery in St. Louis, Missouri, where his mother is buried. Williams left his literary rights to The University of the South in Sewanee, Tennessee, an Episcopal school, in honor of his maternal grandfather, Walter Dakin, an alumnus of the university. The funds support a creative writing program. When his sister Rose died in 1996 after many years in a mental institution, she bequeathed $7 million from her part of the Williams estate to The University of the South. Posthumous recognition From February 1 to July 21, 2011, to commemorate the 100th anniversary of his birth, the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin, the home of Williams's archive, exhibited 250 of his personal items. The exhibit, titled "Becoming Tennessee Williams", included a collection of Williams manuscripts, correspondence, photographs and artwork. The Ransom Center holds the earliest and largest collections of Williams's papers, including all of his earliest manuscripts, the papers of his mother Edwina Williams, and those of his long-time agent Audrey Wood. In late 2009, Williams was inducted into the Poets' Corner at the Cathedral of Saint John the Divine in New York. Performers and artists who took part in his induction included Vanessa Redgrave, playwright John Guare, Eli Wallach, Sylvia Miles, Gregory Mosher, and Ben (Griessmeyer) Berry. The Tennessee Williams Theatre in Key West, Florida, is named for him. The Tennessee Williams Key West Exhibit on Truman Avenue houses rare Williams memorabilia, photographs, and pictures including his famous typewriter. At the time of his death, Williams had been working on a final play, In Masks Outrageous and Austere, which attempted to reconcile certain forces and facts of his own life. This was a continuing theme in his work. As of September 2007, author Gore Vidal was completing the play, and Peter Bogdanovich was slated to direct its Broadway debut. The play received its world premiere in New York City in April 2012, directed by David Schweizer and starring Shirley Knight as Babe. The rectory of St. Paul's Episcopal Church in Columbus, Mississippi, where Williams's grandfather Dakin was rector at the time of Williams's birth, was moved to another location in 1993 for preservation. It was newly renovated in 2010 for use by the City of Columbus as the Tennessee Williams Welcome Center. Williams's literary legacy is represented by the literary agency headed by Georges Borchardt. In 1985, French author-composer Michel Berger wrote a song dedicated to Tennessee Williams, "Quelque chose de Tennessee" (Something of Tennessee), for Johnny Hallyday. It became one of the singer's more famous songs. Since 1986, the Tennessee Williams New Orleans Literary Festival has been held annually in New Orleans, Louisiana, in commemoration of the playwright. The festival takes place at the end of March to coincide with Williams's birthday. The Tennessee Williams Songbook is a one woman show written and directed by David Kaplan, a Williams scholar and curator of Provincetown's Tennessee Williams Festival, and starring Tony Award nominated actress Alison Fraser. The show features songs taken from plays of Williams's canon, woven together with text to create a new narrative. The show premiered at the Tennessee Williams/New Orleans Literary Festival. The show was recorded on CD and distributed by Ghostlight Records. In 2014 Williams was one of the inaugural honorees in the Rainbow Honor Walk, a walk of fame in San Francisco's Castro neighborhood noting LGBTQ people who have "made significant contributions in their fields." In 2015, The Tennessee Williams Theatre Company of New Orleans was founded by Co-Artistic Directors Nick Shackleford and Augustin J Correro. The New Orleans based non-profit theatre company is the first year-round professional theatre company that focuses exclusively on the works of Williams. Since 2016, St. Louis, Missouri has held an annual Tennessee Williams Festival, featuring a main production and related events such as literary discussions and new plays inspired by his work. In 2018 the festival produced A Streetcar Named Desire. The U.S. Postal Service honored Williams on a stamp issued on October 13, 1995 as part of its literary arts series. Williams is honored with a star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame. He is also inducted into the Clarksdale Walk of Fame. On October 17, 2019, the Mississippi Writers Trail installed a historical marker commemorating William's literary contributions during his namesake festival produced by the City of Clarksdale, Mississippi. Works Characters in his plays are often seen as representations of his family members. Laura Wingfield in The Glass Menagerie is thought to be modeled on his sister Rose. Some biographers believed that the character of Blanche DuBois in A Streetcar Named Desire also is based on her and that the mental deterioration of Blanche's character is inspired by Rose's mental health struggles. Amanda Wingfield in The Glass Menagerie generally was taken to represent Williams's mother Edwina. Characters such as Tom Wingfield in The Glass Menagerie and Sebastian in Suddenly, Last Summer were understood to represent Williams himself. In addition, he used a lobotomy as a motif in Suddenly, Last Summer. The Pulitzer Prize for Drama was awarded to A Streetcar Named Desire in 1948 and to Cat on a Hot Tin Roof in 1955. These two plays later were adapted as highly successful films by noted directors Elia Kazan (Streetcar), with whom Williams developed a very close artistic relationship, and Richard Brooks (Cat). Both plays included references to elements of Williams's life such as homosexuality, mental instability, and alcoholism. Although The Flowering Peach by Clifford Odets was the preferred choice of the Pulitzer Prize jury in 1955, and Cat on a Hot Tin Roof was at first considered the weakest of the five shortlisted nominees, Joseph Pulitzer Jr., chairman of the Board, had seen Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and thought it worthy of the drama prize. The Board went along with him after considerable discussion. Williams wrote The Parade, or Approaching the End of a Summer when he was 29, and worked on it sporadically throughout his life. A semi-autobiographical depiction of his 1940 romance with Kip Kiernan in Provincetown, Massachusetts, it was produced for the first time on October 1, 2006, in Provincetown by the Shakespeare on the Cape production company. This was part of the First Annual Provincetown Tennessee Williams Festival. Something Cloudy, Something Clear (1981) is also based on his memories of Provincetown in the 1940s. His last play went through many drafts as he was trying to reconcile what would be the end of his life. There are many versions of it, but it is referred to as In Masks Outrageous and Austere. Plays Candles to the Sun (1936) Fugitive Kind (1937) Spring Storm (1937) Me Vashya (1937)' Not About Nightingales (1938) Battle of Angels (1940) I Rise in Flame, Cried the Phoenix (1941) The Glass Menagerie (1944) You Touched Me (1945) Stairs to the Roof (1947) A Streetcar Named Desire (1947) Summer and Smoke (1948) The Rose Tattoo (1951) Camino Real (1953) Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1955) Orpheus Descending (1957) Suddenly Last Summer (1958) Sweet Bird of Youth (1959) Period of Adjustment (1960) The Night of the Iguana (1961) The Eccentricities of a Nightingale (1962, rewriting of Summer and Smoke) The Milk Train Doesn't Stop Here Anymore (1963) The Mutilated (1965) The Seven Descents of Myrtle (1968, aka Kingdom of Earth) In the Bar of a Tokyo Hotel (1969) Will Mr. Merriweather Return from Memphis? (1969) Small Craft Warnings (1972) The Two-Character Play (1973) Out Cry (1973, rewriting of The Two-Character Play) The Red Devil Battery Sign (1975) This Is (An Entertainment) (1976) Vieux Carré (1977) Tiger Tail (1978) A Lovely Sunday for Creve Coeur (1979) Clothes for a Summer Hotel (1980) The Notebook of Trigorin (1980) Something Cloudy, Something Clear (1981) A House Not Meant to Stand (1982) In Masks Outrageous and Austere (1983) Novels The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone (1950, adapted for films in 1961 and 2003) Moise and the World of Reason (1975) Screenplays and teleplays The Glass Menagerie (1950) A Streetcar Named Desire (1951) The Rose Tattoo (1955) Baby Doll (1956) Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1958) Suddenly, Last Summer (1959) The Fugitive Kind (1959) Ten Blocks on the Camino Real (1966) Boom! (1968) Stopped Rocking and Other Screenplays (1984) The Loss of a Teardrop Diamond (2009; screenplay from 1957) Short stories "The Vengeance of Nitocris" (1928) "The Field of Blue Children" (1939) "Oriflamme" (1944) "The Resemblance Between a Violin Case and a Coffin" (1951) One Arm and Other Stories (1948) "One Arm" "The Malediction" "The Poet" "Chronicle of a Demise" "Desire and the Black Masseur" "Portrait of a Girl in Glass" "The Important Thing" "The Angel in the Alcove" "The Field of Blue Children" "The Night of the Iguana" "The Yellow Bird" Hard Candy: A Book of Stories (1954) Three Players of a Summer Game Two on a Party The Resemblance between a Violin Case and a Coffin Hard Candy Rubio y Morena The Mattress by the Tomato Patch The Coming of Something to the Widow Holly The Vine The Mysteries of the Joy Rio The Knightly Quest: a Novella and Four Short Stories (1966) The Knightly Quest Mama's Old Stucco House Man Bring This Up Road The Kingdom of Earth "Grand" Eight Mortal Ladies Possessed: a Book of Stories (1974) Happy August the Tenth The Inventory at Fontana Belle Miss Coynte of Greeme Sabbatha and Solitude Completed Oriflamme Tent Worms (1980) It Happened the Day the Sun Rose (1981), published by Sylvester & Orphanos Collected Stories (1985) (New Directions) One-act plays Williams wrote over 70 one-act plays during his lifetime. The one-acts explored many of the same themes that dominated his longer works. Williams's major collections are published by New Directions in New York City. American Blues (1948) Mister Paradise and Other One-Act Plays (2005) Dragon Country: a book of one-act plays (1970) The Traveling Companion and Other Plays (2008) The Magic Tower and Other One-Act Plays (2011) At Liberty (1939) The Magic Tower (1936) Me, Vashya (1937) Curtains for the Gentleman (1936) In Our Profession (1938) Every Twenty Minutes (1938) Honor the Living (1937) The Case of the Crushed Petunias (1941) Moony's Kid Don't Cry (1936) The Dark Room (1939) The Pretty Trap (1944) Interior: Panic (1946) Kingdom of Earth (1967) I Never Get Dressed Till After Dark on Sundays (1973) Some Problems for the Moose Lodge (1980) 27 Wagons Full of Cotton and Other Plays (1946 and 1953) «Something wild...» (introduction) (1953) 27 Wagons Full of Cotton (1946 and 1953) The Purification (1946 and 1953) The Lady of Larkspur Lotion (1946 and 1953) The Last of My Solid Gold Watches (1946 and 1953) Portrait of a Madonna (1946 and 1953) Auto-da-Fé (1946 and 1953) Lord Byron's Love Letter (1946 and 1953) The Strangest Kind of Romance (1946 and 1953) The Long Goodbye (1946 and 1953) At Liberty (1946) Moony's Kid Don't Cry (1946) Hello from Bertha (1946 and 1953) This Property Is Condemned (1946 and 1953) Talk to Me Like the Rain and Let Me Listen... (1953) Something Unspoken (1953) Now the Cats with Jeweled Claws and Other One-Act Plays (2016) A Recluse and His Guest (1982) Now the Cats with Jeweled Claws (1981) Steps Must Be Gentle (1980) Ivan's Widow (1982) This Is the Peaceable Kingdom (1981) Aimez-vous Ionesco? (c.1975) The Demolition Downtown (1971) Lifeboat Drill (1979) Once in a Lifetime (1939) The Strange Play (1939) The Theatre of Tennessee Williams, Volume VI The Theatre of Tennessee Williams, Volume VIIPoetry In the Winter of Cities (1956) Androgyne, Mon Amour (1977) The Collected Poems of Tennessee Williams (2002) Non-fiction Memoirs (1975) New Selected Essays: Where I Live (2009) Selected works Gussow, Mel and Holditch, Kenneth, eds. Tennessee Williams, Plays 1937–1955 (Library of America, 2000) . Spring Storm Not About Nightingales Battle of Angels I Rise in Flame, Cried the Phoenix From 27 Wagons Full of Cotton (1946) 27 Wagons Full of Cotton The Lady of Larkspur Lotion The Last of My Solid Gold Watches Portrait of a Madonna Auto-da-Fé Lord Byron's Love Letter This Property Is Condemned The Glass Menagerie A Streetcar Named Desire Summer and Smoke The Rose Tattoo Camino Real From 27 Wagons Full of Cotton (1953) "Something Wild" Talk to Me Like the Rain and Let Me Listen Something Unspoken Cat on a Hot Tin Roof Gussow, Mel and Holditch, Kenneth, eds. Tennessee Williams, Plays 1957–1980 (Library of America, 2000) . Orpheus Descending Suddenly, Last Summer Sweet Bird of Youth Period of Adjustment The Night of the Iguana The Eccentricities of a Nightingale The Milk Train Doesn't Stop Here Anymore The Mutilated Kingdom of Earth (The Seven Descents of Myrtle) Small Craft Warnings Out Cry Vieux Carré A Lovely Sunday for Creve Coeur "Crazy Night" See also Lanier family tree Tennessee Williams/New Orleans Literary Festival Virginia Spencer Carr, friend and biographer of Williams Audrey Wood References Further reading Grissom, James. Follies of God: Tennessee Williams and the Women of the Fog. Knopf, 2015. ISBN 9781101972779 Gross, Robert F., ed. Tennessee Williams: A Casebook. Routledge (2002). Print. . Jacobus, Lee. The Bedford Introduction to Drama. Bedford: Boston. Print. 2009. Lahr, John. Tennessee Williams: Mad Pilgrimage of the Flesh. W. W. Norton & Co. New York. Print. 2014. . Leverich, Lyle. Tom: The Unknown Tennessee Williams. W. W. Norton & Company. Reprint. 1997. . Saddik, Annette. The Politics of Reputation: The Critical Reception of Tennessee Williams' Later Plays. Associated University Presses. London. 1999. Spoto, Donald. The Kindness of Strangers: The Life of Tennessee Williams. Da Capo Press. Reprint. 1997. . Williams, Tennessee. Memoirs. Doubleday. Print. 1975. . Williams, Dakin. His Brother's Keeper: The Life and Murder of Tennessee Williams''. Dakin's Corner Press. First Edition. Print. 1983. External links Tennessee Williams Collection and Research Guide, as well as Kate Medina Collection of Tennessee Williams at the Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin Tennessee Williams Papers at Columbia University. Rare Book and Manuscript Library Tennessee Williams manuscripts, 1972–1974, held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts Tennessee Williams collection from Special Collections, University of Delaware Library The Paris Review interview Category:1911 births Category:1983 deaths Category:20th-century American dramatists and playwrights Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American novelists Category:20th-century American screenwriters Category:20th-century American short story writers Category:Accidental deaths in New York (state) Category:Actors Studio alumni Category:American former Protestants Category:American male dramatists and playwrights Category:American male novelists Category:American male screenwriters Category:American male short story writers Category:American people of English descent Category:American people of Welsh descent Category:Barbiturates-related deaths Category:Burials at Calvary Cemetery (St. Louis) Category:Catholics from Massachusetts Category:Catholics from Mississippi Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from Anglicanism Category:Deaths from choking Category:Drug-related deaths in New York City Category:Former Anglicans Category:American gay writers Category:Harper's Magazine people Category:Kennedy Center honorees Category:American LGBT dramatists and playwrights Category:Gay memoirists Category:LGBT people from Mississippi Category:LGBT Roman Catholics Category:Novelists from Louisiana Category:People from Clarksdale, Mississippi Category:People from Columbus, Mississippi Category:People from Provincetown, Massachusetts Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients Category:Pulitzer Prize for Drama winners Category:Screenwriters from Massachusetts Category:Screenwriters from Mississippi Category:Sewanee: The University of the South Category:University of Iowa alumni Category:University of Missouri alumni Category:Washington University in St. Louis alumni Category:Writers from Mississippi Category:Writers from New Orleans Category:Writers from St. Louis Category:Writers of American Southern literature
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[ "During Williams' early childhood, he lived in the parish of Clarksdale, Mississippi where his grandfather was an Episcopal priest. He became extremely sick with diphtheria as a young child, which weakened him and confined him to his house for a year for recovery. Williams' father was often away from home due to his job as a traveling salesman and had a violent temper. Williams' mother was unhappy in her marriage and focused much of her attention on him. When he was eight years old, his family moved to St. Louis, Missouri for his father's new job. The family moved frequently due to his mother's search for a suitable address and his father's disruptive behavior. He went to Soldan High School and later University City High School. At 16, he won a prize for an essay and published a short story at 17 in Weird Tales magazine.", "When Williams contracted diphtheria as a small child, he nearly died. The illness left him weak and he was virtually confined to his house for a year during his period of recuperation. The illness also contributed to him being less robust as a child than his father wished.", "The text does not provide specific details on what Williams did immediately after recovering from diphtheria. However, it does mention that during his childhood, his family moved to St. Louis, Missouri when he was eight years old. Following that, he attended Soldan High School and University City High School. At 16, he won a prize for an essay and at 17, he had a short story published.", "Williams went to Soldan High School and later attended University City High School. Both of these schools are located in St. Louis, Missouri." ]
[ "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]
C_297932ffbf9f4c9da98b47ca92639d95_1
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, (1 May 1769 - 14 September 1852), was an Anglo-Irish soldier and statesman who was one of the leading military and political figures of 19th-century Britain, serving twice as Prime Minister. His defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 puts him in the first rank of Britain's military heroes. Wellesley was born in Dublin, into the Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. He was commissioned as an ensign in the British Army in 1787, serving in Ireland as aide-de-camp to two successive Lords Lieutenant of Ireland.
Early life and education
Wellesley was born into an aristocratic Anglo-Irish family in Ireland as The Hon. Arthur Wesley, the third of five surviving sons (fourth otherwise) to Anne and Garret Wesley, 1st Earl of Mornington. His mother was the eldest daughter of The 1st Viscount Dungannon. As such, he belonged to the Protestant Ascendancy. His biographers mostly follow the same contemporary newspaper evidence in saying that he was born on 1 May 1769, the day before he was baptised. His birthplace is uncertain. He was most likely born at his parents' townhouse, 24 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin, now the Merrion Hotel. But his mother Anne, Countess of Mornington, recalled in 1815 that he had been born at 6 Merrion Street, Dublin. Other places have been put forward as the location of his birth, including Mornington House (the house next door on Upper Merrion), as his father had asserted; the Dublin packet boat; and the mansion in the family estate of Athy (consumed in the fires of 1916), as the Duke apparently put on his 1851 census return. He spent most of his childhood at his family's two homes, the first a large house in Dublin and the second Dangan Castle, 3 miles (5 km) north of Summerhill on the Trim Road (now the R158) in County Meath. In 1781, Arthur's father died and his eldest brother Richard inherited his father's earldom. He went to the diocesan school in Trim when at Dangan, Mr Whyte's Academy when in Dublin, and Brown's School in Chelsea when in London. He then enrolled at Eton College, where he studied from 1781 to 1784. His loneliness there caused him to hate it, and makes it highly unlikely that he actually said "The Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton", a quotation which is often attributed to him. Moreover, Eton had no playing fields at the time. In 1785, a lack of success at Eton, combined with a shortage of family funds due to his father's death, forced the young Wellesley and his mother to move to Brussels. Until his early twenties, Arthur showed little sign of distinction and his mother grew increasingly concerned at his idleness, stating, "I don't know what I shall do with my awkward son Arthur." A year later, Arthur enrolled in the French Royal Academy of Equitation in Angers, where he progressed significantly, becoming a good horseman and learning French, which later proved very useful. Upon returning to England in late 1786, he astonished his mother with his improvement. CANNOTANSWER
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Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, (1 May 1769 – 14 September 1852) was a Anglo-Irish statesman, soldier, and Tory politician who was one of the leading military and political figures of 19th-century Britain, serving twice as prime minister of the United Kingdom. He is among the commanders who won and ended the Napoleonic Wars when the Seventh Coalition defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. Wellesley was born in Dublin into the Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. He was commissioned as an ensign in the British Army in 1787, serving in Ireland as aide-de-camp to two successive lords lieutenant of Ireland. He was also elected as a member of Parliament in the Irish House of Commons. He was a colonel by 1796 and saw action in the Netherlands and in India, where he fought in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War at the Battle of Seringapatam. He was appointed governor of Seringapatam and Mysore in 1799 and, as a newly appointed major-general, won a decisive victory over the Maratha Confederacy at the Battle of Assaye in 1803. Wellesley rose to prominence as a general during the Peninsular campaign of the Napoleonic Wars, and was promoted to the rank of field marshal after leading the allied forces to victory against the French Empire at the Battle of Vitoria in 1813. Following Napoleon's exile in 1814, he served as the ambassador to France and was granted a dukedom. During the Hundred Days in 1815, he commanded the allied army which, together with a Prussian Army under Field Marshal Gebhard von Blücher, defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. Wellington's battle record is exemplary; he ultimately participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career. Wellington is famous for his adaptive defensive style of warfare, resulting in several victories against numerically superior forces while minimising his own losses. He is regarded as one of the greatest defensive commanders of all time, and many of his tactics and battle plans are still studied in military academies around the world. After the end of his active military career, he returned to politics. He was twice British prime minister as a member of the Tory party from 1828 to 1830 and for a little less than a month in 1834. He oversaw the passage of the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, but opposed the Reform Act 1832. He continued as one of the leading figures in the House of Lords until his retirement and remained Commander-in-Chief of the British Army until his death. Early life Family Wellesley was born into an aristocratic Anglo-Irish family, belonging to the Protestant Ascendancy, in Ireland as The Hon. Arthur Wesley. Wellesley was born the son of Anne Wellesley, Countess of Mornington and Garret Wesley, 1st Earl of Mornington. His father, Garret Wesley, was the son of Richard Wesley, 1st Baron Mornington and had a short career in politics representing the constituency Trim in the Irish House of Commons before succeeding his father as 2nd Baron Mornington in 1758. Garret Wesley was also an accomplished composer and in recognition of his musical and philanthropic achievements was elevated to the rank of Earl of Mornington in 1760. Wellesley's mother was the eldest daughter of Arthur Hill-Trevor, 1st Viscount Dungannon, after whom Wellesley was named. Wellesley was the sixth of nine children born to the Earl and Countess of Mornington. His siblings included Richard, Viscount Wellesley (1760–1842); later 1st Marquess Wellesley, 2nd Earl of Mornington, Baron Maryborough. Birth date and place The exact date and location of Wellesley's birth is not known; however, biographers mostly follow the same contemporary newspaper evidence which states that he was born on 1 May 1769, the day before he was baptised in St Peters Church, Dublin. However, states "registry of St. Peter's Church, Dublin, shows that he was christened there on 30 April 1769". His baptismal font was donated to St. Nahi's Church in Dundrum, Dublin, in 1914. As to the place of Wellesley's birth, he was most likely born at his parents' townhouse, 24 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin, now the Merrion Hotel. This contrasts with reports that his mother Anne, Countess of Mornington, recalled in 1815 that he had been born at 6 Merrion Street, Dublin. Other places have been put forward as the location of his birth, including Mornington House (the house next door on Upper Merrion), as his father had asserted and the Dublin packet boat. Childhood Wellesley spent most of his childhood at his family's two homes, the first a large house in Dublin and the second Dangan Castle, north of Summerhill in County Meath. In 1781, Arthur's father died and his eldest brother Richard inherited his father's earldom. He went to the diocesan school in Trim when at Dangan, Mr Whyte's Academy when in Dublin, and Brown's School in Chelsea when in London. He then enrolled at Eton College, where he studied from 1781 to 1784. His loneliness there caused him to hate it, and makes it highly unlikely that he actually said "The Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton", a quotation which is often attributed to him. Moreover, Eton had no playing fields at the time. In 1785, a lack of success at Eton, combined with a shortage of family funds due to his father's death, forced the young Wellesley and his mother to move to Brussels. Until his early twenties, Arthur showed little sign of distinction and his mother grew increasingly concerned at his idleness, stating, "I don't know what I shall do with my awkward son Arthur." In 1786, Arthur enrolled in the French Royal Academy of Equitation in Angers, where he progressed significantly, becoming a good horseman and learning French, which later proved very useful. Upon returning to England later the same year, he astonished his mother with his improvement. Early military career United Kingdom Despite his new promise, Wellesley had yet to find a job and his family was still short of money, so upon the advice of his mother, his brother Richard asked his friend the Duke of Rutland (then Lord Lieutenant of Ireland) to consider Arthur for a commission in the Army. Soon afterward, on 7 March 1787, he was gazetted ensign in the 73rd Regiment of Foot. In October, with the assistance of his brother, he was assigned as aide-de-camp, on ten shillings a day (twice his pay as an ensign), to the new Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Buckingham. He was also transferred to the new 76th Regiment forming in Ireland and on Christmas Day, 1787, was promoted lieutenant. During his time in Dublin his duties were mainly social; attending balls, entertaining guests and providing advice to Buckingham. While in Ireland, he overextended himself in borrowing due to his occasional gambling, but in his defence stated that "I have often known what it was to be in want of money, but I have never got helplessly into debt". On 23 January 1788, he transferred into the 41st Regiment of Foot, then again on 25 June 1789 he transferred to the 12th (Prince of Wales's) Regiment of (Light) Dragoons and, according to military historian Richard Holmes, he also reluctantly entered politics. Shortly before the general election of 1789, he went to the rotten borough of Trim to speak against the granting of the title "Freeman" of Dublin to the parliamentary leader of the Irish Patriot Party, Henry Grattan. Succeeding, he was later nominated and duly elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Trim in the Irish House of Commons. Because of the limited suffrage at the time, he sat in a parliament where at least two-thirds of the members owed their election to the landowners of fewer than a hundred boroughs. Wellesley continued to serve at Dublin Castle, voting with the government in the Irish parliament over the next two years. He became a captain on 30 January 1791, and was transferred to the 58th Regiment of Foot. On 31 October, he transferred to the 18th Light Dragoons and it was during this period that he grew increasingly attracted to Kitty Pakenham, the daughter of Edward Pakenham, 2nd Baron Longford. She was described as being full of 'gaiety and charm'. In 1793, he proposed, but was turned down by her brother Thomas, Earl of Longford, who considered Wellesley to be a young man, in debt, with very poor prospects. An aspiring amateur musician, Wellesley, devastated by the rejection, burnt his violins in anger, and resolved to pursue a military career in earnest. He became a major by purchase in the 33rd Regiment in 1793. A few months later, in September, his brother lent him more money and with it he purchased a lieutenant-colonelcy in the 33rd. Netherlands In 1793, the Duke of York was sent to Flanders in command of the British contingent of an allied force destined for the invasion of France. In June 1794, Wellesley with the 33rd regiment set sail from Cork bound for Ostend as part of an expedition bringing reinforcements for the army in Flanders. They arrived too late to participate, and joined the Duke of York as he was pulling back towards the Netherlands. On 15 September 1794, at the Battle of Boxtel, east of Breda, Wellington, in temporary command of his brigade, had his first experience of battle. During General Abercromby's withdrawal in the face of superior French forces, the 33rd held off enemy cavalry, allowing neighbouring units to retreat safely. During the extremely harsh winter that followed, Wellesley and his regiment formed part of an allied force holding the defence line along the Waal River. The 33rd, along with the rest of the army, suffered heavy losses from attrition and illness. Wellesley's health was also affected by the damp environment. Though the campaign was to end disastrously, with the British army driven out of the United Provinces into the German states, Wellesley became more aware of battle tactics, including the use of lines of infantry against advancing columns, and the merits of supporting sea-power. He understood that the failure of the campaign was due in part to the faults of the leaders and the poor organisation at headquarters. He remarked later of his time in the Netherlands that "At least I learned what not to do, and that is always a valuable lesson". Returning to England in March 1795, he was reinstated as a member of parliament for Trim for a second time. He hoped to be given the position of secretary of war in the new Irish government but the new lord-lieutenant, Lord Camden, was only able to offer him the post of Surveyor-General of the Ordnance. Declining the post, he returned to his regiment, now at Southampton preparing to set sail for the West Indies. After seven weeks at sea, a storm forced the fleet back to Poole. The 33rd was given time to recuperate and a few months later, Whitehall decided to send the regiment to India. Wellesley was promoted full colonel by seniority on 3 May 1796 and a few weeks later set sail for Calcutta with his regiment. India Arriving in Calcutta in February 1797 he spent 5 months there, before being sent in August to a brief expedition to the Philippines, where he established a list of new hygiene precautions for his men to deal with the unfamiliar climate. Returning in November to India, he learnt that his elder brother Richard, now known as Lord Mornington, had been appointed as the new Governor-General of India. In 1798, he changed the spelling of his surname to "Wellesley"; up to this time he was still known as Wesley, which his eldest brother considered the ancient and proper spelling. Fourth Anglo-Mysore War As part of the campaign to extend the rule of the British East India Company, the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War broke out in 1798 against the Sultan of Mysore, Tipu Sultan. Arthur's brother Richard ordered that an armed force be sent to capture Seringapatam and defeat Tipu. During the war, rockets were used on several occasions. Wellesley was almost defeated by Tipu's Diwan, Purnaiah, at the Battle of Sultanpet Tope. Quoting Forrest, At this point (near the village of Sultanpet, Figure 5) there was a large tope, or grove, which gave shelter to Tipu's rocketmen and had obviously to be cleaned out before the siege could be pressed closer to Srirangapattana island. The commander chosen for this operation was Col. Wellesley, but advancing towards the tope after dark on the 5th April 1799, he was set upon with rockets and musket-fires, lost his way and, as Beatson politely puts it, had to "postpone the attack" until a more favourable opportunity should offer. The following day, Wellesley launched a fresh attack with a larger force, and took the whole position without any killed in action. On 22 April 1799, twelve days before the main battle, rocketeers maneuvered to the rear of the British encampment, then 'threw a great number of rockets at the same instant' to signal the beginning of an assault by 6,000 Indian infantry and a corps of Frenchmen, all ordered by Mir Golam Hussain and Mohomed Hulleen Mir Miran. The rockets had a range of about 1,000 yards. Some burst in the air like shells. Others, called ground rockets, would rise again on striking the ground and bound along in a serpentine motion until their force was spent. According to one British observer, a young English officer named Bayly: "So pestered were we with the rocket boys that there was no moving without danger from the destructive missiles ...". He continued: The rockets and musketry from 20,000 of the enemy were incessant. No hail could be thicker. Every illumination of blue lights was accompanied by a shower of rockets, some of which entered the head of the column, passing through to the rear, causing death, wounds, and dreadful lacerations from the long bamboos of twenty or thirty feet, which are invariably attached to them. Under the command of General Harris, some 24,000 troops were dispatched to Madras (to join an equal force being sent from Bombay in the west). Arthur and the 33rd sailed to join them in August. After extensive and careful logistic preparation (which would become one of Wellesley's main attributes) the 33rd left with the main force in December and travelled across of jungle from Madras to Mysore. On account of his brother, during the journey, Wellesley was given an additional command, that of chief advisor to the Nizam of Hyderabad's army (sent to accompany the British force). This position was to cause friction among many of the senior officers (some of whom were senior to Wellesley). Much of this friction was put to rest after the Battle of Mallavelly, some from Seringapatam, in which Harris' army attacked a large part of the sultan's army. During the battle, Wellesley led his men, in a line of battle of two ranks, against the enemy to a gentle ridge and gave the order to fire. After an extensive repetition of volleys, followed by a bayonet charge, the 33rd, in conjunction with the rest of Harris's force, forced Tipu's infantry to retreat. Seringapatam Immediately after their arrival at Seringapatam on 5 April 1799, the Battle of Seringapatam began and Wellesley was ordered to lead a night attack on the village of Sultanpettah, adjacent to the fortress to clear the way for the artillery. Because of a variety of factors including the Mysorean army's strong defensive preparations and the darkness the attack failed with 25 casualties due to confusion among the British. Wellesley suffered a minor injury to his knee from a spent musket-ball. Although they would re-attack successfully the next day, after time to scout ahead the enemy's positions, the affair affected Wellesley. He resolved "never to attack an enemy who is preparing and strongly posted, and whose posts have not been reconnoitred by daylight". Lewin Bentham Bowring gives this alternative account: One of these groves, called the Sultanpet Tope, was intersected by deep ditches, watered from a channel running in an easterly direction about a mile from the fort. General Baird was directed to scour this grove and dislodge the enemy, but on his advancing with this object on the night of the 5th, he found the tope unoccupied. The next day, however, the Mysore troops again took possession of the ground, and as it was absolutely necessary to expel them, two columns were detached at sunset for the purpose. The first of these, under Colonel Shawe, got possession of a ruined village, which it successfully held. The second column, under Colonel Wellesley, on advancing into the tope, was at once attacked in the darkness of night by a tremendous fire of musketry and rockets. The men, floundering about amidst the trees and the water-courses, at last broke, and fell back in disorder, some being killed and a few taken prisoners. In the confusion Colonel Wellesley was himself struck on the knee by a spent ball, and narrowly escaped falling into the hands of the enemy. A few weeks later, after extensive artillery bombardment, a breach was opened in the main walls of the fortress of Seringapatam. An attack led by Major-General Baird secured the fortress. Wellesley secured the rear of the advance, posting guards at the breach and then stationed his regiment at the main palace. After hearing news of the death of the Tipu Sultan, Wellesley was the first at the scene to confirm his death, checking his pulse. Over the coming day, Wellesley grew increasingly concerned over the lack of discipline among his men, who drank and pillaged the fortress and city. To restore order, several soldiers were flogged and four hanged. After battle and the resulting end of the war, the main force under General Harris left Seringapatam and Wellesley, aged 30, stayed behind to command the area as the new Governor of Seringapatam and Mysore. While in India, Wellesley was ill for a considerable time, first with severe diarrhoea from the water and then with fever, followed by a serious skin infection caused by trichophyton. Wellesley was in charge of raising an Anglo-Indian expeditionary force in Trincomali in early 1801 for the capture of Batavia and Mauritius from the French. However, on the eve of its departure, orders arrived from England that it was to be sent to Egypt to co-operate with Sir Ralph Abercromby in the expulsion of the French from Egypt. Wellesley had been appointed second in command to Baird, but owing to ill health did not accompany the expedition on 9 April 1801. This was fortunate for Wellesley, since the very vessel on which he was to have sailed sank in the Red Sea. He was promoted to brigadier-general on 17 July 1801. He took residence within the Sultan's summer palace and reformed the tax and justice systems in his province to maintain order and prevent bribery. He also defeated the rebel warlord Dhoondiah Waugh in the Battle of Conaghull, after the latter had escaped from prison in Seringapatam during the battle there. Dhoondiah Waugh insurgency In 1800, whilst serving as Governor of Mysore, Wellesley was tasked with putting down an insurgency led by Dhoondiah Waugh, formerly a Patan trooper for Tipu Sultan. After the fall of Seringapatam he became a powerful brigand, raiding villages along the Maratha–Mysore border region. Despite initial setbacks, the East India Company having pursued and destroyed his forces once already, forcing him into retreat in August 1799, he raised a sizeable force composed of disbanded Mysore soldiers, captured small outposts and forts in Mysore, and was receiving the support of several Maratha killedars opposed to British occupation. This drew the attention of the British administration, who were beginning to recognise him as more than just a bandit, as his raids, expansion and threats to destabilise British authority suddenly increased in 1800. The death of Tipu Sultan had created a power vacuum and Waugh was seeking to fill it. Given independent command of a combined East India Company and British Army force, Wellesley ventured north to confront Waugh in June 1800, with an army of 8,000 infantry and cavalry, having learnt that Waugh's forces numbered over 50,000, although the majority (around 30,000) were irregular light cavalry and unlikely to pose a serious threat to British infantry and artillery. Throughout June–August 1800, Wellesley advanced through Waugh's territory, his troops escalading forts in turn and capturing each one with "trifling loss". The forts generally offered little resistance due to their poor construction and design. Wellesley did not have sufficient troops to garrison each fort and had to clear the surrounding area of insurgents before advancing to the next fort. On 31 July, he had "taken and destroyed Dhoondiah's baggage and six guns, and driven into the Malpoorba (where they were drowned) about five thousand people". Dhoondiah continued to retreat, but his forces were rapidly deserting, he had no infantry and due to the monsoon weather flooding river crossings he could no longer outpace the British advance. On 10 September, at the Battle of Conaghul, Wellesley personally led a charge of 1,400 British dragoons and Indian cavalry, in single line with no reserve, against Dhoondiah and his remaining 5,000 cavalry. Dhoondiah was killed during the clash, his body was discovered and taken to the British camp tied to a cannon. With this victory, Wellesley's campaign was concluded, and British authority had been restored. Wellesley, with command of four regiments, had defeated Dhoondiah's larger rebel force, along with Dhoondiah himself, who was killed in the final battle. Wellesley then paid for the future upkeep of Dhoondiah's orphaned son. Second Anglo-Maratha War In September 1802, Wellesley learnt that he had been promoted to the rank of major-general. He had been gazetted on 29 April 1802, but the news took several months to reach him by sea. He remained at Mysore until November when he was sent to command an army in the Second Anglo-Maratha War. When he determined that a long defensive war would ruin his army, Wellesley decided to act boldly to defeat the numerically larger force of the Maratha Empire. With the logistic assembly of his army complete (24,000 men in total) he gave the order to break camp and attack the nearest Maratha fort on 8 August 1803. The fort surrendered on 12 August after an infantry attack had exploited an artillery-made breach in the wall. With the fort now in British control Wellesley was able to extend control southwards to the river Godavari. Assaye, Argaum and Gawilghur Splitting his army into two forces, to pursue and locate the main Marathas army, (the second force, commanded by Colonel Stevenson was far smaller) Wellesley was preparing to rejoin his forces on 24 September. His intelligence, however, reported the location of the Marathas' main army, between two rivers near Assaye. If he waited for the arrival of his second force, the Marathas would be able to mount a retreat, so Wellesley decided to launch an attack immediately. On 23 September, Wellesley led his forces over a ford in the river Kaitna and the Battle of Assaye commenced. After crossing the ford the infantry was reorganised into several lines and advanced against the Maratha infantry. Wellesley ordered his cavalry to exploit the flank of the Maratha army just near the village. During the battle Wellesley himself came under fire; two of his horses were shot from under him and he had to mount a third. At a crucial moment, Wellesley regrouped his forces and ordered Colonel Maxwell (later killed in the attack) to attack the eastern end of the Maratha position while Wellesley himself directed a renewed infantry attack against the centre. An officer in the attack wrote of the importance of Wellesley's personal leadership: "The General was in the thick of the action the whole time ... I never saw a man so cool and collected as he was ... though I can assure you, 'til our troops got the order to advance the fate of the day seemed doubtful ..." With some 6,000 Marathas killed or wounded, the enemy was routed, though Wellesley's force was in no condition to pursue. British casualties were heavy: the British losses amounted to 428 killed, 1,138 wounded and 18 missing (the British casualty figures were taken from Wellesley's own despatch). Wellesley was troubled by the loss of men and remarked that he hoped "I should not like to see again such loss as I sustained on 23 September, even if attended by such gain". Years later, however, he remarked that Assaye, and not Waterloo, was the best battle he ever fought. Despite the damage done to the Maratha army, the battle did not end the war. A few months later in November, Wellesley attacked a larger force near Argaum, leading his army to victory again, with an astonishing 5,000 enemy dead at the cost of only 361 British casualties. A further successful attack at the fortress at Gawilghur, combined with the victory of General Lake at Delhi forced the Maratha to sign a peace settlement at Anjangaon (not concluded until a year later) called the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon. Military historian Richard Holmes remarked that Wellesley's experiences in India had an important influence on his personality and military tactics, teaching him much about military matters that would prove vital to his success in the Peninsular War. These included a strong sense of discipline through drill and order, the use of diplomacy to gain allies, and the vital necessity of a secure supply line. He also established high regard for the acquisition of intelligence through scouts and spies. His personal tastes also developed, including dressing himself in white trousers, a dark tunic, with Hessian boots and black cocked hat (that later became synonymous as his style). Leaving India Wellesley had grown tired of his time in India, remarking "I have served as long in India as any man ought who can serve anywhere else". In June 1804 he applied for permission to return home and as a reward for his service in India he was made a Knight of the Bath in September. While in India, Wellesley had amassed a fortune of £42,000 (considerable at the time), consisting mainly of prize money from his campaign. When his brother's term as Governor-General of India ended in March 1805, the brothers returned together to England on HMS Howe. Wellesley, coincidentally, stopped on his voyage at the island of Saint Helena and stayed in the same building in which Napoleon I would live during his later exile. Return to Britain Meeting Nelson In September 1805, Major-General Wellesley was newly returned from his campaigns in India and was not yet particularly well known to the public. He reported to the office of the Secretary of State for War and the Colonies to request a new assignment. In the waiting room, he met Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson, already a known figure after his victories at the Nile and Copenhagen, who was briefly in England after months pursuing the French Toulon fleet to the West Indies and back. Some 30 years later, Wellington recalled a conversation that Nelson began with him which Wellesley found "almost all on his side in a style so vain and silly as to surprise and almost disgust me". Nelson left the room to inquire who the young general was and, on his return, switched to a very different tone, discussing the war, the state of the colonies, and the geopolitical situation as between equals. On this second discussion, Wellington recalled, "I don't know that I ever had a conversation that interested me more". This was the only time that the two men met; Nelson was killed at his victory at Trafalgar seven weeks later. Wellesley then served in the abortive Anglo-Russian expedition to north Germany in 1805, taking a brigade to Elbe. He then took a period of extended leave from the army and was elected as a Tory member of the British parliament for Rye in January 1806. A year later, he was elected MP for Newport on the Isle of Wight, and was then appointed to serve as Chief Secretary for Ireland under the Duke of Richmond. At the same time, he was made a privy counsellor. While in Ireland, he gave a verbal promise that the remaining Penal Laws would be enforced with great moderation, perhaps an indication of his later willingness to support Catholic emancipation. War against Denmark-Norway Wellesley was in Ireland in May 1807 when he heard of the British expedition to Denmark-Norway. He decided to go, while maintaining his political appointments, and was appointed to command an infantry brigade in the Second Battle of Copenhagen, which took place in August. He fought at Køge, during which the men under his command took 1,500 prisoners, with Wellesley later present during the surrender. By 30 September, he had returned to England and was raised to the rank of lieutenant general on 25 April 1808. In June 1808 he accepted the command of an expedition of 9,000 men. Preparing to sail for an attack on the Spanish colonies in South America (to assist the Latin American patriot Francisco de Miranda) his force was instead ordered to sail for Portugal, to take part in the Peninsular Campaign and rendezvous with 5,000 troops from Gibraltar. Peninsular War 1808–1809 Ready for battle, Wellesley left Cork on 12 July 1808 to participate in the war against French forces in the Iberian Peninsula, with his skills as a commander tested and developed.According to the historian Robin Neillands: Wellesley defeated the French at the Battle of Roliça and the Battle of Vimeiro in 1808 but was superseded in command immediately after the latter battle. General Dalrymple then signed the controversial Convention of Sintra, which stipulated that the Royal Navy transport the French army out of Lisbon with all their loot, and insisted on the association of the only available government minister, Wellesley. Dalrymple and Wellesley were recalled to Britain to face a Court of Enquiry. Wellesley had agreed to sign the preliminary armistice, but had not signed the convention, and was cleared. Simultaneously, Napoleon entered Spain with his veteran troops to put down the revolt; the new commander of the British forces in the Peninsula, Sir John Moore, died during the Battle of Corunna in January 1809. Although overall the land war with France was not going well from a British perspective, the Peninsula was the one theatre where they, with the Portuguese, had provided strong resistance against France and her allies. This contrasted with the disastrous Walcheren expedition, which was typical of the mismanaged British operations of the time. Wellesley submitted a memorandum to Lord Castlereagh on the defence of Portugal. He stressed its mountainous frontiers and advocated Lisbon as the main base because the Royal Navy could help to defend it. Castlereagh and the cabinet approved the memo and appointed him head of all British forces in Portugal. Wellesley arrived in Lisbon on 22 April 1809 on board HMS Surveillante, after narrowly escaping shipwreck. Reinforced, he took to the offensive. In the Second Battle of Porto he crossed the Douro river in a daylight coup de main, and routed Marshal Soult's French troops in Porto. With Portugal secured, Wellesley advanced into Spain to unite with General Cuesta's forces. The combined allied force prepared for an assault on Marshal Victor's I Corps at Talavera, 23 July. Cuesta, however, was reluctant to agree, and was only persuaded to advance on the following day. The delay allowed the French to withdraw, but Cuesta sent his army headlong after Victor, and found himself faced by almost the entire French army in New Castile—Victor had been reinforced by the Toledo and Madrid garrisons. The Spanish retreated precipitously, necessitating the advance of two British divisions to cover their retreat. The next day, 27 July, at the Battle of Talavera the French advanced in three columns and were repulsed several times throughout the day by Wellesley, but at a heavy cost to the British force. In the aftermath Marshal Soult's army was discovered to be advancing south, threatening to cut Wellesley off from Portugal. Wellesley moved east on 3 August to block it, leaving 1,500 wounded in the care of the Spanish, intending to confront Soult before finding out that the French were in fact 30,000 strong. The British commander sent the Light Brigade on a dash to hold the bridge over the Tagus at Almaraz. With communications and supply from Lisbon secured for now, Wellesley considered joining with Cuesta again but found out that his Spanish ally had abandoned the British wounded to the French and was thoroughly uncooperative, promising and then refusing to supply the British forces, aggravating Wellesley and causing considerable friction between the British and their Spanish allies. The lack of supplies, coupled with the threat of French reinforcement (including the possible inclusion of Napoleon himself) in the spring, led to the British deciding to retreat into Portugal. Following his victory at Talavera, Wellesley was elevated to the Peerage of the United Kingdom on 26 August 1809 as Viscount Wellington of Talavera and of Wellington, in the County of Somerset, with the subsidiary title of Baron Douro of Wellesley. 1810–1812 In 1810, a newly enlarged French army under Marshal André Masséna invaded Portugal. British opinion was negative and there were suggestions to evacuate Portugal. Instead, Lord Wellington first slowed the French at Buçaco; he then prevented them from taking the Lisbon Peninsula by the construction of massive earthworks, known as the Lines of Torres Vedras, which had been assembled in complete secrecy with their flanks guarded by the Royal Navy. The baffled and starving French invasion forces retreated after six months. Wellington's pursuit was hindered by a series of reverses inflicted by Marshal Ney in a much-lauded rear guard campaign. In 1811, Masséna returned toward Portugal to relieve Almeida; Wellington narrowly checked the French at the Battle of Fuentes de Oñoro. Simultaneously, his subordinate, Viscount Beresford, fought Soult's 'Army of the South' to a bloody stalemate at the Battle of Albuera in May. Wellington was promoted to full general on 31 July for his services. The French abandoned Almeida, avoiding British pursuit, but retained the twin Spanish fortresses of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, the 'Keys' guarding the roads through the mountain passes into Portugal. In 1812, Wellington finally captured Ciudad Rodrigo via a rapid movement as the French went into winter quarters, storming it before they could react. He then moved south quickly, besieged the fortress of Badajoz for a month and captured it during the night on 6 April 1812. On viewing the aftermath of the Storming of Badajoz, Wellington lost his composure and cried at the sight of the British dead in the breaches. His army now was a veteran British force reinforced by units of the retrained Portuguese army. Campaigning in Spain, he was made Earl of Wellington in the county of Somerset on 22 February 1812. He routed the French at the Battle of Salamanca, taking advantage of a minor French mispositioning. The victory liberated the Spanish capital of Madrid. He was later made Marquess of Wellington, in the said county on 18 August 1812. Wellington attempted to take the vital fortress of Burgos, which linked Madrid to France. He failed, due in part to a lack of siege guns, forcing him into a headlong retreat with the loss of over 2,000 casualties. The French abandoned Andalusia, and combined the troops of Soult and Marmont. Thus combined, the French outnumbered the British, putting the British forces in a precarious position. Wellington withdrew his army and, joined by the smaller corps under the command of Rowland Hill, which had been moved to Madrid, began to retreat to Portugal. Marshal Soult declined to attack. 1813–1814 In 1813, Wellington led a new offensive, this time against the French line of communications. He struck through the hills north of Burgos, the Tras os Montes, and switched his supply line from Portugal to Santander on Spain's north coast; this led to the French abandoning Madrid and Burgos. Continuing to outflank the French lines, Wellington caught up with and routed the army of King Joseph Bonaparte in the Battle of Vitoria, for which he was promoted to field marshal on 21 June. He personally led a column against the French centre, while other columns commanded by Sir Thomas Graham, Rowland Hill and the Earl of Dalhousie looped around the French right and left (this battle became the subject of Beethoven's orchestral piece, the Wellington's Victory (Opus 91). The British troops broke ranks to loot the abandoned French wagons instead of pursuing the beaten foe. When troops failed to return to their units and began harassing the locals, an enraged Wellington to write in a famous despatch to Earl Bathurst, "We have in the service the scum of the earth as common soldiers". Although later, when his temper had cooled, he extended his comment to praise the men under his command saying that though many of the men were, "the scum of the earth; it is really wonderful that we should have made them to the fine fellows they are". After taking the small fortresses of Pamplona, Wellington invested San Sebastián but was frustrated by the obstinate French garrison, losing 693 dead and 316 captured in a failed assault and suspending the siege at the end of July. Soult's relief attempt was blocked by the Spanish Army of Galicia at San Marcial, allowing the Allies to consolidate their position and tighten the ring around the city, which fell in September after a second spirited defence. Wellington then forced Soult's demoralised and battered army into a fighting retreat into France, punctuated by battles at the Pyrenees, Bidassoa and Nivelle. Wellington invaded southern France, winning at the Nive and Orthez. Wellington's final battle against his rival Soult occurred at Toulouse, where the Allied divisions were badly mauled storming the French redoubts, losing some 4,600 men. Despite this momentary victory, news arrived of Napoleon's defeat and abdication and Soult, seeing no reason to continue the fighting, agreed on a ceasefire with Wellington, allowing Soult to evacuate the city. Hailed as the conquering hero by the British, on 3 May 1814 Wellington was made Duke of Wellington, in the county of Somerset, together with the subsidiary title of Marquess Douro, in said County. He received some recognition during his lifetime (the title of "Duque de Ciudad Rodrigo" and "Grandee of Spain") and the Spanish King Ferdinand VII allowed him to keep part of the works of art from the Royal Collection which he had recovered from the French. His equestrian portrait features prominently in the Monument to the Battle of Vitoria, in present-day Vitoria-Gasteiz. His popularity in Britain was due to his image and his appearance as well as to his military triumphs. His victory fitted well with the passion and intensity of the Romantic movement, with its emphasis on individuality. His personal style influenced the fashions in Britain at the time: his tall, lean figure and his plumed black hat and grand yet classic uniform and white trousers became very popular. In late 1814, the Prime Minister wanted him to take command in Canada with the assignment of winning the War of 1812 against the United States. Wellesley replied that he would go to America, but he believed that he was needed more in Europe. He stated: He was appointed Ambassador to France, then took Lord Castlereagh's place as first plenipotentiary to the Congress of Vienna. On 2 January 1815, the title of his Knighthood of the Bath was converted to Knight Grand Cross upon the expansion of that order. Hundred Days Facing Napoleon On 26 February 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France. He regained control of the country by May and faced a renewed alliance against him. Wellington left Vienna for what became known as the Waterloo Campaign. He arrived in the Netherlands to take command of the British-German army and their allied Dutch, all stationed alongside the Prussian forces of Generalfeldmarschall Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher. Napoleon's strategy was to isolate the Allied and Prussian armies and annihilate each one separately before the Austrians and Russians arrived. In doing so the vast superiority in numbers of the Coalition would be greatly diminished. He would then seek the possibility of peace with Austria and Russia. The French invaded the Netherlands, with Napoleon defeating the Prussians at Ligny, and Marshal Ney engaging indecisively with Wellington at the Battle of Quatre Bras. The Prussians retreated 18 miles north to Wavre whilst Wellington's Anglo-Allied army withdrew 15 miles north to a site he had noted the previous year as favourable for a battle: the north ridge of a shallow valley on the Brussels road, just south of the small town of Waterloo. On 17 June there was torrential rain, which severely hampered movement. and had a considerable effect the next day, 18 June, when the Battle of Waterloo was fought. This was the first time Wellington had encountered Napoleon; he commanded an Anglo-Dutch-German army that consisted of approximately 73,000 troops, 26,000 of whom were British. Approximately 30 percent of that 26,000 were Irish. Battle of Waterloo The Battle of Waterloo was fought on Sunday 18 June 1815, near Waterloo (at that time in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, now in Belgium). It commenced with a diversionary attack on Hougoumont by a division of French soldiers. After a barrage of 80 cannons, the first French infantry attack was launched by Comte D'Erlon's I Corps. D'Erlon's troops advanced through the Allied centre, resulting in Allied troops in front of the ridge retreating in disorder through the main position. D'Erlon's corps stormed the most fortified Allied position, La Haye Sainte, but failed to take it. An Allied division under Thomas Picton met the remainder of D'Erlon's corps head to head, engaging them in an infantry duel in which Picton was killed. During this struggle Lord Uxbridge launched two of his cavalry brigades at the enemy, catching the French infantry off guard, driving them to the bottom of the slope, and capturing two French Imperial Eagles. The charge, however, over-reached itself, and the British cavalry, crushed by fresh French horsemen sent at them by Napoleon, were driven back, suffering tremendous losses. Shortly before 16:00, Marshal Ney noted an apparent withdrawal from Wellington's centre. He mistook the movement of casualties to the rear for the beginnings of a retreat, and sought to exploit it. Ney at this time had few infantry reserves left, as most of the infantry had been committed either to the futile Hougoumont attack or to the defence of the French right. Ney, therefore, tried to break Wellington's centre with a cavalry charge alone. At about 16:30, the first Prussian corps arrived. Commanded by Freiherr von Bülow, IV Corps arrived as the French cavalry attack was in full spate. Bülow sent the 15th Brigade to link up with Wellington's left flank in the Frichermont–La Haie area while the brigade's horse artillery battery and additional brigade artillery deployed to its left in support. Napoleon sent Lobau's corps to intercept the rest of Bülow's IV Corps proceeding to Plancenoit. The 15th Brigade sent Lobau's corps into retreat to the Plancenoit area. Von Hiller's 16th Brigade also pushed forward with six battalions against Plancenoit. Napoleon had dispatched all eight battalions of the Young Guard to reinforce Lobau, who was now seriously pressed by the enemy. Napoleon's Young Guard counter-attacked and, after very hard fighting, secured Plancenoit, but were themselves counter-attacked and driven out. Napoleon then resorted to sending two battalions of the Middle and Old Guard into Plancenoit and after ferocious fighting they recaptured the village. The French cavalry attacked the British infantry squares many times, each at a heavy cost to the French but with few British casualties. Ney himself was displaced from his horse four times. Eventually, it became obvious, even to Ney, that cavalry alone were achieving little. Belatedly, he organised a combined-arms attack, using Bachelu's division and Tissot's regiment of Foy's division from Reille's II Corps plus those French cavalry that remained in a fit state to fight. This assault was directed along much the same route as the previous heavy cavalry attacks. Meanwhile, at approximately the same time as Ney's combined-arms assault on the centre-right of Wellington's line, Napoleon ordered Ney to capture La Haye Sainte at whatever the cost. Ney accomplished this with what was left of D'Erlon's corps soon after 18:00. Ney then moved horse artillery up towards Wellington's centre and began to attack the infantry squares at short-range with canister. This all but destroyed the 27th (Inniskilling) Regiment, and the 30th and 73rd Regiments suffered such heavy losses that they had to combine to form a viable square. Wellington's centre was now on the verge of collapse and wide open to an attack from the French. Luckily for Wellington, Pirch I's and Zieten's corps of the Prussian Army were now at hand. Zieten's corps permitted the two fresh cavalry brigades of Vivian and Vandeleur on Wellington's extreme left to be moved and posted behind the depleted centre. Pirch I Corps then proceeded to support Bülow and together they regained possession of Plancenoit, and once more the Charleroi road was swept by Prussian round shot. The value of this reinforcement is held in high regard. The French army now fiercely attacked the Coalition all along the line with the culminating point being reached when Napoleon sent forward the Imperial Guard at 19:30. The attack of the Imperial Guards was mounted by five battalions of the Middle Guard, and not by the Grenadiers or Chasseurs of the Old Guard. Marching through a hail of canister and skirmisher fire and severely outnumbered, the 3,000 or so Middle Guardsmen advanced to the west of La Haye Sainte and proceeded to separate into three distinct attack forces. One, consisting of two battalions of Grenadiers, defeated the Coalition's first line and marched on. Chassé's relatively fresh Dutch division was sent against them, and Allied artillery fired into the victorious Grenadiers' flank. This still could not stop the Guard's advance, so Chassé ordered his first brigade to charge the outnumbered French, who faltered and broke. Further to the west, 1,500 British Foot Guards under Maitland were lying down to protect themselves from the French artillery. As two battalions of Chasseurs approached, the second prong of the Imperial Guard's attack, Maitland's guardsmen rose and devastated them with point-blank volleys. The Chasseurs deployed to counter-attack but began to waver. A bayonet charge by the Foot Guards then broke them. The third prong, a fresh Chasseur battalion, now came up in support. The British guardsmen retreated with these Chasseurs in pursuit, but the latter were halted as the 52nd Light Infantry wheeled in line onto their flank and poured a devastating fire into them and then charged. Under this onslaught, they too broke. The last of the Guard retreated headlong. Mass panic ensued through the French lines as the news spread: "La Garde recule. Sauve qui peut!" ("The Guard is retreating. Every man for himself!"). Wellington then stood up in Copenhagen's stirrups, and waved his hat in the air to signal an advance of the Allied line just as the Prussians were overrunning the French positions to the east. What remained of the French army then abandoned the field in disorder. Wellington and Blücher met at the inn of La Belle Alliance, on the north–south road which bisected the battlefield, and it was agreed that the Prussians should pursue the retreating French army back to France. The Treaty of Paris was signed on 20 November 1815. After the victory, the Duke supported proposals that a medal be awarded to all British soldiers who participated in the Waterloo campaign, and on 28 June 1815, he wrote to the Duke of York suggesting: ... the expediency of giving to the non-commissioned officers and soldiers engaged in the Battle of Waterloo a medal. I am convinced it would have the best effect in the army, and if the battle should settle our concerns, they will well deserve it.The Waterloo Medal was duly authorised and distributed to all ranks in 1816. Controversy Much historical discussion has been made about Napoleon's decision to send 33,000 troops under Marshal Grouchy to intercept the Prussians, but—having defeated Blücher at Ligny on 16 June and forced the Allies to retreat in divergent directions—Napoleon may have been strategically astute in a judgement that he would have been unable to beat the combined Allied forces on one battlefield. Wellington's comparable strategic gamble was to leave 17,000 troops and artillery, mostly Dutch, away at Hal, north-west of Mont-Saint-Jean, in case of a French advance up the Mons-Hal-Brussels road. The campaign led to numerous other controversies. Issues concerning Wellington's troop dispositions prior to Napoleon's invasion of the Netherlands, whether Wellington misled or betrayed Blücher by promising, then failing, to come directly to Blücher's aid at Ligny, and credit for the victory between Wellington and the Prussians. These and other such issues concerning Blücher's, Wellington's, and Napoleon's decisions during the campaign were the subject of a strategic-level study by the Prussian political-military theorist Carl von Clausewitz, Feldzug von 1815: Strategische Uebersicht des Feldzugs von 1815, (English title: The Campaign of 1815: Strategic Overview of the Campaign.) This study was Clausewitz's last such work and is widely considered to be the best example of Clausewitz's mature theories concerning such analyses. It attracted the attention of Wellington's staff, who prompted the Duke to write a published essay on the campaign (other than his immediate, official after-action report, "The Waterloo Dispatch".) This was published as the 1842 "Memorandum on the Battle of Waterloo". While Wellington disputed Clausewitz on several points, Clausewitz largely absolved Wellington of accusations levelled against him. This exchange with Clausewitz was quite famous in Britain in the 19th century, particularly in Charles Cornwallis Chesney's work the Waterloo Lectures, but was largely ignored in the 20th century due to hostilities between Britain and Germany. Politics Prime Minister Wellington entered politics again when he was appointed Master-General of the Ordnance in the Tory government of Lord Liverpool on 26 December 1818. He also became Governor of Plymouth on 9 October 1819. He was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Army on 22 January 1827 and Constable of the Tower of London on 5 February 1827. Along with Robert Peel, Wellington became an increasingly influential member of the Tory party, and in 1828 he resigned as Commander-in-Chief and became prime minister. During his first seven months as prime minister, he chose not to live in the official residence at 10 Downing Street, finding it too small. He moved in only because his own home, Apsley House, required extensive renovations. During this time he was largely instrumental in the foundation of King's College London. On 20 January 1829 Wellington was appointed Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. Reform His term was marked by Roman Catholic Emancipation: the restoration of most civil rights to Roman Catholics in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The change was prompted by the landslide by-election win of Daniel O'Connell, a Roman Catholic Irish proponent of emancipation, who was elected despite not being legally allowed to sit in Parliament. In the House of Lords, facing stiff opposition, Wellington spoke for Catholic Emancipation, and according to some sources, gave one of the best speeches of his career. Wellington was born in Ireland and so had some understanding of the grievances of the Roman Catholic majority there; as Chief Secretary, he had given an undertaking that the remaining Penal Laws would only be enforced as "mildly" as possible. In 1811 Catholic soldiers were given freedom of worship and 18 years later the Catholic Relief Act 1829 was passed with a majority of 105. Many Tories voted against the Act, and it passed only with the help of the Whigs. Wellington had threatened to resign as prime minister if King George IV did not give Royal Assent. The Earl of Winchilsea accused the Duke of "an insidious design for the infringement of our liberties and the introduction of Popery into every department of the State". Wellington responded by immediately challenging Winchilsea to a duel. On 21 March 1829, Wellington and Winchilsea met on Battersea fields. When the time came to fire, the Duke took aim and Winchilsea kept his arm down. The Duke fired wide to the right. Accounts differ as to whether he missed on purpose, an act known in duelling as a delope. Wellington claimed he did. However, he was noted for his poor aim and reports more sympathetic to Winchilsea claimed he had aimed to kill. Winchilsea discharged his pistol into the air, a plan he and his second had almost certainly decided upon before the duel. Honour was saved and Winchilsea wrote Wellington an apology. The nickname "Iron Duke" originated from this period, when he experienced a high degree of personal and political unpopularity. Its repeated use in Freeman's Journal throughout June 1830 appears to bear reference to his resolute political will, with taints of disapproval from its Irish editors. During this time, Wellington was greeted by a hostile reaction from the crowds at the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. Wellington's government fell in 1830. In the summer and autumn of that year, a wave of riots swept the country. The Whigs had been out of power for most years since the 1770s, and saw political reform in response to the unrest as the key to their return. Wellington stuck to the Tory policy of no reform and no expansion of suffrage, and as a result, lost a vote of no confidence on 15 November 1830. The Whigs introduced the first Reform Bill while Wellington and the Tories worked to prevent its passage. The Whigs could not get the bill past its second reading in the British House of Commons, and the attempt failed. An election followed in direct response and the Whigs were returned with a landslide majority. A second Reform Act was introduced and passed in the House of Commons but was defeated in the Tory-controlled House of Lords. Another wave of near-insurrection swept the country. Wellington's residence at Apsley House was targeted by a mob of demonstrators on 27 April 1831 and again on 12 October, leaving his windows smashed. Iron shutters were installed in June 1832 to prevent further damage by crowds angry over rejection of the Reform Bill, which he strongly opposed. The Whig Government fell in 1832 and Wellington was unable to form a Tory Government partly because of a run on the Bank of England. This left King William IV no choice but to restore Earl Grey to the premiership. Eventually, the bill passed the House of Lords after the King threatened to fill that House with newly created Whig peers if it were not. Wellington was never reconciled to the change; when Parliament first met after the first election under the widened franchise, Wellington is reported to have said "I never saw so many shocking bad hats in my life". Wellington opposed the Jewish Civil Disabilities Repeal Bill, and he stated in Parliament on 1 August 1833 that England "is a Christian country and a Christian legislature, and that the effect of this measure would be to remove that peculiar character." The Bill was defeated by 104 votes to 54. Government Wellington was gradually superseded as leader of the Tories by Robert Peel, while the party evolved into the Conservatives. When the Tories were returned to power in 1834, Wellington declined to become prime minister because he thought membership in the House of Commons had become essential. The king reluctantly approved Peel, who was in Italy. Hence, Wellington acted as interim leader for three weeks in November and December 1834, taking the responsibilities of prime minister and most of the other ministries. In Peel's first cabinet (1834–1835), Wellington became foreign secretary, while in the second (1841–1846) he was a minister without portfolio and Leader of the House of Lords. Wellington was also re-appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Army on 15 August 1842 following the resignation of Lord Hill. Wellington served as the leader of the Conservative party in the House of Lords from 1828 to 1846. Some historians have belittled him as a befuddled reactionary, but a consensus in the late 20th century depicts him as a shrewd operator who hid his cleverness behind the façade of a poorly informed old soldier. Wellington worked to transform the Lords from unstinting support of the Crown to an active player in political manoeuvering, with a commitment to the landed aristocracy. He used his London residence as a venue for intimate dinners and private consultations, together with extensive correspondence that kept him in close touch with party leaders in the Commons, and the main persona in the Lords. He gave public rhetorical support to Ultra-Tory anti-reform positions, but then deftly changed positions toward the party's centre, especially when Peel needed support from the upper house. Wellington's success was based on the 44 elected peers from Scotland and Ireland, whose elections he controlled. Later life Family Wellesley was married by his brother Gerald, a clergyman, to Kitty Pakenham in St George's Church, Dublin on 10 April 1806. They had two children: Arthur was born in 1807 and Charles was born in 1808. The marriage proved unsatisfactory and the two spent years apart, while Wellesley was campaigning and afterwards. Kitty grew depressed, and Wellesley pursued other sexual and romantic partners. The couple largely lived apart, with Kitty spending most of her time at their country home, Stratfield Saye House and Wellesley at their London home, Apsley House. Kitty's brother Edward Pakenham served under Wellesley throughout the Peninsular War, and Wellesley's regard for him helped to smooth his relations with Kitty, until Pakenham's death at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815. Retirement Wellington retired from political life in 1846, although he remained Commander-in-Chief, and returned briefly to the public eye in 1848 when he helped organise a military force to protect London during the year of European revolution. The Conservative Party had split over the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, with Wellington and most of the former Cabinet still supporting Peel, but most of the MPs led by Lord Derby supporting a protectionist stance. Early in 1852 Wellington, by then very deaf, gave Derby's first government its nickname by shouting "Who? Who?" as the list of inexperienced Cabinet ministers was read out in the House of Lords. He became Chief Ranger and Keeper of Hyde Park and St James's Park on 31 August 1850. He remained colonel of the 33rd Regiment of Foot from 1 February 1806 and colonel of the Grenadier Guards from 22 January 1827. Kitty died of cancer in 1831; despite their generally unhappy relations, which had led to an effective separation, Wellington was said to have been greatly saddened by her death, his one comfort being that after "half a lifetime together, they had come to understand each other at the end". He had found consolation for his unhappy marriage in his warm friendship with the diarist Harriet Arbuthnot, wife of his colleague Charles Arbuthnot. Harriet's death in the cholera epidemic of 1834 was almost as great a blow to Wellington as it was to her husband. The two widowers spent their last years together at Apsley House. Death and funeral Wellington died at Walmer Castle in Kent, his residence as Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports and reputedly his favourite home, on 14 September 1852. He was found to be unwell on that morning and was helped from his campaign bed, which he had used throughout his military career, and seated in his chair where he died. His death was recorded as being due to the after-effects of a stroke culminating in a series of seizures. He was aged 83. Although in life he hated travelling by rail, having witnessed the death of William Huskisson, one of the first railway accident casualties, his body was taken by train to London, where he was given a state funeral – one of a small number of British subjects to be so honoured (other examples include Lord Nelson and Sir Winston Churchill). The funeral took place on 18 November 1852. Before the funeral, the Duke's body lay in state at the Royal Hospital Chelsea. Members of the royal family, including Queen Victoria, the Prince Consort, the Prince of Wales, and the Princess Royal, visited to pay their respects. When viewing opened to the public, crowds thronged to visit and several people were killed in the crush. He was buried in St Paul's Cathedral, and during his funeral, there was little space to stand due to the number of attendees. A bronze memorial was sculpted by Alfred Stevens, and features two intricate supports: "Truth tearing the tongue out of the mouth of False-hood", and "Valour trampling Cowardice underfoot". Stevens did not live to see it placed in its home under one of the arches of the cathedral. Wellington's casket was decorated with banners which were made for his funeral procession. Originally, there was one from Prussia, which was removed during World War I and never reinstated. In the procession, the "Great Banner" was carried by General Sir James Charles Chatterton of the 4th Dragoon Guards on the orders of Queen Victoria. Most of the book A Biographical Sketch of the Military and Political Career of the Late Duke of Wellington by Weymouth newspaper proprietor Joseph Drew is a detailed contemporary account of his death, lying in state and funeral. After his death, Irish and English newspapers disputed whether Wellington had been born an Irishman or an Englishman. In 2002, he was number 15 in the BBC's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons. Owing to its links with Wellington, as the former commanding officer and colonel of the regiment, the title "33rd (The Duke of Wellington's) Regiment" was granted to the 33rd Regiment of Foot, on 18 June 1853 (the 38th anniversary of the Battle of Waterloo) by Queen Victoria. Wellington's battle record is exemplary; he participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career. Personality Wellington always rose early; he "couldn't bear to lie awake in bed", even if the army was not on the march. Even when he returned to civilian life after 1815, he slept in a camp bed, reflecting his lack of regard for creature comforts. General Miguel de Álava complained that Wellington said so often that the army would march "at daybreak" and dine on "cold meat" that he began to dread those two phrases. While on campaign, he seldom ate anything between breakfast and dinner. During the retreat to Portugal in 1811, he subsisted on "cold meat and bread", to the despair of his staff who dined with him. He was, however, renowned for the quality of the wine that he drank and served, often drinking a bottle with his dinner (not a great quantity by the standards of his day). Álava was a witness to an incident just before the Battle of Salamanca. Wellington was eating a chicken leg while observing the manoeuvres of the French army through a spyglass. He spotted an overextension in the French left flank, and realised that he could launch a successful attack there. He exclaimed "By God, that will do!" and threw the drumstick in the air. After the Battle of Toulouse, Colonel Frederick Ponsonby brought him the news of Napoleon's abdication, and Wellington broke into an impromptu flamenco dance, spinning around on his heels and clicking his fingers. Military historian Charles Dalton recorded that, after a hard-fought battle in Spain, a young officer made the comment, "I am going to dine with Wellington tonight", which was overheard by the Duke as he rode by. "Give me at least the prefix of Mr. before my name," Wellington said. "My Lord," replied the officer, "we do not speak of Mr. Caesar or Mr. Alexander, so why should I speak of Mr. Wellington?" While known for his stern countenance and iron-handed discipline, Wellington was by no means unfeeling. While he is said to have disapproved of soldiers cheering as "too nearly an expression of opinion". Wellington nevertheless cared for his men: he refused to pursue the French after the battles of Porto and Salamanca, foreseeing an inevitable cost to his army in chasing a diminished enemy through rough terrain. The only time that he ever showed grief in public was after the storming of Badajoz: he cried at the sight of the British dead in the breaches.In this context, his famous despatch after the Battle of Vitoria, calling them the "scum of the earth" can be seen to be fuelled as much by disappointment at their breaking ranks as by anger. He shed tears after Waterloo on the presentation of the list of British fallen by Dr John Hume. Later with his family, unwilling to be congratulated for his victory, he broke down in tears, his fighting spirit diminished by the high cost of the battle and great personal loss. Wellington's soldier servant, a gruff German called Beckerman, and his long-serving valet, James Kendall, who served him for 25 years and was with him when he died, were both devoted to him. (A story that he never spoke to his servants and preferred instead to write his orders on a notepad on his dressing table in fact probably refers to his son, the 2nd Duke. It was recorded by the 3rd Duke's niece, Viva Seton Montgomerie (1879–1959), as being an anecdote she heard from an old retainer, Charles Holman, who was said greatly to resemble Napoleon.) Following an incident when, as Master-General of the Ordnance he had been close to a large explosion, Wellington began to experience deafness and other ear-related problems. In 1822, he had an operation to improve the hearing of the left ear. The result, however, was that he became permanently deaf on that side. It is claimed that he was "never quite well afterwards". Wellington came to enjoy the company of a variety of intellectual and attractive women and had many amorous liaisons, particularly after the Battle of Waterloo and his subsequent ambassadorial position in Paris. In the days following Waterloo he had an affair with the notorious Lady Caroline Lamb, sister of one of his severely wounded officers and favourites, Col Frederick Ponsonby. He corresponded for many years with Lady Georgiana Lennox, later Lady de Ros, 26 years his junior and daughter of the Duchess of Richmond (who held the famous ball on the eve of Waterloo) and, though there are hints, it has not been clearly determined if the relationship was ever sexual. The British press lampooned the amorous side of the national hero. In 1824, one liaison came back to haunt him, when Wellington received a letter from a publisher, John Joseph Stockdale offering to refrain from issuing an edition of the rather racy memoirs of one of his mistresses Harriette Wilson, in exchange for money. It is said that the Duke promptly returned the letter, after scrawling across it, "Publish and be damned". However, Hibbert notes in his biography that the letter can be found among the Duke's papers, with nothing written on it. It is certain that Wellington reply, and the tone of a further letter from the publisher, quoted by Longford, suggests that he had refused in the strongest language to submit to blackmail. He was also a remarkably practical man who spoke concisely. In 1851, it was discovered that there were a great many sparrows flying about in the Crystal Palace just before the Great Exhibition was to open. His advice to Queen Victoria was "Sparrowhawks, ma'am". Wellington has often been portrayed as a defensive general, even though many, perhaps most, of his battles were offensive (Argaum, Assaye, Oporto, Salamanca, Vitoria, Toulouse). However, for most of the Peninsular War, where he earned his fame, his army lacked the numbers for a strategically offensive posture. Titles and tributes Nicknames The Iron Duke This commonly used nickname originally related to his consistent political resolve rather than to any particular incident. In various cases its editorial use appears to be disparaging. It is likely that its use became more widespread after an incident in 1832 in which he installed metal shutters to prevent rioters breaking windows at Apsley House. The term may have been made increasingly popular by Punch cartoons published in 1844–45. Other nicknames In the popular ballads of the day Wellington was called "Nosey" or "Old Nosey". Tsar Alexander I of Russia called Wellington "Le vainqueur du vainqueur du monde", the conqueror of the world's conqueror, the phrase "the world's conqueror" referring to Napoleon. Lord Tennyson uses a similar reference in his "Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington", referring to him as "the great World-victor's victor". Officers under his command called him "The Beau", as he was a fine dresser. Spanish troops called him "The Eagle", while Portuguese troops called him "Douro Douro" after his river crossing at Oporto in 1809. "Beau Douro"; Wellington found this amusing when hearing it used by a Colonel of the Coldstream Guards. "Sepoy General"; Napoleon used this term as an insult to Wellington's military service in India, publicly considering him an unworthy opponent. The name was used in the French newspaper Le Moniteur Universel, as a means of propaganda. "The Beef"; It is a theory that the Beef Wellington dish is a reference to Wellington, although some chefs dispute this. "Europe's Liberator" "Saviour of the Nations" See also Military career of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington Army Gold Medal Military General Service Medal Seringapatam medal Cotiote War References Notes Citations Sources Books . Online resources . Journals and magazines Primary sources Further reading This on-line text contains Clausewitz's 58-chapter study of the Campaign of 1815 and Wellington's lengthy 1842 essay written in response to Clausewitz, as well as supporting documents and essays by the editors. Goldsmith, Thomas. "The Duke of Wellington and British Foreign Policy 1814-1830." (PhD Diss. University of East Anglia, 2016). online Lambert, A. "Politics, administration and decision-making: Wellington and the navy, 1828–30" Wellington Studies IV, ed. C. M. Woolgar, (Southampton, 2008), pp. 185–243. Longford, Elizabeth. Wellington: Pillar of State (1972), vol 2 of her biography; online External links Records and images from the UK Parliament Collections The life of Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington Duke of Wellington's Regiment – West Riding Papers of Arthur Wellesley, first Duke of Wellington (MS 61) at the University of Southampton More about Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington on the Downing Street website "Napoleon and Wellington", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Andrew Roberts, Mike Broer and Belinda Beaton (In Our Time, 25 October 2001) Category:1769 births Category:1852 deaths Category:19th-century Anglo-Irish people Category:19th-century prime ministers of the United Kingdom Wellesley Arthur Wellesley, Arthur Category:Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to France Category:British Army commanders of the Napoleonic Wars Category:British Army personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars Category:British Army personnel of the Peninsular War Category:British Secretaries of State for Foreign Affairs Category:British Secretaries of State Category:British field marshals Category:British military personnel of the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War Category:British military personnel of the Second Anglo-Maratha War Category:Burials at St Paul's Cathedral Category:Chancellors of the University of Oxford Category:Chief Secretaries for Ireland Category:Commissioners of the Treasury for Ireland Category:Constables of the Tower of London Category:Cotiote War Category:Diplomatic peers Category:British duellists Category:Duke of Wellington's Regiment officers Category:Dukes da Vitória Category:Dukes of Ciudad Rodrigo 101 Wellesley, Arthur 1 Category:Fellows of the Royal Society Category:Field marshals of Portugal Category:Field marshals of Russia Category:Grandees of Spain Category:Grenadier Guards officers Category:Irish Anglicans Wellesley, Arthur Category:Irish expatriates in England Category:Irish expatriates in France Category:Irish expatriates in India Category:Irish expatriates in Portugal Category:Irish expatriates in Spain Category:Irish expatriates in the Netherlands Category:Irish officers in the British Army Category:Leaders of the Conservative Party (UK) Category:Lord High Constables of England Category:Lord-Lieutenants of Hampshire Category:Lord-Lieutenants of the Tower Hamlets Category:Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports Category:MPs for rotten boroughs Category:Members of Trinity House Wellesley, Arthur Wellesley, Arthur Wellesley, Arthur Category:Members of the Privy Council of Ireland Category:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Category:Peers of the United Kingdom created by George III Category:People associated with King's College London Category:People educated at Eton College Wellesley, Arthur Category:Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom Category:Princes of Waterloo Category:Regency era Category:Royal Horse Guards officers Category:Spanish captain generals Category:Tory prime ministers of the United Kingdom Wellesley, Arthur Wellesley, Arthur Category:UK MPs who were granted peerages Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington Category:Younger sons of earls Category:Knights of the Garter Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath Category:Recipients of the Army Gold Cross Category:Recipients of the Waterloo Medal Category:Grand Crosses of the Military Order of Maria Theresa Category:Grand Crosses of the Military Order of Max Joseph Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Military Order of William Category:Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 1st class Category:Recipients of the Order of St. George of the First Degree Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain Category:Grand Crosses of the Royal and Military Order of San Hermenegild Category:Laureate Cross of Saint Ferdinand Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword Category:Leaders of the House of Lords W
[ { "text": "101 may refer to:\n\n 101 (number), the number\n AD 101, a year in the 2nd century AD\n 101 BC, a year in the 2nd century BC\n\nIt may also refer to:\n\nEntertainment \n 101 (album), a live album and documentary by Depeche Mode \n \"101\" (song), a 1988 song and single by Sheena Easton\n \"101\", a song on the Girl on Fire album by Alicia Keys\n The 101 Network, former name of Audience, an American pay television channel\n\nTransportation \n List of highways numbered 101, several roads, including:\n U.S. Route 101, often called \"The 101\"\n 101 series, a commuter multiple unit train introduced in 1958 by Japan National Railways\n TMK 101, a tramcar type which was used in Zagreb, Croatia, from 1951 until December 2008\n McDonnell F-101 Voodoo fighter aircraft\n McDonnell CF-101 Voodoo Canadian variant of the F-101\n Fisher FP-101 kit aircraft\n\nOther uses \n101 (slang), a term used to indicate an introduction to a body of knowledge\n101st Airborne Division\nBell 101 modem a late 1950s communications modem\nBill 101 or Law 101, the Charter of the French Language in Québec\nPolice 101, the single non-emergency number used by all UK territorial police authorities\nTaipei 101, the tallest skyscraper in the world from 2004 to 2010\nMendelevium, chemical element with atomic number 101\n101 Dalmatians (disambiguation)\n\nSee also \n \n \n IOI (disambiguation) \n Room 101 (disambiguation)", "title": "101" }, { "text": "Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, (1 May 1769 – 14 September 1852) was a Anglo-Irish statesman, soldier, and Tory politician who was one of the leading military and political figures of 19th-century Britain, serving twice as prime minister of the United Kingdom. He is among the commanders who won and ended the Napoleonic Wars when the Seventh Coalition defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.\n\nWellesley was born in Dublin into the Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. He was commissioned as an ensign in the British Army in 1787, serving in Ireland as aide-de-camp to two successive lords lieutenant of Ireland. He was also elected as a member of Parliament in the Irish House of Commons. He was a colonel by 1796 and saw action in the Netherlands and in India, where he fought in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War at the Battle of Seringapatam. He was appointed governor of Seringapatam and Mysore in 1799 and, as a newly appointed major-general, won a decisive victory over the Maratha Confederacy at the Battle of Assaye in 1803.\n\nWellesley rose to prominence as a general during the Peninsular campaign of the Napoleonic Wars, and was promoted to the rank of field marshal after leading the allied forces to victory against the French Empire at the Battle of Vitoria in 1813. Following Napoleon's exile in 1814, he served as the ambassador to France and was granted a dukedom. During the Hundred Days in 1815, he commanded the allied army which, together with a Prussian Army under Field Marshal Gebhard von Blücher, defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. Wellington's battle record is exemplary; he ultimately participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career.\n\nWellington is famous for his adaptive defensive style of warfare, resulting in several victories against numerically superior forces while minimising his own losses. He is regarded as one of the greatest defensive commanders of all time, and many of his tactics and battle plans are still studied in military academies around the world. After the end of his active military career, he returned to politics. He was twice British prime minister as a member of the Tory party from 1828 to 1830 and for a little less than a month in 1834. He oversaw the passage of the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, but opposed the Reform Act 1832. He continued as one of the leading figures in the House of Lords until his retirement and remained Commander-in-Chief of the British Army until his death.\n\nEarly life\n\nFamily \nWellesley was born into an aristocratic Anglo-Irish family, belonging to the Protestant Ascendancy, in Ireland as The Hon. Arthur Wesley. Wellesley was born the son of Anne Wellesley, Countess of Mornington and Garret Wesley, 1st Earl of Mornington. His father, Garret Wesley, was the son of Richard Wesley, 1st Baron Mornington and had a short career in politics representing the constituency Trim in the Irish House of Commons before succeeding his father as 2nd Baron Mornington in 1758. Garret Wesley was also an accomplished composer and in recognition of his musical and philanthropic achievements was elevated to the rank of Earl of Mornington in 1760. Wellesley's mother was the eldest daughter of Arthur Hill-Trevor, 1st Viscount Dungannon, after whom Wellesley was named.\n\nWellesley was the sixth of nine children born to the Earl and Countess of Mornington. His siblings included Richard, Viscount Wellesley (1760–1842); later 1st Marquess Wellesley, 2nd Earl of Mornington, Baron Maryborough.\n\nBirth date and place \nThe exact date and location of Wellesley's birth is not known; however, biographers mostly follow the same contemporary newspaper evidence which states that he was born on 1 May 1769, the day before he was baptised in St Peters Church, Dublin. However, states \"registry of St. Peter's Church, Dublin, shows that he was christened there on 30 April 1769\". His baptismal font was donated to St. Nahi's Church in Dundrum, Dublin, in 1914. As to the place of Wellesley's birth, he was most likely born at his parents' townhouse, 24 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin, now the Merrion Hotel. This contrasts with reports that his mother Anne, Countess of Mornington, recalled in 1815 that he had been born at 6 Merrion Street, Dublin. Other places have been put forward as the location of his birth, including Mornington House (the house next door on Upper Merrion), as his father had asserted and the Dublin packet boat.\n\nChildhood \n\nWellesley spent most of his childhood at his family's two homes, the first a large house in Dublin and the second Dangan Castle, north of Summerhill in County Meath. In 1781, Arthur's father died and his eldest brother Richard inherited his father's earldom.\n\nHe went to the diocesan school in Trim when at Dangan, Mr Whyte's Academy when in Dublin, and Brown's School in Chelsea when in London. He then enrolled at Eton College, where he studied from 1781 to 1784. His loneliness there caused him to hate it, and makes it highly unlikely that he actually said \"The Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton\", a quotation which is often attributed to him. Moreover, Eton had no playing fields at the time. In 1785, a lack of success at Eton, combined with a shortage of family funds due to his father's death, forced the young Wellesley and his mother to move to Brussels. Until his early twenties, Arthur showed little sign of distinction and his mother grew increasingly concerned at his idleness, stating, \"I don't know what I shall do with my awkward son Arthur.\"\n\nIn 1786, Arthur enrolled in the French Royal Academy of Equitation in Angers, where he progressed significantly, becoming a good horseman and learning French, which later proved very useful. Upon returning to England later the same year, he astonished his mother with his improvement.\n\nEarly military career\n\nUnited Kingdom\n\nDespite his new promise, Wellesley had yet to find a job and his family was still short of money, so upon the advice of his mother, his brother Richard asked his friend the Duke of Rutland (then Lord Lieutenant of Ireland) to consider Arthur for a commission in the Army. Soon afterward, on 7 March 1787, he was gazetted ensign in the 73rd Regiment of Foot. In October, with the assistance of his brother, he was assigned as aide-de-camp, on ten shillings a day (twice his pay as an ensign), to the new Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Buckingham. He was also transferred to the new 76th Regiment forming in Ireland and on Christmas Day, 1787, was promoted lieutenant. During his time in Dublin his duties were mainly social; attending balls, entertaining guests and providing advice to Buckingham. While in Ireland, he overextended himself in borrowing due to his occasional gambling, but in his defence stated that \"I have often known what it was to be in want of money, but I have never got helplessly into debt\".\n\nOn 23 January 1788, he transferred into the 41st Regiment of Foot, then again on 25 June 1789 he transferred to the 12th (Prince of Wales's) Regiment of (Light) Dragoons and, according to military historian Richard Holmes, he also reluctantly entered politics. Shortly before the general election of 1789, he went to the rotten borough of Trim to speak against the granting of the title \"Freeman\" of Dublin to the parliamentary leader of the Irish Patriot Party, Henry Grattan. Succeeding, he was later nominated and duly elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Trim in the Irish House of Commons. Because of the limited suffrage at the time, he sat in a parliament where at least two-thirds of the members owed their election to the landowners of fewer than a hundred boroughs. Wellesley continued to serve at Dublin Castle, voting with the government in the Irish parliament over the next two years. He became a captain on 30 January 1791, and was transferred to the 58th Regiment of Foot.\n\nOn 31 October, he transferred to the 18th Light Dragoons and it was during this period that he grew increasingly attracted to Kitty Pakenham, the daughter of Edward Pakenham, 2nd Baron Longford. She was described as being full of 'gaiety and charm'. In 1793, he proposed, but was turned down by her brother Thomas, Earl of Longford, who considered Wellesley to be a young man, in debt, with very poor prospects. An aspiring amateur musician, Wellesley, devastated by the rejection, burnt his violins in anger, and resolved to pursue a military career in earnest. He became a major by purchase in the 33rd Regiment in 1793. A few months later, in September, his brother lent him more money and with it he purchased a lieutenant-colonelcy in the 33rd.\n\nNetherlands\n\nIn 1793, the Duke of York was sent to Flanders in command of the British contingent of an allied force destined for the invasion of France. In June 1794, Wellesley with the 33rd regiment set sail from Cork bound for Ostend as part of an expedition bringing reinforcements for the army in Flanders. They arrived too late to participate, and joined the Duke of York as he was pulling back towards the Netherlands. On 15 September 1794, at the Battle of Boxtel, east of Breda, Wellington, in temporary command of his brigade, had his first experience of battle. During General Abercromby's withdrawal in the face of superior French forces, the 33rd held off enemy cavalry, allowing neighbouring units to retreat safely. During the extremely harsh winter that followed, Wellesley and his regiment formed part of an allied force holding the defence line along the Waal River. The 33rd, along with the rest of the army, suffered heavy losses from attrition and illness. Wellesley's health was also affected by the damp environment. Though the campaign was to end disastrously, with the British army driven out of the United Provinces into the German states, Wellesley became more aware of battle tactics, including the use of lines of infantry against advancing columns, and the merits of supporting sea-power. He understood that the failure of the campaign was due in part to the faults of the leaders and the poor organisation at headquarters. He remarked later of his time in the Netherlands that \"At least I learned what not to do, and that is always a valuable lesson\".\nReturning to England in March 1795, he was reinstated as a member of parliament for Trim for a second time. He hoped to be given the position of secretary of war in the new Irish government but the new lord-lieutenant, Lord Camden, was only able to offer him the post of Surveyor-General of the Ordnance. Declining the post, he returned to his regiment, now at Southampton preparing to set sail for the West Indies. After seven weeks at sea, a storm forced the fleet back to Poole. The 33rd was given time to recuperate and a few months later, Whitehall decided to send the regiment to India. Wellesley was promoted full colonel by seniority on 3 May 1796 and a few weeks later set sail for Calcutta with his regiment.\n\nIndia\nArriving in Calcutta in February 1797 he spent 5 months there, before being sent in August to a brief expedition to the Philippines, where he established a list of new hygiene precautions for his men to deal with the unfamiliar climate. Returning in November to India, he learnt that his elder brother Richard, now known as Lord Mornington, had been appointed as the new Governor-General of India.\n\nIn 1798, he changed the spelling of his surname to \"Wellesley\"; up to this time he was still known as Wesley, which his eldest brother considered the ancient and proper spelling.\n\nFourth Anglo-Mysore War\n\nAs part of the campaign to extend the rule of the British East India Company, the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War broke out in 1798 against the Sultan of Mysore, Tipu Sultan. Arthur's brother Richard ordered that an armed force be sent to capture Seringapatam and defeat Tipu. During the war, rockets were used on several occasions. Wellesley was almost defeated by Tipu's Diwan, Purnaiah, at the Battle of Sultanpet Tope. Quoting Forrest,\nAt this point (near the village of Sultanpet, Figure 5) there was a large tope, or grove, which gave shelter to Tipu's rocketmen and had obviously to be cleaned out before the siege could be pressed closer to Srirangapattana island. The commander chosen for this operation was Col. Wellesley, but advancing towards the tope after dark on the 5th April 1799, he was set upon with rockets and musket-fires, lost his way and, as Beatson politely puts it, had to \"postpone the attack\" until a more favourable opportunity should offer.\n\nThe following day, Wellesley launched a fresh attack with a larger force, and took the whole position without any killed in action. On 22 April 1799, twelve days before the main battle, rocketeers maneuvered to the rear of the British encampment, then 'threw a great number of rockets at the same instant' to signal the beginning of an assault by 6,000 Indian infantry and a corps of Frenchmen, all ordered by Mir Golam Hussain and Mohomed Hulleen Mir Miran. The rockets had a range of about 1,000 yards. Some burst in the air like shells. Others, called ground rockets, would rise again on striking the ground and bound along in a serpentine motion until their force was spent. According to one British observer, a young English officer named Bayly: \"So pestered were we with the rocket boys that there was no moving without danger from the destructive missiles ...\". He continued:\nThe rockets and musketry from 20,000 of the enemy were incessant. No hail could be thicker. Every illumination of blue lights was accompanied by a shower of rockets, some of which entered the head of the column, passing through to the rear, causing death, wounds, and dreadful lacerations from the long bamboos of twenty or thirty feet, which are invariably attached to them.\nUnder the command of General Harris, some 24,000 troops were dispatched to Madras (to join an equal force being sent from Bombay in the west). Arthur and the 33rd sailed to join them in August.\n\nAfter extensive and careful logistic preparation (which would become one of Wellesley's main attributes) the 33rd left with the main force in December and travelled across of jungle from Madras to Mysore. On account of his brother, during the journey, Wellesley was given an additional command, that of chief advisor to the Nizam of Hyderabad's army (sent to accompany the British force). This position was to cause friction among many of the senior officers (some of whom were senior to Wellesley). Much of this friction was put to rest after the Battle of Mallavelly, some from Seringapatam, in which Harris' army attacked a large part of the sultan's army. During the battle, Wellesley led his men, in a line of battle of two ranks, against the enemy to a gentle ridge and gave the order to fire. After an extensive repetition of volleys, followed by a bayonet charge, the 33rd, in conjunction with the rest of Harris's force, forced Tipu's infantry to retreat.\n\nSeringapatam\nImmediately after their arrival at Seringapatam on 5 April 1799, the Battle of Seringapatam began and Wellesley was ordered to lead a night attack on the village of Sultanpettah, adjacent to the fortress to clear the way for the artillery. Because of a variety of factors including the Mysorean army's strong defensive preparations and the darkness the attack failed with 25 casualties due to confusion among the British. Wellesley suffered a minor injury to his knee from a spent musket-ball. Although they would re-attack successfully the next day, after time to scout ahead the enemy's positions, the affair affected Wellesley. He resolved \"never to attack an enemy who is preparing and strongly posted, and whose posts have not been reconnoitred by daylight\".\nLewin Bentham Bowring gives this alternative account:\n\nOne of these groves, called the Sultanpet Tope, was intersected by deep ditches, watered from a channel running in an easterly direction about a mile from the fort. General Baird was directed to scour this grove and dislodge the enemy, but on his advancing with this object on the night of the 5th, he found the tope unoccupied. The next day, however, the Mysore troops again took possession of the ground, and as it was absolutely necessary to expel them, two columns were detached at sunset for the purpose. The first of these, under Colonel Shawe, got possession of a ruined village, which it successfully held. The second column, under Colonel Wellesley, on advancing into the tope, was at once attacked in the darkness of night by a tremendous fire of musketry and rockets. The men, floundering about amidst the trees and the water-courses, at last broke, and fell back in disorder, some being killed and a few taken prisoners. In the confusion Colonel Wellesley was himself struck on the knee by a spent ball, and narrowly escaped falling into the hands of the enemy.\n\nA few weeks later, after extensive artillery bombardment, a breach was opened in the main walls of the fortress of Seringapatam. An attack led by Major-General Baird secured the fortress. Wellesley secured the rear of the advance, posting guards at the breach and then stationed his regiment at the main palace. After hearing news of the death of the Tipu Sultan, Wellesley was the first at the scene to confirm his death, checking his pulse. Over the coming day, Wellesley grew increasingly concerned over the lack of discipline among his men, who drank and pillaged the fortress and city. To restore order, several soldiers were flogged and four hanged.\n\nAfter battle and the resulting end of the war, the main force under General Harris left Seringapatam and Wellesley, aged 30, stayed behind to command the area as the new Governor of Seringapatam and Mysore. While in India, Wellesley was ill for a considerable time, first with severe diarrhoea from the water and then with fever, followed by a serious skin infection caused by trichophyton.\n\nWellesley was in charge of raising an Anglo-Indian expeditionary force in Trincomali in early 1801 for the capture of Batavia and Mauritius from the French. However, on the eve of its departure, orders arrived from England that it was to be sent to Egypt to co-operate with Sir Ralph Abercromby in the expulsion of the French from Egypt. Wellesley had been appointed second in command to Baird, but owing to ill health did not accompany the expedition on 9 April 1801. This was fortunate for Wellesley, since the very vessel on which he was to have sailed sank in the Red Sea.\n\nHe was promoted to brigadier-general on 17 July 1801. He took residence within the Sultan's summer palace and reformed the tax and justice systems in his province to maintain order and prevent bribery. He also defeated the rebel warlord Dhoondiah Waugh in the Battle of Conaghull, after the latter had escaped from prison in Seringapatam during the battle there.\n\nDhoondiah Waugh insurgency\nIn 1800, whilst serving as Governor of Mysore, Wellesley was tasked with putting down an insurgency led by Dhoondiah Waugh, formerly a Patan trooper for Tipu Sultan. After the fall of Seringapatam he became a powerful brigand, raiding villages along the Maratha–Mysore border region. Despite initial setbacks, the East India Company having pursued and destroyed his forces once already, forcing him into retreat in August 1799, he raised a sizeable force composed of disbanded Mysore soldiers, captured small outposts and forts in Mysore, and was receiving the support of several Maratha killedars opposed to British occupation. This drew the attention of the British administration, who were beginning to recognise him as more than just a bandit, as his raids, expansion and threats to destabilise British authority suddenly increased in 1800. The death of Tipu Sultan had created a power vacuum and Waugh was seeking to fill it.\n\nGiven independent command of a combined East India Company and British Army force, Wellesley ventured north to confront Waugh in June 1800, with an army of 8,000 infantry and cavalry, having learnt that Waugh's forces numbered over 50,000, although the majority (around 30,000) were irregular light cavalry and unlikely to pose a serious threat to British infantry and artillery.\n\nThroughout June–August 1800, Wellesley advanced through Waugh's territory, his troops escalading forts in turn and capturing each one with \"trifling loss\". The forts generally offered little resistance due to their poor construction and design. Wellesley did not have sufficient troops to garrison each fort and had to clear the surrounding area of insurgents before advancing to the next fort. On 31 July, he had \"taken and destroyed Dhoondiah's baggage and six guns, and driven into the Malpoorba (where they were drowned) about five thousand people\". Dhoondiah continued to retreat, but his forces were rapidly deserting, he had no infantry and due to the monsoon weather flooding river crossings he could no longer outpace the British advance. On 10 September, at the Battle of Conaghul, Wellesley personally led a charge of 1,400 British dragoons and Indian cavalry, in single line with no reserve, against Dhoondiah and his remaining 5,000 cavalry. Dhoondiah was killed during the clash, his body was discovered and taken to the British camp tied to a cannon. With this victory, Wellesley's campaign was concluded, and British authority had been restored.\n\nWellesley, with command of four regiments, had defeated Dhoondiah's larger rebel force, along with Dhoondiah himself, who was killed in the final battle. Wellesley then paid for the future upkeep of Dhoondiah's orphaned son.\n\nSecond Anglo-Maratha War\n\nIn September 1802, Wellesley learnt that he had been promoted to the rank of major-general. He had been gazetted on 29 April 1802, but the news took several months to reach him by sea. He remained at Mysore until November when he was sent to command an army in the Second Anglo-Maratha War.\n\nWhen he determined that a long defensive war would ruin his army, Wellesley decided to act boldly to defeat the numerically larger force of the Maratha Empire. With the logistic assembly of his army complete (24,000 men in total) he gave the order to break camp and attack the nearest Maratha fort on 8 August 1803. The fort surrendered on 12 August after an infantry attack had exploited an artillery-made breach in the wall. With the fort now in British control Wellesley was able to extend control southwards to the river Godavari.\n\nAssaye, Argaum and Gawilghur\n\nSplitting his army into two forces, to pursue and locate the main Marathas army, (the second force, commanded by Colonel Stevenson was far smaller) Wellesley was preparing to rejoin his forces on 24 September. His intelligence, however, reported the location of the Marathas' main army, between two rivers near Assaye. If he waited for the arrival of his second force, the Marathas would be able to mount a retreat, so Wellesley decided to launch an attack immediately.\n\nOn 23 September, Wellesley led his forces over a ford in the river Kaitna and the Battle of Assaye commenced. After crossing the ford the infantry was reorganised into several lines and advanced against the Maratha infantry. Wellesley ordered his cavalry to exploit the flank of the Maratha army just near the village. During the battle Wellesley himself came under fire; two of his horses were shot from under him and he had to mount a third. At a crucial moment, Wellesley regrouped his forces and ordered Colonel Maxwell (later killed in the attack) to attack the eastern end of the Maratha position while Wellesley himself directed a renewed infantry attack against the centre.\n\nAn officer in the attack wrote of the importance of Wellesley's personal leadership: \"The General was in the thick of the action the whole time ... I never saw a man so cool and collected as he was ... though I can assure you, 'til our troops got the order to advance the fate of the day seemed doubtful ...\" With some 6,000 Marathas killed or wounded, the enemy was routed, though Wellesley's force was in no condition to pursue. British casualties were heavy: the British losses amounted to 428 killed, 1,138 wounded and 18 missing (the British casualty figures were taken from Wellesley's own despatch). Wellesley was troubled by the loss of men and remarked that he hoped \"I should not like to see again such loss as I sustained on 23 September, even if attended by such gain\". Years later, however, he remarked that Assaye, and not Waterloo, was the best battle he ever fought.\n\nDespite the damage done to the Maratha army, the battle did not end the war. A few months later in November, Wellesley attacked a larger force near Argaum, leading his army to victory again, with an astonishing 5,000 enemy dead at the cost of only 361 British casualties. A further successful attack at the fortress at Gawilghur, combined with the victory of General Lake at Delhi forced the Maratha to sign a peace settlement at Anjangaon (not concluded until a year later) called the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon.\n\nMilitary historian Richard Holmes remarked that Wellesley's experiences in India had an important influence on his personality and military tactics, teaching him much about military matters that would prove vital to his success in the Peninsular War. These included a strong sense of discipline through drill and order, the use of diplomacy to gain allies, and the vital necessity of a secure supply line. He also established high regard for the acquisition of intelligence through scouts and spies. His personal tastes also developed, including dressing himself in white trousers, a dark tunic, with Hessian boots and black cocked hat (that later became synonymous as his style).\n\nLeaving India\n\nWellesley had grown tired of his time in India, remarking \"I have served as long in India as any man ought who can serve anywhere else\". In June 1804 he applied for permission to return home and as a reward for his service in India he was made a Knight of the Bath in September. While in India, Wellesley had amassed a fortune of £42,000 (considerable at the time), consisting mainly of prize money from his campaign. When his brother's term as Governor-General of India ended in March 1805, the brothers returned together to England on HMS Howe. Wellesley, coincidentally, stopped on his voyage at the island of Saint Helena and stayed in the same building in which Napoleon I would live during his later exile.\n\nReturn to Britain\n\nMeeting Nelson \nIn September 1805, Major-General Wellesley was newly returned from his campaigns in India and was not yet particularly well known to the public. He reported to the office of the Secretary of State for War and the Colonies to request a new assignment. In the waiting room, he met Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson, already a known figure after his victories at the Nile and Copenhagen, who was briefly in England after months pursuing the French Toulon fleet to the West Indies and back. Some 30 years later, Wellington recalled a conversation that Nelson began with him which Wellesley found \"almost all on his side in a style so vain and silly as to surprise and almost disgust me\". Nelson left the room to inquire who the young general was and, on his return, switched to a very different tone, discussing the war, the state of the colonies, and the geopolitical situation as between equals. On this second discussion, Wellington recalled, \"I don't know that I ever had a conversation that interested me more\". This was the only time that the two men met; Nelson was killed at his victory at Trafalgar seven weeks later.\n\nWellesley then served in the abortive Anglo-Russian expedition to north Germany in 1805, taking a brigade to Elbe.\n\nHe then took a period of extended leave from the army and was elected as a Tory member of the British parliament for Rye in January 1806. A year later, he was elected MP for Newport on the Isle of Wight, and was then appointed to serve as Chief Secretary for Ireland under the Duke of Richmond. At the same time, he was made a privy counsellor. While in Ireland, he gave a verbal promise that the remaining Penal Laws would be enforced with great moderation, perhaps an indication of his later willingness to support Catholic emancipation.\n\nWar against Denmark-Norway \n\nWellesley was in Ireland in May 1807 when he heard of the British expedition to Denmark-Norway. He decided to go, while maintaining his political appointments, and was appointed to command an infantry brigade in the Second Battle of Copenhagen, which took place in August. He fought at Køge, during which the men under his command took 1,500 prisoners, with Wellesley later present during the surrender.\n\nBy 30 September, he had returned to England and was raised to the rank of lieutenant general on 25 April 1808. In June 1808 he accepted the command of an expedition of 9,000 men. Preparing to sail for an attack on the Spanish colonies in South America (to assist the Latin American patriot Francisco de Miranda) his force was instead ordered to sail for Portugal, to take part in the Peninsular Campaign and rendezvous with 5,000 troops from Gibraltar.\n\nPeninsular War\n\n1808–1809 \nReady for battle, Wellesley left Cork on 12 July 1808 to participate in the war against French forces in the Iberian Peninsula, with his skills as a commander tested and developed.According to the historian Robin Neillands:\n\nWellesley defeated the French at the Battle of Roliça and the Battle of Vimeiro in 1808 but was superseded in command immediately after the latter battle. General Dalrymple then signed the controversial Convention of Sintra, which stipulated that the Royal Navy transport the French army out of Lisbon with all their loot, and insisted on the association of the only available government minister, Wellesley.\nDalrymple and Wellesley were recalled to Britain to face a Court of Enquiry. Wellesley had agreed to sign the preliminary armistice, but had not signed the convention, and was cleared.\n\nSimultaneously, Napoleon entered Spain with his veteran troops to put down the revolt; the new commander of the British forces in the Peninsula, Sir John Moore, died during the Battle of Corunna in January 1809.\n\nAlthough overall the land war with France was not going well from a British perspective, the Peninsula was the one theatre where they, with the Portuguese, had provided strong resistance against France and her allies. This contrasted with the disastrous Walcheren expedition, which was typical of the mismanaged British operations of the time. Wellesley submitted a memorandum to Lord Castlereagh on the defence of Portugal. He stressed its mountainous frontiers and advocated Lisbon as the main base because the Royal Navy could help to defend it. Castlereagh and the cabinet approved the memo and appointed him head of all British forces in Portugal.\n\nWellesley arrived in Lisbon on 22 April 1809 on board HMS Surveillante, after narrowly escaping shipwreck. Reinforced, he took to the offensive. In the Second Battle of Porto he crossed the Douro river in a daylight coup de main, and routed Marshal Soult's French troops in Porto.\n\nWith Portugal secured, Wellesley advanced into Spain to unite with General Cuesta's forces. The combined allied force prepared for an assault on Marshal Victor's I Corps at Talavera, 23 July. Cuesta, however, was reluctant to agree, and was only persuaded to advance on the following day. The delay allowed the French to withdraw, but Cuesta sent his army headlong after Victor, and found himself faced by almost the entire French army in New Castile—Victor had been reinforced by the Toledo and Madrid garrisons. The Spanish retreated precipitously, necessitating the advance of two British divisions to cover their retreat.\n\nThe next day, 27 July, at the Battle of Talavera the French advanced in three columns and were repulsed several times throughout the day by Wellesley, but at a heavy cost to the British force. In the aftermath Marshal Soult's army was discovered to be advancing south, threatening to cut Wellesley off from Portugal. Wellesley moved east on 3 August to block it, leaving 1,500 wounded in the care of the Spanish, intending to confront Soult before finding out that the French were in fact 30,000 strong. The British commander sent the Light Brigade on a dash to hold the bridge over the Tagus at Almaraz. With communications and supply from Lisbon secured for now, Wellesley considered joining with Cuesta again but found out that his Spanish ally had abandoned the British wounded to the French and was thoroughly uncooperative, promising and then refusing to supply the British forces, aggravating Wellesley and causing considerable friction between the British and their Spanish allies. The lack of supplies, coupled with the threat of French reinforcement (including the possible inclusion of Napoleon himself) in the spring, led to the British deciding to retreat into Portugal.\n\nFollowing his victory at Talavera, Wellesley was elevated to the Peerage of the United Kingdom on 26 August 1809 as Viscount Wellington of Talavera and of Wellington, in the County of Somerset, with the subsidiary title of Baron Douro of Wellesley.\n\n1810–1812 \nIn 1810, a newly enlarged French army under Marshal André Masséna invaded Portugal. British opinion was negative and there were suggestions to evacuate Portugal. Instead, Lord Wellington first slowed the French at Buçaco; he then prevented them from taking the Lisbon Peninsula by the construction of massive earthworks, known as the Lines of Torres Vedras, which had been assembled in complete secrecy with their flanks guarded by the Royal Navy. The baffled and starving French invasion forces retreated after six months. Wellington's pursuit was hindered by a series of reverses inflicted by Marshal Ney in a much-lauded rear guard campaign.\n\nIn 1811, Masséna returned toward Portugal to relieve Almeida; Wellington narrowly checked the French at the Battle of Fuentes de Oñoro. Simultaneously, his subordinate, Viscount Beresford, fought Soult's 'Army of the South' to a bloody stalemate at the Battle of Albuera in May. Wellington was promoted to full general on 31 July for his services. The French abandoned Almeida, avoiding British pursuit, but retained the twin Spanish fortresses of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, the 'Keys' guarding the roads through the mountain passes into Portugal.\n\nIn 1812, Wellington finally captured Ciudad Rodrigo via a rapid movement as the French went into winter quarters, storming it before they could react. He then moved south quickly, besieged the fortress of Badajoz for a month and captured it during the night on 6 April 1812. On viewing the aftermath of the Storming of Badajoz, Wellington lost his composure and cried at the sight of the British dead in the breaches.\n\nHis army now was a veteran British force reinforced by units of the retrained Portuguese army. Campaigning in Spain, he was made Earl of Wellington in the county of Somerset on 22 February 1812. He routed the French at the Battle of Salamanca, taking advantage of a minor French mispositioning. The victory liberated the Spanish capital of Madrid. He was later made Marquess of Wellington, in the said county on 18 August 1812.\n\nWellington attempted to take the vital fortress of Burgos, which linked Madrid to France. He failed, due in part to a lack of siege guns, forcing him into a headlong retreat with the loss of over 2,000 casualties.\n\nThe French abandoned Andalusia, and combined the troops of Soult and Marmont. Thus combined, the French outnumbered the British, putting the British forces in a precarious position. Wellington withdrew his army and, joined by the smaller corps under the command of Rowland Hill, which had been moved to Madrid, began to retreat to Portugal. Marshal Soult declined to attack.\n\n1813–1814 \nIn 1813, Wellington led a new offensive, this time against the French line of communications. He struck through the hills north of Burgos, the Tras os Montes, and switched his supply line from Portugal to Santander on Spain's north coast; this led to the French abandoning Madrid and Burgos. Continuing to outflank the French lines, Wellington caught up with and routed the army of King Joseph Bonaparte in the Battle of Vitoria, for which he was promoted to field marshal on 21 June. He personally led a column against the French centre, while other columns commanded by Sir Thomas Graham, Rowland Hill and the Earl of Dalhousie looped around the French right and left (this battle became the subject of Beethoven's orchestral piece, the Wellington's Victory (Opus 91). The British troops broke ranks to loot the abandoned French wagons instead of pursuing the beaten foe. When troops failed to return to their units and began harassing the locals, an enraged Wellington to write in a famous despatch to Earl Bathurst, \"We have in the service the scum of the earth as common soldiers\".\n\nAlthough later, when his temper had cooled, he extended his comment to praise the men under his command saying that though many of the men were, \"the scum of the earth; it is really wonderful that we should have made them to the fine fellows they are\".\n\nAfter taking the small fortresses of Pamplona, Wellington invested San Sebastián but was frustrated by the obstinate French garrison, losing 693 dead and 316 captured in a failed assault and suspending the siege at the end of July. Soult's relief attempt was blocked by the Spanish Army of Galicia at San Marcial, allowing the Allies to consolidate their position and tighten the ring around the city, which fell in September after a second spirited defence. Wellington then forced Soult's demoralised and battered army into a fighting retreat into France, punctuated by battles at the Pyrenees, Bidassoa and Nivelle. Wellington invaded southern France, winning at the Nive and Orthez. Wellington's final battle against his rival Soult occurred at Toulouse, where the Allied divisions were badly mauled storming the French redoubts, losing some 4,600 men. Despite this momentary victory, news arrived of Napoleon's defeat and abdication and Soult, seeing no reason to continue the fighting, agreed on a ceasefire with Wellington, allowing Soult to evacuate the city.\n\nHailed as the conquering hero by the British, on 3 May 1814 Wellington was made Duke of Wellington, in the county of Somerset, together with the subsidiary title of Marquess Douro, in said County.\n\nHe received some recognition during his lifetime (the title of \"Duque de Ciudad Rodrigo\" and \"Grandee of Spain\") and the Spanish King Ferdinand VII allowed him to keep part of the works of art from the Royal Collection which he had recovered from the French. His equestrian portrait features prominently in the Monument to the Battle of Vitoria, in present-day Vitoria-Gasteiz.\n His popularity in Britain was due to his image and his appearance as well as to his military triumphs. His victory fitted well with the passion and intensity of the Romantic movement, with its emphasis on individuality. His personal style influenced the fashions in Britain at the time: his tall, lean figure and his plumed black hat and grand yet classic uniform and white trousers became very popular.\n\nIn late 1814, the Prime Minister wanted him to take command in Canada with the assignment of winning the War of 1812 against the United States. Wellesley replied that he would go to America, but he believed that he was needed more in Europe. He stated:\n\nHe was appointed Ambassador to France, then took Lord Castlereagh's place as first plenipotentiary to the Congress of Vienna.\n\nOn 2 January 1815, the title of his Knighthood of the Bath was converted to Knight Grand Cross upon the expansion of that order.\n\nHundred Days\n\nFacing Napoleon\n\nOn 26 February 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France. He regained control of the country by May and faced a renewed alliance against him. Wellington left Vienna for what became known as the Waterloo Campaign. He arrived in the Netherlands to take command of the British-German army and their allied Dutch, all stationed alongside the Prussian forces of Generalfeldmarschall Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher.\n\nNapoleon's strategy was to isolate the Allied and Prussian armies and annihilate each one separately before the Austrians and Russians arrived. In doing so the vast superiority in numbers of the Coalition would be greatly diminished. He would then seek the possibility of peace with Austria and Russia.\n\nThe French invaded the Netherlands, with Napoleon defeating the Prussians at Ligny, and Marshal Ney engaging indecisively with Wellington at the Battle of Quatre Bras. The Prussians retreated 18 miles north to Wavre whilst Wellington's Anglo-Allied army withdrew 15 miles north to a site he had noted the previous year as favourable for a battle: the north ridge of a shallow valley on the Brussels road, just south of the small town of Waterloo. On 17 June there was torrential rain, which severely hampered movement. and had a considerable effect the next day, 18 June, when the Battle of Waterloo was fought. This was the first time Wellington had encountered Napoleon; he commanded an Anglo-Dutch-German army that consisted of approximately 73,000 troops, 26,000 of whom were British. Approximately 30 percent of that 26,000 were Irish.\n\nBattle of Waterloo\n\nThe Battle of Waterloo was fought on Sunday 18 June 1815, near Waterloo (at that time in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, now in Belgium). It commenced with a diversionary attack on Hougoumont by a division of French soldiers. After a barrage of 80 cannons, the first French infantry attack was launched by Comte D'Erlon's I Corps. D'Erlon's troops advanced through the Allied centre, resulting in Allied troops in front of the ridge retreating in disorder through the main position. D'Erlon's corps stormed the most fortified Allied position, La Haye Sainte, but failed to take it. An Allied division under Thomas Picton met the remainder of D'Erlon's corps head to head, engaging them in an infantry duel in which Picton was killed. During this struggle Lord Uxbridge launched two of his cavalry brigades at the enemy, catching the French infantry off guard, driving them to the bottom of the slope, and capturing two French Imperial Eagles. The charge, however, over-reached itself, and the British cavalry, crushed by fresh French horsemen sent at them by Napoleon, were driven back, suffering tremendous losses.\n\nShortly before 16:00, Marshal Ney noted an apparent withdrawal from Wellington's centre. He mistook the movement of casualties to the rear for the beginnings of a retreat, and sought to exploit it. Ney at this time had few infantry reserves left, as most of the infantry had been committed either to the futile Hougoumont attack or to the defence of the French right. Ney, therefore, tried to break Wellington's centre with a cavalry charge alone.\n\nAt about 16:30, the first Prussian corps arrived. Commanded by Freiherr von Bülow, IV Corps arrived as the French cavalry attack was in full spate. Bülow sent the 15th Brigade to link up with Wellington's left flank in the Frichermont–La Haie area while the brigade's horse artillery battery and additional brigade artillery deployed to its left in support. Napoleon sent Lobau's corps to intercept the rest of Bülow's IV Corps proceeding to Plancenoit. The 15th Brigade sent Lobau's corps into retreat to the Plancenoit area. Von Hiller's 16th Brigade also pushed forward with six battalions against Plancenoit. Napoleon had dispatched all eight battalions of the Young Guard to reinforce Lobau, who was now seriously pressed by the enemy. Napoleon's Young Guard counter-attacked and, after very hard fighting, secured Plancenoit, but were themselves counter-attacked and driven out. Napoleon then resorted to sending two battalions of the Middle and Old Guard into Plancenoit and after ferocious fighting they recaptured the village.\nThe French cavalry attacked the British infantry squares many times, each at a heavy cost to the French but with few British casualties. Ney himself was displaced from his horse four times. Eventually, it became obvious, even to Ney, that cavalry alone were achieving little. Belatedly, he organised a combined-arms attack, using Bachelu's division and Tissot's regiment of Foy's division from Reille's II Corps plus those French cavalry that remained in a fit state to fight. This assault was directed along much the same route as the previous heavy cavalry attacks.\n\nMeanwhile, at approximately the same time as Ney's combined-arms assault on the centre-right of Wellington's line, Napoleon ordered Ney to capture La Haye Sainte at whatever the cost. Ney accomplished this with what was left of D'Erlon's corps soon after 18:00. Ney then moved horse artillery up towards Wellington's centre and began to attack the infantry squares at short-range with canister. This all but destroyed the 27th (Inniskilling) Regiment, and the 30th and 73rd Regiments suffered such heavy losses that they had to combine to form a viable square. Wellington's centre was now on the verge of collapse and wide open to an attack from the French. Luckily for Wellington, Pirch I's and Zieten's corps of the Prussian Army were now at hand. Zieten's corps permitted the two fresh cavalry brigades of Vivian and Vandeleur on Wellington's extreme left to be moved and posted behind the depleted centre. Pirch I Corps then proceeded to support Bülow and together they regained possession of Plancenoit, and once more the Charleroi road was swept by Prussian round shot. The value of this reinforcement is held in high regard.\n\nThe French army now fiercely attacked the Coalition all along the line with the culminating point being reached when Napoleon sent forward the Imperial Guard at 19:30. The attack of the Imperial Guards was mounted by five battalions of the Middle Guard, and not by the Grenadiers or Chasseurs of the Old Guard. Marching through a hail of canister and skirmisher fire and severely outnumbered, the 3,000 or so Middle Guardsmen advanced to the west of La Haye Sainte and proceeded to separate into three distinct attack forces. One, consisting of two battalions of Grenadiers, defeated the Coalition's first line and marched on. Chassé's relatively fresh Dutch division was sent against them, and Allied artillery fired into the victorious Grenadiers' flank. This still could not stop the Guard's advance, so Chassé ordered his first brigade to charge the outnumbered French, who faltered and broke.\n\nFurther to the west, 1,500 British Foot Guards under Maitland were lying down to protect themselves from the French artillery. As two battalions of Chasseurs approached, the second prong of the Imperial Guard's attack, Maitland's guardsmen rose and devastated them with point-blank volleys. The Chasseurs deployed to counter-attack but began to waver. A bayonet charge by the Foot Guards then broke them. The third prong, a fresh Chasseur battalion, now came up in support. The British guardsmen retreated with these Chasseurs in pursuit, but the latter were halted as the 52nd Light Infantry wheeled in line onto their flank and poured a devastating fire into them and then charged. Under this onslaught, they too broke.\n\nThe last of the Guard retreated headlong. Mass panic ensued through the French lines as the news spread: \"La Garde recule. Sauve qui peut!\" (\"The Guard is retreating. Every man for himself!\"). Wellington then stood up in Copenhagen's stirrups, and waved his hat in the air to signal an advance of the Allied line just as the Prussians were overrunning the French positions to the east. What remained of the French army then abandoned the field in disorder. Wellington and Blücher met at the inn of La Belle Alliance, on the north–south road which bisected the battlefield, and it was agreed that the Prussians should pursue the retreating French army back to France. The Treaty of Paris was signed on 20 November 1815.\n\nAfter the victory, the Duke supported proposals that a medal be awarded to all British soldiers who participated in the Waterloo campaign, and on 28 June 1815, he wrote to the Duke of York suggesting: ... the expediency of giving to the non-commissioned officers and soldiers engaged in the Battle of Waterloo a medal. I am convinced it would have the best effect in the army, and if the battle should settle our concerns, they will well deserve it.The Waterloo Medal was duly authorised and distributed to all ranks in 1816.\n\nControversy\nMuch historical discussion has been made about Napoleon's decision to send 33,000 troops under Marshal Grouchy to intercept the Prussians, but—having defeated Blücher at Ligny on 16 June and forced the Allies to retreat in divergent directions—Napoleon may have been strategically astute in a judgement that he would have been unable to beat the combined Allied forces on one battlefield. Wellington's comparable strategic gamble was to leave 17,000 troops and artillery, mostly Dutch, away at Hal, north-west of Mont-Saint-Jean, in case of a French advance up the Mons-Hal-Brussels road.\n\nThe campaign led to numerous other controversies. Issues concerning Wellington's troop dispositions prior to Napoleon's invasion of the Netherlands, whether Wellington misled or betrayed Blücher by promising, then failing, to come directly to Blücher's aid at Ligny, and credit for the victory between Wellington and the Prussians. These and other such issues concerning Blücher's, Wellington's, and Napoleon's decisions during the campaign were the subject of a strategic-level study by the Prussian political-military theorist Carl von Clausewitz, Feldzug von 1815: Strategische Uebersicht des Feldzugs von 1815, (English title: The Campaign of 1815: Strategic Overview of the Campaign.) This study was Clausewitz's last such work and is widely considered to be the best example of Clausewitz's mature theories concerning such analyses. It attracted the attention of Wellington's staff, who prompted the Duke to write a published essay on the campaign (other than his immediate, official after-action report, \"The Waterloo Dispatch\".) This was published as the 1842 \"Memorandum on the Battle of Waterloo\". While Wellington disputed Clausewitz on several points, Clausewitz largely absolved Wellington of accusations levelled against him. This exchange with Clausewitz was quite famous in Britain in the 19th century, particularly in Charles Cornwallis Chesney's work the Waterloo Lectures, but was largely ignored in the 20th century due to hostilities between Britain and Germany.\n\nPolitics\n\nPrime Minister\n\nWellington entered politics again when he was appointed Master-General of the Ordnance in the Tory government of Lord Liverpool on 26 December 1818. He also became Governor of Plymouth on 9 October 1819. He was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Army on 22 January 1827 and Constable of the Tower of London on 5 February 1827.\n\nAlong with Robert Peel, Wellington became an increasingly influential member of the Tory party, and in 1828 he resigned as Commander-in-Chief and became prime minister.\n\nDuring his first seven months as prime minister, he chose not to live in the official residence at 10 Downing Street, finding it too small. He moved in only because his own home, Apsley House, required extensive renovations. During this time he was largely instrumental in the foundation of King's College London. On 20 January 1829 Wellington was appointed Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports.\n\nReform\n\nHis term was marked by Roman Catholic Emancipation: the restoration of most civil rights to Roman Catholics in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The change was prompted by the landslide by-election win of Daniel O'Connell, a Roman Catholic Irish proponent of emancipation, who was elected despite not being legally allowed to sit in Parliament. In the House of Lords, facing stiff opposition, Wellington spoke for Catholic Emancipation, and according to some sources, gave one of the best speeches of his career. Wellington was born in Ireland and so had some understanding of the grievances of the Roman Catholic majority there; as Chief Secretary, he had given an undertaking that the remaining Penal Laws would only be enforced as \"mildly\" as possible. In 1811 Catholic soldiers were given freedom of worship and 18 years later the Catholic Relief Act 1829 was passed with a majority of 105. Many Tories voted against the Act, and it passed only with the help of the Whigs. Wellington had threatened to resign as prime minister if King George IV did not give Royal Assent.\n\nThe Earl of Winchilsea accused the Duke of \"an insidious design for the infringement of our liberties and the introduction of Popery into every department of the State\". Wellington responded by immediately challenging Winchilsea to a duel. On 21 March 1829, Wellington and Winchilsea met on Battersea fields. When the time came to fire, the Duke took aim and Winchilsea kept his arm down. The Duke fired wide to the right. Accounts differ as to whether he missed on purpose, an act known in duelling as a delope. Wellington claimed he did. However, he was noted for his poor aim and reports more sympathetic to Winchilsea claimed he had aimed to kill. Winchilsea discharged his pistol into the air, a plan he and his second had almost certainly decided upon before the duel. Honour was saved and Winchilsea wrote Wellington an apology.\n\nThe nickname \"Iron Duke\" originated from this period, when he experienced a high degree of personal and political unpopularity. Its repeated use in Freeman's Journal throughout June 1830 appears to bear reference to his resolute political will, with taints of disapproval from its Irish editors. During this time, Wellington was greeted by a hostile reaction from the crowds at the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.\n\nWellington's government fell in 1830. In the summer and autumn of that year, a wave of riots swept the country. The Whigs had been out of power for most years since the 1770s, and saw political reform in response to the unrest as the key to their return. Wellington stuck to the Tory policy of no reform and no expansion of suffrage, and as a result, lost a vote of no confidence on 15 November 1830.\n\nThe Whigs introduced the first Reform Bill while Wellington and the Tories worked to prevent its passage. The Whigs could not get the bill past its second reading in the British House of Commons, and the attempt failed. An election followed in direct response and the Whigs were returned with a landslide majority. A second Reform Act was introduced and passed in the House of Commons but was defeated in the Tory-controlled House of Lords. Another wave of near-insurrection swept the country. Wellington's residence at Apsley House was targeted by a mob of demonstrators on 27 April 1831 and again on 12 October, leaving his windows smashed. Iron shutters were installed in June 1832 to prevent further damage by crowds angry over rejection of the Reform Bill, which he strongly opposed. The Whig Government fell in 1832 and Wellington was unable to form a Tory Government partly because of a run on the Bank of England. This left King William IV no choice but to restore Earl Grey to the premiership. Eventually, the bill passed the House of Lords after the King threatened to fill that House with newly created Whig peers if it were not. Wellington was never reconciled to the change; when Parliament first met after the first election under the widened franchise, Wellington is reported to have said \"I never saw so many shocking bad hats in my life\".\n\nWellington opposed the Jewish Civil Disabilities Repeal Bill, and he stated in Parliament on 1 August 1833 that England \"is a Christian country and a Christian legislature, and that the effect of this measure would be to remove that peculiar character.\" The Bill was defeated by 104 votes to 54.\n\nGovernment\n\nWellington was gradually superseded as leader of the Tories by Robert Peel, while the party evolved into the Conservatives. When the Tories were returned to power in 1834, Wellington declined to become prime minister because he thought membership in the House of Commons had become essential. The king reluctantly approved Peel, who was in Italy. Hence, Wellington acted as interim leader for three weeks in November and December 1834, taking the responsibilities of prime minister and most of the other ministries. In Peel's first cabinet (1834–1835), Wellington became foreign secretary, while in the second (1841–1846) he was a minister without portfolio and Leader of the House of Lords. Wellington was also re-appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Army on 15 August 1842 following the resignation of Lord Hill.\n\nWellington served as the leader of the Conservative party in the House of Lords from 1828 to 1846. Some historians have belittled him as a befuddled reactionary, but a consensus in the late 20th century depicts him as a shrewd operator who hid his cleverness behind the façade of a poorly informed old soldier. Wellington worked to transform the Lords from unstinting support of the Crown to an active player in political manoeuvering, with a commitment to the landed aristocracy. He used his London residence as a venue for intimate dinners and private consultations, together with extensive correspondence that kept him in close touch with party leaders in the Commons, and the main persona in the Lords. He gave public rhetorical support to Ultra-Tory anti-reform positions, but then deftly changed positions toward the party's centre, especially when Peel needed support from the upper house. Wellington's success was based on the 44 elected peers from Scotland and Ireland, whose elections he controlled.\n\nLater life\n\nFamily \n\nWellesley was married by his brother Gerald, a clergyman, to Kitty Pakenham in St George's Church, Dublin on 10 April 1806. They had two children: Arthur was born in 1807 and Charles was born in 1808. The marriage proved unsatisfactory and the two spent years apart, while Wellesley was campaigning and afterwards. Kitty grew depressed, and Wellesley pursued other sexual and romantic partners. The couple largely lived apart, with Kitty spending most of her time at their country home, Stratfield Saye House and Wellesley at their London home, Apsley House. Kitty's brother Edward Pakenham served under Wellesley throughout the Peninsular War, and Wellesley's regard for him helped to smooth his relations with Kitty, until Pakenham's death at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815.\n\nRetirement\nWellington retired from political life in 1846, although he remained Commander-in-Chief, and returned briefly to the public eye in 1848 when he helped organise a military force to protect London during the year of European revolution. The Conservative Party had split over the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, with Wellington and most of the former Cabinet still supporting Peel, but most of the MPs led by Lord Derby supporting a protectionist stance. Early in 1852 Wellington, by then very deaf, gave Derby's first government its nickname by shouting \"Who? Who?\" as the list of inexperienced Cabinet ministers was read out in the House of Lords. He became Chief Ranger and Keeper of Hyde Park and St James's Park on 31 August 1850. He remained colonel of the 33rd Regiment of Foot from 1 February 1806 and colonel of the Grenadier Guards from 22 January 1827. Kitty died of cancer in 1831; despite their generally unhappy relations, which had led to an effective separation, Wellington was said to have been greatly saddened by her death, his one comfort being that after \"half a lifetime together, they had come to understand each other at the end\". He had found consolation for his unhappy marriage in his warm friendship with the diarist Harriet Arbuthnot, wife of his colleague Charles Arbuthnot. Harriet's death in the cholera epidemic of 1834 was almost as great a blow to Wellington as it was to her husband. The two widowers spent their last years together at Apsley House.\n\nDeath and funeral\n\nWellington died at Walmer Castle in Kent, his residence as Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports and reputedly his favourite home, on 14 September 1852. He was found to be unwell on that morning and was helped from his campaign bed, which he had used throughout his military career, and seated in his chair where he died. His death was recorded as being due to the after-effects of a stroke culminating in a series of seizures. He was aged 83.\n\nAlthough in life he hated travelling by rail, having witnessed the death of William Huskisson, one of the first railway accident casualties, his body was taken by train to London, where he was given a state funeral – one of a small number of British subjects to be so honoured (other examples include Lord Nelson and Sir Winston Churchill). The funeral took place on 18 November 1852. Before the funeral, the Duke's body lay in state at the Royal Hospital Chelsea. Members of the royal family, including Queen Victoria, the Prince Consort, the Prince of Wales, and the Princess Royal, visited to pay their respects. When viewing opened to the public, crowds thronged to visit and several people were killed in the crush.\n\nHe was buried in St Paul's Cathedral, and during his funeral, there was little space to stand due to the number of attendees. A bronze memorial was sculpted by Alfred Stevens, and features two intricate supports: \"Truth tearing the tongue out of the mouth of False-hood\", and \"Valour trampling Cowardice underfoot\". Stevens did not live to see it placed in its home under one of the arches of the cathedral.\n\nWellington's casket was decorated with banners which were made for his funeral procession. Originally, there was one from Prussia, which was removed during World War I and never reinstated. In the procession, the \"Great Banner\" was carried by General Sir James Charles Chatterton of the 4th Dragoon Guards on the orders of Queen Victoria.\n\nMost of the book A Biographical Sketch of the Military and Political Career of the Late Duke of Wellington by Weymouth newspaper proprietor Joseph Drew is a detailed contemporary account of his death, lying in state and funeral.\n\nAfter his death, Irish and English newspapers disputed whether Wellington had been born an Irishman or an Englishman. In 2002, he was number 15 in the BBC's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons.\n\nOwing to its links with Wellington, as the former commanding officer and colonel of the regiment, the title \"33rd (The Duke of Wellington's) Regiment\" was granted to the 33rd Regiment of Foot, on 18 June 1853 (the 38th anniversary of the Battle of Waterloo) by Queen Victoria. Wellington's battle record is exemplary; he participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career.\n\nPersonality\n\nWellington always rose early; he \"couldn't bear to lie awake in bed\", even if the army was not on the march. Even when he returned to civilian life after 1815, he slept in a camp bed, reflecting his lack of regard for creature comforts. General Miguel de Álava complained that Wellington said so often that the army would march \"at daybreak\" and dine on \"cold meat\" that he began to dread those two phrases. While on campaign, he seldom ate anything between breakfast and dinner. During the retreat to Portugal in 1811, he subsisted on \"cold meat and bread\", to the despair of his staff who dined with him. He was, however, renowned for the quality of the wine that he drank and served, often drinking a bottle with his dinner (not a great quantity by the standards of his day).\n\nÁlava was a witness to an incident just before the Battle of Salamanca. Wellington was eating a chicken leg while observing the manoeuvres of the French army through a spyglass. He spotted an overextension in the French left flank, and realised that he could launch a successful attack there. He exclaimed \"By God, that will do!\" and threw the drumstick in the air. After the Battle of Toulouse, Colonel Frederick Ponsonby brought him the news of Napoleon's abdication, and Wellington broke into an impromptu flamenco dance, spinning around on his heels and clicking his fingers.\n\nMilitary historian Charles Dalton recorded that, after a hard-fought battle in Spain, a young officer made the comment, \"I am going to dine with Wellington tonight\", which was overheard by the Duke as he rode by. \"Give me at least the prefix of Mr. before my name,\" Wellington said. \"My Lord,\" replied the officer, \"we do not speak of Mr. Caesar or Mr. Alexander, so why should I speak of Mr. Wellington?\"\n\nWhile known for his stern countenance and iron-handed discipline, Wellington was by no means unfeeling. While he is said to have disapproved of soldiers cheering as \"too nearly an expression of opinion\". Wellington nevertheless cared for his men: he refused to pursue the French after the battles of Porto and Salamanca, foreseeing an inevitable cost to his army in chasing a diminished enemy through rough terrain. The only time that he ever showed grief in public was after the storming of Badajoz: he cried at the sight of the British dead in the breaches.In this context, his famous despatch after the Battle of Vitoria, calling them the \"scum of the earth\" can be seen to be fuelled as much by disappointment at their breaking ranks as by anger. He shed tears after Waterloo on the presentation of the list of British fallen by Dr John Hume. Later with his family, unwilling to be congratulated for his victory, he broke down in tears, his fighting spirit diminished by the high cost of the battle and great personal loss.\n\nWellington's soldier servant, a gruff German called Beckerman, and his long-serving valet, James Kendall, who served him for 25 years and was with him when he died, were both devoted to him. (A story that he never spoke to his servants and preferred instead to write his orders on a notepad on his dressing table in fact probably refers to his son, the 2nd Duke. It was recorded by the 3rd Duke's niece, Viva Seton Montgomerie (1879–1959), as being an anecdote she heard from an old retainer, Charles Holman, who was said greatly to resemble Napoleon.)\n\nFollowing an incident when, as Master-General of the Ordnance he had been close to a large explosion, Wellington began to experience deafness and other ear-related problems. In 1822, he had an operation to improve the hearing of the left ear. The result, however, was that he became permanently deaf on that side. It is claimed that he was \"never quite well afterwards\".\n\nWellington came to enjoy the company of a variety of intellectual and attractive women and had many amorous liaisons, particularly after the Battle of Waterloo and his subsequent ambassadorial position in Paris. In the days following Waterloo he had an affair with the notorious Lady Caroline Lamb, sister of one of his severely wounded officers and favourites, Col Frederick Ponsonby. He corresponded for many years with Lady Georgiana Lennox, later Lady de Ros, 26 years his junior and daughter of the Duchess of Richmond (who held the famous ball on the eve of Waterloo) and, though there are hints, it has not been clearly determined if the relationship was ever sexual. The British press lampooned the amorous side of the national hero. In 1824, one liaison came back to haunt him, when Wellington received a letter from a publisher, John Joseph Stockdale offering to refrain from issuing an edition of the rather racy memoirs of one of his mistresses Harriette Wilson, in exchange for money. It is said that the Duke promptly returned the letter, after scrawling across it, \"Publish and be damned\". However, Hibbert notes in his biography that the letter can be found among the Duke's papers, with nothing written on it. It is certain that Wellington reply, and the tone of a further letter from the publisher, quoted by Longford, suggests that he had refused in the strongest language to submit to blackmail.\n\nHe was also a remarkably practical man who spoke concisely. In 1851, it was discovered that there were a great many sparrows flying about in the Crystal Palace just before the Great Exhibition was to open. His advice to Queen Victoria was \"Sparrowhawks, ma'am\".\n\nWellington has often been portrayed as a defensive general, even though many, perhaps most, of his battles were offensive (Argaum, Assaye, Oporto, Salamanca, Vitoria, Toulouse). However, for most of the Peninsular War, where he earned his fame, his army lacked the numbers for a strategically offensive posture.\n\nTitles and tributes\n\nNicknames\n\nThe Iron Duke\n\nThis commonly used nickname originally related to his consistent political resolve rather than to any particular incident. In various cases its editorial use appears to be disparaging.\n\nIt is likely that its use became more widespread after an incident in 1832 in which he installed metal shutters to prevent rioters breaking windows at Apsley House. The term may have been made increasingly popular by Punch cartoons published in 1844–45.\n\nOther nicknames\n In the popular ballads of the day Wellington was called \"Nosey\" or \"Old Nosey\".\n Tsar Alexander I of Russia called Wellington \"Le vainqueur du vainqueur du monde\", the conqueror of the world's conqueror, the phrase \"the world's conqueror\" referring to Napoleon. Lord Tennyson uses a similar reference in his \"Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington\", referring to him as \"the great World-victor's victor\".\n Officers under his command called him \"The Beau\", as he was a fine dresser.\n Spanish troops called him \"The Eagle\", while Portuguese troops called him \"Douro Douro\" after his river crossing at Oporto in 1809.\n \"Beau Douro\"; Wellington found this amusing when hearing it used by a Colonel of the Coldstream Guards.\n \"Sepoy General\"; Napoleon used this term as an insult to Wellington's military service in India, publicly considering him an unworthy opponent. The name was used in the French newspaper Le Moniteur Universel, as a means of propaganda.\n \"The Beef\"; It is a theory that the Beef Wellington dish is a reference to Wellington, although some chefs dispute this.\n \"Europe's Liberator\"\n \"Saviour of the Nations\"\n\nSee also\n\n Military career of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington\n Army Gold Medal\n Military General Service Medal\n Seringapatam medal\n Cotiote War\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nCitations\n\nSources\nBooks\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n .\n \n\nOnline resources\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nJournals and magazines\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nPrimary sources\n\nFurther reading\n\n \n \n This on-line text contains Clausewitz's 58-chapter study of the Campaign of 1815 and Wellington's lengthy 1842 essay written in response to Clausewitz, as well as supporting documents and essays by the editors.\n \n \n \n Goldsmith, Thomas. \"The Duke of Wellington and British Foreign Policy 1814-1830.\" (PhD Diss. University of East Anglia, 2016). online\n \n \n \n Lambert, A. \"Politics, administration and decision-making: Wellington and the navy, 1828–30\" Wellington Studies IV, ed. C. M. Woolgar, (Southampton, 2008), pp. 185–243.\n Longford, Elizabeth. Wellington: Pillar of State (1972), vol 2 of her biography; online\n\nExternal links\n\n Records and images from the UK Parliament Collections\n The life of Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington\n Duke of Wellington's Regiment – West Riding\n Papers of Arthur Wellesley, first Duke of Wellington (MS 61) at the University of Southampton\n \n \n \n More about Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington on the Downing Street website\n \n \n \n \"Napoleon and Wellington\", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Andrew Roberts, Mike Broer and Belinda Beaton (In Our Time, 25 October 2001)\n\n \nCategory:1769 births\nCategory:1852 deaths\nCategory:19th-century Anglo-Irish people\nCategory:19th-century prime ministers of the United Kingdom\nWellesley Arthur\nWellesley, Arthur\nCategory:Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to France\nCategory:British Army commanders of the Napoleonic Wars\nCategory:British Army personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars\nCategory:British Army personnel of the Peninsular War\nCategory:British Secretaries of State for Foreign Affairs\nCategory:British Secretaries of State\nCategory:British field marshals\nCategory:British military personnel of the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War\nCategory:British military personnel of the Second Anglo-Maratha War\nCategory:Burials at St Paul's Cathedral\nCategory:Chancellors of the University of Oxford\nCategory:Chief Secretaries for Ireland\nCategory:Commissioners of the Treasury for Ireland\nCategory:Constables of the Tower of London\nCategory:Cotiote War\nCategory:Diplomatic peers\nCategory:British duellists\nCategory:Duke of Wellington's Regiment officers\nCategory:Dukes da Vitória\nCategory:Dukes of Ciudad Rodrigo\n101\nWellesley, Arthur 1\nCategory:Fellows of the Royal Society\nCategory:Field marshals of Portugal\nCategory:Field marshals of Russia\nCategory:Grandees of Spain\nCategory:Grenadier Guards officers\nCategory:Irish Anglicans\nWellesley, Arthur\nCategory:Irish expatriates in England\nCategory:Irish expatriates in France\nCategory:Irish expatriates in India\nCategory:Irish expatriates in Portugal\nCategory:Irish expatriates in Spain\nCategory:Irish expatriates in the Netherlands\nCategory:Irish officers in the British Army\nCategory:Leaders of the Conservative Party (UK)\nCategory:Lord High Constables of England\nCategory:Lord-Lieutenants of Hampshire\nCategory:Lord-Lieutenants of the Tower Hamlets\nCategory:Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports\nCategory:MPs for rotten boroughs\nCategory:Members of Trinity House\nWellesley, Arthur\nWellesley, Arthur\nWellesley, Arthur\nCategory:Members of the Privy Council of Ireland\nCategory:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom\nCategory:Peers of the United Kingdom created by George III\nCategory:People associated with King's College London\nCategory:People educated at Eton College\nWellesley, Arthur\nCategory:Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom\nCategory:Princes of Waterloo\nCategory:Regency era\nCategory:Royal Horse Guards officers\nCategory:Spanish captain generals\nCategory:Tory prime ministers of the United Kingdom\nWellesley, Arthur\nWellesley, Arthur\nCategory:UK MPs who were granted peerages\nArthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington\nCategory:Younger sons of earls\n\nCategory:Knights of the Garter\nCategory:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath\nCategory:Recipients of the Army Gold Cross\nCategory:Recipients of the Waterloo Medal\nCategory:Grand Crosses of the Military Order of Maria Theresa\nCategory:Grand Crosses of the Military Order of Max Joseph\nCategory:Knights Grand Cross of the Military Order of William\nCategory:Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 1st class\nCategory:Recipients of the Order of St. George of the First Degree\nCategory:Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain\nCategory:Grand Crosses of the Royal and Military Order of San Hermenegild\nCategory:Laureate Cross of Saint Ferdinand\nCategory:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword\nCategory:Leaders of the House of Lords\nW", "title": "Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington" }, { "text": "W, or w, is the twenty-third and fourth-to-last letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. It represents a consonant, but in some languages it represents a vowel. Its name in English is double-u, plural double-ues.\n\nHistory\n\nThe classical Latin alphabet, from which the modern European alphabets derived, did not have the \"W\" character. The \"W\" sounds were represented by the Latin letter \"V\" (at the time, not yet distinct from \"U\").\n\nThe sounds (spelled ) and (spelled ) of Classical Latin developed into the voiced bilabial fricative between vowels in Early Medieval Latin. Therefore, no longer adequately represented the voiced labial-velar approximant sound of Germanic phonology.\n\nThe Germanic phoneme was, therefore, written as or ( and becoming distinct only by the Early Modern period) by the earliest writers of Old English and Old High German, in the 7th or 8th centuries. Gothic (not Latin-based), by contrast, had simply used a letter based on the Greek Υ for the same sound in the 4th century. The digraph / was also used in Medieval Latin to represent Germanic names, including Gothic ones like Wamba.\n\nIt is from this digraph that the modern name \"double U\" derives. The digraph was commonly used in the spelling of Old High German but only in the earliest texts in Old English, where the sound soon came to be represented by borrowing the rune , adapted as the Latin letter wynn: . In early Middle English, following the 11th-century Norman Conquest, regained popularity; by 1300, it had taken wynn's place in common use.\n\nScribal realisation of the digraph could look like a pair of Vs whose branches crossed in the middle: both forms (separate and crossed) appear, for instance, in the \"running text\" (in Latin) of the Bayeux tapestry in proper names such as EDVVARDVS and VVILLELMVS (or the same with crossed Vs). Another realisation (common in roundhand, kurrent and blackletter) takes the form of an whose rightmost branch curved around, as in a cursive (viz. ) It was used up to the nineteenth century in Britain and continues to be familiar in Germany.\n\nThus, the shift from the digraph to the distinct ligature was gradual and was only apparent in abecedaria, explicit listings of all individual letters. It was probably considered a separate letter by the 14th century in both Middle English and Middle German orthography. However, it remained an outsider, not really considered part of the Latin alphabet proper, as expressed by Valentin Ickelshamer in the 16th century, who complained that:\n\nIn Middle High German (and possibly already in late Old High German), the West Germanic phoneme became realized as ; this is why, today, the German represents that sound.\n\nPronunciation and use\n\nEnglish\nEnglish uses to represent . There are also a number of words beginning with a written that is silent in most dialects before a (pronounced) , remaining from usage in Old English in which the was pronounced: wreak, wrap, wreck, wrench, wroth, wrinkle, etc. Certain dialects of Scottish English still distinguish this digraph. represents a vowel sound, , in the word pwn, and in the Welsh loanwords cwm and crwth it retains the Welsh pronunciation, . is also used in digraphs: , , , wherein it is usually an orthographic allograph of in final positions. It is the fifteenth most frequently used letter in the English language, with a frequency of about 2.56% in words.\n\nOther languages\nIn Europe languages with in native words are in a central-western European zone between Cornwall and Poland: English, German, Low German, Dutch, Frisian, Welsh, Cornish, Breton, Walloon, Polish, Kashubian, Sorbian, Wymysorys, Resian and Scandinavian dialects. German, Polish, Wymysorys and Kashubian use it for the voiced labiodental fricative (with Polish, related Kashubian and Wymysorys using Ł for , except in conservative and some eastern Polish speech, where Ł still represents the dark L sound.), and Dutch uses it for . Unlike its use in other languages, the letter is used in Welsh and Cornish to represent the vowel as well as the related approximant consonant .\n\nThe following languages historically used for in native words, but later replaced it by : Swedish, Finnish, Czech, Slovak, Latvian, Lithuanian, Estonian, Ukrainian Łatynka and Belarusian Łacinka. It is also used in modern systems of Romanization of Belarusian for the letter , for example in the BGN/PCGN system, in contrast to the letter , which is used in the Instruction on transliteration of Belarusian geographical names with letters of Latin script.\n\nIn Swedish and Finnish, traces of this old usage may still be found in proper names. In Hungarian remains in some aristocratic surnames, e.g. Wesselényi.\n\nModern German dialects generally have only or for West Germanic , but or is still heard allophonically for , especially in the clusters , , and . Some Bavarian dialects preserve a \"light\" initial , such as in wuoz (Standard German weiß '[I] know'). The Classical Latin is heard in the Southern German greeting Servus ('hello' or 'goodbye').\n\nIn Dutch, became a labiodental approximant (with the exception of words with -, which have , or other diphthongs containing -). In many Dutch-speaking areas, such as Flanders and Suriname, the pronunciation (or in some areas a pronunciation, e.g. Belgian-Dutch water \"water\", wit \"white\", eeuw \"century\", etc.) is used at all times.\n\nIn Finnish, is sometimes seen as a variant of and not a separate letter, but it is a part of official alphabet. It is, however, recognized and maintained in the spelling of some old names, reflecting an earlier German spelling standard, and in some modern loan words. In all cases, it is pronounced . The first edition of the Kalevala had its title spelled Kalewala.\n\nIn Danish, Norwegian and Swedish, is named double-v and not double-u. In these languages, the letter only exists in old names, loanwords and foreign words. (Foreign words are distinguished from loanwords by having a significantly lower level of integration in the language.) It is usually pronounced , but in some words of English origin it may be pronounced . The letter was officially introduced in the Danish and Swedish alphabets as late as 1980 and 2006, respectively, despite having been in use for much longer. It had been recognized since the conception of modern Norwegian, with the earliest official orthography rules of 1907. was earlier seen as a variant of , and as a letter (double-v) is still commonly replaced by in speech (e.g. WC being pronounced as VC, www as VVV, WHO as VHO, etc.) The two letters were sorted as equals before was officially recognized, and that practice is still recommended when sorting names in Sweden. In modern slang, some native speakers may pronounce more closely to the origin of the loanword than the official pronunciation.\n\nMultiple dialects of Swedish and Danish use the sound however. In Denmark notably in Jutland, where the northern half use it extensively in traditional dialect, and multiple places in Sweden. It is used in southern Swedish, for example in Halland where the words \"wesp\" (wisp) and \"wann\" (water) are traditionally used. In northern and western Sweden there are also dialects with . Elfdalian is a good example, which is one of many dialects where the Old Norse difference between v () and f ( or ) is preserved. Thus \"warg\" from Old Norse \"vargr\", but \"åvå\" from Old Norse \"hafa\".\n\nIn the alphabets of most modern Romance languages, is used mostly in foreign names and words recently borrowed (Italian il watt, Spanish el kiwi). In Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese, is a non-syllabic variant of , spelled . In Italian, while the letter is not considered part of the standard Italian alphabet, the character is often used in place of Viva (hooray for...), generally in the form in which the branches of the Vs cross in the middle, at least in handwriting (in fact it could be considered a monogram). The same symbol written upside down indicates abbasso (down with...). In French, is also used mostly in foreign names and words recently borrowed such as wagon or week-end, but in the first case it is pronounced (except in Picard and in Walloon) and in the second . In most northern French dialects the former turned finally to , but still exists as a remnant in the place-names of Romance Flanders, Picardie, Artois, Champagne, Romance Lorraine and sometimes elsewhere (Normandy, Île-de-France), and in the surnames from the same regions. Walloon as it sounds conserves the pronounced . The digraph is used to render in rare French words such as ouest \"west\" and to spell Arabic names transliterated -wi in English, but -oui in French (compare Arabic surname Badawi / Badaoui). In all these languages, as in Scandinavian languages mentioned above, the letter is named \"double v\" (French , Spanish ) though in Walloon and Picard the name is also used.\n\nIn Indonesian, the letter \"W\" is called 'wé'. The letter names in Indonesian are always the same with the sounds they produce, especially the consonants.\n\nThe Japanese language uses \"W\", pronounced /daburu/, as an ideogram meaning \"double\". It is also used in internet slang to indicate laughter (like LOL), derived from the word warau (笑う, meaning \"to laugh\").\n\nIn Italian, while the letter is not considered part of the standard Italian alphabet, the character is often used in place of Viva (hooray for...), generally in the form in which the branches of the Vs cross in the middle, at least in handwriting (in fact it could be considered a monogram). The same symbol written upside down indicates abbasso (down with...)\n\nIn the Kokborok language, represents the open-mid back rounded vowel .\n\nIn Turkey the use of the w was banned between 1928 and 2013 which was a problem for the Kurdish population in Turkey as the w was a letter of the Kurdish alphabet. The use of the letter w in the word Newroz, the Kurdish new year was forbidden and names which included the letter were not able to be used. In 2008, a court in Gaziantep reasoned the use of the letter w would incite civil unrest. Nevertheless, the w was used in water closets throughout Turkey.\n\nIn Vietnamese, is called , from the French . It is not included in the standard Vietnamese alphabet, but it is often used as a substitute for qu- in literary dialect and very informal writing. It's also commonly used for abbreviating Ư in formal documents, for example Trung Ương is abbreviated as TW even in official documents and document ID number\n\n\"W\" is the 24th letter in the Modern Filipino Alphabet and has its English name. However, in the old Filipino alphabet, Abakada, it was the 19th letter and had the name \"wah\".\n\nIn Washo, lower-case represents a typical sound, while upper-case represents a voiceless w sound, like the difference between English weather and whether for those who maintain the distinction.\n\nOther systems\nIn the International Phonetic Alphabet, is used for the voiced labial-velar approximant.\n\nOther uses\n\nW is the symbol for the chemical element tungsten, after its German (and alternative English) name, . It is also the SI symbol for the watt, the standard unit of power. It is also often used as a variable in mathematics, especially to represent a complex number or a vector.\n\nIn recent years, the letters L and W have become an internet meme, respectively standing for loss and win.\n\nName \nDouble-u, whose name reflects stages in the letter's evolution when it was considered two of the same letter, a double U, is the only modern English letter whose name has more than one syllable. It is also the only English letter whose name is not pronounced with any of the sounds that the letter typically makes in words, with the exception of H for some speakers.\n\nSome speakers shorten the name \"double u\" into \"dub-u\" or just \"dub\"; for example, University of Wisconsin, University of Washington, University of Wyoming, University of Waterloo, University of the Western Cape and University of Western Australia are all known colloquially as \"U Dub\", and the automobile company Volkswagen, abbreviated \"VW\", is sometimes pronounced \"V-Dub\". The fact that many website URLs require a \"www.\" prefix has been influential in promoting these shortened pronunciations.\n\nIn other Germanic languages, including German (but not Dutch, in which it is pronounced wé), its name is similar to that of English V. In many languages, its name literally means \"double v\": Portuguese duplo vê, Spanish doble ve (though it can be spelled uve doble), French double vé, Icelandic tvöfalt vaff, Czech dvojité vé, Estonian kaksisvee, Finnish kaksois-vee, etc.\n\nFormer U.S. president George W. Bush was given the nickname \"Dubya\" after the colloquial pronunciation of his middle initial in Texas, where he spent much of his childhood.\n\nRelated characters\n\nAncestors, descendants and siblings\n𐤅: Semitic letter Waw, from which the following symbols originally derive\nU : Latin letter U\nV : Latin letter V\nⱲ ⱳ : W with hook\nꝠ ꝡ : Latin letter VY\nꟂ ꟃ : Anglicana W, used in medieval English and Cornish\nIPA-specific symbols related to W: \nUralic Phonetic Alphabet-specific symbols related to W: and \nʷ : Modifier letter small w is used in Indo-European studies\nꭩ : Modifier letter small turned w is used in linguistic transcriptions of Scots\nW with diacritics: Ẃ ẃ Ẁ ẁ Ŵ ŵ Ẅ ẅ Ẇ ẇ Ẉ ẉ ẘ\nװ (double vav): the Yiddish and Hebrew equivalent of W\nArabic و, has the same origin despite bearing little resemblance to W\n\nLigatures and abbreviations\n₩ : Won sign, capital letter W with double stroke\n\nComputing codes\n\n 1\n\nOther representations\n\nSee also\n Digamma (Ϝ), the archaic Greek letter for /w/\nVoiced labio-velar approximant\nWh (digraph)\n W stands for Work in physics\n W is the symbol for \"watt\" in the International System of Units (SI)\n\nReferences\nInformational notes\n\nCitations\n\nExternal links\n\nCategory:ISO basic Latin letters\nCategory:Latin-script ligatures\nCategory:Vowel letters", "title": "W" } ]
[ "His birthplace is uncertain. He was most likely born at his parents' townhouse, 24 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin, but his mother Anne, Countess of Mornington, recalled in 1815 that he had been born at 6 Merrion Street, Dublin. Other places have also been put forward as the location of his birth, including Mornington House, the Dublin packet boat, and the mansion in the family estate of Athy.", "Yes, Arthur Wesley was the third of five surviving sons born to Anne and Garret Wesley, 1st Earl of Mornington.", "Yes, he enrolled at Eton College, where he studied from 1781 to 1784.\n", "The text does not provide specific details on what he studied at Eton College.", "The text contains several interesting aspects. It discusses the uncertainty regarding Arthur Wesley's birthplace, mentioning various possibilities. It also details his education, including his time at Eton College, his dislike for it, and the improbability of him saying \"The Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton\", a quote often attributed to him. Additionally, it touches upon the financial difficulties he and his mother faced after the death of his father. This led them to move to Brussels and him enrolling in the French Royal Academy of Equitation in Angers, where he significantly improved his horse riding skills and learned French. This later proved to be very useful to him.", "The text does not provide information on how Arthur Wesley died.", "One noteworthy aspect of Arthur Wesley's life mentioned in the text is that, until his early twenties, he showed little sign of achievement and was referred to as \"awkward\" by his own mother due to his idleness. However, his enrollment in the French Royal Academy of Equitation in Angers turned out to be a significant tipping point in his life. Here, he learned horseman skills and the French language, which later became quite useful. Notably, upon his return to England in late 1786, he surprised his mother with his significant improvement.", "Arthur Wesley's mother expressed concern about his idleness and lack of distinction in his early twenties, stating, \"I don't know what I shall do with my awkward son Arthur.\"", "The text does not provide information on what Arthur Wesley said to his mother in response to her comment." ]
[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]
C_d5abf3ac2b1548d9bdb494724bc98d5a_1
John Witherspoon
John Witherspoon (February 5, 1722 - November 15, 1794) was a Scottish-American Presbyterian minister and a Founding Father of the United States. Witherspoon embraced the concepts of Scottish Common Sense Realism, and while president of the College of New Jersey (1768-1794; now Princeton University), became an influential figure in the development of the United States' national character. Politically active, Witherspoon was a delegate from New Jersey to the Second Continental Congress and a signatory to the July 4, 1776, Declaration of Independence. He was the only active clergyman and the only college president to sign the Declaration.
Revolutionary War
Long wary of the power of the British Crown, Witherspoon saw the growing centralization of government, progressive ideology of colonial authorities, and establishment of Episcopacy authority as a threat to the Liberties of the colonies. Of particular interest to Witherspoon was the crown's growing interference in the local and colonial affairs which previously had been the prerogatives and rights of the American authorities. When the crown began to give additional authority to its appointed Episcopacy over Church affairs, British authorities hit a nerve in the Presbyterian Scot, who saw such events in the same lens as his Scottish Covenanters. Soon, Witherspoon came to support the Revolution, joining the Committee of Correspondence and Safety in early 1774. His 1776 sermon "The Dominion of Providence over the Passions of Men" was published in many editions and he was elected to the Continental Congress as part of the New Jersey delegation, appointed Congressional Chaplain by the President of the Continental Congress John Hancock, and in July 1776, voted to adopt the Virginia Resolution for Independence. In answer to an objection that the country was not yet ready for independence, according to tradition he replied that it "was not only ripe for the measure, but in danger of rotting for the want of it." He lost a son during the Battle of Germantown in 1777. Witherspoon served in Congress from June 1776 until November 1782 and became one of its most influential members and a workhorse of prodigious energy. He served on over 100 committees, most notably the powerful standing committees, the board of war and the committee on secret correspondence or foreign affairs. He spoke often in debate; helped draft the Articles of Confederation; helped organize the executive departments; played a major role in shaping foreign policy; and drew up the instructions for the peace commissioners. He fought against the flood of paper money, and opposed the issuance of bonds without provision for their amortization. "No business can be done, some say, because money is scarce", he wrote. He also served twice in the New Jersey Legislature, and strongly supported the adoption of the United States Constitution during the New Jersey ratification debates. In November 1776, as British forces neared, Witherspoon closed and evacuated the College of New Jersey. The main building, Nassau Hall, was badly damaged and his papers and personal notes were lost. Witherspoon was responsible for its rebuilding after the war, which caused him great personal and financial difficulty. In 1780 he was elected to a one-year term in the New Jersey Legislative Council representing Somerset County. At the age of 68, he married a 24-year-old bride, with whom he had two more children. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "Was John Witherspoon Part of politics during the revolutionary war?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Did he ever join congress or anything political during the war?", "What else was his role in the Revolutionary War?" ]
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John Witherspoon (February 5, 1723 – November 15, 1794) was a Scottish-American Presbyterian minister, educator, farmer, slaveholder, and a Founding Father of the United States. Witherspoon embraced the concepts of Scottish common sense realism, and while president of the College of New Jersey (1768–1794; now Princeton University) became an influential figure in the development of the United States' national character. Politically active, Witherspoon was a delegate from New Jersey to the Second Continental Congress and a signatory to the July 4, 1776, Declaration of Independence. He was the only active clergyman and the only college president to sign the Declaration. Later, he signed the Articles of Confederation and supported ratification of the Constitution of the United States. In 1789 he was convening moderator of the First General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America. Early life and ministry in Scotland John Witherspoon was born in Yester, Scotland, documented in the Old Parish Register as the eldest child of the Reverend James Alexander Witherspoon and Anne Walker, a descendant of John Welsh of Ayr and John Knox. This latter claim of Knox descent though ancient in origin is long disputed and without primary documentation. He attended the Haddington Grammar School and obtained a Master of Arts from the University of Edinburgh in 1739. He remained at the university to study divinity. In 1764, he was awarded an honorary doctoral degree in divinity by the University of St Andrews. Witherspoon was a staunch Protestant, nationalist, and supporter of republicanism. Consequently, he was opposed to the Roman Catholic Legitimist Jacobite rising of 1745–46. Following the Jacobite victory at the Battle of Falkirk, he was briefly imprisoned at Doune Castle, which had a long-term effect on his health. He became a Church of Scotland (Presbyterian) minister at Beith, Ayrshire (1745–1758), where he married Elizabeth Montgomery of Craighouse. They had ten children, with five surviving to adulthood. From 1758 to 1768, he was minister of the Laigh Kirk, Paisley (Low Kirk). Witherspoon became prominent within the Church as an Evangelical opponent of the Moderate Party. During his two pastorates he wrote three well-known works on theology, notably the satire "Ecclesiastical Characteristics" (1753), which opposed the philosophical influence of Francis Hutcheson. Princeton At the urging of Benjamin Rush and Richard Stockton, whom he met in Paisley, Witherspoon finally accepted their renewed invitation (having turned one down in 1766) to become president and head professor of the small Presbyterian College of New Jersey in Princeton. Thus, Witherspoon and his family emigrated to New Jersey in 1768. At the age of 45, he became the sixth president of the college, later known as Princeton University. Upon his arrival, Witherspoon found the school in debt, with weak instruction, and a library collection which clearly failed to meet student needs. He immediately began fund-raising—locally and back home in Scotland—added three hundred of his own books to the library, and began purchasing scientific equipment including the Rittenhouse orrery, many maps, and a terrestrial globe. Witherspoon instituted numerous reforms, including modeling the syllabus and university structure after that used at the University of Edinburgh and other Scottish universities. He also firmed up entrance requirements, which helped the school compete with Harvard and Yale for scholars. Witherspoon personally taught courses in eloquence or belles lettres, chronology (history), and divinity. However, none was more important than moral philosophy (a required course). An advocate of natural law within a Christian and republican cosmology, Witherspoon considered moral philosophy vital for ministers, lawyers, and those holding positions in government (magistrates). Firm but good-humored in his leadership, Witherspoon was very popular among both faculty and students. Witherspoon had been a prominent evangelical Presbyterian minister in Scotland before accepting the Princeton position. As the college's primary occupation at the time was training ministers, Witherspoon became a major leader of the early Presbyterian Church in America. He helped organize Nassau Presbyterian Church in Princeton, New Jersey. Nonetheless, Witherspoon transformed a college designed predominantly to train clergymen into a school that would equip the leaders of a new country. Students who later played prominent roles in the new nation's development included James Madison, Aaron Burr, Philip Freneau, William Bradford, and Hugh Henry Brackenridge. From among his students came 37 judges (three of whom became justices of the U.S. Supreme Court); 10 Cabinet officers; 12 members of the Continental Congress, 28 U.S. Senators, and 49 U.S. Congressmen. Although Witherspoon can be heavily credited in the expansion and progression of the university, his ownership ties to the enslavement of Black people in America have caused for an internal Princeton petition to the CPUC Committee on Naming at Princeton University and President Eisgruber for the removal of his statue that currently stands in Firestone Plaza on campus. As of Fall 2022, the petition has garnered over 250 signatures in support of removing the statue on the basis that it is a distraction to the university's mission and makes community members uncomfortable because of Witherspoon's racist history. The petitions suggests replacing the statue with "an informational plaque which details both the positive and negative aspects of Witherspoon's legacy." Revolutionary War Long wary of the power of the British Crown, Witherspoon saw the growing centralization of government, progressive ideology of colonial authorities, and establishment of episcopacy authority as a threat to the liberties of the colonies. Of particular interest to Witherspoon was the Crown's growing interference in the local and colonial affairs which previously had been the prerogatives and rights of the American authorities. When the Crown began to give additional authority to its appointed episcopacy over church affairs, British authorities hit a nerve in the Presbyterian Scot, who saw such events in the same lens as his Scottish Covenanters. Soon, Witherspoon came to support the American Revolution, joining the New Jersey Committee of Correspondence and Safety in early 1774. His 1776 sermon "The Dominion of Providence over the Passions of Men" was published in many editions, and he was elected to the Continental Congress as part of the New Jersey delegation. In Congress, he was appointed congressional chaplain, and in July 1776, he voted to adopt the Virginia Resolution for Independence. In answer to an objection that the country was not yet ready for independence, according to tradition he replied that it "was not only ripe for the measure, but in danger of rotting for the want of it." Witherspoon served in Congress from June 1777 until November 1784 and became one of its most influential members and a workhorse of prodigious energy. He served on over 100 committees, most notably the sitting committees, the board of peace and the committee on public correspondence or common affairs. He spoke often in concurrence; helped draft the Articles of Confederation; helped organize the executive departments; played a major role in shaping public policy; and drew up the instructions for the peace commissioners. He fought against the flood of paper money and opposed the issuance of bonds without provision for their amortization. "No business can be done, some say, because money is scarce", he wrote. He also served twice in the New Jersey Legislature and strongly supported the adoption of the United States Constitution during the New Jersey ratification debates. In November 1777, as British forces neared, Witherspoon closed and evacuated the College of New Jersey. The main building, Nassau Hall, was badly damaged, and his papers and personal notes were lost. Witherspoon was responsible for its reconstruction after the war, which caused him great personal and financial difficulty. In 1780 he was elected to a one-year term in the New Jersey Legislative Council representing Somerset County. At age 68, he married a 24-year-old widow, with whom he had two more children. Death and burial Witherspoon suffered eye injuries and was blind by 1792. He died in 1794 on his farm Tusculum, just outside Princeton, and is buried along Presidents Row in Princeton Cemetery. An inventory of Witherspoon's possessions taken at his death included "two slaves ... valued at a hundred dollars each". Family Witherspoon married Elizabeth Montgomery on 14 August 1748 documented in the old parish register in Beith, North Ayrshire. They were both from the parish. They had a total of 10 children, only five of whom survived to accompany their parents to America. James, the eldest, graduated from Princeton in 1770 and joined the Continental Army as an aide to General Francis Nash, with the rank of major and was killed at the Battle of Germantown on October 4, 1777. The next oldest son, John, graduated from Princeton in 1779, practiced medicine in South Carolina, and was lost at sea in 1795. David, the youngest son, graduated the same year as his brother John, married the widow of Abner Nash, and practiced law in New Bern, North Carolina. Anna, the eldest daughter, married Reverend Samuel Smith on June 28, 1775. Reverend Samuel Smith succeeded Dr. Witherspoon as president of Princeton in 1775. Frances, the youngest daughter, married Dr. David Ramsay, a delegate from South Carolina to the Continental Congress, on March 18, 1763. Philosophy According to Herbert Hovenkamp, Witherspoon's most lasting contribution was the initiation of the Scottish common sense realism, which he had learned by reading Thomas Reid and two of his expounders Dugald Stewart and James Beattie. At the College of New Jersey, Witherspoon revised the moral philosophy curriculum, strengthened the college's commitment to natural philosophy, and positioned Princeton in the larger transatlantic world of the republic of letters. Witherspoon was a proponent of Christian values, his common sense approach to the public morality of civil magistrates was influenced by the ethics of Scottish philosophers Francis Hutcheson and Reid rather than Jonathan Edwards. In regard to civil magistrates, Witherspoon thus believed moral judgment should be pursued as a science. He held to old concepts from the Roman Republic of virtuous leadership by civil magistrates, but he also regularly recommended that his students read such modern philosophers as Machiavelli, Montesquieu, and David Hume, even though he disapproved of Hume's "infidel" stance on religion. Virtue, he argued, could be deduced through the development of the moral sense, an ethical compass instilled by God in all human beings and developed through religious education (Reid) or civil sociability (Hutcheson). Witherspoon saw morality as having two distinct components: spiritual and temporal. Civil government owed more to the latter than the former in Witherspoon's Presbyterian doctrine. Thus, public morality owed more to the natural moral laws of the Enlightenment than to revealed Christianity. In his lectures on moral philosophy at Princeton, required of all juniors and seniors, Witherspoon argued for the revolutionary right of resistance and recommended checks and balances within government. He made a profound impression on his student James Madison, whose suggestions for the United States Constitution followed both Witherspoon's and Hume's ideas. The historian Douglass Adair writes, "The syllabus of Witherspoon's lectures . . . explains the conversion of the young Virginian to the philosophy of the Enlightenment." Witherspoon accepted the impossibility of maintaining public morality or virtue in the citizenry without an effective religion. In this sense, the temporal principles of morality required a religious component which derived its authority from the spiritual. Therefore, public religion was a vital necessity in maintaining the public morals. However, in this framework, non-Christian societies could have virtue, which, by his definition, could be found in natural law. Witherspoon, in accordance with the Scottish moral sense philosophy, taught that all human beings, Christian or otherwise, could be virtuous, but he was nonetheless committed to Christianity as the only route to personal salvation. Witherspoon owned slaves and lectured against the abolition of slavery. However, in his "Lectures on Moral Philosophy", Dr. Witherspoon advocated for the humane treatment of laborers and servants (including slaves), stating: The settled opinion among the American founding fathers, including Dr. Witherspoon, was that slavery would eventually disappear naturally within a generation. For this reason, Rev. Witherspoon advocated for "gradual emancipation" of slaves. Legacy Witherspoon was firmly grounded in the Reformed tradition of High to Late Orthodoxy, embedded in the transatlantic Evangelical Awakening of the eighteenth century, and frustrated by the state of religion in the Scottish Kirk. Like Benedict Pictet (1655-1724), Witherspoon held firmly to the tenets of confessional Calvinism. And like Pictet, Witherspoon was eager to show that the truths of supernatural revelation could be squared with reason. His aim as a minister was to defend and articulate traditional Scottish Presbyterian theology, without altering or disguising it. Statues Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey Presbyterian Historical Society, Philadelphia University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, Scotland, United Kingdom Doctor John Witherspoon, Connecticut Avenue and N Street, N.W., near Dupont Circle, Washington, D.C. Buildings Witherspoon Hall, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey Witherspoon Building, in the Market East neighborhood of Philadelphia The former Witherspoon Street School for Colored Children, Princeton, New Jersey The former John Witherspoon Middle School, Princeton, New Jersey. In August 2021, the Princeton School Board voted to remove John Witherspoon's name from the local public middle school due to Witherspoon's history as a slave owner who opposed abolition. The Board had previously voted not to make the change, but reversed itself after local residents submitted a petition with more than 1,500 signatures and input gathered at two public forums, temporarily changing the name to the Princeton Unified Middle School until a permanent new name is identified. Memberships Witherspoon was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1789 Other John Witherspoon College, a non-denominational Christian liberal arts college in Rapid City, South Dakota Witherspoon Institute, a research center in Princeton, New Jersey Witherspoon Society, an organization of laypeople within the Presbyterian Church (USA) merged with Voices of Sophia in 2008 to form Presbyterian Voices for Justice, which subsequently closed in 2020. Witherspoon Street, in: Princeton, New Jersey; Louisville, Kentucky; and Paisley, Scotland SS John Witherspoon, a Liberty ship class United States Merchant Marine ship during World War II; participated in an Allied convoy, code named PQ 17, and was sunk in the Barents Sea by the German submarine U-255 on July 6, 1942 Portrayed in the musical 1776, about the debates over and eventual adoption of the Declaration of Independence, by Edmund Lyndeck in the 1969 stage play and by James Noble in the 1972 film See also Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence References Citations Sources Collins, Varnum L. President Witherspoon: A Biography, 2 vols. (1925, repr. 1969) Ashbel Green, ed. The Works of the Rev. John Witherspoon, 4 vols. (1802, repr. with a new introduction by L. Gordon Tait, 2003) Morrison, Jeffry H. John Witherspoon and the Founding of the American Republic (2005) Pomfret, John E.. '"Witherspoon, John" in Dictionary of American Biography (1934) Tait, L. Gordon. The Piety of John Witherspoon: Pew, Pulpit, and Public Forum (2001) Moses Coit Tyler "President Witherspoon in the American Revolution" The American Historical Review Volume 1, Issue 1, July 1896. pp. 671–79. Woods, David W.. John Witherspoon (1906) An Animated Son of Liberty – A life of John Witherspoon J. Walter McGinty (2012) Further reading External links Biography on Princeton University's website Photographic tour of John Witherspoon's grave at Princeton Cemetery. Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856 Category:1723 births Category:1794 deaths Category:18th-century American politicians Category:18th-century American theologians Category:18th-century American writers Category:18th-century Calvinist and Reformed theologians Category:18th-century Scottish theologians Category:18th-century Scottish writers Category:Alumni of New College, Edinburgh Category:American Calvinist and Reformed theologians Category:American evangelicals Category:American slave owners Category:American blind people Category:Burials at Princeton Cemetery Category:Clergy in the American Revolution Category:Continental Congressmen from New Jersey Category:Members of the New Jersey Legislative Council Category:18th-century Ministers of the Church of Scotland Category:Musical theatre characters Category:People from East Lothian Category:People from Paisley, Renfrewshire Category:Presbyterian Church in the United States of America ministers Category:Presidents of Princeton University Category:Scottish Calvinist and Reformed theologians Category:Scottish emigrants to the Thirteen Colonies Category:Scottish evangelicals Category:Signers of the Articles of Confederation Category:Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence Category:Witherspoon Institute Category:People of colonial New Jersey Category:American proslavery activists Category:People from Beith Category:Founding Fathers of the United States Category:American politicians with disabilities Category:Blind politicians Category:Scottish blind people
[]
[ "Yes, John Witherspoon was part of politics during the Revolutionary War. He supported the Revolution, joined the Committee of Correspondence and Safety in early 1774, was elected to the Continental Congress as part of the New Jersey delegation, and helped draft the Articles of Confederation among other political activities.", "Yes, interesting aspects from this context include John Witherspoon's concerns about the growing power of the British Crown and its interference in colonial and local affairs. His role in the American Revolutionary War is not just political but also religious considering his reaction to the crown's attempts to give Episcopacy more control over Church affairs. He was a key figure in Congress and served on several important committees. He also suffered personal loss during the war when his son was killed. Furthermore, Witherspoon showed his perseverance by rebuilding the College of New Jersey after it was damaged during the war and continued to serve in politics after the war, supporting the adoption of the US Constitution. His personal life is also of interest, particularly his marriage to a significantly younger woman at the age of 68 and having two more children with her.", "Yes, John Witherspoon joined the Continental Congress as part of the New Jersey delegation during the Revolutionary War. He served in Congress from June 1776 until November 1782 during which he played a major role, serving on over 100 committees and helping draft the Articles of Confederation. He also served twice in the New Jersey Legislature.", "Apart from serving in the Continental Congress during the Revolutionary War, John Witherspoon's roles included serving on numerous committees, such as the board of war and the committee on secret correspondence or foreign affairs. He played a major role in shaping foreign policy, organizing executive departments, and drawing up instructions for peace commissioners. He was a vocal participant in debates and fought against issuing bonds without provisions for their amortization. Tragically, he also lost a son during the Battle of Germantown in 1777." ]
[ "Yes", "Neutral", "Yes", "Yes" ]
C_d5abf3ac2b1548d9bdb494724bc98d5a_0
John Witherspoon
John Witherspoon (February 5, 1722 - November 15, 1794) was a Scottish-American Presbyterian minister and a Founding Father of the United States. Witherspoon embraced the concepts of Scottish Common Sense Realism, and while president of the College of New Jersey (1768-1794; now Princeton University), became an influential figure in the development of the United States' national character. Politically active, Witherspoon was a delegate from New Jersey to the Second Continental Congress and a signatory to the July 4, 1776, Declaration of Independence. He was the only active clergyman and the only college president to sign the Declaration.
Philosophy
According to Herbert Hovenkamp, Witherspoon's most lasting contribution was the initiation of the Scottish Common-Sense Realism, which he had learned by reading Thomas Reid and two of his expounders Dugald Stewart and James Beattie. Witherspoon revised the moral philosophy curriculum, strengthened the college's commitment to natural philosophy, and positioned Princeton in the larger transatlantic world of the republic of letters. Although he was a proponent of Christian values, Witherspoon's common sense approach to the public morality of civil magistrates was more influenced by the Enlightenment ethics of Scottish philosophers Francis Hutcheson and Thomas Reid than the Christian idealism of Jonathan Edwards. In regard to civil magistrates, Witherspoon thus believed moral judgment should be pursued as a science. He held to old concepts from the Roman Republic of virtuous leadership by civil magistrates, but he also regularly recommended that his students read such modern philosophers as Machiavelli, Montesquieu, and David Hume, even though he disapproved of Hume's "infidel" stance on religion. Virtue, he argued, could be deduced through the development of the moral sense, an ethical compass instilled by God in all human beings and developed through religious education (Reid) or civil sociability (Hutcheson). Witherspoon saw morality as having two distinct components: spiritual and temporal. Civil government owed more to the latter than the former in Witherspoon's Presbyterian doctrine. Thus, public morality owed more to the natural moral laws of the Enlightenment than to revealed Christianity. In his lectures on moral philosophy at Princeton, required of all juniors and seniors, Witherspoon argued for the revolutionary right of resistance and recommended checks and balances within government. He made a profound impression on his student James Madison, whose suggestions for the United States Constitution followed both Witherspoon's and Hume's ideas. The historian Douglass Adair writes, "The syllabus of Witherspoon's lectures . . . explains the conversion of the young Virginian to the philosophy of the Enlightenment." Witherspoon accepted the impossibility of maintaining public morality or virtue in the citizenry without an effective religion. In this sense, the temporal principles of morality required a religious component which derived its authority from the spiritual. Therefore, public religion was a vital necessity in maintaining the public morals. However, in this framework, non-Christian societies could have virtue, which, by his definition, could be found in natural law. Witherspoon, in accordance with the Scottish moral sense philosophy, taught that all human beings, Christian or otherwise, could be virtuous, but he was nonetheless committed to Christianity as the only route to personal salvation. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "What philosophy did John follow?", "was he religious?", "Did he teach any of his beliefs?", "why did he argue for the revolutionary?" ]
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John Witherspoon (February 5, 1723 – November 15, 1794) was a Scottish-American Presbyterian minister, educator, farmer, slaveholder, and a Founding Father of the United States. Witherspoon embraced the concepts of Scottish common sense realism, and while president of the College of New Jersey (1768–1794; now Princeton University) became an influential figure in the development of the United States' national character. Politically active, Witherspoon was a delegate from New Jersey to the Second Continental Congress and a signatory to the July 4, 1776, Declaration of Independence. He was the only active clergyman and the only college president to sign the Declaration. Later, he signed the Articles of Confederation and supported ratification of the Constitution of the United States. In 1789 he was convening moderator of the First General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America. Early life and ministry in Scotland John Witherspoon was born in Yester, Scotland, documented in the Old Parish Register as the eldest child of the Reverend James Alexander Witherspoon and Anne Walker, a descendant of John Welsh of Ayr and John Knox. This latter claim of Knox descent though ancient in origin is long disputed and without primary documentation. He attended the Haddington Grammar School and obtained a Master of Arts from the University of Edinburgh in 1739. He remained at the university to study divinity. In 1764, he was awarded an honorary doctoral degree in divinity by the University of St Andrews. Witherspoon was a staunch Protestant, nationalist, and supporter of republicanism. Consequently, he was opposed to the Roman Catholic Legitimist Jacobite rising of 1745–46. Following the Jacobite victory at the Battle of Falkirk, he was briefly imprisoned at Doune Castle, which had a long-term effect on his health. He became a Church of Scotland (Presbyterian) minister at Beith, Ayrshire (1745–1758), where he married Elizabeth Montgomery of Craighouse. They had ten children, with five surviving to adulthood. From 1758 to 1768, he was minister of the Laigh Kirk, Paisley (Low Kirk). Witherspoon became prominent within the Church as an Evangelical opponent of the Moderate Party. During his two pastorates he wrote three well-known works on theology, notably the satire "Ecclesiastical Characteristics" (1753), which opposed the philosophical influence of Francis Hutcheson. Princeton At the urging of Benjamin Rush and Richard Stockton, whom he met in Paisley, Witherspoon finally accepted their renewed invitation (having turned one down in 1766) to become president and head professor of the small Presbyterian College of New Jersey in Princeton. Thus, Witherspoon and his family emigrated to New Jersey in 1768. At the age of 45, he became the sixth president of the college, later known as Princeton University. Upon his arrival, Witherspoon found the school in debt, with weak instruction, and a library collection which clearly failed to meet student needs. He immediately began fund-raising—locally and back home in Scotland—added three hundred of his own books to the library, and began purchasing scientific equipment including the Rittenhouse orrery, many maps, and a terrestrial globe. Witherspoon instituted numerous reforms, including modeling the syllabus and university structure after that used at the University of Edinburgh and other Scottish universities. He also firmed up entrance requirements, which helped the school compete with Harvard and Yale for scholars. Witherspoon personally taught courses in eloquence or belles lettres, chronology (history), and divinity. However, none was more important than moral philosophy (a required course). An advocate of natural law within a Christian and republican cosmology, Witherspoon considered moral philosophy vital for ministers, lawyers, and those holding positions in government (magistrates). Firm but good-humored in his leadership, Witherspoon was very popular among both faculty and students. Witherspoon had been a prominent evangelical Presbyterian minister in Scotland before accepting the Princeton position. As the college's primary occupation at the time was training ministers, Witherspoon became a major leader of the early Presbyterian Church in America. He helped organize Nassau Presbyterian Church in Princeton, New Jersey. Nonetheless, Witherspoon transformed a college designed predominantly to train clergymen into a school that would equip the leaders of a new country. Students who later played prominent roles in the new nation's development included James Madison, Aaron Burr, Philip Freneau, William Bradford, and Hugh Henry Brackenridge. From among his students came 37 judges (three of whom became justices of the U.S. Supreme Court); 10 Cabinet officers; 12 members of the Continental Congress, 28 U.S. Senators, and 49 U.S. Congressmen. Although Witherspoon can be heavily credited in the expansion and progression of the university, his ownership ties to the enslavement of Black people in America have caused for an internal Princeton petition to the CPUC Committee on Naming at Princeton University and President Eisgruber for the removal of his statue that currently stands in Firestone Plaza on campus. As of Fall 2022, the petition has garnered over 250 signatures in support of removing the statue on the basis that it is a distraction to the university's mission and makes community members uncomfortable because of Witherspoon's racist history. The petitions suggests replacing the statue with "an informational plaque which details both the positive and negative aspects of Witherspoon's legacy." Revolutionary War Long wary of the power of the British Crown, Witherspoon saw the growing centralization of government, progressive ideology of colonial authorities, and establishment of episcopacy authority as a threat to the liberties of the colonies. Of particular interest to Witherspoon was the Crown's growing interference in the local and colonial affairs which previously had been the prerogatives and rights of the American authorities. When the Crown began to give additional authority to its appointed episcopacy over church affairs, British authorities hit a nerve in the Presbyterian Scot, who saw such events in the same lens as his Scottish Covenanters. Soon, Witherspoon came to support the American Revolution, joining the New Jersey Committee of Correspondence and Safety in early 1774. His 1776 sermon "The Dominion of Providence over the Passions of Men" was published in many editions, and he was elected to the Continental Congress as part of the New Jersey delegation. In Congress, he was appointed congressional chaplain, and in July 1776, he voted to adopt the Virginia Resolution for Independence. In answer to an objection that the country was not yet ready for independence, according to tradition he replied that it "was not only ripe for the measure, but in danger of rotting for the want of it." Witherspoon served in Congress from June 1777 until November 1784 and became one of its most influential members and a workhorse of prodigious energy. He served on over 100 committees, most notably the sitting committees, the board of peace and the committee on public correspondence or common affairs. He spoke often in concurrence; helped draft the Articles of Confederation; helped organize the executive departments; played a major role in shaping public policy; and drew up the instructions for the peace commissioners. He fought against the flood of paper money and opposed the issuance of bonds without provision for their amortization. "No business can be done, some say, because money is scarce", he wrote. He also served twice in the New Jersey Legislature and strongly supported the adoption of the United States Constitution during the New Jersey ratification debates. In November 1777, as British forces neared, Witherspoon closed and evacuated the College of New Jersey. The main building, Nassau Hall, was badly damaged, and his papers and personal notes were lost. Witherspoon was responsible for its reconstruction after the war, which caused him great personal and financial difficulty. In 1780 he was elected to a one-year term in the New Jersey Legislative Council representing Somerset County. At age 68, he married a 24-year-old widow, with whom he had two more children. Death and burial Witherspoon suffered eye injuries and was blind by 1792. He died in 1794 on his farm Tusculum, just outside Princeton, and is buried along Presidents Row in Princeton Cemetery. An inventory of Witherspoon's possessions taken at his death included "two slaves ... valued at a hundred dollars each". Family Witherspoon married Elizabeth Montgomery on 14 August 1748 documented in the old parish register in Beith, North Ayrshire. They were both from the parish. They had a total of 10 children, only five of whom survived to accompany their parents to America. James, the eldest, graduated from Princeton in 1770 and joined the Continental Army as an aide to General Francis Nash, with the rank of major and was killed at the Battle of Germantown on October 4, 1777. The next oldest son, John, graduated from Princeton in 1779, practiced medicine in South Carolina, and was lost at sea in 1795. David, the youngest son, graduated the same year as his brother John, married the widow of Abner Nash, and practiced law in New Bern, North Carolina. Anna, the eldest daughter, married Reverend Samuel Smith on June 28, 1775. Reverend Samuel Smith succeeded Dr. Witherspoon as president of Princeton in 1775. Frances, the youngest daughter, married Dr. David Ramsay, a delegate from South Carolina to the Continental Congress, on March 18, 1763. Philosophy According to Herbert Hovenkamp, Witherspoon's most lasting contribution was the initiation of the Scottish common sense realism, which he had learned by reading Thomas Reid and two of his expounders Dugald Stewart and James Beattie. At the College of New Jersey, Witherspoon revised the moral philosophy curriculum, strengthened the college's commitment to natural philosophy, and positioned Princeton in the larger transatlantic world of the republic of letters. Witherspoon was a proponent of Christian values, his common sense approach to the public morality of civil magistrates was influenced by the ethics of Scottish philosophers Francis Hutcheson and Reid rather than Jonathan Edwards. In regard to civil magistrates, Witherspoon thus believed moral judgment should be pursued as a science. He held to old concepts from the Roman Republic of virtuous leadership by civil magistrates, but he also regularly recommended that his students read such modern philosophers as Machiavelli, Montesquieu, and David Hume, even though he disapproved of Hume's "infidel" stance on religion. Virtue, he argued, could be deduced through the development of the moral sense, an ethical compass instilled by God in all human beings and developed through religious education (Reid) or civil sociability (Hutcheson). Witherspoon saw morality as having two distinct components: spiritual and temporal. Civil government owed more to the latter than the former in Witherspoon's Presbyterian doctrine. Thus, public morality owed more to the natural moral laws of the Enlightenment than to revealed Christianity. In his lectures on moral philosophy at Princeton, required of all juniors and seniors, Witherspoon argued for the revolutionary right of resistance and recommended checks and balances within government. He made a profound impression on his student James Madison, whose suggestions for the United States Constitution followed both Witherspoon's and Hume's ideas. The historian Douglass Adair writes, "The syllabus of Witherspoon's lectures . . . explains the conversion of the young Virginian to the philosophy of the Enlightenment." Witherspoon accepted the impossibility of maintaining public morality or virtue in the citizenry without an effective religion. In this sense, the temporal principles of morality required a religious component which derived its authority from the spiritual. Therefore, public religion was a vital necessity in maintaining the public morals. However, in this framework, non-Christian societies could have virtue, which, by his definition, could be found in natural law. Witherspoon, in accordance with the Scottish moral sense philosophy, taught that all human beings, Christian or otherwise, could be virtuous, but he was nonetheless committed to Christianity as the only route to personal salvation. Witherspoon owned slaves and lectured against the abolition of slavery. However, in his "Lectures on Moral Philosophy", Dr. Witherspoon advocated for the humane treatment of laborers and servants (including slaves), stating: The settled opinion among the American founding fathers, including Dr. Witherspoon, was that slavery would eventually disappear naturally within a generation. For this reason, Rev. Witherspoon advocated for "gradual emancipation" of slaves. Legacy Witherspoon was firmly grounded in the Reformed tradition of High to Late Orthodoxy, embedded in the transatlantic Evangelical Awakening of the eighteenth century, and frustrated by the state of religion in the Scottish Kirk. Like Benedict Pictet (1655-1724), Witherspoon held firmly to the tenets of confessional Calvinism. And like Pictet, Witherspoon was eager to show that the truths of supernatural revelation could be squared with reason. His aim as a minister was to defend and articulate traditional Scottish Presbyterian theology, without altering or disguising it. Statues Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey Presbyterian Historical Society, Philadelphia University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, Scotland, United Kingdom Doctor John Witherspoon, Connecticut Avenue and N Street, N.W., near Dupont Circle, Washington, D.C. Buildings Witherspoon Hall, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey Witherspoon Building, in the Market East neighborhood of Philadelphia The former Witherspoon Street School for Colored Children, Princeton, New Jersey The former John Witherspoon Middle School, Princeton, New Jersey. In August 2021, the Princeton School Board voted to remove John Witherspoon's name from the local public middle school due to Witherspoon's history as a slave owner who opposed abolition. The Board had previously voted not to make the change, but reversed itself after local residents submitted a petition with more than 1,500 signatures and input gathered at two public forums, temporarily changing the name to the Princeton Unified Middle School until a permanent new name is identified. Memberships Witherspoon was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1789 Other John Witherspoon College, a non-denominational Christian liberal arts college in Rapid City, South Dakota Witherspoon Institute, a research center in Princeton, New Jersey Witherspoon Society, an organization of laypeople within the Presbyterian Church (USA) merged with Voices of Sophia in 2008 to form Presbyterian Voices for Justice, which subsequently closed in 2020. Witherspoon Street, in: Princeton, New Jersey; Louisville, Kentucky; and Paisley, Scotland SS John Witherspoon, a Liberty ship class United States Merchant Marine ship during World War II; participated in an Allied convoy, code named PQ 17, and was sunk in the Barents Sea by the German submarine U-255 on July 6, 1942 Portrayed in the musical 1776, about the debates over and eventual adoption of the Declaration of Independence, by Edmund Lyndeck in the 1969 stage play and by James Noble in the 1972 film See also Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence References Citations Sources Collins, Varnum L. President Witherspoon: A Biography, 2 vols. (1925, repr. 1969) Ashbel Green, ed. The Works of the Rev. John Witherspoon, 4 vols. (1802, repr. with a new introduction by L. Gordon Tait, 2003) Morrison, Jeffry H. John Witherspoon and the Founding of the American Republic (2005) Pomfret, John E.. '"Witherspoon, John" in Dictionary of American Biography (1934) Tait, L. Gordon. The Piety of John Witherspoon: Pew, Pulpit, and Public Forum (2001) Moses Coit Tyler "President Witherspoon in the American Revolution" The American Historical Review Volume 1, Issue 1, July 1896. pp. 671–79. Woods, David W.. John Witherspoon (1906) An Animated Son of Liberty – A life of John Witherspoon J. Walter McGinty (2012) Further reading External links Biography on Princeton University's website Photographic tour of John Witherspoon's grave at Princeton Cemetery. Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856 Category:1723 births Category:1794 deaths Category:18th-century American politicians Category:18th-century American theologians Category:18th-century American writers Category:18th-century Calvinist and Reformed theologians Category:18th-century Scottish theologians Category:18th-century Scottish writers Category:Alumni of New College, Edinburgh Category:American Calvinist and Reformed theologians Category:American evangelicals Category:American slave owners Category:American blind people Category:Burials at Princeton Cemetery Category:Clergy in the American Revolution Category:Continental Congressmen from New Jersey Category:Members of the New Jersey Legislative Council Category:18th-century Ministers of the Church of Scotland Category:Musical theatre characters Category:People from East Lothian Category:People from Paisley, Renfrewshire Category:Presbyterian Church in the United States of America ministers Category:Presidents of Princeton University Category:Scottish Calvinist and Reformed theologians Category:Scottish emigrants to the Thirteen Colonies Category:Scottish evangelicals Category:Signers of the Articles of Confederation Category:Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence Category:Witherspoon Institute Category:People of colonial New Jersey Category:American proslavery activists Category:People from Beith Category:Founding Fathers of the United States Category:American politicians with disabilities Category:Blind politicians Category:Scottish blind people
[]
[ "John Witherspoon followed the philosophy of Scottish Common-Sense Realism.", "Yes, John Witherspoon was religious. He believed in Christian values and taught that Christianity was the only route to personal salvation.", "Yes, John Witherspoon taught his beliefs. As a part of his lectures on moral philosophy at Princeton, he taught the principles of Scottish Common-Sense Realism, the importance of moral judgment, virtue, and the role of religion in maintaining public morals. He also taught that virtue could be found in natural law and that all human beings, Christian or otherwise, could be virtuous.", "John Witherspoon argued for the revolutionary right of resistance and recommended checks and balances within government, as part of his emphasis on the importance of public morality and the role of government in preserving it. He was influenced by the Enlightenment ethics and it reflects in his teachings about the responsibility and leadership of civil magistrates." ]
[ "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes" ]
C_8683eb5b803c462ca4d8ba679eba0b2a_0
M. John Harrison
Michael John Harrison (born 26 July 1945), known for publication purposes primarily as M. John Harrison, is an English author and literary critic. His work includes the Viriconium sequence of novels and short stories (1971-1984), Climbers (1989), and the Kefahuchi Tract trilogy, which consists of Light (2002), Nova Swing (2006) and Empty Space (2012). He is widely considered one of the major stylists of modern fantasy and science fiction, and a "genre contrarian". The Times Literary Supplement described him as 'a singular stylist' and the Literary Review called him 'a witty and truly imaginative writer'.
The Viriconium sequence
Harrison's enduring fantasy sequence concerning the fictitious city of Viriconium consists of three novels and various short stories and novels written between 1971 and 1984. Viriconium is known as the Pastel City. Both universal and particular, the city has a shifting topography and history, and is sometimes known by names such as 'Uroconium'. The first book, The Pastel City (1971), presents a civilization in decline where medieval social patterns clash with the advanced technology and superscience energy weapons that the citizens of the city know how to use but have forgotten how to engineer. The more complex second novel is A Storm of Wings (1982). It is set eighty years later than The Pastel City. and stylistically it is far denser and more elaborate. A race of intelligent insects is invading Earth as human interest in survival wanes. Harrison brilliantly depicts the workings of civilization on the verge of collapse and the heroic efforts of individuals to help it sustain itself a little longer. The third novel, In Viriconium (1982) (US title: The Floating Gods), was nominated for the Guardian Fiction Prize during 1982. It is a moody portrait of artistic subcultures in a city beset by a mysterious plague. Where the previous books in the series held some sword and sorcery elements, In Viriconium goes beyond black humour into a coma of despair. The short story "A Young Man's Journey to Viriconium" (1985; later retitled "A Young Man's Journey to London") is set in our world. It explains that Viriconium can be visited via a mirror in a bathroom in a cafe in England. CANNOTANSWER
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Michael John Harrison (born 26 July 1945), known for publication purposes primarily as M. John Harrison, is an English author and literary critic. His work includes the Viriconium sequence of novels and short stories (1971–1984), Climbers (1989), and the Kefahuchi Tract trilogy, which consists of Light (2002), Nova Swing (2006) and Empty Space (2012). He is widely considered one of the major stylists of modern fantasy and science fiction, and a "genre contrarian". Robert Macfarlane has said: "Harrison is best known as one of the restless fathers of modern SF, but to my mind he is among the most brilliant novelists writing today, with regard to whom the question of genre is an irrelevance." The Times Literary Supplement described him as "a singular stylist" and the Literary Review called him "a witty and truly imaginative writer". Life and career Early years Harrison was born in Rugby, Warwickshire, in 1945 to an engineering family. His father died when he was a teenager and he found himself "bored, alienated, resentful and entrapped", playing truant from Dunsmore School (now Ashlawn School). An English teacher introduced him to George Bernard Shaw which resulted in an interest in polemic. He ended school during 1963 at age 18; he worked at various times as a groom (for the Atherstone Hunt), a student teacher (1963–65), and a clerk for the Royal Masonic Charity Institute, London (1966). His hobbies included electric guitars and writing pastiches of H. H. Munro. His first short story was published during 1966 by Kyril Bonfiglioli at Science Fantasy magazine, on the strength of which he relocated to London. He there met Michael Moorcock, who was editing New Worlds magazine. He began writing reviews and short fiction for New Worlds, and by 1968 he was appointed books editor. Harrison was critical of what he perceived as the complacency of much genre fiction of the time. During 1970, Harrison scripted comic stories illustrated by R.G. Jones for such forums as Cyclops and Finger. An illustration by Jones appears in the first edition of Harrison's The Committed Men (1971). In an interview with Zone magazine, Harrison says "I liked anything bizarre, from being about four years old. I started on Dan Dare and worked up to the Absurdists. At 15 you could catch me with a pile of books that contained an Alfred Bester, a Samuel Beckett, a Charles Williams, the two or three available J. G. Ballard's, On the Road by Jack Kerouac, some Keats, some Allen Ginsberg, maybe a Thorne Smith. I've always been pick 'n' mix: now it's a philosophy." 1968–1975: New Worlds, The Committed Men, The Pastel City, and The Centauri Device From 1968 to 1975 he was literary editor of the New Wave science fiction magazine New Worlds, regularly contributing criticism. He was important to the New Wave style which also included writers such as Norman Spinrad, Barrington Bayley, Langdon Jones and Thomas M. Disch. As reviewer for New Worlds he often used the pseudonym "Joyce Churchill" and was critical of many works and writers published using the rubric of science fiction. One of his critical pieces, "By Tennyson Out of Disney" was initially written for Sword and Sorcery Magazine, a publication planned by Kenneth Bulmer but which was never published; the piece was printed in New Worlds 2. Amongst his works of that period are three stories utilising the Jerry Cornelius character invented by Michael Moorcock. These stories do not appear in any of Harrison's own collections but do appear in the Nature of the Catastrophe and New Nature of the Catastrophe. Other early stories published from 1966, featured in anthologies such as New Writings in SF edited by John Carnell, and in magazines such as Transatlantic Review, The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, New Worlds and Quark. A number of Harrison's short stories of this early period remain uncollected, gathered neither in his first collection The Machine in Shaft Ten, nor in his later collections. The novel The Committed Men (1971) (dedicated to Michael Moorcock and his wife Hilary Bailey) is an archetypal British New-Wave vision of a crumbling future with obvious debts to the work of Michael Moorcock and J. G. Ballard. It is set in England after the apocalypse. Social organisation has collapsed, and the survivors, riddled with skin cancers, eke out a precarious scavenging existence in the ruins of the Great Society. A few bizarre communities try to maintain their structure in a chromium wilderness linked by crumbling motorways. But their rituals are meaningless clichés mouthed against the devastation. Only the roaming bands of hippie-style "situationalists" (presumably a reference to the then contemporaneous situationist group) have grasped that the old order, with its logic, its pseudo-liberalism and its immutable laws of cause and effect, has now been superseded. Among the mutants are a group of reptilian humans – alien, cancer-free but persecuted by the 'smoothskins'. When one of them is born of a human mother in Tinhouse, a group of humans sets off to deliver it to its own kind – a search of the committed men for the tribes of mutants. David Pringle called the novel "brief, bleak, derivative – but stylishly written." Harrison's first novel of the Viriconium sequence, The Pastel City was also published during 1971. Harrison would continue adding to this series until 1984. During 1972, the story "Lamia Mutable" appeared in Harlan Ellison's anthology Again, Dangerous Visions; while this tale forms part of the Viriconium sequence, it has been omitted from omnibus editions of the Viriconium tales to date. During 1974 Harrison's third novel was published, the space opera The Centauri Device (described prior to its publication, by New Worlds magazine, as "a sort of hippie space opera in the baroque tradition of Alfred Bester and Charles Harness). An extract was published in New Worlds in advance of the novel's publication, with the title "The Wolf That Follows". The novel's protagonist, space tramp John Truck, is the last of the Centaurans, victims of a genocide. Rival groups need him to arm the most powerful weapon in the galaxy: the Centauri Device, which will respond only to the genetic code of a true Centauran. Harrison himself has said of this book: I never liked that book much but at least it took the piss out of sf’s three main tenets: (1) The reader-identification character always drives the action; (2) The universe is knowable; (3) the universe is anthropocentrically structured & its riches are an appropriate prize for the colonialist people like us. TCD tried to out space opera as a kind of counterfeit pulp which had carefully cleaned itself of Saturday night appetite, vacuuming out all the concerns of real pulp fiction to keep it under the radar of the Mothers of America or whatever they called themselves. Pulp’s lust for life was replaced, if you were lucky, by a jaunty shanty & a comedy brawl. Otherwise it was lebensraum & a cadetship in the Space Police (these days it’s primarily low-bourgeois freedom motifs & nice friendly sexual release). Harrison's first short story collection The Machine in Shaft Ten (1975) collects many (but not all) of his early short tales, from such sources as New Worlds Quarterly, New Worlds Monthly, New Writings in SF, Transatlantic Review and others. "The Lamia and Lord Cromis" is an early Viriconium tale. The moody "London Melancholy" features a ruined future London haunted by winged people. None of the stories, with the exception of "Running Down", (a psychological horror tale about a man who is literally a walking disaster area), have been reprinted in his subsequent short story collections. "The Bringer with the Window" features Dr Grishkin, a character also appearing in The Centauri Device, seemingly in Harrison's recurring fictional city of Viriconium. Harrison's early novels The Committed Men, The Pastel City and The Centauri Device have been reprinted several times. The lat-named was included in the SF Masterworks series. 1978–1985: Manchester Review, The Ice Monkey, more Viriconium Harrison later relocated to Manchester and was a regular contributor to New Manchester Review (1978–79). David Britton and Michael Butterworth of Savoy Books employed him to write in their basement (where he did so "amidst stacks of antique Eagles, Freindz, New Worlds and Styng. A basement that reverberates with indecent exposures of stolen sound, bootlegs sucked from hidden mikes, stacked in neat piles."). The commissioned work, originally announced in Savoy publications as By Gas Mask and Fire Hydrant, eventually became the novel In Viriconium. During the decade of 1976–1986, Harrison lived in the Peak District. In 1983, he published his second short story collection, The Ice Monkey and Other Stories, containing seven tales which capture the pathos, humour, awe, despair, pain and black humour of the human condition. The Ice Monkey was praised by Ramsey Campbell, who stated "M. John Harrison is the finest British writer now writing horror fiction and by far the most original". In "The Incalling", a story of seedy suburban magic which in some ways foreshadows his later novel The Course of the Heart, an editor is haunted by an author's attempts to cure himself of cancer by faith healing. The "Incalling" is one of the few of Harrison's tales (aside from "Running Down") in which a male character is physically ill; though many of his stories feature male characters who are psychologically unwell, in many of his fictions, it is women who are damaged - either physically or emotionally ill or both. "The New Rays" here exemplifies this tendency. In 1980 Harrison contributed an introduction to Michael Moorcock's early allegorical fantasy, written by Moorcock at age 18, entitled The Golden Barge and published by Savoy Books. Harrison's enduring fantasy sequence concerning the fictitious city of Viriconium consists of three novels and various short stories and novels written between 1971 and 1984. Viriconium is known as the Pastel City. Both universal and particular, the city has a shifting topography and history, and is sometimes known by similar names, such as "Uroconium". The first book, The Pastel City (1971), presents a civilization in decline where medieval social patterns clash with the advanced technology and super-scientific energy weapons that the citizens of the city know how to use but have forgotten how to engineer. The more complex second novel is A Storm of Wings (1982). It is set eighty years later than The Pastel City. and stylistically it is denser and more elaborate. A race of intelligent insects is invading Earth as human interest in survival wanes. Harrison brilliantly depicts the workings of civilization on the verge of collapse and the heroic efforts of individuals to help it sustain itself a little longer. A third novel, entitled In Viriconium (1982) (US title: The Floating Gods), was nominated for the Guardian Fiction Prize during 1982. It is a moody portrait of artistic subcultures in a city beset by a mysterious plague. The short story "A Young Man's Journey to Viriconium" (1985, later retitled "A Young Man's Journey to London") is set in our world and concerns the idea of escape from it. 1985–1989: Climbers Harrison's interest in rock climbing resulted in his semi-autobiographical novel Climbers (1989), the first novel to receive the Boardman Tasker Prize for Mountain Literature. Harrison also ghost-wrote the autobiography of one of Britain's best rock climbers, Ron Fawcett (Fawcett on Rock, 1987, as by Mike Harrison). Harrison has repeatedly affirmed in print the importance of rock climbing for his writing as an attempt to grapple with reality and its implications, which he had largely neglected while writing fantasy. The difference in his approach pre- and post-Climbers, can be observed in the extreme stylistic differences between the first novel of the Viriconium sequence The Pastel City and the second, A Storm of Wings. Around the time of writing Climbers, he declared that he had abandoned science fiction forever. Robert Macfarlane wrote an introduction to the 2013 reissue of Climbers. Writing about the book in The Guardian, he said: "...it is surely the best novel about rock-climbing ever written – though such a description drastically limits its achievement". 1990s: The Course of the Heart, Signs of Life, and Gabriel King novels Subsequent novels and short stories, such as The Course of the Heart (1991) and "Empty" (1993), were set between London and the Peak District. They have a lyrical style and a strong sense of place, and take their tension from characteristically conflicting veins of mysticism and realism. The Course of the Heart deals in part with an experiment in ritual magic gone wrong, and with an imaginary country which may exist at the heart of Europe, as well as Gnostic themes such as the Pleroma. It weaves together mythology, sexuality, and the troubled past and present of Eastern Europe. The origin of the narrative lies in the occasion when three Cambridge students perform a ritualistic act (never shown or fully described) that changes their lives. Years later, none of the participants can remember what exactly occurred; but their vague memories can't rid them of an overwhelming sense of dread. Pam Stuyvesant is an epileptic haunted by strange sensual visions. Her husband Lucas believes that a dwarfish creature is stalking him. Self-styled sorcerer Yaxley becomes obsessed with a terrifyingly transcendent reality. The narrator, the seemingly least affected participant in the ritual (who is haunted by the smell of roses) attempts to help his friends escape the torment that has engulfed their lives. Joel Lane has described The Course of the Heart as "a brilliant use of supernatural themes to explore humanity mortality and loss." The novel incorporates versions of several other Harrison stories including "The Great God Pan", "The Quarry" and "The Incalling". The novel Signs of Life (1996) is a romantic thriller which explores concerns about genetics and biotechnology amidst the turmoil of what might be termed a three-way love affair between its central characters. Beginning with The Wild Road during 1996 and concluding with Nonesuch (2001), Harrison coauthored four associated fantasies about cats with Jane Johnson, under the joint pseudonym of "Gabriel King". Harrison has collaborated on several short stories with Simon Ings, and with Simon Pummel on the short film "Ray Gun Fun" (1998). His work has been classified by some as forming part of the style dubbed the New Weird, along with writers such as China Miéville, though Harrison himself resists being labelled as part of any literary style. Harrison won the Richard Evans Award during 1999 (named after the near-legendary figure of UK publishing) given to the author who has contributed significantly to the SF genre without concomitant commercial success. 2002–2012: The Kefahuchi Tract trilogy and other works Harrison continued to publish short fiction in a wide variety of magazines through the late 1990s and early 21st century. Such tales were published in magazines as diverse as Conjunctions ("Entertaining Angels Unawares", Fall issue 2002), The Independent on Sunday ("Cicisbeo", 2003), the Times Literary Supplement ("Science and the Arts", 1999) and Woman's Journal ("Old Women", 1982). They were collected in his major short story collections Travel Arrangements (2000) and Things That Never Happen (2002). During 2007 Harrison provided material for performance by Barbara Campbell (1001 Nights Cast, 2007, 2008) and Kate McIntosh (Loose Promise, 2007). During 2002, Light marked a return to science fiction for Harrison and marked the beginning of the Kefahuchi Tract trilogy. Light was co-winner of the James Tiptree, Jr. Award in 2003. Its sequel, Nova Swing (2006), which contained elements of noir, won the Arthur C. Clarke Award in 2007 and the Philip K. Dick Award in 2008. The third novel, Empty Space: A Haunting, was published in August 2012. 2012–present: You Should Come with Me Now and The Sunken Land Begins to Rise Again Harrison published two short stories on Kindle: Cave and Julia (2013) and The 4th Domain (2014). In 2014, Rhys Williams and Mark Bould organised a conference on Harrison's work at the University of Warwick, UK, called "Irradiating the Object: M. John Harrison". The keynote speakers were Fred Botting (Kingston University) and Sara Wasson (Edinburgh-Napier University). The conference papers, including the keynote address by Tim Etchells, was published as M. John Harrison: Critical Essays edited by Rhys Williams and Mark Bould. In 2016, he received an honorary D. Litt. from the University of Warwick, UK. A collection of short stories, You Should Come With Me Now, was published in November 2017. 2020 saw two new books: a novel, The Sunken Land Begins to Rise Again and Settling the World: Selected Stories 1970-2020. The Sunken Land Begins to Rise Again won the 2020 Goldsmiths Prize, and was longlisted for the 2020 BSFA Award. In 2023, Harrison will release Wish I Was Here, an "anti-memoir". Reviewing, judging and teaching For Harrison's work in New Worlds magazine, see above. The bulk of his reviews were collected in the volume Parietal Games (2005; see below). Since 1991, Harrison has reviewed fiction and nonfiction for The Guardian, The Daily Telegraph, the Times Literary Supplement and The New York Times. During 2003 Harrison was on the jury of the Michael Powell Award at the Edinburgh International Film Festival. He has taught creative writing courses in Devon and Wales, focusing on landscape and autobiography, with Adam Lively and the travel writer Jim Perrin. During 2009, Harrison shared (with Sarah Hall and Nicholas Royle) the judging of the Manchester Fiction Prize. Style His work has been acclaimed by writers including Angela Carter, Neil Gaiman, Iain Banks (who called him "a Zen master of prose"), China Miéville, William Gibson, Robert Macfarlane and Clive Barker, who has referred to him as "a blazing original". Olivia Laing has said of him: "No one alive can write sentences as he can. He’s the missing evolutionary link between William Burroughs and Virginia Woolf". In a Locus magazine interview, Harrison describes his work as "a deliberate intention to illustrate human values by describing their absence." Many of Harrison's novels include expansions or reworkings of previously published short stories. For instance, "The Ice Monkey" (title story of the collection) provides the basis for the novel Climbers (1989); the novel The Course of the Heart (1992) is based on his short story "The Great God Pan". The story "Isobel Avens Returns to Stepney in the Spring" is expanded as the novel Signs of Life (1996); the short story "Anima", first published in Interzone magazine, also forms one of the central thematic threads of Signs of Life. In interviews, Harrison has described himself as an anarchist, and Michael Moorcock wrote in an essay entitled "Starship Stormtroopers" that, "His books are full of anarchists – some of them very bizarre like the anarchist aesthetes of The Centauri Device." Critical response China Miéville has written: "That M. John Harrison is not a Nobel laureate proves the bankruptcy of the literary establishment. Austere, unflinching and desperately moving, he is one of the very great writers alive today. And yes, he writes fantasy and sf, though of a form, scale and brilliance that it shames not only the rest of the field, but most modern fiction." David Wingrove has written of Harrison: "Making use of forms from sword-and-sorcery, space opera and horror fiction, Harrison pursues an idiosyncratic vision: often grim, but with a strong vein of sardonic humour and sensual detail. Typically, his characters make ill-assorted alliances to engage in manic and often ritualistic quests for obscure objectives. Out of the struggle, unacknowledged motives emerge, often to bring about a frightful conclusion, which, it is suggested, was secretly desired all along. Harrison's vivid, highly finished prose convinces the reader of everything." Bibliography Fiction Graphic novels Nonfiction References Critical essays Leigh Blackmore. "Undoing the Mechanisms: Genre Expectation, Subversion and Anti-Consolation in the Kefahuchi Tract Novels of M. John Harrison." Studies in the Fantastic. 2 (Winter 2008/Spring 2009). (University of Tampa Press). Various hands. Parietal Games (2005), edited by Mark Bould and Michelle Reid, compiles Harrison's reviews and essays from 1968 to 2004 as well as eight essays on Harrison's fiction by other authors. Foreword by Elizabeth Hand. Mark Bould and Rhys Williams, eds. M. John Harrison: Critical Essays. Gylphi, March 2019. ISBN 9781780240770. External links the m john harrison blog (since June 2008) Uncle Zip's Window (Harrison's blog, December 2006 to April 2008) Infinity Plus interview with David Mathew Podcast of interview with M John Harrison during the Irradiating the Object conference on Harrison's work at the University of Warwick on 21st of August 2014 John Coulthart, Covering Viriconium M. John Harrison profile from The Guardian Category:1945 births Category:English fantasy writers Category:English science fiction writers Category:English horror writers Category:English short story writers Category:Science fiction critics Category:British speculative fiction critics Category:Boardman Tasker Prize winners Category:People from Rugby, Warwickshire Category:Living people Category:English male novelists Category:Weird fiction writers Category:Pulp fiction writers
[]
[ "The Viriconium series of books revolves around the fictional city of Viriconium, also known as the Pastel City. The series presents a civilization in decline where medieval social patterns clash with advanced superscience technology. The first book, \"The Pastel City\", depicts this declining city with ancient technology that the citizens know how to use but have forgotten to engineer. The second novel, \"A Storm of Wings\", set eighty years later, involves a race of intelligent insects invading Earth as human survival interest wanes, and follows the heroic efforts of individuals seeking to prevent the collapse of civilization. The third novel, \"In Viriconium\", portrays artistic subcultures in the city beset by a mysterious plague and remarkably shifts towards despair rather than maintaining the sword and sorcery theme of the previous books. The short story \"A Young Man's Journey to Viriconium\" is set in the real world and reveals that Viriconium can be visited via a mirror in a bathroom of an English cafe.", "The Viriconium series consists of three novels and various short stories and novellas.", "The novel \"In Viriconium\" was released in the year 1982.", "The name of the second book in the series is \"A Storm of Wings\".", "The first book, \"The Pastel City\", presents a civilization in decline where medieval social patterns clash with advanced technology and superscience energy weapons. Although the citizens of the city know how to use these weapons, they have forgotten how to engineer them.", "Viriconium is a fictitious city in Harrison's fantasy sequence. It is known as the Pastel City and possesses a shifting topography and history. It is sometimes known by other names such as 'Uroconium'. The city is depicted as a civilization in decline where medieval social patterns clash with advanced technology." ]
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C_8683eb5b803c462ca4d8ba679eba0b2a_1
M. John Harrison
Michael John Harrison (born 26 July 1945), known for publication purposes primarily as M. John Harrison, is an English author and literary critic. His work includes the Viriconium sequence of novels and short stories (1971-1984), Climbers (1989), and the Kefahuchi Tract trilogy, which consists of Light (2002), Nova Swing (2006) and Empty Space (2012). He is widely considered one of the major stylists of modern fantasy and science fiction, and a "genre contrarian". The Times Literary Supplement described him as 'a singular stylist' and the Literary Review called him 'a witty and truly imaginative writer'.
Early years
Harrison was born in Rugby, Warwickshire, in 1945 to an engineering family. His father died when he was a teenager and he found himself "bored, alienated, resentful and entrapped", playing truant from Dunsmore School (now Ashlawn School). An English teacher introduced him to George Bernard Shaw which resulted in an interest in polemic. He ended school during 1963 at age 18; he worked at various times as a groom (for the Atherstone Hunt), a student teacher (1963-65), and a clerk for the Royal Masonic Charity Institute, London (1966). His hobbies included electric guitars and writing pastiches of H. H. Munro. His first short story was published during 1966 by Kyril Bonfiglioli at Science Fantasy magazine, on the strength of which he relocated to London. He there met Michael Moorcock, who was editing New Worlds magazine. He began writing reviews and short fiction for New Worlds, and by 1968 he was appointed books editor. Harrison was critical of what he perceived as the complacency of much genre fiction of the time. During 1970, Harrison scripted comic stories illustrated by R.G. Jones for such forums as Cyclops and Finger. An illustration by Jones appears in the first edition of Harrison's The Committed Men (1971). In an interview with Zone magazine, Harrison says "I liked anything bizarre, from being about four years old. I started on Dan Dare and worked up to the Absurdists. At 15 you could catch me with a pile of books that contained an Alfred Bester, a Samuel Beckett, a Charles Williams, the two or three available J. G. Ballards, On the Road by Jack Kerouac, some Keats, some Allen Ginsberg, maybe a Thorne Smith. I've always been pick 'n' mix: now it's a philosophy." CANNOTANSWER
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[ "What was John Harrison's first novel?", "Did he write in any other genre before writing Science fiction?", "How popular were his first stories?", "Who influenced him as a writer?", "Who published his first novel?", "What other magazines published his short stories?" ]
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Michael John Harrison (born 26 July 1945), known for publication purposes primarily as M. John Harrison, is an English author and literary critic. His work includes the Viriconium sequence of novels and short stories (1971–1984), Climbers (1989), and the Kefahuchi Tract trilogy, which consists of Light (2002), Nova Swing (2006) and Empty Space (2012). He is widely considered one of the major stylists of modern fantasy and science fiction, and a "genre contrarian". Robert Macfarlane has said: "Harrison is best known as one of the restless fathers of modern SF, but to my mind he is among the most brilliant novelists writing today, with regard to whom the question of genre is an irrelevance." The Times Literary Supplement described him as "a singular stylist" and the Literary Review called him "a witty and truly imaginative writer". Life and career Early years Harrison was born in Rugby, Warwickshire, in 1945 to an engineering family. His father died when he was a teenager and he found himself "bored, alienated, resentful and entrapped", playing truant from Dunsmore School (now Ashlawn School). An English teacher introduced him to George Bernard Shaw which resulted in an interest in polemic. He ended school during 1963 at age 18; he worked at various times as a groom (for the Atherstone Hunt), a student teacher (1963–65), and a clerk for the Royal Masonic Charity Institute, London (1966). His hobbies included electric guitars and writing pastiches of H. H. Munro. His first short story was published during 1966 by Kyril Bonfiglioli at Science Fantasy magazine, on the strength of which he relocated to London. He there met Michael Moorcock, who was editing New Worlds magazine. He began writing reviews and short fiction for New Worlds, and by 1968 he was appointed books editor. Harrison was critical of what he perceived as the complacency of much genre fiction of the time. During 1970, Harrison scripted comic stories illustrated by R.G. Jones for such forums as Cyclops and Finger. An illustration by Jones appears in the first edition of Harrison's The Committed Men (1971). In an interview with Zone magazine, Harrison says "I liked anything bizarre, from being about four years old. I started on Dan Dare and worked up to the Absurdists. At 15 you could catch me with a pile of books that contained an Alfred Bester, a Samuel Beckett, a Charles Williams, the two or three available J. G. Ballard's, On the Road by Jack Kerouac, some Keats, some Allen Ginsberg, maybe a Thorne Smith. I've always been pick 'n' mix: now it's a philosophy." 1968–1975: New Worlds, The Committed Men, The Pastel City, and The Centauri Device From 1968 to 1975 he was literary editor of the New Wave science fiction magazine New Worlds, regularly contributing criticism. He was important to the New Wave style which also included writers such as Norman Spinrad, Barrington Bayley, Langdon Jones and Thomas M. Disch. As reviewer for New Worlds he often used the pseudonym "Joyce Churchill" and was critical of many works and writers published using the rubric of science fiction. One of his critical pieces, "By Tennyson Out of Disney" was initially written for Sword and Sorcery Magazine, a publication planned by Kenneth Bulmer but which was never published; the piece was printed in New Worlds 2. Amongst his works of that period are three stories utilising the Jerry Cornelius character invented by Michael Moorcock. These stories do not appear in any of Harrison's own collections but do appear in the Nature of the Catastrophe and New Nature of the Catastrophe. Other early stories published from 1966, featured in anthologies such as New Writings in SF edited by John Carnell, and in magazines such as Transatlantic Review, The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, New Worlds and Quark. A number of Harrison's short stories of this early period remain uncollected, gathered neither in his first collection The Machine in Shaft Ten, nor in his later collections. The novel The Committed Men (1971) (dedicated to Michael Moorcock and his wife Hilary Bailey) is an archetypal British New-Wave vision of a crumbling future with obvious debts to the work of Michael Moorcock and J. G. Ballard. It is set in England after the apocalypse. Social organisation has collapsed, and the survivors, riddled with skin cancers, eke out a precarious scavenging existence in the ruins of the Great Society. A few bizarre communities try to maintain their structure in a chromium wilderness linked by crumbling motorways. But their rituals are meaningless clichés mouthed against the devastation. Only the roaming bands of hippie-style "situationalists" (presumably a reference to the then contemporaneous situationist group) have grasped that the old order, with its logic, its pseudo-liberalism and its immutable laws of cause and effect, has now been superseded. Among the mutants are a group of reptilian humans – alien, cancer-free but persecuted by the 'smoothskins'. When one of them is born of a human mother in Tinhouse, a group of humans sets off to deliver it to its own kind – a search of the committed men for the tribes of mutants. David Pringle called the novel "brief, bleak, derivative – but stylishly written." Harrison's first novel of the Viriconium sequence, The Pastel City was also published during 1971. Harrison would continue adding to this series until 1984. During 1972, the story "Lamia Mutable" appeared in Harlan Ellison's anthology Again, Dangerous Visions; while this tale forms part of the Viriconium sequence, it has been omitted from omnibus editions of the Viriconium tales to date. During 1974 Harrison's third novel was published, the space opera The Centauri Device (described prior to its publication, by New Worlds magazine, as "a sort of hippie space opera in the baroque tradition of Alfred Bester and Charles Harness). An extract was published in New Worlds in advance of the novel's publication, with the title "The Wolf That Follows". The novel's protagonist, space tramp John Truck, is the last of the Centaurans, victims of a genocide. Rival groups need him to arm the most powerful weapon in the galaxy: the Centauri Device, which will respond only to the genetic code of a true Centauran. Harrison himself has said of this book: I never liked that book much but at least it took the piss out of sf’s three main tenets: (1) The reader-identification character always drives the action; (2) The universe is knowable; (3) the universe is anthropocentrically structured & its riches are an appropriate prize for the colonialist people like us. TCD tried to out space opera as a kind of counterfeit pulp which had carefully cleaned itself of Saturday night appetite, vacuuming out all the concerns of real pulp fiction to keep it under the radar of the Mothers of America or whatever they called themselves. Pulp’s lust for life was replaced, if you were lucky, by a jaunty shanty & a comedy brawl. Otherwise it was lebensraum & a cadetship in the Space Police (these days it’s primarily low-bourgeois freedom motifs & nice friendly sexual release). Harrison's first short story collection The Machine in Shaft Ten (1975) collects many (but not all) of his early short tales, from such sources as New Worlds Quarterly, New Worlds Monthly, New Writings in SF, Transatlantic Review and others. "The Lamia and Lord Cromis" is an early Viriconium tale. The moody "London Melancholy" features a ruined future London haunted by winged people. None of the stories, with the exception of "Running Down", (a psychological horror tale about a man who is literally a walking disaster area), have been reprinted in his subsequent short story collections. "The Bringer with the Window" features Dr Grishkin, a character also appearing in The Centauri Device, seemingly in Harrison's recurring fictional city of Viriconium. Harrison's early novels The Committed Men, The Pastel City and The Centauri Device have been reprinted several times. The lat-named was included in the SF Masterworks series. 1978–1985: Manchester Review, The Ice Monkey, more Viriconium Harrison later relocated to Manchester and was a regular contributor to New Manchester Review (1978–79). David Britton and Michael Butterworth of Savoy Books employed him to write in their basement (where he did so "amidst stacks of antique Eagles, Freindz, New Worlds and Styng. A basement that reverberates with indecent exposures of stolen sound, bootlegs sucked from hidden mikes, stacked in neat piles."). The commissioned work, originally announced in Savoy publications as By Gas Mask and Fire Hydrant, eventually became the novel In Viriconium. During the decade of 1976–1986, Harrison lived in the Peak District. In 1983, he published his second short story collection, The Ice Monkey and Other Stories, containing seven tales which capture the pathos, humour, awe, despair, pain and black humour of the human condition. The Ice Monkey was praised by Ramsey Campbell, who stated "M. John Harrison is the finest British writer now writing horror fiction and by far the most original". In "The Incalling", a story of seedy suburban magic which in some ways foreshadows his later novel The Course of the Heart, an editor is haunted by an author's attempts to cure himself of cancer by faith healing. The "Incalling" is one of the few of Harrison's tales (aside from "Running Down") in which a male character is physically ill; though many of his stories feature male characters who are psychologically unwell, in many of his fictions, it is women who are damaged - either physically or emotionally ill or both. "The New Rays" here exemplifies this tendency. In 1980 Harrison contributed an introduction to Michael Moorcock's early allegorical fantasy, written by Moorcock at age 18, entitled The Golden Barge and published by Savoy Books. Harrison's enduring fantasy sequence concerning the fictitious city of Viriconium consists of three novels and various short stories and novels written between 1971 and 1984. Viriconium is known as the Pastel City. Both universal and particular, the city has a shifting topography and history, and is sometimes known by similar names, such as "Uroconium". The first book, The Pastel City (1971), presents a civilization in decline where medieval social patterns clash with the advanced technology and super-scientific energy weapons that the citizens of the city know how to use but have forgotten how to engineer. The more complex second novel is A Storm of Wings (1982). It is set eighty years later than The Pastel City. and stylistically it is denser and more elaborate. A race of intelligent insects is invading Earth as human interest in survival wanes. Harrison brilliantly depicts the workings of civilization on the verge of collapse and the heroic efforts of individuals to help it sustain itself a little longer. A third novel, entitled In Viriconium (1982) (US title: The Floating Gods), was nominated for the Guardian Fiction Prize during 1982. It is a moody portrait of artistic subcultures in a city beset by a mysterious plague. The short story "A Young Man's Journey to Viriconium" (1985, later retitled "A Young Man's Journey to London") is set in our world and concerns the idea of escape from it. 1985–1989: Climbers Harrison's interest in rock climbing resulted in his semi-autobiographical novel Climbers (1989), the first novel to receive the Boardman Tasker Prize for Mountain Literature. Harrison also ghost-wrote the autobiography of one of Britain's best rock climbers, Ron Fawcett (Fawcett on Rock, 1987, as by Mike Harrison). Harrison has repeatedly affirmed in print the importance of rock climbing for his writing as an attempt to grapple with reality and its implications, which he had largely neglected while writing fantasy. The difference in his approach pre- and post-Climbers, can be observed in the extreme stylistic differences between the first novel of the Viriconium sequence The Pastel City and the second, A Storm of Wings. Around the time of writing Climbers, he declared that he had abandoned science fiction forever. Robert Macfarlane wrote an introduction to the 2013 reissue of Climbers. Writing about the book in The Guardian, he said: "...it is surely the best novel about rock-climbing ever written – though such a description drastically limits its achievement". 1990s: The Course of the Heart, Signs of Life, and Gabriel King novels Subsequent novels and short stories, such as The Course of the Heart (1991) and "Empty" (1993), were set between London and the Peak District. They have a lyrical style and a strong sense of place, and take their tension from characteristically conflicting veins of mysticism and realism. The Course of the Heart deals in part with an experiment in ritual magic gone wrong, and with an imaginary country which may exist at the heart of Europe, as well as Gnostic themes such as the Pleroma. It weaves together mythology, sexuality, and the troubled past and present of Eastern Europe. The origin of the narrative lies in the occasion when three Cambridge students perform a ritualistic act (never shown or fully described) that changes their lives. Years later, none of the participants can remember what exactly occurred; but their vague memories can't rid them of an overwhelming sense of dread. Pam Stuyvesant is an epileptic haunted by strange sensual visions. Her husband Lucas believes that a dwarfish creature is stalking him. Self-styled sorcerer Yaxley becomes obsessed with a terrifyingly transcendent reality. The narrator, the seemingly least affected participant in the ritual (who is haunted by the smell of roses) attempts to help his friends escape the torment that has engulfed their lives. Joel Lane has described The Course of the Heart as "a brilliant use of supernatural themes to explore humanity mortality and loss." The novel incorporates versions of several other Harrison stories including "The Great God Pan", "The Quarry" and "The Incalling". The novel Signs of Life (1996) is a romantic thriller which explores concerns about genetics and biotechnology amidst the turmoil of what might be termed a three-way love affair between its central characters. Beginning with The Wild Road during 1996 and concluding with Nonesuch (2001), Harrison coauthored four associated fantasies about cats with Jane Johnson, under the joint pseudonym of "Gabriel King". Harrison has collaborated on several short stories with Simon Ings, and with Simon Pummel on the short film "Ray Gun Fun" (1998). His work has been classified by some as forming part of the style dubbed the New Weird, along with writers such as China Miéville, though Harrison himself resists being labelled as part of any literary style. Harrison won the Richard Evans Award during 1999 (named after the near-legendary figure of UK publishing) given to the author who has contributed significantly to the SF genre without concomitant commercial success. 2002–2012: The Kefahuchi Tract trilogy and other works Harrison continued to publish short fiction in a wide variety of magazines through the late 1990s and early 21st century. Such tales were published in magazines as diverse as Conjunctions ("Entertaining Angels Unawares", Fall issue 2002), The Independent on Sunday ("Cicisbeo", 2003), the Times Literary Supplement ("Science and the Arts", 1999) and Woman's Journal ("Old Women", 1982). They were collected in his major short story collections Travel Arrangements (2000) and Things That Never Happen (2002). During 2007 Harrison provided material for performance by Barbara Campbell (1001 Nights Cast, 2007, 2008) and Kate McIntosh (Loose Promise, 2007). During 2002, Light marked a return to science fiction for Harrison and marked the beginning of the Kefahuchi Tract trilogy. Light was co-winner of the James Tiptree, Jr. Award in 2003. Its sequel, Nova Swing (2006), which contained elements of noir, won the Arthur C. Clarke Award in 2007 and the Philip K. Dick Award in 2008. The third novel, Empty Space: A Haunting, was published in August 2012. 2012–present: You Should Come with Me Now and The Sunken Land Begins to Rise Again Harrison published two short stories on Kindle: Cave and Julia (2013) and The 4th Domain (2014). In 2014, Rhys Williams and Mark Bould organised a conference on Harrison's work at the University of Warwick, UK, called "Irradiating the Object: M. John Harrison". The keynote speakers were Fred Botting (Kingston University) and Sara Wasson (Edinburgh-Napier University). The conference papers, including the keynote address by Tim Etchells, was published as M. John Harrison: Critical Essays edited by Rhys Williams and Mark Bould. In 2016, he received an honorary D. Litt. from the University of Warwick, UK. A collection of short stories, You Should Come With Me Now, was published in November 2017. 2020 saw two new books: a novel, The Sunken Land Begins to Rise Again and Settling the World: Selected Stories 1970-2020. The Sunken Land Begins to Rise Again won the 2020 Goldsmiths Prize, and was longlisted for the 2020 BSFA Award. In 2023, Harrison will release Wish I Was Here, an "anti-memoir". Reviewing, judging and teaching For Harrison's work in New Worlds magazine, see above. The bulk of his reviews were collected in the volume Parietal Games (2005; see below). Since 1991, Harrison has reviewed fiction and nonfiction for The Guardian, The Daily Telegraph, the Times Literary Supplement and The New York Times. During 2003 Harrison was on the jury of the Michael Powell Award at the Edinburgh International Film Festival. He has taught creative writing courses in Devon and Wales, focusing on landscape and autobiography, with Adam Lively and the travel writer Jim Perrin. During 2009, Harrison shared (with Sarah Hall and Nicholas Royle) the judging of the Manchester Fiction Prize. Style His work has been acclaimed by writers including Angela Carter, Neil Gaiman, Iain Banks (who called him "a Zen master of prose"), China Miéville, William Gibson, Robert Macfarlane and Clive Barker, who has referred to him as "a blazing original". Olivia Laing has said of him: "No one alive can write sentences as he can. He’s the missing evolutionary link between William Burroughs and Virginia Woolf". In a Locus magazine interview, Harrison describes his work as "a deliberate intention to illustrate human values by describing their absence." Many of Harrison's novels include expansions or reworkings of previously published short stories. For instance, "The Ice Monkey" (title story of the collection) provides the basis for the novel Climbers (1989); the novel The Course of the Heart (1992) is based on his short story "The Great God Pan". The story "Isobel Avens Returns to Stepney in the Spring" is expanded as the novel Signs of Life (1996); the short story "Anima", first published in Interzone magazine, also forms one of the central thematic threads of Signs of Life. In interviews, Harrison has described himself as an anarchist, and Michael Moorcock wrote in an essay entitled "Starship Stormtroopers" that, "His books are full of anarchists – some of them very bizarre like the anarchist aesthetes of The Centauri Device." Critical response China Miéville has written: "That M. John Harrison is not a Nobel laureate proves the bankruptcy of the literary establishment. Austere, unflinching and desperately moving, he is one of the very great writers alive today. And yes, he writes fantasy and sf, though of a form, scale and brilliance that it shames not only the rest of the field, but most modern fiction." David Wingrove has written of Harrison: "Making use of forms from sword-and-sorcery, space opera and horror fiction, Harrison pursues an idiosyncratic vision: often grim, but with a strong vein of sardonic humour and sensual detail. Typically, his characters make ill-assorted alliances to engage in manic and often ritualistic quests for obscure objectives. Out of the struggle, unacknowledged motives emerge, often to bring about a frightful conclusion, which, it is suggested, was secretly desired all along. Harrison's vivid, highly finished prose convinces the reader of everything." Bibliography Fiction Graphic novels Nonfiction References Critical essays Leigh Blackmore. "Undoing the Mechanisms: Genre Expectation, Subversion and Anti-Consolation in the Kefahuchi Tract Novels of M. John Harrison." Studies in the Fantastic. 2 (Winter 2008/Spring 2009). (University of Tampa Press). Various hands. Parietal Games (2005), edited by Mark Bould and Michelle Reid, compiles Harrison's reviews and essays from 1968 to 2004 as well as eight essays on Harrison's fiction by other authors. Foreword by Elizabeth Hand. Mark Bould and Rhys Williams, eds. M. John Harrison: Critical Essays. Gylphi, March 2019. ISBN 9781780240770. External links the m john harrison blog (since June 2008) Uncle Zip's Window (Harrison's blog, December 2006 to April 2008) Infinity Plus interview with David Mathew Podcast of interview with M John Harrison during the Irradiating the Object conference on Harrison's work at the University of Warwick on 21st of August 2014 John Coulthart, Covering Viriconium M. John Harrison profile from The Guardian Category:1945 births Category:English fantasy writers Category:English science fiction writers Category:English horror writers Category:English short story writers Category:Science fiction critics Category:British speculative fiction critics Category:Boardman Tasker Prize winners Category:People from Rugby, Warwickshire Category:Living people Category:English male novelists Category:Weird fiction writers Category:Pulp fiction writers
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[ "The text does not provide information on what John Harrison's first novel was.", "The text does not provide specific information about John Harrison writing in any other genre before writing Science fiction.", "The text does not provide information on the popularity of John Harrison's first stories.", "An English teacher introduced John Harrison to George Bernard Shaw, which sparked his interest in polemic. This suggests that George Bernard Shaw influenced Harrison as a writer. He also mentioned authors such as Alfred Bester, Samuel Beckett, Charles Williams, J. G. Ballard, Jack Kerouac, John Keats, Allen Ginsberg, and Thorne Smith, indicating that they may have also influenced him.", "The text does not provide information on who published John Harrison's first novel.", "Aside from Science Fantasy magazine, John Harrison also wrote for New Worlds magazine. There is no mention of any other magazines publishing his short stories." ]
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C_1ffd3d9f3eab4b4fb15d84ac8b6b4375_0
Ron Paul
Ronald Ernest Paul (born August 20, 1935) is an American author, physician and retired politician who served as the U.S. Representative for Texas's 22nd congressional district from 1976 to 1977 and again from 1979 to 1985, and for Texas's 14th congressional district from 1997 to 2013. On three occasions, he sought the presidency of the United States: as the Libertarian Party nominee in 1988 and as a candidate in the Republican primaries of 2008 and 2012. Paul is a critic of the federal government's fiscal policies, especially the existence of the Federal Reserve and the tax policy, as well as the military-industrial complex, and the War on Drugs. He has also been a vocal critic of mass surveillance policies such as the USA PATRIOT Act and the NSA surveillance programs.
Refusal to endorse the Republican nominee
At a September 10, 2008, press conference, Paul announced his general support of four third-party candidates: Cynthia McKinney (Green Party); Bob Barr (Libertarian Party); Chuck Baldwin (Constitution Party); and Ralph Nader (independent). He said that each of them had pledged to adhere to a policy of balancing budgets, bringing the troops home, defending privacy and personal liberties, and investigating the Federal Reserve. Paul also said that under no circumstances would he be endorsing either of the two main parties' candidates (McCain - Republican Party, or Obama - Democratic Party) because there were no real differences between them, and because neither of them, if elected, would seek to make the fundamental changes in governance that were necessary. He urged instead that, rather than contribute to the "charade" that the two-party election system had become, the voters support the third-party candidates as a protest vote, to force change in the election process. Later that same day, Paul gave a televised interview with Nader saying much the same again. Two weeks later, "shocked and disappointed" that Bob Barr (the Libertarian nominee) had pulled out of attending the press conference at the last minute and had admonished Paul for remaining neutral and failing to say which specific candidate Paul would vote for in the general election, Paul released a statement saying that he had decided to endorse Chuck Baldwin, the Constitution Party candidate, for president. Paul withdrew from active campaigning in the last weeks of the primary election period. He received 42,426 votes, or 0.03% of the total cast, in the general election. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "Why does he decide to refuse to endorse the republican nominee?", "Where the name of the nominees mentioned?", "Who antagonized him?", "Who does he want to be nominated?", "What other thing did he do in the house?", "What was people reaction to his refusal to endorse the nominee?" ]
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Ronald Ernest Paul (born August 20, 1935) is an American author, activist, physician and retired politician who served as the U.S. representative for Texas's 22nd congressional district from 1976 to 1977 and again from 1979 to 1985, as well as for Texas's 14th congressional district from 1997 to 2013. On three occasions, he sought the presidency of the United States: as the Libertarian Party nominee in 1988 and as a candidate for the Republican Party in 2008 and 2012. A self-described constitutionalist, Paul is a critic of several federal government's policies, especially the existence of the Federal Reserve and tax policy, as well as the military–industrial complex, the war on drugs, and the war on terror. He has also been a vocal critic of mass surveillance policies such as the USA PATRIOT Act and the NSA surveillance programs. In 1976, Paul formed the Foundation for Rational Economics and Education (FREE), and in 1985 was named the first chairman of the conservative PAC Citizens for a Sound Economy, both free-market groups focused on limited government. He has been characterized as the "intellectual godfather" of the Tea Party movement, a fiscally conservative political movement started in 2007 that is largely against most matters of interventionism. Paul served as a flight surgeon in the U.S. Air Force from 1963 to 1968, and worked as an obstetrician-gynecologist from the 1960s to the 1980s. He became the first Representative in history to serve concurrently with a child in the Senate when his son, Rand Paul, was elected to the U.S. Senate from Kentucky in 2010. Paul is a Senior Fellow and Distinguished Counselor of the Mises Institute, and has published a number of books and promoted the ideas of economists of the Austrian School such as Murray Rothbard, Friedrich Hayek, and Ludwig von Mises during his political campaigns. He has cited President Grover Cleveland as a preferred model of governance. After the popularity and grassroots enthusiasm of his 2008 presidential bid, Paul announced in July 2011 that he would not seek reelection to Congress in order to focus on his 2012 bid for the presidency. Finishing in the top four with delegates in both races (while winning four states in the 2012 primaries), he refused to endorse the Republican nominations of John McCain and Mitt Romney during their respective 2008 and 2012 campaigns against Barack Obama. In May 2012, Paul announced that he would not be competing in any other presidential primaries but that he would still compete for delegates in states where the primary elections had already been held. At both the 2008 and 2012 Republican National Conventions, Paul received the second-highest number of delegates behind only McCain and Romney respectively. In January 2013, Paul retired from Congress but remained active on college campuses, giving speeches promoting libertarian and libertarian-conservative ideas. He also continues to provide political commentary through The Ron Paul Liberty Report, a web show he co-hosts on YouTube. Paul received one electoral vote from a Texas faithless elector in the 2016 presidential election, making him the oldest person to receive an Electoral College vote, as well as the second registered Libertarian presidential candidate in history to receive an electoral vote, after John Hospers in 1972. Early life, education, and medical career Ronald Ernest Paul was born on August 20, 1935, in Pittsburgh, the son of Howard Casper Paul (1904–1997), who ran a small dairy company, and Margaret Paul (née Dumont; 1908–2001). His paternal grandfather emigrated from Germany, and his paternal grandmother, a devout Christian, was a first-generation German American. As a junior at suburban Dormont High School, he was the 200-meter dash state champion. Paul went to Gettysburg College, where he was a member of the Lambda Chi Alpha fraternity. He graduated with a B.S. degree in Biology in 1957. Paul earned a Doctor of Medicine degree from Duke University's School of Medicine in 1961, and completed his medical internship at the Henry Ford Hospital in Detroit and his residency in obstetrics and gynecology at Magee-Womens Hospital in Pittsburgh. Paul served as a flight surgeon in the United States Air Force from 1963 to 1965 and then in the United States Air National Guard from 1965 to 1968. Paul and his wife then relocated to Texas, where he began a private practice in obstetrics and gynecology. One child that he helped deliver was famous Tejano singer Selena Quintanilla. Early congressional career (1976–1985) While a medical resident in the 1960s, Paul was influenced by Friedrich Hayek's The Road to Serfdom, which caused him to read other publications by Ludwig von Mises and Ayn Rand. He came to know economists Hans Sennholz and Murray Rothbard well, and credits his interest in the study of economics to them. When President Richard Nixon "closed the gold window" by ending American participation in the Bretton Woods System, thus ending the U.S. dollar's loose association with gold on August 15, 1971, Paul decided to enter politics and became a Republican candidate for the United States Congress. Elections In 1974, incumbent Robert R. Casey defeated him for the 22nd district. President Gerald Ford later appointed Casey to the Federal Maritime Commission, and Paul won an April 1976 special election to the vacant office after a runoff. Paul lost the next regular election to Democrat Robert Gammage by fewer than 300 votes (0.2%), but defeated Gammage in a 1978 rematch, and was reelected in 1980 and 1982. Gammage underestimated Paul's popularity among local mothers: "I had real difficulty down in Brazoria County, where he practiced, because he'd delivered half the babies in the county. There were only two obstetricians in the county, and the other one was his partner." Tenure Paul served in Congress three different periods: first from 1976 to 1977, after he won a special election, then from 1979 to 1985, and finally from 1997 to 2013. In his early years, Paul served on the House Banking Committee, where he blamed the Federal Reserve for inflation and spoke against the banking mismanagement that resulted in the savings and loan crisis. Paul argued for a return to the gold standard maintained by the U.S. from 1873 to 1933, and with Senator Jesse Helms convinced the Congress to study the issue. He spoke against the reinstatement of registration for the military draft in 1980, in opposition to President Jimmy Carter and the majority of his fellow Republican members of Congress. During his first term, Paul founded the Foundation for Rational Economics and Education (FREE), a non-profit think tank dedicated to promoting principles of limited government and free-market economics. In 1984, Paul became the first chairman of the Citizens for a Sound Economy (CSE), a conservative political group founded by Charles and David Koch "to fight for less government, lower taxes, and less regulation." CSE started a Tea Party protest against high taxes in 2002. In 2004, Citizens for a Sound Economy split into two new organizations, with Citizens for a Sound Economy being renamed as FreedomWorks, and Citizens for a Sound Economy Foundation becoming Americans for Prosperity. The two organizations would become key players in the Tea Party movement from 2009 onward. Paul proposed term-limit legislation multiple times, while himself serving four terms in the House of Representatives. In 1984, he decided to retire from the House in order to run for the U.S. Senate, complaining in his House farewell address that "Special interests have replaced the concern that the Founders had for general welfare... It's difficult for one who loves true liberty and utterly detests the power of the state to come to Washington for a period of time and not leave a true cynic." Paul lost the Republican primary to Phil Gramm, who had switched parties the previous year from Democrat to Republican. Another candidate of the senatorial primary was Henry Grover, a conservative former state legislator who had lost the 1972 gubernatorial general election to Democrat Dolph Briscoe, Jr. On Paul's departure from the House, his seat was assumed by former state representative Tom DeLay, who would later become House Majority Leader. Libertarian Party and ventures 1985–1997 Following the loss of the 1984 senate race, Paul returned to his obstetrics practice and took part in a number of other business ventures. Along with his former congressional chief of staff, Lew Rockwell, Paul founded a for-profit enterprise, Ron Paul & Associates, Inc. (RP&A) in 1984, with Paul serving as president, Rockwell as vice president, Paul's wife Carol as secretary, and daughter Lori Pyeatt as treasurer. The company published a variety of political and investment-oriented newsletters, including Ron Paul Freedom Report and Ron Paul Survival Report, and by 1993 was generating revenues in excess of $900,000. Paul also co-owned a mail-order coin dealership, Ron Paul Coins, for twelve years with Burt Blumert, who continued to operate the dealership after Paul resumed office in 1996. Paul spoke multiple times at the American Numismatic Association's 1988 convention. He worked with his Foundation for Rational Economics and Education on such projects as establishing the National Endowment for Liberty, producing the At Issue public policy series that was broadcast on the Discovery Channel and CNBC, and continuing publication of newsletters. 1988 presidential campaign Paul left the Republican Party in 1987 and launched a bid for the presidency running on the Libertarian Party ticket. His candidacy was seen as problematic because of the party's long support for freedom of choice on abortions. Native American activist Russell Means, Paul's rival for the nomination, emphasized that he was in favor of abortion rights. In a forum held prior to the nomination, Means dismissed the greater funds raised by Paul's campaign, commenting that Means was receiving "10 times more press" than the former Congressman and was therefore "100 times more effective". On September 25, 1988, American psychologist and psychedelic advocate Timothy Leary held a fundraiser for Paul, who attended the event. Journalist Debra Saunders attended and wrote about her experience. In the 1988 presidential election, Paul was on the ballot in 46 states, scoring third in the popular vote with 432,179 votes (0.5%). Paul was kept off the ballot in Missouri, due to what the St. Louis Post-Dispatch termed a "technicality," and received votes there only when written in, just as he did in North Carolina. According to Paul, his presidential campaign was about more than obtaining office; he sought to promote his libertarian ideas, often to school and university groups regardless of vote eligibility. He said, "We're just as interested in the future generation as this election. These kids will vote eventually, and maybe, just maybe, they'll go home and talk to their parents." Paul considered campaigning for president in 1992, but instead chose to endorse Pat Buchanan that year, and served as an adviser to Buchanan's Republican presidential primary campaign against incumbent President George H. W. Bush. Later congressional career (1997–2013) Elections 1996 campaign During 1996, Paul was re-elected to Congress after a difficult campaign. The Republican National Committee endorsed incumbent Greg Laughlin in the primary; Paul won with assistance from baseball pitcher, constituent, and friend Nolan Ryan, tax activist and publisher Steve Forbes and conservative commentator Pat Buchanan (the latter two of whom had, had presidential campaigns that year). Paul narrowly defeated Democratic attorney Charles "Lefty" Morris in the fall election, despite Morris' criticism over controversial statements in several newsletters that Paul published. 1998–2013 In 1998 and 2000, Paul defeated Loy Sneary, a Democratic Bay City, Texas, rice farmer and former Matagorda County judge. In the 2008 Republican primary, he defeated Friendswood city councilman Chris Peden, with over 70 percent of the vote and ran unopposed in the general election. In the 2010 Republican primary, Paul defeated three opponents with 80 percent of the vote. On July 12, 2011, Paul announced that he would not seek re-election to the House in order to pursue the 2012 presidential election. Tenure Legislation Of the 620 bills that Paul had sponsored through December 2011, over a period of more than 22 years in Congress, only one had been signed into law—a lifetime success rate of less than 0.3%. The sole measure authored by Paul that was ultimately enacted allowed for a federal customhouse to be sold to a local historic preservation society (H.R. 2121 in 2009). By amending other legislation, he helped prohibit funding for national identification numbers, funding for federal teacher certification, International Criminal Court jurisdiction over the U.S. military, American participation with any U.N. global tax, and surveillance of peaceful First Amendment activities by citizens. In November 1997, Paul was one of eighteen Republicans in the House to co-sponsor a resolution by Bob Barr that sought to launch an impeachment inquiry against President Bill Clinton. The resolution did not specify any charges or allegations. This was an early effort to impeach Clinton, predating the eruption of the Clinton–Lewinsky scandal. The eruption of that scandal would ultimately lead to a more serious effort to impeach Clinton in 1998. On October 8, 1998, Paul voted in favor of legislation that was passed to open an impeachment inquiry. On December 19, 1998, Paul voted in favor of all four proposed articles of impeachment against Clinton (only two of which received the needed majority of votes to be adopted). Two days prior, on December 16, Paul had stated that he would vote to impeach based on Clinton's military attacks in the Middle East, namely the 1998 bombing of Iraq and Operation Infinite Reach, and not necessarily the Lewinsky scandal, which he described as far less serious than the "unconstitutionality of presidents waging wars". Affiliations Paul was honorary chairman of, and is a member of the Republican Liberty Caucus, a political action committee that describes its goal as electing "liberty-minded, limited-government individuals". He is an initiating member of the Congressional Rural Caucus, which deals with agricultural and rural issues, and the 140-member Congressional Wildlife Refuge Caucus. Committee assignments Paul served on the following committees and subcommittees. Committee on Financial Services Subcommittee on Domestic Monetary Policy and Technology (Chairman) Subcommittee on International Monetary Policy and Trade Committee on Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations With the election of the 112th Congress, and a resulting GOP majority in the House, Paul became the chairman of the Subcommittee on Domestic Monetary Policy and Technology starting in January 2011. Paul's congressional career ended on January 3, 2013 with the swearing in of the 113th Congress. 2008 presidential campaign 2008 Republican primary campaign Paul formally declared his candidacy for the 2008 Republican nomination on March 12, 2007, on C-SPAN. Few major politicians endorsed him, and his campaign was largely ignored by traditional media. However, he attracted an intensely loyal grassroots following, interacting through internet social media. In May 2007, shortly after the first televised primary debates, the blogs search engine site Technorati.com listed Paul's name as the term most frequently searched for; and Paul's campaign claimed that Paul had more YouTube channel subscribers than Barack Obama or any other candidate for president. Paul fundraised more money than any other Republican candidate in the fourth quarter of 2007, as the primary season headed into the Iowa caucuses. Despite benefiting from campaign contributions from individual donors, and the supporters determined to keep his name a frequent topic of discussion on the internet, over the course of the campaign Paul was unable to translate the enthusiasm of his core supporters into large enough numbers of actual primary votes to unseat his rivals. Paul came in 5th place in both the January 4 Iowa caucuses (10% of votes cast) and the January 8 New Hampshire primary (8%). With the exception of the Nevada caucuses January 19, where he came in 2nd (14%) behind Romney (51%), he did little better through the rest of January: Michigan 4th (6%), South Carolina 5th (4%), Florida 5th (3%). On Super Tuesday, February 5, he placed 4th in almost every state, generally taking in a mere 3–6% of the votes although he did better in the northern states of North Dakota (21%, 3rd place) and Montana (25%, 2nd place). By March, front-runner John McCain had secured enough pledged delegates to guarantee that he would win the nomination, and Romney and Huckabee had both formally withdrawn from the race. Paul, who had won no state primaries, knew that it was now impossible for him to win the nomination, as he had captured only 20—40 pledged delegates compared to more than 1,191 for McCain, yet he refused to concede the race and said that it was unlikely that he would ultimately endorse McCain. Over the next few weeks, Paul's supporters clashed with establishment Republicans at several county and state party conventions over state party rules, the party platforms, and selection of delegates for the national convention. In one instance, Nevada's state party leaders in response to Paul's supporters at the state nominating convention, resorted to prematurely shutting down the convention before selecting national delegates, with a plan to reconvene at a later date. On June 12, 2008, Paul withdrew his bid for the Republican nomination. He later said that one of the reasons he did not run in the general election as a third-party candidate, after losing the primaries, was that, as a concession to gain ballot access in certain states, he had signed legally binding agreements to not run a third-party campaign if he lost the primary. Some of the $4 million remaining campaign contributions was invested into the political action and advocacy group called Ron Paul's Campaign for Liberty. Endorsement after ending campaign At a September 10, 2008, press conference, Paul announced his general support of four third-party candidates: Cynthia McKinney (Green Party); Bob Barr (Libertarian Party); Chuck Baldwin (Constitution Party); and Ralph Nader (independent). He said that each of them had pledged to adhere to a policy of balancing budgets, bringing the troops home, defending privacy and personal liberties, and investigating the Federal Reserve. Paul also said that under no circumstances would he be endorsing either of the two main parties' candidates (McCain—Republican Party, or Obama—Democratic Party) because there were no real differences between them, and because neither of them, if elected, would seek to make the fundamental changes in governance that were necessary. He urged instead that, rather than contribute to the "charade" that the two-party election system had become, the voters support the third-party candidates as a protest vote, to force change in the election process. Later that same day, Paul gave a televised interview with Nader saying much the same again. Two weeks later, "shocked and disappointed" that Bob Barr (the Libertarian nominee) had pulled out of attending the press conference at the last minute and had admonished Paul for remaining neutral and failing to say which specific candidate Paul would vote for in the general election, Paul released a statement saying that he had decided to endorse Chuck Baldwin, the Constitution Party candidate, for president. Paul withdrew from active campaigning in the last weeks of the primary election period. He received 42,426 votes, or 0.03% of the total cast, in the general election. 2012 presidential campaign 2012 Republican primary campaign Paul won several early straw polls for the 2012 Republican presidential nomination and formed an official exploratory committee in late April 2011. He participated in the first Republican presidential debate on May 5, 2011 and on May 13, 2011 formally announced his candidacy in an interview on ABC's Good Morning America. He placed second in the 2011 Ames Straw Poll, missing first by 0.9%. Paul indicated in a June 2011 interview that if nominated, he would consider former New Jersey Superior Court judge Andrew Napolitano as his running mate. In December 2011, with Paul's increased support, the controversy over racist and homophobic statements in several Ron Paul newsletters in the 1980s and early 1990s once again gained media attention. During this time Paul supporters asserted that he was continually ignored by the media despite his significant support, citing examples of where television news shows would fail to mention Paul in discussions of the Republican presidential hopefuls even when he was polling second. Iowa Ron Paul's presidential campaign managers Jesse Benton, John Tate and Demetri Kesari were all found guilty of paying former Iowa State Senator Kent Sorenson $73,000 to switch his support from Rep. Michele Bachmann to Paul. In court papers filed in August 2014, Sorenson said that he had been paid by both presidential campaigns for his endorsement and pled guilty to criminal charges stemming from the incident. Paul came in third in the Iowa Republican Caucus held on January 3, 2012. Out of a turnout of 121,503 votes, Paul took 26,036 (21%) of the certified votes. Rick Santorum and Mitt Romney finished in a virtual tie for first place with 25% each, although Ron Paul had ultimately won Iowa at the Republican National Convention gathering 22 delegates to Mitt Romney's 5. In the New Hampshire primary held on January 10, 2012, Paul received 23% of the votes and came in second after Romney's 39%. South Carolina, Florida, Nevada Paul's results then declined, despite the withdrawal of candidates Michele Bachmann, Jon Huntsman and Rick Perry. He had fourth-place finishes in the next two primaries, on January 21 in South Carolina (with 13% of the vote) and on January 31 in Florida (where he received 7% of the vote). On February 4, Paul finished third in Nevada with 18.8% of the vote. Three non-binding primaries were held on February 7; Paul took 3rd place in Colorado and Missouri with 13% and 12% of the vote, respectively. He fared better in Minnesota with 27%, finishing second to Rick Santorum. On May 14, Paul's campaign announced that due to lack of funds (though despite financial backing from financiers Peter Thiel and Mark Spitznagel) he would no longer actively campaign for votes in the 11 remaining primary states, including Texas and California, that had not yet voted. He would, however, continue to seek to win delegates for the national party convention in the states that had already voted. Irregularities In June, a group of 132 supporters of Paul, demanding the freedom as delegates to the upcoming Republican party national convention to cast votes for Paul, filed a lawsuit in U.S. District Court against the Republican National Committee and 55 state and territorial Republican party organizations for allegedly coercing delegates to choose Mitt Romney as the party's presidential nominee. The suit alleged that there had been "a systematic campaign of election fraud at state conventions," employing rigging of voting machines, ballot stuffing, and falsification of ballot totals. The suit further pointed to incidents at state conventions, including acts of violence and changes in procedural rules, allegedly intended to deny participation of Paul supporters in the party decision-making and to prevent votes from being cast for Paul. An attorney representing the complainants said that Paul campaign advisor Doug Wead had voiced support for the legal action. Paul himself told CNN that although the lawsuit was not a part of his campaign's strategy and that he had not been advising his supporters to sue, he was not going to tell his supporters not to sue, if they had a legitimate argument. "If they're not following the rules, you have a right to stand up for the rules. I think for the most part these winning caucuses that we've been involved in we have followed the rules. And the other side has at times not followed the rules." Republican National convention Paul declined to speak at the Republican National Convention as a matter of principle, saying that the convention planners had demanded that his remarks be vetted by the Romney campaign and that he make an unqualified endorsement of Romney. Paul had felt that "It wouldn't be my speech... That would undo everything I've done in the last 30 years. I don't fully endorse him for president." Many of Paul's supporters and delegates walked out of the convention in protest over rules adopted by the convention that reduced their delegate count and that would make it harder for non-establishment candidates to win the party's nomination in future elections. Supporters and media commentators had noted that the delegations from states where Paul had had the most support were given the worst seats in the convention hall, while delegations from regions with no electoral votes, such as the Northern Mariana Islands, American Samoa, and Puerto Rico, were given prime seats at the front. Endorsement after ending campaign As in 2008, in 2012 Paul ultimately refused to endorse the ticket selected by the Republican Party. He said that there was no essential difference between Romney and his Democratic opponent, President Obama, on the most critical policies: "I've been in this business a long time and believe me there is essentially no difference from one administration to another no matter what the platforms... The foreign policy stays the same, the monetary policy stays the same, there's no proposal for any real cuts and both parties support it." Paul received 26,204 write-in votes, or 0.02% of the total cast in the election. Political party identification Throughout his entire tenure in Congress, Paul has represented his district as a member of the Republican Party. However, he has frequently taken positions in direct opposition to the other members and the leadership of the party, and he has sometimes publicly questioned whether he really belonged in the party. Paul voted for Dwight D. Eisenhower for president in 1956 when he was 21 years old. He had been a lifelong supporter of the Republican Party by the time he entered politics in the mid-1970s. He was one of the first elected officials in the nation to support Ronald Reagan's presidential campaign, and he actively campaigned for Reagan in 1976 and 1980. After Reagan's election in 1980, Paul quickly became disillusioned with the Reagan administration's policies. He later recalled being the only Republican to vote against Reagan budget proposals in 1981, aghast that "in 1977, Jimmy Carter proposed a budget with a $38 billion deficit, and every Republican in the House voted against it. In 1981, Reagan proposed a budget with a $45 billion deficit—which turned out to be $113 billion—and Republicans were cheering his great victory. They were living in a storybook land." He expressed his disgust with the political culture of both major parties in a speech delivered in 1984 upon resigning from the House of Representatives to prepare for a (failed) run for the Senate, and he eventually apologized to his libertarian friends for having supported Reagan. By 1987, Paul was ready to sever all ties to the Republican Party, as he explained in a blistering resignation letter: "Since [1981] Ronald Reagan and the Republican Party have given us skyrocketing deficits, and astoundingly a doubled national debt. How is it that the party of balanced budgets, with control of the White House and Senate, accumulated red ink greater than all previous administrations put together? ... There is no credibility left for the Republican Party as a force to reduce the size of government. That is the message of the Reagan years." A month later he announced he would seek the 1988 Libertarian Party nomination for president. During the 1988 campaign, Paul called Reagan "a dramatic failure" and complained that "Reagan's record is disgraceful. He starts wars, breaks the law, supplies terrorists with guns made at taxpayers' expense and lies about it to the American people." Paul predicted that "the Republicans are on their way out as a major party," and he said that, although registered as a Republican, he had always been a libertarian at heart. Paul returned to his private medical practice and managing several business ventures after losing the 1988 election; but by 1996, he was ready to return to politics, this time running on the Republican Party ticket again. He said that he had never read the entire Libertarian platform when he ran for president as a Libertarian in 1988, and that "I worked for the Libertarians on my terms, not theirs." He added that in terms of a political label he preferred to call himself "a constitutionalist. In Congress I took an oath to uphold the Constitution, not the (Republican) platform." When he lost the Republican Party presidential primary election in 2008, Paul criticized the two major political parties, saying that there was no real difference between the parties and that neither of them truly intended to challenge the status quo. He refused to endorse the Republican Party's nominee for president, John McCain, and lent his support to third-party candidates instead. In the 2012 presidential campaign, during which he acknowledged it was unlikely that he would win the Republican Party nomination, Paul again asserted that he was participating in the Republican Party on his own terms, trying to persuade the rest of the party to move toward his positions rather than joining in with theirs. He expressed doubt that he would support any of his rivals should they win the nomination, warning that, "If the policies of the Republican Party are the same as the Democrat Party and they don't want to change anything on foreign policy, they don't want to cut anything, they don't want to audit the Fed and find out about monetary policy, they don't want to have actual change in government, that is a problem for me." On that same theme he said in another interview, "I would be reluctant to jump on board and tell all of the supporters that have given me trust and money that all of a sudden, I'd say, [all] we've done is for naught. So, let's support anybody at all ... even if they disagree with everything that we do." Political positions Paul has been described as conservative and libertarian. According to University of Georgia political scientist Keith Poole, Paul had the most conservative voting record of any member of Congress from 1937 to 2002, and is the most conservative of the candidates that had sought the 2012 Republican nomination for president. Other analyses have judged Paul much more moderate. The National Journal, for instance, rated Paul only the 145th-most-conservative member of the House of Representatives (out of 435) based on votes cast in 2010. The National Journal's analysis gave Paul a 2011 composite ideological rating of 54% liberal and 46% conservative. Paul says that he does not use the term "conservative" to describe himself very often and does not consider himself politically conservative "at all." The foundation of Paul's political philosophy is the conviction that "the proper role for government in America is to provide national defense, a court system for civil disputes, a criminal justice system for acts of force and fraud, and little else." He has been nicknamed "Dr. No," reflecting both his medical degree and his insistence that he will "never vote for legislation unless the proposed measure is expressly authorized by the Constitution." In 2008, Paul spoke at the John Birch Society's 50th-anniversary celebration. Foreign policy An anti-war activist, Paul promotes a noninterventionist foreign policy and an end to American imperialism. He advocates withdrawal from the United Nations and from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, for reasons of maintaining strong national sovereignty. He voted for the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists in response to the September 11 attacks, but suggested war alternatives such as authorizing the president to grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal targeting specific terrorists, in lieu of launching an Afghanistan invasion. Paul acknowledged his vote for the authorization of force was a difficult one. An opponent of the Iraq War as well, and potential war with Iran, he has criticized neoconservatism and U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East, arguing that both inadvertently cause terrorist reprisals against Americans, such as the 9/11 attacks. Paul has stated that "Israel is our close friend" and that it is not the place of the United States to "dictate how Israel runs her affairs". Paul, a critic of the US's implementation of most foreign aid, said in 2011 that "it was our foreign aid that helped Mubarak retain power to repress his people in the first place." Following the Orange Revolution protests in 2004, which led to Viktor Yanukovych's ouster from government, Paul accused the National Endowment for Democracy of having staged a coup in Ukraine. Paul supported the 2014 Crimean status referendum, for which he has been called a friend of Putin, and has objected to sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War and foreign aid to Ukraine. Domestic issues Paul endorses constitutional rights, such as the right to keep and bear arms, and habeas corpus for political detainees. He was one of only three Republicans in the House to vote against the Patriot Act. Paul opposes federal use of torture, presidential autonomy, a national identification card, warrantless domestic surveillance, and the draft. He has also called for shutting down the TSA and moving matters of airline security to private businesses. Paul believes that the notion of the separation of church and state is currently misused by the court system: "In case after case, the Supreme Court has used the infamous 'separation of church and state' metaphor to uphold court decisions that allow the federal government to intrude upon and deprive citizens of their religious liberty." Sometime within the same month but much after the event of authorities executing a lock-down in sequence to the April 2013 Boston Marathon bombing, Paul commented on the tactics used by governing forces into a harsh criticism that he has written as a "military-style occupation of an American city". Economic issues Paul is a proponent of Austrian School economics; he has authored six books on the subject, and displayed pictures of Austrian School economists Friedrich Hayek, Murray Rothbard, and Ludwig von Mises (as well as of President Grover Cleveland and Chicago School economist Milton Friedman) on his office wall. He regularly voted against almost all proposals for new government spending, initiatives, or taxes; he cast two thirds of all the lone negative votes in the House during a 1995–1997 period. He pledged never to raise taxes and states he has never voted to approve a budget deficit. Paul believes that the country could abolish the individual income tax by scaling back federal spending to its fiscal year 2000 levels; financing government operations would be primarily by excise taxes and non-protectionist tariffs. He endorses eliminating most federal government agencies, terming them unnecessary bureaucracies. On April 15, 2011, Paul was one of four Republican members of Congress to vote against Rep. Paul Ryan's budget proposal, known as "The Path to Prosperity." Paul has consistently warned of hyperinflation and called for a return to the gold standard as far back as 1981. From 1999 until his retirement, he introduced bills into each Congress seeking to eliminate the Federal Reserve System in a single year, a position he outlines in his 2009 book End the Fed. Paul is a strong proponent of free trade, once saying that "free trade is an answer to a lot of conflicts around the world". He rejects membership in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the World Trade Organization as "managed trade". He has also advocated for open trade and better relations with the country of Cuba. In addition, Paul argued in 2012 that "as well intentioned as sanctions are, they almost always backfire and hurt the people." He has described his interest in ending wars and lowering military spending as partly an "economic issue", adding, "We'd save a lot of money by not being engaged [in overseas conflict] like this." Climate change As a free-market environmentalist, he asserts private property rights in relation to environmental protection and pollution prevention. He rejects the scientific consensus on climate change and has claimed that global warming is a hoax in a 2009 Fox Business interview. Healthcare Paul has stated that "The government shouldn't be in the medical business." He pushes to eliminate federal involvement with and management of health care, which he argues would allow prices to decrease due to the fundamental dynamics of a free market. He also opposes federal government influenza inoculation programs. Immigration Paul endorses increased border security and opposes welfare for illegal immigrants, birthright citizenship and amnesty; he voted for the Secure Fence Act of 2006. However, in a 2019 interview, Paul expressed disapproval of President Donald Trump's proposed border wall along the southern US border, saying, "I don't like walls. I don't want to wall people in and wall people out." Ballots and voting He is an outspoken proponent of increased ballot access for third-party candidates. He has sought to repeal the National Voter Registration Act of 1993, also known as the Motor Voter law. Secession Paul has stated that secession from the United States "is a deeply American principle" and that "If the possibility of secession is completely off the table there is nothing to stop the federal government from continuing to encroach on our liberties and no recourse for those who are sick and tired of it." Paul wrote the remarks in a post on his Congressional website in one of his final public statements as a member of Congress, noting that many petitions had been submitted to the White House calling for secession in the wake of the November 2012 election. Social issues Citing the Ninth and Tenth Amendments, Paul advocates states' rights to decide how to regulate social matters not cited directly by the Constitution. He opposes federal regulation of such matters as the death penalty (although he opposes capital punishment), of education, of drugs, and of marriage. Regarding same-sex marriage, he stated in 2011 that "My personal opinion is government shouldn't be involved. The whole country would be better off if individuals made those decisions and it was a private matter." He endorsed revising the military's "don't ask, don't tell" policy to concern mainly disruptive sexual behavior (whether heterosexual or homosexual). His abortion-related legislation, such as the Sanctity of Life Act in 2005, is intended to negate Roe v. Wade and to get "the federal government completely out of the business of regulating state matters." Paul says his years as an obstetrician led him to believe that life begins at conception. Paul opposes the federal War on Drugs, and advocates that states should decide whether to regulate or deregulate drugs such as medical and recreational marijuana, and other substances. In 2001, he joined with Democratic Congressman Barney Frank in helping pass the States' Rights to Medical Marijuana Act (H.R. 2592), an attempt to stop the federal government from preempting states' medical marijuana laws. Paul again partnered with Frank in support of online gambling rights. In 2006, both strongly opposed H.R. 4777, the Internet Gambling Prohibition and Enforcement Act, and H.R. 4411, the Goodlatte-Leach Internet Gambling Prohibition Act. Paul was critical of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, arguing that it sanctioned federal interference in the labor market and did not improve race relations. He once remarked: "The Civil Rights Act of 1964 not only violated the Constitution and reduced individual liberty; it also failed to achieve its stated goals of promoting racial harmony and a color-blind society". Paul opposes affirmative action. In August 2022, Paul expressed support for Republican state governments he described as “fighting back against so-called ‘Woke’ Capitalism.” Cryptocurrency Paul says that he does not have a "final answer" on whether bitcoin will replace the dollar, but says that it should be legal. He attends bitcoin and cryptocurrency conferences because, "I think the world's a disaster, the financial system is coming apart, and the government money is terrible, and people ought to have a right to be able to develop something." Post-congressional career In April 2013, Paul founded the Ron Paul Institute for Peace and Prosperity, a foreign policy think tank that seeks to promote his non-interventionist views. The institute is part of his larger foundation Foundation for Rational Economics and Education. In the same month, he began to offer the Ron Paul Curriculum, a homeschool online curriculum developed by Gary North and taught from a "free market and Christian" perspective. In June 2013, Paul criticized the NSA surveillance program and praised Edward Snowden for having performed a "great service to the American people by exposing the truth about what our government is doing in secret". In April 2015, Paul began appearing in infomercials for Stansberry & Associates Investment Research, warning about an upcoming financial meltdown as a result of the imminent crash of the world's currencies. In March 2017, Paul predicted a market downturn again. Paul was a critic of Donald Trump's plans to increase the number of military personnel in Afghanistan. In August 2017, he said that Americans don't see Afghanistan as a threat to their personal security and being aggressive in foreign policy only loses Trump some of his support base. Paul has also called for Trump to bring American troops back from Syria in April 2018, on the grounds that the threat from ISIS has been eliminated. He continues to voice his disagreements regarding foreign policy, and more recently, regarding the events involving America and Iran. In 2013, Paul established the Ron Paul Channel, an Internet broadcast. Its slogan was "Turn Off Your TV. Turn On the Truth." In 2015, Ron Paul ended all relationships with the Ron Paul Channel in order to start a new Internet program called The Ron Paul Liberty Report, which he co-hosts with Daniel McAdams. 2016 presidential election Paul endorsed his son, Senator Rand Paul, in the 2016 Republican primary and campaigned for him in Iowa. After his son dropped out, Paul had said that no Republican or Democratic candidate even came close to holding libertarian views. Paul expressed disappointment in former New Mexico Governor Gary Johnson's Libertarian Party nomination for President, and told independent voters that Green Party nominee Jill Stein was a better candidate for those who "lean towards progressivism and liberalism", while emphasizing that he was not endorsing her. Paul received one electoral vote from a Texas faithless elector, South Texas College political science professor William Greene (who had been pledged to Donald Trump), in the 2016 presidential election, making Paul the oldest person ever to receive an electoral vote, and the second Libertarian Party member to receive an electoral vote, after John Hospers in 1972. 2020 presidential election In the 2020 Democratic primary, Paul described Hawaii Representative Tulsi Gabbard as "the most intelligent" and "the very, very best" option of the Democratic candidates, primarily for her views on foreign policy, adding that "We probably wouldn't agree with too much on economics." Controversies Newsletters controversy Beginning in 1978, for more than two decades Paul and his associates published a number of political and investment-oriented newsletters bearing his name (Dr. Ron Paul's Freedom Report, The Ron Paul Survival Report, the Ron Paul Investment Letter, and the Ron Paul Political Report). A number of the newsletters, particularly in the period between 1988 and 1994 when Paul was no longer in Congress, contained racist material that proved controversial when he returned to Congress and ran for president. Topics included conspiracy theories, anti-government militia movements, and race wars. During Paul's 1996 congressional election campaign, and his 2008 and 2012 presidential primary campaigns, critics charged that some of the passages reflected racism, anti-Semitism, and homophobia. In a 1996 interview, Paul did not deny writing the newsletters and defended some of their contents, but specified that he opposes racism. In March 2001, Paul said he did not write the commentaries, but stopped short of denying authorship in 1996 because his campaign advisers had thought it would be too confusing and that he had to live with the material published under his name. Half a dozen libertarian activists, including some still closely associated with Paul, pointed to Lew Rockwell as the primary ghostwriter of the newsletters. Rockwell denied responsibility for the content. In 2011, Paul's spokesperson Jesse Benton said Paul had "taken moral responsibility because they appeared under his name and slipped through under his watch." COVID-19 pandemic statements On March 16, 2020, Ron Paul criticized the government, media, and public responses to the nascent COVID-19 pandemic in a column for his website. He dismissed claims of a death rate higher than the flu as "a claim without any scientific basis" and said that the "chief fearmonger of the Trump Administration is without a doubt Anthony Fauci, head of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases at the National Institutes of Health," who Paul claimed was "serving up outright falsehoods to stir up even more panic." He stated, "People should ask themselves whether this coronavirus 'pandemic' could be a big hoax...That is not to say the disease is harmless. Without question people will die from coronavirus. Those in vulnerable categories should take precautions to limit their risk of exposure. But we have seen this movie before. Government over-hypes a threat as an excuse to grab more of our freedoms. When the 'threat' is over, however, they never give us our freedoms back." Personal life Paul has been married to Carol (Carolyn) Wells since 1957. They met in 1952 when Wells asked Paul to be her escort to her 16th birthday party. They have five children, who were baptized Episcopalian: Ronald, Lori, Randal, Robert, and Joy. Paul's son Randal (Rand) is the junior United States senator from the state of Kentucky. Raised a Lutheran, Paul later became a Baptist. Since 1995, Carol Paul has published the Ron Paul Family Cookbook, a collection of recipes she and her friends contributed, and which was sold in part to support Ron Paul's political campaigns. His life and career is the subject of the 2012 film Ron Paul Uprising. Paul and his wife currently reside in Lake Jackson, Texas. He enjoys riding a bicycle and exercising every day. On September 25, 2020, Paul was hospitalized after appearing to slur his words while speaking during a livestream event. Paul later posted a photo of himself in a hospital bed to his Twitter page, along with the statement "I am doing fine. Thank you for your concern". In April 2021, following Paul's absence from his daily show, the Ron Paul Liberty Report, his co-host Daniel McAdams revealed Paul's daughter, Lori Pyeatt, had recently died. Media relating to Ron Paul Books Ron Paul: Father of the Tea Party, by Jason Rink, 2011 Ron Paul's rEVOLution: The Man and the Movement He Inspired, by Brian Doherty, 2012 Films The Housing Bubble, a 2018 documentary starring Ron Paul, and featuring numerous archival clips of his predictions over the years. America: Freedom to Fascism, 2006 film featuring an interview from Paul. American Drug War: The Last White Hope, 2007 documentary in which Paul has a cameo appearance. I.O.U.S.A., 2008 documentary featuring Paul among the cast. Brüno, 2009 film by Sacha Baron Cohen in which Paul has a cameo appearance. An Inconvenient Tax, 2010 documentary featuring Paul among the cast. Ron Paul Uprising, 2012 film by William Lewis, about Paul and his campaign for the presidency. Atlas Shrugged Part III: Who Is John Galt?, 2014 adaptation of Atlas Shrugged in which Paul has a cameo appearance. Bibliography Other contributions Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: See also Criticism of the Federal Reserve Draft Ron Paul movement Libertarian Republican List of federal political scandals in the United States List of peace activists List of politicians affiliated with the Tea Party movement Paulville, Texas Students for Ron Paul References External links Fact-checking at PolitiFact.com Issue positions and quotes at On the Issues Congress Profile at OpenSecrets Profile at GovTrack Ron Paul TV. Ron Paul presidential candidate media and Internet video campaign. |- |- |- Category:1935 births Category:Living people Ron Category:20th-century American essayists Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American physicians Category:20th-century American politicians Category:21st-century American essayists Category:21st-century American male writers Category:21st-century American non-fiction writers Category:21st-century American politicians Category:21st-century Baptists Category:American anti-abortion activists Category:American anti–Iraq War activists Category:American anti-war activists Category:American columnists Category:American foreign policy writers Category:American libertarians Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:American people of German descent Category:American podcasters Category:American political writers Category:Baptists from Texas Category:Candidates in the 1988 United States presidential election Category:Candidates in the 2008 United States presidential election Category:Candidates in the 2012 United States presidential election Category:Christian libertarians Category:Critics of neoconservatism Category:American drug policy reform activists Category:Duke University School of Medicine alumni Category:Gettysburg College alumni Category:Homeschooling advocates Category:Libertarian Party (United States) presidential nominees Category:Libertarian theorists Category:Libertarianism in the United States Category:Mises Institute people Category:Monetary reformers Category:Non-interventionism Category:Old Right (United States) Category:People from Lake Jackson, Texas Category:Physicians from Texas Category:Politicians from Pittsburgh Category:Privacy activists Category:Protestants from Texas Category:Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Texas Category:Southern Baptists Category:Tea Party movement activists Category:Texas Libertarians Category:United States Air Force Medical Corps officers Category:University of Pittsburgh people Category:Writers from Texas
[ { "text": "A congress is a formal meeting of the representatives of different countries, constituent states, organizations, trade unions, political parties, or other groups. The term originated in Late Middle English to denote an encounter (meeting of adversaries) during battle, from the Latin congressus.\n\nPolitical congresses\n\nInternational relations\nThe following congresses were formal meetings of representatives of different nations:\nThe Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), which ended the War of Devolution\nThe Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), which ended the War of the Austrian Succession\nThe Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)\nThe Congress of Berlin (1878), which settled the Eastern Question after the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)\nThe Congress of Gniezno (1000)\nThe Congress of Laibach (1821)\nThe Congress of Panama, an 1826 meeting organized by Simón Bolívar\nThe Congress of Paris (1856), which ended the Crimean War\nThe Congress of Troppau (1820)\nThe Congress of Tucumán (1816)\nThe Congress of Utrecht (1712–1713)\nThe Congress of Verona (1822)\nThe Congress of Vienna (1814–15), which settled the shape of Europe after the Napoleonic Wars\nThe Congress of the Council of Europe.\n\nLegislatures\n\nPresidential and semi-presidential systems\nIn the mid-1770s, to emphasize each one's status as a state in its own right, the term was chosen by the British colonies that became the United States of America. The term has since been adopted by many nations to refer to their legislatures.\nThe United States Congress is the bicameral legislative branch of the United States federal government.\nThe Continental Congress (1774–1781) was a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that became the Congress of the Confederation (1781–1789), legislature of the United States under the Articles of Confederation.\nThe Confederate States Congress of 1861–1865, during the American Civil War.\nThe Congress of Guatemala (Spanish: Congreso de la República) is the unicameral legislature of Guatemala.\nThe National Congress of Honduras (Spanish: Congreso nacional) is the legislative branch of the government of Honduras.\nThe Congress of Mexico () is the legislative branch of Mexican government.\nThe Congress of Paraguay is the bicameral legislature of Paraguay.\nThe Congress of the Argentine Nation (Spanish: Congreso de la Nación Argentina) is the legislative branch of the government of Argentina.\nThe Congress of the Dominican Republic is the bicameral legislature of the Dominican Republic.\nThe Palau National Congress (Palauan: Olbiil era Kelulau) is the bicameral legislative branch of the Republic of Palau.\nThe Congress of the Federated States of Micronesia is the unicameral legislature of the Federated States of Micronesia.\nThe Congress of the Philippines (Filipino: Kongreso ng Pilipinas) is the legislative branch of the Philippine government.\nThe Congress of the Republic of Peru (Spanish: Congreso de la República) is the unicameral legislature of Peru.\nThe Congress of Colombia (Spanish: Congreso de la República) is the bicameral legislature of Colombia.\nThe National Congress of Bolivia was the national legislature of Bolivia before being replaced by the Plurinational Legislative Assembly.\nThe National Congress of Brazil () is the bicameral legislature of Brazil.\nThe National Congress of Chile (Spanish: Congreso Nacional) is the legislative branch of the government of Chile.\nThe National Congress of Ecuador was the unicameral legislature of Ecuador before being replaced by the National Assembly.\nFrance:\nThe Congress of the French Parliament refers specifically when both houses of France's legislature sit together as a single body, usually at the Palace of Versailles, to vote on revisions to the Constitution, to listen to an address by the President of the French Republic, and, in the past, to elect the President of the Republic\nThe Congress of New Caledonia is the national legislature under the semi-presidential system of the autonomous collectivity.\n\nNon-presidential systems\nSpanish Congress of Deputies (Spanish: Congreso de los Diputados) is the lower house of the Cortes Generales, Spain's legislative branch.\nThe National Congress of Belgium was a temporary legislative assembly in 1830, which created a constitution for the new state.\nThe legislature of the People's Republic of China is known in English as the National People's Congress.\nThe Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union was the legislature and nominal supreme institution of state power in the Soviet Union. \nCongress of People's Deputies of Russia was modeled after the Soviet Union's and existed in 1990–1993.\nThe Congress of Cuba was the bicameral legislature of Cuba from 1902–1959.\n\nParties\nMany political parties have a party congress every few years to make decisions for the party and elect governing bodies, while others call it a party convention. Congress is included in the name of several political parties, especially those in former British colonies:\nCanary Islands\nNational Congress of the Canaries\nEswatini\nNgwane National Liberatory Congress\nFiji\nNational Congress of Fiji\nGuyana\nPeople's National Congress\nIndia\nIndian National Congress\nAll India Trinamool Congress\nKerala Congress\nNationalist Congress Party\nTamil Maanila Congress\nYSR Congress\nBSR Congress\nAll India N.R. Congress\nLesotho\nBasotho Congress Party\nLesotho Congress for Democracy\nLesotho People's Congress\nMalawi\nMalawi Congress Party\nMalaysia\nMalaysian Indian Congress\nNamibia\nCongress of Democrats\nNepal\nNepali Congress\nPakistan\nPeoples Revolutionary Congress Pakistan\nSierra Leone\nAll People's Congress\nSouth Africa\nAfrican National Congress\nCongress of the People\nPan-Africanist Congress\nSri Lanka\nAll Ceylon Tamil Congress\nSri Lanka Muslim Congress\nSudan\nNational Congress (Sudan)\nTrinidad and Tobago\nUnited National Congress\nUganda\nUgandan People's Congress\nIraqi National Congress\n\nPolitical organizations\nNational Congress of American Indians\nCongress of Racial Equality\nContinental Congress 2.0\n\nLabour congresses\nCongress of Industrial Organizations\nTrade Union Congress of the Philippines\nTrades Union Congress\nCanadian Labour Congress\n\nReligious Congresses \nCatholic Congresses\nEucharistic Congresses\n1947 Marian Congress\n\nNon-political congresses\nCongress is an alternative name for a large national or international academic conference. For instance, the World Congress on Men's Health is an annual meeting on men's medical issues.\n\nOrganizations in some athletic sports, such as bowling, have historically been named \"congresses\". The predecessors to the United States Bowling Congress (formed in 1995) were the American Bowling Congress (founded in 1895) and the Women's International Bowling Congress (founded in 1927).\nA chess congress is a chess tournament, in one city, where a large number of contestants gather to play competitive chess over a limited period of time; typically one day to one week.\n\nICCA Congress & Exhibition\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nEuropean affairs events\nInternational congress calendar\nMedical Congresses Around the World\nCongress Youth Leader\n \n\nCategory:Legislatures\nCategory:Elections\nCategory:Meetings", "title": "Congress" }, { "text": "Ron is a shortening of the name Ronald.\n\nRon or RON may also refer to:\n\nArts and media\n\nBig Ron (EastEnders), a TV character\nRon (King of Fighters), a video game character\nRon Douglas, the protagonist in Lucky Stiff played by Joe Alasky\nRon Kamonohashi: Deranged Detective, a manga series\nRon Weasley, a character in Harry Potter.\n\nLanguage\n Ron language, spoken in Plat State, Nigeria\n Romanian language (ISO 639-3 code ron)\n\nPeople\n\nMononym\nRon (singer), Rosalino Cellamare (born 1953), Italian singer\n\nGiven name\nRon (given name)\n\nSurname\nDana Ron (born 1964), Israeli computer scientist and professor\nElaine Ron (1943-2010), American epidemiologist\nEmri Ron (1936–2013), Israeli politician \nIvo Ron (born 1967), Ecuadorian football player\nJason De Ron (born 1973), Australian musician\nJosé Ron (born 1981), Mexican actor\nLiat Ron, actress, dancer and dance instructor \n\nLior Ron (born 1982), Israeli-American film and trailer composer and musician\nMichael Ron (born 1932), Israeli fencer\nMichael Røn (born 1984), Danish-born Norwegian footballer\nMoshe Ron (1925-2001), Israeli materials scientist\nPan Ron, Cambodian singer and songwriter\nRon Ron or Ronald White, American rapper and director\nYuval Ron, Israeli musician\n\nPlaces \nRon, Karnataka, a city in India\nRøn, a village in Vestre Slidre, Norway\nRon (river, Vietnam)\n\nScience and technology\n Gyrodyne RON Rotorcycle, mid-1950s US helicopter\n Remote online notarization, electronic notarization online\n Research Octane Number, a standard measure of the performance of a fuel\n Resilient Overlay Network, an Internet application architecture\n\nOther uses\n Cyclone Ron, a 1998 cyclone in the South Pacific\n Rhongomiant, or Ron, King Arthur's lance\n Romanian leu (ISO 4217 code: RON), the currency of Romania\n\"Ron's Piece\", a track from the 1986 Jean-Michel Jarre album Rendez-Vous\n Rum, ron in Spanish\n Re-open Nominations, a \"none of the above\" ballot option\n Rota Osobogo Naznacheniya (), a 1940s unit of Russian commando frogmen\n\nSee also\n\nBig Ron (disambiguation)\nRonn (disambiguation)", "title": "Ron" } ]
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C_1ffd3d9f3eab4b4fb15d84ac8b6b4375_1
Ron Paul
Ronald Ernest Paul (born August 20, 1935) is an American author, physician and retired politician who served as the U.S. Representative for Texas's 22nd congressional district from 1976 to 1977 and again from 1979 to 1985, and for Texas's 14th congressional district from 1997 to 2013. On three occasions, he sought the presidency of the United States: as the Libertarian Party nominee in 1988 and as a candidate in the Republican primaries of 2008 and 2012. Paul is a critic of the federal government's fiscal policies, especially the existence of the Federal Reserve and the tax policy, as well as the military-industrial complex, and the War on Drugs. He has also been a vocal critic of mass surveillance policies such as the USA PATRIOT Act and the NSA surveillance programs.
Tenure
Paul served in Congress three different periods: first from 1976 to 1977, after he won a special election, then from 1979 to 1985, and finally from 1997 to 2013. In his early years, Paul served on the House Banking Committee, where he blamed the Federal Reserve for inflation and spoke against the banking mismanagement that resulted in the savings and loan crisis. Paul argued for a return to the gold standard maintained by the US from 1873-1933, and with Senator Jesse Helms convinced the Congress to study the issue. He spoke against the reinstatement of registration for the military draft in 1980, in opposition to President Jimmy Carter and the majority of his fellow Republican members of Congress. During his first term, Paul founded the Foundation for Rational Economics and Education (FREE), a non-profit think tank dedicated to promoting principles of limited government and free-market economics. In 1984, Paul became the first chairman of the Citizens for a Sound Economy (CSE), a conservative political group founded by Charles and David Koch "to fight for less government, lower taxes, and less regulation." CSE started a Tea Party protest against high taxes in 2002. In 2004, Citizens for a Sound Economy split into two new organizations, with Citizens for a Sound Economy being renamed as FreedomWorks, and Citizens for a Sound Economy Foundation becoming Americans for Prosperity. The two organizations would become key players in the Tea Party movement from 2009 onward. Paul proposed term-limit legislation multiple times, while himself serving four terms in the House of Representatives. In 1984, he decided to retire from the House in order to run for the U.S. Senate, complaining in his House farewell address that "Special interests have replaced the concern that the Founders had for general welfare... It's difficult for one who loves true liberty and utterly detests the power of the state to come to Washington for a period of time and not leave a true cynic." Paul lost the Republican primary to Phil Gramm, who had switched parties the previous year from Democrat to Republican. Another candidate of the senatorial primary was Henry Grover, a conservative former state legislator who had lost the 1972 gubernatorial general election to the Democrat Dolph Briscoe, Jr. On Paul's departure from the House, his seat was assumed by former state representative Tom DeLay, who would later become House Majority Leader. CANNOTANSWER
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Ronald Ernest Paul (born August 20, 1935) is an American author, activist, physician and retired politician who served as the U.S. representative for Texas's 22nd congressional district from 1976 to 1977 and again from 1979 to 1985, as well as for Texas's 14th congressional district from 1997 to 2013. On three occasions, he sought the presidency of the United States: as the Libertarian Party nominee in 1988 and as a candidate for the Republican Party in 2008 and 2012. A self-described constitutionalist, Paul is a critic of several federal government's policies, especially the existence of the Federal Reserve and tax policy, as well as the military–industrial complex, the war on drugs, and the war on terror. He has also been a vocal critic of mass surveillance policies such as the USA PATRIOT Act and the NSA surveillance programs. In 1976, Paul formed the Foundation for Rational Economics and Education (FREE), and in 1985 was named the first chairman of the conservative PAC Citizens for a Sound Economy, both free-market groups focused on limited government. He has been characterized as the "intellectual godfather" of the Tea Party movement, a fiscally conservative political movement started in 2007 that is largely against most matters of interventionism. Paul served as a flight surgeon in the U.S. Air Force from 1963 to 1968, and worked as an obstetrician-gynecologist from the 1960s to the 1980s. He became the first Representative in history to serve concurrently with a child in the Senate when his son, Rand Paul, was elected to the U.S. Senate from Kentucky in 2010. Paul is a Senior Fellow and Distinguished Counselor of the Mises Institute, and has published a number of books and promoted the ideas of economists of the Austrian School such as Murray Rothbard, Friedrich Hayek, and Ludwig von Mises during his political campaigns. He has cited President Grover Cleveland as a preferred model of governance. After the popularity and grassroots enthusiasm of his 2008 presidential bid, Paul announced in July 2011 that he would not seek reelection to Congress in order to focus on his 2012 bid for the presidency. Finishing in the top four with delegates in both races (while winning four states in the 2012 primaries), he refused to endorse the Republican nominations of John McCain and Mitt Romney during their respective 2008 and 2012 campaigns against Barack Obama. In May 2012, Paul announced that he would not be competing in any other presidential primaries but that he would still compete for delegates in states where the primary elections had already been held. At both the 2008 and 2012 Republican National Conventions, Paul received the second-highest number of delegates behind only McCain and Romney respectively. In January 2013, Paul retired from Congress but remained active on college campuses, giving speeches promoting libertarian and libertarian-conservative ideas. He also continues to provide political commentary through The Ron Paul Liberty Report, a web show he co-hosts on YouTube. Paul received one electoral vote from a Texas faithless elector in the 2016 presidential election, making him the oldest person to receive an Electoral College vote, as well as the second registered Libertarian presidential candidate in history to receive an electoral vote, after John Hospers in 1972. Early life, education, and medical career Ronald Ernest Paul was born on August 20, 1935, in Pittsburgh, the son of Howard Casper Paul (1904–1997), who ran a small dairy company, and Margaret Paul (née Dumont; 1908–2001). His paternal grandfather emigrated from Germany, and his paternal grandmother, a devout Christian, was a first-generation German American. As a junior at suburban Dormont High School, he was the 200-meter dash state champion. Paul went to Gettysburg College, where he was a member of the Lambda Chi Alpha fraternity. He graduated with a B.S. degree in Biology in 1957. Paul earned a Doctor of Medicine degree from Duke University's School of Medicine in 1961, and completed his medical internship at the Henry Ford Hospital in Detroit and his residency in obstetrics and gynecology at Magee-Womens Hospital in Pittsburgh. Paul served as a flight surgeon in the United States Air Force from 1963 to 1965 and then in the United States Air National Guard from 1965 to 1968. Paul and his wife then relocated to Texas, where he began a private practice in obstetrics and gynecology. One child that he helped deliver was famous Tejano singer Selena Quintanilla. Early congressional career (1976–1985) While a medical resident in the 1960s, Paul was influenced by Friedrich Hayek's The Road to Serfdom, which caused him to read other publications by Ludwig von Mises and Ayn Rand. He came to know economists Hans Sennholz and Murray Rothbard well, and credits his interest in the study of economics to them. When President Richard Nixon "closed the gold window" by ending American participation in the Bretton Woods System, thus ending the U.S. dollar's loose association with gold on August 15, 1971, Paul decided to enter politics and became a Republican candidate for the United States Congress. Elections In 1974, incumbent Robert R. Casey defeated him for the 22nd district. President Gerald Ford later appointed Casey to the Federal Maritime Commission, and Paul won an April 1976 special election to the vacant office after a runoff. Paul lost the next regular election to Democrat Robert Gammage by fewer than 300 votes (0.2%), but defeated Gammage in a 1978 rematch, and was reelected in 1980 and 1982. Gammage underestimated Paul's popularity among local mothers: "I had real difficulty down in Brazoria County, where he practiced, because he'd delivered half the babies in the county. There were only two obstetricians in the county, and the other one was his partner." Tenure Paul served in Congress three different periods: first from 1976 to 1977, after he won a special election, then from 1979 to 1985, and finally from 1997 to 2013. In his early years, Paul served on the House Banking Committee, where he blamed the Federal Reserve for inflation and spoke against the banking mismanagement that resulted in the savings and loan crisis. Paul argued for a return to the gold standard maintained by the U.S. from 1873 to 1933, and with Senator Jesse Helms convinced the Congress to study the issue. He spoke against the reinstatement of registration for the military draft in 1980, in opposition to President Jimmy Carter and the majority of his fellow Republican members of Congress. During his first term, Paul founded the Foundation for Rational Economics and Education (FREE), a non-profit think tank dedicated to promoting principles of limited government and free-market economics. In 1984, Paul became the first chairman of the Citizens for a Sound Economy (CSE), a conservative political group founded by Charles and David Koch "to fight for less government, lower taxes, and less regulation." CSE started a Tea Party protest against high taxes in 2002. In 2004, Citizens for a Sound Economy split into two new organizations, with Citizens for a Sound Economy being renamed as FreedomWorks, and Citizens for a Sound Economy Foundation becoming Americans for Prosperity. The two organizations would become key players in the Tea Party movement from 2009 onward. Paul proposed term-limit legislation multiple times, while himself serving four terms in the House of Representatives. In 1984, he decided to retire from the House in order to run for the U.S. Senate, complaining in his House farewell address that "Special interests have replaced the concern that the Founders had for general welfare... It's difficult for one who loves true liberty and utterly detests the power of the state to come to Washington for a period of time and not leave a true cynic." Paul lost the Republican primary to Phil Gramm, who had switched parties the previous year from Democrat to Republican. Another candidate of the senatorial primary was Henry Grover, a conservative former state legislator who had lost the 1972 gubernatorial general election to Democrat Dolph Briscoe, Jr. On Paul's departure from the House, his seat was assumed by former state representative Tom DeLay, who would later become House Majority Leader. Libertarian Party and ventures 1985–1997 Following the loss of the 1984 senate race, Paul returned to his obstetrics practice and took part in a number of other business ventures. Along with his former congressional chief of staff, Lew Rockwell, Paul founded a for-profit enterprise, Ron Paul & Associates, Inc. (RP&A) in 1984, with Paul serving as president, Rockwell as vice president, Paul's wife Carol as secretary, and daughter Lori Pyeatt as treasurer. The company published a variety of political and investment-oriented newsletters, including Ron Paul Freedom Report and Ron Paul Survival Report, and by 1993 was generating revenues in excess of $900,000. Paul also co-owned a mail-order coin dealership, Ron Paul Coins, for twelve years with Burt Blumert, who continued to operate the dealership after Paul resumed office in 1996. Paul spoke multiple times at the American Numismatic Association's 1988 convention. He worked with his Foundation for Rational Economics and Education on such projects as establishing the National Endowment for Liberty, producing the At Issue public policy series that was broadcast on the Discovery Channel and CNBC, and continuing publication of newsletters. 1988 presidential campaign Paul left the Republican Party in 1987 and launched a bid for the presidency running on the Libertarian Party ticket. His candidacy was seen as problematic because of the party's long support for freedom of choice on abortions. Native American activist Russell Means, Paul's rival for the nomination, emphasized that he was in favor of abortion rights. In a forum held prior to the nomination, Means dismissed the greater funds raised by Paul's campaign, commenting that Means was receiving "10 times more press" than the former Congressman and was therefore "100 times more effective". On September 25, 1988, American psychologist and psychedelic advocate Timothy Leary held a fundraiser for Paul, who attended the event. Journalist Debra Saunders attended and wrote about her experience. In the 1988 presidential election, Paul was on the ballot in 46 states, scoring third in the popular vote with 432,179 votes (0.5%). Paul was kept off the ballot in Missouri, due to what the St. Louis Post-Dispatch termed a "technicality," and received votes there only when written in, just as he did in North Carolina. According to Paul, his presidential campaign was about more than obtaining office; he sought to promote his libertarian ideas, often to school and university groups regardless of vote eligibility. He said, "We're just as interested in the future generation as this election. These kids will vote eventually, and maybe, just maybe, they'll go home and talk to their parents." Paul considered campaigning for president in 1992, but instead chose to endorse Pat Buchanan that year, and served as an adviser to Buchanan's Republican presidential primary campaign against incumbent President George H. W. Bush. Later congressional career (1997–2013) Elections 1996 campaign During 1996, Paul was re-elected to Congress after a difficult campaign. The Republican National Committee endorsed incumbent Greg Laughlin in the primary; Paul won with assistance from baseball pitcher, constituent, and friend Nolan Ryan, tax activist and publisher Steve Forbes and conservative commentator Pat Buchanan (the latter two of whom had, had presidential campaigns that year). Paul narrowly defeated Democratic attorney Charles "Lefty" Morris in the fall election, despite Morris' criticism over controversial statements in several newsletters that Paul published. 1998–2013 In 1998 and 2000, Paul defeated Loy Sneary, a Democratic Bay City, Texas, rice farmer and former Matagorda County judge. In the 2008 Republican primary, he defeated Friendswood city councilman Chris Peden, with over 70 percent of the vote and ran unopposed in the general election. In the 2010 Republican primary, Paul defeated three opponents with 80 percent of the vote. On July 12, 2011, Paul announced that he would not seek re-election to the House in order to pursue the 2012 presidential election. Tenure Legislation Of the 620 bills that Paul had sponsored through December 2011, over a period of more than 22 years in Congress, only one had been signed into law—a lifetime success rate of less than 0.3%. The sole measure authored by Paul that was ultimately enacted allowed for a federal customhouse to be sold to a local historic preservation society (H.R. 2121 in 2009). By amending other legislation, he helped prohibit funding for national identification numbers, funding for federal teacher certification, International Criminal Court jurisdiction over the U.S. military, American participation with any U.N. global tax, and surveillance of peaceful First Amendment activities by citizens. In November 1997, Paul was one of eighteen Republicans in the House to co-sponsor a resolution by Bob Barr that sought to launch an impeachment inquiry against President Bill Clinton. The resolution did not specify any charges or allegations. This was an early effort to impeach Clinton, predating the eruption of the Clinton–Lewinsky scandal. The eruption of that scandal would ultimately lead to a more serious effort to impeach Clinton in 1998. On October 8, 1998, Paul voted in favor of legislation that was passed to open an impeachment inquiry. On December 19, 1998, Paul voted in favor of all four proposed articles of impeachment against Clinton (only two of which received the needed majority of votes to be adopted). Two days prior, on December 16, Paul had stated that he would vote to impeach based on Clinton's military attacks in the Middle East, namely the 1998 bombing of Iraq and Operation Infinite Reach, and not necessarily the Lewinsky scandal, which he described as far less serious than the "unconstitutionality of presidents waging wars". Affiliations Paul was honorary chairman of, and is a member of the Republican Liberty Caucus, a political action committee that describes its goal as electing "liberty-minded, limited-government individuals". He is an initiating member of the Congressional Rural Caucus, which deals with agricultural and rural issues, and the 140-member Congressional Wildlife Refuge Caucus. Committee assignments Paul served on the following committees and subcommittees. Committee on Financial Services Subcommittee on Domestic Monetary Policy and Technology (Chairman) Subcommittee on International Monetary Policy and Trade Committee on Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations With the election of the 112th Congress, and a resulting GOP majority in the House, Paul became the chairman of the Subcommittee on Domestic Monetary Policy and Technology starting in January 2011. Paul's congressional career ended on January 3, 2013 with the swearing in of the 113th Congress. 2008 presidential campaign 2008 Republican primary campaign Paul formally declared his candidacy for the 2008 Republican nomination on March 12, 2007, on C-SPAN. Few major politicians endorsed him, and his campaign was largely ignored by traditional media. However, he attracted an intensely loyal grassroots following, interacting through internet social media. In May 2007, shortly after the first televised primary debates, the blogs search engine site Technorati.com listed Paul's name as the term most frequently searched for; and Paul's campaign claimed that Paul had more YouTube channel subscribers than Barack Obama or any other candidate for president. Paul fundraised more money than any other Republican candidate in the fourth quarter of 2007, as the primary season headed into the Iowa caucuses. Despite benefiting from campaign contributions from individual donors, and the supporters determined to keep his name a frequent topic of discussion on the internet, over the course of the campaign Paul was unable to translate the enthusiasm of his core supporters into large enough numbers of actual primary votes to unseat his rivals. Paul came in 5th place in both the January 4 Iowa caucuses (10% of votes cast) and the January 8 New Hampshire primary (8%). With the exception of the Nevada caucuses January 19, where he came in 2nd (14%) behind Romney (51%), he did little better through the rest of January: Michigan 4th (6%), South Carolina 5th (4%), Florida 5th (3%). On Super Tuesday, February 5, he placed 4th in almost every state, generally taking in a mere 3–6% of the votes although he did better in the northern states of North Dakota (21%, 3rd place) and Montana (25%, 2nd place). By March, front-runner John McCain had secured enough pledged delegates to guarantee that he would win the nomination, and Romney and Huckabee had both formally withdrawn from the race. Paul, who had won no state primaries, knew that it was now impossible for him to win the nomination, as he had captured only 20—40 pledged delegates compared to more than 1,191 for McCain, yet he refused to concede the race and said that it was unlikely that he would ultimately endorse McCain. Over the next few weeks, Paul's supporters clashed with establishment Republicans at several county and state party conventions over state party rules, the party platforms, and selection of delegates for the national convention. In one instance, Nevada's state party leaders in response to Paul's supporters at the state nominating convention, resorted to prematurely shutting down the convention before selecting national delegates, with a plan to reconvene at a later date. On June 12, 2008, Paul withdrew his bid for the Republican nomination. He later said that one of the reasons he did not run in the general election as a third-party candidate, after losing the primaries, was that, as a concession to gain ballot access in certain states, he had signed legally binding agreements to not run a third-party campaign if he lost the primary. Some of the $4 million remaining campaign contributions was invested into the political action and advocacy group called Ron Paul's Campaign for Liberty. Endorsement after ending campaign At a September 10, 2008, press conference, Paul announced his general support of four third-party candidates: Cynthia McKinney (Green Party); Bob Barr (Libertarian Party); Chuck Baldwin (Constitution Party); and Ralph Nader (independent). He said that each of them had pledged to adhere to a policy of balancing budgets, bringing the troops home, defending privacy and personal liberties, and investigating the Federal Reserve. Paul also said that under no circumstances would he be endorsing either of the two main parties' candidates (McCain—Republican Party, or Obama—Democratic Party) because there were no real differences between them, and because neither of them, if elected, would seek to make the fundamental changes in governance that were necessary. He urged instead that, rather than contribute to the "charade" that the two-party election system had become, the voters support the third-party candidates as a protest vote, to force change in the election process. Later that same day, Paul gave a televised interview with Nader saying much the same again. Two weeks later, "shocked and disappointed" that Bob Barr (the Libertarian nominee) had pulled out of attending the press conference at the last minute and had admonished Paul for remaining neutral and failing to say which specific candidate Paul would vote for in the general election, Paul released a statement saying that he had decided to endorse Chuck Baldwin, the Constitution Party candidate, for president. Paul withdrew from active campaigning in the last weeks of the primary election period. He received 42,426 votes, or 0.03% of the total cast, in the general election. 2012 presidential campaign 2012 Republican primary campaign Paul won several early straw polls for the 2012 Republican presidential nomination and formed an official exploratory committee in late April 2011. He participated in the first Republican presidential debate on May 5, 2011 and on May 13, 2011 formally announced his candidacy in an interview on ABC's Good Morning America. He placed second in the 2011 Ames Straw Poll, missing first by 0.9%. Paul indicated in a June 2011 interview that if nominated, he would consider former New Jersey Superior Court judge Andrew Napolitano as his running mate. In December 2011, with Paul's increased support, the controversy over racist and homophobic statements in several Ron Paul newsletters in the 1980s and early 1990s once again gained media attention. During this time Paul supporters asserted that he was continually ignored by the media despite his significant support, citing examples of where television news shows would fail to mention Paul in discussions of the Republican presidential hopefuls even when he was polling second. Iowa Ron Paul's presidential campaign managers Jesse Benton, John Tate and Demetri Kesari were all found guilty of paying former Iowa State Senator Kent Sorenson $73,000 to switch his support from Rep. Michele Bachmann to Paul. In court papers filed in August 2014, Sorenson said that he had been paid by both presidential campaigns for his endorsement and pled guilty to criminal charges stemming from the incident. Paul came in third in the Iowa Republican Caucus held on January 3, 2012. Out of a turnout of 121,503 votes, Paul took 26,036 (21%) of the certified votes. Rick Santorum and Mitt Romney finished in a virtual tie for first place with 25% each, although Ron Paul had ultimately won Iowa at the Republican National Convention gathering 22 delegates to Mitt Romney's 5. In the New Hampshire primary held on January 10, 2012, Paul received 23% of the votes and came in second after Romney's 39%. South Carolina, Florida, Nevada Paul's results then declined, despite the withdrawal of candidates Michele Bachmann, Jon Huntsman and Rick Perry. He had fourth-place finishes in the next two primaries, on January 21 in South Carolina (with 13% of the vote) and on January 31 in Florida (where he received 7% of the vote). On February 4, Paul finished third in Nevada with 18.8% of the vote. Three non-binding primaries were held on February 7; Paul took 3rd place in Colorado and Missouri with 13% and 12% of the vote, respectively. He fared better in Minnesota with 27%, finishing second to Rick Santorum. On May 14, Paul's campaign announced that due to lack of funds (though despite financial backing from financiers Peter Thiel and Mark Spitznagel) he would no longer actively campaign for votes in the 11 remaining primary states, including Texas and California, that had not yet voted. He would, however, continue to seek to win delegates for the national party convention in the states that had already voted. Irregularities In June, a group of 132 supporters of Paul, demanding the freedom as delegates to the upcoming Republican party national convention to cast votes for Paul, filed a lawsuit in U.S. District Court against the Republican National Committee and 55 state and territorial Republican party organizations for allegedly coercing delegates to choose Mitt Romney as the party's presidential nominee. The suit alleged that there had been "a systematic campaign of election fraud at state conventions," employing rigging of voting machines, ballot stuffing, and falsification of ballot totals. The suit further pointed to incidents at state conventions, including acts of violence and changes in procedural rules, allegedly intended to deny participation of Paul supporters in the party decision-making and to prevent votes from being cast for Paul. An attorney representing the complainants said that Paul campaign advisor Doug Wead had voiced support for the legal action. Paul himself told CNN that although the lawsuit was not a part of his campaign's strategy and that he had not been advising his supporters to sue, he was not going to tell his supporters not to sue, if they had a legitimate argument. "If they're not following the rules, you have a right to stand up for the rules. I think for the most part these winning caucuses that we've been involved in we have followed the rules. And the other side has at times not followed the rules." Republican National convention Paul declined to speak at the Republican National Convention as a matter of principle, saying that the convention planners had demanded that his remarks be vetted by the Romney campaign and that he make an unqualified endorsement of Romney. Paul had felt that "It wouldn't be my speech... That would undo everything I've done in the last 30 years. I don't fully endorse him for president." Many of Paul's supporters and delegates walked out of the convention in protest over rules adopted by the convention that reduced their delegate count and that would make it harder for non-establishment candidates to win the party's nomination in future elections. Supporters and media commentators had noted that the delegations from states where Paul had had the most support were given the worst seats in the convention hall, while delegations from regions with no electoral votes, such as the Northern Mariana Islands, American Samoa, and Puerto Rico, were given prime seats at the front. Endorsement after ending campaign As in 2008, in 2012 Paul ultimately refused to endorse the ticket selected by the Republican Party. He said that there was no essential difference between Romney and his Democratic opponent, President Obama, on the most critical policies: "I've been in this business a long time and believe me there is essentially no difference from one administration to another no matter what the platforms... The foreign policy stays the same, the monetary policy stays the same, there's no proposal for any real cuts and both parties support it." Paul received 26,204 write-in votes, or 0.02% of the total cast in the election. Political party identification Throughout his entire tenure in Congress, Paul has represented his district as a member of the Republican Party. However, he has frequently taken positions in direct opposition to the other members and the leadership of the party, and he has sometimes publicly questioned whether he really belonged in the party. Paul voted for Dwight D. Eisenhower for president in 1956 when he was 21 years old. He had been a lifelong supporter of the Republican Party by the time he entered politics in the mid-1970s. He was one of the first elected officials in the nation to support Ronald Reagan's presidential campaign, and he actively campaigned for Reagan in 1976 and 1980. After Reagan's election in 1980, Paul quickly became disillusioned with the Reagan administration's policies. He later recalled being the only Republican to vote against Reagan budget proposals in 1981, aghast that "in 1977, Jimmy Carter proposed a budget with a $38 billion deficit, and every Republican in the House voted against it. In 1981, Reagan proposed a budget with a $45 billion deficit—which turned out to be $113 billion—and Republicans were cheering his great victory. They were living in a storybook land." He expressed his disgust with the political culture of both major parties in a speech delivered in 1984 upon resigning from the House of Representatives to prepare for a (failed) run for the Senate, and he eventually apologized to his libertarian friends for having supported Reagan. By 1987, Paul was ready to sever all ties to the Republican Party, as he explained in a blistering resignation letter: "Since [1981] Ronald Reagan and the Republican Party have given us skyrocketing deficits, and astoundingly a doubled national debt. How is it that the party of balanced budgets, with control of the White House and Senate, accumulated red ink greater than all previous administrations put together? ... There is no credibility left for the Republican Party as a force to reduce the size of government. That is the message of the Reagan years." A month later he announced he would seek the 1988 Libertarian Party nomination for president. During the 1988 campaign, Paul called Reagan "a dramatic failure" and complained that "Reagan's record is disgraceful. He starts wars, breaks the law, supplies terrorists with guns made at taxpayers' expense and lies about it to the American people." Paul predicted that "the Republicans are on their way out as a major party," and he said that, although registered as a Republican, he had always been a libertarian at heart. Paul returned to his private medical practice and managing several business ventures after losing the 1988 election; but by 1996, he was ready to return to politics, this time running on the Republican Party ticket again. He said that he had never read the entire Libertarian platform when he ran for president as a Libertarian in 1988, and that "I worked for the Libertarians on my terms, not theirs." He added that in terms of a political label he preferred to call himself "a constitutionalist. In Congress I took an oath to uphold the Constitution, not the (Republican) platform." When he lost the Republican Party presidential primary election in 2008, Paul criticized the two major political parties, saying that there was no real difference between the parties and that neither of them truly intended to challenge the status quo. He refused to endorse the Republican Party's nominee for president, John McCain, and lent his support to third-party candidates instead. In the 2012 presidential campaign, during which he acknowledged it was unlikely that he would win the Republican Party nomination, Paul again asserted that he was participating in the Republican Party on his own terms, trying to persuade the rest of the party to move toward his positions rather than joining in with theirs. He expressed doubt that he would support any of his rivals should they win the nomination, warning that, "If the policies of the Republican Party are the same as the Democrat Party and they don't want to change anything on foreign policy, they don't want to cut anything, they don't want to audit the Fed and find out about monetary policy, they don't want to have actual change in government, that is a problem for me." On that same theme he said in another interview, "I would be reluctant to jump on board and tell all of the supporters that have given me trust and money that all of a sudden, I'd say, [all] we've done is for naught. So, let's support anybody at all ... even if they disagree with everything that we do." Political positions Paul has been described as conservative and libertarian. According to University of Georgia political scientist Keith Poole, Paul had the most conservative voting record of any member of Congress from 1937 to 2002, and is the most conservative of the candidates that had sought the 2012 Republican nomination for president. Other analyses have judged Paul much more moderate. The National Journal, for instance, rated Paul only the 145th-most-conservative member of the House of Representatives (out of 435) based on votes cast in 2010. The National Journal's analysis gave Paul a 2011 composite ideological rating of 54% liberal and 46% conservative. Paul says that he does not use the term "conservative" to describe himself very often and does not consider himself politically conservative "at all." The foundation of Paul's political philosophy is the conviction that "the proper role for government in America is to provide national defense, a court system for civil disputes, a criminal justice system for acts of force and fraud, and little else." He has been nicknamed "Dr. No," reflecting both his medical degree and his insistence that he will "never vote for legislation unless the proposed measure is expressly authorized by the Constitution." In 2008, Paul spoke at the John Birch Society's 50th-anniversary celebration. Foreign policy An anti-war activist, Paul promotes a noninterventionist foreign policy and an end to American imperialism. He advocates withdrawal from the United Nations and from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, for reasons of maintaining strong national sovereignty. He voted for the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists in response to the September 11 attacks, but suggested war alternatives such as authorizing the president to grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal targeting specific terrorists, in lieu of launching an Afghanistan invasion. Paul acknowledged his vote for the authorization of force was a difficult one. An opponent of the Iraq War as well, and potential war with Iran, he has criticized neoconservatism and U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East, arguing that both inadvertently cause terrorist reprisals against Americans, such as the 9/11 attacks. Paul has stated that "Israel is our close friend" and that it is not the place of the United States to "dictate how Israel runs her affairs". Paul, a critic of the US's implementation of most foreign aid, said in 2011 that "it was our foreign aid that helped Mubarak retain power to repress his people in the first place." Following the Orange Revolution protests in 2004, which led to Viktor Yanukovych's ouster from government, Paul accused the National Endowment for Democracy of having staged a coup in Ukraine. Paul supported the 2014 Crimean status referendum, for which he has been called a friend of Putin, and has objected to sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War and foreign aid to Ukraine. Domestic issues Paul endorses constitutional rights, such as the right to keep and bear arms, and habeas corpus for political detainees. He was one of only three Republicans in the House to vote against the Patriot Act. Paul opposes federal use of torture, presidential autonomy, a national identification card, warrantless domestic surveillance, and the draft. He has also called for shutting down the TSA and moving matters of airline security to private businesses. Paul believes that the notion of the separation of church and state is currently misused by the court system: "In case after case, the Supreme Court has used the infamous 'separation of church and state' metaphor to uphold court decisions that allow the federal government to intrude upon and deprive citizens of their religious liberty." Sometime within the same month but much after the event of authorities executing a lock-down in sequence to the April 2013 Boston Marathon bombing, Paul commented on the tactics used by governing forces into a harsh criticism that he has written as a "military-style occupation of an American city". Economic issues Paul is a proponent of Austrian School economics; he has authored six books on the subject, and displayed pictures of Austrian School economists Friedrich Hayek, Murray Rothbard, and Ludwig von Mises (as well as of President Grover Cleveland and Chicago School economist Milton Friedman) on his office wall. He regularly voted against almost all proposals for new government spending, initiatives, or taxes; he cast two thirds of all the lone negative votes in the House during a 1995–1997 period. He pledged never to raise taxes and states he has never voted to approve a budget deficit. Paul believes that the country could abolish the individual income tax by scaling back federal spending to its fiscal year 2000 levels; financing government operations would be primarily by excise taxes and non-protectionist tariffs. He endorses eliminating most federal government agencies, terming them unnecessary bureaucracies. On April 15, 2011, Paul was one of four Republican members of Congress to vote against Rep. Paul Ryan's budget proposal, known as "The Path to Prosperity." Paul has consistently warned of hyperinflation and called for a return to the gold standard as far back as 1981. From 1999 until his retirement, he introduced bills into each Congress seeking to eliminate the Federal Reserve System in a single year, a position he outlines in his 2009 book End the Fed. Paul is a strong proponent of free trade, once saying that "free trade is an answer to a lot of conflicts around the world". He rejects membership in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the World Trade Organization as "managed trade". He has also advocated for open trade and better relations with the country of Cuba. In addition, Paul argued in 2012 that "as well intentioned as sanctions are, they almost always backfire and hurt the people." He has described his interest in ending wars and lowering military spending as partly an "economic issue", adding, "We'd save a lot of money by not being engaged [in overseas conflict] like this." Climate change As a free-market environmentalist, he asserts private property rights in relation to environmental protection and pollution prevention. He rejects the scientific consensus on climate change and has claimed that global warming is a hoax in a 2009 Fox Business interview. Healthcare Paul has stated that "The government shouldn't be in the medical business." He pushes to eliminate federal involvement with and management of health care, which he argues would allow prices to decrease due to the fundamental dynamics of a free market. He also opposes federal government influenza inoculation programs. Immigration Paul endorses increased border security and opposes welfare for illegal immigrants, birthright citizenship and amnesty; he voted for the Secure Fence Act of 2006. However, in a 2019 interview, Paul expressed disapproval of President Donald Trump's proposed border wall along the southern US border, saying, "I don't like walls. I don't want to wall people in and wall people out." Ballots and voting He is an outspoken proponent of increased ballot access for third-party candidates. He has sought to repeal the National Voter Registration Act of 1993, also known as the Motor Voter law. Secession Paul has stated that secession from the United States "is a deeply American principle" and that "If the possibility of secession is completely off the table there is nothing to stop the federal government from continuing to encroach on our liberties and no recourse for those who are sick and tired of it." Paul wrote the remarks in a post on his Congressional website in one of his final public statements as a member of Congress, noting that many petitions had been submitted to the White House calling for secession in the wake of the November 2012 election. Social issues Citing the Ninth and Tenth Amendments, Paul advocates states' rights to decide how to regulate social matters not cited directly by the Constitution. He opposes federal regulation of such matters as the death penalty (although he opposes capital punishment), of education, of drugs, and of marriage. Regarding same-sex marriage, he stated in 2011 that "My personal opinion is government shouldn't be involved. The whole country would be better off if individuals made those decisions and it was a private matter." He endorsed revising the military's "don't ask, don't tell" policy to concern mainly disruptive sexual behavior (whether heterosexual or homosexual). His abortion-related legislation, such as the Sanctity of Life Act in 2005, is intended to negate Roe v. Wade and to get "the federal government completely out of the business of regulating state matters." Paul says his years as an obstetrician led him to believe that life begins at conception. Paul opposes the federal War on Drugs, and advocates that states should decide whether to regulate or deregulate drugs such as medical and recreational marijuana, and other substances. In 2001, he joined with Democratic Congressman Barney Frank in helping pass the States' Rights to Medical Marijuana Act (H.R. 2592), an attempt to stop the federal government from preempting states' medical marijuana laws. Paul again partnered with Frank in support of online gambling rights. In 2006, both strongly opposed H.R. 4777, the Internet Gambling Prohibition and Enforcement Act, and H.R. 4411, the Goodlatte-Leach Internet Gambling Prohibition Act. Paul was critical of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, arguing that it sanctioned federal interference in the labor market and did not improve race relations. He once remarked: "The Civil Rights Act of 1964 not only violated the Constitution and reduced individual liberty; it also failed to achieve its stated goals of promoting racial harmony and a color-blind society". Paul opposes affirmative action. In August 2022, Paul expressed support for Republican state governments he described as “fighting back against so-called ‘Woke’ Capitalism.” Cryptocurrency Paul says that he does not have a "final answer" on whether bitcoin will replace the dollar, but says that it should be legal. He attends bitcoin and cryptocurrency conferences because, "I think the world's a disaster, the financial system is coming apart, and the government money is terrible, and people ought to have a right to be able to develop something." Post-congressional career In April 2013, Paul founded the Ron Paul Institute for Peace and Prosperity, a foreign policy think tank that seeks to promote his non-interventionist views. The institute is part of his larger foundation Foundation for Rational Economics and Education. In the same month, he began to offer the Ron Paul Curriculum, a homeschool online curriculum developed by Gary North and taught from a "free market and Christian" perspective. In June 2013, Paul criticized the NSA surveillance program and praised Edward Snowden for having performed a "great service to the American people by exposing the truth about what our government is doing in secret". In April 2015, Paul began appearing in infomercials for Stansberry & Associates Investment Research, warning about an upcoming financial meltdown as a result of the imminent crash of the world's currencies. In March 2017, Paul predicted a market downturn again. Paul was a critic of Donald Trump's plans to increase the number of military personnel in Afghanistan. In August 2017, he said that Americans don't see Afghanistan as a threat to their personal security and being aggressive in foreign policy only loses Trump some of his support base. Paul has also called for Trump to bring American troops back from Syria in April 2018, on the grounds that the threat from ISIS has been eliminated. He continues to voice his disagreements regarding foreign policy, and more recently, regarding the events involving America and Iran. In 2013, Paul established the Ron Paul Channel, an Internet broadcast. Its slogan was "Turn Off Your TV. Turn On the Truth." In 2015, Ron Paul ended all relationships with the Ron Paul Channel in order to start a new Internet program called The Ron Paul Liberty Report, which he co-hosts with Daniel McAdams. 2016 presidential election Paul endorsed his son, Senator Rand Paul, in the 2016 Republican primary and campaigned for him in Iowa. After his son dropped out, Paul had said that no Republican or Democratic candidate even came close to holding libertarian views. Paul expressed disappointment in former New Mexico Governor Gary Johnson's Libertarian Party nomination for President, and told independent voters that Green Party nominee Jill Stein was a better candidate for those who "lean towards progressivism and liberalism", while emphasizing that he was not endorsing her. Paul received one electoral vote from a Texas faithless elector, South Texas College political science professor William Greene (who had been pledged to Donald Trump), in the 2016 presidential election, making Paul the oldest person ever to receive an electoral vote, and the second Libertarian Party member to receive an electoral vote, after John Hospers in 1972. 2020 presidential election In the 2020 Democratic primary, Paul described Hawaii Representative Tulsi Gabbard as "the most intelligent" and "the very, very best" option of the Democratic candidates, primarily for her views on foreign policy, adding that "We probably wouldn't agree with too much on economics." Controversies Newsletters controversy Beginning in 1978, for more than two decades Paul and his associates published a number of political and investment-oriented newsletters bearing his name (Dr. Ron Paul's Freedom Report, The Ron Paul Survival Report, the Ron Paul Investment Letter, and the Ron Paul Political Report). A number of the newsletters, particularly in the period between 1988 and 1994 when Paul was no longer in Congress, contained racist material that proved controversial when he returned to Congress and ran for president. Topics included conspiracy theories, anti-government militia movements, and race wars. During Paul's 1996 congressional election campaign, and his 2008 and 2012 presidential primary campaigns, critics charged that some of the passages reflected racism, anti-Semitism, and homophobia. In a 1996 interview, Paul did not deny writing the newsletters and defended some of their contents, but specified that he opposes racism. In March 2001, Paul said he did not write the commentaries, but stopped short of denying authorship in 1996 because his campaign advisers had thought it would be too confusing and that he had to live with the material published under his name. Half a dozen libertarian activists, including some still closely associated with Paul, pointed to Lew Rockwell as the primary ghostwriter of the newsletters. Rockwell denied responsibility for the content. In 2011, Paul's spokesperson Jesse Benton said Paul had "taken moral responsibility because they appeared under his name and slipped through under his watch." COVID-19 pandemic statements On March 16, 2020, Ron Paul criticized the government, media, and public responses to the nascent COVID-19 pandemic in a column for his website. He dismissed claims of a death rate higher than the flu as "a claim without any scientific basis" and said that the "chief fearmonger of the Trump Administration is without a doubt Anthony Fauci, head of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases at the National Institutes of Health," who Paul claimed was "serving up outright falsehoods to stir up even more panic." He stated, "People should ask themselves whether this coronavirus 'pandemic' could be a big hoax...That is not to say the disease is harmless. Without question people will die from coronavirus. Those in vulnerable categories should take precautions to limit their risk of exposure. But we have seen this movie before. Government over-hypes a threat as an excuse to grab more of our freedoms. When the 'threat' is over, however, they never give us our freedoms back." Personal life Paul has been married to Carol (Carolyn) Wells since 1957. They met in 1952 when Wells asked Paul to be her escort to her 16th birthday party. They have five children, who were baptized Episcopalian: Ronald, Lori, Randal, Robert, and Joy. Paul's son Randal (Rand) is the junior United States senator from the state of Kentucky. Raised a Lutheran, Paul later became a Baptist. Since 1995, Carol Paul has published the Ron Paul Family Cookbook, a collection of recipes she and her friends contributed, and which was sold in part to support Ron Paul's political campaigns. His life and career is the subject of the 2012 film Ron Paul Uprising. Paul and his wife currently reside in Lake Jackson, Texas. He enjoys riding a bicycle and exercising every day. On September 25, 2020, Paul was hospitalized after appearing to slur his words while speaking during a livestream event. Paul later posted a photo of himself in a hospital bed to his Twitter page, along with the statement "I am doing fine. Thank you for your concern". In April 2021, following Paul's absence from his daily show, the Ron Paul Liberty Report, his co-host Daniel McAdams revealed Paul's daughter, Lori Pyeatt, had recently died. Media relating to Ron Paul Books Ron Paul: Father of the Tea Party, by Jason Rink, 2011 Ron Paul's rEVOLution: The Man and the Movement He Inspired, by Brian Doherty, 2012 Films The Housing Bubble, a 2018 documentary starring Ron Paul, and featuring numerous archival clips of his predictions over the years. America: Freedom to Fascism, 2006 film featuring an interview from Paul. American Drug War: The Last White Hope, 2007 documentary in which Paul has a cameo appearance. I.O.U.S.A., 2008 documentary featuring Paul among the cast. Brüno, 2009 film by Sacha Baron Cohen in which Paul has a cameo appearance. An Inconvenient Tax, 2010 documentary featuring Paul among the cast. Ron Paul Uprising, 2012 film by William Lewis, about Paul and his campaign for the presidency. Atlas Shrugged Part III: Who Is John Galt?, 2014 adaptation of Atlas Shrugged in which Paul has a cameo appearance. Bibliography Other contributions Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: See also Criticism of the Federal Reserve Draft Ron Paul movement Libertarian Republican List of federal political scandals in the United States List of peace activists List of politicians affiliated with the Tea Party movement Paulville, Texas Students for Ron Paul References External links Fact-checking at PolitiFact.com Issue positions and quotes at On the Issues Congress Profile at OpenSecrets Profile at GovTrack Ron Paul TV. Ron Paul presidential candidate media and Internet video campaign. |- |- |- Category:1935 births Category:Living people Ron Category:20th-century American essayists Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American physicians Category:20th-century American politicians Category:21st-century American essayists Category:21st-century American male writers Category:21st-century American non-fiction writers Category:21st-century American politicians Category:21st-century Baptists Category:American anti-abortion activists Category:American anti–Iraq War activists Category:American anti-war activists Category:American columnists Category:American foreign policy writers Category:American libertarians Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:American people of German descent Category:American podcasters Category:American political writers Category:Baptists from Texas Category:Candidates in the 1988 United States presidential election Category:Candidates in the 2008 United States presidential election Category:Candidates in the 2012 United States presidential election Category:Christian libertarians Category:Critics of neoconservatism Category:American drug policy reform activists Category:Duke University School of Medicine alumni Category:Gettysburg College alumni Category:Homeschooling advocates Category:Libertarian Party (United States) presidential nominees Category:Libertarian theorists Category:Libertarianism in the United States Category:Mises Institute people Category:Monetary reformers Category:Non-interventionism Category:Old Right (United States) Category:People from Lake Jackson, Texas Category:Physicians from Texas Category:Politicians from Pittsburgh Category:Privacy activists Category:Protestants from Texas Category:Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Texas Category:Southern Baptists Category:Tea Party movement activists Category:Texas Libertarians Category:United States Air Force Medical Corps officers Category:University of Pittsburgh people Category:Writers from Texas
[ { "text": "A congress is a formal meeting of the representatives of different countries, constituent states, organizations, trade unions, political parties, or other groups. The term originated in Late Middle English to denote an encounter (meeting of adversaries) during battle, from the Latin congressus.\n\nPolitical congresses\n\nInternational relations\nThe following congresses were formal meetings of representatives of different nations:\nThe Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), which ended the War of Devolution\nThe Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), which ended the War of the Austrian Succession\nThe Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)\nThe Congress of Berlin (1878), which settled the Eastern Question after the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)\nThe Congress of Gniezno (1000)\nThe Congress of Laibach (1821)\nThe Congress of Panama, an 1826 meeting organized by Simón Bolívar\nThe Congress of Paris (1856), which ended the Crimean War\nThe Congress of Troppau (1820)\nThe Congress of Tucumán (1816)\nThe Congress of Utrecht (1712–1713)\nThe Congress of Verona (1822)\nThe Congress of Vienna (1814–15), which settled the shape of Europe after the Napoleonic Wars\nThe Congress of the Council of Europe.\n\nLegislatures\n\nPresidential and semi-presidential systems\nIn the mid-1770s, to emphasize each one's status as a state in its own right, the term was chosen by the British colonies that became the United States of America. The term has since been adopted by many nations to refer to their legislatures.\nThe United States Congress is the bicameral legislative branch of the United States federal government.\nThe Continental Congress (1774–1781) was a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that became the Congress of the Confederation (1781–1789), legislature of the United States under the Articles of Confederation.\nThe Confederate States Congress of 1861–1865, during the American Civil War.\nThe Congress of Guatemala (Spanish: Congreso de la República) is the unicameral legislature of Guatemala.\nThe National Congress of Honduras (Spanish: Congreso nacional) is the legislative branch of the government of Honduras.\nThe Congress of Mexico () is the legislative branch of Mexican government.\nThe Congress of Paraguay is the bicameral legislature of Paraguay.\nThe Congress of the Argentine Nation (Spanish: Congreso de la Nación Argentina) is the legislative branch of the government of Argentina.\nThe Congress of the Dominican Republic is the bicameral legislature of the Dominican Republic.\nThe Palau National Congress (Palauan: Olbiil era Kelulau) is the bicameral legislative branch of the Republic of Palau.\nThe Congress of the Federated States of Micronesia is the unicameral legislature of the Federated States of Micronesia.\nThe Congress of the Philippines (Filipino: Kongreso ng Pilipinas) is the legislative branch of the Philippine government.\nThe Congress of the Republic of Peru (Spanish: Congreso de la República) is the unicameral legislature of Peru.\nThe Congress of Colombia (Spanish: Congreso de la República) is the bicameral legislature of Colombia.\nThe National Congress of Bolivia was the national legislature of Bolivia before being replaced by the Plurinational Legislative Assembly.\nThe National Congress of Brazil () is the bicameral legislature of Brazil.\nThe National Congress of Chile (Spanish: Congreso Nacional) is the legislative branch of the government of Chile.\nThe National Congress of Ecuador was the unicameral legislature of Ecuador before being replaced by the National Assembly.\nFrance:\nThe Congress of the French Parliament refers specifically when both houses of France's legislature sit together as a single body, usually at the Palace of Versailles, to vote on revisions to the Constitution, to listen to an address by the President of the French Republic, and, in the past, to elect the President of the Republic\nThe Congress of New Caledonia is the national legislature under the semi-presidential system of the autonomous collectivity.\n\nNon-presidential systems\nSpanish Congress of Deputies (Spanish: Congreso de los Diputados) is the lower house of the Cortes Generales, Spain's legislative branch.\nThe National Congress of Belgium was a temporary legislative assembly in 1830, which created a constitution for the new state.\nThe legislature of the People's Republic of China is known in English as the National People's Congress.\nThe Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union was the legislature and nominal supreme institution of state power in the Soviet Union. \nCongress of People's Deputies of Russia was modeled after the Soviet Union's and existed in 1990–1993.\nThe Congress of Cuba was the bicameral legislature of Cuba from 1902–1959.\n\nParties\nMany political parties have a party congress every few years to make decisions for the party and elect governing bodies, while others call it a party convention. Congress is included in the name of several political parties, especially those in former British colonies:\nCanary Islands\nNational Congress of the Canaries\nEswatini\nNgwane National Liberatory Congress\nFiji\nNational Congress of Fiji\nGuyana\nPeople's National Congress\nIndia\nIndian National Congress\nAll India Trinamool Congress\nKerala Congress\nNationalist Congress Party\nTamil Maanila Congress\nYSR Congress\nBSR Congress\nAll India N.R. Congress\nLesotho\nBasotho Congress Party\nLesotho Congress for Democracy\nLesotho People's Congress\nMalawi\nMalawi Congress Party\nMalaysia\nMalaysian Indian Congress\nNamibia\nCongress of Democrats\nNepal\nNepali Congress\nPakistan\nPeoples Revolutionary Congress Pakistan\nSierra Leone\nAll People's Congress\nSouth Africa\nAfrican National Congress\nCongress of the People\nPan-Africanist Congress\nSri Lanka\nAll Ceylon Tamil Congress\nSri Lanka Muslim Congress\nSudan\nNational Congress (Sudan)\nTrinidad and Tobago\nUnited National Congress\nUganda\nUgandan People's Congress\nIraqi National Congress\n\nPolitical organizations\nNational Congress of American Indians\nCongress of Racial Equality\nContinental Congress 2.0\n\nLabour congresses\nCongress of Industrial Organizations\nTrade Union Congress of the Philippines\nTrades Union Congress\nCanadian Labour Congress\n\nReligious Congresses \nCatholic Congresses\nEucharistic Congresses\n1947 Marian Congress\n\nNon-political congresses\nCongress is an alternative name for a large national or international academic conference. For instance, the World Congress on Men's Health is an annual meeting on men's medical issues.\n\nOrganizations in some athletic sports, such as bowling, have historically been named \"congresses\". The predecessors to the United States Bowling Congress (formed in 1995) were the American Bowling Congress (founded in 1895) and the Women's International Bowling Congress (founded in 1927).\nA chess congress is a chess tournament, in one city, where a large number of contestants gather to play competitive chess over a limited period of time; typically one day to one week.\n\nICCA Congress & Exhibition\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nEuropean affairs events\nInternational congress calendar\nMedical Congresses Around the World\nCongress Youth Leader\n \n\nCategory:Legislatures\nCategory:Elections\nCategory:Meetings", "title": "Congress" }, { "text": "Ron is a shortening of the name Ronald.\n\nRon or RON may also refer to:\n\nArts and media\n\nBig Ron (EastEnders), a TV character\nRon (King of Fighters), a video game character\nRon Douglas, the protagonist in Lucky Stiff played by Joe Alasky\nRon Kamonohashi: Deranged Detective, a manga series\nRon Weasley, a character in Harry Potter.\n\nLanguage\n Ron language, spoken in Plat State, Nigeria\n Romanian language (ISO 639-3 code ron)\n\nPeople\n\nMononym\nRon (singer), Rosalino Cellamare (born 1953), Italian singer\n\nGiven name\nRon (given name)\n\nSurname\nDana Ron (born 1964), Israeli computer scientist and professor\nElaine Ron (1943-2010), American epidemiologist\nEmri Ron (1936–2013), Israeli politician \nIvo Ron (born 1967), Ecuadorian football player\nJason De Ron (born 1973), Australian musician\nJosé Ron (born 1981), Mexican actor\nLiat Ron, actress, dancer and dance instructor \n\nLior Ron (born 1982), Israeli-American film and trailer composer and musician\nMichael Ron (born 1932), Israeli fencer\nMichael Røn (born 1984), Danish-born Norwegian footballer\nMoshe Ron (1925-2001), Israeli materials scientist\nPan Ron, Cambodian singer and songwriter\nRon Ron or Ronald White, American rapper and director\nYuval Ron, Israeli musician\n\nPlaces \nRon, Karnataka, a city in India\nRøn, a village in Vestre Slidre, Norway\nRon (river, Vietnam)\n\nScience and technology\n Gyrodyne RON Rotorcycle, mid-1950s US helicopter\n Remote online notarization, electronic notarization online\n Research Octane Number, a standard measure of the performance of a fuel\n Resilient Overlay Network, an Internet application architecture\n\nOther uses\n Cyclone Ron, a 1998 cyclone in the South Pacific\n Rhongomiant, or Ron, King Arthur's lance\n Romanian leu (ISO 4217 code: RON), the currency of Romania\n\"Ron's Piece\", a track from the 1986 Jean-Michel Jarre album Rendez-Vous\n Rum, ron in Spanish\n Re-open Nominations, a \"none of the above\" ballot option\n Rota Osobogo Naznacheniya (), a 1940s unit of Russian commando frogmen\n\nSee also\n\nBig Ron (disambiguation)\nRonn (disambiguation)", "title": "Ron" } ]
[ "Ron Paul served in Congress across three different periods and throughout his terms, he pushed for various changes in legislation. He blamed the Federal Reserve for inflation and spoke against banking mismanagement. He argued for a return to the gold standard and managed to convince Congress to study the issue. He also opposed the reinstatement of registration for the military draft in 1980. Furthermore, Paul proposed term-limit legislation multiple times during his service in the House of Representatives.", "The text does not provide information on whether Ron Paul sponsored any bills.", "Ron Paul served in Congress during three separate periods which spanned over decades. In his early years, he was on the House Banking Committee, fiercely criticizing the Federal Reserve for inflation. He was an advocate for the gold standard and also opposed the reinstatement of the military draft in 1980. Outside congress, he founded a non-profit think tank, the Foundation for Rational Economics and Education (FREE) and became the first chairman of the Citizens for a Sound Economy. The latter organization eventually split into two new ones that played key roles in the Tea Party movement. Despite his active involvement in Congress, Paul often showed disdain for government power and expressed it in his farewell address in 1984. He also advocated for term limits, repeatedly proposing legislation for it while maintaining his own congressional seat for four terms.", "The text does not provide information on which party Ron Paul served under.", "The text does not provide specific information on what special election Ron Paul won.", "While serving in Congress, Ron Paul proposed returning to the gold standard maintained by the US from 1873-1933. He also proposed multiple term-limit legislations for individuals serving in the House of Representatives.", "The text mentions that Ron Paul, along with Senator Jesse Helms, was able to convince Congress to study the issue of returning to the gold standard. It does not provide information on the level of support he had for his term-limit proposals." ]
[ "Yes", "no", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes" ]
C_e3b38d3c55504c78beb259475c5ae9b9_0
Hulk Hogan
Terry Eugene Bollea was born in Augusta, Georgia on August 11, 1953, the son of construction foreman Pietro "Peter" Bollea (December 6, 1913 - December 18, 2001) and homemaker and dance teacher Ruth V. (nee Moody; 1922 - January 1, 2011). He is of French, Italian, Panamanian, and Scottish descent. When he was one and a half years old, his family moved to Port Tampa, Florida. As a boy, he was a pitcher in Little League Baseball.
Third return to WWE (2005-2007)
On April 2, 2005, Hogan was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame class of 2005 by actor and friend Sylvester Stallone. At WrestleMania 21 on April 3, Hogan came out to rescue Eugene, who was being attacked by Muhammad Hassan and Khosrow Daivari. The build-up to Hogan's Hall of Fame induction and preparation for his WrestleMania angle was shown on the first season of Hogan Knows Best. The next night on Raw, Hassan and Daivari came out to confront and assault fan favorite Shawn Michaels. The following week on Raw, Michaels approached Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff demanding a handicap match with Hassan and Daivari. Bischoff refused, but told Michaels if he found a partner he would be granted a tag team match. Michaels then made a plea for Hogan to team with him. On the April 18 episode of Raw, Hassan again led an attack on Michaels until Hogan appeared, saving Michaels and accepting his offer. At Backlash, Hassan and Daivari lost to Hogan and Michaels. Hogan then appeared on July 4 episode of Raw, as the special guest of Carlito on his talk-show segment Carlito's Cabana. After being asked questions by Carlito concerning his daughter Brooke, Hogan attacked Carlito. Kurt Angle then also appeared, making comments about Brooke, which further upset Hogan, who was eventually double teamed by Carlito and Angle, but was saved by Shawn Michaels. Later that night, Michaels and Hogan defeated Carlito and Angle in a tag team match; during the post-match celebration, Michaels performed the Sweet Chin Music on Hogan and walked off. The following week on Raw, Michaels appeared on Piper's Pit and challenged Hogan to face him one-on-one for the first time. Hogan appeared on Raw one week later and accepted the challenge. The match took place at SummerSlam, which Hogan won. After the match, Michaels extended his hand to him, telling him that he "had to find out for himself", and Hogan and Michaels shook hands as Michaels left the ring to allow Hogan to celebrate with the crowd. Prior to WrestleMania 22 in April 2006, Hogan inducted friend and former announcer "Mean" Gene Okerlund into the WWE Hall of Fame class of 2006. Hogan returned on the July 15 episode of Saturday Night's Main Event with his daughter Brooke. During the show, Randy Orton kayfabe flirted with Brooke and later attacked Hogan in the parking lot. He later challenged Hogan to a match at SummerSlam, which Hogan won. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "When was his third return to WWE?", "Did he rescue him successfully?", "When was he inducted into the Hall of Fame?", "What is a wrestling match he did after that?", "What was his offer?", "What did they do together after that?", "Was that the only time he appeared on Raw?", "Who won?", "Did they ever face each other again?" ]
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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 117 ], [ 244 ], [ 0 ], [ 804 ], [ 718 ], [ 967 ], [ 1544 ], [ 1733 ], [ 1889 ] ], "texts": [ [ "At WrestleMania 21 on April 3, Hogan came out to rescue Eugene, who was being attacked by Muhammad Hassan and Khosrow Daivari." ], [ "The build-up to Hogan's Hall of Fame induction and preparation for his WrestleMania angle was shown on the first season of Hogan Knows Best." ], [ "On April 2, 2005, Hogan was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame class of 2005 by actor and friend Sylvester Stallone." ], [ "Hassan again led an attack on Michaels until Hogan appeared, saving Michaels and accepting his offer." ], [ "Michaels then made a plea for Hogan to team with him." ], [ "Hogan then appeared on July 4 episode of Raw, as the special guest of Carlito on his talk-show segment Carlito's Cabana." ], [ "The following week on Raw, Michaels appeared on Piper's Pit and challenged Hogan to face him one-on-one for the first time." ], [ "The match took place at SummerSlam, which Hogan won." ], [ "and Hogan and Michaels shook hands as Michaels left the ring to allow Hogan to celebrate with the crowd." ] ] }
{ "answer_starts": [ 117, 244, 0, 804, 718, 967, 1544, 1733, 1889 ], "texts": [ "At WrestleMania 21 on April 3, Hogan came out to rescue Eugene, who was being attacked by Muhammad Hassan and Khosrow Daivari.", "The build-up to Hogan's Hall of Fame induction and preparation for his WrestleMania angle was shown on the first season of Hogan Knows Best.", "On April 2, 2005, Hogan was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame class of 2005 by actor and friend Sylvester Stallone.", "Hassan again led an attack on Michaels until Hogan appeared, saving Michaels and accepting his offer.", "Michaels then made a plea for Hogan to team with him.", "Hogan then appeared on July 4 episode of Raw, as the special guest of Carlito on his talk-show segment Carlito's Cabana.", "The following week on Raw, Michaels appeared on Piper's Pit and challenged Hogan to face him one-on-one for the first time.", "The match took place at SummerSlam, which Hogan won.", "and Hogan and Michaels shook hands as Michaels left the ring to allow Hogan to celebrate with the crowd." ] }
Terry Gene Bollea (; born August 11, 1953), better known by his ring name Hulk Hogan, is an American retired professional wrestler. He is widely regarded as the most recognized wrestling star worldwide and the most popular wrestler of the 1980s, as well as one of the greatest professional wrestlers of all time. Hogan began his professional wrestling career in 1977, but gained worldwide recognition after signing for World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) in 1983. There, his persona as a heroic all-American helped usher in the 1980s professional wrestling boom, where he headlined a record eight editions of WWF's flagship annual event, WrestleMania. Hogan also was a regular headliner of Saturday Night's Main Event and it's spin off The Main Event in which he headlined 31 editions of both shows combined. During his initial run, he won the WWF Championship five times, with his first reign being the second-longest in the championship's history. He is the first wrestler to win consecutive Royal Rumble matches, winning in 1990 and 1991. His match with Andre the Giant on WWF The Main Event on February 5, 1988, still holds American television viewership records for wrestling with a 15.2 Nielsen rating and 33 million viewers. In 1993, Hogan departed the WWF to pursue a career in film and television. He was lured back to the ring when he signed with rival promotion World Championship Wrestling (WCW) in 1994. He won the WCW World Heavyweight Championship six times, and holds the record for the longest reign. In 1996, he underwent a career renaissance upon adopting the villainous persona of "Hollywood" Hulk Hogan, leading the popular New World Order (nWo) stable. As a result, he became a major figure during the "Monday Night Wars", another boom of mainstream professional wrestling. He headlined WCW's annual flagship event Starrcade three times, including the most profitable WCW pay-per-view ever, Starrcade 1997. Hogan returned to the WWF in 2002 following its acquisition of WCW the prior year, winning the Undisputed WWF Championship for his record equaling (for the time) sixth reign before departing in 2003. He was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame in 2005, and inducted a second time in 2020 as a member of the nWo. Hogan also performed for the American Wrestling Association (AWA), New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) – where he was the inaugural winner of the original IWGP Heavyweight Championship – and Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA – now Impact Wrestling). During and after wrestling, Hogan had an extensive acting career, beginning with his 1982 cameo role in Rocky III. He has starred in several films (including No Holds Barred, Suburban Commando and Mr. Nanny) and three television shows (Hogan Knows Best, Thunder in Paradise, and China, IL), as well as in Right Guard commercials and the video game, Hulk Hogan's Main Event. He was the frontman for The Wrestling Boot Band, whose sole record, Hulk Rules, reached 12 on the Billboard Top Kid Audio chart in 1995. Early life Hogan was born in Augusta, Georgia, on August 11, 1953, the son of construction foreman Pietro "Peter" Bollea (December 6, 1913 – December 18, 2001) of Italian descent and homemaker and dance teacher Ruth V. (née Moody; 1922 – January 1, 2011) Bollea of Scottish and French descent. When he was one and a half years old, his family moved to Port Tampa, Florida. As a boy, he was a pitcher in Little League Baseball. He attracted scouts from the New York Yankees and the Cincinnati Reds, but an injury ended his baseball career. Hogan attended Robinson High School. He began watching professional wrestling at 16 years old. While in high school, he revered Dusty Rhodes, and he regularly attended cards at the Tampa Sportatorium. It was at one of those wrestling cards where he first turned his attention toward Superstar Billy Graham and looked to him for inspiration; since he first saw Graham on TV, Hogan wanted to match his "inhuman" look. Hogan was also a musician, spending a decade playing fretless bass guitar in several Florida-based rock bands. He went on to study at Hillsborough Community College and the University of South Florida. After music gigs began to get in the way of his time in college, he dropped out of the University of South Florida. Eventually, Hogan and two local musicians formed a band called Ruckus in 1976. The band soon became popular in the Tampa Bay region. During his spare time, Hogan worked out at Hector's Gym in the Tampa Bay area, where he began lifting. Many of the wrestlers who were competing in the Florida region visited the bars where Ruckus was performing. Among those attending his performances were Jack and Gerald Brisco, two brothers who wrestled together as a tag team in the Florida region. Impressed by Hogan's physical stature, the Brisco brothers asked Hiro Matsudathe man who trained wrestlers working for Championship Wrestling from Florida (CWF)to make him a potential trainee. In 1976, the two brothers asked Hogan to try wrestling. Hogan eventually agreed. At first, Mike Graham, the son of CWF promoter Eddie Graham, refused to put Hogan in the ring; according to Hogan, he met Graham while in high school and the two did not get along. After Hogan quit Ruckus and started telling people in town that he was going to be a wrestler, Graham finally agreed to accept the Brisco Brothers' request. Professional wrestling career Early years (1977–1979) In mid-1977, after training for more than a year with Matsuda, the Brisco brothers dropped by Matsuda's gym to see Hogan. During this visit, Jack Brisco handed Hogan a pair of wrestling boots and informed him that he was scheduled to wrestle his first match the following week. In his professional wrestling debut, Eddie Graham booked him against Brian Blair in Fort Myers, Florida, on August 10, 1977, in CWF. A short time later, Hogan donned a mask and assumed the persona of "The Super Destroyer", a hooded character first played by Don Jardine and subsequently used by other wrestlers. Hogan eventually could no longer work with Hiro Matsuda, whom he felt was an overbearing trainer, and left CWF. After declining an offer to wrestle for the Kansas City circuit, Hogan took a hiatus from wrestling and managed The Anchor club, a private club in Cocoa Beach, Florida, for a man named Whitey Bridges. Eventually, Whitey and Hogan became close friends, and opened a gym together; the gym became known as Whitey and Terry's Olympic gym. Soon after, Hogan's friend Ed Leslie (later known as Brutus Beefcake) came to Cocoa Beach to help Hogan and Bridges manage both the Anchor Club and the Whitey and Terry's Olympic Gym. In his spare time, he and Leslie worked out in the gym together, and eventually, Beefcake developed a muscular physique; Hogan was impressed by Beefcake's physical stature and became convinced that the two of them should wrestle together as tag team partners. Depressed and yearning to return to wrestling, Hogan called Superstar Billy Graham in 1978 with hopes that Graham could find him a job wrestling outside of Florida; Graham agreed and Hogan soon joined Louie Tillet's Alabama territory. Hogan also convinced Leslie, who had yet to become a wrestler, to come with him and promised to teach him everything he knew about the sport. In Alabama, Hogan and Leslie wrestled as Terry and Ed Boulder, known as The Boulder Brothers. These early matches as a tag team with the surname Boulder being used by both men prompted a rumor among wrestling fans unaware of the inner workings of the sport that Hogan and Leslie were brothers, as few people actually knew their real names outside of immediate friends, family, and the various promoters the two worked for. After wrestling a show for Continental Wrestling Association (CWA) in Memphis, Jerry Jarrett, the promoter for the CWA, approached Hogan and Leslie and offered them a job in his promotion for $800 a week; this was far more than the $175 a week they would make working for Tillet. Hogan and Leslie accepted this offer and left Tillet's territory. During his time in Memphis, Hogan appeared on a local talk show, where he sat beside Lou Ferrigno, star of the television series The Incredible Hulk. The host commented on how Hogan, who stood 6 ft 7 in (201 cm) and weighed 295 pounds with 24-inch biceps, actually dwarfed "The Hulk". Watching the show backstage, Mary Jarrett noticed that Hogan was actually bigger than Ferrigno, who was well known at the time for having large muscles. As a result, Hogan began performing as Terry "The Hulk" Boulder and sometimes wrestled as Sterling Golden. On December 1, 1979, Hogan won his first professional wrestling championship, the NWA Southeastern Heavyweight Championship (Northern Division), recognized in Alabama and Tennessee, when he defeated Bob Roop in Knoxville, Tennessee. He dropped it in January 1980 to Bob Armstrong. He briefly wrestled in the Georgia Championship Wrestling (GCW) territory from September through December 1979 as Sterling Golden. World Wrestling Federation (1979–1981) In the fall of 1979, former NWA World Heavyweight Champion Terry Funk introduced Bollea to the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) owner/promoter Vincent J. McMahon, who was impressed with his charisma and physical stature. McMahon, who wanted to use an Irish name, gave him the last name Hogan, and also wanted him to dye his hair red. Bollea claims his hair was already beginning to fall out by that time, and he refused to dye it, simply replying, "I'll be a blond Irish". Bollea wrestled his first match in the WWF under the ring name "Hulk Hogan" by defeating Harry Valdez on the November 17 episode of Championship Wrestling. He made his first appearance at Madison Square Garden, defeating Ted DiBiase after a bearhug. After the match, Hogan thanked DiBiase for putting him over and told him that he "owed him one", a favor he repaid during DiBiase's second run with the company in the late 1980s and early 1990s as "The Million Dollar Man". McMahon gave Hogan former tag team champion Tony Altomare as chaperone and guide. At this time, Hogan wrestled Bob Backlund for the WWF Championship, and he started his first big feud with André the Giant, which culminated in a match with André at Shea Stadium in August 1980. During his initial run as a villain in the WWF, Hogan was paired with "Classy" Freddie Blassie, a wrestler-turned-manager. New Japan Pro-Wrestling (1980–1985) In 1980, Hogan began appearing in New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) where Japanese wrestling fans nicknamed him . Hogan first appeared on May 13, 1980, while he was still with the WWF. He occasionally toured the country over the next few years, facing a wide variety of opponents ranging from Tatsumi Fujinami to Abdullah the Butcher. When competing in Japan, Hogan used a vastly different repertoire of wrestling moves, relying on more technical, traditional wrestling holds and maneuvers as opposed to the power-based, brawling style American fans became accustomed to seeing from him. In addition, Hogan used the Axe Bomber, a crooked arm lariat, as his finisher in Japan instead of the running leg drop that has been his standard finisher in America. Hogan still made appearances for the WWF, even unsuccessfully challenging Pedro Morales for the Intercontinental Championship on March 26, 1981. On June 2, 1983, Hogan became the first International Wrestling Grand Prix (IWGP) tournament winner and the first holder of an early version of the IWGP Heavyweight Championship, defeating Antonio Inoki by knockout in the finals of a ten-man tournament. Since then, this championship was defended annually against the winner of the IWGP League of the year until it was replaced by current IWGP Heavyweight Championship, that is defended regularly. Hogan and Inoki also worked as partners in Japan, winning the MSG (Madison Square Garden) Tag League tournament two years in a row: in 1982 and 1983. In 1984, Hogan returned to NJPW to wrestle Inoki to defend the early version of the IWGP title after that Inoki won in the finals of the IWGP League, becoming the new no. 1 contender to the championship. Hogan lost the match and title belt by countout, thanks to interference from Riki Choshu. Hogan also defended his WWF World Heavyweight Championship against Seiji Sakaguchi and Fujinami, among others, until ending his tour in Nagoya on June 13 losing to Inoki via count-out in a championship match for the early version of the IWGP Heavyweight Championship. Hogan was the only challenger in the history of that title that didn't win the tournament to become the no. 1 contender to the championship. American Wrestling Association (1981–1983) After filming his scene for Rocky III against the elder McMahon's wishes, Hogan made his debut in the American Wrestling Association (AWA), owned by Verne Gagne. Hogan started his AWA run as a villain, taking on "Luscious" Johnny Valiant as his manager. This did not last for long as the AWA fans fell in love with Hogan's presence and Hogan became the top fan favorite of the AWA, battling the Heenan Family and Nick Bockwinkel. Hogan's turn as a fan favorite came at the end of July 1981, when during a television taping that aired in August, Jerry Blackwell, after suffering a pinfall loss to Brad Rheingans, began beating down Rheingans and easily fighting off anyone who tried to run in for the save. Hogan ran in, got the upper hand and ran Blackwell from the ring. Hogan was eventually victorious in his feud with Blackwell and by the end of 1981, gained his first title matches against Bockwinkel. Return to WWF (1983–1993) Rise of Hulkamania (1983–1984) After purchasing the company from his father in 1982, Vincent K. McMahon had plans to expand the territory into a nationwide promotion, and he handpicked Hogan to be the company's showpiece attraction due to his charisma and name recognition. Hogan made his return at a television taping in St. Louis, Missouri, on December 27, 1983, defeating Bill Dixon. On the January 7, 1984, episode of Championship Wrestling, Hogan confirmed his fan favorite status (for any WWF fans unaware of his late 1981 babyface turn) by saving Bob Backlund from a three-way assault by The Wild Samoans. Hogan's turn was explained simply by Backlund: "He's changed his ways. He's a great man. He's told me he's not gonna have Blassie around". The storyline shortcut was necessary because less than three weeks later on January 23, Hogan won his first WWF World Heavyweight Championship, pinning The Iron Sheik (who had Blassie in his corner) in Madison Square Garden. The storyline accompanying the victory was that Hogan was a "last minute" replacement for the Sheik's original opponent Bob Backlund, and became the champion by way of being the first man to escape the camel clutch (the Iron Sheik's finishing move). Immediately after the title win, commentator Gorilla Monsoon proclaimed: "Hulkamania is here!". Hogan frequently referred to his fans as "Hulkamaniacs" in his interviews and introduced his three "demandments": training, saying prayers, and eating vitamins. Eventually, a fourth demandment (believing in oneself) was added during his feud with Earthquake in 1990. Hogan's ring gear developed a characteristic yellow-and-red color scheme; his ring entrances involved him ritualistically ripping his shirt off his body, flexing, and listening for audience cheers in an exaggerated manner. The majority of Hogan's matches during this time involved him wrestling heels who had been booked as unstoppable monsters, using a format which became near-routine: He delivered steady offense, but eventually lose momentum, seemingly nearing defeat. After being hit with his opponent's finishing move, he got a sudden second wind, fighting back while "feeding" off the energy of the audience, becoming impervious to attack a process described as "Hulking up". His signature maneuvers pointing at the opponent (later accompanied by a loud "you!" from the audience), shaking his finger to scold him, three punches, an Irish whip, the big boot and running leg drop – followed, ensuring victory. That finishing sequence occasionally changed depending on the storyline and opponent; for instance, with "giant" wrestlers, the sequence might involve a body slam. In 1984, similarities between Hogan's character and that of The Incredible Hulk led to a quitclaim deal between Titan Sports, Marvel Comics and himself wherein Marvel obtained the trademarks "Hulk Hogan", "Hulkster" and "Hulkamania" for 20 years, and Titan agreed to no longer refer to him as "incredible" nor simply "Hulk" or ever dress him in purple or green. Marvel also subsequently received .9% of reportable gross merchandise revenue associated with Hogan, $100 for each of his matches and 10% of Titan's portion of his other earnings under this name (or 10% of the earnings, if Titan held no interest). This extended to WCW, whose parent company Turner Broadcasting System merged with Time Warner in 1996 and became sister companies with Marvel rival DC Comics. (As Hogan was well underway with the nWo storyline under the "Hollywood Hogan" ring name at the time, this avoided Time Warner the awkward situation of paying Marvel the rights to the name while owning its chief rival.) In a story in 1988's Marvel Comics Presents #45, a wrestler resembling Hogan was tossed through an arena roof by The Incredible Hulk, because he "picked the wrong name." International renown (1985–1988) Over the next year, Hogan became the face of professional wrestling as McMahon pushed the WWF into a pop culture enterprise with The Rock 'n' Wrestling Connection on MTV, drawing record houses, pay-per-view buyrates, and television ratings in the process. The centerpiece attraction for the first WrestleMania on March 31, 1985, Hogan teamed with legit friend, TV and movie star Mr. T to defeat his archrival "Rowdy" Roddy Piper and "Mr Wonderful" Paul Orndorff when "Cowboy" Bob Orton, who had been in the corner of Piper and Orndorff, accidentally caused his team's defeat by knocking out Orndorff after he jumped from the top turnbuckle and hit him in the back of the head with his arm cast in a shot meant for Hogan. On Saturday Night's Main Event I, Hogan successfully defended the WWF World Heavyweight Championship against Orton in a match that Hogan won by disqualification. Hogan was named the most requested celebrity of the 1980s for the Make-a-Wish Foundation children's charity. He was featured on the covers of Sports Illustrated (the first and , only professional wrestler to do so), TV Guide, and People magazines, while also appearing on The Tonight Show and having his own CBS Saturday morning cartoon titled Hulk Hogan's Rock 'n' Wrestling. Hogan, as the premier WWF icon, headlined seven of the first eight WrestleMania events. He also co-hosted Saturday Night Live on March 30, 1985, during this lucrative run. AT&T reported that the 900 number information line he ran while with the WWF was the single biggest 900 number from 1991 to 1993. Hogan continued to run a 900 number after joining World Championship Wrestling (WCW). On Saturday Night's Main Event II, he successfully defended the title against Nikolai Volkoff in a flag match. He met long-time rival Roddy Piper in a WWF title match at the Wrestling Classic pay-per-view (PPV) event. Hogan retained the title by disqualification after Bob Orton interfered and hit Hogan with his cast. Hogan had many challengers in the way as the new year began. Throughout 1986, Hogan made successful title defenses against challengers such as Terry Funk, Don Muraco, King Kong Bundy (in a steel cage match at WrestleMania 2), Paul Orndorff, and Hercules Hernandez. In the fall of 1986, Hogan occasionally wrestled in tag team matches with The Machines as Hulk Machine under a mask copied from NJPW's gimmick "Super Strong Machine". At WrestleMania III in 1987, Hogan was booked to defend the title against André the Giant, who had been the sport's premier star and was pushed as undefeated for the previous fifteen years. A new storyline was introduced in early 1987; Hogan was presented a trophy for being the WWF World Heavyweight Champion for three consecutive years. André the Giant, who was Hogan's good friend, came out to congratulate him. Shortly afterward, André was presented a slightly smaller trophy for being "undefeated in the WWF for 15 years". Hogan came out to congratulate André, who walked out in the midst of Hogan's speech. Then, on an edition of Piper's Pit, Hogan was confronted by Bobby "The Brain" Heenan, who announced that André was his new protégé, and Andre challenged Hogan to a title match at WrestleMania III, where Hogan successfully defended the WWF World Heavyweight Championship against André the Giant. During the match, Hogan hit a body slam on the 520-pound André (which was dubbed "the bodyslam heard around the world") and won the match after a leg drop. The Mega Powers (1988–1989) Hogan remained WWF World Heavyweight Champion for four years (1,474 days). In front of 33 million viewers, Hogan finally lost the title to André on The Main Event I after a convoluted scam involving "The Million Dollar Man" Ted DiBiase and Earl Hebner (who assumed the place of his twin brother Dave Hebner, the match's appointed referee). After André delivered a belly to belly suplex on Hogan, Hebner counted the pin while Hogan's left shoulder was clearly off the mat. After the match, André handed the title over to DiBiase to complete their business deal. As a result, the WWF World Heavyweight Championship was vacated for the first time in its 25-year history because then WWF President Jack Tunney decreed the championship could not be sold from one wrestler to another. At WrestleMania IV, Hogan participated in a tournament for the vacant WWF World Heavyweight Championship to regain it; he and André were given a bye into quarter-finals, but their match resulted in a double disqualification. Later that night in the main event, Hogan came to ringside to stop André interfering which helped "Macho Man" Randy Savage defeat Ted DiBiase to win the title. Together, Hogan, Savage, and manager Miss Elizabeth formed a partnership known as The Mega Powers. After Savage became WWF World Heavyweight Champion at WrestleMania IV, they feuded with The Mega Bucks (André the Giant and Ted DiBiase) and defeated them at the main event of the first SummerSlam. They then went on to feud with Slick's Twin Towers: Akeem and Big Boss Man. In mid-1988, Hogan wrestled at house shows in singles competition with his "War Bonnet", a red and yellow gladiator helmet with a fist-shaped crest. This was notably used to give Bad News Brown his first WWF loss at a Madison Square Garden house show before it was discarded altogether. The War Bonnet gimmick was revisited in the WWE's online comedy series Are You Serious? in 2012. The Mega Powers began to implode due to Savage's burgeoning jealousy of Hogan and his paranoid suspicions that Hogan and Elizabeth were more than friends. At the Royal Rumble in 1989, Hogan eliminated Savage from the Royal Rumble match while eliminating Bad News Brown, which caused tension, only to be eliminated by The Twin Towers himself. In early 1989, the duo broke up while wrestling The Twin Towers on The Main Event II, when Savage accidentally collided with Miss Elizabeth during the match, and Hogan took her backstage to receive medical attention, temporarily abandoning Savage, who slapped Hogan and left the ring, where Hogan eventually won the match by himself. After the match, Savage attacked Hogan backstage, which started a feud between the two. Their feud culminated in Hogan beating Savage for his second WWF World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania V. Final WWF Championship reigns (1989–1993) Hogan's second run in 1989 lasted a year, during which he defended the title in two matches against Savage in April that he lost both times by count-out, before defeating The Big Boss Man in a steel cage match on the Saturday Night's Main Event XXI, which was aired on May 27. In May on WWF on NESN, Hogan retained the title by losing once again by count-out against Savage. This was also the last time the WWF World Heavyweight Championship was referred to as such during a televised title defense, as Hogan's next successful title defense against The Honky Tonk Man on Saturday Night's Main Event XXII saw the title being renamed and referred simply as the WWF Championship. Also during Hogan's second reign as champion, he starred in the movie No Holds Barred, which was the inspiration of a feud with Hogan's co-star Tom Lister, Jr., who appeared at wrestling events as his movie character, Zeus (an "unstoppable monster" who was jealous over Hogan's higher billing and wanted revenge). Hogan easily beat Zeus in a series of matches across the country during late 1989, beginning with a tag team match at SummerSlam, in which Hogan and Brutus Beefcake topped Zeus and Savage. Hogan and Zeus met at the Survivor Series, where the "Hulkamaniacs" faced the "Million Dollar Team"; in the early part of the match, Hogan put Zeus over by hitting him with everything to no effect before Zeus then dominated Hogan until Zeus was disqualified by referee Dave Hebner. Hogan and Beefcake then defeated Zeus and Savage in a rematch at the No Holds Barred pay-per-view to end the feud. Hogan also had defeated Savage to retain the WWF Championship in their official WrestleMania rematch on October 10, at United Kingdom-only pay-per-view First WWF UK Event at London Arena. During his second reign as the WWF Champion, Hogan won the 1990 Royal Rumble match, before losing to Intercontinental Champion The Ultimate Warrior in a title versus title match at WrestleMania VI on April 1, 1990. Hogan soon became embroiled in a heated feud with the 468-pound Earthquake, who had crushed Hogan's ribs in a sneak attack on The Brother Love Show in May 1990. On television, announcers explained that Hogan's injuries and his WrestleMania VI loss to Warrior both took such a huge toll on his fighting spirit that he wanted to retire. Viewers were asked to write letters to Hogan and send postcards asking for his return (they got a postcard-sized picture in return, autographed by Hogan, as a "thank you"). Hogan returned by SummerSlam, and he for several months dominated Earthquake in a series of matches across the country. His defeat of this overwhelmingly large foe caused Hogan to add a fourth demandment – believing in yourself, and he also became known as "The Immortal" Hulk Hogan. Hogan became the first wrestler to win two Royal Rumble matches in a row, as he won the 1991 Royal Rumble match. At WrestleMania VII, Hogan stood up for the United States against Sgt. Slaughter, defeating him for his third WWF Championship, and then defeating him again in the rematch at United Kingdom-only pay-per-view UK Rampage at London Arena. In the fall of 1991, Hogan was challenged by Ric Flair, the former NWA World Heavyweight Champion who recently arrived in the WWF. The challenge went unmet, as Hogan lost the WWF Championship to The Undertaker at Survivor Series. Jack Tunney immediately granted Hogan a rematch at This Tuesday in Texas six days later, which he won. Flair had interfered in both matches and due to the resulting controversy, the title was again declared vacant. The WWF Championship was decided at the 1992 Royal Rumble in the Royal Rumble match, but Hogan failed to regain the championship as he was eliminated by friend Sid Justice and in turn caused Sid to be eliminated, leaving Flair the winner and new champion. Hogan and Sid patched things up and teamed together on Saturday Night's Main Event XXX against Flair and Undertaker, but during the match Sid abandoned Hogan, starting their feud. At WrestleMania VIII, Hogan defeated Sid via disqualification due to interference by Sid's manager Harvey Wippleman. Hogan was then attacked by Papa Shango and was saved by the returning Ultimate Warrior. At this time, news sources began to allege that Dr. George Zahorian, a doctor for the Pennsylvania State Athletic Commission, had been selling steroids illegally to wrestlers in general and Hogan in particular. Hogan appeared on an episode of The Arsenio Hall Show to deny the allegations. Due to intense public scrutiny, Hogan took a leave of absence from the company. Hogan returned to the WWF in February 1993, helping out his friend Brutus Beefcake in his feud with Money Inc. (Irwin R. Schyster and "The Million Dollar Man" Ted DiBiase), and officially renaming themselves The Mega-Maniacs, taking on Money Inc.'s former manager "The Mouth of the South" Jimmy Hart (a long-time friend of Hogan's outside of wrestling) as their manager in what was the first time WWF audiences had seen Hart as a fan favorite. At WrestleMania IX, Hogan and Beefcake took on Money Inc. for the WWF Tag Team Championship. Hogan went into the match sporting a cut above a black eye. The WWF used Hogan's injury in a storyline that had DiBiase allegedly paying a group of thugs in a failed attempt to take Hogan out before WrestleMania. Later that night, Hogan won his fifth WWF Championship by pinning Yokozuna in an on-the-spot match only moments after Yokozuna had defeated Bret Hart. Hogan reportedly used his influence to have the finish of WrestleMania changed the weekend of the event so he would be champion during an upcoming international and de-facto farewell tour. At the first annual King of the Ring pay-per-view on June 13, Hogan defended the championship against the former champion Yokozuna in his first title defense since defeating him at WrestleMania IX. Yokozuna kicked out of Hogan's signature leg drop and scored the pinfall win after Hogan was blinded by a fireball shot by a "Japanese photographer" (actually a disguised Harvey Wippleman). The victorious Yokozuna proceeded to give Hogan a Banzai Drop. This was Hogan's last WWF pay-per-view appearance until 2002, as both he and Jimmy Hart were preparing to leave the promotion. Hogan continued his feud on the international house show circuit with Yokozuna until August 1993. After that, Hogan sat out the rest of his contract which expired later that year. Return to NJPW (1993–1994) On May 3, 1993, Hogan returned to NJPW as WWF Champion and defeated IWGP Heavyweight Champion The Great Muta in a dream match at Wrestling Dontaku. Hogan wrestled against Muta again, this time under his real name (Keiji Mutoh), on September 26, 1993. Hogan also wrestled The Hell Raisers with Muta and Masahiro Chono as his tag team partners. His last match in Japan was on January 4, 1994, at Battlefield, when he defeated Tatsumi Fujinami. World Championship Wrestling (1994–2000) World Heavyweight Champion (1994–1996) Starting in March 1994, Hogan began making appearances on WCW television, as interviewer Gene Okerlund—who was now a WCW employee—visited him on the set of Thunder in Paradise episodes. Hype then built over whether Hogan should remain with Thunder in Paradise or instead join WCW and have an opportunity to wrestle Ric Flair. On the May 28, 1994, episode of WCW Saturday Night, Hogan tore up his Thunder in Paradise contract and stated he was now willing to quit the show and return to wrestling, and Okerlund issued a telephone survey asking if people wanted to see Hogan in WCW. On June 11, 1994, Hogan officially signed with Ted Turner's World Championship Wrestling (WCW) in a ceremony that was held at Disney-MGM Studios. The next month, with Jimmy Hart as his manager, Hogan won the WCW World Heavyweight Championship in his debut match, defeating Ric Flair in a "dream match" at Bash at the Beach. Hogan continued his feud with Flair (who defeated him by count-out on the Clash of the Champions XXVIII, thus Hogan retained the title), which culminated in a steel cage match (with Flair's career on the line and Mr. T as the special guest referee) that Hogan won. After Hogan headlined WCW's premier annual event Starrcade (Starrcade: Triple Threat) in December 1994 by defeating The Butcher for the title, his next feud was against Vader, who challenged him for the WCW World Heavyweight Championship at SuperBrawl V, where Hogan won by disqualification after the returning Flair's interference. Hogan then defeated Vader (who was managed part-time by Flair) in a non-title leather strap match at Uncensored. Because of the controversial ending caused once again by Flair at Uncensored, Hogan's feud with Vader culminated in a steel cage match for the WCW World Heavyweight Championship at Bash at the Beach, where Hogan won by escaping the cage. After successfully retaining the WCW World Heavyweight Championship against Big Bubba Rogers and Lex Luger in two separate matches on Nitro in September 1995. The October 9, 1995, broadcast of Nitro was Hogan's first appearance in an all-black attire. Hogan feuded with The Dungeon of Doom, which led to a WarGames match at Fall Brawl where Hogan's team (Lex Luger, Randy Savage, and Sting) won. Hogan's fifteen-month title reign (which is the longest WCW World Heavyweight Championship reign in the title history at 469 days) ended when he lost the WCW World Heavyweight Championship to The Giant at Halloween Havoc via disqualification. Following the controversial loss (which was due to a "contract clause"), the WCW World Heavyweight Championship became vacant and a new champion to be crowned in a 60-man three-ring battle royal at World War III, where The Giant cost Hogan the title. This led to a steel cage match between Hogan and The Giant at SuperBrawl VI, where Hogan won to end their feud. In early 1996, Hogan reformed The Mega Powers with Randy Savage to feud with The Alliance to End Hulkamania, which culminated at Uncensored in a Doomsday Cage match that Hogan and Savage won. After coming out victorious from his feuds, Hogan began to only appear occasionally on WCW programming. New World Order (1996–1999) At Bash at the Beach in 1996, during a six-man tag team match pitting The Outsiders (Kevin Nash and Scott Hall) against WCW loyalists, Hogan interfered on behalf of Nash and Hall, attacking Randy Savage, thereby turning heel for the first time in nearly fifteen years. After the match, Hogan delivered a promo, accosting the fans and WCW for under-appreciating his talent and drawing power, and announcing the formation of the New World Order (nWo). The new stable gained prominence in the following weeks and months. Hogan grew a beard alongside his famous mustache and dyed it black, traded his red and yellow garb in for black and white clothing, often detailed with lightning bolts, and renamed himself "Hollywood" Hulk Hogan (often shortened to Hollywood Hogan). Hogan won his second WCW World Heavyweight Championship at Hog Wild defeating The Giant for the title. He spray painted "nWo" across the title belt, scribbled across the nameplate, and referred to the title as the "nWo title". Hogan then started a feud with Lex Luger after Luger and The Giant defeated Hogan and Dennis Rodman in a tag team match at Bash at the Beach. On the August 4, 1997, episode of Nitro, Hogan lost the title to Lex Luger by submission. Five days later at Road Wild, Hogan defeated Luger to regain the WCW World Heavyweight Championship. Hogan then lost the title to Sting in a match at Starrcade. In the match, WCW's newly contracted Bret Hart accused referee Nick Patrick of fast-counting a victory for Hogan and had the match restarted – with himself as referee. Sting later won by submission. After a rematch the following night on Nitro, where Sting controversially retained the title, the WCW World Heavyweight Championship became vacant. Sting went on to win the vacant title against Hogan at SuperBrawl VIII, and Hogan then developed a rivalry with former friend (and recent nWo recruit) Randy Savage, who had just cost Hogan the title match at SuperBrawl by hitting him with a spray can. The feud culminated in a steel cage match at Uncensored, which ended in a no contest. Savage took the WCW World Heavyweight Championship from Sting at Spring Stampede, while Hogan teamed with Kevin Nash to take on Roddy Piper and The Giant in the first-ever bat match. Hogan betrayed Nash by hitting him with the bat and then challenged Savage the following night on Nitro for the world title. In the no disqualification match for Savage's newly won title, Nash entered the ring and hit a powerbomb on Hogan as retribution for the attack the previous night, but Bret Hart interfered moments later and jumped in to attack Savage and preserve the victory for Hogan, who won his fourth WCW World Heavyweight Championship. Nash's attack on him signified a split of the nWo into two separate factions – Hogan's became nWo Hollywood and Nash's became nWo Wolfpac that feuded with each other for the remainder of the year. Hogan defended the title until July of that year, when WCW booked him in a match against newcomer and then WCW United States Heavyweight Champion Goldberg, who had yet to lose a match in the company. Late in the match, Hogan was distracted by Karl Malone, and Goldberg pinned Hogan to win the WCW World Heavyweight Championship. Hogan spent the rest of 1998 wrestling celebrity matches: his second tag team match with Dennis Rodman pitted them against Diamond Dallas Page and Karl Malone at Bash at the Beach, and at Road Wild he and Eric Bischoff lost to Page and Jay Leno thanks to interference from Kevin Eubanks. Hogan also had a critically panned rematch with The Warrior at Halloween Havoc, where his nephew Horace aided his victory. On the Thanksgiving episode of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Hogan officially announced his retirement from professional wrestling, as well as his candidacy for President of the United States. Campaign footage aired on Nitro of Hogan and Bischoff holding a press conference, making it appear legitimate. Both announcements were false and made as publicity stunts to draw some of the hype of Jesse Ventura's Minnesota gubernatorial win back to him. After some time off from WCW, Hogan returned on the January 4, 1999, episode of Nitro to challenge Kevin Nash for the WCW World Heavyweight Championship which Hogan won for the fifth time, but many people found the title change to be "scandalous". As a result, the warring factions of the nWo reunited into one group, which began feuding with Goldberg and The Four Horsemen. Final years in WCW (1999–2000) Hogan lost the WCW World Heavyweight Championship to Ric Flair at Uncensored in a steel cage First Blood match. Later, Hogan was severely injured in a Texas tornado match for the WCW World Heavyweight Championship featuring him, Diamond Dallas Page, Flair, and Sting at Spring Stampede On the July 12 episode of Nitro, Hogan made his return as a face for the first time in three years and accepted an open challenge from Savage, who had won the WCW World Heavyweight Championship at Bash at the Beach the night before in a tag team match by pinning Kevin Nash. Thanks to interference from Nash, Hogan defeated Savage to win his sixth and final WCW World Heavyweight Championship. Nash turned on him the next week, and the two began a feud that lasted until Road Wild. On August 9, 1999, Hogan started the night dressed in the typical black and white, but after a backstage scene with his son came out dressed in the traditional red and yellow for his main event six-man tag team match. Hogan then defeated Nash in a retirement match at Road Wild to retain the WCW World Heavyweight Championship. Injuries and frustrations mounted, and he was absent from television from October 1999 to February 2000. In his book Hollywood Hulk Hogan, Hogan said that he was asked to take time off by newly hired head of creative booking Vince Russo and was not told when he would be brought back at the time. Despite some reservations, he agreed to do so. On October 24 at Halloween Havoc, Hogan was to face Sting for the WCW World Heavyweight Championship. Hogan came to the ring in street clothes, lay down for the pin, and left the ring. Soon after his return in February 2000, at Bash at the Beach on July 9, Hogan was involved in a controversial work with Vince Russo. Hogan was scheduled to challenge Jeff Jarrett for the WCW World Heavyweight Championship. Before the match, there was a backstage dispute between Hogan and Russo; Hogan wanted to take the title, but Russo was going to have Jarrett win, and lose it to Booker T. Russo told Hogan that he was going to have Jarrett lie down for him, simulating a real conflict, although Jarrett was not told it was a work. When the bell rang, Jarrett lay down in the middle of the ring while Russo threw the WCW World Heavyweight Championship belt in the ring and yelled at Hogan from ringside to pin Jarrett. A visibly confused Hogan complied with a foot on Jarrett's chest after getting on the microphone and telling Russo, "Is this your idea, Russo? That's why this company is in the damn shape it's in, because of bullshit like this!" After winning and being announced as the new WCW World Heavyweight Champion, Hogan immediately took the WCW title belt. Moments later, Russo returned to the ring, angrily proclaiming this would be the last time fans would ever see "that piece of shit" in a WCW stadium. This is also when the public discovered, through Russo, the "creative control" clause that Hogan had, which meant that Hogan could control what would happen with his own character, without anyone else telling him no. In his Bash at the Beach shoot promo, Russo said that he was arguing with Hogan all day prior to the event in the back because he wanted to use the clause in the Jarrett match, saying, "That means that, in the middle of this ring, when [Hogan] knew it was bullshit, he beats Jeff Jarrett!". Since Hogan refused to job to Jarrett, a new WCW World Heavyweight Championship was created, setting the stage for a title match between Booker T and Jarrett later that night. As a result, Hogan filed a defamation of character lawsuit against Russo soon after, which was eventually dismissed in 2002. Russo claims the whole thing was a work, and Hogan claims that Russo made it a shoot. Eric Bischoff agreed with Hogan's side of the story when he wrote that Hogan winning and leaving with the belt was a work (devised by Bischoff rather than Russo), and that he and Hogan celebrated after the event over the success of the angle, but that Russo coming out to fire Hogan was an unplanned shoot which led to the lawsuit filed by Hogan. It was the last time he was seen in WCW. Post-WCW endeavors (2001) In the months following the eventual demise of WCW in March 2001, Hogan underwent surgery on his knees in order for him to wrestle again. As a test, Hogan worked a match in Orlando, Florida, for the Xcitement Wrestling Federation (XWF) promotion run by his longtime handler Jimmy Hart. Hogan defeated Curt Hennig in this match and felt healthy enough to accept an offer to return to the WWF in February 2002. Second return to WWF/WWE (2002–2003) At No Way Out in February 2002, Hogan returned to the WWF as a heel. Returning as leader of the original nWo with Scott Hall and Kevin Nash, the three got into a confrontation with The Rock and cost Stone Cold Steve Austin a chance at becoming the Undisputed WWF Champion against Chris Jericho in the main event. The nWo feuded with both Austin and The Rock, and Hogan accepted The Rock's challenge to a match at WrestleMania X8, where Hogan asked Hall and Nash not to interfere, wanting to defeat The Rock by himself. Despite the fact that Hogan was supposed to be the heel in the match, the crowd cheered for him heavily. The Rock cleanly won the contest, and befriended Hogan at the end of the bout and helped him fight off Hall and Nash, who were upset by Hogan's conciliatory attitude. After the match, Hogan turned face by siding with The Rock, though he continued wearing black and white tights for a few weeks after WrestleMania X8 until he resumed wearing his signature red and yellow tights. During this period, the "Hulk Rules" logo of the 1980s was redone with the text "Hulk Still Rules", and Hogan also wore the original "Hulk Rules" attire twelve years earlier, when he headlined WrestleMania VI at the same arena, in the SkyDome. For a time, he was still known as "Hollywood" Hulk Hogan, notably keeping the Hollywood Hogan style blond mustache with black beard while wearing Hulkamania-like red and yellow tights and using the "Voodoo Child" entrance theme music he used in WCW. On the April 4 episode of SmackDown!, Hogan feuded with Triple H and defeated him for the Undisputed WWF Championship at Backlash, thus becoming the last ever WWF Champion before the initials dispute against the World Wildlife Fund. On May 19 at Judgment Day, Hogan lost the WWE Undisputed Championship to The Undertaker. After losing a number one contender match for the WWE Undisputed Championship to Triple H on the June 6 episode of SmackDown!, Hogan began feuding with Kurt Angle resulting in a match between the two at the King of the Ring, which Angle won by submission. On the July 4 episode of SmackDown!, Hogan teamed with Edge to defeat Billy and Chuck and capture the WWE Tag Team Championship for the first time. They celebrated by waving the American flag as the overjoyed audience sang along to Hogan's theme song "Real American". They lost the belts to The Un-Americans (Christian and Lance Storm) at Vengeance. In August 2002, Hogan was used in an angle with Brock Lesnar, culminating in a main event singles match on the August 8 episode of SmackDown!, which Lesnar won by technical submission (the match was called after Hogan became unconscious from a bear hug hold). Lesnar became only the second WWE wrestler to defeat Hogan by submission (after Kurt Angle), and the first to defeat Hogan by having the match called. Following the match, Lesnar continued to beat on Hogan, leaving him bloody and unconscious in the ring. As a result of Lesnar's assault, Hogan went on hiatus until early 2003, shaving off his black beard and dropping "Hollywood" from his name in his return. Hogan battled The Rock (who had turned heel) once again at No Way Out and lost and defeated Mr. McMahon at WrestleMania XIX in a street fight billed as "twenty years in the making". After WrestleMania, he had a run as the masked Mr. America, who was supposed to be Hogan in disguise, wearing a mask. He used Hogan's "Real American" as an entrance theme and all of Hogan's signature gestures, moves, and phrases. He was the subject of a storyline that took place after Hogan was forced by Mr. McMahon to sit out the rest of his contract. A WWE pre-debut push took place with mysterious Mr. America promos airing for weeks during SmackDown!. There was also on-screen discussion on SmackDown! between then General Manager Stephanie McMahon and other players concerning her hiring Mr. America "sight unseen". On May 1, Mr. America debuted on SmackDown! on a Piper's Pit segment. McMahon appeared and claimed that Mr. America was Hogan in disguise; Mr. America shot back by saying, "I am not Hulk Hogan, brother!" (lampooning Hogan's use of "brother" in his promos). The feud continued through the month of May, with a singles match between Mr. America and Hogan's old rival Roddy Piper at Judgment Day, a match Mr. America won. Mr. America's last WWE appearance was on the June 26 episode of SmackDown! when Big Show and The World's Greatest Tag Team (Charlie Haas and Shelton Benjamin) defeated Brock Lesnar, Kurt Angle, and Mr. America in a six-man tag team match. After the show went off the air, Mr. America unmasked to show the fans that he was indeed Hogan, putting his finger to his lips telling the fans to keep quiet about his secret. The next week, Hogan quit WWE due to frustration with the creative team. On the July 3 episode of SmackDown!, McMahon showed the footage of Mr. America unmasking as Hogan and "fired" him, although Hogan had already quit in real life. It was later revealed that Hogan was unhappy with the payoffs for his matches after his comeback under the Mr. America gimmick. McMahon terminated Hogan's contract in 2003. Second return to NJPW (2003) Hogan returned to NJPW in October 2003, when he defeated Masahiro Chono at Ultimate Crush II in the Tokyo Dome. Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (2003) Shortly after Hogan left WWE, Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) began making overtures to Hogan, culminating in Jeff Jarrett, co-founder of TNA and then NWA World Heavyweight Champion, launching an on-air attack on Hogan in Japan in October 2003. The attack was supposed to be a precursor to Hogan battling Jarrett for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship at TNA's first three-hour pay-per-view. Due to recurring knee and hip problems, Hogan did not appear in TNA. Still, the incident has been shown several times on TNA broadcasts, and was included in the TNA DVD TNA's Fifty Greatest Moments. Third return to WWE (2005–2007) On April 2, 2005, Hogan was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame class of 2005 by actor and friend Sylvester Stallone. At WrestleMania 21 on April 3, Hogan came out to rescue Eugene, who was being attacked by Muhammad Hassan and Khosrow Daivari. The build-up to Hogan's Hall of Fame induction and preparation for his WrestleMania angle was shown on the first season of Hogan Knows Best. The next night on Raw, Hassan and Daivari came out to confront and assault fan favorite Shawn Michaels. The following week on Raw, Michaels approached Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff demanding a handicap match with Hassan and Daivari. Bischoff refused, but told Michaels if he found a partner he would be granted a tag team match. Michaels then made a plea for Hogan to team with him. On the April 18 episode of Raw, Hassan again led an attack on Michaels until Hogan appeared, saving Michaels and accepting his offer. At Backlash, Hassan and Daivari lost to Hogan and Michaels. Hogan then appeared on July 4 episode of Raw, as the special guest of Carlito on his talk-show segment Carlito's Cabana. After being asked questions by Carlito concerning his daughter Brooke, Hogan attacked Carlito. Kurt Angle then also appeared, making comments about Brooke, which further upset Hogan, who was eventually double teamed by Carlito and Angle, but was saved by Shawn Michaels. Later that night, Michaels and Hogan defeated Carlito and Angle in a tag team match; during the post-match celebration, Michaels performed the Sweet Chin Music on Hogan and walked off. The following week on Raw, Michaels appeared on Piper's Pit and challenged Hogan to face him one-on-one for the first time. Hogan appeared on Raw one week later and accepted the challenge. The match took place at SummerSlam, which Hogan won. After the match, Michaels extended his hand to him, telling him that he "had to find out for himself", and Hogan and Michaels shook hands as Michaels left the ring to allow Hogan to celebrate with the crowd. Prior to WrestleMania 22 in April 2006, Hogan inducted friend and former announcer "Mean" Gene Okerlund into the WWE Hall of Fame class of 2006. Hogan returned on Saturday Night's Main Event XXXIII with his daughter Brooke. During the show, Randy Orton kayfabe flirted with Brooke and later attacked Hogan in the parking lot. He later challenged Hogan to a match at SummerSlam, which Hogan won. This was Hulk Hogan's final match wrestling for the WWE, although he had negotiations for a match against John Cena at WrestleMania 25 which ultimately fell through. Memphis Wrestling (2007–2008) After a brief fall out with McMahon and WWE, Hogan was lured to Memphis Wrestling with the proposal of wrestling Jerry Lawler. The match had been promoted on Memphis Wrestling Prime Time for several months. On April 12, 2007, Lawler announced in a news conference that WWE had barred him from wrestling Hogan on the basis that NBC performers (including Lawler, on the basis of co-hosting the NBC-owned USA Network's Raw and his appearances on the biannual WWE's Saturday Night's Main Event) are contractually prohibited from appearing on VH1, the channel on which Hogan Knows Best airs. The situation resulted in a lawsuit being filed against WWE by event promoter Corey Maclin. Lawler was replaced with Paul Wight. Hogan defeated Wight at Memphis Wrestling's PMG Clash of Legends on April 27, 2007, when he picked up and hit a body slam on Wight before pinning him following his signature running leg drop. Hulkamania: Let the Battle Begin (2009) On November 21, 24, 26 and 28, Hogan performed with a group of wrestlers including Spartan-3000, Heidenreich, Eugene, Brutus "The Barber" Beefcake and Orlando Jordan across Australia in a tour titled Hulkamania: Let The Battle Begin. The main event of each show was a rematch between Hogan and Ric Flair – the wrestler who defeated Hogan more times than any other. Hogan defeated Flair in all four matches. Return to TNA (2009–2013) Dixie Carter's business partner (2009–2010) On October 27, 2009, it was announced that Hogan had signed a contract to join TNA on a full-time basis. The footage of his signing and the press conference at Madison Square Garden following it were featured on the October 29 episode of Impact!. On December 5, 2009, Hogan announced on Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC)'s The Ultimate Fighter that he would make his official TNA debut on January 4, 2010, in a special live three-hour Monday night episode of Impact! to compete with WWE's Raw (which featured the return of Bret Hart). On the January 4 episode of Impact!, Hogan debuted, reuniting briefly with former nWo partners Kevin Nash, Scott Hall, and Sean Waltman, the latter two of whom made their returns to the company. He refused to join them for a full-fledged reunion of their group claiming, "it's a different time", and stuck to his business relations with Bischoff, who made his appearance to declare that, the two of them would "flip the company upside down" and everyone would have to earn their spot. Hogan also encountered TNA founder Jeff Jarrett on the broadcast, appearing via video wall and interrupting Jarrett's company success speech, stating that Carter was instrumental to the company's survival, and that just like the rest, Jarrett would have to (kayfabe) earn his spot in TNA. On the February 18 episode of Impact!, Hogan took Abyss under his wing, and during this sequence, gave him his Hall of Fame ring and claimed it would make him a "god of wrestling". Hogan made his in-ring return on March 8, teaming with Abyss to defeat A.J. Styles and Ric Flair when Abyss scored a pinfall over Styles. Afterward, the returning Jeff Hardy saved Hogan and Abyss from a beatdown by Styles, Flair and Desmond Wolfe. The storyline became a Team Flair versus Team Hogan situation, with Jarrett and the debuting Rob Van Dam joining Team Hogan and Beer Money (James Storm and Robert Roode) and Sting joining Team Flair. At Lockdown, Team Hogan (Hulk Hogan, Abyss, Jeff Jarrett, Jeff Hardy and Rob Van Dam) defeated Team Flair (Ric Flair, Sting, Desmond Wolfe, Robert Roode and James Storm) in a Lethal Lockdown match. Immortal (2010–2011) On the June 17 episode of Impact!, Hogan's alliance with Abyss came to an abrupt end when Abyss turned heel. Abyss later claimed that he was controlled by some entity, that was coming to TNA. The next month, Hogan worked with Bischoff, Jeff Jarrett and Samoa Joe against Sting and Kevin Nash, who claimed that they knew that Hogan and Bischoff were up to something. During this time, Abyss went on a rampage, attacking Rob Van Dam to the point that he was forced to vacate the TNA World Heavyweight Championship and eventually put his hands on TNA president Dixie Carter, which led to her signing the paperwork, presented by Bischoff, that would have Abyss fired from TNA following his match with Van Dam at Bound for Glory. Hogan was set to wrestle with Jarrett and Joe against Sting, Nash and D'Angelo Dinero at Bound for Glory, but was forced to miss the event due to a back surgery. He made an appearance at the end of the event, and turned heel by helping Jeff Hardy win the vacant TNA World Heavyweight Championship and aligning himself with Hardy, Bischoff, Abyss and Jarrett. On the following episode of Impact!, it was revealed that Bischoff had tricked Carter and the paperwork she had signed a week earlier, were not to release Abyss, but to turn the company over to him and Hogan. Meanwhile, Bischoff's and Hogan's new stable, now known as Immortal, formed an alliance with Ric Flair's Fortune. Dixie Carter returned on the November 25 episode of Reaction, informing Hogan and Bischoff that a judge had filed an injunction against the two on her behalf over not having signatory authority, indefinitely suspending Hogan from TNA. During his absence, Hogan underwent a potentially career–ending spinal fusion surgery on December 21, 2010. Hogan returned to TNA on the March 3, 2011, episode of Impact!, declaring himself as the new owner of TNA, having won the court battle against Dixie Carter. In April, he began hinting at a possible return to the ring to face the TNA World Heavyweight Champion, Sting. On the May 12 episode of the newly renamed Impact Wrestling, Hogan lost control of the program to Mick Foley, who revealed himself as the Network consultant who had been causing problems for Immortal ever since Hogan and Bischoff took over the company. This angle was cut short three weeks later, when Foley left the promotion. During the following months, Hogan continued to interfere in Sting's matches, costing him the TNA World Heavyweight Championship first at Hardcore Justice, recruiting Kurt Angle to Immortal in the process, on the September 1 episode of Impact Wrestling and finally at No Surrender. On the September 15 episode of Impact Wrestling, Sting defeated Immortal member Ric Flair to earn the right to face Hogan at Bound for Glory. On October 4, it was reported that Hogan had signed a contract extension with TNA. After feigning retirement from professional wrestling, Hogan accepted the match at Bound for Glory on the October 6 episode of Impact Wrestling, while also agreeing to hand TNA back to Dixie Carter, should Sting win the match. Hogan was defeated by Sting at Bound For Glory, ending his storyline as the president of TNA. After the match, Immortal attacked Sting, but Hogan turned face by turning on Immortal and helping Sting. On the following episode of Impact Wrestling, Hogan, wearing his trademark yellow and red again, admitted to his mistakes, and put over Sting for winning. Feud with Aces & Eights (2012–2013) During TNA's 2012 UK tour, on January 26 and 27, Hogan returned to the ring at house shows in Nottingham and Manchester, where he, James Storm and Sting defeated Bobby Roode, Bully Ray and Kurt Angle in a six-man tag team main event at both events, the latter of which was Hogan's final match. Hogan returned to Impact Wrestling on February 2, when he was revealed as Garett Bischoff's trainer. On the March 29 episode of Impact Wrestling, Hogan returned and accepted Sting's offer to replace him as the new General Manager. In July, Hogan, alongside Sting, began feuding with a mysterious group of masked men, who had dubbed themselves the "Aces & Eights". The group's attack on Hogan on the July 12 episode of Impact Wrestling was used to write Hogan off television as he was set to undergo another back surgery. In November, Hogan moved into a storyline with Bully Ray after Austin Aries revealed a secret relationship between Ray and Hogan's daughter Brooke. After seeing them kissing in a parking garage on the December 20 episode of Impact Wrestling, Hogan suspended Ray indefinitely. The following week on Impact Wrestling, after Ray saved Brooke from a kidnapping by the Aces & Eights, Brooke accepted his marriage proposal. Despite Hogan's disapproval, he still walked Brooke down the aisle for her wedding on the next episode of Impact Wrestling, during which Ray's groomsmen Taz interrupted and revealed himself as a member of the Aces & Eights, leading the group to attack Hogan, Ray, and the rest of the groomsmen. On the January 31 episode of Impact Wrestling, Hogan reinstated Ray so he could take on the Aces & Eights. Hogan named Ray the number one contender to the TNA World Heavyweight Championship on the February 21 episode of Impact Wrestling. At Lockdown, Ray betrayed Hogan, after Aces & Eights helped him win the title, and he revealed himself as the President of the Aces & Eights. Following Lockdown, Hogan blamed Sting for Ray winning the title as it was Sting who encouraged Hogan to give Ray the title shot. Sting returned and saved Hogan from an attack by Aces & Eights on the April 25 episode of Impact Wrestling. The following week on Impact Wrestling, Hogan and Sting reconciled their differences. On the October 3 episode of Impact Wrestling, Hogan refused an offer from Dixie Carter to become her business partner and quit; this was done to officially write Hogan off, as a result of his contract expiring with TNA. Fourth return to WWE (2014–2015) On February 24, 2014, on Raw, Hogan made his first WWE in-ring appearance since December 2007 to hype the WWE Network. On the March 24 episode of Raw, Hogan came out to introduce the guest appearances of Arnold Schwarzenegger and Joe Manganiello; this was to promote the guests' new movie Sabotage. At WrestleMania XXX in April, Hogan served as the host, coming out at the start of the show to hype up the crowd. During his promo, he mistakenly referred to the Superdome, the venue the event was being held at, as the Silverdome, which became the subject of jokes throughout the night. Hogan was later joined by Stone Cold Steve Austin and The Rock, and they finished their promo by drinking beer together in the ring. Later in the show, Hogan shared a moment with Mr. T, Paul Orndorff and Roddy Piper, with whom he main-evented the first WrestleMania. On February 27, 2015, Hogan was honored at Madison Square Garden during a WWE live event dubbed "Hulk Hogan Appreciation Night" with a special commemorative banner hanging from the rafters, honoring his wrestling career and historic matches he had in the arena. On the March 23 episode of Raw, Hogan along with Snoop Dogg confronted Curtis Axel – who at the time had been "borrowing" Hogan's Hulkamania gimmick with Axel referring to himself as "AxelMania". On March 28, the night before WrestleMania, Hogan posthumously inducted longtime partner and rival "Macho Man" Randy Savage into the WWE Hall of Fame class of 2015. The next night at WrestleMania 31, Hogan reunited with Hall and Nash to reform the nWo, appearing in Sting's corner in his match against Triple H, who himself was joined by D-Generation X (DX) members Billy Gunn, X-Pac, Road Dogg, and Shawn Michaels. Scandal and departure In July 2015, National Enquirer and Radar Online publicized an anti-black rant made by Hogan on a leaked sex tape recorded in 2007. In the recording, he is heard expressing disgust with the notion of his daughter dating a black man, referenced by repeated use of the racial slur "nigger." Hogan also admitted to being "a racist, to a point." Once the recordings went public erupting in a media scandal, Hogan apologized for the remarks, which he said is "language that is offensive and inconsistent with [his] own beliefs." Three black wrestlers who worked in the WWF and WCW with Hogan made supportive comments. Virgil commented "Hogan has never given me a reason to believe he is a racist" while Dennis Rodman said he "most certainly is not a racist" and Kamala added "I do not think Hogan meant harm by saying that. Hogan is my brother until he decides not to be." Black wrestlers working in the WWE made different comments. Mark Henry said he was pleased by WWE's "no tolerance approach to racism" response, and that he was hurt and offended by Hogan's manner and tone. Booker T said he was shocked and called the statements unfortunate. On July 24, WWE terminated their contract with Hogan, stating that they are "committed to embracing and celebrating individuals from all backgrounds," although Hogan's lawyer said Hogan chose to resign. A day prior, WWE removed almost all references to Hogan from their website, including his listing as a judge for Tough Enough, his merchandise from WWE Shop, and his entry from its WWE Hall of Fame page (he was still listed in the Hall of Fame entry of the official WWE encyclopedia released in October 2016). His DLC appearance from WWE 2K15 was taken down from sale, and his character was cut from then upcoming WWE 2K16 game during development. In response to the controversy, Mattel stopped producing Hogan action figures, while Hogan's merchandise was taken down from online stores of Target, Toys "R" Us, and Walmart. On July 28, Radar Online reported that Hogan had also used homophobic slurs on the leaked sex tape. Days later, it was reported that Hogan had used racist language in a 2008 call to his then-imprisoned son, Nick, and also said that he hoped they would not be reincarnated as black males. Hogan gave an interview with ABC on August 31 in which he pleaded forgiveness for his racist comments, attributing these to a racial bias inherited from his neighborhood while growing up. Hogan claimed that the term "nigger" was used liberally among friends in Tampa; former neighbors disputed this claim. In the time that followed, numerous African-Americans associated with wrestling expressed some level of support for Hogan including: The Rock, Dennis Rodman, Booker T, Kamala, Virgil, Mr. T, Mark Henry, Big E, and D'Angelo Dinero, who stressed his forgiveness of Hogan, whom he saw as having made a "positive mark on humanity" for over three decades. Fifth return to WWE (2018–present) On July 15, 2018, Hogan was reinstated into the WWE Hall of Fame. Later that same night, he was invited backstage to WWE's Extreme Rules pay-per-view event and was briefly mentioned on the event's kickoff show. Hogan made his on-screen return on November 2, 2018, as the host of Crown Jewel. Hogan next appeared on the January 7, 2019, episode of Raw to present a tribute to his longtime friend and colleague Mean Gene Okerlund, who had died five days prior. It was the first time Hogan had appeared in a WWE ring in North America since his 2015 firing. Hogan subsequently appeared on a WWE Network special where he spoke further of his relationship with Okerlund. Hogan inducted his Mega-Maniacs tag team partner and longtime friend Brutus Beefcake into the WWE Hall of Fame on April 6, 2019. The following night at WrestleMania 35, he made a surprise appearance at the beginning of the show alongside WrestleMania host Alexa Bliss, welcoming fans to the event and parodying his gaffe from WrestleMania XXX, when he incorrectly referred to the Superdome as the Silverdome. On the June 17, 2019, Raw, WWE aired a Hogan interview about the U.S. Women's World Cup soccer team. On the July 22, 2019, Raw, Hogan appeared as part of the "Raw Reunion" special. Hogan was one of the speakers during the "Toast to Raw" segment along with Steve Austin. On September 30, 2019, episode of Raw, he and Ric Flair unveiled a 10 man tag team match, for Crown Jewel. Hogan and Flair made multiple appearances on shows with their teams leading up to the event, which saw Hogan manage his team to victory. Hogan made it public knowledge that he hoped to have one more match in the WWE, including during an interview with the Los Angeles Times. On December 9, 2019, it was announced that Hogan would be inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame a second time as a member of the New World Order, together with fellow former nWo stablemates Kevin Nash, Scott Hall, and Sean Waltman. Hogan made his only appearance of 2020 on WWE's non-WWE Network programming when he appeared via satellite on the February 14, 2020, episode of SmackDown to speak about the Hall of Fame. He was interrupted by Bray Wyatt, as Hogan warned him about his upcoming match with Goldberg. The 2020 Hall of Fame ceremony was subsequently delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic and aired on April 6, 2021. Hogan made his first appearance of 2021 on the January 4 episode of Raw, which was a special Legends Night episode. He opened the show introducing the 'H-Phone,' his spin on an iPhone. He appeared in a backstage segment with Jimmy Hart, Drew McIntyre and Sheamus, where he gave his approval to McIntyre, the current WWE Champion. He also watched the championship main event match between McIntyre and Keith Lee on-stage with the rest of the guest legends. It was announced on the March 19, 2021, episode of WWE SmackDown he would co-host WrestleMania 37 with Titus O'Neil. Hogan opened both nights of WrestleMania 37 with O'Neil, appeared in multiple segments with Bayley, which led to a return of the Bella Twins, who attacked Bayley, and was introduced during the Hall of Fame celebration with Nash, Hall and Waltman. On January 23, 2023, Hogan appeared live alongside Jimmy Hart to open the WWE Raw is XXX show, celebrating the 30th Anniversary of Raw. Legacy Hogan has been described as one of the largest attractions in professional wrestling history and a major reason why Vince McMahon's expansion of his promotion worked. Wrestling historian and journalist Dave Meltzer stated that "...You can't possibly overrate his significance in the history of the business. And he sold more tickets to wrestling shows than any man who ever lived". Hogan's match with Andre the Giant on February 5, 1988, holds American television records for a wrestling audience with a 15.2 Nielsen rating and 33 million viewers. Fellow wrestler Cody Rhodes has said numerous times that Hogan's WrestleMania X8 match with The Rock is the greatest match in wrestling history and that it epitomized what professional wrestling is. Fellow WWE Hall of Fame member Bret Hart has been repeatedly critical of Hogan's wrestling abilities, including in 2021 saying that he "didn't know a headlock from a headlamp", and that he was "very limited". Hart had previously referred to Hogan as a "hero" to fans. and previously complimented Hogan's look. "You look at Hulk Hogan, okay? Unbelievable look, 6'8″ with the 24″ pythons, it's an incredible [look]. When he walks in the room, the whole room stops. Like, you see it. He [has] got, like, legs stuck on his shoulders. His arms are as big as somebody's legs. Former writer Vince Russo, who Hogan had previously sued, said that more wrestlers in 2022 should wrestle like Hogan, as opposed to the modern-day style acrobats. Hogan himself has previously said he is "number two" behind Ric Flair, who he said is the greatest wrestler of all time. Chris Jericho said on his podcast in 2023 that Hogan was a better worker than Flair in his experience. "Hogan is a better worker than Flair. For me. I always had amazing matches with Hogan because he knew exactly who he was as a babyface, as a heel, whatever. He was so great. He knew his audience. He didn't do anything he didn't have to. It was one of my favorite times in my career." 1980s wrestler The Warlord gave Hogan credit for his legacy in the ring and behind the scenes. "He was very nice to everybody. He was just one of the boys back there, you know? I always respected him and he always respected me, and that meant a lot to me. He changed the business for a big man." On February 20, 2019, it was announced that Chris Hemsworth would portray him in a biopic, directed by Todd Phillips. Endorsements and business ventures Food industry Hogan created and financed a restaurant called Pastamania located in the Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota. It opened on the Labor Day weekend of 1995 and was heavily promoted on World Championship Wrestling (WCW)'s live show Monday Nitro. The restaurant, which remained in operation for less than a year, featured such dishes as "Hulk-U's" and "Hulk-A-Roos". In interviews on The Tonight Show and Late Night with Conan O'Brien, Hogan claimed that the opportunity to endorse what came to be known as the George Foreman Grill was originally offered to him, but when he failed to respond in time, Foreman endorsed the grill instead. Instead, Hogan endorsed a blender, known as the Hulk Hogan Thunder Mixer. He has since endorsed a grill known as "The Hulk Hogan Ultimate Grill". In 2006, Hogan unveiled Hogan Energy, a drink distributed by Socko Energy. His name and likeness were also applied to a line of microwavable hamburgers, cheeseburgers, and chicken sandwiches sold at Wal-Mart called "Hulkster Burgers". On November 1, 2011, Hogan launched a new website called Hogan Nutrition, which features many nutritional and dietary products. On New Year's Eve 2012, Hogan opened a beachfront restaurant called "Hogan's Beach", located in the Tampa area. The restaurant dropped Hogan's name in October 2015. Hogan later opened Hogan's Hangout in Clearwater Beach. Finances In September 2008, Hogan's net worth was revealed to be around $30 million. In September 2011, Hogan revealed that his lavish lifestyle and divorce had cost him hundreds of millions of dollars and nearly bankrupted him. Other In October 2007, Hogan transferred all trademarks referring to himself to his liability company named "Hogan Holdings Limited". The trademarks include Hulk Hogan, "Hollywood" Hulk Hogan, Hulkster, Hogan Knows Grillin, Hulkamania.com, and Hulkapedia.com. In April 2008, Hogan announced that he would lend his license to video game developer Gameloft to create "Hulkamania Wrestling" for mobile phones. Hogan stated in a press release that the game would be "true to [his] experiences in wrestling" and use his classic wrestling moves like the Doublehand Choke Lift and Strong Clothesline. , Hogan stars alongside Troy Aikman in commercials for Rent-A-Center. On March 24, 2011, Hogan made a special appearance on American Idol, giving a big surprise to wrestling fans Paul McDonald and James Durbin. On October 15, 2010, Endemol Games UK (a subsidiary of media production group Endemol UK) announced a partnership with Bischoff Hervey Entertainment to produce "Hulk Hogan's Hulkamania", an online gambling game featuring video footage of Hogan. In October 2013, Hogan partnered with Tech Assets, Inc. to open a web hosting service called "Hostamania". To promote the service, a commercial video was released, featuring Hogan parodying Jean-Claude Van Damme's GoDaddy.com commercials and Miley Cyrus' "Wrecking Ball" music video. On November 21, 2013, Hulk Hogan and GoDaddy.com appeared together on a live Hangout On Air on Google Plus, where Hulk Hogan had a casual conversation about Hostamania, fans, and business. Hogan became a distributor for multi-level marketing company ViSalus Sciences after looking for business opportunities outside of wrestling. Hogan supports the American Diabetes Association. Other media Acting Hogan's crossover popularity led to several television and movie roles. Early in his career Hogan played the part of Thunderlips in Rocky III (1982). He also appeared in No Holds Barred (1989), before starring in family films Suburban Commando (1991), Mr. Nanny (1993), Santa with Muscles (1996), and 3 Ninjas: High Noon at Mega Mountain (1998). Hogan also appeared in 1992 commercials for Right Guard deodorant. He starred in his own television series, Thunder in Paradise, in 1994. He is the star of The Ultimate Weapon (1997), in which Brutus Beefcake also appears in a cameo. Hogan also starred in a pair of television movies, originally intended as a pilot for an ongoing series for TNT, produced by Eric Bischoff. The movies, Shadow Warriors: Assault on Devil's Island and Shadow Warriors: Hunt for The Death Merchant, starred Hogan alongside Carl Weathers and Shannon Tweed as a freelance mercenary team. In 1995, he appeared on TBN's Kids Against Crime. Hogan made cameo appearances in Muppets from Space, Gremlins 2: The New Batch (the theatrical cut) and Spy Hard as himself. Hogan also played the role of Zeus in Little Hercules in 3D. Hogan also made two appearances on The A-Team (in 1985 and 1986), along with Roddy Piper. He also appeared on Suddenly Susan in 1999. In 2001, Hogan guest-starred on an episode of Walker, Texas Ranger. Hogan has become a busy voice actor in later years making guest voice spots on Robot Chicken and American Dad! and as a primary actor in the Cartoon Network/Adult Swim series China, IL. Reality television and hosting On July 10, 2005, VH1 premiered Hogan Knows Best a reality show which centered around Hogan, his then-wife Linda, and their children Brooke and Nick. In July 2008, a spin-off entitled Brooke Knows Best premiered, which focused primarily on Hogan's daughter Brooke. Hogan hosted the comeback series of American Gladiators on NBC in 2008. He also hosted and judged the short-lived reality show, Hulk Hogan's Celebrity Championship Wrestling. Hogan had a special titled Finding Hulk Hogan on A&E on November 17, 2010. In 2015, Hogan was a judge on the sixth season of Tough Enough, alongside Paige and Daniel Bryan, but due to the scandal, he was replaced by The Miz after episode 5. Music and radio Hogan released a music CD, Hulk Rules, as Hulk Hogan and the Wrestling Boot Band, which also included Jimmy "Mouth of the South" Hart, his then-wife Linda and J.J Maguire. Despite negative reviews, Hulk Rules reached No. 12 on the Billboard Top Kid Audio chart in 1995. Green Jellÿ released a duet with Hogan, performing Gary Glitter's song "I'm the Leader of the Gang (I Am)". He has also made cameos in several music videos. From her self-named show, Dolly the music video for Dolly Parton's wrestling-themed love song "Headlock on My Heart" features Hogan as "Starlight Starbright". In the music video "Pressure" by Belly featuring Ginuwine, Hogan and his daughter Brooke both made brief cameo appearances. Hogan was a regular guest on Bubba the Love Sponge's radio show. He also served as the best man at Bubba's January 2007 wedding. On March 12, 2010, Hogan hosted his own radio show, titled Hogan Uncensored, on Sirius Satellite Radio's Howard 101. Merchandising The Wrestling Figure Checklist records Hogan as having 171 different action figures, produced between the 1980s and 2010s from numerous manufacturers and promotions. Filmography Video games Hogan provided his voice for the 2011 game Saints Row: The Third as Angel de la Muerte, a member of the Saints. In October 2011, he released a video game called Hulk Hogan's Main Event. A likeness of him, as Rex Kwan-Do, is featured as a playable police officer in This Is The Police. Hulk Hogan and Hollywood Hogan are featured in the following licensed wrestling video games: Personal life Legal issues Belzer lawsuit On March 27, 1985, just days prior to the inaugural WrestleMania, Richard Belzer requested on his cable TV talk show Hot Properties that Hogan demonstrate one of his signature wrestling moves. After consistently refusing but being egged on by Belzer, Hogan put Belzer in a modified Guillotine choke, which caused Belzer to pass out. When Hogan released him, Belzer hit his head on the floor, sustaining a laceration to the scalp that required a brief hospitalization. Belzer sued Hogan for $5 million and later settled out of court. On October 20, 2006, on the Bubba the Love Sponge Show, it was claimed (with Hogan in the studio) that the settlement totaled $5 million, half from Hogan and half from Vince McMahon. During his June 23, 2008, appearance on Sirius Satellite Radio's The Howard Stern Show, Belzer suggested that the real settlement amount was actually closer to $400,000. Testimony in McMahon trial In 1994, Hogan, having received immunity from prosecution, testified in the trial of Vince McMahon relating to shipments of steroids received by both parties from WWF physician George T. Zahorian. Under oath, Hogan admitted that he had used anabolic steroids since 1976 to gain size and weight, but that McMahon had neither sold him the drugs nor ordered him to take them. The evidence given by Hogan proved extremely costly to the government's case against McMahon. Due to this and jurisdictional issues, McMahon was found not guilty. Gawker lawsuit In April 2012, a sex tape between Hogan and Heather Clem, the estranged wife of radio personality Bubba the Love Sponge, emerged online. On October 4, 2012, Gawker released a short clip of the video. In the video, Bubba can be heard saying that the couple can "do their thing" and he will be in his office. At the end of the video, he can also be heard telling Heather, "If we ever need to retire, here is our ticket". Hogan later told Howard Stern on his satellite radio show that, "it was a bad choice and a very low point" and "I was with some friends and made a wrong choice. It has devastated me, I have never been this hurt". On October 15, 2012, Hogan filed a lawsuit against Bubba and Heather Clem for invading his privacy. A settlement with Bubba was announced on October 29, 2012. Clem publicly apologized to Hogan. In December 2012, a federal court, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit, found that Gawker's publication of the video snippet did not violate U.S. copyright law. Hogan then joined Gawker in the ongoing action against Heather Clem in state court in Florida, alleging invasion of privacy, negligent and intentional infliction of emotional distress and seeking $100 million in damages. On October 1, 2015, the New York Post reported that a Florida Judge granted Hogan access to Gawker's computer system for a forensic expert to search Gawker's computers and office. Hogan sued Gawker for $100 million for defamation, loss of privacy, and emotional pain, and on March 18, 2016, was awarded $115 million. Also, on August 11, 2016, a Florida judge gave Hogan control of the assets of A.J. Daulerio, former Gawker editor-in-chief, who was involved in the posting of Hogan's sex tape. Silicon Valley billionaire Peter Thiel helped Hogan to finance his lawsuit against Gawker Media. On November 2, 2016, Gawker reached a $31 million settlement with Hogan. Family On December 18, 1983, Hogan married Linda Claridge. They have a daughter Brooke (born May 5, 1988) and a son Nick (born July 27, 1990). Hogan made his personal life the centerpiece of the television show Hogan Knows Best, which included his wife and two children. According to an interview in the National Enquirer, Christiane Plante claimed that Hogan had an affair with her in 2007 while the Hogan family was shooting Hogan Knows Best. Plante was 33 years old at the time and had worked with Brooke Hogan on her 2006 album. On November 20, 2007, Linda filed for divorce in Pinellas County, Florida. In November 2008, Linda claimed to the public that she made the decision to end her marriage after finding out about Hogan's affair. In his 2009 autobiography, Hogan acknowledged that Linda on numerous occasions suspected he was having infidelities whenever he developed friendships with other women, but denied allegations that he ever cheated on her. Hogan only retained around 30% of the couple's liquid assets totaling around $10 million in the divorce settlement. Hogan considered committing suicide after the divorce and credits Laila Ali, his co-star on American Gladiators, with preventing him from doing so. Hulk Hogan began a relationship with Jennifer McDaniel in early 2008. The two were engaged in November 2009 and married on December 14, 2010, in Clearwater, Florida. On February 28, 2022, Hogan stated on Twitter that he and McDaniel divorced. Religion Hogan is a Christian. He has spoken about his faith in his life saying, "[I've] leaned on my religion. I was saved when I was 14. I accepted Christ as my savior. He died on the cross and paid for my sins ... I could have went the wrong way. I could have self-destructed, but I took the high road". Health Hogan has suffered numerous health problems, particularly with his back since retiring as a wrestler following the years of heavy weight-training and jolting as a wrestler. In January 2013, Hogan filed a medical malpractice lawsuit against the Laser Spine Institute for $50 million, citing that the medical firm persuaded him to undergo a half-dozen "unnecessary and ineffective" spinal operations that worsened his back problems. He claimed that the six procedures he underwent over a period of 19 months only gave him short-term relief. After the procedures failed to cure his back problems, Hogan underwent traditional spinal fusion surgery in December 2010, which enabled him to return to his professional activities. In addition, the Laser Spine Institute used his name on their advertisements without his permission. Awards and honors Hogan was honored as the 2008 King of the Krewe of Bacchus, a New Orleans carnival organization. Hogan visited the Children's Hospital of New Orleans and rode in the parade where he threw doubloons with his likeness. Hogan received the honor in part because meeting Hogan is one of the most requested "wishes" of the terminally ill children benefited by the Make-A-Wish Foundation. Hogan was inducted in the Boys and Girls Club Alumni Hall of Fame on May 3, 2018. Championships and accomplishments International Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame Class of 2021 New Japan Pro-Wrestling IWGP Heavyweight Championship (original version) (1 time) IWGP League Tournament (1983) MSG Tag League Tournament (1982, 1983) with Antonio Inoki Greatest 18 Club inductee Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum Class of 2003 Pro Wrestling Illustrated Comeback of the Year (1994, 2002) Feud of the Year (1986) Inspirational Wrestler of the Year (1983, 1999) Match of the Year (1985) Match of the Year (1988) Match of the Year (1990) Match of the Year (2002) Most Hated Wrestler of the Year (1996, 1998) Most Popular Wrestler of the Year (1985, 1989, 1990) Wrestler of the Year (1987, 1991, 1994) Ranked No. 1 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 1991 Ranked No. 1 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the PWI Years in 2003 Ranked No. 44 and No. 57 of the top 100 tag teams of the PWI Years with Antonio Inoki and Randy Savage in 2003 Southeastern Championship Wrestling NWA Southeastern Heavyweight Championship (Northern Division) (1 time) NWA Southeastern Heavyweight Championship (Southern Division) (2 times) Tokyo Sports Best Foreigner Award (1983) Match of the Year (1991) World Championship Wrestling WCW World Heavyweight Championship (6 times) World Wrestling Federation/World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE WWF/WWE Championship (6 times) WWE Tag Team Championship (1 time) with Edge Royal Rumble (1990, 1991) WWE Hall of Fame (2 times) Class of 2005 – individually Class of 2020 – as a member of the New World Order Wrestling Observer Newsletter Strongest Wrestler (1983) Best Babyface (1982–1991) Best Box Office Draw (1997) Best Gimmick (1996) Feud of the Year (1986) Feud of the Year (1996) Most Charismatic (1985–1987, 1989–1991) Most Embarrassing Wrestler (1995, 1996, 1999, 2000) Most Obnoxious (1994, 1995) Most Overrated (1985, 1986, 1994–1998) Most Unimproved (1994, 1995) Readers' Least Favorite Wrestler (1985, 1986, 1991, 1994–1999) Worst Feud of the Year (1991) Worst Feud of the Year (1995) Worst Feud of the Year (1998) Worst Feud of the Year (2000) Worst on Interviews (1995) Worst Wrestler (1997) Worst Worked Match of the Year (1987) Worst Worked Match of the Year (1996) Worst Worked Match of the Year (1997) Worst Worked Match of the Year (1998) Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame (Class of 1996) Notes References Sources External links Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame profile TNA Impact Wrestling profile (archived) Category:1953 births Category:20th-century American bass guitarists Category:20th-century American businesspeople Category:20th-century American male actors Category:20th-century American male singers Category:20th-century American singers Category:21st-century American businesspeople Category:21st-century American male actors Category:21st-century American male musicians Category:21st-century American male writers Category:21st-century American non-fiction writers Category:21st-century American rappers Category:Actors from Pinellas County, Florida Category:American autobiographers Category:American Christians Category:American food industry businesspeople Category:American lyricists Category:American male bass guitarists Category:American male film actors Category:American male guitarists Category:American male pop singers Category:American male professional wrestlers Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:American male rappers Category:American male singer-songwriters Category:American male television actors Category:American male video game actors Category:American male voice actors Category:American musicians of Panamanian descent Category:American people of French descent Category:American people of Panamanian descent Category:American people of Scottish descent Category:American professional wrestlers of Italian descent Category:American radio personalities Category:American rock bass guitarists Category:American rock guitarists Category:American rock singers Category:American rock songwriters Category:American session musicians Category:American sportspeople of Panamanian descent Category:American television hosts Category:American writers of Italian descent Category:Businesspeople from Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Businesspeople from Miami Category:Businesspeople from Tampa, Florida Category:Expatriate professional wrestlers in Japan Category:Guitarists from Florida Category:Guitarists from Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Impact Wrestling executives Category:Living people Category:Male actors from Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Male actors from Miami Category:Male actors from Tampa, Florida Category:Masked wrestlers Category:Musicians from Augusta, Georgia Category:Musicians from Miami Category:Musicians from Tampa, Florida Category:Participants in American reality television series Category:People associated with direct selling Category:Professional wrestlers from Florida Category:Professional wrestlers from Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum Category:Radio personalities from Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Radio personalities from Miami Category:Radio personalities from Tampa, Florida Category:Rappers from Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Rappers from Miami Category:Record producers from Florida Category:Record producers from Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Singer-songwriters from Florida Category:Singer-songwriters from Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Sportspeople from Augusta, Georgia Category:Sportspeople from Clearwater, Florida Category:Sportspeople from Miami Category:Sportspeople from Tampa, Florida Category:Stampede Wrestling alumni Category:Television personalities from Florida Category:Television personalities from Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Television producers from Florida Category:Television producers from Georgia (U.S. state) Category:New World Order (professional wrestling) members Category:University of South Florida alumni Category:WCW World Heavyweight Champions Category:Writers from Augusta, Georgia Category:Writers from Miami Category:Writers from Tampa, Florida Category:WWE Champions Category:WWE Hall of Fame inductees
[]
[ "The context does not provide information on when Hogan's third return to WWE was.", "Yes, Hogan successfully rescued Eugene from being attacked by Muhammad Hassan and Khosrow Daivari at WrestleMania 21 on April 3.", "Hogan was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame on April 2, 2005.", "After his induction into the WWE Hall of Fame, Hogan participated in a tag team match with Shawn Michaels against Muhammad Hassan and Khosrow Daivari at Backlash, which Hogan and Michaels won.", "Shawn Michaels' offer was for Hogan to team up with him for a tag team match against Muhammad Hassan and Khosrow Daivari.", "After Hogan accepted Shawn Michaels' offer to team up, they fought Muhammad Hassan and Khosrow Daivari in a tag team match at Backlash. Later on, Hogan and Shawn Michaels also defeated Carlito and Kurt Angle in another tag team match. Then Shawn Michaels challenged Hogan to face him one-on-one for the first time, and in the matching that followed at SummerSlam, Hogan won.", "No, Hogan made multiple appearances on Raw, as described in the context, with one instance being on the April 18 episode to save Shawn Michaels from an attack by Muhammad Hassan. He also appeared on a July 4 episode as a guest on Carlito's Cabana, and he accepted Michaels' one-on-one challenge on a later episode of Raw.", "In the one-on-one match between Hulk Hogan and Shawn Michaels at SummerSlam, Hogan won.", "The context does not provide information on whether Hulk Hogan and Shawn Michaels faced each other again after their match at SummerSlam." ]
[ "no", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "no" ]
C_e3b38d3c55504c78beb259475c5ae9b9_1
Hulk Hogan
Terry Eugene Bollea was born in Augusta, Georgia on August 11, 1953, the son of construction foreman Pietro "Peter" Bollea (December 6, 1913 - December 18, 2001) and homemaker and dance teacher Ruth V. (nee Moody; 1922 - January 1, 2011). He is of French, Italian, Panamanian, and Scottish descent. When he was one and a half years old, his family moved to Port Tampa, Florida. As a boy, he was a pitcher in Little League Baseball.
The Mega Powers (1988-1989)
Hogan remained WWF World Heavyweight Champion for four years (1,474 days). In front of 33 million viewers, however, Hogan finally lost the title to Andre on the February 5 episode of The Main Event after a convoluted scam involving "The Million Dollar Man" Ted DiBiase and Earl Hebner (who assumed the place of his twin brother Dave Hebner, the match's appointed referee). After Andre delivered a belly to belly suplex on Hogan, Hebner counted the pin while Hogan's left shoulder was clearly off the mat. After the match, Andre handed the title over to DiBiase to complete their business deal. As a result, the WWF World Heavyweight Championship was vacated for the first time in its 25-year history because then WWF President Jack Tunney decreed the championship could not be sold from one wrestler to another. At WrestleMania IV, Hogan participated in a tournament for the vacant WWF World Heavyweight Championship to regain it; he and Andre were given a bye into quarter-finals, but their match resulted in a double disqualification. Later that night in the main event, Hogan came to ringside to stop Andre interfering which helped "Macho Man" Randy Savage defeat Ted DiBiase to win the title. Together, Hogan, Savage, and manager Miss Elizabeth formed a partnership known as The Mega Powers. After Savage became WWF World Heavyweight Champion at WrestleMania IV, they feuded with The Mega Bucks (Andre the Giant and Ted DiBiase) and defeated them at the main event of the first SummerSlam. They then went on to feud with Slick's Twin Towers: Akeem and Big Boss Man. In mid-1988, Hogan wrestled at house shows in singles competition with his "War Bonnet", a red and yellow gladiator helmet with a fist-shaped crest. This was notably used to give Bad News Brown his first WWF loss at a Madison Square Garden house show before it was discarded altogether. The War Bonnet gimmick was revisited in the WWE's online comedy series Are You Serious? in 2012. The Mega Powers began to implode due to Savage's burgeoning jealousy of Hogan and his paranoid suspicions that Hogan and Elizabeth were more than friends. At the Royal Rumble in 1989, Hogan eliminated Savage from the Royal Rumble match while eliminating Bad News Brown, which caused tension, only to be eliminated by The Twin Towers himself. In early 1989, the duo broke up while wrestling The Twin Towers on the February 3 episode of The Main Event, when Savage accidentally collided with Miss Elizabeth during the match, and Hogan took her backstage to receive medical attention, temporarily abandoning Savage, who slapped Hogan and left the ring, where Hogan eventually won the match by himself. After the match, Savage attacked Hogan backstage, which started a feud between the two. Their feud culminated in Hogan beating Savage for his second WWF World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania V. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "what happened in 1988?", "who else did he wrestle against?", "who are the mega powers?", "what did they do together?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "were they more than friends?", "how did he react?", "did the fued ever resolve?" ]
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Terry Gene Bollea (; born August 11, 1953), better known by his ring name Hulk Hogan, is an American retired professional wrestler. He is widely regarded as the most recognized wrestling star worldwide and the most popular wrestler of the 1980s, as well as one of the greatest professional wrestlers of all time. Hogan began his professional wrestling career in 1977, but gained worldwide recognition after signing for World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) in 1983. There, his persona as a heroic all-American helped usher in the 1980s professional wrestling boom, where he headlined a record eight editions of WWF's flagship annual event, WrestleMania. Hogan also was a regular headliner of Saturday Night's Main Event and it's spin off The Main Event in which he headlined 31 editions of both shows combined. During his initial run, he won the WWF Championship five times, with his first reign being the second-longest in the championship's history. He is the first wrestler to win consecutive Royal Rumble matches, winning in 1990 and 1991. His match with Andre the Giant on WWF The Main Event on February 5, 1988, still holds American television viewership records for wrestling with a 15.2 Nielsen rating and 33 million viewers. In 1993, Hogan departed the WWF to pursue a career in film and television. He was lured back to the ring when he signed with rival promotion World Championship Wrestling (WCW) in 1994. He won the WCW World Heavyweight Championship six times, and holds the record for the longest reign. In 1996, he underwent a career renaissance upon adopting the villainous persona of "Hollywood" Hulk Hogan, leading the popular New World Order (nWo) stable. As a result, he became a major figure during the "Monday Night Wars", another boom of mainstream professional wrestling. He headlined WCW's annual flagship event Starrcade three times, including the most profitable WCW pay-per-view ever, Starrcade 1997. Hogan returned to the WWF in 2002 following its acquisition of WCW the prior year, winning the Undisputed WWF Championship for his record equaling (for the time) sixth reign before departing in 2003. He was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame in 2005, and inducted a second time in 2020 as a member of the nWo. Hogan also performed for the American Wrestling Association (AWA), New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) – where he was the inaugural winner of the original IWGP Heavyweight Championship – and Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA – now Impact Wrestling). During and after wrestling, Hogan had an extensive acting career, beginning with his 1982 cameo role in Rocky III. He has starred in several films (including No Holds Barred, Suburban Commando and Mr. Nanny) and three television shows (Hogan Knows Best, Thunder in Paradise, and China, IL), as well as in Right Guard commercials and the video game, Hulk Hogan's Main Event. He was the frontman for The Wrestling Boot Band, whose sole record, Hulk Rules, reached 12 on the Billboard Top Kid Audio chart in 1995. Early life Hogan was born in Augusta, Georgia, on August 11, 1953, the son of construction foreman Pietro "Peter" Bollea (December 6, 1913 – December 18, 2001) of Italian descent and homemaker and dance teacher Ruth V. (née Moody; 1922 – January 1, 2011) Bollea of Scottish and French descent. When he was one and a half years old, his family moved to Port Tampa, Florida. As a boy, he was a pitcher in Little League Baseball. He attracted scouts from the New York Yankees and the Cincinnati Reds, but an injury ended his baseball career. Hogan attended Robinson High School. He began watching professional wrestling at 16 years old. While in high school, he revered Dusty Rhodes, and he regularly attended cards at the Tampa Sportatorium. It was at one of those wrestling cards where he first turned his attention toward Superstar Billy Graham and looked to him for inspiration; since he first saw Graham on TV, Hogan wanted to match his "inhuman" look. Hogan was also a musician, spending a decade playing fretless bass guitar in several Florida-based rock bands. He went on to study at Hillsborough Community College and the University of South Florida. After music gigs began to get in the way of his time in college, he dropped out of the University of South Florida. Eventually, Hogan and two local musicians formed a band called Ruckus in 1976. The band soon became popular in the Tampa Bay region. During his spare time, Hogan worked out at Hector's Gym in the Tampa Bay area, where he began lifting. Many of the wrestlers who were competing in the Florida region visited the bars where Ruckus was performing. Among those attending his performances were Jack and Gerald Brisco, two brothers who wrestled together as a tag team in the Florida region. Impressed by Hogan's physical stature, the Brisco brothers asked Hiro Matsudathe man who trained wrestlers working for Championship Wrestling from Florida (CWF)to make him a potential trainee. In 1976, the two brothers asked Hogan to try wrestling. Hogan eventually agreed. At first, Mike Graham, the son of CWF promoter Eddie Graham, refused to put Hogan in the ring; according to Hogan, he met Graham while in high school and the two did not get along. After Hogan quit Ruckus and started telling people in town that he was going to be a wrestler, Graham finally agreed to accept the Brisco Brothers' request. Professional wrestling career Early years (1977–1979) In mid-1977, after training for more than a year with Matsuda, the Brisco brothers dropped by Matsuda's gym to see Hogan. During this visit, Jack Brisco handed Hogan a pair of wrestling boots and informed him that he was scheduled to wrestle his first match the following week. In his professional wrestling debut, Eddie Graham booked him against Brian Blair in Fort Myers, Florida, on August 10, 1977, in CWF. A short time later, Hogan donned a mask and assumed the persona of "The Super Destroyer", a hooded character first played by Don Jardine and subsequently used by other wrestlers. Hogan eventually could no longer work with Hiro Matsuda, whom he felt was an overbearing trainer, and left CWF. After declining an offer to wrestle for the Kansas City circuit, Hogan took a hiatus from wrestling and managed The Anchor club, a private club in Cocoa Beach, Florida, for a man named Whitey Bridges. Eventually, Whitey and Hogan became close friends, and opened a gym together; the gym became known as Whitey and Terry's Olympic gym. Soon after, Hogan's friend Ed Leslie (later known as Brutus Beefcake) came to Cocoa Beach to help Hogan and Bridges manage both the Anchor Club and the Whitey and Terry's Olympic Gym. In his spare time, he and Leslie worked out in the gym together, and eventually, Beefcake developed a muscular physique; Hogan was impressed by Beefcake's physical stature and became convinced that the two of them should wrestle together as tag team partners. Depressed and yearning to return to wrestling, Hogan called Superstar Billy Graham in 1978 with hopes that Graham could find him a job wrestling outside of Florida; Graham agreed and Hogan soon joined Louie Tillet's Alabama territory. Hogan also convinced Leslie, who had yet to become a wrestler, to come with him and promised to teach him everything he knew about the sport. In Alabama, Hogan and Leslie wrestled as Terry and Ed Boulder, known as The Boulder Brothers. These early matches as a tag team with the surname Boulder being used by both men prompted a rumor among wrestling fans unaware of the inner workings of the sport that Hogan and Leslie were brothers, as few people actually knew their real names outside of immediate friends, family, and the various promoters the two worked for. After wrestling a show for Continental Wrestling Association (CWA) in Memphis, Jerry Jarrett, the promoter for the CWA, approached Hogan and Leslie and offered them a job in his promotion for $800 a week; this was far more than the $175 a week they would make working for Tillet. Hogan and Leslie accepted this offer and left Tillet's territory. During his time in Memphis, Hogan appeared on a local talk show, where he sat beside Lou Ferrigno, star of the television series The Incredible Hulk. The host commented on how Hogan, who stood 6 ft 7 in (201 cm) and weighed 295 pounds with 24-inch biceps, actually dwarfed "The Hulk". Watching the show backstage, Mary Jarrett noticed that Hogan was actually bigger than Ferrigno, who was well known at the time for having large muscles. As a result, Hogan began performing as Terry "The Hulk" Boulder and sometimes wrestled as Sterling Golden. On December 1, 1979, Hogan won his first professional wrestling championship, the NWA Southeastern Heavyweight Championship (Northern Division), recognized in Alabama and Tennessee, when he defeated Bob Roop in Knoxville, Tennessee. He dropped it in January 1980 to Bob Armstrong. He briefly wrestled in the Georgia Championship Wrestling (GCW) territory from September through December 1979 as Sterling Golden. World Wrestling Federation (1979–1981) In the fall of 1979, former NWA World Heavyweight Champion Terry Funk introduced Bollea to the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) owner/promoter Vincent J. McMahon, who was impressed with his charisma and physical stature. McMahon, who wanted to use an Irish name, gave him the last name Hogan, and also wanted him to dye his hair red. Bollea claims his hair was already beginning to fall out by that time, and he refused to dye it, simply replying, "I'll be a blond Irish". Bollea wrestled his first match in the WWF under the ring name "Hulk Hogan" by defeating Harry Valdez on the November 17 episode of Championship Wrestling. He made his first appearance at Madison Square Garden, defeating Ted DiBiase after a bearhug. After the match, Hogan thanked DiBiase for putting him over and told him that he "owed him one", a favor he repaid during DiBiase's second run with the company in the late 1980s and early 1990s as "The Million Dollar Man". McMahon gave Hogan former tag team champion Tony Altomare as chaperone and guide. At this time, Hogan wrestled Bob Backlund for the WWF Championship, and he started his first big feud with André the Giant, which culminated in a match with André at Shea Stadium in August 1980. During his initial run as a villain in the WWF, Hogan was paired with "Classy" Freddie Blassie, a wrestler-turned-manager. New Japan Pro-Wrestling (1980–1985) In 1980, Hogan began appearing in New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) where Japanese wrestling fans nicknamed him . Hogan first appeared on May 13, 1980, while he was still with the WWF. He occasionally toured the country over the next few years, facing a wide variety of opponents ranging from Tatsumi Fujinami to Abdullah the Butcher. When competing in Japan, Hogan used a vastly different repertoire of wrestling moves, relying on more technical, traditional wrestling holds and maneuvers as opposed to the power-based, brawling style American fans became accustomed to seeing from him. In addition, Hogan used the Axe Bomber, a crooked arm lariat, as his finisher in Japan instead of the running leg drop that has been his standard finisher in America. Hogan still made appearances for the WWF, even unsuccessfully challenging Pedro Morales for the Intercontinental Championship on March 26, 1981. On June 2, 1983, Hogan became the first International Wrestling Grand Prix (IWGP) tournament winner and the first holder of an early version of the IWGP Heavyweight Championship, defeating Antonio Inoki by knockout in the finals of a ten-man tournament. Since then, this championship was defended annually against the winner of the IWGP League of the year until it was replaced by current IWGP Heavyweight Championship, that is defended regularly. Hogan and Inoki also worked as partners in Japan, winning the MSG (Madison Square Garden) Tag League tournament two years in a row: in 1982 and 1983. In 1984, Hogan returned to NJPW to wrestle Inoki to defend the early version of the IWGP title after that Inoki won in the finals of the IWGP League, becoming the new no. 1 contender to the championship. Hogan lost the match and title belt by countout, thanks to interference from Riki Choshu. Hogan also defended his WWF World Heavyweight Championship against Seiji Sakaguchi and Fujinami, among others, until ending his tour in Nagoya on June 13 losing to Inoki via count-out in a championship match for the early version of the IWGP Heavyweight Championship. Hogan was the only challenger in the history of that title that didn't win the tournament to become the no. 1 contender to the championship. American Wrestling Association (1981–1983) After filming his scene for Rocky III against the elder McMahon's wishes, Hogan made his debut in the American Wrestling Association (AWA), owned by Verne Gagne. Hogan started his AWA run as a villain, taking on "Luscious" Johnny Valiant as his manager. This did not last for long as the AWA fans fell in love with Hogan's presence and Hogan became the top fan favorite of the AWA, battling the Heenan Family and Nick Bockwinkel. Hogan's turn as a fan favorite came at the end of July 1981, when during a television taping that aired in August, Jerry Blackwell, after suffering a pinfall loss to Brad Rheingans, began beating down Rheingans and easily fighting off anyone who tried to run in for the save. Hogan ran in, got the upper hand and ran Blackwell from the ring. Hogan was eventually victorious in his feud with Blackwell and by the end of 1981, gained his first title matches against Bockwinkel. Return to WWF (1983–1993) Rise of Hulkamania (1983–1984) After purchasing the company from his father in 1982, Vincent K. McMahon had plans to expand the territory into a nationwide promotion, and he handpicked Hogan to be the company's showpiece attraction due to his charisma and name recognition. Hogan made his return at a television taping in St. Louis, Missouri, on December 27, 1983, defeating Bill Dixon. On the January 7, 1984, episode of Championship Wrestling, Hogan confirmed his fan favorite status (for any WWF fans unaware of his late 1981 babyface turn) by saving Bob Backlund from a three-way assault by The Wild Samoans. Hogan's turn was explained simply by Backlund: "He's changed his ways. He's a great man. He's told me he's not gonna have Blassie around". The storyline shortcut was necessary because less than three weeks later on January 23, Hogan won his first WWF World Heavyweight Championship, pinning The Iron Sheik (who had Blassie in his corner) in Madison Square Garden. The storyline accompanying the victory was that Hogan was a "last minute" replacement for the Sheik's original opponent Bob Backlund, and became the champion by way of being the first man to escape the camel clutch (the Iron Sheik's finishing move). Immediately after the title win, commentator Gorilla Monsoon proclaimed: "Hulkamania is here!". Hogan frequently referred to his fans as "Hulkamaniacs" in his interviews and introduced his three "demandments": training, saying prayers, and eating vitamins. Eventually, a fourth demandment (believing in oneself) was added during his feud with Earthquake in 1990. Hogan's ring gear developed a characteristic yellow-and-red color scheme; his ring entrances involved him ritualistically ripping his shirt off his body, flexing, and listening for audience cheers in an exaggerated manner. The majority of Hogan's matches during this time involved him wrestling heels who had been booked as unstoppable monsters, using a format which became near-routine: He delivered steady offense, but eventually lose momentum, seemingly nearing defeat. After being hit with his opponent's finishing move, he got a sudden second wind, fighting back while "feeding" off the energy of the audience, becoming impervious to attack a process described as "Hulking up". His signature maneuvers pointing at the opponent (later accompanied by a loud "you!" from the audience), shaking his finger to scold him, three punches, an Irish whip, the big boot and running leg drop – followed, ensuring victory. That finishing sequence occasionally changed depending on the storyline and opponent; for instance, with "giant" wrestlers, the sequence might involve a body slam. In 1984, similarities between Hogan's character and that of The Incredible Hulk led to a quitclaim deal between Titan Sports, Marvel Comics and himself wherein Marvel obtained the trademarks "Hulk Hogan", "Hulkster" and "Hulkamania" for 20 years, and Titan agreed to no longer refer to him as "incredible" nor simply "Hulk" or ever dress him in purple or green. Marvel also subsequently received .9% of reportable gross merchandise revenue associated with Hogan, $100 for each of his matches and 10% of Titan's portion of his other earnings under this name (or 10% of the earnings, if Titan held no interest). This extended to WCW, whose parent company Turner Broadcasting System merged with Time Warner in 1996 and became sister companies with Marvel rival DC Comics. (As Hogan was well underway with the nWo storyline under the "Hollywood Hogan" ring name at the time, this avoided Time Warner the awkward situation of paying Marvel the rights to the name while owning its chief rival.) In a story in 1988's Marvel Comics Presents #45, a wrestler resembling Hogan was tossed through an arena roof by The Incredible Hulk, because he "picked the wrong name." International renown (1985–1988) Over the next year, Hogan became the face of professional wrestling as McMahon pushed the WWF into a pop culture enterprise with The Rock 'n' Wrestling Connection on MTV, drawing record houses, pay-per-view buyrates, and television ratings in the process. The centerpiece attraction for the first WrestleMania on March 31, 1985, Hogan teamed with legit friend, TV and movie star Mr. T to defeat his archrival "Rowdy" Roddy Piper and "Mr Wonderful" Paul Orndorff when "Cowboy" Bob Orton, who had been in the corner of Piper and Orndorff, accidentally caused his team's defeat by knocking out Orndorff after he jumped from the top turnbuckle and hit him in the back of the head with his arm cast in a shot meant for Hogan. On Saturday Night's Main Event I, Hogan successfully defended the WWF World Heavyweight Championship against Orton in a match that Hogan won by disqualification. Hogan was named the most requested celebrity of the 1980s for the Make-a-Wish Foundation children's charity. He was featured on the covers of Sports Illustrated (the first and , only professional wrestler to do so), TV Guide, and People magazines, while also appearing on The Tonight Show and having his own CBS Saturday morning cartoon titled Hulk Hogan's Rock 'n' Wrestling. Hogan, as the premier WWF icon, headlined seven of the first eight WrestleMania events. He also co-hosted Saturday Night Live on March 30, 1985, during this lucrative run. AT&T reported that the 900 number information line he ran while with the WWF was the single biggest 900 number from 1991 to 1993. Hogan continued to run a 900 number after joining World Championship Wrestling (WCW). On Saturday Night's Main Event II, he successfully defended the title against Nikolai Volkoff in a flag match. He met long-time rival Roddy Piper in a WWF title match at the Wrestling Classic pay-per-view (PPV) event. Hogan retained the title by disqualification after Bob Orton interfered and hit Hogan with his cast. Hogan had many challengers in the way as the new year began. Throughout 1986, Hogan made successful title defenses against challengers such as Terry Funk, Don Muraco, King Kong Bundy (in a steel cage match at WrestleMania 2), Paul Orndorff, and Hercules Hernandez. In the fall of 1986, Hogan occasionally wrestled in tag team matches with The Machines as Hulk Machine under a mask copied from NJPW's gimmick "Super Strong Machine". At WrestleMania III in 1987, Hogan was booked to defend the title against André the Giant, who had been the sport's premier star and was pushed as undefeated for the previous fifteen years. A new storyline was introduced in early 1987; Hogan was presented a trophy for being the WWF World Heavyweight Champion for three consecutive years. André the Giant, who was Hogan's good friend, came out to congratulate him. Shortly afterward, André was presented a slightly smaller trophy for being "undefeated in the WWF for 15 years". Hogan came out to congratulate André, who walked out in the midst of Hogan's speech. Then, on an edition of Piper's Pit, Hogan was confronted by Bobby "The Brain" Heenan, who announced that André was his new protégé, and Andre challenged Hogan to a title match at WrestleMania III, where Hogan successfully defended the WWF World Heavyweight Championship against André the Giant. During the match, Hogan hit a body slam on the 520-pound André (which was dubbed "the bodyslam heard around the world") and won the match after a leg drop. The Mega Powers (1988–1989) Hogan remained WWF World Heavyweight Champion for four years (1,474 days). In front of 33 million viewers, Hogan finally lost the title to André on The Main Event I after a convoluted scam involving "The Million Dollar Man" Ted DiBiase and Earl Hebner (who assumed the place of his twin brother Dave Hebner, the match's appointed referee). After André delivered a belly to belly suplex on Hogan, Hebner counted the pin while Hogan's left shoulder was clearly off the mat. After the match, André handed the title over to DiBiase to complete their business deal. As a result, the WWF World Heavyweight Championship was vacated for the first time in its 25-year history because then WWF President Jack Tunney decreed the championship could not be sold from one wrestler to another. At WrestleMania IV, Hogan participated in a tournament for the vacant WWF World Heavyweight Championship to regain it; he and André were given a bye into quarter-finals, but their match resulted in a double disqualification. Later that night in the main event, Hogan came to ringside to stop André interfering which helped "Macho Man" Randy Savage defeat Ted DiBiase to win the title. Together, Hogan, Savage, and manager Miss Elizabeth formed a partnership known as The Mega Powers. After Savage became WWF World Heavyweight Champion at WrestleMania IV, they feuded with The Mega Bucks (André the Giant and Ted DiBiase) and defeated them at the main event of the first SummerSlam. They then went on to feud with Slick's Twin Towers: Akeem and Big Boss Man. In mid-1988, Hogan wrestled at house shows in singles competition with his "War Bonnet", a red and yellow gladiator helmet with a fist-shaped crest. This was notably used to give Bad News Brown his first WWF loss at a Madison Square Garden house show before it was discarded altogether. The War Bonnet gimmick was revisited in the WWE's online comedy series Are You Serious? in 2012. The Mega Powers began to implode due to Savage's burgeoning jealousy of Hogan and his paranoid suspicions that Hogan and Elizabeth were more than friends. At the Royal Rumble in 1989, Hogan eliminated Savage from the Royal Rumble match while eliminating Bad News Brown, which caused tension, only to be eliminated by The Twin Towers himself. In early 1989, the duo broke up while wrestling The Twin Towers on The Main Event II, when Savage accidentally collided with Miss Elizabeth during the match, and Hogan took her backstage to receive medical attention, temporarily abandoning Savage, who slapped Hogan and left the ring, where Hogan eventually won the match by himself. After the match, Savage attacked Hogan backstage, which started a feud between the two. Their feud culminated in Hogan beating Savage for his second WWF World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania V. Final WWF Championship reigns (1989–1993) Hogan's second run in 1989 lasted a year, during which he defended the title in two matches against Savage in April that he lost both times by count-out, before defeating The Big Boss Man in a steel cage match on the Saturday Night's Main Event XXI, which was aired on May 27. In May on WWF on NESN, Hogan retained the title by losing once again by count-out against Savage. This was also the last time the WWF World Heavyweight Championship was referred to as such during a televised title defense, as Hogan's next successful title defense against The Honky Tonk Man on Saturday Night's Main Event XXII saw the title being renamed and referred simply as the WWF Championship. Also during Hogan's second reign as champion, he starred in the movie No Holds Barred, which was the inspiration of a feud with Hogan's co-star Tom Lister, Jr., who appeared at wrestling events as his movie character, Zeus (an "unstoppable monster" who was jealous over Hogan's higher billing and wanted revenge). Hogan easily beat Zeus in a series of matches across the country during late 1989, beginning with a tag team match at SummerSlam, in which Hogan and Brutus Beefcake topped Zeus and Savage. Hogan and Zeus met at the Survivor Series, where the "Hulkamaniacs" faced the "Million Dollar Team"; in the early part of the match, Hogan put Zeus over by hitting him with everything to no effect before Zeus then dominated Hogan until Zeus was disqualified by referee Dave Hebner. Hogan and Beefcake then defeated Zeus and Savage in a rematch at the No Holds Barred pay-per-view to end the feud. Hogan also had defeated Savage to retain the WWF Championship in their official WrestleMania rematch on October 10, at United Kingdom-only pay-per-view First WWF UK Event at London Arena. During his second reign as the WWF Champion, Hogan won the 1990 Royal Rumble match, before losing to Intercontinental Champion The Ultimate Warrior in a title versus title match at WrestleMania VI on April 1, 1990. Hogan soon became embroiled in a heated feud with the 468-pound Earthquake, who had crushed Hogan's ribs in a sneak attack on The Brother Love Show in May 1990. On television, announcers explained that Hogan's injuries and his WrestleMania VI loss to Warrior both took such a huge toll on his fighting spirit that he wanted to retire. Viewers were asked to write letters to Hogan and send postcards asking for his return (they got a postcard-sized picture in return, autographed by Hogan, as a "thank you"). Hogan returned by SummerSlam, and he for several months dominated Earthquake in a series of matches across the country. His defeat of this overwhelmingly large foe caused Hogan to add a fourth demandment – believing in yourself, and he also became known as "The Immortal" Hulk Hogan. Hogan became the first wrestler to win two Royal Rumble matches in a row, as he won the 1991 Royal Rumble match. At WrestleMania VII, Hogan stood up for the United States against Sgt. Slaughter, defeating him for his third WWF Championship, and then defeating him again in the rematch at United Kingdom-only pay-per-view UK Rampage at London Arena. In the fall of 1991, Hogan was challenged by Ric Flair, the former NWA World Heavyweight Champion who recently arrived in the WWF. The challenge went unmet, as Hogan lost the WWF Championship to The Undertaker at Survivor Series. Jack Tunney immediately granted Hogan a rematch at This Tuesday in Texas six days later, which he won. Flair had interfered in both matches and due to the resulting controversy, the title was again declared vacant. The WWF Championship was decided at the 1992 Royal Rumble in the Royal Rumble match, but Hogan failed to regain the championship as he was eliminated by friend Sid Justice and in turn caused Sid to be eliminated, leaving Flair the winner and new champion. Hogan and Sid patched things up and teamed together on Saturday Night's Main Event XXX against Flair and Undertaker, but during the match Sid abandoned Hogan, starting their feud. At WrestleMania VIII, Hogan defeated Sid via disqualification due to interference by Sid's manager Harvey Wippleman. Hogan was then attacked by Papa Shango and was saved by the returning Ultimate Warrior. At this time, news sources began to allege that Dr. George Zahorian, a doctor for the Pennsylvania State Athletic Commission, had been selling steroids illegally to wrestlers in general and Hogan in particular. Hogan appeared on an episode of The Arsenio Hall Show to deny the allegations. Due to intense public scrutiny, Hogan took a leave of absence from the company. Hogan returned to the WWF in February 1993, helping out his friend Brutus Beefcake in his feud with Money Inc. (Irwin R. Schyster and "The Million Dollar Man" Ted DiBiase), and officially renaming themselves The Mega-Maniacs, taking on Money Inc.'s former manager "The Mouth of the South" Jimmy Hart (a long-time friend of Hogan's outside of wrestling) as their manager in what was the first time WWF audiences had seen Hart as a fan favorite. At WrestleMania IX, Hogan and Beefcake took on Money Inc. for the WWF Tag Team Championship. Hogan went into the match sporting a cut above a black eye. The WWF used Hogan's injury in a storyline that had DiBiase allegedly paying a group of thugs in a failed attempt to take Hogan out before WrestleMania. Later that night, Hogan won his fifth WWF Championship by pinning Yokozuna in an on-the-spot match only moments after Yokozuna had defeated Bret Hart. Hogan reportedly used his influence to have the finish of WrestleMania changed the weekend of the event so he would be champion during an upcoming international and de-facto farewell tour. At the first annual King of the Ring pay-per-view on June 13, Hogan defended the championship against the former champion Yokozuna in his first title defense since defeating him at WrestleMania IX. Yokozuna kicked out of Hogan's signature leg drop and scored the pinfall win after Hogan was blinded by a fireball shot by a "Japanese photographer" (actually a disguised Harvey Wippleman). The victorious Yokozuna proceeded to give Hogan a Banzai Drop. This was Hogan's last WWF pay-per-view appearance until 2002, as both he and Jimmy Hart were preparing to leave the promotion. Hogan continued his feud on the international house show circuit with Yokozuna until August 1993. After that, Hogan sat out the rest of his contract which expired later that year. Return to NJPW (1993–1994) On May 3, 1993, Hogan returned to NJPW as WWF Champion and defeated IWGP Heavyweight Champion The Great Muta in a dream match at Wrestling Dontaku. Hogan wrestled against Muta again, this time under his real name (Keiji Mutoh), on September 26, 1993. Hogan also wrestled The Hell Raisers with Muta and Masahiro Chono as his tag team partners. His last match in Japan was on January 4, 1994, at Battlefield, when he defeated Tatsumi Fujinami. World Championship Wrestling (1994–2000) World Heavyweight Champion (1994–1996) Starting in March 1994, Hogan began making appearances on WCW television, as interviewer Gene Okerlund—who was now a WCW employee—visited him on the set of Thunder in Paradise episodes. Hype then built over whether Hogan should remain with Thunder in Paradise or instead join WCW and have an opportunity to wrestle Ric Flair. On the May 28, 1994, episode of WCW Saturday Night, Hogan tore up his Thunder in Paradise contract and stated he was now willing to quit the show and return to wrestling, and Okerlund issued a telephone survey asking if people wanted to see Hogan in WCW. On June 11, 1994, Hogan officially signed with Ted Turner's World Championship Wrestling (WCW) in a ceremony that was held at Disney-MGM Studios. The next month, with Jimmy Hart as his manager, Hogan won the WCW World Heavyweight Championship in his debut match, defeating Ric Flair in a "dream match" at Bash at the Beach. Hogan continued his feud with Flair (who defeated him by count-out on the Clash of the Champions XXVIII, thus Hogan retained the title), which culminated in a steel cage match (with Flair's career on the line and Mr. T as the special guest referee) that Hogan won. After Hogan headlined WCW's premier annual event Starrcade (Starrcade: Triple Threat) in December 1994 by defeating The Butcher for the title, his next feud was against Vader, who challenged him for the WCW World Heavyweight Championship at SuperBrawl V, where Hogan won by disqualification after the returning Flair's interference. Hogan then defeated Vader (who was managed part-time by Flair) in a non-title leather strap match at Uncensored. Because of the controversial ending caused once again by Flair at Uncensored, Hogan's feud with Vader culminated in a steel cage match for the WCW World Heavyweight Championship at Bash at the Beach, where Hogan won by escaping the cage. After successfully retaining the WCW World Heavyweight Championship against Big Bubba Rogers and Lex Luger in two separate matches on Nitro in September 1995. The October 9, 1995, broadcast of Nitro was Hogan's first appearance in an all-black attire. Hogan feuded with The Dungeon of Doom, which led to a WarGames match at Fall Brawl where Hogan's team (Lex Luger, Randy Savage, and Sting) won. Hogan's fifteen-month title reign (which is the longest WCW World Heavyweight Championship reign in the title history at 469 days) ended when he lost the WCW World Heavyweight Championship to The Giant at Halloween Havoc via disqualification. Following the controversial loss (which was due to a "contract clause"), the WCW World Heavyweight Championship became vacant and a new champion to be crowned in a 60-man three-ring battle royal at World War III, where The Giant cost Hogan the title. This led to a steel cage match between Hogan and The Giant at SuperBrawl VI, where Hogan won to end their feud. In early 1996, Hogan reformed The Mega Powers with Randy Savage to feud with The Alliance to End Hulkamania, which culminated at Uncensored in a Doomsday Cage match that Hogan and Savage won. After coming out victorious from his feuds, Hogan began to only appear occasionally on WCW programming. New World Order (1996–1999) At Bash at the Beach in 1996, during a six-man tag team match pitting The Outsiders (Kevin Nash and Scott Hall) against WCW loyalists, Hogan interfered on behalf of Nash and Hall, attacking Randy Savage, thereby turning heel for the first time in nearly fifteen years. After the match, Hogan delivered a promo, accosting the fans and WCW for under-appreciating his talent and drawing power, and announcing the formation of the New World Order (nWo). The new stable gained prominence in the following weeks and months. Hogan grew a beard alongside his famous mustache and dyed it black, traded his red and yellow garb in for black and white clothing, often detailed with lightning bolts, and renamed himself "Hollywood" Hulk Hogan (often shortened to Hollywood Hogan). Hogan won his second WCW World Heavyweight Championship at Hog Wild defeating The Giant for the title. He spray painted "nWo" across the title belt, scribbled across the nameplate, and referred to the title as the "nWo title". Hogan then started a feud with Lex Luger after Luger and The Giant defeated Hogan and Dennis Rodman in a tag team match at Bash at the Beach. On the August 4, 1997, episode of Nitro, Hogan lost the title to Lex Luger by submission. Five days later at Road Wild, Hogan defeated Luger to regain the WCW World Heavyweight Championship. Hogan then lost the title to Sting in a match at Starrcade. In the match, WCW's newly contracted Bret Hart accused referee Nick Patrick of fast-counting a victory for Hogan and had the match restarted – with himself as referee. Sting later won by submission. After a rematch the following night on Nitro, where Sting controversially retained the title, the WCW World Heavyweight Championship became vacant. Sting went on to win the vacant title against Hogan at SuperBrawl VIII, and Hogan then developed a rivalry with former friend (and recent nWo recruit) Randy Savage, who had just cost Hogan the title match at SuperBrawl by hitting him with a spray can. The feud culminated in a steel cage match at Uncensored, which ended in a no contest. Savage took the WCW World Heavyweight Championship from Sting at Spring Stampede, while Hogan teamed with Kevin Nash to take on Roddy Piper and The Giant in the first-ever bat match. Hogan betrayed Nash by hitting him with the bat and then challenged Savage the following night on Nitro for the world title. In the no disqualification match for Savage's newly won title, Nash entered the ring and hit a powerbomb on Hogan as retribution for the attack the previous night, but Bret Hart interfered moments later and jumped in to attack Savage and preserve the victory for Hogan, who won his fourth WCW World Heavyweight Championship. Nash's attack on him signified a split of the nWo into two separate factions – Hogan's became nWo Hollywood and Nash's became nWo Wolfpac that feuded with each other for the remainder of the year. Hogan defended the title until July of that year, when WCW booked him in a match against newcomer and then WCW United States Heavyweight Champion Goldberg, who had yet to lose a match in the company. Late in the match, Hogan was distracted by Karl Malone, and Goldberg pinned Hogan to win the WCW World Heavyweight Championship. Hogan spent the rest of 1998 wrestling celebrity matches: his second tag team match with Dennis Rodman pitted them against Diamond Dallas Page and Karl Malone at Bash at the Beach, and at Road Wild he and Eric Bischoff lost to Page and Jay Leno thanks to interference from Kevin Eubanks. Hogan also had a critically panned rematch with The Warrior at Halloween Havoc, where his nephew Horace aided his victory. On the Thanksgiving episode of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Hogan officially announced his retirement from professional wrestling, as well as his candidacy for President of the United States. Campaign footage aired on Nitro of Hogan and Bischoff holding a press conference, making it appear legitimate. Both announcements were false and made as publicity stunts to draw some of the hype of Jesse Ventura's Minnesota gubernatorial win back to him. After some time off from WCW, Hogan returned on the January 4, 1999, episode of Nitro to challenge Kevin Nash for the WCW World Heavyweight Championship which Hogan won for the fifth time, but many people found the title change to be "scandalous". As a result, the warring factions of the nWo reunited into one group, which began feuding with Goldberg and The Four Horsemen. Final years in WCW (1999–2000) Hogan lost the WCW World Heavyweight Championship to Ric Flair at Uncensored in a steel cage First Blood match. Later, Hogan was severely injured in a Texas tornado match for the WCW World Heavyweight Championship featuring him, Diamond Dallas Page, Flair, and Sting at Spring Stampede On the July 12 episode of Nitro, Hogan made his return as a face for the first time in three years and accepted an open challenge from Savage, who had won the WCW World Heavyweight Championship at Bash at the Beach the night before in a tag team match by pinning Kevin Nash. Thanks to interference from Nash, Hogan defeated Savage to win his sixth and final WCW World Heavyweight Championship. Nash turned on him the next week, and the two began a feud that lasted until Road Wild. On August 9, 1999, Hogan started the night dressed in the typical black and white, but after a backstage scene with his son came out dressed in the traditional red and yellow for his main event six-man tag team match. Hogan then defeated Nash in a retirement match at Road Wild to retain the WCW World Heavyweight Championship. Injuries and frustrations mounted, and he was absent from television from October 1999 to February 2000. In his book Hollywood Hulk Hogan, Hogan said that he was asked to take time off by newly hired head of creative booking Vince Russo and was not told when he would be brought back at the time. Despite some reservations, he agreed to do so. On October 24 at Halloween Havoc, Hogan was to face Sting for the WCW World Heavyweight Championship. Hogan came to the ring in street clothes, lay down for the pin, and left the ring. Soon after his return in February 2000, at Bash at the Beach on July 9, Hogan was involved in a controversial work with Vince Russo. Hogan was scheduled to challenge Jeff Jarrett for the WCW World Heavyweight Championship. Before the match, there was a backstage dispute between Hogan and Russo; Hogan wanted to take the title, but Russo was going to have Jarrett win, and lose it to Booker T. Russo told Hogan that he was going to have Jarrett lie down for him, simulating a real conflict, although Jarrett was not told it was a work. When the bell rang, Jarrett lay down in the middle of the ring while Russo threw the WCW World Heavyweight Championship belt in the ring and yelled at Hogan from ringside to pin Jarrett. A visibly confused Hogan complied with a foot on Jarrett's chest after getting on the microphone and telling Russo, "Is this your idea, Russo? That's why this company is in the damn shape it's in, because of bullshit like this!" After winning and being announced as the new WCW World Heavyweight Champion, Hogan immediately took the WCW title belt. Moments later, Russo returned to the ring, angrily proclaiming this would be the last time fans would ever see "that piece of shit" in a WCW stadium. This is also when the public discovered, through Russo, the "creative control" clause that Hogan had, which meant that Hogan could control what would happen with his own character, without anyone else telling him no. In his Bash at the Beach shoot promo, Russo said that he was arguing with Hogan all day prior to the event in the back because he wanted to use the clause in the Jarrett match, saying, "That means that, in the middle of this ring, when [Hogan] knew it was bullshit, he beats Jeff Jarrett!". Since Hogan refused to job to Jarrett, a new WCW World Heavyweight Championship was created, setting the stage for a title match between Booker T and Jarrett later that night. As a result, Hogan filed a defamation of character lawsuit against Russo soon after, which was eventually dismissed in 2002. Russo claims the whole thing was a work, and Hogan claims that Russo made it a shoot. Eric Bischoff agreed with Hogan's side of the story when he wrote that Hogan winning and leaving with the belt was a work (devised by Bischoff rather than Russo), and that he and Hogan celebrated after the event over the success of the angle, but that Russo coming out to fire Hogan was an unplanned shoot which led to the lawsuit filed by Hogan. It was the last time he was seen in WCW. Post-WCW endeavors (2001) In the months following the eventual demise of WCW in March 2001, Hogan underwent surgery on his knees in order for him to wrestle again. As a test, Hogan worked a match in Orlando, Florida, for the Xcitement Wrestling Federation (XWF) promotion run by his longtime handler Jimmy Hart. Hogan defeated Curt Hennig in this match and felt healthy enough to accept an offer to return to the WWF in February 2002. Second return to WWF/WWE (2002–2003) At No Way Out in February 2002, Hogan returned to the WWF as a heel. Returning as leader of the original nWo with Scott Hall and Kevin Nash, the three got into a confrontation with The Rock and cost Stone Cold Steve Austin a chance at becoming the Undisputed WWF Champion against Chris Jericho in the main event. The nWo feuded with both Austin and The Rock, and Hogan accepted The Rock's challenge to a match at WrestleMania X8, where Hogan asked Hall and Nash not to interfere, wanting to defeat The Rock by himself. Despite the fact that Hogan was supposed to be the heel in the match, the crowd cheered for him heavily. The Rock cleanly won the contest, and befriended Hogan at the end of the bout and helped him fight off Hall and Nash, who were upset by Hogan's conciliatory attitude. After the match, Hogan turned face by siding with The Rock, though he continued wearing black and white tights for a few weeks after WrestleMania X8 until he resumed wearing his signature red and yellow tights. During this period, the "Hulk Rules" logo of the 1980s was redone with the text "Hulk Still Rules", and Hogan also wore the original "Hulk Rules" attire twelve years earlier, when he headlined WrestleMania VI at the same arena, in the SkyDome. For a time, he was still known as "Hollywood" Hulk Hogan, notably keeping the Hollywood Hogan style blond mustache with black beard while wearing Hulkamania-like red and yellow tights and using the "Voodoo Child" entrance theme music he used in WCW. On the April 4 episode of SmackDown!, Hogan feuded with Triple H and defeated him for the Undisputed WWF Championship at Backlash, thus becoming the last ever WWF Champion before the initials dispute against the World Wildlife Fund. On May 19 at Judgment Day, Hogan lost the WWE Undisputed Championship to The Undertaker. After losing a number one contender match for the WWE Undisputed Championship to Triple H on the June 6 episode of SmackDown!, Hogan began feuding with Kurt Angle resulting in a match between the two at the King of the Ring, which Angle won by submission. On the July 4 episode of SmackDown!, Hogan teamed with Edge to defeat Billy and Chuck and capture the WWE Tag Team Championship for the first time. They celebrated by waving the American flag as the overjoyed audience sang along to Hogan's theme song "Real American". They lost the belts to The Un-Americans (Christian and Lance Storm) at Vengeance. In August 2002, Hogan was used in an angle with Brock Lesnar, culminating in a main event singles match on the August 8 episode of SmackDown!, which Lesnar won by technical submission (the match was called after Hogan became unconscious from a bear hug hold). Lesnar became only the second WWE wrestler to defeat Hogan by submission (after Kurt Angle), and the first to defeat Hogan by having the match called. Following the match, Lesnar continued to beat on Hogan, leaving him bloody and unconscious in the ring. As a result of Lesnar's assault, Hogan went on hiatus until early 2003, shaving off his black beard and dropping "Hollywood" from his name in his return. Hogan battled The Rock (who had turned heel) once again at No Way Out and lost and defeated Mr. McMahon at WrestleMania XIX in a street fight billed as "twenty years in the making". After WrestleMania, he had a run as the masked Mr. America, who was supposed to be Hogan in disguise, wearing a mask. He used Hogan's "Real American" as an entrance theme and all of Hogan's signature gestures, moves, and phrases. He was the subject of a storyline that took place after Hogan was forced by Mr. McMahon to sit out the rest of his contract. A WWE pre-debut push took place with mysterious Mr. America promos airing for weeks during SmackDown!. There was also on-screen discussion on SmackDown! between then General Manager Stephanie McMahon and other players concerning her hiring Mr. America "sight unseen". On May 1, Mr. America debuted on SmackDown! on a Piper's Pit segment. McMahon appeared and claimed that Mr. America was Hogan in disguise; Mr. America shot back by saying, "I am not Hulk Hogan, brother!" (lampooning Hogan's use of "brother" in his promos). The feud continued through the month of May, with a singles match between Mr. America and Hogan's old rival Roddy Piper at Judgment Day, a match Mr. America won. Mr. America's last WWE appearance was on the June 26 episode of SmackDown! when Big Show and The World's Greatest Tag Team (Charlie Haas and Shelton Benjamin) defeated Brock Lesnar, Kurt Angle, and Mr. America in a six-man tag team match. After the show went off the air, Mr. America unmasked to show the fans that he was indeed Hogan, putting his finger to his lips telling the fans to keep quiet about his secret. The next week, Hogan quit WWE due to frustration with the creative team. On the July 3 episode of SmackDown!, McMahon showed the footage of Mr. America unmasking as Hogan and "fired" him, although Hogan had already quit in real life. It was later revealed that Hogan was unhappy with the payoffs for his matches after his comeback under the Mr. America gimmick. McMahon terminated Hogan's contract in 2003. Second return to NJPW (2003) Hogan returned to NJPW in October 2003, when he defeated Masahiro Chono at Ultimate Crush II in the Tokyo Dome. Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (2003) Shortly after Hogan left WWE, Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) began making overtures to Hogan, culminating in Jeff Jarrett, co-founder of TNA and then NWA World Heavyweight Champion, launching an on-air attack on Hogan in Japan in October 2003. The attack was supposed to be a precursor to Hogan battling Jarrett for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship at TNA's first three-hour pay-per-view. Due to recurring knee and hip problems, Hogan did not appear in TNA. Still, the incident has been shown several times on TNA broadcasts, and was included in the TNA DVD TNA's Fifty Greatest Moments. Third return to WWE (2005–2007) On April 2, 2005, Hogan was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame class of 2005 by actor and friend Sylvester Stallone. At WrestleMania 21 on April 3, Hogan came out to rescue Eugene, who was being attacked by Muhammad Hassan and Khosrow Daivari. The build-up to Hogan's Hall of Fame induction and preparation for his WrestleMania angle was shown on the first season of Hogan Knows Best. The next night on Raw, Hassan and Daivari came out to confront and assault fan favorite Shawn Michaels. The following week on Raw, Michaels approached Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff demanding a handicap match with Hassan and Daivari. Bischoff refused, but told Michaels if he found a partner he would be granted a tag team match. Michaels then made a plea for Hogan to team with him. On the April 18 episode of Raw, Hassan again led an attack on Michaels until Hogan appeared, saving Michaels and accepting his offer. At Backlash, Hassan and Daivari lost to Hogan and Michaels. Hogan then appeared on July 4 episode of Raw, as the special guest of Carlito on his talk-show segment Carlito's Cabana. After being asked questions by Carlito concerning his daughter Brooke, Hogan attacked Carlito. Kurt Angle then also appeared, making comments about Brooke, which further upset Hogan, who was eventually double teamed by Carlito and Angle, but was saved by Shawn Michaels. Later that night, Michaels and Hogan defeated Carlito and Angle in a tag team match; during the post-match celebration, Michaels performed the Sweet Chin Music on Hogan and walked off. The following week on Raw, Michaels appeared on Piper's Pit and challenged Hogan to face him one-on-one for the first time. Hogan appeared on Raw one week later and accepted the challenge. The match took place at SummerSlam, which Hogan won. After the match, Michaels extended his hand to him, telling him that he "had to find out for himself", and Hogan and Michaels shook hands as Michaels left the ring to allow Hogan to celebrate with the crowd. Prior to WrestleMania 22 in April 2006, Hogan inducted friend and former announcer "Mean" Gene Okerlund into the WWE Hall of Fame class of 2006. Hogan returned on Saturday Night's Main Event XXXIII with his daughter Brooke. During the show, Randy Orton kayfabe flirted with Brooke and later attacked Hogan in the parking lot. He later challenged Hogan to a match at SummerSlam, which Hogan won. This was Hulk Hogan's final match wrestling for the WWE, although he had negotiations for a match against John Cena at WrestleMania 25 which ultimately fell through. Memphis Wrestling (2007–2008) After a brief fall out with McMahon and WWE, Hogan was lured to Memphis Wrestling with the proposal of wrestling Jerry Lawler. The match had been promoted on Memphis Wrestling Prime Time for several months. On April 12, 2007, Lawler announced in a news conference that WWE had barred him from wrestling Hogan on the basis that NBC performers (including Lawler, on the basis of co-hosting the NBC-owned USA Network's Raw and his appearances on the biannual WWE's Saturday Night's Main Event) are contractually prohibited from appearing on VH1, the channel on which Hogan Knows Best airs. The situation resulted in a lawsuit being filed against WWE by event promoter Corey Maclin. Lawler was replaced with Paul Wight. Hogan defeated Wight at Memphis Wrestling's PMG Clash of Legends on April 27, 2007, when he picked up and hit a body slam on Wight before pinning him following his signature running leg drop. Hulkamania: Let the Battle Begin (2009) On November 21, 24, 26 and 28, Hogan performed with a group of wrestlers including Spartan-3000, Heidenreich, Eugene, Brutus "The Barber" Beefcake and Orlando Jordan across Australia in a tour titled Hulkamania: Let The Battle Begin. The main event of each show was a rematch between Hogan and Ric Flair – the wrestler who defeated Hogan more times than any other. Hogan defeated Flair in all four matches. Return to TNA (2009–2013) Dixie Carter's business partner (2009–2010) On October 27, 2009, it was announced that Hogan had signed a contract to join TNA on a full-time basis. The footage of his signing and the press conference at Madison Square Garden following it were featured on the October 29 episode of Impact!. On December 5, 2009, Hogan announced on Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC)'s The Ultimate Fighter that he would make his official TNA debut on January 4, 2010, in a special live three-hour Monday night episode of Impact! to compete with WWE's Raw (which featured the return of Bret Hart). On the January 4 episode of Impact!, Hogan debuted, reuniting briefly with former nWo partners Kevin Nash, Scott Hall, and Sean Waltman, the latter two of whom made their returns to the company. He refused to join them for a full-fledged reunion of their group claiming, "it's a different time", and stuck to his business relations with Bischoff, who made his appearance to declare that, the two of them would "flip the company upside down" and everyone would have to earn their spot. Hogan also encountered TNA founder Jeff Jarrett on the broadcast, appearing via video wall and interrupting Jarrett's company success speech, stating that Carter was instrumental to the company's survival, and that just like the rest, Jarrett would have to (kayfabe) earn his spot in TNA. On the February 18 episode of Impact!, Hogan took Abyss under his wing, and during this sequence, gave him his Hall of Fame ring and claimed it would make him a "god of wrestling". Hogan made his in-ring return on March 8, teaming with Abyss to defeat A.J. Styles and Ric Flair when Abyss scored a pinfall over Styles. Afterward, the returning Jeff Hardy saved Hogan and Abyss from a beatdown by Styles, Flair and Desmond Wolfe. The storyline became a Team Flair versus Team Hogan situation, with Jarrett and the debuting Rob Van Dam joining Team Hogan and Beer Money (James Storm and Robert Roode) and Sting joining Team Flair. At Lockdown, Team Hogan (Hulk Hogan, Abyss, Jeff Jarrett, Jeff Hardy and Rob Van Dam) defeated Team Flair (Ric Flair, Sting, Desmond Wolfe, Robert Roode and James Storm) in a Lethal Lockdown match. Immortal (2010–2011) On the June 17 episode of Impact!, Hogan's alliance with Abyss came to an abrupt end when Abyss turned heel. Abyss later claimed that he was controlled by some entity, that was coming to TNA. The next month, Hogan worked with Bischoff, Jeff Jarrett and Samoa Joe against Sting and Kevin Nash, who claimed that they knew that Hogan and Bischoff were up to something. During this time, Abyss went on a rampage, attacking Rob Van Dam to the point that he was forced to vacate the TNA World Heavyweight Championship and eventually put his hands on TNA president Dixie Carter, which led to her signing the paperwork, presented by Bischoff, that would have Abyss fired from TNA following his match with Van Dam at Bound for Glory. Hogan was set to wrestle with Jarrett and Joe against Sting, Nash and D'Angelo Dinero at Bound for Glory, but was forced to miss the event due to a back surgery. He made an appearance at the end of the event, and turned heel by helping Jeff Hardy win the vacant TNA World Heavyweight Championship and aligning himself with Hardy, Bischoff, Abyss and Jarrett. On the following episode of Impact!, it was revealed that Bischoff had tricked Carter and the paperwork she had signed a week earlier, were not to release Abyss, but to turn the company over to him and Hogan. Meanwhile, Bischoff's and Hogan's new stable, now known as Immortal, formed an alliance with Ric Flair's Fortune. Dixie Carter returned on the November 25 episode of Reaction, informing Hogan and Bischoff that a judge had filed an injunction against the two on her behalf over not having signatory authority, indefinitely suspending Hogan from TNA. During his absence, Hogan underwent a potentially career–ending spinal fusion surgery on December 21, 2010. Hogan returned to TNA on the March 3, 2011, episode of Impact!, declaring himself as the new owner of TNA, having won the court battle against Dixie Carter. In April, he began hinting at a possible return to the ring to face the TNA World Heavyweight Champion, Sting. On the May 12 episode of the newly renamed Impact Wrestling, Hogan lost control of the program to Mick Foley, who revealed himself as the Network consultant who had been causing problems for Immortal ever since Hogan and Bischoff took over the company. This angle was cut short three weeks later, when Foley left the promotion. During the following months, Hogan continued to interfere in Sting's matches, costing him the TNA World Heavyweight Championship first at Hardcore Justice, recruiting Kurt Angle to Immortal in the process, on the September 1 episode of Impact Wrestling and finally at No Surrender. On the September 15 episode of Impact Wrestling, Sting defeated Immortal member Ric Flair to earn the right to face Hogan at Bound for Glory. On October 4, it was reported that Hogan had signed a contract extension with TNA. After feigning retirement from professional wrestling, Hogan accepted the match at Bound for Glory on the October 6 episode of Impact Wrestling, while also agreeing to hand TNA back to Dixie Carter, should Sting win the match. Hogan was defeated by Sting at Bound For Glory, ending his storyline as the president of TNA. After the match, Immortal attacked Sting, but Hogan turned face by turning on Immortal and helping Sting. On the following episode of Impact Wrestling, Hogan, wearing his trademark yellow and red again, admitted to his mistakes, and put over Sting for winning. Feud with Aces & Eights (2012–2013) During TNA's 2012 UK tour, on January 26 and 27, Hogan returned to the ring at house shows in Nottingham and Manchester, where he, James Storm and Sting defeated Bobby Roode, Bully Ray and Kurt Angle in a six-man tag team main event at both events, the latter of which was Hogan's final match. Hogan returned to Impact Wrestling on February 2, when he was revealed as Garett Bischoff's trainer. On the March 29 episode of Impact Wrestling, Hogan returned and accepted Sting's offer to replace him as the new General Manager. In July, Hogan, alongside Sting, began feuding with a mysterious group of masked men, who had dubbed themselves the "Aces & Eights". The group's attack on Hogan on the July 12 episode of Impact Wrestling was used to write Hogan off television as he was set to undergo another back surgery. In November, Hogan moved into a storyline with Bully Ray after Austin Aries revealed a secret relationship between Ray and Hogan's daughter Brooke. After seeing them kissing in a parking garage on the December 20 episode of Impact Wrestling, Hogan suspended Ray indefinitely. The following week on Impact Wrestling, after Ray saved Brooke from a kidnapping by the Aces & Eights, Brooke accepted his marriage proposal. Despite Hogan's disapproval, he still walked Brooke down the aisle for her wedding on the next episode of Impact Wrestling, during which Ray's groomsmen Taz interrupted and revealed himself as a member of the Aces & Eights, leading the group to attack Hogan, Ray, and the rest of the groomsmen. On the January 31 episode of Impact Wrestling, Hogan reinstated Ray so he could take on the Aces & Eights. Hogan named Ray the number one contender to the TNA World Heavyweight Championship on the February 21 episode of Impact Wrestling. At Lockdown, Ray betrayed Hogan, after Aces & Eights helped him win the title, and he revealed himself as the President of the Aces & Eights. Following Lockdown, Hogan blamed Sting for Ray winning the title as it was Sting who encouraged Hogan to give Ray the title shot. Sting returned and saved Hogan from an attack by Aces & Eights on the April 25 episode of Impact Wrestling. The following week on Impact Wrestling, Hogan and Sting reconciled their differences. On the October 3 episode of Impact Wrestling, Hogan refused an offer from Dixie Carter to become her business partner and quit; this was done to officially write Hogan off, as a result of his contract expiring with TNA. Fourth return to WWE (2014–2015) On February 24, 2014, on Raw, Hogan made his first WWE in-ring appearance since December 2007 to hype the WWE Network. On the March 24 episode of Raw, Hogan came out to introduce the guest appearances of Arnold Schwarzenegger and Joe Manganiello; this was to promote the guests' new movie Sabotage. At WrestleMania XXX in April, Hogan served as the host, coming out at the start of the show to hype up the crowd. During his promo, he mistakenly referred to the Superdome, the venue the event was being held at, as the Silverdome, which became the subject of jokes throughout the night. Hogan was later joined by Stone Cold Steve Austin and The Rock, and they finished their promo by drinking beer together in the ring. Later in the show, Hogan shared a moment with Mr. T, Paul Orndorff and Roddy Piper, with whom he main-evented the first WrestleMania. On February 27, 2015, Hogan was honored at Madison Square Garden during a WWE live event dubbed "Hulk Hogan Appreciation Night" with a special commemorative banner hanging from the rafters, honoring his wrestling career and historic matches he had in the arena. On the March 23 episode of Raw, Hogan along with Snoop Dogg confronted Curtis Axel – who at the time had been "borrowing" Hogan's Hulkamania gimmick with Axel referring to himself as "AxelMania". On March 28, the night before WrestleMania, Hogan posthumously inducted longtime partner and rival "Macho Man" Randy Savage into the WWE Hall of Fame class of 2015. The next night at WrestleMania 31, Hogan reunited with Hall and Nash to reform the nWo, appearing in Sting's corner in his match against Triple H, who himself was joined by D-Generation X (DX) members Billy Gunn, X-Pac, Road Dogg, and Shawn Michaels. Scandal and departure In July 2015, National Enquirer and Radar Online publicized an anti-black rant made by Hogan on a leaked sex tape recorded in 2007. In the recording, he is heard expressing disgust with the notion of his daughter dating a black man, referenced by repeated use of the racial slur "nigger." Hogan also admitted to being "a racist, to a point." Once the recordings went public erupting in a media scandal, Hogan apologized for the remarks, which he said is "language that is offensive and inconsistent with [his] own beliefs." Three black wrestlers who worked in the WWF and WCW with Hogan made supportive comments. Virgil commented "Hogan has never given me a reason to believe he is a racist" while Dennis Rodman said he "most certainly is not a racist" and Kamala added "I do not think Hogan meant harm by saying that. Hogan is my brother until he decides not to be." Black wrestlers working in the WWE made different comments. Mark Henry said he was pleased by WWE's "no tolerance approach to racism" response, and that he was hurt and offended by Hogan's manner and tone. Booker T said he was shocked and called the statements unfortunate. On July 24, WWE terminated their contract with Hogan, stating that they are "committed to embracing and celebrating individuals from all backgrounds," although Hogan's lawyer said Hogan chose to resign. A day prior, WWE removed almost all references to Hogan from their website, including his listing as a judge for Tough Enough, his merchandise from WWE Shop, and his entry from its WWE Hall of Fame page (he was still listed in the Hall of Fame entry of the official WWE encyclopedia released in October 2016). His DLC appearance from WWE 2K15 was taken down from sale, and his character was cut from then upcoming WWE 2K16 game during development. In response to the controversy, Mattel stopped producing Hogan action figures, while Hogan's merchandise was taken down from online stores of Target, Toys "R" Us, and Walmart. On July 28, Radar Online reported that Hogan had also used homophobic slurs on the leaked sex tape. Days later, it was reported that Hogan had used racist language in a 2008 call to his then-imprisoned son, Nick, and also said that he hoped they would not be reincarnated as black males. Hogan gave an interview with ABC on August 31 in which he pleaded forgiveness for his racist comments, attributing these to a racial bias inherited from his neighborhood while growing up. Hogan claimed that the term "nigger" was used liberally among friends in Tampa; former neighbors disputed this claim. In the time that followed, numerous African-Americans associated with wrestling expressed some level of support for Hogan including: The Rock, Dennis Rodman, Booker T, Kamala, Virgil, Mr. T, Mark Henry, Big E, and D'Angelo Dinero, who stressed his forgiveness of Hogan, whom he saw as having made a "positive mark on humanity" for over three decades. Fifth return to WWE (2018–present) On July 15, 2018, Hogan was reinstated into the WWE Hall of Fame. Later that same night, he was invited backstage to WWE's Extreme Rules pay-per-view event and was briefly mentioned on the event's kickoff show. Hogan made his on-screen return on November 2, 2018, as the host of Crown Jewel. Hogan next appeared on the January 7, 2019, episode of Raw to present a tribute to his longtime friend and colleague Mean Gene Okerlund, who had died five days prior. It was the first time Hogan had appeared in a WWE ring in North America since his 2015 firing. Hogan subsequently appeared on a WWE Network special where he spoke further of his relationship with Okerlund. Hogan inducted his Mega-Maniacs tag team partner and longtime friend Brutus Beefcake into the WWE Hall of Fame on April 6, 2019. The following night at WrestleMania 35, he made a surprise appearance at the beginning of the show alongside WrestleMania host Alexa Bliss, welcoming fans to the event and parodying his gaffe from WrestleMania XXX, when he incorrectly referred to the Superdome as the Silverdome. On the June 17, 2019, Raw, WWE aired a Hogan interview about the U.S. Women's World Cup soccer team. On the July 22, 2019, Raw, Hogan appeared as part of the "Raw Reunion" special. Hogan was one of the speakers during the "Toast to Raw" segment along with Steve Austin. On September 30, 2019, episode of Raw, he and Ric Flair unveiled a 10 man tag team match, for Crown Jewel. Hogan and Flair made multiple appearances on shows with their teams leading up to the event, which saw Hogan manage his team to victory. Hogan made it public knowledge that he hoped to have one more match in the WWE, including during an interview with the Los Angeles Times. On December 9, 2019, it was announced that Hogan would be inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame a second time as a member of the New World Order, together with fellow former nWo stablemates Kevin Nash, Scott Hall, and Sean Waltman. Hogan made his only appearance of 2020 on WWE's non-WWE Network programming when he appeared via satellite on the February 14, 2020, episode of SmackDown to speak about the Hall of Fame. He was interrupted by Bray Wyatt, as Hogan warned him about his upcoming match with Goldberg. The 2020 Hall of Fame ceremony was subsequently delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic and aired on April 6, 2021. Hogan made his first appearance of 2021 on the January 4 episode of Raw, which was a special Legends Night episode. He opened the show introducing the 'H-Phone,' his spin on an iPhone. He appeared in a backstage segment with Jimmy Hart, Drew McIntyre and Sheamus, where he gave his approval to McIntyre, the current WWE Champion. He also watched the championship main event match between McIntyre and Keith Lee on-stage with the rest of the guest legends. It was announced on the March 19, 2021, episode of WWE SmackDown he would co-host WrestleMania 37 with Titus O'Neil. Hogan opened both nights of WrestleMania 37 with O'Neil, appeared in multiple segments with Bayley, which led to a return of the Bella Twins, who attacked Bayley, and was introduced during the Hall of Fame celebration with Nash, Hall and Waltman. On January 23, 2023, Hogan appeared live alongside Jimmy Hart to open the WWE Raw is XXX show, celebrating the 30th Anniversary of Raw. Legacy Hogan has been described as one of the largest attractions in professional wrestling history and a major reason why Vince McMahon's expansion of his promotion worked. Wrestling historian and journalist Dave Meltzer stated that "...You can't possibly overrate his significance in the history of the business. And he sold more tickets to wrestling shows than any man who ever lived". Hogan's match with Andre the Giant on February 5, 1988, holds American television records for a wrestling audience with a 15.2 Nielsen rating and 33 million viewers. Fellow wrestler Cody Rhodes has said numerous times that Hogan's WrestleMania X8 match with The Rock is the greatest match in wrestling history and that it epitomized what professional wrestling is. Fellow WWE Hall of Fame member Bret Hart has been repeatedly critical of Hogan's wrestling abilities, including in 2021 saying that he "didn't know a headlock from a headlamp", and that he was "very limited". Hart had previously referred to Hogan as a "hero" to fans. and previously complimented Hogan's look. "You look at Hulk Hogan, okay? Unbelievable look, 6'8″ with the 24″ pythons, it's an incredible [look]. When he walks in the room, the whole room stops. Like, you see it. He [has] got, like, legs stuck on his shoulders. His arms are as big as somebody's legs. Former writer Vince Russo, who Hogan had previously sued, said that more wrestlers in 2022 should wrestle like Hogan, as opposed to the modern-day style acrobats. Hogan himself has previously said he is "number two" behind Ric Flair, who he said is the greatest wrestler of all time. Chris Jericho said on his podcast in 2023 that Hogan was a better worker than Flair in his experience. "Hogan is a better worker than Flair. For me. I always had amazing matches with Hogan because he knew exactly who he was as a babyface, as a heel, whatever. He was so great. He knew his audience. He didn't do anything he didn't have to. It was one of my favorite times in my career." 1980s wrestler The Warlord gave Hogan credit for his legacy in the ring and behind the scenes. "He was very nice to everybody. He was just one of the boys back there, you know? I always respected him and he always respected me, and that meant a lot to me. He changed the business for a big man." On February 20, 2019, it was announced that Chris Hemsworth would portray him in a biopic, directed by Todd Phillips. Endorsements and business ventures Food industry Hogan created and financed a restaurant called Pastamania located in the Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota. It opened on the Labor Day weekend of 1995 and was heavily promoted on World Championship Wrestling (WCW)'s live show Monday Nitro. The restaurant, which remained in operation for less than a year, featured such dishes as "Hulk-U's" and "Hulk-A-Roos". In interviews on The Tonight Show and Late Night with Conan O'Brien, Hogan claimed that the opportunity to endorse what came to be known as the George Foreman Grill was originally offered to him, but when he failed to respond in time, Foreman endorsed the grill instead. Instead, Hogan endorsed a blender, known as the Hulk Hogan Thunder Mixer. He has since endorsed a grill known as "The Hulk Hogan Ultimate Grill". In 2006, Hogan unveiled Hogan Energy, a drink distributed by Socko Energy. His name and likeness were also applied to a line of microwavable hamburgers, cheeseburgers, and chicken sandwiches sold at Wal-Mart called "Hulkster Burgers". On November 1, 2011, Hogan launched a new website called Hogan Nutrition, which features many nutritional and dietary products. On New Year's Eve 2012, Hogan opened a beachfront restaurant called "Hogan's Beach", located in the Tampa area. The restaurant dropped Hogan's name in October 2015. Hogan later opened Hogan's Hangout in Clearwater Beach. Finances In September 2008, Hogan's net worth was revealed to be around $30 million. In September 2011, Hogan revealed that his lavish lifestyle and divorce had cost him hundreds of millions of dollars and nearly bankrupted him. Other In October 2007, Hogan transferred all trademarks referring to himself to his liability company named "Hogan Holdings Limited". The trademarks include Hulk Hogan, "Hollywood" Hulk Hogan, Hulkster, Hogan Knows Grillin, Hulkamania.com, and Hulkapedia.com. In April 2008, Hogan announced that he would lend his license to video game developer Gameloft to create "Hulkamania Wrestling" for mobile phones. Hogan stated in a press release that the game would be "true to [his] experiences in wrestling" and use his classic wrestling moves like the Doublehand Choke Lift and Strong Clothesline. , Hogan stars alongside Troy Aikman in commercials for Rent-A-Center. On March 24, 2011, Hogan made a special appearance on American Idol, giving a big surprise to wrestling fans Paul McDonald and James Durbin. On October 15, 2010, Endemol Games UK (a subsidiary of media production group Endemol UK) announced a partnership with Bischoff Hervey Entertainment to produce "Hulk Hogan's Hulkamania", an online gambling game featuring video footage of Hogan. In October 2013, Hogan partnered with Tech Assets, Inc. to open a web hosting service called "Hostamania". To promote the service, a commercial video was released, featuring Hogan parodying Jean-Claude Van Damme's GoDaddy.com commercials and Miley Cyrus' "Wrecking Ball" music video. On November 21, 2013, Hulk Hogan and GoDaddy.com appeared together on a live Hangout On Air on Google Plus, where Hulk Hogan had a casual conversation about Hostamania, fans, and business. Hogan became a distributor for multi-level marketing company ViSalus Sciences after looking for business opportunities outside of wrestling. Hogan supports the American Diabetes Association. Other media Acting Hogan's crossover popularity led to several television and movie roles. Early in his career Hogan played the part of Thunderlips in Rocky III (1982). He also appeared in No Holds Barred (1989), before starring in family films Suburban Commando (1991), Mr. Nanny (1993), Santa with Muscles (1996), and 3 Ninjas: High Noon at Mega Mountain (1998). Hogan also appeared in 1992 commercials for Right Guard deodorant. He starred in his own television series, Thunder in Paradise, in 1994. He is the star of The Ultimate Weapon (1997), in which Brutus Beefcake also appears in a cameo. Hogan also starred in a pair of television movies, originally intended as a pilot for an ongoing series for TNT, produced by Eric Bischoff. The movies, Shadow Warriors: Assault on Devil's Island and Shadow Warriors: Hunt for The Death Merchant, starred Hogan alongside Carl Weathers and Shannon Tweed as a freelance mercenary team. In 1995, he appeared on TBN's Kids Against Crime. Hogan made cameo appearances in Muppets from Space, Gremlins 2: The New Batch (the theatrical cut) and Spy Hard as himself. Hogan also played the role of Zeus in Little Hercules in 3D. Hogan also made two appearances on The A-Team (in 1985 and 1986), along with Roddy Piper. He also appeared on Suddenly Susan in 1999. In 2001, Hogan guest-starred on an episode of Walker, Texas Ranger. Hogan has become a busy voice actor in later years making guest voice spots on Robot Chicken and American Dad! and as a primary actor in the Cartoon Network/Adult Swim series China, IL. Reality television and hosting On July 10, 2005, VH1 premiered Hogan Knows Best a reality show which centered around Hogan, his then-wife Linda, and their children Brooke and Nick. In July 2008, a spin-off entitled Brooke Knows Best premiered, which focused primarily on Hogan's daughter Brooke. Hogan hosted the comeback series of American Gladiators on NBC in 2008. He also hosted and judged the short-lived reality show, Hulk Hogan's Celebrity Championship Wrestling. Hogan had a special titled Finding Hulk Hogan on A&E on November 17, 2010. In 2015, Hogan was a judge on the sixth season of Tough Enough, alongside Paige and Daniel Bryan, but due to the scandal, he was replaced by The Miz after episode 5. Music and radio Hogan released a music CD, Hulk Rules, as Hulk Hogan and the Wrestling Boot Band, which also included Jimmy "Mouth of the South" Hart, his then-wife Linda and J.J Maguire. Despite negative reviews, Hulk Rules reached No. 12 on the Billboard Top Kid Audio chart in 1995. Green Jellÿ released a duet with Hogan, performing Gary Glitter's song "I'm the Leader of the Gang (I Am)". He has also made cameos in several music videos. From her self-named show, Dolly the music video for Dolly Parton's wrestling-themed love song "Headlock on My Heart" features Hogan as "Starlight Starbright". In the music video "Pressure" by Belly featuring Ginuwine, Hogan and his daughter Brooke both made brief cameo appearances. Hogan was a regular guest on Bubba the Love Sponge's radio show. He also served as the best man at Bubba's January 2007 wedding. On March 12, 2010, Hogan hosted his own radio show, titled Hogan Uncensored, on Sirius Satellite Radio's Howard 101. Merchandising The Wrestling Figure Checklist records Hogan as having 171 different action figures, produced between the 1980s and 2010s from numerous manufacturers and promotions. Filmography Video games Hogan provided his voice for the 2011 game Saints Row: The Third as Angel de la Muerte, a member of the Saints. In October 2011, he released a video game called Hulk Hogan's Main Event. A likeness of him, as Rex Kwan-Do, is featured as a playable police officer in This Is The Police. Hulk Hogan and Hollywood Hogan are featured in the following licensed wrestling video games: Personal life Legal issues Belzer lawsuit On March 27, 1985, just days prior to the inaugural WrestleMania, Richard Belzer requested on his cable TV talk show Hot Properties that Hogan demonstrate one of his signature wrestling moves. After consistently refusing but being egged on by Belzer, Hogan put Belzer in a modified Guillotine choke, which caused Belzer to pass out. When Hogan released him, Belzer hit his head on the floor, sustaining a laceration to the scalp that required a brief hospitalization. Belzer sued Hogan for $5 million and later settled out of court. On October 20, 2006, on the Bubba the Love Sponge Show, it was claimed (with Hogan in the studio) that the settlement totaled $5 million, half from Hogan and half from Vince McMahon. During his June 23, 2008, appearance on Sirius Satellite Radio's The Howard Stern Show, Belzer suggested that the real settlement amount was actually closer to $400,000. Testimony in McMahon trial In 1994, Hogan, having received immunity from prosecution, testified in the trial of Vince McMahon relating to shipments of steroids received by both parties from WWF physician George T. Zahorian. Under oath, Hogan admitted that he had used anabolic steroids since 1976 to gain size and weight, but that McMahon had neither sold him the drugs nor ordered him to take them. The evidence given by Hogan proved extremely costly to the government's case against McMahon. Due to this and jurisdictional issues, McMahon was found not guilty. Gawker lawsuit In April 2012, a sex tape between Hogan and Heather Clem, the estranged wife of radio personality Bubba the Love Sponge, emerged online. On October 4, 2012, Gawker released a short clip of the video. In the video, Bubba can be heard saying that the couple can "do their thing" and he will be in his office. At the end of the video, he can also be heard telling Heather, "If we ever need to retire, here is our ticket". Hogan later told Howard Stern on his satellite radio show that, "it was a bad choice and a very low point" and "I was with some friends and made a wrong choice. It has devastated me, I have never been this hurt". On October 15, 2012, Hogan filed a lawsuit against Bubba and Heather Clem for invading his privacy. A settlement with Bubba was announced on October 29, 2012. Clem publicly apologized to Hogan. In December 2012, a federal court, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit, found that Gawker's publication of the video snippet did not violate U.S. copyright law. Hogan then joined Gawker in the ongoing action against Heather Clem in state court in Florida, alleging invasion of privacy, negligent and intentional infliction of emotional distress and seeking $100 million in damages. On October 1, 2015, the New York Post reported that a Florida Judge granted Hogan access to Gawker's computer system for a forensic expert to search Gawker's computers and office. Hogan sued Gawker for $100 million for defamation, loss of privacy, and emotional pain, and on March 18, 2016, was awarded $115 million. Also, on August 11, 2016, a Florida judge gave Hogan control of the assets of A.J. Daulerio, former Gawker editor-in-chief, who was involved in the posting of Hogan's sex tape. Silicon Valley billionaire Peter Thiel helped Hogan to finance his lawsuit against Gawker Media. On November 2, 2016, Gawker reached a $31 million settlement with Hogan. Family On December 18, 1983, Hogan married Linda Claridge. They have a daughter Brooke (born May 5, 1988) and a son Nick (born July 27, 1990). Hogan made his personal life the centerpiece of the television show Hogan Knows Best, which included his wife and two children. According to an interview in the National Enquirer, Christiane Plante claimed that Hogan had an affair with her in 2007 while the Hogan family was shooting Hogan Knows Best. Plante was 33 years old at the time and had worked with Brooke Hogan on her 2006 album. On November 20, 2007, Linda filed for divorce in Pinellas County, Florida. In November 2008, Linda claimed to the public that she made the decision to end her marriage after finding out about Hogan's affair. In his 2009 autobiography, Hogan acknowledged that Linda on numerous occasions suspected he was having infidelities whenever he developed friendships with other women, but denied allegations that he ever cheated on her. Hogan only retained around 30% of the couple's liquid assets totaling around $10 million in the divorce settlement. Hogan considered committing suicide after the divorce and credits Laila Ali, his co-star on American Gladiators, with preventing him from doing so. Hulk Hogan began a relationship with Jennifer McDaniel in early 2008. The two were engaged in November 2009 and married on December 14, 2010, in Clearwater, Florida. On February 28, 2022, Hogan stated on Twitter that he and McDaniel divorced. Religion Hogan is a Christian. He has spoken about his faith in his life saying, "[I've] leaned on my religion. I was saved when I was 14. I accepted Christ as my savior. He died on the cross and paid for my sins ... I could have went the wrong way. I could have self-destructed, but I took the high road". Health Hogan has suffered numerous health problems, particularly with his back since retiring as a wrestler following the years of heavy weight-training and jolting as a wrestler. In January 2013, Hogan filed a medical malpractice lawsuit against the Laser Spine Institute for $50 million, citing that the medical firm persuaded him to undergo a half-dozen "unnecessary and ineffective" spinal operations that worsened his back problems. He claimed that the six procedures he underwent over a period of 19 months only gave him short-term relief. After the procedures failed to cure his back problems, Hogan underwent traditional spinal fusion surgery in December 2010, which enabled him to return to his professional activities. In addition, the Laser Spine Institute used his name on their advertisements without his permission. Awards and honors Hogan was honored as the 2008 King of the Krewe of Bacchus, a New Orleans carnival organization. Hogan visited the Children's Hospital of New Orleans and rode in the parade where he threw doubloons with his likeness. Hogan received the honor in part because meeting Hogan is one of the most requested "wishes" of the terminally ill children benefited by the Make-A-Wish Foundation. Hogan was inducted in the Boys and Girls Club Alumni Hall of Fame on May 3, 2018. Championships and accomplishments International Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame Class of 2021 New Japan Pro-Wrestling IWGP Heavyweight Championship (original version) (1 time) IWGP League Tournament (1983) MSG Tag League Tournament (1982, 1983) with Antonio Inoki Greatest 18 Club inductee Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum Class of 2003 Pro Wrestling Illustrated Comeback of the Year (1994, 2002) Feud of the Year (1986) Inspirational Wrestler of the Year (1983, 1999) Match of the Year (1985) Match of the Year (1988) Match of the Year (1990) Match of the Year (2002) Most Hated Wrestler of the Year (1996, 1998) Most Popular Wrestler of the Year (1985, 1989, 1990) Wrestler of the Year (1987, 1991, 1994) Ranked No. 1 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 1991 Ranked No. 1 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the PWI Years in 2003 Ranked No. 44 and No. 57 of the top 100 tag teams of the PWI Years with Antonio Inoki and Randy Savage in 2003 Southeastern Championship Wrestling NWA Southeastern Heavyweight Championship (Northern Division) (1 time) NWA Southeastern Heavyweight Championship (Southern Division) (2 times) Tokyo Sports Best Foreigner Award (1983) Match of the Year (1991) World Championship Wrestling WCW World Heavyweight Championship (6 times) World Wrestling Federation/World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE WWF/WWE Championship (6 times) WWE Tag Team Championship (1 time) with Edge Royal Rumble (1990, 1991) WWE Hall of Fame (2 times) Class of 2005 – individually Class of 2020 – as a member of the New World Order Wrestling Observer Newsletter Strongest Wrestler (1983) Best Babyface (1982–1991) Best Box Office Draw (1997) Best Gimmick (1996) Feud of the Year (1986) Feud of the Year (1996) Most Charismatic (1985–1987, 1989–1991) Most Embarrassing Wrestler (1995, 1996, 1999, 2000) Most Obnoxious (1994, 1995) Most Overrated (1985, 1986, 1994–1998) Most Unimproved (1994, 1995) Readers' Least Favorite Wrestler (1985, 1986, 1991, 1994–1999) Worst Feud of the Year (1991) Worst Feud of the Year (1995) Worst Feud of the Year (1998) Worst Feud of the Year (2000) Worst on Interviews (1995) Worst Wrestler (1997) Worst Worked Match of the Year (1987) Worst Worked Match of the Year (1996) Worst Worked Match of the Year (1997) Worst Worked Match of the Year (1998) Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame (Class of 1996) Notes References Sources External links Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame profile TNA Impact Wrestling profile (archived) Category:1953 births Category:20th-century American bass guitarists Category:20th-century American businesspeople Category:20th-century American male actors Category:20th-century American male singers Category:20th-century American singers Category:21st-century American businesspeople Category:21st-century American male actors Category:21st-century American male musicians Category:21st-century American male writers Category:21st-century American non-fiction writers Category:21st-century American rappers Category:Actors from Pinellas County, Florida Category:American autobiographers Category:American Christians Category:American food industry businesspeople Category:American lyricists Category:American male bass guitarists Category:American male film actors Category:American male guitarists Category:American male pop singers Category:American male professional wrestlers Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:American male rappers Category:American male singer-songwriters Category:American male television actors Category:American male video game actors Category:American male voice actors Category:American musicians of Panamanian descent Category:American people of French descent Category:American people of Panamanian descent Category:American people of Scottish descent Category:American professional wrestlers of Italian descent Category:American radio personalities Category:American rock bass guitarists Category:American rock guitarists Category:American rock singers Category:American rock songwriters Category:American session musicians Category:American sportspeople of Panamanian descent Category:American television hosts Category:American writers of Italian descent Category:Businesspeople from Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Businesspeople from Miami Category:Businesspeople from Tampa, Florida Category:Expatriate professional wrestlers in Japan Category:Guitarists from Florida Category:Guitarists from Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Impact Wrestling executives Category:Living people Category:Male actors from Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Male actors from Miami Category:Male actors from Tampa, Florida Category:Masked wrestlers Category:Musicians from Augusta, Georgia Category:Musicians from Miami Category:Musicians from Tampa, Florida Category:Participants in American reality television series Category:People associated with direct selling Category:Professional wrestlers from Florida Category:Professional wrestlers from Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum Category:Radio personalities from Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Radio personalities from Miami Category:Radio personalities from Tampa, Florida Category:Rappers from Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Rappers from Miami Category:Record producers from Florida Category:Record producers from Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Singer-songwriters from Florida Category:Singer-songwriters from Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Sportspeople from Augusta, Georgia Category:Sportspeople from Clearwater, Florida Category:Sportspeople from Miami Category:Sportspeople from Tampa, Florida Category:Stampede Wrestling alumni Category:Television personalities from Florida Category:Television personalities from Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Television producers from Florida Category:Television producers from Georgia (U.S. state) Category:New World Order (professional wrestling) members Category:University of South Florida alumni Category:WCW World Heavyweight Champions Category:Writers from Augusta, Georgia Category:Writers from Miami Category:Writers from Tampa, Florida Category:WWE Champions Category:WWE Hall of Fame inductees
[]
[ "In 1988, Hogan, Randy Savage, and manager Miss Elizabeth formed a partnership known as The Mega Powers. After Savage became WWF World Heavyweight Champion at WrestleMania IV, they feuded with The Mega Bucks (Andre the Giant and Ted DiBiase) and defeated them at the main event of the first SummerSlam. They then feuded with Slick's Twin Towers: Akeem and Big Boss Man. Also in mid-1988, Hogan wrestled at house shows in singles competition with his \"War Bonnet\", a red and yellow gladiator helmet with a fist-shaped crest, which was used to give Bad News Brown his first WWF loss at a Madison Square Garden house show before it was discarded altogether. The War Bonnet gimmick was later revisited in the WWE's online comedy series Are You Serious? in 2012.", "In addition to wrestling against Andre the Giant and Ted DiBiase (The Mega Bucks), Hogan also faced Akeem and Big Boss Man (Slick's Twin Towers) as part of his partnership with Randy Savage (The Mega Powers). He also wrestled against Bad News Brown at a Madison Square Garden house show.", "The Mega Powers were a partnership formed by Hulk Hogan, \"Macho Man\" Randy Savage, and their manager Miss Elizabeth.", "Together, The Mega Powers, which consisted of Hulk Hogan, \"Macho Man\" Randy Savage, and their manager Miss Elizabeth, feuded with The Mega Bucks (Andre the Giant and Ted DiBiase) and defeated them at the main event of the first SummerSlam. They then went on to feud with Slick's Twin Towers: Akeem and Big Boss Man. However, the partnership began to implode due to Savage's burgeoning jealousy of Hogan and his paranoid suspicions that Hogan and Elizabeth were more than friends. This culminated in a feud between Hogan and Savage, which Hogan won at WrestleMania V for his second WWF World Heavyweight Championship.", "The article also mentioned a unique aspect of Hogan's career where he adopted a gimmick known as the \"War Bonnet\" in mid-1988. This was a red and yellow gladiator helmet with a fist-shaped crest that he wore during house shows in singles competition. He notably used this to give Bad News Brown his first WWF loss at a Madison Square Garden house show before discarding the gimmick. The \"War Bonnet\" gimmick was later revisited in 2012 in WWE's online comedy series, Are You Serious?", "The text does not provide any confirmation that Hogan and Elizabeth were more than friends. The jealousy and suspicions were on the part of \"Macho Man\" Randy Savage, but it does not definitively state whether his suspicions were correct.", "\"Macho Man\" Randy Savage reacted to his suspicions and jealousy by becoming increasingly tense and confrontational with Hogan. The situation escalated at the Royal Rumble in 1989 when Hogan accidentally eliminated Savage. Later, during a match against The Twin Towers, Hogan took Miss Elizabeth backstage for medical attention after she was accidentally collided with. This left Savage alone in the ring, feeling abandoned. He confronted Hogan after the match, slapping him and walking out. This tension culminated in Savage attacking Hogan backstage, which sparked a feud between the two that ended with Hogan defeating Savage at WrestleMania V.", "The context does not provide information on whether the feud between Hulk Hogan and \"Macho Man\" Randy Savage ever resolved." ]
[ "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "no" ]
C_13aadb0e20b8470a9990f35dc1f181c8_0
Jack White
John Anthony Gillis was born in Detroit, Michigan, the youngest of ten children--and the seventh son--of Teresa (nee Bandyk) and Gorman M. Gillis. His mother's family was Polish, while his father was Scottish-Canadian. He was raised a Catholic, and his father and mother both worked for the Archdiocese of Detroit as the Building Maintenance Superintendent and secretary in the Cardinal's office, respectively. Gillis became an altar boy, which landed him an uncredited role in the 1987 movie The Rosary Murders, filmed mainly at Holy Redeemer parish in southwest Detroit.
Controversy
On December 13, 2003, White was involved in an altercation with Jason Stollsteimer, lead singer of the Von Bondies, at the Magic Stick, a Detroit club. White was charged with misdemeanor aggravated assault. He pleaded guilty to the lesser charge of assault and battery, was fined $750 (including court costs), and was sentenced to take anger management classes. White has repeatedly referenced conflicts that erupted between him and fellow artists in Detroit's underground music scene after The White Stripes gained international success. In a 2006 interview with the Associated Press, he said that he eventually left Detroit because, "he could not take the negativity anymore." However, in an effort to clarify his feelings towards the city of Detroit itself, he wrote and released a poem called "Courageous Dream's Concern." In it, he expresses his affection for his hometown. During their 2013 divorce proceedings, Elson entered into evidence an e-mail White had sent her that included disparaging remarks about The Black Keys. When asked about the email in a 2014 Rolling Stone magazine interview, White stood by the remarks saying, "I'll hear TV commercials where the music's ripping off sounds of mine, to the point I think it's me. Half the time, it's the Black Keys." He later apologized for the comments. However, in September 2015, Patrick Carney of the band posted a series of tweets alleging that White tried to fight him in a bar. White denied the claim in a statement to the online magazine Pitchfork, saying that Carney should talk to him directly, and not on the internet. The following day, Carney posted a tweet saying, "Talked to jack for an hour he's cool. All good." White tweeted on the Third Man Twitter account, "From one musician to another, you have my respect Patrick Carney." On February 1, 2015, the University of Oklahoma's newspaper OU Daily ran a story regarding White's February 2 show at McCasland Field House that included the publication of White's tour rider. The rider, especially the guacamole recipe it included and White's ban of bananas backstage, received significant media coverage. It was later reported that in response to the rider's publication White's booking agency, William Morris Endeavor Entertainment, had banned its acts from playing shows at the University of Oklahoma. On February 15 White released an open letter addressed to "journalists and other people looking for drama or a diva" in which he referred to the guacamole recipe as his tour manager's "inside joke with local promoters" and "just something to break up the boredom" while criticizing journalists who wrote about the rider as "out of their element." In the same letter he forgave OU Daily for publishing the story and reaffirmed his desire to perform in Oklahoma. In October 2016--upon learning that Donald Trump had used the White Stripes' song "Seven Nation Army" in video campaign materials--White denounced the presidential candidate, and began selling shirts reading "Icky Trump" through the Third Man Records website. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "What controversy surrounds Jack White?", "Did he plead guilty to the charge?", "Who was he accused of assaulting?", "What caused the altercation?", "How did this controversy affect music sales?", "Where did he go after leaving Detroit?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?" ]
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John Anthony White (; born July 9, 1975) is an American musician, singer, songwriter, and music producer, best known as the lead singer and guitarist of the duo The White Stripes. White has enjoyed consistent critical and popular success and is widely credited as one of the key artists in the garage rock revival of the 2000s. He has won 12 Grammy Awards, and three of his solo albums have reached number one on the Billboard charts. Rolling Stone ranked him number 70 on its 2010 list of "The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time". David Fricke's 2010 list ranked him at number 17. In 2012, the New York Times called White "the coolest, weirdest and savviest rockstar of our time". After moonlighting in several underground Detroit bands as a drummer, White founded the White Stripes with fellow Detroit native and then-wife Meg White in 1997. Their 2001 breakthrough album, White Blood Cells, brought them international fame with the hit single and accompanying music video "Fell in Love with a Girl". This recognition provided White opportunities to collaborate with famous artists, including Loretta Lynn and Bob Dylan. In 2005, White founded the Raconteurs with Brendan Benson, and in 2009 founded the Dead Weather with Alison Mosshart of the Kills. In 2008, he recorded "Another Way to Die" (the title song for the 2008 James Bond film Quantum of Solace) with Alicia Keys, making them the only duet to perform a Bond song. White has released four solo studio albums, which have garnered wide critical and commercial success. White is a board member of the Library of Congress' National Recording Preservation Foundation. His record label and studio Third Man Records releases vinyl recordings of his own work as well as that of other artists and local school children. His second studio album, Lazaretto (2014), holds the record for most first-week vinyl sales since 1991. White has an extensive collection of guitars and other instruments and has a preference for vintage items that often have connections to famous blues artists. He is a vocal advocate for analog technology and recording techniques. White values his privacy and has been known to create misdirection about his personal life. He and Meg White married in 1996, but divorced in 2000 before the height of the band's fame. They then began calling themselves siblings. He was married to model and singer Karen Elson from 2005 to 2013; they have a son and daughter. In 2022, he married musician Olivia Jean. He currently resides in Nashville, Tennessee. Early life John Anthony Gillis was born in Detroit, Michigan, on July 9, 1975, the youngest of ten children of Teresa (née Bandyk; born 1930) and Gorman M. Gillis. His mother's family was Polish, while his father was Scottish-Canadian. He was raised a Catholic, and his father and mother both worked for the Archdiocese of Detroit as the building maintenance superintendent and secretary in the Cardinal's office, respectively. Gillis became an altar boy, which landed him an uncredited role in the 1987 movie The Rosary Murders, filmed mainly at Most Holy Redeemer parish in southwest Detroit. He attended Cass Technical High School in Detroit. Gillis' early musical influences were his older brothers, who were in a band together called Catalyst, and he learned to play the instruments they abandoned; he began playing the drums in the first grade after finding a kit in the attic. As a child, he was a fan of classical music, but in elementary school, he began listening to the Doors, Pink Floyd, and Led Zeppelin. As a "shorthaired [teenager] with braces", Gillis began listening to the blues and 1960s rock that would influence him in the White Stripes, with Son House and Blind Willie McTell being among his favorite blues guitarists. He has said in interviews that Son House's "Grinnin' in Your Face" is his favorite song of all time. As a drummer, his heroes include Gene Krupa, Stewart Copeland, and Crow Smith from Flat Duo Jets. In 2005, on 60 Minutes, he told Mike Wallace that his life could have turned out differently. "I'd got accepted to a seminary in Wisconsin, and I was gonna become a priest, but at the last second I thought, 'I'll just go to public school.' I had just gotten a new amplifier in my bedroom, and I didn't think I was allowed to take it with me." Instead, he got accepted into Cass Technical High School as a business major, and played the drums and trombone in the band. At 15, he began a three-year upholstery apprenticeship with a family friend, Brian Muldoon. He credits Muldoon with exposing him to punk music as they worked together in the shop. Muldoon goaded his young apprentice into forming a band: "He played drums", Gillis thought. "Well I guess I'll play guitar then." The two recorded an album, Makers of High Grade Suites, as the Upholsterers. As a senior in high school, he met Megan White at the Memphis Smoke restaurant where she worked, and they frequented the coffee shops, local music venues, and record stores of the area. After a courtship, they married on September 21, 1996. In a reversal of tradition, he legally took her last name. After completing his apprenticeship, he started a one-man business of his own, Third Man Upholstery. The slogan of his business was "Your Furniture's Not Dead" and the color scheme was yellow and black—including a yellow van, a yellow-and-black uniform, and a yellow clipboard. Although Third Man Upholstery never lacked business, he claims it was unprofitable due to his complacency about money and his business practices that were perceived as unprofessional, including making bills out in crayon and writing poetry inside the furniture. Music career Group projects The White Stripes (1997–2011) At 19 years old, Jack had landed his first professional gig as the drummer for the Detroit band Goober & the Peas, and was still in that position when the band broke up in 1996. It was in this band that he learned about touring and performing onstage. After the band's split, he settled into working as an upholsterer by day while moonlighting in local bands, as well as performing solo shows. Though a bartender by trade, Meg began to learn to play the drums in 1997 and, according to Jack, "When she started to play drums with me, just on a lark, it felt liberating and refreshing." The couple became a band, calling themselves the White Stripes, and two months later performed their first show at the Gold Dollar in Detroit. Despite being married, Jack and Meg publicly presented themselves as siblings. They kept to a chromatic theme, dressing only in red, white, and black. They began their career as part of Michigan's underground garage rock music scene. They played along with and opened for more established local bands such as Bantam Rooster, the Dirtbombs, Two-Star Tabernacle, Rocket 455, and the Hentchmen. In 1998, the White Stripes were signed to Italy Records—a small and independent Detroit-based garage punk label—by Dave Buick. The band released its eponymous debut album in 1999, and a year later the album was followed up by the cult classic, De Stijl. The album eventually peaked at number 38 in Billboards Independent Albums chart. In 2001, the band released White Blood Cells. The album's stripped-down garage rock sound drew critical acclaim in the US and beyond, making the White Stripes one of the more acclaimed bands of 2002, and forefront figures in the garage band revival of the time. John Peel, an influential DJ and the band's early advocate in the UK, said they were the most exciting thing he'd heard since Jimi Hendrix. The New York Times said of White, "beneath the arty facade lies one of the most cagey, darkly original rockers to come along since Kurt Cobain." The album was followed up in 2003 by the commercially and critically successful Elephant. The critic at AllMusic wrote that the album "sounds even more pissed-off, paranoid and stunning than its predecessor ... darker and more difficult than White Blood Cells". The album's first single, "Seven Nation Army", became the band's signature song, reaching number one on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart for three weeks, winning the 2004 Grammy Award for Best Rock Song, and becoming an international sporting and protest anthem. The band's fifth album, Get Behind Me Satan, was recorded in White's own home and marked a change in the band's musical direction, with piano-driven melodies and experimentation with marimba and a more rhythm-based guitar playing by White. The band's sixth album, Icky Thump, was released in 2007, and unlike their previous lo-fi albums, it was recorded in Nashville at Blackbird Studio. The album was regarded as a return to the band's earlier blues and garage-rock sound. It debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 chart, and entered the UK Albums Chart at number one, selling over 300,000 vinyl copies in England alone. Of his excitement for vinyl, White explained, "We can't afford to lose the feeling of cracking open a new record and looking at large artwork and having something you can hold in your hands." In support of the album, they launched a Canadian tour, in which they played a gig in every one of the country's provinces and territories. However, later that year, the band announced the cancellation of 18 tour dates due to Meg's struggle with acute anxiety. A few days later, the duo canceled the remainder of their 2007 UK tour dates as well. White worked with other artists in the meantime, but revealed the band's plan to release a seventh album by the summer of 2009. On February 20, 2009—and on the final episode of Late Night with Conan O'Brien—the band made their first live appearance after the cancellation of the tour, and a documentary about their Canadian tour—titled The White Stripes: Under Great White Northern Lights—debuted later that year at the Toronto International Film Festival. However, almost two years passed with no new releases, and on February 2, 2011, the band reported on their official website that they were disbanding. White emphasized that it was not due to health issues or artistic differences, "but mostly to preserve what is beautiful and special about the band". The Raconteurs (2005–2014, 2018–present) In 2005, while collaborating with Brendan Benson—a fellow Michigan native whom White had worked with before—they composed a song called "Steady, as She Goes". This inspired them to create a full band, and they invited Jack Lawrence and Patrick Keeler of the Greenhornes to join them in what would become the Raconteurs. The musicians met in Benson's home studio in Detroit and, for the remainder of the year, they recorded when time allowed. The result was the band's debut album, Broken Boy Soldiers. Reaching the Top Ten charts in both the US and the UK, it was nominated for Best Rock Album at the 2006 Grammy Awards. The lead single, "Steady, As She Goes" was nominated for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal. The Raconteurs set out on tour to support the album, including eight dates as the opening act for Bob Dylan. The group's second album, Consolers of the Lonely, and its first single, "Salute Your Solution", were released simultaneously in 2008. The album reached number seven on the Billboard 200 chart, and received a Grammy nomination for Best Rock Album. The group rebanded to create the new album Help Us Stranger in 2019. This release was followed by a US tour. The Dead Weather (2009–2015) While on tour to promote Consolers of the Lonely, White developed bronchitis and often lost his voice. Alison Mosshart, the frontwoman for the Kills (who was touring with the Raconteurs at the time) would often fill in as his vocal replacement. The chemistry between the two artists led them to collaborate, and in early 2009, White formed a new group called the Dead Weather. Mosshart sang, White played drums and shared vocal duties, Jack Lawrence of the Raconteurs played bass, and the Queens of the Stone Age keyboardist and guitarist Dean Fertita rounded out the four-piece. The group debuted a handful of new tracks on March 11, 2009, in Nashville from their debut album Horehound. It came out on July 13, 2009, in Europe and July 14, 2009, in North America on White's Third Man Records label. In October 2009, Mosshart confirmed that the second album was "halfway done", and the first single, "Die by the Drop", was released on March 30, 2010. The new album (again on the Third Man Records label) was titled Sea of Cowards and was released on May 7 of that year in Ireland, on May 10 in the United Kingdom, and on May 11 in the U.S. Announcement of their third album, Dodge & Burn, was made in July 2015 for a worldwide release in September by Third Man Records. Along with four previously released tracks, remixed and remastered, the album features eight new songs. Other collaborations Rumors began to circulate in 2003 that White had collaborated with Electric Six for their song "Danger! High Voltage". He and the Electric Six both denied this, and the vocal work was credited officially to John S O'Leary. In subsequent interviews with Chris Handyside, however, Dick Valentine and Corey Martin (Electric Six band members) acknowledged White's involvement and confirmed that he received no payment. White worked with Loretta Lynn on her 2004 album Van Lear Rose, which he produced and performed on. The album was a critical and commercial success. In 2008, White collaborated with Alicia Keys on the song "Another Way to Die", the theme song for the James Bond film Quantum of Solace. In 2009, Jack White was featured in It Might Get Loud, a film in which he, Jimmy Page, and the Edge come together to discuss the electric guitar and each artist's different playing methods. White's first solo single, "Fly Farm Blues", was written and recorded in 10 minutes during the filming of the movie that August. The single went on sale as a 7-inch vinyl record from Third Man Records and as a digital single available through iTunes on August 11, 2010. In November 2010, producer Danger Mouse announced that White—along with Norah Jones—had been recruited for his collaboration with Daniele Luppi entitled Rome. White provided vocals to three songs on the album: "The Rose with the Broken Neck", "Two Against One", and "The World". White finished and performed the song "You Know That I Know", and it was featured on The Lost Notebooks of Hank Williams, released on October 4, 2011. In that same year, he produced and played on Wanda Jackson's album The Party Ain't Over. To her delight, his studio also released the album on a 7-inch vinyl. White also appeared on AHK-toong BAY-bi Covered, performing a cover of U2's "Love Is Blindness". White has worked with other artists as well, including Beck, the Rolling Stones, Jeff Beck, Bob Dylan, and Insane Clown Posse. Solo career (2012–present) Blunderbuss (2012) On January 30, 2012, White released "Love Interruption" as the first single off his debut, self-produced solo album, Blunderbuss, which was released on April 24, 2012. The album ultimately debuted number one on the Billboard 200 chart, and in support of the album, he appeared on Saturday Night Live as the musical guest and played at select festivals during the summer of 2012, including the Firefly Music Festival, Radio 1's Hackney Weekend, the Sasquatch! Music Festival, the Fuji Rock Festival in Japan (one of the biggest festivals in the world), and Rock Werchter in Belgium. Later in the year, he headlined Austin City Limits Music Festival. During his tour for the album, White employed two live bands, which he alternated between at random. The first, called the Peacocks, was all female and consisted of Ruby Amanfu, Carla Azar, Lillie Mae Rische, Maggie Björklund, Brooke Waggoner, and alternating bassists Bryn Davies and Catherine Popper. The other, the Buzzards, was all male and consisted of Daru Jones, Dominic Davis, Fats Kaplin, Ikey Owens, and Cory Younts. White said maintaining two bands was too expensive, and abandoned the practice at the conclusion of the tour. Blunderbuss was ultimately nominated for several Grammys, including Album of the Year, Best Rock Album, and Best Rock Song for "Freedom at 21". Lazaretto (2014) On April 1, 2014, White announced his second solo album, Lazaretto, inspired by plays and poetry he had written as a teen. It was released on June 10, 2014, simultaneously with the first single off the album, "High Ball Stepper". The album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 chart and, in a personal triumph for White, broke the record for the largest sales week for a vinyl album since SoundScan began tracking sales in 1991. The album was widely praised among critics, and was nominated for three Grammy Awards: Best Alternative Music Album, as well as Best Rock Song and Best Rock Performance (for the song "Lazaretto"). During the supporting tour, he performed the longest show of his career on July 30, 2014, at the Detroit Masonic Temple, and later performed as one of the headliners at the Coachella Festival over two weekends in April 2015. On April 14, 2015, White announced that the festival would be his last electric set, followed by one acoustic show in each of the five U.S. states he had yet to perform in, before he would be taking a prolonged break from live performances. However, he performed on the inaugural episode of the radio show A Prairie Home Companion with the new host Chris Thile, on October 15, 2016, in support of his compilation album Acoustic Recordings 1998–2016. He co-wrote the song "Don't Hurt Yourself " with Beyoncé on her album Lemonade, and accompanied her on the vocals. Boarding House Reach (2018) Ahead of his next effort, White worked in isolation and without a cell phone; he rented an apartment in Nashville, recorded quietly so no one would know what he was working on, and slept on an army cot. He drew inspiration from rap artists of the 1980s and 1990s (as well as A Tribe Called Quest, Kanye West, and Nicki Minaj), and chose his backing musicians from talent that played supporting hip hop artists live. On December 12, 2017, he released a four-minute video titled "Servings and Portions from my Boarding House Reach", which featured short sound bites of new music interspersed with white noise. In January 2018, White released "Connected by Love", taken from his third solo album Boarding House Reach, which was released on March 23, 2018. Like its two preceding albums, it landed at number one on the Billboard 200 chart. In promotion of his album, White appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon and on Saturday Night Live as the musical guest, where he played "Over and Over and Over" and "Connected by Love". White released Jack White: Kneeling at The Anthem D.C., his first concert film as a solo artist, on September 21, 2018, exclusively on Amazon Prime Video. Fear of the Dawn and Entering Heaven Alive (2022) In October 2021, White released "Taking Me Back", his first solo single since 2018, which appeared in the game Call of Duty: Vanguard. In November, White revealed that he would release two solo albums in 2022: Fear of the Dawn, which will feature White's traditional rock sound, on April 8, and Entering Heaven Alive, a folk album, on July 22. White also released a video for "Taking Me Back" on November 11. Together, the albums were named the dual number one album of the year by Rough Trade UK. In December 2021, White announced the Supply Chain Issues Tour kicking off on April 8, 2022, in Detroit, Michigan. The tour covers North America and Europe. White performed on Saturday Night Live on February 25, 2023. He played two songs from his Fear of the Dawn album and was presented with a jacket for being a Fiver-Timer on the show. Other ventures Film and television work White has also had a minor acting career. He appeared in the 2003 film Cold Mountain as a character named Georgia and performed five songs for the Cold Mountain soundtrack: "Sittin' on Top of the World", "Wayfaring Stranger", "Never Far Away", "Christmas Time Soon Will Be Over" and "Great High Mountain". The 2003 Jim Jarmusch film Coffee and Cigarettes featured both Jack and Meg in the segment "Jack Shows Meg His Tesla Coil". He also played Elvis Presley in the 2007 satire Walk Hard: The Dewey Cox Story. In 2016, he appeared as a special guest on the season one finale of The Muppets, and sang "You Are the Sunshine of My Life", which he later released on 7-inch vinyl. In June 2017, White appeared in the award-winning documentary film The American Epic Sessions, recording on the first electrical sound recording system from the 1920s. His performances of "Matrimonial Intentions", "Mama's Angel Child", "2 Fingers of Whiskey (with Elton John) and "On the Road Again' and "One Mic" (with Nas) appeared on Music from The American Epic Sessions: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack. He was an executive producer of the film. Third Man Records White co-founded Third Man Records in 2001 with Ben Swank, formerly of the Ohio-based Soledad Brothers band. However, it was not until after he moved to Nashville that White purchased a space in 2009 to house his label. He explained, "For the longest time I did not want to have my own studio gear, mostly because with the White Stripes I wanted to have the constriction of going into a studio and having a set time of 10 days or two weeks to finish an album, and using whatever gear they happen to have there. After 10 to 15 years of recording like that I felt that it was finally time for me to have my own place to produce music, and have exactly what I want in there: the exact tape machines, the exact microphones, the exact amplifiers that I like, and so on." Using the slogan "Your Turntable's Not Dead", Third Man also presses vinyl records, for the artists on its label, for White's own musical ventures, as well as for third parties for hire. In March 2015, Third Man joined in the launch of TIDAL, a music streaming service that Jay-Z purchased and co-owns with other major music artists. Later that year, White partnered with the watch manufacturer Shinola to open a retail location in Detroit. Artistry Instruments and equipment White owns many instruments and, historically, has tended to use certain ones for specific projects or in certain settings. He has a preference for vintage guitars, many of which are associated with influential blues artists. Much of his equipment is custom-made, for both technical and aesthetic reasons. White is a proficient guitar, bass, mandolin, percussion and piano player. During his career with the White Stripes, White principally used three guitars, though he used others as well. The red, "JB Hutto", Airline guitar was a vintage 1964 model originally distributed by Montgomery Ward department store. Though used by several artists, White's attachment to the instrument raised its popularity to the extent that Eastwood Guitars began producing a modified replica around 2000. The 1950s-era Kay Hollowbody was a gift from his brother in return for a favor. It was the same brand of electric guitar made popular by Howlin' Wolf, and White most famously used it on "Seven Nation Army". He began using a 1915 Gibson L-1 acoustic (often called the Robert Johnson model) on the Icky Thump album; in an interview for Gibson, he called the instrument his favorite. He also used a three-pickup Airline Town & Country (later featured in the "Steady As She Goes" music video), a Harmony Rocket, a 1970s-era Crestwood Astral II, and what would become the first of three custom Gretsch Rancher Falcon acoustic guitars. While with the Stripes, any equipment that did not match their red/black/white color scheme was painted red. On Black Friday in 2013, Third Man Records diversified and launched the Bumble Buzz pedal an octave fuzz built for Third Man by Vancouver, British Columbia's Union Tube and Transistor. In 2014 the pedal was reviewed by Premier Guitar, and is found in Jack's pedal setup. While the Raconteurs were still in development, White commissioned luthier Randy Parsons to create what White called the Triple Jet—a custom guitar styled after the Duo Jet double-cutaway guitar. Parsons's first product was painted copper color, however he decided to create a second version with a completely copper body, which White began to use instead. For the Raconteurs first tour, White also played a Gretsch Anniversary Jr. with a Bigsby vibrato tailpiece and three Filtertron pickups. He later added a custom Gretsch Anniversary Jr. with two cutaways, a lever-activated mute system, a built-in and retractable bullet microphone, and a light-activated theremin next to the Bigsby. White has dubbed this one the "Green Machine", and it is featured in It Might Get Loud. He sometimes played a Gibson J-160E, a Gretsch Duo Jet in Cadillac Green, and a second Gretsch Rancher acoustic guitar. For the Raconteurs' 2008 tour, he had Analog Man plate all of his pedals in copper. In 2020 White completed his Three-Wheel-Motion Low Rider - which is a highly customized Fender Telecaster B-Bender guitar. He has since acquired another Gretsch, a custom white "Billy Bo" Jupiter Thunderbird with a gold double pickguard (as seen in the music video for "Another Way to Die"). White found a 1957 Gretsch G6134 White Penguin in 2007 while on tour in Texas—the same one he used in the music video for "Icky Thump"—which ultimately fit in with the Dead Weather's color scheme. He also uses a black left-handed one since the Dead Weather album Sea of Cowards came out. He has also been known to play Fender Telecasters, featuring one in the music video for Loretta Lynn's "Portland, Oregon". White owns three Gretsch Rancher Falcons because he says that its bass tones make it his favorite acoustic to play live. They are collectively referred to as his "girlfriends", as each one has an image of a classic movie star on the back. Claudette Colbert is the brunette he used while with the Stripes, Rita Hayworth is the redhead he acquired with the Raconteurs, and Veronica Lake is the blonde he added in 2010 while with the Dead Weather. Since 2018, White has been playing EVH Wolfgang guitars, which are Eddie Van Halen's signature model. White uses numerous effects to create his live sound, most notably a DigiTech Whammy WH-4 to create the rapid modulations in pitch he uses in his solos. White also produces a "fake" bass tone by playing the Kay Hollowbody and JB Hutto Montgomery Airline guitars through a Whammy IV set to one octave down for a very thick, low, rumbling sound, which he uses most notably on the song "Seven Nation Army". He also uses an MXR Micro Amp and custom Electro-Harmonix Big Muff Distortion/Sustainer. In 2005, for the single "Blue Orchid", White employed an Electro-Harmonix Polyphonic Octave Generator (POG), which let him mix in several octave effects into one along with the dry signal. He plugs this setup into a 1970s Fender Twin Reverb "Silverface" and two 100-Watt Sears Silvertone 1485 6×10 amplifiers. He also used a 1960s Fender Twin Reverb "Blackface". On occasion, White also plays other instruments, such as a Black Gibson F-4 mandolin ("Little Ghost"), piano (on most tracks from Get Behind Me Satan, and various others), and an electric piano on such tracks as "The Air Near My Fingers" and "I'm Finding it Harder to be a Gentleman". White also plays percussion instruments such as the marimba (as on "The Nurse"), drums and tambourine. For the White Stripes' 2007 tour, he played a custom-finish Hammond A-100 organ with a Leslie 3300 speaker, which was subsequently loaned to Bob Dylan, and currently resides at Third Man Studios. On the album Broken Boy Soldiers, both he and Benson are credited with playing the album's synths and organ. With the Dead Weather, White plays a custom Ludwig Classic Maple kit in Black Oyster Pearl. Notably, it includes two-snare drums, which White calls "the jazz canon". For the 2009 Full Flash Blank tour, White used a drum head with the Three Brides of Dracula on the front, but in 2010, White employed a new drum head, upon the release of Sea of Cowards, which has an image of The Third Man himself: Harry Lime attempting to escape certain capture in the sewers of Vienna. During the American leg of the 2010 tour, White switched his drum head again featuring a picture of himself in the guise he wore on the cover of Sea of Cowards. This drum head is called Sam Kay by some fans, referring to the insert inside of the 12" LP. Minimalist style White has long been a proponent of analog equipment and the associated working methods. Beginning in the fifth grade, he and his childhood friend, Dominic Suchyta, would listen to records in White's attic on weekends and began to record cover songs on an old four-track reel-to-reel tape machine. The White Stripes' first album was largely recorded in the attic of his parents' home. As their fame grew beyond Detroit, the Stripes became known for their affected innocence and stripped-down playing style. In particular, White became distinguished for his nasal vocal delivery and loose, explosive guitar delivery. In an early New York Times concert review from 2001, Ann Powers said that, while White's playing was "ingenious", he "created more challenges by playing an acoustic guitar with paper taped over the hole and a less-than-high-quality solid body electric". His home studio in Nashville contains two rooms ("I want everyone close, focused, feeling like we're in it together.") with two pieces of equipment: a Neve mixing console, and two Studer A800 2-inch 8-track tape recorders. In his introduction in the documentary film, It Might Get Loud, White showcases his minimalist style by constructing a guitar built out of a plank of wood, three nails, a glass Coke bottle, a guitar string, and a pickup. He ends the demonstration by saying, "Who says you need to buy a guitar?" In a 2012 episode of the show, Portlandia, White made a cameo in a sketch spoofing home studio enthusiasts who prefer antique recording equipment. Reception White has enjoyed both critical and commercial success, and is widely credited as one of the key artists in the garage rock revival of the 2000s. Rolling Stone ranked him number 70 on its 2010 list of "The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time". David Fricke's 2011 list ranked him at number 17. He has won twelve Grammy Awards, with 33 nominations, and three solo albums have reached number one on the Billboard charts. Interviewers note the wide breadth of the music styles and eras he draws from for inspiration. In May 2015, the Music City Walk of Fame announced that it would be honoring White (along with Loretta Lynn) with a medallion at its re-opening in Nashville. On February 8, 2017, White was the honoree of the Producers and Engineers Wing of the Recording Academy during the annual Grammy Week celebration for his commitment "to working diligently to ensure that the quality and integrity of recorded music are captured and preserved". Much has been made of White's "showmanship" and affectations. Since the beginning, critics have debated the "riddle" of White's self-awareness against his claims of authenticity, with people falling on both sides of the issue. Joe Hagan of The New York Times asked in 2001, "Is Mr. White, a 25-year-old former upholsterer from southwest Detroit, concocting this stuff with a wink? Or are the White Stripes simply naïve?" Alexis Petridis, of The Guardian, said that White "makes for an enigmatic figure. Not because he's particularly difficult or guarded, but simply because what he tells you suggests a lifelong penchant for inscrutable behavior." White himself confesses, "Sometimes I think I'm a simple guy, but I think the reality is I'm really complicated, as simple as I wish I was." Personal life White is protective of his privacy and gives few details of his family life, even going as far as to disseminate false information. He states that he does not consider his personal life relevant to his art, saying "It's the same thing as asking Michelangelo, 'What kind of shoes do you wear?' ... In the end, it doesn't really matter ... the only thing that's going to be left is our records and photos." His collection of esoterica include Lead Belly's New York City arrest record, James Brown's Georgia driver's license from the 1980s, and a copy of the first Superman comic from June 1938. For $300,000 in January 2015, an online bidder won an auction for Elvis Presley's first recording ever—an acetate of the two cover songs: "My Happiness" and "That's When Your Heartaches Begin". In its edition of March 6, 2015, Billboard magazine announced the buyer had been White. The vinyl record was recorded at Sun Studio in Memphis, Tennessee in the summer of 1953 when Presley was 18 years old. Raised in Detroit, White is a fan of the Detroit Tigers baseball team. On multiple occasions, he has decried video games as being useless and a waste of time, going so far as to state that he doesn't allow his kids to play them. Despite this, his songs have appeared in the trailers for Call of Duty: Vanguard, Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare, and Battlefield 1, and on the soundtracks of Forza Horizon 4 and numerous Guitar Hero games. Relationships Jack and Meg married on September 21, 1996, and divorced on March 24, 2000. Jack took Meg's last name, legally changing his surname. After the White Stripes broke up, he mentions he "almost never talks to Meg", adding that she has been solitary. In 2003, he had a brief relationship with actress Renée Zellweger, whom he met during the filming of Cold Mountain. That summer, the couple were in a car accident in which White broke his left index finger and was forced to reschedule much of the summer tour. He posted the footage of his finger surgery on the web for fans. White and Zellweger's breakup became public in December 2004. White met British model Karen Elson when she appeared in the White Stripes' music video for "Blue Orchid". They married on June 1, 2005, in Manaus, Brazil. The wedding took place in a canoe on the Amazon River and was officiated by a shaman. A Roman Catholic priest later convalidated their marriage. Manager Ian Montone was the best man and Meg White was the maid of honor. Official wedding announcements stated that "it was the first marriage" for both. In 2006, the couple had a daughter. A son was born in 2007. The family resided in Brentwood, a suburb south of Nashville, where Elson managed a vintage clothing store called Venus & Mars. Elson provided vocals on White's first solo record. The couple announced their intention to divorce in June 2011, throwing "a positive swing bang humdinger" party to commemorate the split. On July 22, 2013, a Nashville judge barred White from having "any contact with Karen Elson whatsoever except as it relates to parenting time with the parties' minor children". A counter-motion was filed on August 2, 2013, stating that "The reason for filing this response is that Mr. White does not want to be portrayed as something he is not, violent toward his wife and children." The divorce was finalized on November 26, 2013. Elson later recanted the charges, attributing the "aggressive" proceedings to her divorce attorneys, and saying "those who gain of a marriage ending helped to create a downward spiral at my most vulnerable." White agreed, saying, "When shitty lawyers are in a situation like divorce, their goal is to villainize." The former couple reportedly remain on good terms. On April 8, 2022, White played the national anthem for a Detroit Tigers game, then proposed to his girlfriend, Olivia Jean, near the end of a concert performance at the Detroit Masonic Temple, while "Hotel Yorba" was being played. Jean and White were married shortly afterward by White's business partner Ben Swank who officiated on stage. Politics In October 2016, upon learning that Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump had used the White Stripes song "Seven Nation Army" in video campaign materials, White denounced the presidential candidate and began selling shirts reading "Icky Trump"—a play on the White Stripes song "Icky Thump"—through the Third Man Records website. He publicly endorsed Senator Bernie Sanders for the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries and performed a six-song set at a Sanders event at Cass Technical High School on October 27, 2019. At the rally, White stated that he believes that "Sanders is telling the truth, and I really do trust him". He was drawn in by Sanders' view that the Electoral College should be abolished, also stating at the rally that "I have this silly notion that the person who gets the most votes should be elected" and "[the Electoral College] is the reason we're in the mess we're in now". On November 20, 2022, White wrote a note to Elon Musk explaining his reason for leaving the Twitter platform, he said, "So you gave Trump his Twitter platform back. Absolutely disgusting, Elon. That is officially an asshole move". Eccentricity White has been called "eccentric". He is known for creating a mythology around his endeavors; examples include his claim that the Stripes began on Bastille Day, that he and Meg are the two youngest of ten siblings, and that Third Man Records used to be a candy factory. These assertions came into question or were disproven, as when, in 2002, the Detroit Free Press produced copies of both a marriage license and divorce certificate for him and Meg, confirming their history as a married couple. Neither addresses the truth officially, and Jack continues to refer to Meg as his sister in interviews, including in the documentary Under Great White Northern Lights, filmed in 2007. In a 2005 interview with Rolling Stone magazine, Jack alluded to this open secret, implying that it was intended to keep the focus on the music rather than the couple's relationship: When you see a band that is two pieces, husband and wife, boyfriend and girlfriend, you think, 'Oh, I see ... ' When they're brother and sister, you go, 'Oh, that's interesting.' You care more about the music, not the relationship—whether they're trying to save their relationship by being in a band. He has an attachment to the number three, stemming from seeing three staples in the back of a Vladimir Kagan couch he helped to upholster as an apprentice. His business ventures frequently feature "three" in the title and he typically appends "III" to the end of his name. During the White Stripes 2005 tour in the UK, White began referring to himself as "Three Quid"—"quid" being British slang for pound sterling. He maintains an aesthetic that he says challenges whether people will believe he is "real". He frequently color-codes his endeavors, such as the aforementioned Third Man Upholstery and the White Stripes, as well as Third Man Records, which is completely outfitted in yellow, black, red, and blue (including staff uniforms). As a taxidermy enthusiast—that correlates to his work as an upholsterer—he decorates his studio in preserved animals, including a peacock, giraffe, and Himalayan goat. Controversies On December 13, 2003, White was involved in an altercation with Jason Stollsteimer, lead singer of the Von Bondies, at the Magic Stick, a Detroit club. White was charged with misdemeanor aggravated assault. He pleaded guilty to the lesser charge of assault and battery, was fined $750 (including court costs), and was sentenced to take anger management classes. White has repeatedly referenced conflicts that erupted between him and fellow artists in Detroit's underground music scene after the White Stripes gained international success. In a 2006 interview with the Associated Press, he said that he eventually left Detroit because, "he could not take the negativity anymore." However, in an effort to clarify his feelings towards the city of Detroit itself, he wrote and released a poem called "Courageous Dream's Concern". In it, he expresses his affection for his hometown. During their 2013 divorce proceedings, Elson entered into evidence an e-mail White had sent her that included disparaging remarks about the Black Keys. When asked about the email in a 2014 Rolling Stone magazine interview, White stood by the remarks saying, "I'll hear TV commercials where the music's ripping off sounds of mine, to the point I think it's me. Half the time, it's the Black Keys." He later apologized for the comments. However, in September 2015, Black Keys drummer Patrick Carney posted a series of tweets alleging that White tried to fight him in a bar. White denied the claim in a statement to the online magazine Pitchfork, saying that Carney should talk to him directly, and not on the internet. The following day, Carney posted a tweet saying, "Talked to jack for an hour he's cool. All good." White tweeted on the Third Man Twitter account, "From one musician to another, you have my respect Patrick Carney." On February 1, 2015, the University of Oklahoma's newspaper OU Daily ran a story regarding White's show of February 2 at McCasland Field House that included the publication of White's tour rider. The rider, especially the guacamole recipe it included and White's ban of bananas backstage, received some media coverage. It was later reported that in response to the rider's publication White's booking agency, William Morris Endeavor Entertainment, had banned its acts from playing shows at the University of Oklahoma. On February 15, White released an open letter addressed to "journalists and other people looking for drama or a diva" in which he referred to the guacamole recipe as his tour manager's "inside joke with local promoters" and "just something to break up the boredom" and the ban of bananas being alluded to food allergies of an unnamed tour member, while criticizing journalists who wrote about the rider as "out of their element". In the same letter, he forgave OU Daily for publishing the story and reaffirmed his affinity for the state of Oklahoma and his desire to perform there. Philanthropy White has provided financial support to institutions in his hometown of Detroit. In 2009, White donated almost $170,000 towards the renovation of the baseball diamond in southwest Detroit's Clark Park. The Detroit Masonic Temple was nearly foreclosed on in 2013 after it was revealed that owners owed $142,000 in back taxes. In June 2013, it was revealed that White had footed the entire bill. To thank him for the donation, the temple has decided to rename its second largest theater the Jack White Theater. The National Recording Preservation Foundation received an inaugural gift of $200,000 from White to use toward restoring and preserving deteriorating sound recordings on media such as reel-to-reel tape and old cylinders. The foundation's director, Eric J. Schwartz said the donation demonstrated a "commitment by a really busy songwriter and performer donating both his time on the board, and money to preserve our national song recording heritage". White also serves on the foundation's board. In July 2016, White joined Nashville's 45-member Gender Equality Council. On September 18, 2018, White donated $30,000 to The Outsiders House Museum for its preservation and restoration. On May 3, 2019, Wayne State University of Detroit, Michigan awarded White with an honorary doctor of humane letters degree "for his dedication to Detroit and significant contributions to the arts as one of the most prolific and renowned artists of the past two decades". Awards and nominations For his various collaborations and solo work, White has won regional, national and international awards, including twelve Grammy Awards and has been nominated for 33. Nashville mayor Karl Dean awarded White the title of "Nashville Music City Ambassador" in 2011. Back-up band Although a solo artist, White performs with a live band to provide additional instrumentation and vocals. Current lineup Dominic Davis – bass, backing vocals Daru Jones – drums Quincy McCrary – keyboards, samples, synthesizer, organ, backing vocals Boarding House Reach-era lineup Carla Azar – acoustic drums, percussion, backing vocals Dominic Davis – bass Neal Evans – piano, synthesizer, organ, keyboards, electronic drums, backing vocals Quincy McCrary – keyboards, samples, backing vocals Lazaretto-era lineup Dominic Davis – bass Dean Fertita – Hammond organ, piano, keyboards Daru Jones – drums Fats Kaplin – pedal steel guitar, fiddle, mandolin, theremin Lillie Mae Rische – fiddle, mandolin, backing vocals Lazaretto-era previous members Isaiah "Ikey" Owens – B3 organ, piano, keyboards Cory Younts – mandolin, harmonica, piano, keyboards, percussion, backing vocals Blunderbuss-era lineup Note: While on tour in support of Blunderbuss, White toured with two bands that he alternated between shows with. The Buzzards (all-male band) Dominic Davis – bass Daru Jones – drums Fats Kaplin – pedal steel guitar, fiddle, mandolin, theremin Isaiah "Ikey" Owens – B3 organ, piano, keyboards Cory Younts – mandolin, harmonica, piano, keyboards, percussion, backing vocals The Peacocks (all-female band) Ruby Amanfu – backing vocals Carla Azar – drums Maggie Bjorklund – pedal steel guitar, acoustic guitar Catherine Popper – bass Bryn Davies – bass Lillie Mae Rische – fiddle, mandolin, backing vocals Brooke Waggoner – piano, B3 organ, keyboards Discography Solo albums Blunderbuss (2012) Lazaretto (2014) Boarding House Reach (2018) Fear of the Dawn (2022) Entering Heaven Alive (2022) With the White Stripes The White Stripes (1999) De Stijl (2000) White Blood Cells (2001) Elephant (2003) Get Behind Me Satan (2005) Icky Thump (2007) With the Raconteurs Broken Boy Soldiers (2006) Consolers of the Lonely (2008) Help Us Stranger (2019) With the Dead Weather Horehound (2009) Sea of Cowards (2010) Dodge and Burn (2015) Filmography The Rosary Murders (1987) – uncredited altar boy Cold Mountain (2003) – Georgia Coffee and Cigarettes (2003) – Himself Under Blackpool Lights (2004) – Himself The Fearless Freaks (2005) – Himself Walk Hard: The Dewey Cox Story (2007) – Elvis Presley Shine a Light (2008) – Himself It Might Get Loud (2009) – Himself Mutant Swinger from Mars (2009) – Mikey Under Great White Northern Lights (2010) – Himself Conan O'Brien Can't Stop (2011) – Himself American Pickers (2012) – Himself Portlandia, season 3, episode 1 (2012) – Himself The Muppets, season 1, episode 16 (2016) – Himself American Epic (2017) – Himself The American Epic Sessions (2017) – Himself Jack White: Kneeling at The Anthem D.C. (2018) – Himself Killers of the Flower Moon (2023) Books We Are Going to Be Friends (2017) – based on "We're Going to Be Friends" by the White Stripes Footnotes Notes References Works cited External links Third Man Records Official site of the White Stripes Official site of the Raconteurs Official site of the Dead Weather Category:1975 births Category:American blues guitarists Category:Alternative rock guitarists Category:American male singers Category:American music video directors Category:American rock guitarists Category:American rock singers Category:American male guitarists Category:American tenors Category:Cass Technical High School alumni Category:Wayne State University alumni Category:Grammy Award winners Category:Living people Category:American mandolinists Category:American marimbists Category:Slide guitarists Category:Lead guitarists Category:The White Stripes members Category:American people of Polish descent Category:American people of Scottish descent Category:American people of Canadian descent Category:American expatriates in the United Kingdom Category:20th-century American singers Category:21st-century American singers Category:Third Man Records artists Category:XL Recordings artists Category:American male drummers Category:Upholsterers Category:Guitarists from Detroit Category:20th-century American drummers Category:21st-century American drummers Category:The Dead Weather members Category:The Raconteurs members Category:Goober & the Peas members Category:Two-Star Tabernacle members
[ { "text": "Third Man Records is an eclectic, vinyl-focused independent record label founded and owned by Jack White, Ben Blackwell and Ben Swank. The company operates out of three locations—Nashville, Tennessee, Detroit, Michigan, and Soho, London—with multiple entities expanding upon the offerings of a traditional record label, including multiple live music venues, vinyl pressing plant, film studio and dark room, guitar pedal and gear company, mastering studio, vinyl subscription service, and publishing arm.\n\nHistory\nIn 2001, while Jack White was gaining regional notice in the White Stripes in Detroit, he registered the label Third Man Records, proceeding to trademark the name in 2004. It wasn’t until 2008 when the White Stripes stopped touring and recording, and after White had reclaimed the rights to the band's earlier music, that White turned his focus to the label.\n\nWhite recruited his nephew, White Stripes archivist and Dirtbombs drummer Ben Blackwell and his lifelong friend, Ben Swank, then the drummer for the Soledad Brothers and a promoter in London, to create a working business on March 11, 2009. White conceived the expansion idea in October 2008, phoning Swank and Blackwell to say the venture should first concentrate on releasing White Stripes' back catalog on vinyl. Blackwell moved from Detroit and Swank from London to establish the business. The Nashville location now serves as a record store, label and publishing offices, The Blue Room live venue and bar, photo studio/darkroom, master recordings vault, and fulfillment center. To commemorate the opening of Third Man Records in Nashville, White debuted his new project, the Dead Weather, performing a short set for the 150 invited guests and coining the label's motto, \"Your Turntable's Not Dead.\"\n\nThe label's name incorporates several elements of personal significance to White. His fondness for the number three is well documented. It refers to Carol Reed's The Third Man starring Joseph Cotten and Orson Welles. White's pre-White Stripes upholstering company, which he continues to maintain as a hobby and artistic outlet in the present day, is named Third Man Upholstery and is similarly identified by the colors yellow and black and the motto “Your Upholstery’s Not Dead.”\n\nThird Man has since reissued all six White Stripes studio releases on vinyl, and the label’s catalog has now grown to over 800 releases, including albums by White’s other acts, contributions from Billie Eilish, Neil Young, Sleep, Metallica, Margo Price, Coldplay, and Jay-Z, and many developing artists.\n\nNashville location\nThe label's headquarters is located in a less prosperous neighborhood, which is home to the city's largest homeless shelter, a transitional housing and recuperation center, and an affordable healthcare clinic. White's presence has raised the area's prominence, motivating the city and business owners to rezone the area with more commercial ventures, including multiple mixed-use developments, a Ritz Carlton Hotel, and a members' club. White opposes the idea, calling the environment \"a solid neighborhood [where] everyone looks out for each other.\" The location is organized around five dedicated sections: the record store, a \"novelties lounge\", the label's offices and distribution center, a live venue and bar (The Blue Room), and a darkroom/photo studio.\n\nThe Novelties Lounge, located within the record store, debuted on November 23, 2012. The space contains a collection of vintage novelty machines. \"Among the attractions in the new wing is a Scopitone machine—a video jukebox using 16mm film that had its greatest prominence in the 1960s. Third Man has loaded their Scopitone with 36 videos from the label catalog, and bill it as 'the world's ONLY Scopitone machine fully loaded with modern music.' Other highlights include a \"Wax-O-Matic machine\", which makes bright red wax molds of White's Airline guitar, and a full-color photo booth.\" On April 20, 2013, in celebration of Jack White's role as Record Store Day Ambassador, The Third Man Recording Booth, \"a refurbished 1947 Voice-o-Graph machine that can record up to two minutes audio and press it onto 6-inch phonograph discs\" was introduced as an addition to the Novelties Lounge. This voice-o-graph was used in the creating of Apple's 2014 holiday ad as shown in the behind the scene video. In August 2017, Third Man celebrated the total solar eclipse happening event \"Occulting the Sunn\", in Nashville.\n\nDetroit location\nIn 2015, White partnered with Shinola—a lifestyle brand most known as a watch manufacturer—to open a retail location in Detroit. Third Man opened its first branch location at the former Willy's Overland Motorland Company in Detroit's Cass Corridor by Record Store Day's Black Friday event on November 27, 2015.\n\nThird Man Pressing\nIn February 2017, the Third Man Pressing plant launched in Third Man Records' Detroit location, the first to open there since 1965. The plant began with eight Newbilt presses imported from Germany. In 2019 they expanded to add Third Man Mastering, which provides audio mastering services as well as vinyl lacquer cutting.\n\nLondon location\nIn September 2021, Third Man Records opened a third retail location, live venue, and label office in London's Soho neighborhood. To celebrate the grand opening, White performed in the basement venue as well as from the balcony belonging to visual artist Damien Hirst, whose building sits at the end of the street.\n\nRolling Record Store\nOn March 9, 2011, Third Man Records announced its newest creation, the Third Man Rolling Record Store, a yellow step van outfitted with a sound system and Third Man Records inventory. It was built by C Cook Enterprises in Erlanger, Kentucky. It made its first appearance in Austin, Texas, at SXSW 2011. Third Man has since brought the mobile store to concerts, festivals, and other events with anywhere from weeks to only a few hours’ notice.\n\nThird Man Records Vault\nThe Third Man Records Vault is a \"rarity-excavating\" quarterly subscription service that began in September 2009 as a way to release special and otherwise unreleased content. Platinum members of the Vault receive a package containing limited-edition vinyl records and merchandise every three months. Generally each cycle's offerings have included a 12-inch record, a 7-inch record and a \"bonus item\" (this many include, a poster, book, pins, etc. ... ), although this format has been deviated from multiple times.\n\nDiscography\nThird Man releases some music on compact disc and via electronic release on iTunes, but vinyl records are its primary format.\n\nIn addition to pressing titles on regular black vinyl, most releases have an exclusive and/or limited sister pressing on colored or multicolored vinyl. Beginning with TMR-003, a limited edition handmade batch of 100 tri-colored 7-inch vinyl, in equal parts black, yellow, and white, were produced for exclusive distribution at Third Man's Nashville location. Beginning with TMR-009, an additional 50 tri-colored vinyl have been pressed for random distribution in Third Man mail orders. Certain single releases have been sold on tri-colored vinyl available at record stores in the artist's hometown instead of at the Nashville store. An additional 50 are still randomly distributed in mail orders.\n\nRecordings from live shows in the Blue Room (recorded either directly to analog reel-to-reel tape or direct-to-acetate) are made available in black and blue vinyl in varying quantities. These split-color records are available only to show attendees, and each LP is sealed with a concert-specific label on which the purchaser's name is written.\n\nThird Man is known for pushing the boundaries with vinyl record production, and with the help of United Record Pressing (their main partner in manufacturing records prior to the opening of Third Man Pressing), their innovations include the following unique record pressings: Glow In The Dark Record, Triple-Decker Record (a 7-inch within a 12-inch), Texas-Sized Record (8\" and 13\" records), Metallized Record, Liquid-Filled Record, Scented Record, Rose Petal-Filled Record, Playable Etching Record, 3 RPM Record, Lightning Bolt Record, Bolt-A-Trope Record, and the Flex-Ray Record (a flexi disc made from an x-ray).\n\nTwo albums released by Third Man Records have received sales certification awards from the Recording Industry Association of America: White Blood Cells by the White Stripes was certified Platinum for sales of at least 1 million units and Blunderbuss by Jack White was certified Gold for sales of at least 500,000 units. Additionally, the DVD release of the White Stripes documentary film Under Great White Northern Lights was certified Gold for longform video sales of at least 50,000 units.\n\nSee also\n List of record labels\n\nReferences\n\nFootnotes\n\nBibliography\n\"Catalog.\" Third Man Records.\n\nExternal links\n \n\n \nCategory:Record labels established in 2001\nCategory:American record labels\nCategory:Vanity record labels\nCategory:Jack White\nCategory:Alternative rock record labels\nCategory:Folk record labels\nCategory:Country music record labels\nCategory:Hip hop record labels\nCategory:Culture of Detroit\nCategory:Economy of Detroit\nCategory:Culture of Nashville, Tennessee\nCategory:Economy of Nashville, Tennessee\nCategory:2001 establishments in Michigan", "title": "Third Man Records" } ]
[ "Jack White has been involved in several controversies. In 2003, he was involved in an altercation with Jason Stollsteimer, the lead singer of the Von Bondies, and was charged with misdemeanor aggravated assault. He later pleaded guilty to the lesser charge of assault and battery. He had conflict with fellow artists in Detroit's music scene after The White Stripes gained success and made derogatory remarks about The Black Keys, which he later apologized for. In 2015, Patrick Carney of The Black Keys posted a series of tweets alleging that White tried to fight him in a bar, which White denied. Another controversy arose when White's tour rider, which included specific backstage instructions and a guacamole recipe, was published by the University of Oklahoma's newspaper. Lastly, in 2016, White publicly denounced then presidential candidate Donald Trump for using the White Stripes' song \"Seven Nation Army\" in video campaign materials.", "Yes, Jack White pleaded guilty to the lesser charge of assault and battery following the altercation with Jason Stollsteimer.", "Jack White was accused of assaulting Jason Stollsteimer, the lead singer of the Von Bondies.", "The context does not provide specific information on what caused the altercation between Jack White and Jason Stollsteimer.", "The context does not provide information on how the controversy affected music sales.", "The context does not provide information on where Jack White went after leaving Detroit.", "The article does mention a few more interesting aspects about Jack White. Apart from his conflicts, it talks about his sentiments towards his hometown Detroit, indicated through a poem he wrote called \"Courageous Dream's Concern.\" It also details a controversy regarding the release of his tour rider by the University of Oklahoma newspaper, revealing his ban of bananas backstage and a guacamole recipe. Moreover, it talks about his political stance in 2016 when he denounced Donald Trump's use of the White Stripes' song \"Seven Nation Army\" in campaign materials." ]
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C_13aadb0e20b8470a9990f35dc1f181c8_1
Jack White
John Anthony Gillis was born in Detroit, Michigan, the youngest of ten children--and the seventh son--of Teresa (nee Bandyk) and Gorman M. Gillis. His mother's family was Polish, while his father was Scottish-Canadian. He was raised a Catholic, and his father and mother both worked for the Archdiocese of Detroit as the Building Maintenance Superintendent and secretary in the Cardinal's office, respectively. Gillis became an altar boy, which landed him an uncredited role in the 1987 movie The Rosary Murders, filmed mainly at Holy Redeemer parish in southwest Detroit.
'Eccentricity'
White has been called "eccentric." He is known for creating mythology around his endeavors; examples include his claim that the Stripes began on Bastille Day, that he and Meg are the two youngest of ten siblings, and that Third Man Records used to be a candy factory. These assertions came into question or were disproven, such as when, in 2002, the Detroit Free Press produced copies of both a marriage license and divorce certificate for him and Meg, confirming their history as a married couple. Neither addresses the truth officially, and Jack continues to refer to Meg as his sister in interviews, including in the documentary Under Great White Northern Lights, filmed in 2007. In a 2005 interview with Rolling Stone magazine, Jack alluded to this open secret, implying that it was intended to keep the focus on the music rather than the couple's relationship: "When you see a band that is two pieces, husband and wife, boyfriend and girlfriend, you think, 'Oh, I see...' When they're brother and sister, you go, 'Oh, that's interesting.' You care more about the music, not the relationship--whether they're trying to save their relationship by being in a band." He has an attachment to the number three, stemming from seeing three staples in the back of a Vladimir Kagan couch he helped to upholster as an apprentice. His business ventures frequently feature "three" in the title and he typically appends "III" to the end of his name. During the White Stripes 2005 tour in the UK, White began referring to himself as "Three Quid"--"quid" being British slang for pound sterling. He maintains an aesthetic that he says challenges whether people will believe he is "real." He frequently color-codes his endeavors, such as the aforementioned Third Man Upholstery and The White Stripes, as well as Third Man Records, which is completely outfitted in yellow, black, red, and blue (including staff uniforms). As a taxidermy enthusiast--that correlates to his work as an upholsterer--he decorates his studio in preserved animals, including a peacock, giraffe, and Himalayan goat. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "what was eccentricity?", "why was he called eccentric?", "what was mythological about it?", "what other connections does he have with mythology?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "did he have any other intersts?", "what were some of his business ventures?" ]
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John Anthony White (; born July 9, 1975) is an American musician, singer, songwriter, and music producer, best known as the lead singer and guitarist of the duo The White Stripes. White has enjoyed consistent critical and popular success and is widely credited as one of the key artists in the garage rock revival of the 2000s. He has won 12 Grammy Awards, and three of his solo albums have reached number one on the Billboard charts. Rolling Stone ranked him number 70 on its 2010 list of "The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time". David Fricke's 2010 list ranked him at number 17. In 2012, the New York Times called White "the coolest, weirdest and savviest rockstar of our time". After moonlighting in several underground Detroit bands as a drummer, White founded the White Stripes with fellow Detroit native and then-wife Meg White in 1997. Their 2001 breakthrough album, White Blood Cells, brought them international fame with the hit single and accompanying music video "Fell in Love with a Girl". This recognition provided White opportunities to collaborate with famous artists, including Loretta Lynn and Bob Dylan. In 2005, White founded the Raconteurs with Brendan Benson, and in 2009 founded the Dead Weather with Alison Mosshart of the Kills. In 2008, he recorded "Another Way to Die" (the title song for the 2008 James Bond film Quantum of Solace) with Alicia Keys, making them the only duet to perform a Bond song. White has released four solo studio albums, which have garnered wide critical and commercial success. White is a board member of the Library of Congress' National Recording Preservation Foundation. His record label and studio Third Man Records releases vinyl recordings of his own work as well as that of other artists and local school children. His second studio album, Lazaretto (2014), holds the record for most first-week vinyl sales since 1991. White has an extensive collection of guitars and other instruments and has a preference for vintage items that often have connections to famous blues artists. He is a vocal advocate for analog technology and recording techniques. White values his privacy and has been known to create misdirection about his personal life. He and Meg White married in 1996, but divorced in 2000 before the height of the band's fame. They then began calling themselves siblings. He was married to model and singer Karen Elson from 2005 to 2013; they have a son and daughter. In 2022, he married musician Olivia Jean. He currently resides in Nashville, Tennessee. Early life John Anthony Gillis was born in Detroit, Michigan, on July 9, 1975, the youngest of ten children of Teresa (née Bandyk; born 1930) and Gorman M. Gillis. His mother's family was Polish, while his father was Scottish-Canadian. He was raised a Catholic, and his father and mother both worked for the Archdiocese of Detroit as the building maintenance superintendent and secretary in the Cardinal's office, respectively. Gillis became an altar boy, which landed him an uncredited role in the 1987 movie The Rosary Murders, filmed mainly at Most Holy Redeemer parish in southwest Detroit. He attended Cass Technical High School in Detroit. Gillis' early musical influences were his older brothers, who were in a band together called Catalyst, and he learned to play the instruments they abandoned; he began playing the drums in the first grade after finding a kit in the attic. As a child, he was a fan of classical music, but in elementary school, he began listening to the Doors, Pink Floyd, and Led Zeppelin. As a "shorthaired [teenager] with braces", Gillis began listening to the blues and 1960s rock that would influence him in the White Stripes, with Son House and Blind Willie McTell being among his favorite blues guitarists. He has said in interviews that Son House's "Grinnin' in Your Face" is his favorite song of all time. As a drummer, his heroes include Gene Krupa, Stewart Copeland, and Crow Smith from Flat Duo Jets. In 2005, on 60 Minutes, he told Mike Wallace that his life could have turned out differently. "I'd got accepted to a seminary in Wisconsin, and I was gonna become a priest, but at the last second I thought, 'I'll just go to public school.' I had just gotten a new amplifier in my bedroom, and I didn't think I was allowed to take it with me." Instead, he got accepted into Cass Technical High School as a business major, and played the drums and trombone in the band. At 15, he began a three-year upholstery apprenticeship with a family friend, Brian Muldoon. He credits Muldoon with exposing him to punk music as they worked together in the shop. Muldoon goaded his young apprentice into forming a band: "He played drums", Gillis thought. "Well I guess I'll play guitar then." The two recorded an album, Makers of High Grade Suites, as the Upholsterers. As a senior in high school, he met Megan White at the Memphis Smoke restaurant where she worked, and they frequented the coffee shops, local music venues, and record stores of the area. After a courtship, they married on September 21, 1996. In a reversal of tradition, he legally took her last name. After completing his apprenticeship, he started a one-man business of his own, Third Man Upholstery. The slogan of his business was "Your Furniture's Not Dead" and the color scheme was yellow and black—including a yellow van, a yellow-and-black uniform, and a yellow clipboard. Although Third Man Upholstery never lacked business, he claims it was unprofitable due to his complacency about money and his business practices that were perceived as unprofessional, including making bills out in crayon and writing poetry inside the furniture. Music career Group projects The White Stripes (1997–2011) At 19 years old, Jack had landed his first professional gig as the drummer for the Detroit band Goober & the Peas, and was still in that position when the band broke up in 1996. It was in this band that he learned about touring and performing onstage. After the band's split, he settled into working as an upholsterer by day while moonlighting in local bands, as well as performing solo shows. Though a bartender by trade, Meg began to learn to play the drums in 1997 and, according to Jack, "When she started to play drums with me, just on a lark, it felt liberating and refreshing." The couple became a band, calling themselves the White Stripes, and two months later performed their first show at the Gold Dollar in Detroit. Despite being married, Jack and Meg publicly presented themselves as siblings. They kept to a chromatic theme, dressing only in red, white, and black. They began their career as part of Michigan's underground garage rock music scene. They played along with and opened for more established local bands such as Bantam Rooster, the Dirtbombs, Two-Star Tabernacle, Rocket 455, and the Hentchmen. In 1998, the White Stripes were signed to Italy Records—a small and independent Detroit-based garage punk label—by Dave Buick. The band released its eponymous debut album in 1999, and a year later the album was followed up by the cult classic, De Stijl. The album eventually peaked at number 38 in Billboards Independent Albums chart. In 2001, the band released White Blood Cells. The album's stripped-down garage rock sound drew critical acclaim in the US and beyond, making the White Stripes one of the more acclaimed bands of 2002, and forefront figures in the garage band revival of the time. John Peel, an influential DJ and the band's early advocate in the UK, said they were the most exciting thing he'd heard since Jimi Hendrix. The New York Times said of White, "beneath the arty facade lies one of the most cagey, darkly original rockers to come along since Kurt Cobain." The album was followed up in 2003 by the commercially and critically successful Elephant. The critic at AllMusic wrote that the album "sounds even more pissed-off, paranoid and stunning than its predecessor ... darker and more difficult than White Blood Cells". The album's first single, "Seven Nation Army", became the band's signature song, reaching number one on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart for three weeks, winning the 2004 Grammy Award for Best Rock Song, and becoming an international sporting and protest anthem. The band's fifth album, Get Behind Me Satan, was recorded in White's own home and marked a change in the band's musical direction, with piano-driven melodies and experimentation with marimba and a more rhythm-based guitar playing by White. The band's sixth album, Icky Thump, was released in 2007, and unlike their previous lo-fi albums, it was recorded in Nashville at Blackbird Studio. The album was regarded as a return to the band's earlier blues and garage-rock sound. It debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 chart, and entered the UK Albums Chart at number one, selling over 300,000 vinyl copies in England alone. Of his excitement for vinyl, White explained, "We can't afford to lose the feeling of cracking open a new record and looking at large artwork and having something you can hold in your hands." In support of the album, they launched a Canadian tour, in which they played a gig in every one of the country's provinces and territories. However, later that year, the band announced the cancellation of 18 tour dates due to Meg's struggle with acute anxiety. A few days later, the duo canceled the remainder of their 2007 UK tour dates as well. White worked with other artists in the meantime, but revealed the band's plan to release a seventh album by the summer of 2009. On February 20, 2009—and on the final episode of Late Night with Conan O'Brien—the band made their first live appearance after the cancellation of the tour, and a documentary about their Canadian tour—titled The White Stripes: Under Great White Northern Lights—debuted later that year at the Toronto International Film Festival. However, almost two years passed with no new releases, and on February 2, 2011, the band reported on their official website that they were disbanding. White emphasized that it was not due to health issues or artistic differences, "but mostly to preserve what is beautiful and special about the band". The Raconteurs (2005–2014, 2018–present) In 2005, while collaborating with Brendan Benson—a fellow Michigan native whom White had worked with before—they composed a song called "Steady, as She Goes". This inspired them to create a full band, and they invited Jack Lawrence and Patrick Keeler of the Greenhornes to join them in what would become the Raconteurs. The musicians met in Benson's home studio in Detroit and, for the remainder of the year, they recorded when time allowed. The result was the band's debut album, Broken Boy Soldiers. Reaching the Top Ten charts in both the US and the UK, it was nominated for Best Rock Album at the 2006 Grammy Awards. The lead single, "Steady, As She Goes" was nominated for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal. The Raconteurs set out on tour to support the album, including eight dates as the opening act for Bob Dylan. The group's second album, Consolers of the Lonely, and its first single, "Salute Your Solution", were released simultaneously in 2008. The album reached number seven on the Billboard 200 chart, and received a Grammy nomination for Best Rock Album. The group rebanded to create the new album Help Us Stranger in 2019. This release was followed by a US tour. The Dead Weather (2009–2015) While on tour to promote Consolers of the Lonely, White developed bronchitis and often lost his voice. Alison Mosshart, the frontwoman for the Kills (who was touring with the Raconteurs at the time) would often fill in as his vocal replacement. The chemistry between the two artists led them to collaborate, and in early 2009, White formed a new group called the Dead Weather. Mosshart sang, White played drums and shared vocal duties, Jack Lawrence of the Raconteurs played bass, and the Queens of the Stone Age keyboardist and guitarist Dean Fertita rounded out the four-piece. The group debuted a handful of new tracks on March 11, 2009, in Nashville from their debut album Horehound. It came out on July 13, 2009, in Europe and July 14, 2009, in North America on White's Third Man Records label. In October 2009, Mosshart confirmed that the second album was "halfway done", and the first single, "Die by the Drop", was released on March 30, 2010. The new album (again on the Third Man Records label) was titled Sea of Cowards and was released on May 7 of that year in Ireland, on May 10 in the United Kingdom, and on May 11 in the U.S. Announcement of their third album, Dodge & Burn, was made in July 2015 for a worldwide release in September by Third Man Records. Along with four previously released tracks, remixed and remastered, the album features eight new songs. Other collaborations Rumors began to circulate in 2003 that White had collaborated with Electric Six for their song "Danger! High Voltage". He and the Electric Six both denied this, and the vocal work was credited officially to John S O'Leary. In subsequent interviews with Chris Handyside, however, Dick Valentine and Corey Martin (Electric Six band members) acknowledged White's involvement and confirmed that he received no payment. White worked with Loretta Lynn on her 2004 album Van Lear Rose, which he produced and performed on. The album was a critical and commercial success. In 2008, White collaborated with Alicia Keys on the song "Another Way to Die", the theme song for the James Bond film Quantum of Solace. In 2009, Jack White was featured in It Might Get Loud, a film in which he, Jimmy Page, and the Edge come together to discuss the electric guitar and each artist's different playing methods. White's first solo single, "Fly Farm Blues", was written and recorded in 10 minutes during the filming of the movie that August. The single went on sale as a 7-inch vinyl record from Third Man Records and as a digital single available through iTunes on August 11, 2010. In November 2010, producer Danger Mouse announced that White—along with Norah Jones—had been recruited for his collaboration with Daniele Luppi entitled Rome. White provided vocals to three songs on the album: "The Rose with the Broken Neck", "Two Against One", and "The World". White finished and performed the song "You Know That I Know", and it was featured on The Lost Notebooks of Hank Williams, released on October 4, 2011. In that same year, he produced and played on Wanda Jackson's album The Party Ain't Over. To her delight, his studio also released the album on a 7-inch vinyl. White also appeared on AHK-toong BAY-bi Covered, performing a cover of U2's "Love Is Blindness". White has worked with other artists as well, including Beck, the Rolling Stones, Jeff Beck, Bob Dylan, and Insane Clown Posse. Solo career (2012–present) Blunderbuss (2012) On January 30, 2012, White released "Love Interruption" as the first single off his debut, self-produced solo album, Blunderbuss, which was released on April 24, 2012. The album ultimately debuted number one on the Billboard 200 chart, and in support of the album, he appeared on Saturday Night Live as the musical guest and played at select festivals during the summer of 2012, including the Firefly Music Festival, Radio 1's Hackney Weekend, the Sasquatch! Music Festival, the Fuji Rock Festival in Japan (one of the biggest festivals in the world), and Rock Werchter in Belgium. Later in the year, he headlined Austin City Limits Music Festival. During his tour for the album, White employed two live bands, which he alternated between at random. The first, called the Peacocks, was all female and consisted of Ruby Amanfu, Carla Azar, Lillie Mae Rische, Maggie Björklund, Brooke Waggoner, and alternating bassists Bryn Davies and Catherine Popper. The other, the Buzzards, was all male and consisted of Daru Jones, Dominic Davis, Fats Kaplin, Ikey Owens, and Cory Younts. White said maintaining two bands was too expensive, and abandoned the practice at the conclusion of the tour. Blunderbuss was ultimately nominated for several Grammys, including Album of the Year, Best Rock Album, and Best Rock Song for "Freedom at 21". Lazaretto (2014) On April 1, 2014, White announced his second solo album, Lazaretto, inspired by plays and poetry he had written as a teen. It was released on June 10, 2014, simultaneously with the first single off the album, "High Ball Stepper". The album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 chart and, in a personal triumph for White, broke the record for the largest sales week for a vinyl album since SoundScan began tracking sales in 1991. The album was widely praised among critics, and was nominated for three Grammy Awards: Best Alternative Music Album, as well as Best Rock Song and Best Rock Performance (for the song "Lazaretto"). During the supporting tour, he performed the longest show of his career on July 30, 2014, at the Detroit Masonic Temple, and later performed as one of the headliners at the Coachella Festival over two weekends in April 2015. On April 14, 2015, White announced that the festival would be his last electric set, followed by one acoustic show in each of the five U.S. states he had yet to perform in, before he would be taking a prolonged break from live performances. However, he performed on the inaugural episode of the radio show A Prairie Home Companion with the new host Chris Thile, on October 15, 2016, in support of his compilation album Acoustic Recordings 1998–2016. He co-wrote the song "Don't Hurt Yourself " with Beyoncé on her album Lemonade, and accompanied her on the vocals. Boarding House Reach (2018) Ahead of his next effort, White worked in isolation and without a cell phone; he rented an apartment in Nashville, recorded quietly so no one would know what he was working on, and slept on an army cot. He drew inspiration from rap artists of the 1980s and 1990s (as well as A Tribe Called Quest, Kanye West, and Nicki Minaj), and chose his backing musicians from talent that played supporting hip hop artists live. On December 12, 2017, he released a four-minute video titled "Servings and Portions from my Boarding House Reach", which featured short sound bites of new music interspersed with white noise. In January 2018, White released "Connected by Love", taken from his third solo album Boarding House Reach, which was released on March 23, 2018. Like its two preceding albums, it landed at number one on the Billboard 200 chart. In promotion of his album, White appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon and on Saturday Night Live as the musical guest, where he played "Over and Over and Over" and "Connected by Love". White released Jack White: Kneeling at The Anthem D.C., his first concert film as a solo artist, on September 21, 2018, exclusively on Amazon Prime Video. Fear of the Dawn and Entering Heaven Alive (2022) In October 2021, White released "Taking Me Back", his first solo single since 2018, which appeared in the game Call of Duty: Vanguard. In November, White revealed that he would release two solo albums in 2022: Fear of the Dawn, which will feature White's traditional rock sound, on April 8, and Entering Heaven Alive, a folk album, on July 22. White also released a video for "Taking Me Back" on November 11. Together, the albums were named the dual number one album of the year by Rough Trade UK. In December 2021, White announced the Supply Chain Issues Tour kicking off on April 8, 2022, in Detroit, Michigan. The tour covers North America and Europe. White performed on Saturday Night Live on February 25, 2023. He played two songs from his Fear of the Dawn album and was presented with a jacket for being a Fiver-Timer on the show. Other ventures Film and television work White has also had a minor acting career. He appeared in the 2003 film Cold Mountain as a character named Georgia and performed five songs for the Cold Mountain soundtrack: "Sittin' on Top of the World", "Wayfaring Stranger", "Never Far Away", "Christmas Time Soon Will Be Over" and "Great High Mountain". The 2003 Jim Jarmusch film Coffee and Cigarettes featured both Jack and Meg in the segment "Jack Shows Meg His Tesla Coil". He also played Elvis Presley in the 2007 satire Walk Hard: The Dewey Cox Story. In 2016, he appeared as a special guest on the season one finale of The Muppets, and sang "You Are the Sunshine of My Life", which he later released on 7-inch vinyl. In June 2017, White appeared in the award-winning documentary film The American Epic Sessions, recording on the first electrical sound recording system from the 1920s. His performances of "Matrimonial Intentions", "Mama's Angel Child", "2 Fingers of Whiskey (with Elton John) and "On the Road Again' and "One Mic" (with Nas) appeared on Music from The American Epic Sessions: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack. He was an executive producer of the film. Third Man Records White co-founded Third Man Records in 2001 with Ben Swank, formerly of the Ohio-based Soledad Brothers band. However, it was not until after he moved to Nashville that White purchased a space in 2009 to house his label. He explained, "For the longest time I did not want to have my own studio gear, mostly because with the White Stripes I wanted to have the constriction of going into a studio and having a set time of 10 days or two weeks to finish an album, and using whatever gear they happen to have there. After 10 to 15 years of recording like that I felt that it was finally time for me to have my own place to produce music, and have exactly what I want in there: the exact tape machines, the exact microphones, the exact amplifiers that I like, and so on." Using the slogan "Your Turntable's Not Dead", Third Man also presses vinyl records, for the artists on its label, for White's own musical ventures, as well as for third parties for hire. In March 2015, Third Man joined in the launch of TIDAL, a music streaming service that Jay-Z purchased and co-owns with other major music artists. Later that year, White partnered with the watch manufacturer Shinola to open a retail location in Detroit. Artistry Instruments and equipment White owns many instruments and, historically, has tended to use certain ones for specific projects or in certain settings. He has a preference for vintage guitars, many of which are associated with influential blues artists. Much of his equipment is custom-made, for both technical and aesthetic reasons. White is a proficient guitar, bass, mandolin, percussion and piano player. During his career with the White Stripes, White principally used three guitars, though he used others as well. The red, "JB Hutto", Airline guitar was a vintage 1964 model originally distributed by Montgomery Ward department store. Though used by several artists, White's attachment to the instrument raised its popularity to the extent that Eastwood Guitars began producing a modified replica around 2000. The 1950s-era Kay Hollowbody was a gift from his brother in return for a favor. It was the same brand of electric guitar made popular by Howlin' Wolf, and White most famously used it on "Seven Nation Army". He began using a 1915 Gibson L-1 acoustic (often called the Robert Johnson model) on the Icky Thump album; in an interview for Gibson, he called the instrument his favorite. He also used a three-pickup Airline Town & Country (later featured in the "Steady As She Goes" music video), a Harmony Rocket, a 1970s-era Crestwood Astral II, and what would become the first of three custom Gretsch Rancher Falcon acoustic guitars. While with the Stripes, any equipment that did not match their red/black/white color scheme was painted red. On Black Friday in 2013, Third Man Records diversified and launched the Bumble Buzz pedal an octave fuzz built for Third Man by Vancouver, British Columbia's Union Tube and Transistor. In 2014 the pedal was reviewed by Premier Guitar, and is found in Jack's pedal setup. While the Raconteurs were still in development, White commissioned luthier Randy Parsons to create what White called the Triple Jet—a custom guitar styled after the Duo Jet double-cutaway guitar. Parsons's first product was painted copper color, however he decided to create a second version with a completely copper body, which White began to use instead. For the Raconteurs first tour, White also played a Gretsch Anniversary Jr. with a Bigsby vibrato tailpiece and three Filtertron pickups. He later added a custom Gretsch Anniversary Jr. with two cutaways, a lever-activated mute system, a built-in and retractable bullet microphone, and a light-activated theremin next to the Bigsby. White has dubbed this one the "Green Machine", and it is featured in It Might Get Loud. He sometimes played a Gibson J-160E, a Gretsch Duo Jet in Cadillac Green, and a second Gretsch Rancher acoustic guitar. For the Raconteurs' 2008 tour, he had Analog Man plate all of his pedals in copper. In 2020 White completed his Three-Wheel-Motion Low Rider - which is a highly customized Fender Telecaster B-Bender guitar. He has since acquired another Gretsch, a custom white "Billy Bo" Jupiter Thunderbird with a gold double pickguard (as seen in the music video for "Another Way to Die"). White found a 1957 Gretsch G6134 White Penguin in 2007 while on tour in Texas—the same one he used in the music video for "Icky Thump"—which ultimately fit in with the Dead Weather's color scheme. He also uses a black left-handed one since the Dead Weather album Sea of Cowards came out. He has also been known to play Fender Telecasters, featuring one in the music video for Loretta Lynn's "Portland, Oregon". White owns three Gretsch Rancher Falcons because he says that its bass tones make it his favorite acoustic to play live. They are collectively referred to as his "girlfriends", as each one has an image of a classic movie star on the back. Claudette Colbert is the brunette he used while with the Stripes, Rita Hayworth is the redhead he acquired with the Raconteurs, and Veronica Lake is the blonde he added in 2010 while with the Dead Weather. Since 2018, White has been playing EVH Wolfgang guitars, which are Eddie Van Halen's signature model. White uses numerous effects to create his live sound, most notably a DigiTech Whammy WH-4 to create the rapid modulations in pitch he uses in his solos. White also produces a "fake" bass tone by playing the Kay Hollowbody and JB Hutto Montgomery Airline guitars through a Whammy IV set to one octave down for a very thick, low, rumbling sound, which he uses most notably on the song "Seven Nation Army". He also uses an MXR Micro Amp and custom Electro-Harmonix Big Muff Distortion/Sustainer. In 2005, for the single "Blue Orchid", White employed an Electro-Harmonix Polyphonic Octave Generator (POG), which let him mix in several octave effects into one along with the dry signal. He plugs this setup into a 1970s Fender Twin Reverb "Silverface" and two 100-Watt Sears Silvertone 1485 6×10 amplifiers. He also used a 1960s Fender Twin Reverb "Blackface". On occasion, White also plays other instruments, such as a Black Gibson F-4 mandolin ("Little Ghost"), piano (on most tracks from Get Behind Me Satan, and various others), and an electric piano on such tracks as "The Air Near My Fingers" and "I'm Finding it Harder to be a Gentleman". White also plays percussion instruments such as the marimba (as on "The Nurse"), drums and tambourine. For the White Stripes' 2007 tour, he played a custom-finish Hammond A-100 organ with a Leslie 3300 speaker, which was subsequently loaned to Bob Dylan, and currently resides at Third Man Studios. On the album Broken Boy Soldiers, both he and Benson are credited with playing the album's synths and organ. With the Dead Weather, White plays a custom Ludwig Classic Maple kit in Black Oyster Pearl. Notably, it includes two-snare drums, which White calls "the jazz canon". For the 2009 Full Flash Blank tour, White used a drum head with the Three Brides of Dracula on the front, but in 2010, White employed a new drum head, upon the release of Sea of Cowards, which has an image of The Third Man himself: Harry Lime attempting to escape certain capture in the sewers of Vienna. During the American leg of the 2010 tour, White switched his drum head again featuring a picture of himself in the guise he wore on the cover of Sea of Cowards. This drum head is called Sam Kay by some fans, referring to the insert inside of the 12" LP. Minimalist style White has long been a proponent of analog equipment and the associated working methods. Beginning in the fifth grade, he and his childhood friend, Dominic Suchyta, would listen to records in White's attic on weekends and began to record cover songs on an old four-track reel-to-reel tape machine. The White Stripes' first album was largely recorded in the attic of his parents' home. As their fame grew beyond Detroit, the Stripes became known for their affected innocence and stripped-down playing style. In particular, White became distinguished for his nasal vocal delivery and loose, explosive guitar delivery. In an early New York Times concert review from 2001, Ann Powers said that, while White's playing was "ingenious", he "created more challenges by playing an acoustic guitar with paper taped over the hole and a less-than-high-quality solid body electric". His home studio in Nashville contains two rooms ("I want everyone close, focused, feeling like we're in it together.") with two pieces of equipment: a Neve mixing console, and two Studer A800 2-inch 8-track tape recorders. In his introduction in the documentary film, It Might Get Loud, White showcases his minimalist style by constructing a guitar built out of a plank of wood, three nails, a glass Coke bottle, a guitar string, and a pickup. He ends the demonstration by saying, "Who says you need to buy a guitar?" In a 2012 episode of the show, Portlandia, White made a cameo in a sketch spoofing home studio enthusiasts who prefer antique recording equipment. Reception White has enjoyed both critical and commercial success, and is widely credited as one of the key artists in the garage rock revival of the 2000s. Rolling Stone ranked him number 70 on its 2010 list of "The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time". David Fricke's 2011 list ranked him at number 17. He has won twelve Grammy Awards, with 33 nominations, and three solo albums have reached number one on the Billboard charts. Interviewers note the wide breadth of the music styles and eras he draws from for inspiration. In May 2015, the Music City Walk of Fame announced that it would be honoring White (along with Loretta Lynn) with a medallion at its re-opening in Nashville. On February 8, 2017, White was the honoree of the Producers and Engineers Wing of the Recording Academy during the annual Grammy Week celebration for his commitment "to working diligently to ensure that the quality and integrity of recorded music are captured and preserved". Much has been made of White's "showmanship" and affectations. Since the beginning, critics have debated the "riddle" of White's self-awareness against his claims of authenticity, with people falling on both sides of the issue. Joe Hagan of The New York Times asked in 2001, "Is Mr. White, a 25-year-old former upholsterer from southwest Detroit, concocting this stuff with a wink? Or are the White Stripes simply naïve?" Alexis Petridis, of The Guardian, said that White "makes for an enigmatic figure. Not because he's particularly difficult or guarded, but simply because what he tells you suggests a lifelong penchant for inscrutable behavior." White himself confesses, "Sometimes I think I'm a simple guy, but I think the reality is I'm really complicated, as simple as I wish I was." Personal life White is protective of his privacy and gives few details of his family life, even going as far as to disseminate false information. He states that he does not consider his personal life relevant to his art, saying "It's the same thing as asking Michelangelo, 'What kind of shoes do you wear?' ... In the end, it doesn't really matter ... the only thing that's going to be left is our records and photos." His collection of esoterica include Lead Belly's New York City arrest record, James Brown's Georgia driver's license from the 1980s, and a copy of the first Superman comic from June 1938. For $300,000 in January 2015, an online bidder won an auction for Elvis Presley's first recording ever—an acetate of the two cover songs: "My Happiness" and "That's When Your Heartaches Begin". In its edition of March 6, 2015, Billboard magazine announced the buyer had been White. The vinyl record was recorded at Sun Studio in Memphis, Tennessee in the summer of 1953 when Presley was 18 years old. Raised in Detroit, White is a fan of the Detroit Tigers baseball team. On multiple occasions, he has decried video games as being useless and a waste of time, going so far as to state that he doesn't allow his kids to play them. Despite this, his songs have appeared in the trailers for Call of Duty: Vanguard, Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare, and Battlefield 1, and on the soundtracks of Forza Horizon 4 and numerous Guitar Hero games. Relationships Jack and Meg married on September 21, 1996, and divorced on March 24, 2000. Jack took Meg's last name, legally changing his surname. After the White Stripes broke up, he mentions he "almost never talks to Meg", adding that she has been solitary. In 2003, he had a brief relationship with actress Renée Zellweger, whom he met during the filming of Cold Mountain. That summer, the couple were in a car accident in which White broke his left index finger and was forced to reschedule much of the summer tour. He posted the footage of his finger surgery on the web for fans. White and Zellweger's breakup became public in December 2004. White met British model Karen Elson when she appeared in the White Stripes' music video for "Blue Orchid". They married on June 1, 2005, in Manaus, Brazil. The wedding took place in a canoe on the Amazon River and was officiated by a shaman. A Roman Catholic priest later convalidated their marriage. Manager Ian Montone was the best man and Meg White was the maid of honor. Official wedding announcements stated that "it was the first marriage" for both. In 2006, the couple had a daughter. A son was born in 2007. The family resided in Brentwood, a suburb south of Nashville, where Elson managed a vintage clothing store called Venus & Mars. Elson provided vocals on White's first solo record. The couple announced their intention to divorce in June 2011, throwing "a positive swing bang humdinger" party to commemorate the split. On July 22, 2013, a Nashville judge barred White from having "any contact with Karen Elson whatsoever except as it relates to parenting time with the parties' minor children". A counter-motion was filed on August 2, 2013, stating that "The reason for filing this response is that Mr. White does not want to be portrayed as something he is not, violent toward his wife and children." The divorce was finalized on November 26, 2013. Elson later recanted the charges, attributing the "aggressive" proceedings to her divorce attorneys, and saying "those who gain of a marriage ending helped to create a downward spiral at my most vulnerable." White agreed, saying, "When shitty lawyers are in a situation like divorce, their goal is to villainize." The former couple reportedly remain on good terms. On April 8, 2022, White played the national anthem for a Detroit Tigers game, then proposed to his girlfriend, Olivia Jean, near the end of a concert performance at the Detroit Masonic Temple, while "Hotel Yorba" was being played. Jean and White were married shortly afterward by White's business partner Ben Swank who officiated on stage. Politics In October 2016, upon learning that Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump had used the White Stripes song "Seven Nation Army" in video campaign materials, White denounced the presidential candidate and began selling shirts reading "Icky Trump"—a play on the White Stripes song "Icky Thump"—through the Third Man Records website. He publicly endorsed Senator Bernie Sanders for the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries and performed a six-song set at a Sanders event at Cass Technical High School on October 27, 2019. At the rally, White stated that he believes that "Sanders is telling the truth, and I really do trust him". He was drawn in by Sanders' view that the Electoral College should be abolished, also stating at the rally that "I have this silly notion that the person who gets the most votes should be elected" and "[the Electoral College] is the reason we're in the mess we're in now". On November 20, 2022, White wrote a note to Elon Musk explaining his reason for leaving the Twitter platform, he said, "So you gave Trump his Twitter platform back. Absolutely disgusting, Elon. That is officially an asshole move". Eccentricity White has been called "eccentric". He is known for creating a mythology around his endeavors; examples include his claim that the Stripes began on Bastille Day, that he and Meg are the two youngest of ten siblings, and that Third Man Records used to be a candy factory. These assertions came into question or were disproven, as when, in 2002, the Detroit Free Press produced copies of both a marriage license and divorce certificate for him and Meg, confirming their history as a married couple. Neither addresses the truth officially, and Jack continues to refer to Meg as his sister in interviews, including in the documentary Under Great White Northern Lights, filmed in 2007. In a 2005 interview with Rolling Stone magazine, Jack alluded to this open secret, implying that it was intended to keep the focus on the music rather than the couple's relationship: When you see a band that is two pieces, husband and wife, boyfriend and girlfriend, you think, 'Oh, I see ... ' When they're brother and sister, you go, 'Oh, that's interesting.' You care more about the music, not the relationship—whether they're trying to save their relationship by being in a band. He has an attachment to the number three, stemming from seeing three staples in the back of a Vladimir Kagan couch he helped to upholster as an apprentice. His business ventures frequently feature "three" in the title and he typically appends "III" to the end of his name. During the White Stripes 2005 tour in the UK, White began referring to himself as "Three Quid"—"quid" being British slang for pound sterling. He maintains an aesthetic that he says challenges whether people will believe he is "real". He frequently color-codes his endeavors, such as the aforementioned Third Man Upholstery and the White Stripes, as well as Third Man Records, which is completely outfitted in yellow, black, red, and blue (including staff uniforms). As a taxidermy enthusiast—that correlates to his work as an upholsterer—he decorates his studio in preserved animals, including a peacock, giraffe, and Himalayan goat. Controversies On December 13, 2003, White was involved in an altercation with Jason Stollsteimer, lead singer of the Von Bondies, at the Magic Stick, a Detroit club. White was charged with misdemeanor aggravated assault. He pleaded guilty to the lesser charge of assault and battery, was fined $750 (including court costs), and was sentenced to take anger management classes. White has repeatedly referenced conflicts that erupted between him and fellow artists in Detroit's underground music scene after the White Stripes gained international success. In a 2006 interview with the Associated Press, he said that he eventually left Detroit because, "he could not take the negativity anymore." However, in an effort to clarify his feelings towards the city of Detroit itself, he wrote and released a poem called "Courageous Dream's Concern". In it, he expresses his affection for his hometown. During their 2013 divorce proceedings, Elson entered into evidence an e-mail White had sent her that included disparaging remarks about the Black Keys. When asked about the email in a 2014 Rolling Stone magazine interview, White stood by the remarks saying, "I'll hear TV commercials where the music's ripping off sounds of mine, to the point I think it's me. Half the time, it's the Black Keys." He later apologized for the comments. However, in September 2015, Black Keys drummer Patrick Carney posted a series of tweets alleging that White tried to fight him in a bar. White denied the claim in a statement to the online magazine Pitchfork, saying that Carney should talk to him directly, and not on the internet. The following day, Carney posted a tweet saying, "Talked to jack for an hour he's cool. All good." White tweeted on the Third Man Twitter account, "From one musician to another, you have my respect Patrick Carney." On February 1, 2015, the University of Oklahoma's newspaper OU Daily ran a story regarding White's show of February 2 at McCasland Field House that included the publication of White's tour rider. The rider, especially the guacamole recipe it included and White's ban of bananas backstage, received some media coverage. It was later reported that in response to the rider's publication White's booking agency, William Morris Endeavor Entertainment, had banned its acts from playing shows at the University of Oklahoma. On February 15, White released an open letter addressed to "journalists and other people looking for drama or a diva" in which he referred to the guacamole recipe as his tour manager's "inside joke with local promoters" and "just something to break up the boredom" and the ban of bananas being alluded to food allergies of an unnamed tour member, while criticizing journalists who wrote about the rider as "out of their element". In the same letter, he forgave OU Daily for publishing the story and reaffirmed his affinity for the state of Oklahoma and his desire to perform there. Philanthropy White has provided financial support to institutions in his hometown of Detroit. In 2009, White donated almost $170,000 towards the renovation of the baseball diamond in southwest Detroit's Clark Park. The Detroit Masonic Temple was nearly foreclosed on in 2013 after it was revealed that owners owed $142,000 in back taxes. In June 2013, it was revealed that White had footed the entire bill. To thank him for the donation, the temple has decided to rename its second largest theater the Jack White Theater. The National Recording Preservation Foundation received an inaugural gift of $200,000 from White to use toward restoring and preserving deteriorating sound recordings on media such as reel-to-reel tape and old cylinders. The foundation's director, Eric J. Schwartz said the donation demonstrated a "commitment by a really busy songwriter and performer donating both his time on the board, and money to preserve our national song recording heritage". White also serves on the foundation's board. In July 2016, White joined Nashville's 45-member Gender Equality Council. On September 18, 2018, White donated $30,000 to The Outsiders House Museum for its preservation and restoration. On May 3, 2019, Wayne State University of Detroit, Michigan awarded White with an honorary doctor of humane letters degree "for his dedication to Detroit and significant contributions to the arts as one of the most prolific and renowned artists of the past two decades". Awards and nominations For his various collaborations and solo work, White has won regional, national and international awards, including twelve Grammy Awards and has been nominated for 33. Nashville mayor Karl Dean awarded White the title of "Nashville Music City Ambassador" in 2011. Back-up band Although a solo artist, White performs with a live band to provide additional instrumentation and vocals. Current lineup Dominic Davis – bass, backing vocals Daru Jones – drums Quincy McCrary – keyboards, samples, synthesizer, organ, backing vocals Boarding House Reach-era lineup Carla Azar – acoustic drums, percussion, backing vocals Dominic Davis – bass Neal Evans – piano, synthesizer, organ, keyboards, electronic drums, backing vocals Quincy McCrary – keyboards, samples, backing vocals Lazaretto-era lineup Dominic Davis – bass Dean Fertita – Hammond organ, piano, keyboards Daru Jones – drums Fats Kaplin – pedal steel guitar, fiddle, mandolin, theremin Lillie Mae Rische – fiddle, mandolin, backing vocals Lazaretto-era previous members Isaiah "Ikey" Owens – B3 organ, piano, keyboards Cory Younts – mandolin, harmonica, piano, keyboards, percussion, backing vocals Blunderbuss-era lineup Note: While on tour in support of Blunderbuss, White toured with two bands that he alternated between shows with. The Buzzards (all-male band) Dominic Davis – bass Daru Jones – drums Fats Kaplin – pedal steel guitar, fiddle, mandolin, theremin Isaiah "Ikey" Owens – B3 organ, piano, keyboards Cory Younts – mandolin, harmonica, piano, keyboards, percussion, backing vocals The Peacocks (all-female band) Ruby Amanfu – backing vocals Carla Azar – drums Maggie Bjorklund – pedal steel guitar, acoustic guitar Catherine Popper – bass Bryn Davies – bass Lillie Mae Rische – fiddle, mandolin, backing vocals Brooke Waggoner – piano, B3 organ, keyboards Discography Solo albums Blunderbuss (2012) Lazaretto (2014) Boarding House Reach (2018) Fear of the Dawn (2022) Entering Heaven Alive (2022) With the White Stripes The White Stripes (1999) De Stijl (2000) White Blood Cells (2001) Elephant (2003) Get Behind Me Satan (2005) Icky Thump (2007) With the Raconteurs Broken Boy Soldiers (2006) Consolers of the Lonely (2008) Help Us Stranger (2019) With the Dead Weather Horehound (2009) Sea of Cowards (2010) Dodge and Burn (2015) Filmography The Rosary Murders (1987) – uncredited altar boy Cold Mountain (2003) – Georgia Coffee and Cigarettes (2003) – Himself Under Blackpool Lights (2004) – Himself The Fearless Freaks (2005) – Himself Walk Hard: The Dewey Cox Story (2007) – Elvis Presley Shine a Light (2008) – Himself It Might Get Loud (2009) – Himself Mutant Swinger from Mars (2009) – Mikey Under Great White Northern Lights (2010) – Himself Conan O'Brien Can't Stop (2011) – Himself American Pickers (2012) – Himself Portlandia, season 3, episode 1 (2012) – Himself The Muppets, season 1, episode 16 (2016) – Himself American Epic (2017) – Himself The American Epic Sessions (2017) – Himself Jack White: Kneeling at The Anthem D.C. (2018) – Himself Killers of the Flower Moon (2023) Books We Are Going to Be Friends (2017) – based on "We're Going to Be Friends" by the White Stripes Footnotes Notes References Works cited External links Third Man Records Official site of the White Stripes Official site of the Raconteurs Official site of the Dead Weather Category:1975 births Category:American blues guitarists Category:Alternative rock guitarists Category:American male singers Category:American music video directors Category:American rock guitarists Category:American rock singers Category:American male guitarists Category:American tenors Category:Cass Technical High School alumni Category:Wayne State University alumni Category:Grammy Award winners Category:Living people Category:American mandolinists Category:American marimbists Category:Slide guitarists Category:Lead guitarists Category:The White Stripes members Category:American people of Polish descent Category:American people of Scottish descent Category:American people of Canadian descent Category:American expatriates in the United Kingdom Category:20th-century American singers Category:21st-century American singers Category:Third Man Records artists Category:XL Recordings artists Category:American male drummers Category:Upholsterers Category:Guitarists from Detroit Category:20th-century American drummers Category:21st-century American drummers Category:The Dead Weather members Category:The Raconteurs members Category:Goober & the Peas members Category:Two-Star Tabernacle members
[ { "text": "Third Man Records is an eclectic, vinyl-focused independent record label founded and owned by Jack White, Ben Blackwell and Ben Swank. The company operates out of three locations—Nashville, Tennessee, Detroit, Michigan, and Soho, London—with multiple entities expanding upon the offerings of a traditional record label, including multiple live music venues, vinyl pressing plant, film studio and dark room, guitar pedal and gear company, mastering studio, vinyl subscription service, and publishing arm.\n\nHistory\nIn 2001, while Jack White was gaining regional notice in the White Stripes in Detroit, he registered the label Third Man Records, proceeding to trademark the name in 2004. It wasn’t until 2008 when the White Stripes stopped touring and recording, and after White had reclaimed the rights to the band's earlier music, that White turned his focus to the label.\n\nWhite recruited his nephew, White Stripes archivist and Dirtbombs drummer Ben Blackwell and his lifelong friend, Ben Swank, then the drummer for the Soledad Brothers and a promoter in London, to create a working business on March 11, 2009. White conceived the expansion idea in October 2008, phoning Swank and Blackwell to say the venture should first concentrate on releasing White Stripes' back catalog on vinyl. Blackwell moved from Detroit and Swank from London to establish the business. The Nashville location now serves as a record store, label and publishing offices, The Blue Room live venue and bar, photo studio/darkroom, master recordings vault, and fulfillment center. To commemorate the opening of Third Man Records in Nashville, White debuted his new project, the Dead Weather, performing a short set for the 150 invited guests and coining the label's motto, \"Your Turntable's Not Dead.\"\n\nThe label's name incorporates several elements of personal significance to White. His fondness for the number three is well documented. It refers to Carol Reed's The Third Man starring Joseph Cotten and Orson Welles. White's pre-White Stripes upholstering company, which he continues to maintain as a hobby and artistic outlet in the present day, is named Third Man Upholstery and is similarly identified by the colors yellow and black and the motto “Your Upholstery’s Not Dead.”\n\nThird Man has since reissued all six White Stripes studio releases on vinyl, and the label’s catalog has now grown to over 800 releases, including albums by White’s other acts, contributions from Billie Eilish, Neil Young, Sleep, Metallica, Margo Price, Coldplay, and Jay-Z, and many developing artists.\n\nNashville location\nThe label's headquarters is located in a less prosperous neighborhood, which is home to the city's largest homeless shelter, a transitional housing and recuperation center, and an affordable healthcare clinic. White's presence has raised the area's prominence, motivating the city and business owners to rezone the area with more commercial ventures, including multiple mixed-use developments, a Ritz Carlton Hotel, and a members' club. White opposes the idea, calling the environment \"a solid neighborhood [where] everyone looks out for each other.\" The location is organized around five dedicated sections: the record store, a \"novelties lounge\", the label's offices and distribution center, a live venue and bar (The Blue Room), and a darkroom/photo studio.\n\nThe Novelties Lounge, located within the record store, debuted on November 23, 2012. The space contains a collection of vintage novelty machines. \"Among the attractions in the new wing is a Scopitone machine—a video jukebox using 16mm film that had its greatest prominence in the 1960s. Third Man has loaded their Scopitone with 36 videos from the label catalog, and bill it as 'the world's ONLY Scopitone machine fully loaded with modern music.' Other highlights include a \"Wax-O-Matic machine\", which makes bright red wax molds of White's Airline guitar, and a full-color photo booth.\" On April 20, 2013, in celebration of Jack White's role as Record Store Day Ambassador, The Third Man Recording Booth, \"a refurbished 1947 Voice-o-Graph machine that can record up to two minutes audio and press it onto 6-inch phonograph discs\" was introduced as an addition to the Novelties Lounge. This voice-o-graph was used in the creating of Apple's 2014 holiday ad as shown in the behind the scene video. In August 2017, Third Man celebrated the total solar eclipse happening event \"Occulting the Sunn\", in Nashville.\n\nDetroit location\nIn 2015, White partnered with Shinola—a lifestyle brand most known as a watch manufacturer—to open a retail location in Detroit. Third Man opened its first branch location at the former Willy's Overland Motorland Company in Detroit's Cass Corridor by Record Store Day's Black Friday event on November 27, 2015.\n\nThird Man Pressing\nIn February 2017, the Third Man Pressing plant launched in Third Man Records' Detroit location, the first to open there since 1965. The plant began with eight Newbilt presses imported from Germany. In 2019 they expanded to add Third Man Mastering, which provides audio mastering services as well as vinyl lacquer cutting.\n\nLondon location\nIn September 2021, Third Man Records opened a third retail location, live venue, and label office in London's Soho neighborhood. To celebrate the grand opening, White performed in the basement venue as well as from the balcony belonging to visual artist Damien Hirst, whose building sits at the end of the street.\n\nRolling Record Store\nOn March 9, 2011, Third Man Records announced its newest creation, the Third Man Rolling Record Store, a yellow step van outfitted with a sound system and Third Man Records inventory. It was built by C Cook Enterprises in Erlanger, Kentucky. It made its first appearance in Austin, Texas, at SXSW 2011. Third Man has since brought the mobile store to concerts, festivals, and other events with anywhere from weeks to only a few hours’ notice.\n\nThird Man Records Vault\nThe Third Man Records Vault is a \"rarity-excavating\" quarterly subscription service that began in September 2009 as a way to release special and otherwise unreleased content. Platinum members of the Vault receive a package containing limited-edition vinyl records and merchandise every three months. Generally each cycle's offerings have included a 12-inch record, a 7-inch record and a \"bonus item\" (this many include, a poster, book, pins, etc. ... ), although this format has been deviated from multiple times.\n\nDiscography\nThird Man releases some music on compact disc and via electronic release on iTunes, but vinyl records are its primary format.\n\nIn addition to pressing titles on regular black vinyl, most releases have an exclusive and/or limited sister pressing on colored or multicolored vinyl. Beginning with TMR-003, a limited edition handmade batch of 100 tri-colored 7-inch vinyl, in equal parts black, yellow, and white, were produced for exclusive distribution at Third Man's Nashville location. Beginning with TMR-009, an additional 50 tri-colored vinyl have been pressed for random distribution in Third Man mail orders. Certain single releases have been sold on tri-colored vinyl available at record stores in the artist's hometown instead of at the Nashville store. An additional 50 are still randomly distributed in mail orders.\n\nRecordings from live shows in the Blue Room (recorded either directly to analog reel-to-reel tape or direct-to-acetate) are made available in black and blue vinyl in varying quantities. These split-color records are available only to show attendees, and each LP is sealed with a concert-specific label on which the purchaser's name is written.\n\nThird Man is known for pushing the boundaries with vinyl record production, and with the help of United Record Pressing (their main partner in manufacturing records prior to the opening of Third Man Pressing), their innovations include the following unique record pressings: Glow In The Dark Record, Triple-Decker Record (a 7-inch within a 12-inch), Texas-Sized Record (8\" and 13\" records), Metallized Record, Liquid-Filled Record, Scented Record, Rose Petal-Filled Record, Playable Etching Record, 3 RPM Record, Lightning Bolt Record, Bolt-A-Trope Record, and the Flex-Ray Record (a flexi disc made from an x-ray).\n\nTwo albums released by Third Man Records have received sales certification awards from the Recording Industry Association of America: White Blood Cells by the White Stripes was certified Platinum for sales of at least 1 million units and Blunderbuss by Jack White was certified Gold for sales of at least 500,000 units. Additionally, the DVD release of the White Stripes documentary film Under Great White Northern Lights was certified Gold for longform video sales of at least 50,000 units.\n\nSee also\n List of record labels\n\nReferences\n\nFootnotes\n\nBibliography\n\"Catalog.\" Third Man Records.\n\nExternal links\n \n\n \nCategory:Record labels established in 2001\nCategory:American record labels\nCategory:Vanity record labels\nCategory:Jack White\nCategory:Alternative rock record labels\nCategory:Folk record labels\nCategory:Country music record labels\nCategory:Hip hop record labels\nCategory:Culture of Detroit\nCategory:Economy of Detroit\nCategory:Culture of Nashville, Tennessee\nCategory:Economy of Nashville, Tennessee\nCategory:2001 establishments in Michigan", "title": "Third Man Records" } ]
[ "Eccentricity, in this context, refers to Jack White's unusual or unconventional behavior and unique way of conducting his endeavors. This includes creating mythology around his ventures, such as claiming that he and Meg White were siblings and Third Man Records used to be a candy factory, having a strong attachment to the number three, maintaining a distinctive aesthetic by color-coding his endeavors, and decorating his studio with preserved animals due to his enthusiasm for taxidermy.", "Jack White was called \"eccentric\" due to his unconventional behavior and unique approaches. This includes creating false backstories for his projects, persistent use of the number three in his business ventures and names, referring to himself and his bandmate as brother and sister despite evidence of a past marriage, and consistent color-coding of his projects. Additionally, his interest in taxidermy and decision to decorate his studio in preserved animals contributed to the perception of him as eccentric.", "The mythology Jack White created included claims such as the White Stripes having started on Bastille Day, that he and Meg were the youngest of ten siblings, and that Third Man Records used to be a candy factory. These claims were later questioned or disproven, contributing to the mythology, or fabricated narrative, surrounding his endeavors.", "The context does not provide any other connections Jack White has with mythology.", "Yes, there are a few interesting aspects in the article. One is Jack White's attachment to the number three, which came about from seeing three staples in the back of a couch he helped to upholster. This fascination led him to incorporate \"three\" in his business ventures and frequently use \"III\" after his name. He also used 'Three Quid' as a nickname during his 2005 UK tour. Another interesting facet is his unique aesthetic involving color-coding his endeavors, such as Third Man Records which is outfitted entirely in yellow, black, red, and blue - including staff uniforms. Jack White's interest in taxidermy and subsequent use of preserved animals as decoration in his studio, including a peacock, giraffe, and Himalayan goat, is another distinctive aspect mentioned in the article.", "Based on the provided context, Jack White's interests extend to taxidermy, color-coding his business ventures, upholstery, and creating mythology around his endeavors. There are not additional interests mentioned.", "As per the information provided, Jack White's business ventures include Third Man Records and earlier in his life, an upholstery business called Third Man Upholstery. He was also a member of the musical group, The White Stripes.\n" ]
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C_9b801a80b50444c1a8a750e63403406c_1
Sheldon Adelson
Sheldon Gary Adelson (pronounced ; born August 4, 1933) is an American business magnate, investor, and philanthropist. He is the founder, chairman and chief executive officer of Las Vegas Sands Corporation, which owns the Marina Bay Sands in Singapore, and is the parent company of Venetian Macao Limited, which operates The Venetian Resort Hotel Casino and the Sands Expo and Convention Center. He also owns the Israeli daily newspaper Israel Hayom and the American daily newspaper Las Vegas Review-Journal. Adelson, a lifelong donor and philanthropist to a variety of causes, also founded the Adelson Foundation in 2007, at the initiative of his wife, Miriam.
Israeli press
In 2007, Adelson made an unsuccessful bid to purchase the Israeli newspaper Maariv. When this failed, he proceeded with parallel plans to publish a free daily newspaper to compete with Israeli, a newspaper he had co-founded in 2006 but had left. The first edition of the new newspaper, Israel Hayom, was published on July 30, 2007. On March 31, 2014, Adelson received the go-ahead from a Jerusalem court to purchase Maariv and the conservative newspaper Makor Rishon. In 2016 Adelson's attorney announced that he does not own Israel Hayom, it is owned by a relative of his. According to a Target Group Index (TGI) survey published in July 2011, Israel Hayom, which unlike all other Israeli newspapers is distributed for free, became the number-one daily newspaper (on weekdays) four years after its inception. This survey found that Israel Hayom had a 39.3% weekday readership exposure, Yedioth Ahronoth 37%, Maariv 12.1%, and Haaretz 5.8%. The Yedioth Ahronoth weekend edition was still leading with a 44.3% readership exposure, compared to 31% for the Israel Hayom weekend edition, 14.9% for Maariv, and 6.8% for Haaretz. This trend was already observed by a TGI survey in July 2010. In 2011, the Israeli press said that Adelson was unhappy with coverage of him on Israeli Channel 10, which alleged that Adelson had acquired a casino license in Las Vegas inappropriately through political connections. The channel apologized after Adelson threatened a lawsuit. This led to the resignations of the news chief, Reudor Benziman; the news editor, Ruti Yuval; and the news anchor, Guy Zohar, who objected to the apology. After two months of deliberations, the Israeli Second Authority for Television and Radio ruled that although there were some flaws in the manner in which the apology had been conducted, the decision to apologize had been correct and appropriate. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "What does Sheldon have to do with the Israeli press?", "Was he successful at the paper?", "Was he the owner of the paper?", "Who also owned the paper?", "Did he make changes at the paper?", "Did he own any other papers?", "What did people think regarding him in charge of the paper?" ]
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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 102 ], [ 246 ], [ 206 ], [ 1866 ], [ 351 ], [ 1866 ], [ 1832 ] ], "texts": [ [ "he proceeded with parallel plans to publish a free daily newspaper to compete with Israeli, a newspaper he had co-founded in 2006" ], [ "The first edition of the new newspaper, Israel Hayom, was published on July 30, 2007." ], [ "he had co-founded" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Adelson received the go-ahead from a Jerusalem court to purchase Maariv and the conservative newspaper Makor Rishon. In" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "had been correct and appropriate." ] ] }
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Sheldon Gary Adelson (; August 4, 1933 – January 11, 2021) was an American businessman, investor, political donor, and philanthropist. He was the founder, chairman and chief executive officer of Las Vegas Sands Corporation, which owns the Marina Bay Sands in Singapore, and the parent company of Venetian Macao Limited, which operated The Venetian Las Vegas and the Sands Expo and Convention Center before selling the properties in early 2022. He owned the Israeli daily newspaper Israel Hayom, the Israeli weekly newspaper Makor Rishon, and the American daily newspaper the Las Vegas Review-Journal. Adelson created the Adelson Foundation in 2007, a private charity focusing on healthcare and support of Israel and the Jewish people. He was a major contributor to Republican Party candidates and was often dubbed a "kingmaker" due to the size and frequency of his donations. He and his wife Miriam Adelson were Donald Trump's largest donors, providing the largest donation to Trump's 2016 campaign, his presidential inauguration, his defense fund against the Mueller investigation into Russian interference, and the 2020 campaign. He was also a major backer of Israel's prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu. In September 2017, Adelson was listed by Forbes as having a fortune of US$35.7 billion, and as of September 2020 Forbes listed his net worth as US$29.8 billion. Early life Adelson was born on August 4, 1933, and grew up in the Dorchester neighborhood of Boston, the son of Sarah (née Tonkin) and Arthur Adelson. He was Jewish. His father's family was of Ukrainian Jewish and Lithuanian Jewish ancestry. His mother immigrated from England, and Adelson said that his grandfather was a Welsh coal miner. His father was a taxi driver, and his mother ran a knitting shop. He began his business career at the age of 12 when he borrowed $200 from his uncle () and purchased a license to sell newspapers in Boston. In 1948, at the age of 15, he borrowed $10,000 () from his uncle to start a candy vending-machine business. He attended the City College of New York, but did not graduate. He attended trade school in a failed attempt to become a court reporter, then joined the army. After being discharged from the army, he established a business selling toiletry kits, then started another business, De-Ice-It, which marketed a chemical spray that cleared ice from windshields. In the 1960s, he started a charter tour business. He soon became a millionaire, although by his thirties he had built and lost his fortune twice. Over the course of his business career, Adelson created almost 50 businesses, making him a serial entrepreneur. Business career COMDEX In the late 1970s, Adelson and his partners developed the COMDEX trade shows for the computer industry, beginning in 1979. It was one of the largest computer trade shows in the world through much of the 1980s and 1990s. In 1995, Adelson and his partners sold the Interface Group Show Division, including the COMDEX shows, to SoftBank Group of Japan for $862 million; Adelson's share was over $500 million. Sands Casino Las Vegas, Nevada In 1988, Adelson purchased the Sands Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas for $110 million (approximately ). The next year, he and his partners built the Sands Expo and Convention Center, then the only privately owned and operated convention center in the U.S. In 1991, while honeymooning in Venice with his second wife, Miriam, Adelson came up with the idea for a mega-resort hotel. He razed the Sands and spent $1.5 billion to construct The Venetian, a Venice-themed resort hotel and casino, which opened on May 3, 1999. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania In the late 2000s, Adelson and the company built a casino resort in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. It is one of five stand-alone casinos that were awarded a slots license by the Pennsylvania Gaming Control Board in 2006. The casino opened May 22, 2009. In 2010, during the Great Recession, Adelson told The Wall Street Journal "If it were today, we probably wouldn't have started it." Macau Adelson led a project to bring Las Vegas Sands casinos to Macau. The Sands Macao became China's first Las Vegas-style casino when it opened in May 2004. He recovered his initial $265-million investment in one year and, because he owned 69% of the stock, he increased his wealth when he took the stock public in December 2004. Following the opening of the Sands Macao, Adelson's personal wealth multiplied more than fourteen times. In August 2007, Adelson opened the $2.4 billion Venetian Macao Resort Hotel on Cotai and announced that he planned to create a massive, concentrated resort area he called the Cotai Strip, after its Las Vegas counterpart. Adelson said that he planned to open more hotels under brands such as Four Seasons, Sheraton, and St. Regis. His Las Vegas Sands planned to invest $12 billion and build 20,000 hotel rooms on the Cotai Strip by 2010. Adelson's company was reportedly under federal investigation over alleged violations of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act relating to payments made to a Macau lawyer. In 2015, Sands agreed to pay a $9 million settlement with the Securities and Exchange Commission, which included no admission of wrongdoing. Marina Bay, Singapore In May 2006, Adelson's Las Vegas Sands was awarded a hotly contested license to construct a casino resort in Marina Bay, Singapore. The new casino, Marina Bay Sands, opened in 2010 at a rumored cost of $5.5 billion. In 2010, when it opened, at a total cost of S$8 billion including land cost, the Marina Bay Sands (MBS) Complex of Singapore was the most expensive building in the world, ranking over the new development of World Trade Towers in Manhattan of New York and the Burj Khalifa of Dubai. MBS Singapore includes stores at "The Shoppes", an ultraluxury indoor Venetian canal-lined exclusive shopping belt with tenants such as Ferrari, Chanel, the Theatre of Marina Bay and Convention Center for Sands Live concert series, multiple swimming pools, a rooftop infinity pool, night clubs in Maison pavilions on newly constructed mini islands, and 2,500 luxury hotel rooms. Other activities Israeli press In 2007, Adelson made an unsuccessful bid to purchase the Israeli newspaper Maariv. When this attempt failed, he proceeded with parallel plans to publish a free daily newspaper to compete with Israeli, a newspaper he had co-founded in 2006 but had left. The first edition of the new newspaper, Israel Hayom, was published on July 30, 2007. On March 31, 2014, Adelson received the go-ahead from a Jerusalem court to purchase Maariv and the conservative newspaper Makor Rishon. In 2016, Adelson's attorney announced that he does not own Israel Hayom, but that it is owned by a relative of his. According to a Target Group Index (TGI) survey published in July 2011, Israel Hayom, which unlike all other Israeli newspapers is distributed for free, became the number-one daily newspaper (on weekdays) four years after its inception. This survey found that Israel Hayom had a 39.3% weekday readership exposure, Yedioth Ahronoth 37%, Maariv 12.1%, and Haaretz 5.8%. The Yedioth Ahronoth weekend edition was still leading with a 44.3% readership exposure, compared to 31% for the Israel Hayom weekend edition, 14.9% for Maariv, and 6.8% for Haaretz. This trend was already observed by a TGI survey in July 2010. In 2011, the Israeli press said that Adelson was unhappy with the coverage on Israeli Channel 10 alleging he had acquired a casino license in Las Vegas inappropriately through political connections. The channel apologized after Adelson threatened a lawsuit. This led to the resignations of the news chief, Reudor Benziman; the news editor, Ruti Yuval; and the news anchor, Guy Zohar, who objected to the apology. After two months of deliberations, the Israeli Second Authority for Television and Radio ruled that although there were some flaws in the manner in which the apology had been conducted, the decision to apologize had been correct and appropriate. Las Vegas Review-Journal In December 2015, Adelson purchased the Las Vegas Review-Journal newspaper. The purchase was made through a limited liability company called News + Media Capital Group LLC and his involvement with the deal was initially kept secret. A week after the purchase was announced, three Review-Journal reporters revealed that the deal had been orchestrated by Adelson's son-in-law Patrick Dumont on Adelson's behalf. Commentators described the $140 million paid for the paper as "lavish" and as a dramatic overpayment, and speculated that the move was a power play to further Adelson's business or political agendas. Within a few weeks the paper's editor stepped down in a "voluntary buyout". In January 2016, a set of editorial principles were drawn up and publicized to ensure the newspaper's independence and to deal with possible conflicts of interest involving Adelson's ownership. In February Craig Moon, a veteran of the Gannett organization, was announced as the new publisher and promptly withdrew those principles from publication. He also began to personally review, edit, and sometimes kill stories about an Adelson-promoted proposal for a new Las Vegas football stadium. In the months since, reporters say that stories about Adelson, and particularly about an ongoing lawsuit involving his business dealings in Macau, have been heavily edited by top management. Many reporters and editors left the newspaper citing "curtailed editorial freedom, murky business dealings and unethical managers." All three reporters who originally broke the story about Adelson's ownership have left. Longtime columnist John L. Smith, who had often written about Adelson and had been unsuccessfully sued for libel by him, resigned after he was told he could no longer write anything about Adelson. The Las Vegas Review-Journal was the first major newspaper nationwide to endorse Trump in 2016. U.S. policy on Iran In a panel discussion at Yeshiva University on October 22, 2013, Adelson said that the United States must get tougher on the issue of Iran's suspected nuclear weapons program. He said: "You pick up your cell phone and you call somewhere in Nebraska and you say 'OK, let it go' and so there's an atomic weapon goes over, ballistic missiles in the middle of the desert that doesn't hurt a soul, maybe a couple of rattlesnakes and scorpions or whatever". He explained that, after a show of force and a threat to also drop a nuclear bomb on Tehran, the U.S. should then say: if "You [Iran] want to be peaceful, just reverse it all and we will guarantee that you can have a nuclear power plant for electricity purposes, energy purposes." Adelson's spokesman told reporters that Adelson "was obviously not speaking literally" about using an atomic bomb in the desert, and that he was "using hyperbole to make a point that ... actions speak louder than words". DeLay controversy During the Suen trial, Bill Weidner, the president of Adelson's Las Vegas Sands company, testified about a telephone conversation between Adelson and his friend then-House Majority Leader Tom DeLay (R-TX) about a bill proposed by Representative Tom Lantos (D) that would have prevented the U.S. Olympic Committee from voting in favor of the Chinese bid to host the 2008 Summer Olympics. A few hours later, DeLay called back and told Adelson he could tell the mayor of Beijing "this bill will never see the light of day". The resolution did not pass. Adelson testified in court that the demise of the resolution "resulted from the press of other legislation, [not from] a deliberate move by DeLay to help his benefactor." Cannabis Fighting cannabis legalization was a personal passion of Adelson, whose son Mitchell died of an overdose of heroin and cocaine. Mitchell used cocaine and heroin from an early age. Adelson believed cannabis is a gateway drug. Andy Abboud, vice president of Las Vegas Sands, has stated that "Pro-marijuana folks have awakened a sleeping giant in Sheldon and Miriam Adelson". Israeli-American Council At the November 2017 conference of the Israeli-American Council (IAC), Adelson declared that the organization should become primarily a political lobbying group on Israel-related issues. In contrast to the American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC), which supports a two-state solution and continued aid to the Palestinians, Adelson charted a course for IAC to oppose both of these positions; Adelson himself opposed a two-state solution. Israeli journalist Chemi Shalev said that IAC had not intended to become a political pressure group and that Adelson had "hijacked" it for his "hard-right agenda". Internet gambling Adelson fought against internet-based gambling in his later life. Despite the legalization, and acceptance from many Las Vegas Casino CEOs, Adelson poured money into candidates wanting to overturn state legislation that legalizes online gambling. In early 2015, Adelson publicly backed a bill introduced in the U.S. House of Representatives. The legislation, named the Restore America's Wire Act, has been met with mixed reviews by the Republican Party. Honors Adelson and his wife, Miriam Adelson, were presented with the Woodrow Wilson Award for Corporate Citizenship by the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars of the Smithsonian Institution on March 25, 2008. Adelson received the Chairman's Award from the Nevada Policy Research Institute, a think tank in Las Vegas, for his efforts to advance free market principles in Nevada. In 2014, Adelson was named to CNBC's list of 200 people who have transformed business over the last 25 years. Involvement in politics According to The New Yorker, Adelson began making major contributions to the Republican National Committee following clashes with labor unions at his Las Vegas properties. The New Yorker article also quoted Shelley Berkley, a Nevada Democratic Party congresswoman, with whom Adelson had a long feud. She worked for him in the 1990s as vice-president of legal and governmental affairs, and said Adelson told her that "old Democrats were with the union and he wanted to break the back of the union, consequently he had to break the back of the Democrats". The Boston Globe said that Adelson "waged some bitter anti-union battles in Las Vegas". Berkley is further quoted in The New Yorker article as saying that Adelson "seeks to dominate politics and public policy through the raw power of money". In February 2012, Adelson told Forbes magazine that he was "against very wealthy people attempting to or influencing elections. But as long as it's doable I'm going to do it. Because I know that guys like Soros have been doing it for years, if not decades. And they stay below the radar by creating a network of corporations to funnel their money. I have my own philosophy and I'm not ashamed of it. I gave the money because there is no other legal way to do it. I don't want to go through ten different corporations to hide my name. I'm proud of what I do and I'm not looking to escape recognition." In 2005, Adelson and his wife each contributed $250,000 to the second inauguration of George W. Bush. President George W. Bush appointed the Adelsons to serve on the Honorary Delegation to accompany him to Jerusalem for the celebration of the 60th anniversary of the State of Israel in May 2008. Adelson was the principal financial backer of Freedom's Watch, a now-defunct political advocacy group founded to counter the influence of George Soros and Democratic-leaning lobby groups such as MoveOn.org. "Almost all" of the $30 million Freedom's Watch spent on the 2008 elections came from Adelson. In 2010, Adelson donated $1 million to American Solutions for Winning the Future, a political action committee (PAC) supporting Republican former Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich. In December 2011, during Gingrich's bid for the U.S. presidency, Adelson spoke favorably of controversial remarks Gingrich had made about Palestinians, saying "read the history of those who call themselves Palestinians, and you will hear why Gingrich said recently that the Palestinians are an invented people." Adelson donated to U.S. Senate and House of Representatives candidates. During the 2012 Republican Party presidential primaries, Adelson first supported Newt Gingrich and then the eventual nominee Mitt Romney. Altogether he spent $92 million supporting losing candidates during the 2012 United States presidential election cycle. On January 7, 2012, Adelson bolstered Gingrich's then-faltering campaign with a $5-million donation to the pro-Gingrich super PAC Winning Our Future. By the next day, the super PAC had reserved more than $3.4 million in advertising time in the South Carolina primary, which included production and distribution of a half-hour movie that portrayed Gingrich's political rival Mitt Romney as a "predatory corporate raider". On January 23, Adelson's wife, Miriam, contributed an additional $5 million to the same organization with instructions to use it to advance a "pro-Newt message". Adelson told Forbes that he was willing to donate as much as $100 million to Gingrich. He also donated $5 million to the right-leaning super PAC Congressional Leadership Fund and over $60,000 to the Republican National Committee. In June 2012, Adelson donated $10 million to the pro-Romney PAC Restore Our Future. In July, Adelson attended a Romney fundraiser held in Jerusalem. Adelson joined Woody Johnson, John Rakolta, Paul Singer, and several dozen other contributors on the trip. According to Bloomberg Businessweek, as of July Adelson had given Republicans more than $30 million for the 2012 election cycle. Romney believed that the People's Republic of China should have been pressured to drop its presumptively low fixed exchange rate policy; according to Bloomberg, Adelson would have benefitted financially in U.S. dollar terms through his interest in Chinese casinos if the Chinese yuan were to have appreciated. Early in 2014, Adelson donated $2.5 million to the Drug Free Florida Committee, the political committee trying to defeat Florida's Right to Medical Marijuana Initiative which would legalize medical cannabis in that state. Later in 2014, Adelson donated an additional $1.5 million to the No On 2 campaign. He believed that cannabis is a gateway drug. According to a 2014 Washington Post report, Adelson's strategy for the 2016 United States presidential election was to support a mainstream candidate capable of winning the presidency. In March 2014 Adelson was set to hold one-on-one chats with possible candidates Jeb Bush, Chris Christie, Scott Walker, and John Kasich during the spring meeting of the Republican Jewish Coalition held at Adelson's hotel and casino The Venetian Las Vegas. During the December 2015 Republican debate held at that same venue, Adelson held one-on-one meetings with several of the candidates prior to the start of the debate, including front runner Donald Trump. The bidding to become Adelson's favorite, and ultimately receive tens of millions in financial support, was informally called "The Adelson Primary". On May 13, 2016, he endorsed Trump for president, and pledged as much as $100 million to support his campaign. Adelson was later described as a Trump partisan. In October 2016, Adelson donated one million dollars to the campaign against Massachusetts ballot question 4 the Massachusetts Legalization, Regulation and Taxation of Marijuana Initiative which legalized marijuana for personal use. Adelson also donated $1,500,000 towards the unsuccessful effort to thwart the 2016 Florida medical Marijuana Legalization Initiative. Adelson sat out the 2016 Republican primaries, with some early indicators at the beginning of 2016 interpreted as showing that Adelson favored Trump. In May 2016, explaining his reasons for officially endorsing Donald Trump's presidential bid, Adelson cited the importance of CEO experience in a presidential nominee. For the 2018 United States elections, Adelson donated approximately $113 million to the Republican Party through various conservative political action committees. On January 31, 2019, ABC News reported that Adelson and his wife Miriam had contributed $500,000 to the Patriot Legal Expense Fund Trust, which was set up in 2018 to assist aides of President Trump under investigation by special counsel Robert Mueller's probe into Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections. The contributions are the Trust's largest to date. It was estimated Adelson would donate $200 million to Trump and the GOP for the 2020 election cycle. Given a call to Adelson by Trump in early August complaining that Adelson had not done enough for him, there was speculation that the amount of a donation could be affected.<ref>Isenstadt, Alex, Trump antagonizes GOP megadonor Adelson in heated phone call , Politico, August 8, 2020</ref> On October 15, 2020, Adelson gave $75 million to a Trump PAC, in a late push for reelection. In the second half of October 2020, Adelson and his wife gave a further $35 million to three super-PACs supporting the Republican Party and Trump's re-election. PACs to which the Adelsons donated in the 2020 cycle included Preserve America and the Senate Leadership Fund. Donations On September 23, 2016, Adelson announced a $25 million donation to Trump's presidential campaign, as part of a $65 million donation to the Republican electoral campaign for 2016. This rendered Adelson by far the biggest donor in either party (Republicans or Democrats) in the 2016 election cycle. It also makes him by far the largest donor to Donald Trump's White House bid. Adelson was the largest donor to Trump's inaugural celebrations, with a $5 million donation to the celebrations. According to federal records, from 2010 through 2020, Adelson and his wife donated more than $500 million to the Republican party campaigns and super PACs. Since 2007, the Adelson Family Foundation has made contributions totaling $140 million to Birthright Israel, which finances Jewish youth trips to Israel. He also donated $5 million to the Friends of the Israel Defense Forces in 2014. Adelson donated over $25 million to The Adelson Educational Campus in Las Vegas to build a high school. In 2006, Adelson contributed $25 million to the Yad Vashem Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority. Adelson also funded the private, Boston-based Miriam and Sheldon G. Adelson Medical Research Foundation. This foundation initiated the Adelson Program in Neural Repair and Rehabilitation (APNRR) with $7.5 million donated to collaborating researchers at 10 universities. Personal life Marriages In the 1970s, Sheldon Adelson lived in Massachusetts with his wife, Sandra, and her three children, Mitchell, Gary, and Shelley, whom Sheldon adopted when they were young. The couple divorced in 1988. Adelson met Miriam Farbstein Ochshorn, a medical doctor, on a blind date the following year; they married in 1991. She was previously married to a Tel Aviv physician, Dr. Ariel Ochshorn, with whom she had two daughters. Miriam "Miri" Farbstein was born in Mandatory Palestine in 1945, to parents that fled Poland before the Holocaust and settled in the city of Haifa. After earning a Bachelor of Science in Microbiology and Genetics from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and a medical degree from Tel Aviv University's Sackler Medical School, she went on to become the chief internist in an emergency room at Tel Aviv's Rokach (Hadassah) Hospital. In 1993, she founded a substance abuse center and research clinic there, and in 2000, the couple opened the Dr. Miriam and Sheldon G. Adelson Research Clinic in Las Vegas. Litigation A June 2008 profile in The New Yorker detailed several controversies involving Adelson. In 2008 Richard Suen, a Hong Kong businessman who had helped Adelson make connections with leading Chinese officials in order to obtain the Macau license, took Adelson to court in Las Vegas alleging he had reneged on his agreement to allow Suen to profit from the venture. Suen won a $43.8 million judgement; in November 2010, the Nevada Supreme Court overturned the judgment and returned the case to the lower court for further consideration. In the 2013 retrial, the jury awarded Suen a verdict for $70 million. The judge added another $31.6 million in interest, bringing the total judgment against Adelson to $101.6 million. Adelson was in the process of appealing again. Adelson faced another trial over claims by three alleged "middlemen" in the deal who are suing for at least $450 million. In February 2013, the Las Vegas Sands, in a regulatory filing, acknowledged that it had likely violated federal law that prohibits the bribing of foreign officials. Allegedly, Chinese officials were bribed to allow Adelson to build his Macau casino. Adelson successfully sued the London Daily Mail for libel in 2008. The newspaper had accused him of pursuing "despicable business practices" and having "habitually and corruptly bought political favour". Adelson won the libel case, which was described as "a grave slur on Mr Adelson's personal integrity and business reputation," and he won a judgment of approximately £4 million, which he said he would donate to London's Royal Marsden Hospital. In August 2012, the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee (DCCC), after being threatened with a libel suit, apologized and withdrew two blog posts that claimed Adelson had donated "Chinese prostitution money" to Republicans. Another organization, the National Jewish Democratic Council, posted on their website that Adelson "personally approved" of prostitution at his Macau resorts. Adelson sued for libel, but a federal judge dismissed the suit in September 2013, ordering Adelson to pay the NJDC's legal fees. Wealth In 2007, Adelson's estimated wealth was $26.5 billion, making him the third-richest person in the United States according to Forbes. and $26 billion for 2008. In 2008, the share prices of the Las Vegas Sands Corp. plunged. In November 2008, Las Vegas Sands Corp. announced it might default on bonds that it had outstanding, signaling the potential bankruptcy of the concern. Adelson lost $4 billion in 2008, more than any other American billionaire.Sheldon Adelson , daylife.com; accessed September 16, 2015. In 2009, his net worth had declined from approximately $30 billion to $2 billion, a drop of 93%. He told ABC News "So I lost $25 billion. I started out with zero ...[there is] no such thing as fear, not to an entrepreneur. Concern, yes. Fear, no". In the Forbes 2009 world billionaires list, Adelson's ranking dropped to No. 178 with a net worth of $3.4 billion, but by 2011, after his business had recovered, he was ranked as the world's 16th-richest man with a net worth of $23.3 billion. In 2013, Adelson earned a top ranking on Forbes Annual "Biggest Winner" List, his dramatic growth a result of the success of his casinos in Macau and Singapore, adding an estimated $15 billion to his net worth during the year. In 2013, Adelson was worth $37.2 billion according to Forbes'', and as of December 2014, his net worth was $30.4 billion. Adelson owned a fleet of private jets through Las Vegas Sands. On January 2, 2017, Adelson's Airbus A340-500 jet set a record for the Ben Gurion International Airport by making the longest flight ever leaving the airport by flying nonstop to Honolulu, Hawaii, by way of the Arctic Ocean. Illness and death In 2001, Adelson was diagnosed with peripheral neuropathy, which restricted his ability to stand and walk. On February 28, 2019, Las Vegas Sands announced that Adelson was receiving treatment for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. The news was disclosed after a Sands attorney claimed Adelson was too weak to sit for a deposition in a court case involving Richard Suen. Sands spokesman Ron Reese said the side effects of Adelson's medical treatment had "restricted his availability to travel or keep regular office hours” but had not “prevented him from fulfilling his duties as chairman and CEO” of Las Vegas Sands. On January 11, 2021, Adelson died at his home in Malibu, California, at the age of 87, after long-term illnesses. On January 14, 2021, Adelson's body arrived in Israel. His coffin was draped in U.S. and Israeli flags and was on display at Ben Gurion Airport, where Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu came to pay his respects. Adelson was buried the next day, in a small private ceremony on the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem. See also List of people and organizations named in the Paradise Papers References External links Campaign contributions in 2012 to outside spending groups at OpenSecrets Category:1933 births Category:2021 deaths Category:20th-century American businesspeople Category:20th-century American newspaper publishers (people) Category:21st-century American businesspeople Category:21st-century American newspaper publishers (people) Category:American billionaires Category:American casino industry businesspeople Category:American chairpersons of corporations Category:American chemical industry businesspeople Category:American chief executives in the media industry Category:American chief executives of financial services companies Category:American chief executives of travel and tourism industry companies Category:American computer businesspeople Category:American financiers Category:American hoteliers Category:American investment advisors Category:American investors Category:American people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent Category:American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent Category:American people of Welsh-Jewish descent Category:American political fundraisers Category:American real estate businesspeople Category:American transportation businesspeople Category:American Zionists Category:Businesspeople from Boston Category:Businesspeople from Nevada Category:City College of New York alumni Category:Deaths from cancer in California Category:Deaths from non-Hodgkin lymphoma Category:Jewish American philanthropists Category:Military personnel from Massachusetts Category:Nevada Republicans Category:People from Dorchester, Massachusetts Category:People from the Las Vegas Valley Category:United States Army soldiers Category:California Republicans Category:People named in the Paradise Papers Category:21st-century American Jews Category:Adelson family
[]
[ "Sheldon Adelson had several interactions with the Israeli press. In 2007, he made an unsuccessful bid to purchase the Israeli newspaper Maariv. Despite this, he established a competing free daily newspaper, Israel Hayom, in the same year. He later received permission from a Jerusalem court in 2014 to purchase Maariv, along with the conservative newspaper Makor Rishon. However, it was announced in 2016 that he does not own Israel Hayom, but rather a relative of his does. Additionally, Adelson expressed dissatisfaction with his portrayal on Israeli Channel 10 in 2011 and threatened a lawsuit, leading to several resignations at the channel.", "Four years after its inception, Israel Hayom – the newspaper Adelson co-founded – became the number-one daily newspaper during weekdays according to a Target Group Index survey published in July 2011. Although Adelson does not own the paper (it is owned by a relative), it is clear that the newspaper he co-founded has achieved considerable success.", "Sheldon Adelson co-founded the Israeli newspaper Israel Hayom in 2007. However, in 2016, it was announced by Adelson's attorney that he did not own Israel Hayom, it was owned by a relative of his. Adelson also made a successful bid to purchase the Israeli newspaper Maariv and the conservative newspaper Makor Rishon in 2014.", "A relative of Sheldon Adelson is stated to be the owner of the newspaper Israel Hayom.", "The text does not provide information on whether Sheldon Adelson made changes at the newspapers he was associated with.", "Yes, Sheldon Adelson went on to purchase the Israeli newspaper Maariv and the conservative newspaper Makor Rishon after receiving permission from a Jerusalem court in 2014.", "The text does not provide information on what people thought of Sheldon Adelson in relation to his role at the newspaper." ]
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C_9b801a80b50444c1a8a750e63403406c_0
Sheldon Adelson
Sheldon Gary Adelson (pronounced ; born August 4, 1933) is an American business magnate, investor, and philanthropist. He is the founder, chairman and chief executive officer of Las Vegas Sands Corporation, which owns the Marina Bay Sands in Singapore, and is the parent company of Venetian Macao Limited, which operates The Venetian Resort Hotel Casino and the Sands Expo and Convention Center. He also owns the Israeli daily newspaper Israel Hayom and the American daily newspaper Las Vegas Review-Journal. Adelson, a lifelong donor and philanthropist to a variety of causes, also founded the Adelson Foundation in 2007, at the initiative of his wife, Miriam.
Litigation
A June 2008 profile in The New Yorker detailed several controversies involving Adelson. In 2008 Richard Suen, a Hong Kong businessman who had helped Adelson make connections with top Chinese officials in order to obtain the Macau license, took Adelson to court in Las Vegas alleging he had reneged on his agreement to allow Suen to profit from the venture. Suen won a $43.8 million judgement; in November 2010, the Nevada Supreme Court overturned the judgment and returned the case to the lower court for further consideration. In the 2013 retrial, the jury awarded Suen a verdict for $70 million. The judge added another $31.6 million in interest, bringing the total judgment against Adelson to $101.6 million. Adelson is appealing again. Adelson faces another trial over claims by three alleged "middlemen" in the deal who are suing for at least $450 million. In February 2013, the Las Vegas Sands, in a regulatory filing, acknowledged that it had likely violated federal law that prohibits the bribing of foreign officials. Allegedly, Chinese officials were bribed to allow Adelson to build his Macau casino. Adelson successfully sued the Daily Mail of London for libel in 2008. The newspaper had accused him of pursuing "despicable business practices" and having "habitually and corruptly bought political favour". Adelson won the libel case, which was described as "a grave slur on Mr Adelson's personal integrity and business reputation", and he won a judgment of approximately PS4 million, which he said he would donate to London's Royal Marsden Hospital. In August 2012, the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee (DCCC), after being threatened with a libel suit, apologized and withdrew two blog posts that claimed Adelson had donated "Chinese prostitution money" to Republicans. Another organization, the National Jewish Democratic Council, posted on their website that Adelson "personally approved" of prostitution at his Macau resorts. Adelson sued for libel, but a federal judge dismissed the suit in September 2013, ordering Adelson to pay the NJDC's legal fees. CANNOTANSWER
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Sheldon Gary Adelson (; August 4, 1933 – January 11, 2021) was an American businessman, investor, political donor, and philanthropist. He was the founder, chairman and chief executive officer of Las Vegas Sands Corporation, which owns the Marina Bay Sands in Singapore, and the parent company of Venetian Macao Limited, which operated The Venetian Las Vegas and the Sands Expo and Convention Center before selling the properties in early 2022. He owned the Israeli daily newspaper Israel Hayom, the Israeli weekly newspaper Makor Rishon, and the American daily newspaper the Las Vegas Review-Journal. Adelson created the Adelson Foundation in 2007, a private charity focusing on healthcare and support of Israel and the Jewish people. He was a major contributor to Republican Party candidates and was often dubbed a "kingmaker" due to the size and frequency of his donations. He and his wife Miriam Adelson were Donald Trump's largest donors, providing the largest donation to Trump's 2016 campaign, his presidential inauguration, his defense fund against the Mueller investigation into Russian interference, and the 2020 campaign. He was also a major backer of Israel's prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu. In September 2017, Adelson was listed by Forbes as having a fortune of US$35.7 billion, and as of September 2020 Forbes listed his net worth as US$29.8 billion. Early life Adelson was born on August 4, 1933, and grew up in the Dorchester neighborhood of Boston, the son of Sarah (née Tonkin) and Arthur Adelson. He was Jewish. His father's family was of Ukrainian Jewish and Lithuanian Jewish ancestry. His mother immigrated from England, and Adelson said that his grandfather was a Welsh coal miner. His father was a taxi driver, and his mother ran a knitting shop. He began his business career at the age of 12 when he borrowed $200 from his uncle () and purchased a license to sell newspapers in Boston. In 1948, at the age of 15, he borrowed $10,000 () from his uncle to start a candy vending-machine business. He attended the City College of New York, but did not graduate. He attended trade school in a failed attempt to become a court reporter, then joined the army. After being discharged from the army, he established a business selling toiletry kits, then started another business, De-Ice-It, which marketed a chemical spray that cleared ice from windshields. In the 1960s, he started a charter tour business. He soon became a millionaire, although by his thirties he had built and lost his fortune twice. Over the course of his business career, Adelson created almost 50 businesses, making him a serial entrepreneur. Business career COMDEX In the late 1970s, Adelson and his partners developed the COMDEX trade shows for the computer industry, beginning in 1979. It was one of the largest computer trade shows in the world through much of the 1980s and 1990s. In 1995, Adelson and his partners sold the Interface Group Show Division, including the COMDEX shows, to SoftBank Group of Japan for $862 million; Adelson's share was over $500 million. Sands Casino Las Vegas, Nevada In 1988, Adelson purchased the Sands Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas for $110 million (approximately ). The next year, he and his partners built the Sands Expo and Convention Center, then the only privately owned and operated convention center in the U.S. In 1991, while honeymooning in Venice with his second wife, Miriam, Adelson came up with the idea for a mega-resort hotel. He razed the Sands and spent $1.5 billion to construct The Venetian, a Venice-themed resort hotel and casino, which opened on May 3, 1999. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania In the late 2000s, Adelson and the company built a casino resort in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. It is one of five stand-alone casinos that were awarded a slots license by the Pennsylvania Gaming Control Board in 2006. The casino opened May 22, 2009. In 2010, during the Great Recession, Adelson told The Wall Street Journal "If it were today, we probably wouldn't have started it." Macau Adelson led a project to bring Las Vegas Sands casinos to Macau. The Sands Macao became China's first Las Vegas-style casino when it opened in May 2004. He recovered his initial $265-million investment in one year and, because he owned 69% of the stock, he increased his wealth when he took the stock public in December 2004. Following the opening of the Sands Macao, Adelson's personal wealth multiplied more than fourteen times. In August 2007, Adelson opened the $2.4 billion Venetian Macao Resort Hotel on Cotai and announced that he planned to create a massive, concentrated resort area he called the Cotai Strip, after its Las Vegas counterpart. Adelson said that he planned to open more hotels under brands such as Four Seasons, Sheraton, and St. Regis. His Las Vegas Sands planned to invest $12 billion and build 20,000 hotel rooms on the Cotai Strip by 2010. Adelson's company was reportedly under federal investigation over alleged violations of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act relating to payments made to a Macau lawyer. In 2015, Sands agreed to pay a $9 million settlement with the Securities and Exchange Commission, which included no admission of wrongdoing. Marina Bay, Singapore In May 2006, Adelson's Las Vegas Sands was awarded a hotly contested license to construct a casino resort in Marina Bay, Singapore. The new casino, Marina Bay Sands, opened in 2010 at a rumored cost of $5.5 billion. In 2010, when it opened, at a total cost of S$8 billion including land cost, the Marina Bay Sands (MBS) Complex of Singapore was the most expensive building in the world, ranking over the new development of World Trade Towers in Manhattan of New York and the Burj Khalifa of Dubai. MBS Singapore includes stores at "The Shoppes", an ultraluxury indoor Venetian canal-lined exclusive shopping belt with tenants such as Ferrari, Chanel, the Theatre of Marina Bay and Convention Center for Sands Live concert series, multiple swimming pools, a rooftop infinity pool, night clubs in Maison pavilions on newly constructed mini islands, and 2,500 luxury hotel rooms. Other activities Israeli press In 2007, Adelson made an unsuccessful bid to purchase the Israeli newspaper Maariv. When this attempt failed, he proceeded with parallel plans to publish a free daily newspaper to compete with Israeli, a newspaper he had co-founded in 2006 but had left. The first edition of the new newspaper, Israel Hayom, was published on July 30, 2007. On March 31, 2014, Adelson received the go-ahead from a Jerusalem court to purchase Maariv and the conservative newspaper Makor Rishon. In 2016, Adelson's attorney announced that he does not own Israel Hayom, but that it is owned by a relative of his. According to a Target Group Index (TGI) survey published in July 2011, Israel Hayom, which unlike all other Israeli newspapers is distributed for free, became the number-one daily newspaper (on weekdays) four years after its inception. This survey found that Israel Hayom had a 39.3% weekday readership exposure, Yedioth Ahronoth 37%, Maariv 12.1%, and Haaretz 5.8%. The Yedioth Ahronoth weekend edition was still leading with a 44.3% readership exposure, compared to 31% for the Israel Hayom weekend edition, 14.9% for Maariv, and 6.8% for Haaretz. This trend was already observed by a TGI survey in July 2010. In 2011, the Israeli press said that Adelson was unhappy with the coverage on Israeli Channel 10 alleging he had acquired a casino license in Las Vegas inappropriately through political connections. The channel apologized after Adelson threatened a lawsuit. This led to the resignations of the news chief, Reudor Benziman; the news editor, Ruti Yuval; and the news anchor, Guy Zohar, who objected to the apology. After two months of deliberations, the Israeli Second Authority for Television and Radio ruled that although there were some flaws in the manner in which the apology had been conducted, the decision to apologize had been correct and appropriate. Las Vegas Review-Journal In December 2015, Adelson purchased the Las Vegas Review-Journal newspaper. The purchase was made through a limited liability company called News + Media Capital Group LLC and his involvement with the deal was initially kept secret. A week after the purchase was announced, three Review-Journal reporters revealed that the deal had been orchestrated by Adelson's son-in-law Patrick Dumont on Adelson's behalf. Commentators described the $140 million paid for the paper as "lavish" and as a dramatic overpayment, and speculated that the move was a power play to further Adelson's business or political agendas. Within a few weeks the paper's editor stepped down in a "voluntary buyout". In January 2016, a set of editorial principles were drawn up and publicized to ensure the newspaper's independence and to deal with possible conflicts of interest involving Adelson's ownership. In February Craig Moon, a veteran of the Gannett organization, was announced as the new publisher and promptly withdrew those principles from publication. He also began to personally review, edit, and sometimes kill stories about an Adelson-promoted proposal for a new Las Vegas football stadium. In the months since, reporters say that stories about Adelson, and particularly about an ongoing lawsuit involving his business dealings in Macau, have been heavily edited by top management. Many reporters and editors left the newspaper citing "curtailed editorial freedom, murky business dealings and unethical managers." All three reporters who originally broke the story about Adelson's ownership have left. Longtime columnist John L. Smith, who had often written about Adelson and had been unsuccessfully sued for libel by him, resigned after he was told he could no longer write anything about Adelson. The Las Vegas Review-Journal was the first major newspaper nationwide to endorse Trump in 2016. U.S. policy on Iran In a panel discussion at Yeshiva University on October 22, 2013, Adelson said that the United States must get tougher on the issue of Iran's suspected nuclear weapons program. He said: "You pick up your cell phone and you call somewhere in Nebraska and you say 'OK, let it go' and so there's an atomic weapon goes over, ballistic missiles in the middle of the desert that doesn't hurt a soul, maybe a couple of rattlesnakes and scorpions or whatever". He explained that, after a show of force and a threat to also drop a nuclear bomb on Tehran, the U.S. should then say: if "You [Iran] want to be peaceful, just reverse it all and we will guarantee that you can have a nuclear power plant for electricity purposes, energy purposes." Adelson's spokesman told reporters that Adelson "was obviously not speaking literally" about using an atomic bomb in the desert, and that he was "using hyperbole to make a point that ... actions speak louder than words". DeLay controversy During the Suen trial, Bill Weidner, the president of Adelson's Las Vegas Sands company, testified about a telephone conversation between Adelson and his friend then-House Majority Leader Tom DeLay (R-TX) about a bill proposed by Representative Tom Lantos (D) that would have prevented the U.S. Olympic Committee from voting in favor of the Chinese bid to host the 2008 Summer Olympics. A few hours later, DeLay called back and told Adelson he could tell the mayor of Beijing "this bill will never see the light of day". The resolution did not pass. Adelson testified in court that the demise of the resolution "resulted from the press of other legislation, [not from] a deliberate move by DeLay to help his benefactor." Cannabis Fighting cannabis legalization was a personal passion of Adelson, whose son Mitchell died of an overdose of heroin and cocaine. Mitchell used cocaine and heroin from an early age. Adelson believed cannabis is a gateway drug. Andy Abboud, vice president of Las Vegas Sands, has stated that "Pro-marijuana folks have awakened a sleeping giant in Sheldon and Miriam Adelson". Israeli-American Council At the November 2017 conference of the Israeli-American Council (IAC), Adelson declared that the organization should become primarily a political lobbying group on Israel-related issues. In contrast to the American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC), which supports a two-state solution and continued aid to the Palestinians, Adelson charted a course for IAC to oppose both of these positions; Adelson himself opposed a two-state solution. Israeli journalist Chemi Shalev said that IAC had not intended to become a political pressure group and that Adelson had "hijacked" it for his "hard-right agenda". Internet gambling Adelson fought against internet-based gambling in his later life. Despite the legalization, and acceptance from many Las Vegas Casino CEOs, Adelson poured money into candidates wanting to overturn state legislation that legalizes online gambling. In early 2015, Adelson publicly backed a bill introduced in the U.S. House of Representatives. The legislation, named the Restore America's Wire Act, has been met with mixed reviews by the Republican Party. Honors Adelson and his wife, Miriam Adelson, were presented with the Woodrow Wilson Award for Corporate Citizenship by the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars of the Smithsonian Institution on March 25, 2008. Adelson received the Chairman's Award from the Nevada Policy Research Institute, a think tank in Las Vegas, for his efforts to advance free market principles in Nevada. In 2014, Adelson was named to CNBC's list of 200 people who have transformed business over the last 25 years. Involvement in politics According to The New Yorker, Adelson began making major contributions to the Republican National Committee following clashes with labor unions at his Las Vegas properties. The New Yorker article also quoted Shelley Berkley, a Nevada Democratic Party congresswoman, with whom Adelson had a long feud. She worked for him in the 1990s as vice-president of legal and governmental affairs, and said Adelson told her that "old Democrats were with the union and he wanted to break the back of the union, consequently he had to break the back of the Democrats". The Boston Globe said that Adelson "waged some bitter anti-union battles in Las Vegas". Berkley is further quoted in The New Yorker article as saying that Adelson "seeks to dominate politics and public policy through the raw power of money". In February 2012, Adelson told Forbes magazine that he was "against very wealthy people attempting to or influencing elections. But as long as it's doable I'm going to do it. Because I know that guys like Soros have been doing it for years, if not decades. And they stay below the radar by creating a network of corporations to funnel their money. I have my own philosophy and I'm not ashamed of it. I gave the money because there is no other legal way to do it. I don't want to go through ten different corporations to hide my name. I'm proud of what I do and I'm not looking to escape recognition." In 2005, Adelson and his wife each contributed $250,000 to the second inauguration of George W. Bush. President George W. Bush appointed the Adelsons to serve on the Honorary Delegation to accompany him to Jerusalem for the celebration of the 60th anniversary of the State of Israel in May 2008. Adelson was the principal financial backer of Freedom's Watch, a now-defunct political advocacy group founded to counter the influence of George Soros and Democratic-leaning lobby groups such as MoveOn.org. "Almost all" of the $30 million Freedom's Watch spent on the 2008 elections came from Adelson. In 2010, Adelson donated $1 million to American Solutions for Winning the Future, a political action committee (PAC) supporting Republican former Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich. In December 2011, during Gingrich's bid for the U.S. presidency, Adelson spoke favorably of controversial remarks Gingrich had made about Palestinians, saying "read the history of those who call themselves Palestinians, and you will hear why Gingrich said recently that the Palestinians are an invented people." Adelson donated to U.S. Senate and House of Representatives candidates. During the 2012 Republican Party presidential primaries, Adelson first supported Newt Gingrich and then the eventual nominee Mitt Romney. Altogether he spent $92 million supporting losing candidates during the 2012 United States presidential election cycle. On January 7, 2012, Adelson bolstered Gingrich's then-faltering campaign with a $5-million donation to the pro-Gingrich super PAC Winning Our Future. By the next day, the super PAC had reserved more than $3.4 million in advertising time in the South Carolina primary, which included production and distribution of a half-hour movie that portrayed Gingrich's political rival Mitt Romney as a "predatory corporate raider". On January 23, Adelson's wife, Miriam, contributed an additional $5 million to the same organization with instructions to use it to advance a "pro-Newt message". Adelson told Forbes that he was willing to donate as much as $100 million to Gingrich. He also donated $5 million to the right-leaning super PAC Congressional Leadership Fund and over $60,000 to the Republican National Committee. In June 2012, Adelson donated $10 million to the pro-Romney PAC Restore Our Future. In July, Adelson attended a Romney fundraiser held in Jerusalem. Adelson joined Woody Johnson, John Rakolta, Paul Singer, and several dozen other contributors on the trip. According to Bloomberg Businessweek, as of July Adelson had given Republicans more than $30 million for the 2012 election cycle. Romney believed that the People's Republic of China should have been pressured to drop its presumptively low fixed exchange rate policy; according to Bloomberg, Adelson would have benefitted financially in U.S. dollar terms through his interest in Chinese casinos if the Chinese yuan were to have appreciated. Early in 2014, Adelson donated $2.5 million to the Drug Free Florida Committee, the political committee trying to defeat Florida's Right to Medical Marijuana Initiative which would legalize medical cannabis in that state. Later in 2014, Adelson donated an additional $1.5 million to the No On 2 campaign. He believed that cannabis is a gateway drug. According to a 2014 Washington Post report, Adelson's strategy for the 2016 United States presidential election was to support a mainstream candidate capable of winning the presidency. In March 2014 Adelson was set to hold one-on-one chats with possible candidates Jeb Bush, Chris Christie, Scott Walker, and John Kasich during the spring meeting of the Republican Jewish Coalition held at Adelson's hotel and casino The Venetian Las Vegas. During the December 2015 Republican debate held at that same venue, Adelson held one-on-one meetings with several of the candidates prior to the start of the debate, including front runner Donald Trump. The bidding to become Adelson's favorite, and ultimately receive tens of millions in financial support, was informally called "The Adelson Primary". On May 13, 2016, he endorsed Trump for president, and pledged as much as $100 million to support his campaign. Adelson was later described as a Trump partisan. In October 2016, Adelson donated one million dollars to the campaign against Massachusetts ballot question 4 the Massachusetts Legalization, Regulation and Taxation of Marijuana Initiative which legalized marijuana for personal use. Adelson also donated $1,500,000 towards the unsuccessful effort to thwart the 2016 Florida medical Marijuana Legalization Initiative. Adelson sat out the 2016 Republican primaries, with some early indicators at the beginning of 2016 interpreted as showing that Adelson favored Trump. In May 2016, explaining his reasons for officially endorsing Donald Trump's presidential bid, Adelson cited the importance of CEO experience in a presidential nominee. For the 2018 United States elections, Adelson donated approximately $113 million to the Republican Party through various conservative political action committees. On January 31, 2019, ABC News reported that Adelson and his wife Miriam had contributed $500,000 to the Patriot Legal Expense Fund Trust, which was set up in 2018 to assist aides of President Trump under investigation by special counsel Robert Mueller's probe into Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections. The contributions are the Trust's largest to date. It was estimated Adelson would donate $200 million to Trump and the GOP for the 2020 election cycle. Given a call to Adelson by Trump in early August complaining that Adelson had not done enough for him, there was speculation that the amount of a donation could be affected.<ref>Isenstadt, Alex, Trump antagonizes GOP megadonor Adelson in heated phone call , Politico, August 8, 2020</ref> On October 15, 2020, Adelson gave $75 million to a Trump PAC, in a late push for reelection. In the second half of October 2020, Adelson and his wife gave a further $35 million to three super-PACs supporting the Republican Party and Trump's re-election. PACs to which the Adelsons donated in the 2020 cycle included Preserve America and the Senate Leadership Fund. Donations On September 23, 2016, Adelson announced a $25 million donation to Trump's presidential campaign, as part of a $65 million donation to the Republican electoral campaign for 2016. This rendered Adelson by far the biggest donor in either party (Republicans or Democrats) in the 2016 election cycle. It also makes him by far the largest donor to Donald Trump's White House bid. Adelson was the largest donor to Trump's inaugural celebrations, with a $5 million donation to the celebrations. According to federal records, from 2010 through 2020, Adelson and his wife donated more than $500 million to the Republican party campaigns and super PACs. Since 2007, the Adelson Family Foundation has made contributions totaling $140 million to Birthright Israel, which finances Jewish youth trips to Israel. He also donated $5 million to the Friends of the Israel Defense Forces in 2014. Adelson donated over $25 million to The Adelson Educational Campus in Las Vegas to build a high school. In 2006, Adelson contributed $25 million to the Yad Vashem Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority. Adelson also funded the private, Boston-based Miriam and Sheldon G. Adelson Medical Research Foundation. This foundation initiated the Adelson Program in Neural Repair and Rehabilitation (APNRR) with $7.5 million donated to collaborating researchers at 10 universities. Personal life Marriages In the 1970s, Sheldon Adelson lived in Massachusetts with his wife, Sandra, and her three children, Mitchell, Gary, and Shelley, whom Sheldon adopted when they were young. The couple divorced in 1988. Adelson met Miriam Farbstein Ochshorn, a medical doctor, on a blind date the following year; they married in 1991. She was previously married to a Tel Aviv physician, Dr. Ariel Ochshorn, with whom she had two daughters. Miriam "Miri" Farbstein was born in Mandatory Palestine in 1945, to parents that fled Poland before the Holocaust and settled in the city of Haifa. After earning a Bachelor of Science in Microbiology and Genetics from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and a medical degree from Tel Aviv University's Sackler Medical School, she went on to become the chief internist in an emergency room at Tel Aviv's Rokach (Hadassah) Hospital. In 1993, she founded a substance abuse center and research clinic there, and in 2000, the couple opened the Dr. Miriam and Sheldon G. Adelson Research Clinic in Las Vegas. Litigation A June 2008 profile in The New Yorker detailed several controversies involving Adelson. In 2008 Richard Suen, a Hong Kong businessman who had helped Adelson make connections with leading Chinese officials in order to obtain the Macau license, took Adelson to court in Las Vegas alleging he had reneged on his agreement to allow Suen to profit from the venture. Suen won a $43.8 million judgement; in November 2010, the Nevada Supreme Court overturned the judgment and returned the case to the lower court for further consideration. In the 2013 retrial, the jury awarded Suen a verdict for $70 million. The judge added another $31.6 million in interest, bringing the total judgment against Adelson to $101.6 million. Adelson was in the process of appealing again. Adelson faced another trial over claims by three alleged "middlemen" in the deal who are suing for at least $450 million. In February 2013, the Las Vegas Sands, in a regulatory filing, acknowledged that it had likely violated federal law that prohibits the bribing of foreign officials. Allegedly, Chinese officials were bribed to allow Adelson to build his Macau casino. Adelson successfully sued the London Daily Mail for libel in 2008. The newspaper had accused him of pursuing "despicable business practices" and having "habitually and corruptly bought political favour". Adelson won the libel case, which was described as "a grave slur on Mr Adelson's personal integrity and business reputation," and he won a judgment of approximately £4 million, which he said he would donate to London's Royal Marsden Hospital. In August 2012, the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee (DCCC), after being threatened with a libel suit, apologized and withdrew two blog posts that claimed Adelson had donated "Chinese prostitution money" to Republicans. Another organization, the National Jewish Democratic Council, posted on their website that Adelson "personally approved" of prostitution at his Macau resorts. Adelson sued for libel, but a federal judge dismissed the suit in September 2013, ordering Adelson to pay the NJDC's legal fees. Wealth In 2007, Adelson's estimated wealth was $26.5 billion, making him the third-richest person in the United States according to Forbes. and $26 billion for 2008. In 2008, the share prices of the Las Vegas Sands Corp. plunged. In November 2008, Las Vegas Sands Corp. announced it might default on bonds that it had outstanding, signaling the potential bankruptcy of the concern. Adelson lost $4 billion in 2008, more than any other American billionaire.Sheldon Adelson , daylife.com; accessed September 16, 2015. In 2009, his net worth had declined from approximately $30 billion to $2 billion, a drop of 93%. He told ABC News "So I lost $25 billion. I started out with zero ...[there is] no such thing as fear, not to an entrepreneur. Concern, yes. Fear, no". In the Forbes 2009 world billionaires list, Adelson's ranking dropped to No. 178 with a net worth of $3.4 billion, but by 2011, after his business had recovered, he was ranked as the world's 16th-richest man with a net worth of $23.3 billion. In 2013, Adelson earned a top ranking on Forbes Annual "Biggest Winner" List, his dramatic growth a result of the success of his casinos in Macau and Singapore, adding an estimated $15 billion to his net worth during the year. In 2013, Adelson was worth $37.2 billion according to Forbes'', and as of December 2014, his net worth was $30.4 billion. Adelson owned a fleet of private jets through Las Vegas Sands. On January 2, 2017, Adelson's Airbus A340-500 jet set a record for the Ben Gurion International Airport by making the longest flight ever leaving the airport by flying nonstop to Honolulu, Hawaii, by way of the Arctic Ocean. Illness and death In 2001, Adelson was diagnosed with peripheral neuropathy, which restricted his ability to stand and walk. On February 28, 2019, Las Vegas Sands announced that Adelson was receiving treatment for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. The news was disclosed after a Sands attorney claimed Adelson was too weak to sit for a deposition in a court case involving Richard Suen. Sands spokesman Ron Reese said the side effects of Adelson's medical treatment had "restricted his availability to travel or keep regular office hours” but had not “prevented him from fulfilling his duties as chairman and CEO” of Las Vegas Sands. On January 11, 2021, Adelson died at his home in Malibu, California, at the age of 87, after long-term illnesses. On January 14, 2021, Adelson's body arrived in Israel. His coffin was draped in U.S. and Israeli flags and was on display at Ben Gurion Airport, where Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu came to pay his respects. Adelson was buried the next day, in a small private ceremony on the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem. See also List of people and organizations named in the Paradise Papers References External links Campaign contributions in 2012 to outside spending groups at OpenSecrets Category:1933 births Category:2021 deaths Category:20th-century American businesspeople Category:20th-century American newspaper publishers (people) Category:21st-century American businesspeople Category:21st-century American newspaper publishers (people) Category:American billionaires Category:American casino industry businesspeople Category:American chairpersons of corporations Category:American chemical industry businesspeople Category:American chief executives in the media industry Category:American chief executives of financial services companies Category:American chief executives of travel and tourism industry companies Category:American computer businesspeople Category:American financiers Category:American hoteliers Category:American investment advisors Category:American investors Category:American people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent Category:American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent Category:American people of Welsh-Jewish descent Category:American political fundraisers Category:American real estate businesspeople Category:American transportation businesspeople Category:American Zionists Category:Businesspeople from Boston Category:Businesspeople from Nevada Category:City College of New York alumni Category:Deaths from cancer in California Category:Deaths from non-Hodgkin lymphoma Category:Jewish American philanthropists Category:Military personnel from Massachusetts Category:Nevada Republicans Category:People from Dorchester, Massachusetts Category:People from the Las Vegas Valley Category:United States Army soldiers Category:California Republicans Category:People named in the Paradise Papers Category:21st-century American Jews Category:Adelson family
[]
[ "CANNOTANSWER", "The controversies detailed in the context involve legal and ethical disputes. The following are the types of controversies mentioned:\n\n1. Legal dispute: Businessman Richard Suen accused Adelson of reneging on his agreement to allow him to profit from a venture. The court initially awarded Suen $43.8 million, which was later overturned. However, in the retrial, the jury awarded Suen $70 million, which became $101.6 million with added interest.\n\n2. Lawsuits: Adelson faced another trial over claims by three alleged \"middlemen\" in the deal who were suing him for at least $450 million.\n\n3. Alleged corruption: The Las Vegas Sands, in a regulatory filing, acknowledged likely violations of federal law that prohibits bribing foreign officials. It was alleged that Chinese officials were bribed to allow Adelson to build his Macau casino.\n\n4. Libel cases: Adelson sued the Daily Mail for accusing him of pursuing \"despicable business practices\" and having \"habitually and corruptly bought political favour\". Later, he threatened the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee (DCCC) with a libel suit and also sued the National Jewish Democratic Council. In both cases, the entities had claimed Adelson used \"Chinese prostitution money\" in his dealings.", "The context does not provide specific information on how the connections helped Adelson. However, it mentions that these connections facilitated him in obtaining a license in Macau. Specifically, Hong Kong businessman Richard Suen helped Adelson make connections with top Chinese officials, which presumably assisted in his venture in Macau.", "The allegations against Adelson include:\n\n1. Reneging on his agreement: Richard Suen, a Hong Kong businessman, took Adelson to court alleging that he had reneged on an agreement to allow Suen to profit from the venture.\n\n2. Unpaid claims: Three alleged \"middlemen\" in the deal sued Adelson for at least $450 million.\n\n3. Bribing foreign officials: The Las Vegas Sands acknowledged in a regulatory filing that it had likely violated federal law that prohibits the bribing of foreign officials. Allegedly, Chinese officials were bribed to allow Adelson to build his Macau casino.\n\n4. Libel cases: The Daily Mail of London, the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee (DCCC), and the National Jewish Democratic Council made defamatory statements that Adelson contended were false. The claims involved accusations that he donated \"Chinese prostitution money\" to Republicans and that he \"personally approved\" of prostitution at his Macau resorts. Adelson pursued legal action against these entities for libel.", "Yes, Adelson was tried for several issues. He was taken to court by Richard Suen, a Hong Kong businessman, for allegedly reneging on an agreement to allow Suen to profit from a venture. Initially, Suen won a $43.8 million judgement, which was later overturned by the Nevada Supreme Court. In the 2013 retrial, Suen was awarded $70 million. In addition, Adelson faced another trial involving three alleged \"middlemen\" in the deal who were suing him for at least $450 million. Finally, Adelson was involved in multiple libel suits. He sued the Daily Mail of London for libel in 2008, and later, he threatened the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee (DCCC) with a libel suit and also sued the National Jewish Democratic Council on similar grounds.", "Yes, the context provides some details about the litigations involving Adelson:\n\n1. Richard Suen Lawsuit: In 2008, Richard Suen, a Hong Kong businessman, accused Adelson of reneging on his agreement to allow him to profit from their venture in Macau. Suen won an initial judgement for $43.8 million in court. However, the Nevada Supreme Court overturned this judgment in November 2010. In a 2013 retrial, Suen was awarded $70 million. In addition to this, the judge added another $31.6 million in interest, bringing the total judgement against Adelson up to $101.6 million.\n\n2. Middlemen lawsuit: Adelson faced another trial over claims by three alleged \"middlemen\" who were involved in his Macau deal. They were suing for at least $450 million.\n\n3. Libel lawsuists: Adelson sued the Daily Mail of London for libel in 2008 and won the case. The newspaper had accused him of pursuing \"despicable business practices\" and having \"habitually and corruptly bought political favour\". \n\n4. Suit against DCCC: In August 2012, after being threatened with a libel suit by Adelson, the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee (DCCC) retracted two blog posts that had claimed Adelson had used \"Chinese prostitution money\" to fund the Republican Party.\n\n5. NJDC lawsuit: The National Jewish Democratic Council posted on their website that Adelson \"personally approved\" of prostitution at his Macau resorts. Adelson sued them for libel. In September 2013, a federal judge dismissed the suit and ordered Adelson to pay the NJDC's legal fees.", "The judgment was made in the case raised by Richard Suen. Suen, a Hong Kong businessman, took Adelson to court alleging he had reneged on his agreement to allow Suen to profit from the venture related to the Macau license. In the 2013 retrial, the jury awarded Suen a verdict for $70 million. The judge added another $31.6 million in interest, bringing the total judgment against Adelson to $101.6 million.\n", "Richard Suen is a Hong Kong businessman who helped Adelson make connections with top Chinese officials in order to obtain the Macau license. However, Suen sued Adelson, alleging that Adelson reneged on his agreement to allow Suen to profit from the venture. In a 2013 retrial, the jury awarded Suen a verdict for $70 million, and with added interest, the total judgment against Adelson was $101.6 million." ]
[ "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]
C_8f01b7126d8844ca862cb0f8ab9b18e9_0
Hall & Oates
Daryl Hall and John Oates, often referred to as Hall & Oates, are an American musical duo. Daryl Hall is generally the lead vocalist; John Oates primarily plays electric guitar and provides backing vocals. The two write most of the songs they perform, separately or in collaboration. They achieved their greatest fame from the late 1970s to the mid-1980s with a fusion of rock and roll and rhythm and blues.
1991-2006
The duo's occasional songwriting collaborator Janna Allen died of leukemia in 1993. Hall and Oates released the Marigold Sky album in 1997 (their first all-new studio album in seven years), which included an Adult Contemporary hit "Promise Ain't Enough". They also released a "VH1 Behind the Music" Greatest Hits package shortly after appearing on the show in 2002. At the same time, Daryl and Sara, professional/personal collaborators, broke off their romantic relationship after some three decades. Their friendship is still apparently strong; he has noted her help in his recovery from his 2005 attack of Lyme disease. Hall and Oates released the Do It for Love album in 2003, whose title track was a number-one Adult Contemporary hit. They have also released the Hall & Oates Live DVD from an A&E Live by Request special. This album was the first release (and first success) for their newest joint venture U-Watch Records. Hall has also released the solo albums Soul Alone (1993) and Can't Stop Dreaming (originally released in Japan in 1996), and a live two-disc solo album titled Live in Philadelphia (2004). Hall and Oates covered Elton John's "Philadelphia Freedom" on the 1991 John/Taupin tribute album "Two Rooms", saying in the booklet: "We chose 'Philadelphia Freedom' because the music is so close to our hearts, and the lyrics represent the way we feel about Philadelphia." Oates released his own solo album in 2002 entitled Phunk Shui and a companion live concert DVD. Hall and Oates also released their first CD of (mostly) covers, Our Kind of Soul, in 2004. It includes some of their favorite R&B songs, such as "I'll Be Around" (their first Hot 100 entry in over a decade), "Love T.K.O.", and Dan Hartman's "I Can Dream About You", among others. Hall and Oates are still on the touring circuit, traveling nearly as much as they did in years past. In addition, a DVD of live performances of the songs from Our Kind of Soul was released in November 2005. Hall and Oates released a Christmas album, Home For Christmas, on October 3, 2006, which contained two Christmas originals and covers, including a version of "It Came Upon a Midnight Clear", which became their second number one Adult Contemporary hit. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "What albums did they release during this time?", "Where there any hit singles on it?", "How did the single do?", "Did they release any other albums?", "Were there any other hit singles from the album?", "Did they tour during this time?", "Did they do any solo albums?" ]
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Daryl Hall and John Oates, commonly known as Hall & Oates, are an American pop rock duo formed in Philadelphia in 1970. Daryl Hall is generally the lead vocalist; John Oates primarily plays electric guitar and provides backing vocals. The two write most of the songs they perform, separately or in collaboration. They achieved their greatest fame from the mid-1970s to the late 1980s with a fusion of rock and roll, soul music, and rhythm and blues. Though they are commonly referred to as Hall & Oates, Hall has been adamant about the duo being called Daryl Hall & John Oates – its official name. They have been credited on albums as Daryl Hall & John Oates (or Daryl Hall John Oates) on all of their US releases. The duo reached the US Top 40 with 29 of their 33 singles charting on Billboard's Hot 100 between 1974 and 1991. Six of these peaked at number one: "Rich Girl" (1977), "Kiss on My List" (1980), the two 1981 releases "Private Eyes", and "I Can't Go for That (No Can Do)" (also a Hot Soul No. 1), "Maneater" (1982) and "Out of Touch" (1984). Their overall 16 US Top Tens also include "She's Gone", "Sara Smile", "You Make My Dreams", "Family Man", "Say It Isn't So", and "Method of Modern Love". Seven of their albums have been RIAA-certified platinum and six of them gold. In the United Kingdom, they have achieved success with two Top Ten albums and six Top 40 singles, two of which – "I Can't Go for That (No Can Do)" and "Maneater" – reached the Top Ten. The duo have spent 120 weeks in the UK Top 75 albums chart and 84 weeks in the UK Top 75 singles chart. While employing a wide variety of session musicians on their recordings, they did have a long working relationship with several musicians who appeared on many of their works and have toured with them. They include guitarist G.E. Smith, bassist Tom "T-Bone" Wolk, and multi-instrumentalist Charles DeChant. In addition, they collaborated with sisters Sara Allen and Janna Allen on songwriting and composing. In 2003, Hall & Oates were inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame. In August 2018, in a 60th-anniversary celebration of Billboards Hot 100, the duo ranked 18 in a list of the top Hot 100 artists of all time and six in a list of the Hot 100's top duos/groups. They remain the most successful duo of all time, ahead of the Carpenters, the Everly Brothers, and Simon & Garfunkel. In September 2010, VH1 placed the duo at no. 99 in their list of the 100 greatest artists of all time. In April 2014, they were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, and on September 2, 2016, they received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. History 1967–1972: Formation and early years Daryl Franklin Hohl (born in Pottstown, Pennsylvania, on October 11, 1946) and John William Oates (born in New York City on April 7, 1948) first met at the Adelphi Ballroom in Philadelphia in 1967. At the time they met, each was heading his own musical group, Hall with The Temptones and Oates with The Masters. They were there for a band competition when gunfire rang out between two rival gangs, and in trying to escape, they ran to the same service elevator. On further discovering that they were interested in the same music and that both were attending Philadelphia's Temple University, they started spending time together on a regular basis and eventually shared a number of apartments in the city. One of the apartments they shared had "Hall & Oates" on the mailbox, which became the duo's common nickname. It took them another two years to form a musical duo, and three years after that, they signed to Atlantic Records and released their debut album. The two didn't start working together seriously until 1970 after Oates got back from an extended stay in Europe. 1972–1974: First albums Early in their recording careers, Hall and Oates had trouble clearly defining their sound, alternating among folk, soul, rock and pop. None of their early albums—Whole Oats, Abandoned Luncheonette and War Babies—were very successful. Despite being produced by such big-name producers as Arif Mardin and Todd Rundgren, they had no hit singles during this time period, though Abandoned Luncheonette contained "She's Gone". This song was covered by Lou Rawls and Tavares before Atlantic Records re-released the Hall and Oates version in 1976. "She's Gone", as covered by Tavares, reached Number One on the R&B chart in 1974. It was originally written for Hall's first wife, Bryna Lublin (Hall), and initially inspired by Oates's being stood up on a date on New Year's Eve. Another Abandoned Luncheonette single, "Las Vegas Turnaround", was written about (and mentioned by first name) Hall's girlfriend, flight attendant and future song-writing collaborator Sara Allen. The regional successes the album achieved were enough to push the album onto the chart, reaching #33 on November 20, 1976, and staying on the chart for 38 weeks. 1975–1977: First hits Hall and Oates left Atlantic Records after the release of War Babies to join RCA Records. Their first album for the new label, Daryl Hall & John Oates (often referred to by their fans as the silver album because of the silver foil material on the original album cover), was their first notable success. It contained the ballad "Sara Smile", a song Hall wrote for his aforementioned girlfriend Sara Allen. It also featured an album cover in which Hall and Oates are overly made up with cosmetic blush to the point where they looked like women, especially the long-haired and clean-shaven Hall. Hall later said in an interview for VH1's Behind the Music that he looked like "the girl I always wanted to go out with" on that album cover. This cover was made by Pierre LaRoche, who created Ziggy Stardust for David Bowie. "Sara Smile" became their first Top 10 hit, reaching No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in June 1976. "She's Gone", re-released by Atlantic Records after "Sara Smile", also went to the Top 10, reaching No. 7 in October 1976. Hall and Oates followed those hits with the more pop-oriented album Bigger Than Both of Us later that year. Though the album's first single—the Philadelphia soul-oriented ballad "Do What You Want, Be What You Are"—barely made the Top 40, their second single, "Rich Girl", was a smash. The song was Hall and Oates's first No. 1 hit, reaching the top spot for the week ending March 26, 1977. 1977–1978: Leaner years and Sacred Songs After this small run of hits, Hall and Oates still encountered difficulty getting radio play. Despite touring constantly and recording albums with efficiency, the duo could not find any pop success for a number of reasons, mainly because of the popularity of the disco genre. By the time they released the rock-oriented albums Beauty on a Back Street in 1977 and Along the Red Ledge in 1978, disco music was trendy and taking most of the spots in popular music. They did release a few hit singles during this period: the follow-up to "Rich Girl" ("Back Together Again") hit the Top 40, and "It's A Laugh" (from "Along The Red Ledge") hit the top 20 in 1978. In 1977, RCA attempted to push Hall to the fore with his first solo effort Sacred Songs. However, after being presented with the highly experimental recording (produced by Robert Fripp of King Crimson), RCA became unwilling to release what was, in their view, a non-commercial album. Sacred Songs was eventually released in 1980. 1979–1981: X-Static and Voices The 1980s brought about significant changes for Hall and Oates. The pair felt that the biggest hindrance to their success was that their music was being filtered through outside producers, and that studio musicians were not familiar with their own tastes and thoughts. In 1979, they hired G. E. Smith (who had worked with Dan Hartman and David Bowie by then) as lead guitarist, Mickey Curry as drummer, and Tom "T-Bone" Wolk joined as bassist in 1981. They also enlisted Hall's girlfriend Sara Allen (and also her younger sister Janna) as songwriting collaborators, as well as beginning a working relationship with Neil Kernon, an engineer on Voices who worked as co-producer on their succeeding two albums. In late 1979, Hall and Oates released X-Static, which combined rock with disco. The album did not fare well, although "Wait for Me" did hit the top 20. The band also wished to capture the sound of New York City which, by then, had become their home. As a result, instead of recording in Los Angeles, as they had done previously, they decided to record at Electric Lady Studios in New York City, just five minutes away from their apartments, and began producing their own recordings with their touring band backing them in the studio. The resulting album, Voices, was written, produced and arranged by Hall and Oates in one month, according to their authorized biography Dangerous Dances (by Nick Tosches). The first two singles from the album charted fairly well, with "How Does It Feel to Be Back" charting at Number 30. The well-received cover of The Righteous Brothers' "You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin'", just missed the Top 10, peaking at Number 12, but spent 14 weeks in the Top 40. After the release of that song, Oates's contribution as the lead vocalist diminished on future releases. The third single "Kiss on My List" hit Number 1 in April 1981 and remained there for three weeks. The follow-up single "You Make My Dreams" reached Number 5 in July of that year. The other well-known song from Voices is the emotive ballad "Everytime You Go Away", with powerful lead vocals by Hall, who wrote it. British singer Paul Young had a Billboard Number 1 hit with a cover of the song in 1985. Though the Hall and Oates original (recorded in a Memphis-soul style) was never released as a single, it remains a fan favorite on the duo's greatest hits albums, and was featured on their Apollo Theater album in 1985, and is frequently featured in their live set to this day. 1981–1982: Private Eyes By the time "You Make My Dreams" was falling off the charts, Hall and Oates had already released their follow-up album Private Eyes. Having worked in the studio while Voices was at its peak in popularity, the two had already recorded most of their material and perfected a fusion of their doo-wop and soul roots with New Wave energy and hard rock grit. The result was a pop classic that is often considered one of the greatest albums of the 1980s, and was the first Hall and Oates album to reach the Top 10 on the Billboard 200 album chart, while four singles from Private Eyes all reached the Top 40. The title track and "I Can't Go for That (No Can Do)" were both Number 1 hits, separated only by the ten-week stay at Number 1 by "Physical" by Olivia Newton-John. "I Can't Go for That (No Can Do)" was one of the few songs ever recorded by a white act to reach Number One on both the R&B and the pop charts. "Did It in a Minute" reached Number 9 in the spring of 1982, and "Your Imagination" peaked at No. 33. 1982–1983: H2O and band changes Their next album, H2O, a very polished, synth-heavy effort, became the duo's most successful album, with US sales eventually approaching four million copies. H2O reached No. 3 on the Billboard charts (where it held for 15 weeks) and spawned three Top 10 singles. "Maneater", the biggest hit of their career, reached No. 1 on December 18, 1982, and stayed there for four weeks. The soulful ballad "One on One" and a cover of Mike Oldfield's "Family Man" reached No. 7 and No. 6 in March and June 1983, respectively. According to Oates, they recorded approximately twenty songs for the album, of which nine did not make the final cut. He went on to say they usually had five or six tracks left over per album. For the H2O album, Hall and Oates made some permanent changes to their current band. Drummer Mickey Curry, who had appeared on some Private Eyes tracks, including the title song, replaced Jerry Marotta full-time. Bassist Tom Wolk, who had mimed John Siegler's bass line in the "Private Eyes" video, replaced Siegler full-time. These two joined the band's holdovers—lead guitar player G.E. Smith, and saxophonist Charles DeChant. Wolk continued to perform with the duo until his death in early 2010, while Curry returned for the Do It for Love and Laughing Down Crying sessions. 1983–1984: Rock 'n Soul Part 1 By the fall of 1983, Hall and Oates were one of the biggest pop music acts in the United States. They had five Number 1 singles to their credit, two consecutive Top 10 albums and were one of the biggest names on MTV. Two covers of the 1957 Bobby Helms classic "Jingle Bell Rock" were recorded—one with Hall on lead vocals, and the other with Oates on lead vocals—and released in time for Christmas 1983, complete with a humorous video of the band, that received extensive airplay on MTV. In 1983, they released their first greatest hits album entitled Rock 'n Soul Part 1. The album peaked at Number 7, and the two new songs that were written and recorded for that LP also became Top 10 hits as well. The first single released from this album, "Say It Isn't So", battled six weeks for the Number 1 spot with Paul McCartney and Michael Jackson's "Say Say Say" at the peak of Thriller mania. "Say It Isn't So" remained at No. 2 for four weeks from December 1983 to January 1984. Hall and Oates's follow-up single "Adult Education" received heavy airplay at both pop and black (urban contemporary) radio, and reached Number 8 on the Billboard Hot 100 in April 1984. It was accompanied by a dark, New York City-oriented music video set in a cave. Oates later told VH1 that the clip resembled the Survivor TV show on acid. 1984–1985: Big Bam Boom Hall and Oates returned to the studio in 1984 after a rest period to begin work on the Big Bam Boom album. This album had even more of an electronic, urban feel to it than H2O, combining their song structure and vocalization with the latest technical advances in recording and playing. The album employed some of the most sophisticated equipment ever used in the recording industry at the time (most notably the Synclavier II, one of the first computerized synthesizer workstations, as well as the Fairlight CMI). Noted remix and hip-hop icon Arthur Baker worked very closely with the duo as a consultant, and produced dance remixes of four of the album's singles. The lead-off song "Dance on Your Knees" (written by Hall and Baker) is basically an homage to Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five's song "White Lines (Don't Don't Do It)". Released in late 1984, the first single from the LP, "Out of Touch", became the group's sixth number 1 hit on December 8, 1984. "Method of Modern Love", which debuted on the pop charts while "Out of Touch" was at number 1, reached number 5 in February 1985. "Some Things Are Better Left Unsaid" reached number 18, and "Possession Obsession" (a song in which Oates sings lead) reached number 30 in 1985 as well. The group's "Live Thru '85" tour to promote the album began in November 1984, sponsored by Pontiac's latest sports car, the Fiero. In addition, Pontiac allowed Oates, a skilled amateur racer, to drive in Pontiac's factory IMSA GTU race car in Camel GT pro races. In April 1984, the Recording Industry Association of America named Hall & Oates the most successful duo in rock history. 1985–1988: Live at the Apollo and other projects Hall and Oates have almost always toured extensively for each album release. But in 1985, the duo took a break after the release of their Live at the Apollo album with David Ruffin and Eddie Kendricks—voices of The Temptations and two of their heroes. This was RCA's second attempt at a live Hall and Oates album, following the 1978 release Livetime. Live at the Apollo was released primarily to fulfill the duo's contract with RCA, and contained a Top 20 Grammy-nominated hit with a medley of "The Way You Do the Things You Do" and "My Girl"; Ruffin and Kendrick had originally recorded both songs with the Temptations in 1964. Hall and Oates had collaborated on the USA for Africa "We Are the World" project, with the former as one of the soloists and the latter as a chorus member, and performed at the Live Aid concert in Philadelphia, with Ruffin and Kendrick. The Hall and Oates band also backed up Mick Jagger's performance at this show. Hall, Oates, Ruffin and Kendrick performed again at the MTV Video Music Awards in New York later that year, complete with an Apollo Theater-style marquee descending on the stage during their performance. In May 1985, Hall and Oates performed at the Nashville Municipal Auditorium. Just prior to Live Aid, on July 4, they participated in Liberty Concert, an outdoor benefit concert at Liberty State Park in Jersey City, New Jersey for the restoration of the Statue of Liberty, which was filmed for HBO. It became a major music event, drawing an estimated crowd of over 60,000 people. In 1986, Hall scored a Top 5 US hit with "Dreamtime", from his solo album Three Hearts in the Happy Ending Machine. That album also included the Top 40 hit "Foolish Pride" and the Top 100 hit "Someone Like You", later performed by the duo live on their "Behind the Music" set. Although Oates did not have a solo hit as a singer, he did contribute a solo track to the film About Last Night and co-wrote (with Iva Davies) and performed backing vocals on the 1987 Icehouse top 10 US hit "Electric Blue". Oates also worked as producer, co-songwriter and co-lead vocalist of the single "Love Is Fire" by The Parachute Club, which was a top 40 hit in Canada in 1987. 1988–1990: Arista years Hall and Oates signed with Arista Records, their third record company, in 1987, shortly before the string of Top 10 hits ended, in Tommy Mottola's effort to keep them under contract when their RCA obligation ran out. Their first album for the label, Ooh Yeah!, included the hits "Everything Your Heart Desires" (Number 3 in May 1988—their last to make the Top 10), "Missed Opportunity", and "Downtown Life". Beginning with Ooh Yeah!, album and single releases were credited as Daryl Hall John Oates''', with the '&' or 'and' missing between the duo's names. It was the last Hall and Oates album, other than greatest hits packages, to enjoy platinum success. They recorded one more album for Arista called Change of Season. The album's first single "So Close" (co-produced by Jon Bon Jovi) reached Number 11 and was Hall & Oates's last major hit. Another song from the album, "Don't Hold Back Your Love", was named by SOCAN as the second-most performed song in Canada for 1992; it became a hit for Australian Sherbet front man, Daryl Braithwaite, in his solo years, and has become a Hall and Oates staple in concert. Change of Season was a more mainstream rock album than their previous work. Despite the fact that Ooh Yeah! and Change of Season reached platinum and gold status respectively, they were perceived as disappointments. In 1989, they covered and did their own version of the O'Jays song Love Train for the movie Earth Girls Are Easy. 1991–2006: Do It for Love and Christmas album The duo's occasional song-writing collaborator Janna Allen died of leukemia in 1993. Hall and Oates released the Marigold Sky album in 1997 (their first all-new studio album in seven years), which included an Adult Contemporary hit "Promise Ain't Enough". They also released a "VH1 Behind the Music" Greatest Hits package shortly after appearing on the show in 2002. Hall and Oates released the Do It for Love album in 2003, whose title track was a number one Adult Contemporary hit. They also released the Hall & Oates Live DVD from an A&E Live by Request special. This album was the first release (and first success) for their newest joint venture U-Watch Records. Hall has also released the solo albums Soul Alone (1993) and Can't Stop Dreaming (originally released in Japan in 1996), and a live two-disc solo album titled Live in Philadelphia (2004). Hall and Oates covered Elton John's "Philadelphia Freedom" on the 1991 John/Taupin tribute album "Two Rooms", saying in the booklet: "We chose 'Philadelphia Freedom' because the music is so close to our hearts, and the lyrics represent the way we feel about Philadelphia." Oates released his own solo album in 2002 entitled Phunk Shui and a companion live concert DVD. Hall and Oates also released their first CD of (mostly) covers, Our Kind of Soul, in 2004. It includes some of their favorite R&B songs, such as "I'll Be Around" (their first Hot 100 entry in over a decade), "Love T.K.O.", and Dan Hartman's "I Can Dream About You", among others. Hall and Oates remained on the touring circuit, traveling nearly as much as they did in years past. In addition, a DVD of live performances of the songs from Our Kind of Soul was released in November 2005. Hall and Oates released a Christmas album, Home for Christmas, on October 3, 2006, which contained two Christmas originals and covers, including a version of "It Came Upon a Midnight Clear", which became their second number one Adult Contemporary hit. 2007–2013: Solo projects and hiatus In September 2007, representatives of Montreal-based band Chromeo stated in a press release, "Indeed, Chromeo's idols Hall and Oates have asked them to collaborate with them on their upcoming record! Needless to say, the gentlemen are giddy like schoolchildren to be given this opportunity", as reported by Pitchfork Media. This collaboration with Chromeo was expected to be released in late 2008/early 2009, and was released as Live from Daryl's House. On May 20, 2008, Hall and Oates were honored as BMI Icons at the 56th annual BMI Pop Awards. As of 2008, their song-writing has collected 24 BMI Pop Awards and 14 BMI Million-Air awards. There were two notable nationally televised appearances for the duo in late 2008. On October 27, Oates sang the National Anthem before Game 5 of the 2008 World Series at Citizens Bank Park in Philadelphia (Hall had taken sick, and the game was called on account of rain after the top of the 6th inning, but resumed on October 29, and the Phillies won, claiming their first World Series Championship in 28 years). (Though born in New York, Oates was raised in a suburb of Philadelphia and attended Temple University.) Then, on December 11, both Hall and Oates appeared on the year's last episode of The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. They sang a satirical tribute to Alan Colmes, as he was leaving the show Hannity and Colmes on Fox News a month later. On March 24, 2009, Hall and Oates performed together on the American television show Dancing with the Stars. During 2009, the duo recorded a cameo for the movie You Again, performing "Kiss On My List" for the final scene and closing credits. On May 22 and 23, 2008, they performed at the Troubadour, 35 years after first performing there as an opening act. They played many popular selections, including "Cab Driver" from Hall's solo album as well as several songs from the Abandoned Luncheonette album, including "Had I Known You Better Then" which had never been performed live before. The performance was recorded as a concert film and later released in the US as a double CD set with DVD/Blu-ray Combo on November 25, 2008. In 2009 the live performances of "Sara Smile" from this album was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals, an incredible 33 years after the original song was released. Concerning the nomination, Daryl considered it truly a surprise. This made it the third time that the band was nominated for a Grammy Award; the other two times were in 1981 for "Private Eyes" and 1983 for "Maneater". On October 13, 2009, a 4-CD box set was released, titled Do What You Want, Be What You Are: The Music of Daryl Hall and John Oates. This set represents the most comprehensive hits collection by the duo as it includes songs from various labels. Also included are three songs recorded by Hall and Oates with their earlier bands prior to their forming Hall and Oates as a duo. The boxed set sold 5,000 copies the first hour and, in total, it has sold 15,000 copies, according to Nielsen SoundScan, peaking at No. 89 on the Billboard 200 on October 23, 2009. In one of the last concerts at the Wachovia Spectrum, Hall and Oates and Philadelphia-area musicians The Hooters and Todd Rundgren headlined a concert titled "Last Call". In 2010, Hall and Oates embarked on their "Do What You Want, Be What You Are" tour in the United States. They appeared on the American Idol season finale on May 26, 2010, performing "You Make My Dreams". Also in 2010, Hall and Oates announced they would join a growing artists' boycott of the state of Arizona over the state's recently passed anti-illegal immigrant laws. On May 8, 2012, the two performed on the NBC reality singing competition The Voice. 2013–present: Hall of Fame induction, further touring and postponed nineteenth album On October 16, 2013, Hall and Oates were announced as 2014 nominees for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. They were announced as inductees for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's Class of 2014 on December 16, 2013. Hall started his monthly web series Live From Daryl's House in 2007 after having the idea of "playing with my friends and putting it up on the Internet". The series features him jamming with various guest musicians in his house in the woods. Guest artists on the show have run the gamut of musical styles and influences, and have included Smokey Robinson, Robby Krieger from The Doors, Rumer, Nick Lowe, CeeLo Green, KT Tunstall, Todd Rundgren, Darius Rucker, and Chromeo. In 2010, Live From Daryl's House won a Webby Award in the Variety category. In May 2014, Hall's home renovation program, Daryl's Restoration Over-Hall, premiered on the DIY Network. On July 15, 2014, Hall and Oates performed in Ireland as a duo for the very first time (they each performed independently as solo acts before) at the Olympia Theatre, Dublin. The event was recorded, packaged as a two CD/DVD set and released as 'Live In Dublin' in Germany March 27, 2015, and in the US on March 30, 2015. Hall and Oates indicated that the recorded concert was also being released in movie theaters nationwide for one day only. The duo made a cameo in the 2015 Happy Madison film Pixels. On September 2, 2016, Hall and Oates received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for their work in the music industry, located at 6752 Hollywood Boulevard. In March 2017, it was announced that they would be touring the US from May to July 2017. The 29-date arena tour was with co-headliner Tears for Fears. This included the HoagieNation festival in Philadelphia, created by Hall & Oates. A "celebration of everything Philly", the event was held again in 2018 and 2021. Hall & Oates also headlined the BluesFest 2017 at the London O2 arena on October 28, 2017, supported by Chris Isaak. They played a Dublin concert the following night. Between May and June 2019 they made their first tour of Latin America, visiting Argentina, Chile and Brazil. In Santiago de Chile, Hall said "Here we are, finally! but better late than never". Later they performed for the first time in Spain. In January 2020, Hall revealed that he was working on songs for the duo's next album. However, he admitted in a 2021 interview that while progress initially wasn't affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, work eventually stalled as he did not want to release anything that would become "irrelevant". By the time of the interview, he was uncertain about the prospect of a new album, stating that "things have changed". When asked by the Los Angeles Times about the possibility of a new album in a March 2022 interview, Hall was still uncertain, simply stating "time will tell". On April 17, 2023, longtime keyboardist Eliot Lewis took to social media to announce that he would be departing the Hall & Oates band, Daryl Hall solo band, and the Live From Daryl's House band to "focus on [his] own music." In May 2023, Greg Mayo (son of former Hall and Oates keyboardist Bob Mayo) began performing with the Hall & Oates band. Songwriting In an interview in a 1983 issue of Juke Magazine, Oates was asked about whether conflicts arose. He replied that "we have our creative differences but we reconcile them." He said that if they both came up with a different way of doing something, they'd try it both ways and whatever sounded the better of the two they would use. In a September 2022 interview for Club Random with Bill Maher, Hall referred to Oates solely as his business partner, not his creative partner, and then listed some Hall & Oates songs he actually recorded solo. Name The duo never liked to be referred to as "Hall & Oates". In an interview with Esquire, Oates said, "There isn't one album that says Hall and Oates. It's always Daryl Hall and John Oates, from the very beginning. People never note that. The idea of 'Hall and Oates', this two-headed monster, this thing, is not anything we've ever wanted or liked." In a 2015 interview, Oates noted that "it's a horrible name" and that "it was a totally conscious decision" not to be known as "Hall & Oates". "We didn't want to be the Everly Brothers, or Loggins & Messina, or whatever." In a 2017 interview with The Mercury News, Hall explained that "the reason we've always insisted on our full names is because we consider ourselves to be two individual artists. We're not really a classic duo in that respect." Despite their stated dislike for the name Hall & Oates, the group sued a Brooklyn-based granola company in 2015 for naming one of their products "Haulin' Oats", claiming it was a "well-known mark" of the group. Members Musical duo Daryl Hall – vocals, guitars, keyboards, mandolin, trombone, vibraphone John Oates – guitars, vocals, keyboards Backing musicians Current band Charles DeChant – saxophone, flute, percussion, keyboards, backing vocals (1976–1985, 1986, 1990–present) Brian Dunne – drums, percussion (2009–present) Klyde Jones – bass guitar, backing vocals (2011–present) Porter Carroll – percussion, backing vocals (2011–present) Shane Theriot – guitars, backing vocals (2013–present) Greg Mayo – keyboards, backing vocals (2023–present) Past musicians Johnny Ripp – guitars (1972) (as Whole Oats) Mike McCarthy – bass (1972) (as Whole Oats) Jim Helmer – drums (1972) (as Whole Oats) Bill Keith – pedal steel (1972) Neal Rosengarden – saxophone (1972–1973) Leland Sklar – bass (1973, 1976–1977) (Studio) Paul Ians – guitars (1973) Kenny Aaronson – bass (1973–1974) Willie Wilcox – drums (1973–1974) Rick Laird – bass (1974) Eddie Zyne – drums (December 1974 – July 1977) David Kent – keyboards (1975–1978) Todd Sharp – guitars, backing vocals (1975 – June 1977) Stephen Dees – bass, backing vocals (1976 – Feb. 1977) Caleb Quaye – guitars (1977–1979) Kenny Passarelli – bass (June 1977 – Japan Tour Sep. 1980) Roger Pope – drums (1977–1979) Jeff Porcaro – drums (1977) (Studio) G. E. Smith – lead guitars, keyboards, backing vocals (1979–1980, 1981–1985, 1986) Jerry Marotta – drums (1979 – Japan Tour Feb. 1980) Chuck Burgi – drums (1980) Jeff Southworth – guitars (1980) John Siegler – bass (Japan Tour Feb. 1980– US Tour Dec. 1981) Larry Fast – keyboards (1980–1982) Tom "T-Bone" Wolk – bass, guitar, backing vocals, keyboards, mandolin, harmonica, accordion, musical director (1981–2010; his death) Mickey Curry – drums (1981–1985, 1986) Mike Klvana – keyboards (1983 – Japan Tour 1990) Keith Merritt – percussion (1985) Robbie Kilgore – keyboards (1985) Wells Christy – keyboards, synclavier (1985) Jimmy Maelen – percussion (1985) Lenny Pickett – tenor saxophone (1985) Steve Elson – baritone saxophone (1985) Mac Gollehon – trumpet (1985) "Hollywood" Paul Litteral – trumpet (1985) Ray Anderson – trombone (1985) Tony Beard – drums (1986, 1988–1989) Bob Mayo – keyboards, guitars, backing vocals (1988–1994, 1996–1998) Mark Rivera – saxophone, percussion, keyboards, backing vocals (1988–1989) Mike Braun – drums (1989–Sep. 2010) Larry Tagg – bass, backing vocals (1990) Jimmy Rip – guitars (1990) Kasim Sulton – bass, keyboards, backing vocals (1991–1992) Lisa Haney – cello (1991–1992) Eileen Ivers – violin (1991–1992) Susie Davis – keyboards, backing vocals (1993–1994) (Daryl Hall 'Soul Alone' tour) Alan Gorrie – bass, backing vocals (1993–1994) (Daryl Hall 'Soul Alone' tour) Rocky Bryant – drums (1993–1994) (Daryl Hall 'Soul Alone' tour) Bill White – guitars (1993–1994) (Daryl Hall 'Soul Alone' tour) Norman Hedman – percussion, backing vocals (1993–1994) (Daryl Hall 'Soul Alone' tour) Kia Jeffries – backing vocals (1993–1994) (Daryl Hall 'Soul Alone' tour) Jeff Levine – keyboards (Japan tour 1995, 1999–2001) Everett Bradley – percussion, backing vocals (1996, 2006–2010) Paul Pesco – guitar (1997–2001, 2010–2013) Jeff Catania – guitars (2001–2006) John Korba – keyboards, guitar, backing vocals (2002–2003) Eliot Lewis – keyboards, backing vocals (2003–2023) Zev Katz – bass (2006–fall 2011) Jim Gordon – drums Brad Fiedel – keyboards Pat Colins – bass (Temptones) Timeline Discography Whole Oats (1972) Abandoned Luncheonette (1973) War Babies (1974) Daryl Hall & John Oates (1975) Bigger Than Both of Us (1976) Beauty on a Back Street (1977) Along the Red Ledge (1978) X-Static (1979) Voices (1980) Private Eyes (1981) H2O (1982) Big Bam Boom (1984) Ooh Yeah! (1988) Change of Season (1990) Marigold Sky (1997) Do It for Love (2003) Our Kind of Soul (2004) Home for Christmas (2006) See also List of artists who reached number one in the United States List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. dance chart List of Billboard number-one dance hits List of Billboard number-one singles Garfunkel and Oates Further reading Fissinger, Laura, Hall & Oates (Mankato: Creative Education, 1983). Gooch, Brad, Hall & Oates: Their Lives and Their Music (1985). Tosches, Nick, Dangerous Dances: The Authorized Biography (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1984). References External links "Hall & Oates"—Presented in Behind the Music: Remastered'' by VH1.com Category:American blues rock musical groups Category:American musical duos Category:American soft rock music groups Category:American soul musical groups Category:Arista Records artists Category:Atlantic Records artists Category:Male musical duos Category:Musical groups established in 1969 Category:Musical groups from Philadelphia Category:RCA Records artists Category:Rock music duos
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[ "Hall and Oates released several albums during this time. These include \"Marigold Sky\" in 1997, a \"VH1 Behind the Music\" Greatest Hits package in 2002, \"Do It for Love\" in 2003, a live album titled \"Hall & Oates Live\" from an A&E Live by Request special, and \"Home For Christmas\" in 2006. They also released their first CD of (mostly) covers, \"Our Kind of Soul,\" in 2004. In addition to these, Hall released solo albums \"Soul Alone\" (1993), \"Can't Stop Dreaming\" (originally released in Japan in 1996), and a live solo album titled \"Live in Philadelphia\" (2004). Oates released a solo album in 2002 entitled \"Phunk Shui\".", "Yes, there were hit singles on some of the albums. \"Promise Ain't Enough\" from \"Marigold Sky\" album and the title track from \"Do It for Love\" album became number-one Adult Contemporary hits. From the Christmas album \"Home For Christmas\", a version of \"It Came Upon a Midnight Clear\" became their second number one Adult Contemporary hit. From the album \"Our Kind of Soul\", the song \"I'll Be Around\" was their first Hot 100 entry in over a decade.", "The singles \"Promise Ain't Enough\", the title track \"Do It for Love\", and their cover of \"It Came Upon a Midnight Clear\" each became number-one hits on the Adult Contemporary chart. The song \"I'll Be Around\" from \"Our Kind of Soul\" made it to the Hot 100, marking their first entry in that chart in over a decade. Specific chart positions or sales figures are not provided in the context.", "According to the context provided, Hall and Oates also released an album titled \"Two Rooms\" in 1991, a tribute to Elton John and Bernie Taupin, on which they covered \"Philadelphia Freedom\". Apart from their joint ventures, Daryl Hall released solo albums \"Soul Alone\" in 1993 and \"Can't Stop Dreaming\" (originally released in 1996), as well as a live two-disc solo album titled \"Live in Philadelphia\" in 2004. John Oates released his solo album titled \"Phunk Shui\" in 2002.", "The context does not provide information on any other hit singles from the albums described.", "Yes, Hall and Oates were still on the touring circuit during this time, traveling nearly as much as they did in years past according to the context. A DVD of live performances of the songs from \"Our Kind of Soul\" was also released in November 2005.", "Yes, both Hall and Oates released solo albums during this time. Hall released the solo albums \"Soul Alone\" in 1993 and \"Can't Stop Dreaming\" (originally released in Japan in 1996), as well as a live two-disc solo album titled \"Live in Philadelphia\" in 2004. Oates released his own solo album in 2002 entitled \"Phunk Shui\"." ]
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Hall & Oates
Daryl Hall and John Oates, often referred to as Hall & Oates, are an American musical duo. Daryl Hall is generally the lead vocalist; John Oates primarily plays electric guitar and provides backing vocals. The two write most of the songs they perform, separately or in collaboration. They achieved their greatest fame from the late 1970s to the mid-1980s with a fusion of rock and roll and rhythm and blues.
1985: Live at the Apollo
Hall and Oates have almost always toured extensively for each album release. But in 1985, the duo took a break after the release of their Live at the Apollo album with David Ruffin and Eddie Kendricks--voices of The Temptations and two of their heroes. This was RCA's second attempt at a live Hall and Oates album, following the 1978 release Livetime. Live at the Apollo was released primarily to fulfill the duo's contract with RCA, and contained a top-20 hit with a medley of "The Way You Do the Things You Do" and "My Girl", both hits Ruffin and Kendrick had recorded with the Temptations in 1964. Hall and Oates had collaborated on the USA for Africa "We Are the World" project, with the former as one of the soloists and the latter as a chorus member, and performed at the Live Aid concert in Philadelphia, with Ruffin and Kendrick. The Hall and Oates band also backed up Mick Jagger's performance at this show. Hall, Oates, Ruffin and Kendrick performed again at the MTV Video Music Awards in New York later that year, complete with an Apollo Theater-style marquee descending on the stage during their performance. In May, 1985, Hall and Oates performed at the Nashville Municipal Auditorium. Just prior to Live Aid, on July 4, they participated in Liberty Concert, an outdoor benefit concert at Liberty State Park in Jersey City, New Jersey for the restoration of the Statue of Liberty. It became a major music event, drawing an estimated crowd of over 60,000 people. In 1986, Daryl Hall scored a Top 5 US hit with "Dreamtime", from the album "Three Hearts in the Happy Ending Machine". That album also included the Top 40 hit "Foolish Pride" and the Top 100 hit "Somebody Like You," later performed by the duo live on their "Behind the Music" set. Although John Oates did not have a solo hit as a singer, he did receive credit as co-songwriter (with Iva Davies) of the 1988 Icehouse top 10 US hit "Electric Blue." Oates also worked as producer, co-songwriter and co-lead vocalist of the single "Love Is Fire" by The Parachute Club, which was a top 40 hit in Canada in 1987. CANNOTANSWER
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Daryl Hall and John Oates, commonly known as Hall & Oates, are an American pop rock duo formed in Philadelphia in 1970. Daryl Hall is generally the lead vocalist; John Oates primarily plays electric guitar and provides backing vocals. The two write most of the songs they perform, separately or in collaboration. They achieved their greatest fame from the mid-1970s to the late 1980s with a fusion of rock and roll, soul music, and rhythm and blues. Though they are commonly referred to as Hall & Oates, Hall has been adamant about the duo being called Daryl Hall & John Oates – its official name. They have been credited on albums as Daryl Hall & John Oates (or Daryl Hall John Oates) on all of their US releases. The duo reached the US Top 40 with 29 of their 33 singles charting on Billboard's Hot 100 between 1974 and 1991. Six of these peaked at number one: "Rich Girl" (1977), "Kiss on My List" (1980), the two 1981 releases "Private Eyes", and "I Can't Go for That (No Can Do)" (also a Hot Soul No. 1), "Maneater" (1982) and "Out of Touch" (1984). Their overall 16 US Top Tens also include "She's Gone", "Sara Smile", "You Make My Dreams", "Family Man", "Say It Isn't So", and "Method of Modern Love". Seven of their albums have been RIAA-certified platinum and six of them gold. In the United Kingdom, they have achieved success with two Top Ten albums and six Top 40 singles, two of which – "I Can't Go for That (No Can Do)" and "Maneater" – reached the Top Ten. The duo have spent 120 weeks in the UK Top 75 albums chart and 84 weeks in the UK Top 75 singles chart. While employing a wide variety of session musicians on their recordings, they did have a long working relationship with several musicians who appeared on many of their works and have toured with them. They include guitarist G.E. Smith, bassist Tom "T-Bone" Wolk, and multi-instrumentalist Charles DeChant. In addition, they collaborated with sisters Sara Allen and Janna Allen on songwriting and composing. In 2003, Hall & Oates were inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame. In August 2018, in a 60th-anniversary celebration of Billboards Hot 100, the duo ranked 18 in a list of the top Hot 100 artists of all time and six in a list of the Hot 100's top duos/groups. They remain the most successful duo of all time, ahead of the Carpenters, the Everly Brothers, and Simon & Garfunkel. In September 2010, VH1 placed the duo at no. 99 in their list of the 100 greatest artists of all time. In April 2014, they were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, and on September 2, 2016, they received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. History 1967–1972: Formation and early years Daryl Franklin Hohl (born in Pottstown, Pennsylvania, on October 11, 1946) and John William Oates (born in New York City on April 7, 1948) first met at the Adelphi Ballroom in Philadelphia in 1967. At the time they met, each was heading his own musical group, Hall with The Temptones and Oates with The Masters. They were there for a band competition when gunfire rang out between two rival gangs, and in trying to escape, they ran to the same service elevator. On further discovering that they were interested in the same music and that both were attending Philadelphia's Temple University, they started spending time together on a regular basis and eventually shared a number of apartments in the city. One of the apartments they shared had "Hall & Oates" on the mailbox, which became the duo's common nickname. It took them another two years to form a musical duo, and three years after that, they signed to Atlantic Records and released their debut album. The two didn't start working together seriously until 1970 after Oates got back from an extended stay in Europe. 1972–1974: First albums Early in their recording careers, Hall and Oates had trouble clearly defining their sound, alternating among folk, soul, rock and pop. None of their early albums—Whole Oats, Abandoned Luncheonette and War Babies—were very successful. Despite being produced by such big-name producers as Arif Mardin and Todd Rundgren, they had no hit singles during this time period, though Abandoned Luncheonette contained "She's Gone". This song was covered by Lou Rawls and Tavares before Atlantic Records re-released the Hall and Oates version in 1976. "She's Gone", as covered by Tavares, reached Number One on the R&B chart in 1974. It was originally written for Hall's first wife, Bryna Lublin (Hall), and initially inspired by Oates's being stood up on a date on New Year's Eve. Another Abandoned Luncheonette single, "Las Vegas Turnaround", was written about (and mentioned by first name) Hall's girlfriend, flight attendant and future song-writing collaborator Sara Allen. The regional successes the album achieved were enough to push the album onto the chart, reaching #33 on November 20, 1976, and staying on the chart for 38 weeks. 1975–1977: First hits Hall and Oates left Atlantic Records after the release of War Babies to join RCA Records. Their first album for the new label, Daryl Hall & John Oates (often referred to by their fans as the silver album because of the silver foil material on the original album cover), was their first notable success. It contained the ballad "Sara Smile", a song Hall wrote for his aforementioned girlfriend Sara Allen. It also featured an album cover in which Hall and Oates are overly made up with cosmetic blush to the point where they looked like women, especially the long-haired and clean-shaven Hall. Hall later said in an interview for VH1's Behind the Music that he looked like "the girl I always wanted to go out with" on that album cover. This cover was made by Pierre LaRoche, who created Ziggy Stardust for David Bowie. "Sara Smile" became their first Top 10 hit, reaching No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in June 1976. "She's Gone", re-released by Atlantic Records after "Sara Smile", also went to the Top 10, reaching No. 7 in October 1976. Hall and Oates followed those hits with the more pop-oriented album Bigger Than Both of Us later that year. Though the album's first single—the Philadelphia soul-oriented ballad "Do What You Want, Be What You Are"—barely made the Top 40, their second single, "Rich Girl", was a smash. The song was Hall and Oates's first No. 1 hit, reaching the top spot for the week ending March 26, 1977. 1977–1978: Leaner years and Sacred Songs After this small run of hits, Hall and Oates still encountered difficulty getting radio play. Despite touring constantly and recording albums with efficiency, the duo could not find any pop success for a number of reasons, mainly because of the popularity of the disco genre. By the time they released the rock-oriented albums Beauty on a Back Street in 1977 and Along the Red Ledge in 1978, disco music was trendy and taking most of the spots in popular music. They did release a few hit singles during this period: the follow-up to "Rich Girl" ("Back Together Again") hit the Top 40, and "It's A Laugh" (from "Along The Red Ledge") hit the top 20 in 1978. In 1977, RCA attempted to push Hall to the fore with his first solo effort Sacred Songs. However, after being presented with the highly experimental recording (produced by Robert Fripp of King Crimson), RCA became unwilling to release what was, in their view, a non-commercial album. Sacred Songs was eventually released in 1980. 1979–1981: X-Static and Voices The 1980s brought about significant changes for Hall and Oates. The pair felt that the biggest hindrance to their success was that their music was being filtered through outside producers, and that studio musicians were not familiar with their own tastes and thoughts. In 1979, they hired G. E. Smith (who had worked with Dan Hartman and David Bowie by then) as lead guitarist, Mickey Curry as drummer, and Tom "T-Bone" Wolk joined as bassist in 1981. They also enlisted Hall's girlfriend Sara Allen (and also her younger sister Janna) as songwriting collaborators, as well as beginning a working relationship with Neil Kernon, an engineer on Voices who worked as co-producer on their succeeding two albums. In late 1979, Hall and Oates released X-Static, which combined rock with disco. The album did not fare well, although "Wait for Me" did hit the top 20. The band also wished to capture the sound of New York City which, by then, had become their home. As a result, instead of recording in Los Angeles, as they had done previously, they decided to record at Electric Lady Studios in New York City, just five minutes away from their apartments, and began producing their own recordings with their touring band backing them in the studio. The resulting album, Voices, was written, produced and arranged by Hall and Oates in one month, according to their authorized biography Dangerous Dances (by Nick Tosches). The first two singles from the album charted fairly well, with "How Does It Feel to Be Back" charting at Number 30. The well-received cover of The Righteous Brothers' "You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin'", just missed the Top 10, peaking at Number 12, but spent 14 weeks in the Top 40. After the release of that song, Oates's contribution as the lead vocalist diminished on future releases. The third single "Kiss on My List" hit Number 1 in April 1981 and remained there for three weeks. The follow-up single "You Make My Dreams" reached Number 5 in July of that year. The other well-known song from Voices is the emotive ballad "Everytime You Go Away", with powerful lead vocals by Hall, who wrote it. British singer Paul Young had a Billboard Number 1 hit with a cover of the song in 1985. Though the Hall and Oates original (recorded in a Memphis-soul style) was never released as a single, it remains a fan favorite on the duo's greatest hits albums, and was featured on their Apollo Theater album in 1985, and is frequently featured in their live set to this day. 1981–1982: Private Eyes By the time "You Make My Dreams" was falling off the charts, Hall and Oates had already released their follow-up album Private Eyes. Having worked in the studio while Voices was at its peak in popularity, the two had already recorded most of their material and perfected a fusion of their doo-wop and soul roots with New Wave energy and hard rock grit. The result was a pop classic that is often considered one of the greatest albums of the 1980s, and was the first Hall and Oates album to reach the Top 10 on the Billboard 200 album chart, while four singles from Private Eyes all reached the Top 40. The title track and "I Can't Go for That (No Can Do)" were both Number 1 hits, separated only by the ten-week stay at Number 1 by "Physical" by Olivia Newton-John. "I Can't Go for That (No Can Do)" was one of the few songs ever recorded by a white act to reach Number One on both the R&B and the pop charts. "Did It in a Minute" reached Number 9 in the spring of 1982, and "Your Imagination" peaked at No. 33. 1982–1983: H2O and band changes Their next album, H2O, a very polished, synth-heavy effort, became the duo's most successful album, with US sales eventually approaching four million copies. H2O reached No. 3 on the Billboard charts (where it held for 15 weeks) and spawned three Top 10 singles. "Maneater", the biggest hit of their career, reached No. 1 on December 18, 1982, and stayed there for four weeks. The soulful ballad "One on One" and a cover of Mike Oldfield's "Family Man" reached No. 7 and No. 6 in March and June 1983, respectively. According to Oates, they recorded approximately twenty songs for the album, of which nine did not make the final cut. He went on to say they usually had five or six tracks left over per album. For the H2O album, Hall and Oates made some permanent changes to their current band. Drummer Mickey Curry, who had appeared on some Private Eyes tracks, including the title song, replaced Jerry Marotta full-time. Bassist Tom Wolk, who had mimed John Siegler's bass line in the "Private Eyes" video, replaced Siegler full-time. These two joined the band's holdovers—lead guitar player G.E. Smith, and saxophonist Charles DeChant. Wolk continued to perform with the duo until his death in early 2010, while Curry returned for the Do It for Love and Laughing Down Crying sessions. 1983–1984: Rock 'n Soul Part 1 By the fall of 1983, Hall and Oates were one of the biggest pop music acts in the United States. They had five Number 1 singles to their credit, two consecutive Top 10 albums and were one of the biggest names on MTV. Two covers of the 1957 Bobby Helms classic "Jingle Bell Rock" were recorded—one with Hall on lead vocals, and the other with Oates on lead vocals—and released in time for Christmas 1983, complete with a humorous video of the band, that received extensive airplay on MTV. In 1983, they released their first greatest hits album entitled Rock 'n Soul Part 1. The album peaked at Number 7, and the two new songs that were written and recorded for that LP also became Top 10 hits as well. The first single released from this album, "Say It Isn't So", battled six weeks for the Number 1 spot with Paul McCartney and Michael Jackson's "Say Say Say" at the peak of Thriller mania. "Say It Isn't So" remained at No. 2 for four weeks from December 1983 to January 1984. Hall and Oates's follow-up single "Adult Education" received heavy airplay at both pop and black (urban contemporary) radio, and reached Number 8 on the Billboard Hot 100 in April 1984. It was accompanied by a dark, New York City-oriented music video set in a cave. Oates later told VH1 that the clip resembled the Survivor TV show on acid. 1984–1985: Big Bam Boom Hall and Oates returned to the studio in 1984 after a rest period to begin work on the Big Bam Boom album. This album had even more of an electronic, urban feel to it than H2O, combining their song structure and vocalization with the latest technical advances in recording and playing. The album employed some of the most sophisticated equipment ever used in the recording industry at the time (most notably the Synclavier II, one of the first computerized synthesizer workstations, as well as the Fairlight CMI). Noted remix and hip-hop icon Arthur Baker worked very closely with the duo as a consultant, and produced dance remixes of four of the album's singles. The lead-off song "Dance on Your Knees" (written by Hall and Baker) is basically an homage to Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five's song "White Lines (Don't Don't Do It)". Released in late 1984, the first single from the LP, "Out of Touch", became the group's sixth number 1 hit on December 8, 1984. "Method of Modern Love", which debuted on the pop charts while "Out of Touch" was at number 1, reached number 5 in February 1985. "Some Things Are Better Left Unsaid" reached number 18, and "Possession Obsession" (a song in which Oates sings lead) reached number 30 in 1985 as well. The group's "Live Thru '85" tour to promote the album began in November 1984, sponsored by Pontiac's latest sports car, the Fiero. In addition, Pontiac allowed Oates, a skilled amateur racer, to drive in Pontiac's factory IMSA GTU race car in Camel GT pro races. In April 1984, the Recording Industry Association of America named Hall & Oates the most successful duo in rock history. 1985–1988: Live at the Apollo and other projects Hall and Oates have almost always toured extensively for each album release. But in 1985, the duo took a break after the release of their Live at the Apollo album with David Ruffin and Eddie Kendricks—voices of The Temptations and two of their heroes. This was RCA's second attempt at a live Hall and Oates album, following the 1978 release Livetime. Live at the Apollo was released primarily to fulfill the duo's contract with RCA, and contained a Top 20 Grammy-nominated hit with a medley of "The Way You Do the Things You Do" and "My Girl"; Ruffin and Kendrick had originally recorded both songs with the Temptations in 1964. Hall and Oates had collaborated on the USA for Africa "We Are the World" project, with the former as one of the soloists and the latter as a chorus member, and performed at the Live Aid concert in Philadelphia, with Ruffin and Kendrick. The Hall and Oates band also backed up Mick Jagger's performance at this show. Hall, Oates, Ruffin and Kendrick performed again at the MTV Video Music Awards in New York later that year, complete with an Apollo Theater-style marquee descending on the stage during their performance. In May 1985, Hall and Oates performed at the Nashville Municipal Auditorium. Just prior to Live Aid, on July 4, they participated in Liberty Concert, an outdoor benefit concert at Liberty State Park in Jersey City, New Jersey for the restoration of the Statue of Liberty, which was filmed for HBO. It became a major music event, drawing an estimated crowd of over 60,000 people. In 1986, Hall scored a Top 5 US hit with "Dreamtime", from his solo album Three Hearts in the Happy Ending Machine. That album also included the Top 40 hit "Foolish Pride" and the Top 100 hit "Someone Like You", later performed by the duo live on their "Behind the Music" set. Although Oates did not have a solo hit as a singer, he did contribute a solo track to the film About Last Night and co-wrote (with Iva Davies) and performed backing vocals on the 1987 Icehouse top 10 US hit "Electric Blue". Oates also worked as producer, co-songwriter and co-lead vocalist of the single "Love Is Fire" by The Parachute Club, which was a top 40 hit in Canada in 1987. 1988–1990: Arista years Hall and Oates signed with Arista Records, their third record company, in 1987, shortly before the string of Top 10 hits ended, in Tommy Mottola's effort to keep them under contract when their RCA obligation ran out. Their first album for the label, Ooh Yeah!, included the hits "Everything Your Heart Desires" (Number 3 in May 1988—their last to make the Top 10), "Missed Opportunity", and "Downtown Life". Beginning with Ooh Yeah!, album and single releases were credited as Daryl Hall John Oates''', with the '&' or 'and' missing between the duo's names. It was the last Hall and Oates album, other than greatest hits packages, to enjoy platinum success. They recorded one more album for Arista called Change of Season. The album's first single "So Close" (co-produced by Jon Bon Jovi) reached Number 11 and was Hall & Oates's last major hit. Another song from the album, "Don't Hold Back Your Love", was named by SOCAN as the second-most performed song in Canada for 1992; it became a hit for Australian Sherbet front man, Daryl Braithwaite, in his solo years, and has become a Hall and Oates staple in concert. Change of Season was a more mainstream rock album than their previous work. Despite the fact that Ooh Yeah! and Change of Season reached platinum and gold status respectively, they were perceived as disappointments. In 1989, they covered and did their own version of the O'Jays song Love Train for the movie Earth Girls Are Easy. 1991–2006: Do It for Love and Christmas album The duo's occasional song-writing collaborator Janna Allen died of leukemia in 1993. Hall and Oates released the Marigold Sky album in 1997 (their first all-new studio album in seven years), which included an Adult Contemporary hit "Promise Ain't Enough". They also released a "VH1 Behind the Music" Greatest Hits package shortly after appearing on the show in 2002. Hall and Oates released the Do It for Love album in 2003, whose title track was a number one Adult Contemporary hit. They also released the Hall & Oates Live DVD from an A&E Live by Request special. This album was the first release (and first success) for their newest joint venture U-Watch Records. Hall has also released the solo albums Soul Alone (1993) and Can't Stop Dreaming (originally released in Japan in 1996), and a live two-disc solo album titled Live in Philadelphia (2004). Hall and Oates covered Elton John's "Philadelphia Freedom" on the 1991 John/Taupin tribute album "Two Rooms", saying in the booklet: "We chose 'Philadelphia Freedom' because the music is so close to our hearts, and the lyrics represent the way we feel about Philadelphia." Oates released his own solo album in 2002 entitled Phunk Shui and a companion live concert DVD. Hall and Oates also released their first CD of (mostly) covers, Our Kind of Soul, in 2004. It includes some of their favorite R&B songs, such as "I'll Be Around" (their first Hot 100 entry in over a decade), "Love T.K.O.", and Dan Hartman's "I Can Dream About You", among others. Hall and Oates remained on the touring circuit, traveling nearly as much as they did in years past. In addition, a DVD of live performances of the songs from Our Kind of Soul was released in November 2005. Hall and Oates released a Christmas album, Home for Christmas, on October 3, 2006, which contained two Christmas originals and covers, including a version of "It Came Upon a Midnight Clear", which became their second number one Adult Contemporary hit. 2007–2013: Solo projects and hiatus In September 2007, representatives of Montreal-based band Chromeo stated in a press release, "Indeed, Chromeo's idols Hall and Oates have asked them to collaborate with them on their upcoming record! Needless to say, the gentlemen are giddy like schoolchildren to be given this opportunity", as reported by Pitchfork Media. This collaboration with Chromeo was expected to be released in late 2008/early 2009, and was released as Live from Daryl's House. On May 20, 2008, Hall and Oates were honored as BMI Icons at the 56th annual BMI Pop Awards. As of 2008, their song-writing has collected 24 BMI Pop Awards and 14 BMI Million-Air awards. There were two notable nationally televised appearances for the duo in late 2008. On October 27, Oates sang the National Anthem before Game 5 of the 2008 World Series at Citizens Bank Park in Philadelphia (Hall had taken sick, and the game was called on account of rain after the top of the 6th inning, but resumed on October 29, and the Phillies won, claiming their first World Series Championship in 28 years). (Though born in New York, Oates was raised in a suburb of Philadelphia and attended Temple University.) Then, on December 11, both Hall and Oates appeared on the year's last episode of The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. They sang a satirical tribute to Alan Colmes, as he was leaving the show Hannity and Colmes on Fox News a month later. On March 24, 2009, Hall and Oates performed together on the American television show Dancing with the Stars. During 2009, the duo recorded a cameo for the movie You Again, performing "Kiss On My List" for the final scene and closing credits. On May 22 and 23, 2008, they performed at the Troubadour, 35 years after first performing there as an opening act. They played many popular selections, including "Cab Driver" from Hall's solo album as well as several songs from the Abandoned Luncheonette album, including "Had I Known You Better Then" which had never been performed live before. The performance was recorded as a concert film and later released in the US as a double CD set with DVD/Blu-ray Combo on November 25, 2008. In 2009 the live performances of "Sara Smile" from this album was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals, an incredible 33 years after the original song was released. Concerning the nomination, Daryl considered it truly a surprise. This made it the third time that the band was nominated for a Grammy Award; the other two times were in 1981 for "Private Eyes" and 1983 for "Maneater". On October 13, 2009, a 4-CD box set was released, titled Do What You Want, Be What You Are: The Music of Daryl Hall and John Oates. This set represents the most comprehensive hits collection by the duo as it includes songs from various labels. Also included are three songs recorded by Hall and Oates with their earlier bands prior to their forming Hall and Oates as a duo. The boxed set sold 5,000 copies the first hour and, in total, it has sold 15,000 copies, according to Nielsen SoundScan, peaking at No. 89 on the Billboard 200 on October 23, 2009. In one of the last concerts at the Wachovia Spectrum, Hall and Oates and Philadelphia-area musicians The Hooters and Todd Rundgren headlined a concert titled "Last Call". In 2010, Hall and Oates embarked on their "Do What You Want, Be What You Are" tour in the United States. They appeared on the American Idol season finale on May 26, 2010, performing "You Make My Dreams". Also in 2010, Hall and Oates announced they would join a growing artists' boycott of the state of Arizona over the state's recently passed anti-illegal immigrant laws. On May 8, 2012, the two performed on the NBC reality singing competition The Voice. 2013–present: Hall of Fame induction, further touring and postponed nineteenth album On October 16, 2013, Hall and Oates were announced as 2014 nominees for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. They were announced as inductees for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's Class of 2014 on December 16, 2013. Hall started his monthly web series Live From Daryl's House in 2007 after having the idea of "playing with my friends and putting it up on the Internet". The series features him jamming with various guest musicians in his house in the woods. Guest artists on the show have run the gamut of musical styles and influences, and have included Smokey Robinson, Robby Krieger from The Doors, Rumer, Nick Lowe, CeeLo Green, KT Tunstall, Todd Rundgren, Darius Rucker, and Chromeo. In 2010, Live From Daryl's House won a Webby Award in the Variety category. In May 2014, Hall's home renovation program, Daryl's Restoration Over-Hall, premiered on the DIY Network. On July 15, 2014, Hall and Oates performed in Ireland as a duo for the very first time (they each performed independently as solo acts before) at the Olympia Theatre, Dublin. The event was recorded, packaged as a two CD/DVD set and released as 'Live In Dublin' in Germany March 27, 2015, and in the US on March 30, 2015. Hall and Oates indicated that the recorded concert was also being released in movie theaters nationwide for one day only. The duo made a cameo in the 2015 Happy Madison film Pixels. On September 2, 2016, Hall and Oates received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for their work in the music industry, located at 6752 Hollywood Boulevard. In March 2017, it was announced that they would be touring the US from May to July 2017. The 29-date arena tour was with co-headliner Tears for Fears. This included the HoagieNation festival in Philadelphia, created by Hall & Oates. A "celebration of everything Philly", the event was held again in 2018 and 2021. Hall & Oates also headlined the BluesFest 2017 at the London O2 arena on October 28, 2017, supported by Chris Isaak. They played a Dublin concert the following night. Between May and June 2019 they made their first tour of Latin America, visiting Argentina, Chile and Brazil. In Santiago de Chile, Hall said "Here we are, finally! but better late than never". Later they performed for the first time in Spain. In January 2020, Hall revealed that he was working on songs for the duo's next album. However, he admitted in a 2021 interview that while progress initially wasn't affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, work eventually stalled as he did not want to release anything that would become "irrelevant". By the time of the interview, he was uncertain about the prospect of a new album, stating that "things have changed". When asked by the Los Angeles Times about the possibility of a new album in a March 2022 interview, Hall was still uncertain, simply stating "time will tell". On April 17, 2023, longtime keyboardist Eliot Lewis took to social media to announce that he would be departing the Hall & Oates band, Daryl Hall solo band, and the Live From Daryl's House band to "focus on [his] own music." In May 2023, Greg Mayo (son of former Hall and Oates keyboardist Bob Mayo) began performing with the Hall & Oates band. Songwriting In an interview in a 1983 issue of Juke Magazine, Oates was asked about whether conflicts arose. He replied that "we have our creative differences but we reconcile them." He said that if they both came up with a different way of doing something, they'd try it both ways and whatever sounded the better of the two they would use. In a September 2022 interview for Club Random with Bill Maher, Hall referred to Oates solely as his business partner, not his creative partner, and then listed some Hall & Oates songs he actually recorded solo. Name The duo never liked to be referred to as "Hall & Oates". In an interview with Esquire, Oates said, "There isn't one album that says Hall and Oates. It's always Daryl Hall and John Oates, from the very beginning. People never note that. The idea of 'Hall and Oates', this two-headed monster, this thing, is not anything we've ever wanted or liked." In a 2015 interview, Oates noted that "it's a horrible name" and that "it was a totally conscious decision" not to be known as "Hall & Oates". "We didn't want to be the Everly Brothers, or Loggins & Messina, or whatever." In a 2017 interview with The Mercury News, Hall explained that "the reason we've always insisted on our full names is because we consider ourselves to be two individual artists. We're not really a classic duo in that respect." Despite their stated dislike for the name Hall & Oates, the group sued a Brooklyn-based granola company in 2015 for naming one of their products "Haulin' Oats", claiming it was a "well-known mark" of the group. Members Musical duo Daryl Hall – vocals, guitars, keyboards, mandolin, trombone, vibraphone John Oates – guitars, vocals, keyboards Backing musicians Current band Charles DeChant – saxophone, flute, percussion, keyboards, backing vocals (1976–1985, 1986, 1990–present) Brian Dunne – drums, percussion (2009–present) Klyde Jones – bass guitar, backing vocals (2011–present) Porter Carroll – percussion, backing vocals (2011–present) Shane Theriot – guitars, backing vocals (2013–present) Greg Mayo – keyboards, backing vocals (2023–present) Past musicians Johnny Ripp – guitars (1972) (as Whole Oats) Mike McCarthy – bass (1972) (as Whole Oats) Jim Helmer – drums (1972) (as Whole Oats) Bill Keith – pedal steel (1972) Neal Rosengarden – saxophone (1972–1973) Leland Sklar – bass (1973, 1976–1977) (Studio) Paul Ians – guitars (1973) Kenny Aaronson – bass (1973–1974) Willie Wilcox – drums (1973–1974) Rick Laird – bass (1974) Eddie Zyne – drums (December 1974 – July 1977) David Kent – keyboards (1975–1978) Todd Sharp – guitars, backing vocals (1975 – June 1977) Stephen Dees – bass, backing vocals (1976 – Feb. 1977) Caleb Quaye – guitars (1977–1979) Kenny Passarelli – bass (June 1977 – Japan Tour Sep. 1980) Roger Pope – drums (1977–1979) Jeff Porcaro – drums (1977) (Studio) G. E. Smith – lead guitars, keyboards, backing vocals (1979–1980, 1981–1985, 1986) Jerry Marotta – drums (1979 – Japan Tour Feb. 1980) Chuck Burgi – drums (1980) Jeff Southworth – guitars (1980) John Siegler – bass (Japan Tour Feb. 1980– US Tour Dec. 1981) Larry Fast – keyboards (1980–1982) Tom "T-Bone" Wolk – bass, guitar, backing vocals, keyboards, mandolin, harmonica, accordion, musical director (1981–2010; his death) Mickey Curry – drums (1981–1985, 1986) Mike Klvana – keyboards (1983 – Japan Tour 1990) Keith Merritt – percussion (1985) Robbie Kilgore – keyboards (1985) Wells Christy – keyboards, synclavier (1985) Jimmy Maelen – percussion (1985) Lenny Pickett – tenor saxophone (1985) Steve Elson – baritone saxophone (1985) Mac Gollehon – trumpet (1985) "Hollywood" Paul Litteral – trumpet (1985) Ray Anderson – trombone (1985) Tony Beard – drums (1986, 1988–1989) Bob Mayo – keyboards, guitars, backing vocals (1988–1994, 1996–1998) Mark Rivera – saxophone, percussion, keyboards, backing vocals (1988–1989) Mike Braun – drums (1989–Sep. 2010) Larry Tagg – bass, backing vocals (1990) Jimmy Rip – guitars (1990) Kasim Sulton – bass, keyboards, backing vocals (1991–1992) Lisa Haney – cello (1991–1992) Eileen Ivers – violin (1991–1992) Susie Davis – keyboards, backing vocals (1993–1994) (Daryl Hall 'Soul Alone' tour) Alan Gorrie – bass, backing vocals (1993–1994) (Daryl Hall 'Soul Alone' tour) Rocky Bryant – drums (1993–1994) (Daryl Hall 'Soul Alone' tour) Bill White – guitars (1993–1994) (Daryl Hall 'Soul Alone' tour) Norman Hedman – percussion, backing vocals (1993–1994) (Daryl Hall 'Soul Alone' tour) Kia Jeffries – backing vocals (1993–1994) (Daryl Hall 'Soul Alone' tour) Jeff Levine – keyboards (Japan tour 1995, 1999–2001) Everett Bradley – percussion, backing vocals (1996, 2006–2010) Paul Pesco – guitar (1997–2001, 2010–2013) Jeff Catania – guitars (2001–2006) John Korba – keyboards, guitar, backing vocals (2002–2003) Eliot Lewis – keyboards, backing vocals (2003–2023) Zev Katz – bass (2006–fall 2011) Jim Gordon – drums Brad Fiedel – keyboards Pat Colins – bass (Temptones) Timeline Discography Whole Oats (1972) Abandoned Luncheonette (1973) War Babies (1974) Daryl Hall & John Oates (1975) Bigger Than Both of Us (1976) Beauty on a Back Street (1977) Along the Red Ledge (1978) X-Static (1979) Voices (1980) Private Eyes (1981) H2O (1982) Big Bam Boom (1984) Ooh Yeah! (1988) Change of Season (1990) Marigold Sky (1997) Do It for Love (2003) Our Kind of Soul (2004) Home for Christmas (2006) See also List of artists who reached number one in the United States List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. dance chart List of Billboard number-one dance hits List of Billboard number-one singles Garfunkel and Oates Further reading Fissinger, Laura, Hall & Oates (Mankato: Creative Education, 1983). Gooch, Brad, Hall & Oates: Their Lives and Their Music (1985). Tosches, Nick, Dangerous Dances: The Authorized Biography (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1984). References External links "Hall & Oates"—Presented in Behind the Music: Remastered'' by VH1.com Category:American blues rock musical groups Category:American musical duos Category:American soft rock music groups Category:American soul musical groups Category:Arista Records artists Category:Atlantic Records artists Category:Male musical duos Category:Musical groups established in 1969 Category:Musical groups from Philadelphia Category:RCA Records artists Category:Rock music duos
[]
[ "In 1985, Hall and Oates took a break after the release of their album Live at the Apollo with David Ruffin and Eddie Kendricks. They also participated in the USA for Africa \"We Are the World\" project and performed at the Live Aid concert in Philadelphia. Later that year, they also played at the MTV Video Music Awards in New York and at the Nashville Municipal Auditorium. Before the Live Aid concert, they took part in Liberty Concert, a benefit event in Liberty State Park, New Jersey.", "In 1985, Hall and Oates released their album \"Live at the Apollo\" with David Ruffin and Eddie Kendricks. In 1986, Daryl Hall released a solo album titled \"Three Hearts in the Happy Ending Machine.\"", "Yes, the medley of \"The Way You Do the Things You Do\" and \"My Girl\" from the \"Live at the Apollo\" album was successful, as it was a top-20 hit.", "Yes, the release of the \"Live at the Apollo\" album was primarily to fulfill Hall and Oates' contract with RCA.", "The context does not provide information on whether the entire \"Live at the Apollo\" album was a hit, but it does mention that it contained a top-20 hit medley.", "Yes, Hall and Oates had several hit songs. From the \"Live at the Apollo\" album, there was a top-20 hit medley of \"The Way You Do the Things You Do\" and \"My Girl.\" Daryl Hall had a Top 5 US hit with \"Dreamtime\" from his solo album \"Three Hearts in the Happy Ending Machine,\" which also included the Top 40 hit \"Foolish Pride\" and the Top 100 hit \"Somebody Like You.\" John Oates also had a hit as co-writer of the 1988 Icehouse top 10 US hit \"Electric Blue.\" He was also involved in the top 40 Canadian hit \"Love Is Fire\" by The Parachute Club." ]
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Carlos Delgado
Delgado was born in Aguadilla, Puerto Rico to Carlos "Cao" Delgado and Carmen Digna Hernandez. He grew up in the El Prado section of Aguadilla. There, he attended elementary school alongside his three siblings. Both his father, "Don Cao", and his grandfather, Asdrubal "Pingolo" Delgado, were well-known figures in the town.
Social activism
Like his hero, Delgado is a well-known peace activist, and has been open about his political beliefs. As part of the Navy-Vieques protests, Delgado was actively opposed to the use of the island of Vieques, Puerto Rico as a bombing target practice facility by the United States Department of Defense, until bombing was halted in 2003. He is also against the occupation of Iraq. In the 2004 season, Delgado protested the war by silently staying in the dugout during the playing of "God Bless America" during the seventh inning stretch. Delgado does not make a public show of his beliefs, and even his teammates were not aware of his views until a story was published in July 2004 in the Toronto Star. Delgado was quoted as saying "It's a very terrible thing that happened on September 11. It's (also) a terrible thing that happened in Afghanistan and Iraq, ... I just feel so sad for the families that lost relatives and loved ones in the war. But I think it's the stupidest war ever." The story was the subject of a media frenzy, mostly in New York, where on July 21, 2004, as was anticipated, Delgado was booed by Yankee fans for his passive protest during a game at Yankee Stadium. Delgado had explained that the playing of "God Bless America" had come to be equated with a war in which he didn't believe. In a New York Times interview, Delgado said this is what he believed in, and "It takes a man to stand up for what he believes." After being traded to the Mets, in a conciliatory measure, Delgado opted to stand during the singing of "God Bless America." Among other charity work, Delgado is well known for his generous visits to hospitals in his hometown where, on Three Kings Day, he brings toys to hospitalized children. In 2006, he joined Puerto Rico's Senate President in co-sponsoring a massive Three Kings gift-giving effort in the town of Loiza. Delgado started his own non-profit organization, "Extra Bases" to assist island youth. In 2007, Delgado donated video conference equipment to allow his hometown's Buen Samaritano Hospital to establish a regular link with a hospital in Boston in order to allow for remote diagnoses through telemedicine. Delgado has also contributed to improving Puerto Rico's public education system. In 2007, he participated in "Sapientis Week", an initiative sponsored by the non-profit Sapientis which brings distinguished public figures into classrooms in order to raise the public's awareness of the education crisis in Puerto Rico. Delgado taught a class on Athletic Mental Training and Health at the Ramon Power y Giralt School in the Luis Llorens Torres public housing complex. For his efforts, Delgado was awarded the Roberto Clemente Award in 2006. The award goes to the player in baseball who best exemplifies humanitarianism and sportsmanship, and was named after Hall of Famer Roberto Clemente in 1973. Prior to the 2008 season of the Puerto Rico Baseball League, Delgado was involved in an initiative to provide economic help to the Indios de Mayaguez team. CANNOTANSWER
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Carlos Juan Delgado Hernández (born June 25, 1972) is a Puerto Rican former professional baseball player and coach. He played in Major League Baseball primarily as a first baseman, from 1993 to 2009, most prominently as a member of the Toronto Blue Jays, where he was a member of the 1993 World Series-winning team, won the 2000 American League (AL) Hank Aaron Award, and was the 2003 AL RBI leader. He was also a two-time AL All-Star player and a three-time Silver Slugger Award winner during his tenure with the Blue Jays. Delgado holds the Major League Baseball record for career home runs by a Puerto Rican player with 473. He is one of only six players in Major League history to hit 30 home runs in ten consecutive seasons, becoming the fourth player to do so. During his twelve years with the Toronto Blue Jays, Delgado set many team records, including home runs (336), RBI (1,058), walks (827), slugging percentage (.556), on-base plus slugging (.949), runs (889), total bases (2,786), doubles (343), runs created (1,077), extra base hits (690), times on base (2,362), hit by pitch (122), intentional walks (128) and at bats per home run (14.9). Delgado also played for the Florida Marlins and New York Mets. In 2006, he was named the recipient of the prestigious Roberto Clemente Award. On February 4, 2015, Delgado was elected to the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame. Early life Delgado was born in Aguadilla, Puerto Rico to Carlos "Cao" Delgado and Carmen Digna Hérnandez. He grew up in the El Prado section of Aguadilla. There, he attended elementary school alongside his three siblings. Both his father, "Don Cao", and his grandfather, Asdrúbal "Pingolo" Delgado, were well-known figures in the town. Delgado has said that this made him feel "protected", but that it also demanded that he had to behave properly. Delgado attended Agustín Stahl Middle School and José de Diego High School, from which he graduated in 1989. Delgado has expressed his strong feelings of pride in being an Aguadillano, noting everything he holds dear is found in the municipality, and his off-season house is located there. He is friends with many people who live there, many of whom he played little league baseball with. Professional career Toronto Blue Jays At the age of 16, several major league organizations including the Cincinnati Reds, Montreal Expos, New York Mets, Texas Rangers and Toronto Blue Jays saw his potential and attempted to sign him. He signed with the Blue Jays in 1988, after being discovered by team scout Epy Guerrero. In 1992, Delgado played for the Dunedin Blue Jays of the Florida State League and produced 30 home runs and 100 RBI, leading the league in both categories, along with a .324 batting average. That season, he was named USA Todays Minor League Player of the Year. Before the 1993 season, he was named the number 4 prospect in the minor leagues by Baseball America and was promoted to the Double-A Knoxville Smokies. That year, he hit .303 with 25 home runs, 102 RBI, and 102 walks, winning the Southern League MVP Award. As a September call-up, he made his major league debut on October 1, 1993, drawing a walk in his first career plate appearance. Though he didn't play in the 1993 postseason, in which the Blue Jays won the World Series, he was awarded a World Series ring. Originally a catcher, Delgado played in left field for the Blue Jays in 1994 and 1995, before switching to first base, where he became one of the most productive sluggers in the major leagues. Starting in 1997, he hit at least 30 home runs in ten consecutive seasons. A two-time All-Star, in 2000 and 2003, Delgado holds several Blue Jays single-season and career records. He won the Hank Aaron and The Sporting News Player of the Year Awards in 2000, and the Silver Slugger Award in 1999, 2000, and 2003. In 1999, Delgado hit a career-high 44 home runs, along with 134 RBI, and a .272 batting average. The next year, he batted a career-high .344, along with 41 home runs, 57 doubles, and 137 RBI. He finished fourth in the 2000 American League MVP voting. On September 25, 2003, in a game against the Tampa Bay Devil Rays, Delgado became the 15th major league player to hit four home runs in one game. He hit a three-run home run in the first inning off Jorge Sosa, then again off Sosa while leading off the fourth off, then off Joe Kennedy while leading off in the sixth and then off Lance Carter leading off the eighth inning. Delgado is the only player to hit four home runs with only 4 at-bats in a game. In the 2003 season, Delgado hit 42 home runs and led the Majors with 145 RBI, while batting .302; he finished second to Alex Rodriguez for the AL MVP Award. He was named AL Player of the Week on September 30, 2003 and again on September 7, 2004. Following the 2004 season, Delgado became a free agent, and was pursued by the Baltimore Orioles, Florida Marlins, New York Mets, Seattle Mariners and Texas Rangers. The Blue Jays were not interested in re-signing him, due to payroll constraints. Florida Marlins On January 25, 2005 Delgado chose to sign with the Marlins, signing a four-year contract worth a reported $52 million. He made a successful transition to the National League, with a .301 batting average, .399 on-base percentage, 33 home runs, and 115 RBI in 2005. At the same time, he shared the major league lead in errors for a first baseman, with 14. Following the 2005 season, the Marlins performed one of their periodic salary-cutting maneuvers. In the "market correction", they unloaded some of their higher-paid players. On November 23, 2005, the Marlins sent Delgado and $7 million to the New York Mets for Mike Jacobs, Yusmeiro Petit and Grant Psomas. New York Mets 2006 season Delgado responded well as the feared cleanup hitter for the Mets, hitting 38 home runs and driving in 114 runs throughout 2006. With Delgado hitting between fellow Puerto Rican Carlos Beltrán and star third baseman David Wright, the Mets had the best record in the National League in 2006 but lost to the St. Louis Cardinals in the National League Championship Series, 4–3. At season's end, with 407, Delgado was tied with Duke Snider for 41st place for career home runs. Through 2006, Delgado was the all-time leader for interleague play RBIs with 131, and second all-time in home runs with 43. 2007 season Carlos Delgado had early struggles in the 2007 season, with his batting average falling below .200 in April, but his numbers improved as the season progressed. On May 9, 2007, he hit a home run into McCovey Cove during a game against the San Francisco Giants, becoming the first visiting player to have hit three splash home runs at AT&T Park. Delgado ended the season tied with Cal Ripken Jr. for 37th place on the all-time career home run list with 431. 2008 season During spring training 2008, Delgado was diagnosed with a hip impingement, however, the Mets decided to keep him on the active roster. As in the previous year, Delgado began the season in an offensive slump with a .204 batting average in April, and hitting just three home runs, but once again his stats improved as the season continued. In May, his batting average increased to .235 with five home runs. On June 15, 2008, Delgado broke Juan González's record for most runs batted in by a Puerto Rican player. On June 27, Delgado set a new Mets record with 9 RBIs (hitting a two-run double, grand slam, and three-run home run) in an interleague game versus the New York Yankees, breaking Dave Kingman's club record of 8. In the final game before the All-Star break, Delgado hit his 17th home run of the season. Between June and July his batting average improved, rising to .260 with 19 home runs. Between July 23–31, Delgado hit four home runs. On August 21, 2008 against the Atlanta Braves, Delgado went 5 for 5 with 3 singles, 3 RBIs, a double, and a walk-off single scoring David Wright in the ninth off the glove of left fielder Omar Infante. It was the first time he had gone 5 for 5 in 10 years. The Mets swept the three-game set. On August 25, 2008 against the Houston Astros, Delgado hit two 3-run homers to lead the Mets to a 9–1 victory in the finale of the series. On September 7 he became the third Mets player in history to have at least 65 RBIs in a 65-game stretch in a season. On September 9, he tied Dave Kingman's record of most multi-home run games during a season as a Met with 7. Delgado notched his 2,000th career hit on September 21, 2008 against the Atlanta Braves. On October 31 the Mets exercised Delgado's $12 million option. Delgado was ninth in the voting for the 2008 National League MVP Award, behind Albert Pujols, Ryan Howard, Ryan Braun, Manny Ramirez, Lance Berkman, CC Sabathia, David Wright and Brad Lidge. 2009 season Delgado was the first Major League player to hit a home run into the Pepsi Porch at Citi Field on April 8, 2009. He played his last major league game against the Pittsburgh Pirates on May 10, 2009. Eight days later on May 18, the Mets announced that Delgado had a bone spur and a torn labrum in his hip, and he would have to undergo surgery. The Mets reported the next day that the surgery was successful and Delgado would be out for approximately ten weeks, which would delay his quest for 500 home runs. However, he did not play again in 2009. Delgado filed for free agency on November 5. Delgado made his return to the Puerto Rico Baseball League (PRBL) for the 2009 season, registering a batting average of .364 and one home run in his first three games. 2010 free agency In February 2010, Delgado underwent another hip operation, this time to reconstruct the labrum on his right hip; he also underwent a micro-fracture procedure on his hip socket. Although Delgado had reportedly received interest from Major League clubs (including the Mets and Florida Marlins), he felt pain in his hip and decided to undergo the second surgery to be better prepared for the coming season. According to his agent, David Sloane, Delgado "felt, despite the time it would take, it was a better option for him to be the Carlos Delgado of old instead of an old Carlos Delgado." Pawtucket Red Sox On August 7, 2010, the Boston Red Sox signed Delgado to a minor league contract. He played 5 games with the triple-A Pawtucket Red Sox between August 9 and 15, collecting 3 singles in 13 at-bats (.231, 0 HR, 2 RBI). This was the entire extent of Delgado's 2010 season after Delgado suffered a setback with his surgically repaired hip. Retirement On April 13, 2011, Delgado officially announced, while in San Juan, Puerto Rico, his retirement from professional baseball after 17 years in Major League Baseball. On December 7, 2012, the Toronto Blue Jays announced that Delgado would become the 10th person inducted to the club's Level of Excellence. The induction occurred on July 21, 2013 at Rogers Centre in Toronto. Delgado also threw the ceremonial first pitch for that day's game, with the Toronto Blue Jays playing against the Tampa Bay Rays. Career statistics In 2,035 games over 17 seasons, Delgado posted a .280 batting average (2,038-for-7,283) with 1241 runs, 483 doubles, 18 triples, 473 home runs, 1,512 runs batted in (RBI), 1,109 bases on balls, .383 on-base percentage and .546 slugging percentage. He finished his career with a .992 fielding percentage primarily as a first baseman. In ten postseason games, he hit .351 (13-for-37) with eight runs, three doubles, four home runs, 11 RBIs and six walks. International career World Baseball Classic (Puerto Rico) Delgado appeared in the first edition of the World Baseball Classic in 2006. After his retirement, he served as hitting coach for the Puerto Rico national baseball team that represented the island at the 2013 World Baseball Classic. He reprised his role as hitting coach for Team Puerto Rico in the 2017 World Baseball Classic. Post-retirement career After retiring, Delgado has continued to work in matters closely related to baseball. In February 2013, he was announced as the new member of the Board for the Development of the Puerto Rican Full-Time Athlete. This agency is directed by the Department of Sports and Recreation of Puerto Rico. Also, in March 2013, he served as hitting coach for the Puerto Rico national baseball team that represented the island at the 2013 World Baseball Classic. The team finished second in the rankings. He reprised his role as hitting coach for Team Puerto Rico in the 2017 World Baseball Classic. In his only appearance on the Baseball Hall of Fame ballot in 2015, Delgado received just 3.8% of the vote, below the 5% minimum required to remain on future ballots. That same year, he was elected to the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame. Personal life Delgado lives in his hometown of Aguadilla, Puerto Rico. He is married to Betzaida García, who is also from Aguadilla. They have a son, Carlos Antonio, and in 2010 adopted a baby daughter, Mariana Isabel. Social activism Like his hero (Roberto Clemente), Delgado is a well-known peace activist, and has been open about his political beliefs. As part of the Navy-Vieques protests, Delgado was actively opposed to the use of the island of Vieques, Puerto Rico as a bombing target practice facility by the United States Department of Defense, until bombing was halted in 2003. He is also against the occupation of Iraq. In the 2004 season, Delgado protested the war by silently staying in the dugout during the playing of "God Bless America" during the seventh inning stretch. Delgado does not make a public show of his beliefs, and even his teammates were not aware of his views until a story was published in July 2004 in the Toronto Star. Delgado was quoted as saying "It's a very terrible thing that happened on September 11. It's (also) a terrible thing that happened in Afghanistan and Iraq, ... I just feel so sad for the families that lost relatives and loved ones in the war. But I think it's the stupidest war ever." The story was the subject of a media frenzy, mostly in New York, where on July 21, 2004, as was anticipated, Delgado was booed by Yankee fans for his passive protest during a game at Yankee Stadium. Delgado had explained that the playing of "God Bless America" had come to be equated with a war in which he didn't believe. In a New York Times interview, Delgado said this is what he believed in, and "It takes a man to stand up for what he believes." After being traded to the Mets, in a conciliatory measure, Delgado opted to stand during the singing of "God Bless America." Among other charity work, Delgado is well known for his generous visits to hospitals in his hometown where, on Three Kings Day, he brings toys to hospitalized children. In 2006, he joined Puerto Rico's Senate President in co-sponsoring a massive Three Kings gift-giving effort in the town of Loíza. Delgado started his own non-profit organization, "Extra Bases" to assist island youth. In 2007, Delgado donated video conference equipment to allow his hometown's Buen Samaritano Hospital to establish a regular link with a hospital in Boston in order to allow for remote diagnoses through telemedicine. Delgado has also contributed to improving Puerto Rico's public education system. In 2007, he participated in "Sapientis Week", an initiative sponsored by the non-profit Sapientis which brings distinguished public figures into classrooms in order to raise the public's awareness of the education crisis in Puerto Rico. Delgado taught a class on Athletic Mental Training and Health at the Ramon Power y Giralt School in the Luis Llorens Torres public housing complex. For his efforts, Delgado was awarded the Roberto Clemente Award in 2006. The award goes to the player in baseball who best exemplifies humanitarianism and sportsmanship, and was named after Hall of Famer Roberto Clemente in 1973. Prior to the 2008 season of the Puerto Rico Baseball League, Delgado was involved in an initiative to provide economic help to the Indios de Mayagüez team. Awards and honors World Series champion () 2-time All-Star (2000, 2003) 3-time AL Silver Slugger Award (1999, 2000, 2003) AL RBI leader (2003) 2000 AL Hank Aaron Award 2000 Sporting News Player of the Year Award 2006 Roberto Clemente Award Toronto Blue Jays Level of Excellence Member of the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame See also Afro-Puerto Ricans List of Major League Baseball players from Puerto Rico List of Major League Baseball home run records List of Major League Baseball doubles records List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders List of Major League Baseball career doubles leaders List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders List of Major League Baseball career total bases leaders List of Major League Baseball annual runs batted in leaders List of Major League Baseball annual doubles leaders MLB hitters with four home runs in one game References External links Category:1972 births Category:Living people Category:American League All-Stars Category:American League RBI champions Category:Baseball coaches Category:Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame inductees Category:Florida Marlins players Category:Knoxville Smokies players Category:Major League Baseball first basemen Category:Major League Baseball players from Puerto Rico Category:New York Mets players Category:Pawtucket Red Sox players Category:People from Aguadilla, Puerto Rico Category:Puerto Rican expatriate baseball players in Canada Category:Puerto Rican people of African descent Category:Senadores de San Juan players Category:Silver Slugger Award winners Category:Syracuse Chiefs players Category:Toronto Blue Jays players Category:2006 World Baseball Classic players Category:2009 World Baseball Classic players Category:Dunedin Blue Jays players Category:Gigantes de Carolina players Category:Myrtle Beach Hurricanes players Category:St. Catharines Blue Jays players Category:Syracuse SkyChiefs players
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C_cad0de2280a244fab21db192ac64a981_1
Carlos Delgado
Delgado was born in Aguadilla, Puerto Rico to Carlos "Cao" Delgado and Carmen Digna Hernandez. He grew up in the El Prado section of Aguadilla. There, he attended elementary school alongside his three siblings. Both his father, "Don Cao", and his grandfather, Asdrubal "Pingolo" Delgado, were well-known figures in the town.
Toronto Blue Jays
At the age of 16, several major league organizations including the Cincinnati Reds, Montreal Expos, New York Mets, Texas Rangers and Toronto Blue Jays saw his potential and attempted to sign him. He signed with the Blue Jays in 1988 after being discovered by team scout Epy Guerrero. After being named the #4 prospect in the minor leagues by Baseball America, he made his major league debut with the team during the 1993 season. Though he didn't play in the 1993 World Series, he was awarded a World Series ring. Originally a catcher, he later switched to first base (after an experiment with the Jays placing him in left field failed) and became one of the most productive sluggers in the major leagues. A two-time All-Star, in 2000 and 2003, Delgado holds several Blue Jays single-season and career records. He won the Hank Aaron and The Sporting News' Player of the Year Awards in 2000, and the Silver Slugger Award in 1999, 2000, and 2003. In 1999, Delgado hit a career-high 44 home runs, along with 134 RBI, and a .272 batting average. The next year, he batted a career-high .344, along with 41 home runs, 57 doubles, and 137 RBI. He finished fourth in the 2000 American League MVP voting. On September 25, 2003, in a game against the Tampa Bay Devil Rays, Delgado became the 15th major league player to hit four home runs in one game. He hit a three-run home run in the first inning off Jorge Sosa, then again off Sosa while leading off the fourth off, then off Joe Kennedy while leading off in the sixth and then off Lance Carter leading off the eighth inning. Delgado is the only player to hit four home runs with only 4 at-bats in a game. In the 2003 season, Delgado hit 42 home runs and led the Majors with 145 RBI, while batting .302; he finished second to Alex Rodriguez for the AL MVP Award. He was named AL Player of the Week on September 30, 2003 and again on September 7, 2004. Following the 2004 season, Delgado became a free agent, and was pursued by the Baltimore Orioles, Florida Marlins, New York Mets, Seattle Mariners and Texas Rangers. The Blue Jays were not interested in re-signing him, due to payroll constraints. CANNOTANSWER
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Carlos Juan Delgado Hernández (born June 25, 1972) is a Puerto Rican former professional baseball player and coach. He played in Major League Baseball primarily as a first baseman, from 1993 to 2009, most prominently as a member of the Toronto Blue Jays, where he was a member of the 1993 World Series-winning team, won the 2000 American League (AL) Hank Aaron Award, and was the 2003 AL RBI leader. He was also a two-time AL All-Star player and a three-time Silver Slugger Award winner during his tenure with the Blue Jays. Delgado holds the Major League Baseball record for career home runs by a Puerto Rican player with 473. He is one of only six players in Major League history to hit 30 home runs in ten consecutive seasons, becoming the fourth player to do so. During his twelve years with the Toronto Blue Jays, Delgado set many team records, including home runs (336), RBI (1,058), walks (827), slugging percentage (.556), on-base plus slugging (.949), runs (889), total bases (2,786), doubles (343), runs created (1,077), extra base hits (690), times on base (2,362), hit by pitch (122), intentional walks (128) and at bats per home run (14.9). Delgado also played for the Florida Marlins and New York Mets. In 2006, he was named the recipient of the prestigious Roberto Clemente Award. On February 4, 2015, Delgado was elected to the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame. Early life Delgado was born in Aguadilla, Puerto Rico to Carlos "Cao" Delgado and Carmen Digna Hérnandez. He grew up in the El Prado section of Aguadilla. There, he attended elementary school alongside his three siblings. Both his father, "Don Cao", and his grandfather, Asdrúbal "Pingolo" Delgado, were well-known figures in the town. Delgado has said that this made him feel "protected", but that it also demanded that he had to behave properly. Delgado attended Agustín Stahl Middle School and José de Diego High School, from which he graduated in 1989. Delgado has expressed his strong feelings of pride in being an Aguadillano, noting everything he holds dear is found in the municipality, and his off-season house is located there. He is friends with many people who live there, many of whom he played little league baseball with. Professional career Toronto Blue Jays At the age of 16, several major league organizations including the Cincinnati Reds, Montreal Expos, New York Mets, Texas Rangers and Toronto Blue Jays saw his potential and attempted to sign him. He signed with the Blue Jays in 1988, after being discovered by team scout Epy Guerrero. In 1992, Delgado played for the Dunedin Blue Jays of the Florida State League and produced 30 home runs and 100 RBI, leading the league in both categories, along with a .324 batting average. That season, he was named USA Todays Minor League Player of the Year. Before the 1993 season, he was named the number 4 prospect in the minor leagues by Baseball America and was promoted to the Double-A Knoxville Smokies. That year, he hit .303 with 25 home runs, 102 RBI, and 102 walks, winning the Southern League MVP Award. As a September call-up, he made his major league debut on October 1, 1993, drawing a walk in his first career plate appearance. Though he didn't play in the 1993 postseason, in which the Blue Jays won the World Series, he was awarded a World Series ring. Originally a catcher, Delgado played in left field for the Blue Jays in 1994 and 1995, before switching to first base, where he became one of the most productive sluggers in the major leagues. Starting in 1997, he hit at least 30 home runs in ten consecutive seasons. A two-time All-Star, in 2000 and 2003, Delgado holds several Blue Jays single-season and career records. He won the Hank Aaron and The Sporting News Player of the Year Awards in 2000, and the Silver Slugger Award in 1999, 2000, and 2003. In 1999, Delgado hit a career-high 44 home runs, along with 134 RBI, and a .272 batting average. The next year, he batted a career-high .344, along with 41 home runs, 57 doubles, and 137 RBI. He finished fourth in the 2000 American League MVP voting. On September 25, 2003, in a game against the Tampa Bay Devil Rays, Delgado became the 15th major league player to hit four home runs in one game. He hit a three-run home run in the first inning off Jorge Sosa, then again off Sosa while leading off the fourth off, then off Joe Kennedy while leading off in the sixth and then off Lance Carter leading off the eighth inning. Delgado is the only player to hit four home runs with only 4 at-bats in a game. In the 2003 season, Delgado hit 42 home runs and led the Majors with 145 RBI, while batting .302; he finished second to Alex Rodriguez for the AL MVP Award. He was named AL Player of the Week on September 30, 2003 and again on September 7, 2004. Following the 2004 season, Delgado became a free agent, and was pursued by the Baltimore Orioles, Florida Marlins, New York Mets, Seattle Mariners and Texas Rangers. The Blue Jays were not interested in re-signing him, due to payroll constraints. Florida Marlins On January 25, 2005 Delgado chose to sign with the Marlins, signing a four-year contract worth a reported $52 million. He made a successful transition to the National League, with a .301 batting average, .399 on-base percentage, 33 home runs, and 115 RBI in 2005. At the same time, he shared the major league lead in errors for a first baseman, with 14. Following the 2005 season, the Marlins performed one of their periodic salary-cutting maneuvers. In the "market correction", they unloaded some of their higher-paid players. On November 23, 2005, the Marlins sent Delgado and $7 million to the New York Mets for Mike Jacobs, Yusmeiro Petit and Grant Psomas. New York Mets 2006 season Delgado responded well as the feared cleanup hitter for the Mets, hitting 38 home runs and driving in 114 runs throughout 2006. With Delgado hitting between fellow Puerto Rican Carlos Beltrán and star third baseman David Wright, the Mets had the best record in the National League in 2006 but lost to the St. Louis Cardinals in the National League Championship Series, 4–3. At season's end, with 407, Delgado was tied with Duke Snider for 41st place for career home runs. Through 2006, Delgado was the all-time leader for interleague play RBIs with 131, and second all-time in home runs with 43. 2007 season Carlos Delgado had early struggles in the 2007 season, with his batting average falling below .200 in April, but his numbers improved as the season progressed. On May 9, 2007, he hit a home run into McCovey Cove during a game against the San Francisco Giants, becoming the first visiting player to have hit three splash home runs at AT&T Park. Delgado ended the season tied with Cal Ripken Jr. for 37th place on the all-time career home run list with 431. 2008 season During spring training 2008, Delgado was diagnosed with a hip impingement, however, the Mets decided to keep him on the active roster. As in the previous year, Delgado began the season in an offensive slump with a .204 batting average in April, and hitting just three home runs, but once again his stats improved as the season continued. In May, his batting average increased to .235 with five home runs. On June 15, 2008, Delgado broke Juan González's record for most runs batted in by a Puerto Rican player. On June 27, Delgado set a new Mets record with 9 RBIs (hitting a two-run double, grand slam, and three-run home run) in an interleague game versus the New York Yankees, breaking Dave Kingman's club record of 8. In the final game before the All-Star break, Delgado hit his 17th home run of the season. Between June and July his batting average improved, rising to .260 with 19 home runs. Between July 23–31, Delgado hit four home runs. On August 21, 2008 against the Atlanta Braves, Delgado went 5 for 5 with 3 singles, 3 RBIs, a double, and a walk-off single scoring David Wright in the ninth off the glove of left fielder Omar Infante. It was the first time he had gone 5 for 5 in 10 years. The Mets swept the three-game set. On August 25, 2008 against the Houston Astros, Delgado hit two 3-run homers to lead the Mets to a 9–1 victory in the finale of the series. On September 7 he became the third Mets player in history to have at least 65 RBIs in a 65-game stretch in a season. On September 9, he tied Dave Kingman's record of most multi-home run games during a season as a Met with 7. Delgado notched his 2,000th career hit on September 21, 2008 against the Atlanta Braves. On October 31 the Mets exercised Delgado's $12 million option. Delgado was ninth in the voting for the 2008 National League MVP Award, behind Albert Pujols, Ryan Howard, Ryan Braun, Manny Ramirez, Lance Berkman, CC Sabathia, David Wright and Brad Lidge. 2009 season Delgado was the first Major League player to hit a home run into the Pepsi Porch at Citi Field on April 8, 2009. He played his last major league game against the Pittsburgh Pirates on May 10, 2009. Eight days later on May 18, the Mets announced that Delgado had a bone spur and a torn labrum in his hip, and he would have to undergo surgery. The Mets reported the next day that the surgery was successful and Delgado would be out for approximately ten weeks, which would delay his quest for 500 home runs. However, he did not play again in 2009. Delgado filed for free agency on November 5. Delgado made his return to the Puerto Rico Baseball League (PRBL) for the 2009 season, registering a batting average of .364 and one home run in his first three games. 2010 free agency In February 2010, Delgado underwent another hip operation, this time to reconstruct the labrum on his right hip; he also underwent a micro-fracture procedure on his hip socket. Although Delgado had reportedly received interest from Major League clubs (including the Mets and Florida Marlins), he felt pain in his hip and decided to undergo the second surgery to be better prepared for the coming season. According to his agent, David Sloane, Delgado "felt, despite the time it would take, it was a better option for him to be the Carlos Delgado of old instead of an old Carlos Delgado." Pawtucket Red Sox On August 7, 2010, the Boston Red Sox signed Delgado to a minor league contract. He played 5 games with the triple-A Pawtucket Red Sox between August 9 and 15, collecting 3 singles in 13 at-bats (.231, 0 HR, 2 RBI). This was the entire extent of Delgado's 2010 season after Delgado suffered a setback with his surgically repaired hip. Retirement On April 13, 2011, Delgado officially announced, while in San Juan, Puerto Rico, his retirement from professional baseball after 17 years in Major League Baseball. On December 7, 2012, the Toronto Blue Jays announced that Delgado would become the 10th person inducted to the club's Level of Excellence. The induction occurred on July 21, 2013 at Rogers Centre in Toronto. Delgado also threw the ceremonial first pitch for that day's game, with the Toronto Blue Jays playing against the Tampa Bay Rays. Career statistics In 2,035 games over 17 seasons, Delgado posted a .280 batting average (2,038-for-7,283) with 1241 runs, 483 doubles, 18 triples, 473 home runs, 1,512 runs batted in (RBI), 1,109 bases on balls, .383 on-base percentage and .546 slugging percentage. He finished his career with a .992 fielding percentage primarily as a first baseman. In ten postseason games, he hit .351 (13-for-37) with eight runs, three doubles, four home runs, 11 RBIs and six walks. International career World Baseball Classic (Puerto Rico) Delgado appeared in the first edition of the World Baseball Classic in 2006. After his retirement, he served as hitting coach for the Puerto Rico national baseball team that represented the island at the 2013 World Baseball Classic. He reprised his role as hitting coach for Team Puerto Rico in the 2017 World Baseball Classic. Post-retirement career After retiring, Delgado has continued to work in matters closely related to baseball. In February 2013, he was announced as the new member of the Board for the Development of the Puerto Rican Full-Time Athlete. This agency is directed by the Department of Sports and Recreation of Puerto Rico. Also, in March 2013, he served as hitting coach for the Puerto Rico national baseball team that represented the island at the 2013 World Baseball Classic. The team finished second in the rankings. He reprised his role as hitting coach for Team Puerto Rico in the 2017 World Baseball Classic. In his only appearance on the Baseball Hall of Fame ballot in 2015, Delgado received just 3.8% of the vote, below the 5% minimum required to remain on future ballots. That same year, he was elected to the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame. Personal life Delgado lives in his hometown of Aguadilla, Puerto Rico. He is married to Betzaida García, who is also from Aguadilla. They have a son, Carlos Antonio, and in 2010 adopted a baby daughter, Mariana Isabel. Social activism Like his hero (Roberto Clemente), Delgado is a well-known peace activist, and has been open about his political beliefs. As part of the Navy-Vieques protests, Delgado was actively opposed to the use of the island of Vieques, Puerto Rico as a bombing target practice facility by the United States Department of Defense, until bombing was halted in 2003. He is also against the occupation of Iraq. In the 2004 season, Delgado protested the war by silently staying in the dugout during the playing of "God Bless America" during the seventh inning stretch. Delgado does not make a public show of his beliefs, and even his teammates were not aware of his views until a story was published in July 2004 in the Toronto Star. Delgado was quoted as saying "It's a very terrible thing that happened on September 11. It's (also) a terrible thing that happened in Afghanistan and Iraq, ... I just feel so sad for the families that lost relatives and loved ones in the war. But I think it's the stupidest war ever." The story was the subject of a media frenzy, mostly in New York, where on July 21, 2004, as was anticipated, Delgado was booed by Yankee fans for his passive protest during a game at Yankee Stadium. Delgado had explained that the playing of "God Bless America" had come to be equated with a war in which he didn't believe. In a New York Times interview, Delgado said this is what he believed in, and "It takes a man to stand up for what he believes." After being traded to the Mets, in a conciliatory measure, Delgado opted to stand during the singing of "God Bless America." Among other charity work, Delgado is well known for his generous visits to hospitals in his hometown where, on Three Kings Day, he brings toys to hospitalized children. In 2006, he joined Puerto Rico's Senate President in co-sponsoring a massive Three Kings gift-giving effort in the town of Loíza. Delgado started his own non-profit organization, "Extra Bases" to assist island youth. In 2007, Delgado donated video conference equipment to allow his hometown's Buen Samaritano Hospital to establish a regular link with a hospital in Boston in order to allow for remote diagnoses through telemedicine. Delgado has also contributed to improving Puerto Rico's public education system. In 2007, he participated in "Sapientis Week", an initiative sponsored by the non-profit Sapientis which brings distinguished public figures into classrooms in order to raise the public's awareness of the education crisis in Puerto Rico. Delgado taught a class on Athletic Mental Training and Health at the Ramon Power y Giralt School in the Luis Llorens Torres public housing complex. For his efforts, Delgado was awarded the Roberto Clemente Award in 2006. The award goes to the player in baseball who best exemplifies humanitarianism and sportsmanship, and was named after Hall of Famer Roberto Clemente in 1973. Prior to the 2008 season of the Puerto Rico Baseball League, Delgado was involved in an initiative to provide economic help to the Indios de Mayagüez team. Awards and honors World Series champion () 2-time All-Star (2000, 2003) 3-time AL Silver Slugger Award (1999, 2000, 2003) AL RBI leader (2003) 2000 AL Hank Aaron Award 2000 Sporting News Player of the Year Award 2006 Roberto Clemente Award Toronto Blue Jays Level of Excellence Member of the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame See also Afro-Puerto Ricans List of Major League Baseball players from Puerto Rico List of Major League Baseball home run records List of Major League Baseball doubles records List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders List of Major League Baseball career doubles leaders List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders List of Major League Baseball career total bases leaders List of Major League Baseball annual runs batted in leaders List of Major League Baseball annual doubles leaders MLB hitters with four home runs in one game References External links Category:1972 births Category:Living people Category:American League All-Stars Category:American League RBI champions Category:Baseball coaches Category:Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame inductees Category:Florida Marlins players Category:Knoxville Smokies players Category:Major League Baseball first basemen Category:Major League Baseball players from Puerto Rico Category:New York Mets players Category:Pawtucket Red Sox players Category:People from Aguadilla, Puerto Rico Category:Puerto Rican expatriate baseball players in Canada Category:Puerto Rican people of African descent Category:Senadores de San Juan players Category:Silver Slugger Award winners Category:Syracuse Chiefs players Category:Toronto Blue Jays players Category:2006 World Baseball Classic players Category:2009 World Baseball Classic players Category:Dunedin Blue Jays players Category:Gigantes de Carolina players Category:Myrtle Beach Hurricanes players Category:St. Catharines Blue Jays players Category:Syracuse SkyChiefs players
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[ "He played for the Blue Jays from 1988 to the end of the 2004 season.", "Originally a catcher, he later switched to first base after an experiment with the Jays placing him in left field failed.", "The text mentions several of his achievements and stats while playing for the Blue Jays. In 1999, Delgado hit 44 home runs, had 134 RBI, and a .272 batting average. The following year, he batted a career-high .344, along with 41 home runs, 57 doubles, and 137 RBI. He finished fourth in the 2000 American League MVP voting. On September 25, 2003, Delgado became the 15th major league player to hit four home runs in one game. In the 2003 season, Delgado hit 42 home runs and led the Majors with 145 RBI, while batting .302. Despite these impressive stats, he finished second to Alex Rodriguez for the AL MVP Award.", "As an AI, I don't have feelings, but based on the information above, it's noteworthy that Carlos Delgado was a highly accomplished baseball player. He won several awards like the Hank Aaron and The Sporting News' Player of the Year Awards in 2000, and the Silver Slugger Award in 1999, 2000, and 2003. He also became the only player to hit four home runs in a game with only four at-bats, and he holds several Blue Jays single-season and career records. He performed exceptionally well in the sport, leading the majors and earning high rankings in various categories during his career with the Blue Jays.", "Yes, he won several sports awards. Delgado won the Hank Aaron and The Sporting News' Player of the Year Awards in 2000, and the Silver Slugger Award in 1999, 2000, and 2003.", "He left the Blue Jays following the 2004 season.", "No, he was not traded. After the 2004 season, he became a free agent and was pursued by several other teams. The Blue Jays did not express interest in re-signing him due to payroll constraints.", "The text does not provide information on how Carlos Delgado was received by the fans.", "As an artificial intelligence, I don't have personal opinions or feelings. However, based on the information given, it's notable that Delgado had a significant impact on the Blue Jays. Despite being originally a catcher, he was flexible enough to switch to first base and become one of the most productive sluggers in the major leagues. His 1999 and 2000 seasons were particularly impressive, and he became the 15th major league player to hit four home runs in one game in 2003.", "The text does not provide a specific reason why he did not play in the 1993 World Series." ]
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C_23b8d3d4084c455ba2a0e0ab26019637_0
Rahul Bose
Rahul Bose was born to Rupen and Kumud Bose on 27 July 1967. He describes himself as "...half Bengali; one-fourth Punjabi and one-fourth Maharashtrian." Bose's first acting role was at age six when he played the lead in a school play, Tom, the Piper's Son.
Activism
Bose assisted in the relief efforts in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands after the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami. As a result of this work, Bose launched the Andaman and Nicobar Scholarship Initiative through his NGO, The Foundation. The scholarship program provides for the education of underprivileged children from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Bose is associated with several charitable organizations such as Teach for India, Akshara Centre, Breakthrough, Citizens for Justice and Peace and the Spastics Society of India. He is closely associated with the Teach For India movement to eradicate inequity in education. In addition, he became the first Indian Oxfam global ambassador in 2007. He is the founder and chairman of The Group of Groups, an umbrella organisation for 51 Mumbai charitable organisations and NGOs. He is also an ambassador for the American India Foundation, the World Youth Peace Movement and Planet Alert. He was also a vocal proponent of Narmada Bachao Andolan and its efforts to halt the construction of the Narmada dam. He also recorded the Terre des hommes audio book Goodgoodi karna, gale lagana; Sparsh ke niyam sikhiye (English: Tickle and hugs: Learning the touching rules), which is designed to give children resources against sexual abuse. Bose has given lectures on gender equality and human rights at Oxford and during the 2004 World Youth Peace Summit. In 2009, he toured Canada lecturing on global climate change under the auspices of Climate Action Network and demonstrated with protesters at the Copenhagen Climate Change Summit. In 2011, he worked in conjunction with Bhaichung Bhutia to raise funds for victims of the Sikkim earthquake. At the 8th convocation of BRAC University Bangladesh on 17 February 2013, Bose delivered the convocation speech. CANNOTANSWER
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Rahul Bose (born 27 July 1967) is an Indian actor, director, screenwriter, social activist, and athlete. Bose is the President of Indian Rugby Football Union. He has appeared in Bengali films such as Mr. and Mrs. Iyer, Kalpurush, Anuranan, Antaheen, Laptop and The Japanese Wife. He has also appeared in Hindi films such as Pyaar Ke Side Effects, Maan Gaye Mughal-e-Azam, Jhankaar Beats, Kucch Luv Jaisaa, Dil Dhadakne Do, Chameli and Shaurya. He also played the antagonist in the Tamil thriller Vishwaroopam (2013) and its sequel. Time magazine named him "the superstar of Indian arthouse cinema" while Maxim named him "the Sean Penn of Oriental cinema" for his work in parallel cinema films like English, August and Mr. and Mrs. Iyer. He is also notable for his social activism: he participated in the relief efforts that followed the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami and is also the founder of the anti-discrimination NGO, The Foundation. Early life Rahul Bose was born to father Rupen and mother Kumud Bose on 27 July 1967. Bose's first acting role was at the age of six when he played the lead character in a school play, Tom, the Piper's Son. As a child he took an interest in sports after his mother introduced him to boxing and rugby union. He also played cricket and was coached by former India cricket captain Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi. He is an alumnus of the Cathedral and John Connon School in Mumbai. After being rejected by a number of American universities, Bose attended Sydenham College. While at the college he played on the school's rugby team and competed in the Western India Championships, winning a silver medal in boxing. After his mother's death in 1987, Bose began working as a copywriter at Rediffusion and was later promoted to advertising creative director. Bose left the job to become a full-time actor after the release of his first film, English, August. Stage and film career Early career: 1993–2003 Bose started his acting career on the Mumbai stage in Rahul D'Cunha's Topsy Turvey and Are There Tigers in the Congo?. D'Cunha's aunt was the casting director for director Dev Benegal's film English, August and suggested that Bose should play the lead role. After filming a screen test, Benegal decided to cast him as civil servant Agastya Sen. Based on the novel of the same name by Upamanyu Chatterjee, English, August was one of the first Hinglish films and gained Bose international recognition when it became the first Indian film to be purchased by 20th Century Fox and won several awards at international film festivals. After English, August Bose found work in television; he was offered a role in India's first English-language television serial, A Mouthful of Sky and also co-hosted BBC World's Style! with Laila Rouass. In 1998 he appeared in Kaizad Gustad's Bombay Boys with Naseeruddin Shah and starred in Dev Benegal's second film, Split Wide Open. To prepare for his role as a roving water vendor, Bose lived in Mumbai's slums and observed a drug dealer for two weeks. He later cited this time—along with the 2002 Gujarat riots—as the beginning of the awakening of his social conscience. Although Split Wide Open was controversial in India because of its depictions of sexual abuse, Bose received the Silver Screen Award for Best Asian Actor at the 2000 Singapore International Film Festival for his performance. He also performed abroad in the Leicester Haymarket in England where he starred in the English version of Tim Murari's play, The Square Circle. In 1997, Bose was cast to play the role of Saleem Sinai in the BBC adaptation of Salman Rushdie's novel Midnight's Children. The project was eventually canceled after the Indian and Sri Lankan governments refused to allow filming. After seeing Bose in English, August, director Govind Nihalani cast him in the villain role opposite Ajay Devgan in the mainstream film Thakshak. The film was not a financial success, although Bose received positive reviews. Bose also appeared as "Vikal" a villain in the 1998 Science fiction TV series Captain Vyom In 2001, Bose made his directorial debut with Everybody Says I'm Fine!. Starring Rehaan Engineer and Koel Purie and featuring Bose in a supporting role, Everybody received mixed reviews from critics, but won Bose the runner-up John Schlesinger Award for best directorial debut at the 2003 Palm Springs International Film Festival. In 2002, Bose starred opposite Konkona Sen Sharma in Aparna Sen's art film Mr. and Mrs. Iyer. The film, a critique of communal violence, was a critical success and won several awards at international film festivals as well as three National Film Awards. 2003–present In 2003, Bose entered mainstream Bollywood cinema with Jhankaar Beats in which he played one of two friends, R.D. Burman fans who are obsessed with winning a music competition. Boosted by a successful soundtrack, Jhankaar Beats was a surprise hit in urban multiplexes and went on to win several awards for its music. The same year, Bose appeared in another Bollywood film, Mumbai Matinee which saw a UK release. He starred in Chameli opposite Kareena Kapoor, playing a wealthy chain-smoking Mumbai banker who is stranded in the monsoon rains with a prostitute. The film was not a box office success, but won several Filmfare and IIFA awards. He was the screenwriter of Hero Bhakti Hi Shakti Hai of Hungama TV in 2005. Bose's second film pairing with Konkona Sen Sharma, 15 Park Avenue released in January 2006. Directed by Aparna Sen and filmed in English, 15 Park Avenue won the 2006 National Film Award for Best Feature Film in English. With his next effort, the romantic comedy Pyaar Ke Side Effects, Bose moved once more into mainstream Bollywood cinema. The film follows the rocky relationship of Bose's commitment phobic Mumbai DJ Sid and his Punjabi girlfriend, Trisha played by Mallika Sherawat. Critics noted the freshness of Bose's narration style which involves breaking the fourth wall, a device not commonly used in Indian cinema. The film opened well in multiplexes and was a moderate financial success, eventually ranking among the top-grossing films of 2006. Both Bose and Sherawat received positive reviews for their performances. Sherawat and Bose also starred together in another Bollywood comedy, Maan Gaye Mughal-e-Azam (2008), which was a commercial and critical failure. In 2006, Bose starred in the first of a trio of Bengali films, Aniruddha Roy Chowdhury's Anuranan. Anuranan was well received on the festival circuit and ran successfully for three months in Bengal. It was then dubbed into Hindi and released nationally. Kaalpurush, Bose's second Bengali film, was released commercially in April 2008. Kaalpurush details a father-son relationship and earned writer-director Buddhadeb Dasgupta a National Film Award for Best Feature Film. Bose teamed with Chowdhury again in 2009 for Antaheen which tells the story of online relationships. Like Anuranan, Antaheen was released commercially in West Bengal and was screened at various film festivals, including the Mahindra Indo-American Arts Council Film Festival (MIACC) and the International Film Festival of India (IFFI). Antaheen went on to win several National Awards including one for Best Film. Bose continued working in a mix of mainstream and arthouse films in 2008, with the English-language film, Before the Rains. Before the Rains was released in the US and the UK and Bose's performance was praised by many critics, although the film received mixed reviews. Bose also appeared in Shaurya, a military court room drama modelled on the American film A Few Good Men. Bose's performance was well-received; critic Taran Adarsh said his "performance easily ranks as one of his finest works". His appearance in Dil Kabaddi paired him with Konkona Sen Sharma for the third time, this time playing a husband and wife undergoing marital difficulties. The Japanese Wife, with Japanese actress Chigusa Takaku, the third Aparna Sen film in which he has appeared, released on 9 April 2010. He also appeared as a contestant in the reality show Khatron Ke Khiladi where he was eliminated in the 12th round. He hosted the second series of Bloomberg UTV reality show The Pitch. His role as a gay man harassed by the police in I Am was appreciated by critics. He appeared in Deepa Mehta's version of Midnight's Children where he played the role of General Zulfikar. He also played the villain in the 2013 Tamil film Vishwaroopam. Naren Weiss who was 19 years old at the time, acted opposite Bose in all of his scenes for Vishwaroopam, and credited Bose for working with him during filming. He was scheduled to begin shooting his adaptation of Mohsin Hamid's novel, Moth Smoke in early 2010, but the project was postponed after the film's financial backers pulled out. In 2013, he also played opposite Konkona Sen Sharma again in Suman Mukhopadhyay's Shesher Kabita. In 2017, he directed, produced and acted in the biopic Poorna about the youngest girl to climb Mount Everest. Filmography Playback singing Writer/director Producer Television Stage Awards 2007 – "Artiste for Change" Karmaveer Puraskaar award 2008 – IBN Eminent Citizen Journalist Award 2009 – Youth Icon Award for Social Justice and Welfare 2010 – Green Globe Foundation Award for Extraordinary Work by a Public Figure 2012 – Hakim Khan Sur Award for National Integration – Maharana Mewar Charitable Foundation 2012 – Lt. Governor's Commendation Award for services to Andaman & Nicobar Islands 2020 - Filmfare OTT Awards for Best Supporting Actor in a Web Original Film for Bulbbul Sports career In 1998, Bose was part of the first Indian national rugby team to play in an international event, the Asian Rugby Football Union Championship. He has played both scrum-half and right-winger positions. In an interview with Daily News & Analysis, Bose announced that he would not return to the team for the 2009 season. Activism Bose assisted in the relief efforts in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands after the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami. As a result of this work, Bose launched the Andaman and Nicobar Scholarship Initiative through his NGO, The Foundation. The scholarship program provides for the education of underprivileged children from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Bose is associated with several charitable organizations such as Teach for India, Akshara Centre, Breakthrough, Citizens for Justice and Peace and the Spastics Society of India. He is closely associated with the Teach For India movement to eradicate inequity in education. In addition, he became the first Indian Oxfam global ambassador in 2007. He is the founder and chairman of The Group of Groups, an umbrella organisation for 51 Mumbai charitable organisations and NGOs. He is also an ambassador for the American India Foundation, the World Youth Peace Movement and Planet Alert. He was also a vocal proponent of Narmada Bachao Andolan and its efforts to halt the construction of the Narmada dam. He also recorded the Terre des hommes audio book Goodgoodi karna, gale lagana; Sparsh ke niyam sikhiye (English: Tickle and hugs: Learning the touching rules), which is designed to give children resources against sexual abuse. Bose has given lectures on gender equality and human rights at Oxford and during the 2004 World Youth Peace Summit. In 2009, he toured Canada lecturing on global climate change under the auspices of Climate Action Network and demonstrated with protesters at the Copenhagen Climate Change Summit. In 2011, he worked in conjunction with Bhaichung Bhutia to raise funds for victims of the Sikkim earthquake. At the 8th convocation of BRAC University Bangladesh on 17 February 2013, Bose delivered the convocation speech. Personal life Bose has one elder sister, Anuradha, who is married to Tariq Ansari, the owner and director of Mid-Day Multimedia. She had a cameo role in Everybody Says I'm Fine!. Bose is single. On his relationships, Rahul said, "I've had five very long relationships in my life, the last one finished seven years ago. I've had a life full of romantic love. Would I like another relationship, or five, or ten? Of course, I mean The Beatles said it best, 'all you need is love.' I would love to be in love, it would be fantastic." In July 2019, Bose complained of having been charged ₹442 for two bananas at JW Marriott, Chandigarh, and provoked an outcry on Twitter and other social media, where he gained much attention. References External links Rahul Bose environmental blog Category:1967 births Category:Living people Category:Indian rugby union players Category:Indian male journalists Category:Male actors from Mumbai Category:Activists from Maharashtra Category:Bengali male actors Category:Male actors from Punjab, India Category:Marathi actors Category:Male actors in Hindi cinema Category:University of Mumbai alumni Category:Rugby union wings Category:Cathedral and John Connon School alumni Category:Indian atheists Category:20th-century Indian male actors Category:Journalists from Maharashtra Category:Rugby players from Mumbai Category:Fear Factor: Khatron Ke Khiladi participants
[]
[ "Bose's activism is extensive and multifaceted. He contributed to the relief efforts in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands after the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami, which led to him establishing a scholarship program for underprivileged children in the area. He is also associated with various charitable organizations, including Teach for India, Citizens for Justice and Peace, and the Spastics Society of India among others. Bose was also the first Indian to become an Oxfam global ambassador. He founded The Group of Groups, an organization for multiple Mumbai based charities and NGOs. Bose is an ambassador for the American India Foundation, World Youth Peace Movement, and Planet Alert. He was a proponent of the Narmada Bachao Andolan and its efforts to stop the construction of the Narmada Dam. Bose also seeks to protect children against sexual abuse, as demonstrated through his Terre des hommes audio book. He has lectured on topics such as gender equality and human rights, and has also participated in global climate change initiatives, including protests at the Copenhagen Climate Change Summit. Furthermore, he helped raise funds for victims of the Sikkim earthquake.", "The text does not provide specific details about what Bose did to assist in the relief efforts in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands after the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami. However, it is mentioned that as a result of his work there, he launched the Andaman and Nicobar Scholarship Initiative, which suggests that his involvement could have been significant.", "The Andaman and Nicobar Scholarship Initiative, launched by Bose, provides for the education of underprivileged children from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.", "Yes, Bose is involved with several additional charities and foundations. He is associated with charitable organizations such as Teach for India, Akshara Centre, Breakthrough, Citizens for Justice and Peace, and the Spastics Society of India. He is also the first Indian Oxfam global ambassador, the founder and chairman of The Group of Groups (an umbrella organisation for 51 Mumbai charitable organisations and NGOs), and an ambassador for the American India Foundation, the World Youth Peace Movement and Planet Alert.", "In addition to his extensive charitable work, Bose was a vocal proponent of the Narmada Bachao Andolan, a movement aimed at halting the construction of the Narmada dam. He has also worked on raising awareness and educating individuals about sexual abuse, specifically by recording the Terre des hommes audio book which is designed to provide resources against sexual abuse for children. In the academic realm, Bose has given lectures on gender equality and human rights at institutions like Oxford University and at events like the 2004 World Youth Peace Summit. He has also worked on environmental issues, participating in lectures on global climate change in Canada and protests at the Copenhagen Climate Change Summit. In 2011, he worked with Bhaichung Bhutia to raise funds for victims of the Sikkim earthquake. Furthermore, he delivered the convocation speech at the 8th convocation of BRAC University Bangladesh in 2013.", "An interesting aspect of the context provided is the diverse set of causes Bose is involved with. His activism spans across humanitarian, environmental, and educational areas reflecting his commitment to a range of important social issues. He has, for example, involved himself directly with relief efforts after natural disasters, advocating for education for underprivileged children, lending his voice to the Teach for India movement to address educational inequity, demonstrating against climate change, and working towards preventing child sexual abuse. His dedication is highlighted by the fact that he has spoken at high-profile events like the World Youth Peace Summit and has been associated with reputable organizations like Oxfam as its first Indian global ambassador. The scope of his involvement in social issues is quite comprehensive and noteworthy." ]
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C_eba33e642b6a43a89816b76c32c95861_0
Haruki Murakami
Haruki Murakami (Cun Shang Chun Shu , Murakami Haruki, born January 12, 1949) is a Japanese writer. His books and stories have been bestsellers in Japan as well as internationally, with his work being translated into 50 languages and selling millions of copies outside his native country. The critical acclaim for his fiction and non-fiction has led to numerous awards, in Japan and internationally, including the World Fantasy Award (2006) and the Frank O'Connor International Short Story Award (2006). His oeuvre received, for example, the Franz Kafka Prize (2006) and the Jerusalem Prize (2009).
Since 2000
Sputnik Sweetheart was first published in 1999, followed by Kafka on the Shore in 2002, with the English translation following in 2005. Kafka on the Shore won the World Fantasy Award for Novels in 2006. The English version of his novel After Dark was released in May 2007. It was chosen by The New York Times as a "notable book of the year". In late 2005, Murakami published a collection of short stories titled Tokyo Kitanshu, or Dong Jing Qi Tan Ji , which translates loosely as "Mysteries of Tokyo." A collection of the English versions of twenty-four short stories, titled Blind Willow, Sleeping Woman, was published in August 2006. This collection includes both older works from the 1980s as well as some of Murakami's more recent short stories, including all five that appear in Tokyo Kitanshu. In 2002, Murakami published the anthology Birthday Stories, which collects short stories on the theme of birthdays. The collection includes work by Russell Banks, Ethan Canin, Raymond Carver, David Foster Wallace, Denis Johnson, Claire Keegan, Andrea Lee, Daniel Lyons, Lynda Sexson, Paul Theroux, and William Trevor, as well as a story by Murakami himself. What I Talk About When I Talk About Running, containing tales about his experience as a marathon runner and a triathlete, was published in Japan in 2007, with English translations released in the U.K. and the U.S. in 2008. The title is a play on that of Raymond Carver's short story collection, What We Talk About When We Talk About Love. Shinchosha Publishing published Murakami's novel 1Q84 in Japan on May 29, 2009. 1Q84 is pronounced "ichi kyu hachi yon", the same as 1984, as 9 is also pronounced "kyu" in Japanese. The book was longlisted for the Man Asian Literary Prize in 2011. However, after the 2012 anti-Japanese demonstrations in China, Murakami's books were removed from sale there, along with those of other Japanese authors. Murakami criticized the China-Japan political territorial dispute, characterizing the overwrought nationalistic response as "cheap liquor" which politicians were giving to the public. In April 2013, he published his novel "Colorless Tsukuru Tazaki and His Years of Pilgrimage". It became an international best seller but received mixed reviews. CANNOTANSWER
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{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 136, 203, 273, 2101, 1500, 2086, 1682, 1314, 1383, 1748 ], "texts": [ "Sputnik Sweetheart was first published in 1999, followed by Kafka on the Shore in 2002, with the English translation following in 2005.", "Kafka on the Shore won the World Fantasy Award for Novels in 2006.", "The English version of his novel After Dark was released in May 2007.", "It was chosen by The New York Times as a \"notable book of the year\".", "he published his novel \"Colorless Tsukuru Tazaki and His Years of Pilgrimage\". It became an international best seller but received mixed reviews.", "Shinchosha Publishing published Murakami's novel 1Q84 in Japan on May 29, 2009.", "In April 2013, he published his novel \"Colorless Tsukuru Tazaki and His Years of Pilgrimage\".", "The book was longlisted for the Man Asian Literary Prize", "with English translations released in the U.K. and the U.S. in 2008.", "The title is a play on that of Raymond Carver's short story collection,", "However, after the 2012 anti-Japanese demonstrations in China, Murakami's books were removed from sale there," ] }
is a Japanese writer. His novels, essays, and short stories have been bestsellers in Japan and internationally, with his work translated into 50 languages and having sold millions of copies outside Japan. He has received numerous awards for his work, including the Gunzo Prize for New Writers, the World Fantasy Award, the Frank O'Connor International Short Story Award, the Franz Kafka Prize, and the Jerusalem Prize. Growing up in Kobe before moving to Tokyo to attend Waseda University, he published his first novel Hear the Wind Sing (1979) after working as the owner of a small jazz bar for seven years. His notable works include the novels Norwegian Wood (1987), The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle (1994–95), Kafka on the Shore (2002), and 1Q84 (2009–10), with 1Q84 ranked as the best work of Japan's Heisei era (1989–2019) by the national newspaper Asahi Shimbun survey of literary experts. His work spans genres including science fiction, fantasy, and crime fiction, and has become known for its use of magical realist elements. His official website lists Raymond Chandler, Kurt Vonnegut, and Richard Brautigan as key inspirations to his work, while Murakami himself has cited Kazuo Ishiguro, Cormac McCarthy, and Dag Solstad as his favourite currently active writers. Murakami has also published five short story collections, including his most recently published work, First Person Singular (2020), and non-fiction works including Underground (1997), inspired by personal interviews Murakami conducted with victims of the Tokyo subway sarin attack, and What I Talk About When I Talk About Running (2007), a series of personal essays about his experience as a marathon runner. His fiction has polarized literary critics and the reading public. He has sometimes been criticised by Japan's literary establishment as un-Japanese, leading to Murakami's recalling that he was a "black sheep in the Japanese literary world". Meanwhile, Murakami has been described by Gary Fisketjon, the editor of Murakami's collection The Elephant Vanishes (1993), as a "truly extraordinary writer", while Steven Poole of The Guardian praised Murakami as "among the world's greatest living novelists" for his oeuvre. Biography Murakami was born in Kyoto, Japan, during the post-World War II baby boom and raised in Nishinomiya, Ashiya and Kobe. He is an only child. His father was the son of a Buddhist priest, and his mother is the daughter of an Osaka merchant. Both taught Japanese literature. His father was involved in the Second Sino-Japanese War, and was deeply traumatized by it, which would, in turn, affect Murakami. Since childhood, Murakami, like Kōbō Abe, has been heavily influenced by Western culture, particularly Western as well as Russian music and literature. He grew up reading a wide range of works by European and American writers, such as Franz Kafka, Gustave Flaubert, Charles Dickens, Kurt Vonnegut, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Richard Brautigan and Jack Kerouac. These Western influences distinguish Murakami from the majority of other Japanese writers. Murakami studied drama at Waseda University in Tokyo, where he met Yoko, now his wife. His first job was at a record store. Shortly before finishing his studies, Murakami opened a coffee house and jazz bar, Peter Cat, in Kokubunji, Tokyo, which he ran with his wife, from 1974 to 1981. The couple decided not to have children. Murakami is an experienced marathon runner and triathlon enthusiast, though he did not start running until he was 33 years old, after he began as a way to stay healthy despite the hours spent at his desk writing. On June 23, 1996, he completed his first ultramarathon, a 100 km race around Lake Saroma in Hokkaido, Japan. He discusses his relationship with running in his 2007 memoir What I Talk About When I Talk About Running. Writing career Trilogy of the Rat Murakami began to write fiction when he was 29. "Before that," he said, "I didn't write anything. I was just one of those ordinary people. I was running a jazz club, and I didn't create anything at all." He was inspired to write his first novel, Hear the Wind Sing (1979), while watching a baseball game. He described the moment he realized he could write as a "warm sensation" he could still feel in his heart. He went home and began writing that night. Murakami worked on Hear the Wind Sing for ten months in very brief stretches, during nights, after working days at the bar. He completed the novel and sent it to the only literary contest that would accept a work of that length, winning first prize. Murakami's initial success with Hear the Wind Sing encouraged him to continue writing. A year later, he published a sequel, Pinball, 1973. In 1981, he co-wrote a short story collection called Yume de Aimashou with author and future Earthbound/Mother creator Shigesato Itoi. In 1982, he published A Wild Sheep Chase, a critical success. Hear the Wind Sing, Pinball, 1973, and A Wild Sheep Chase form the Trilogy of the Rat (a sequel, Dance, Dance, Dance, was written later but is not considered part of the series), centered on the same unnamed narrator and his friend, "the Rat". The first two novels were not widely available in English translation outside Japan until 2015, although an English edition, translated by Alfred Birnbaum with extensive notes, had been published by Kodansha as part of a series intended for Japanese students of English. Murakami considers his first two novels to be "immature" and "flimsy", and has not been eager to have them translated into English. A Wild Sheep Chase, he says, was "the first book where I could feel a kind of sensation, the joy of telling a story. When you read a good story, you just keep reading. When I write a good story, I just keep writing." Wider recognition In 1985, Murakami wrote Hard-Boiled Wonderland and the End of the World, a dream-like fantasy that took the magical elements of his work to a new extreme. Murakami achieved a major breakthrough and national recognition in 1987 with the publication of Norwegian Wood, a nostalgic story of loss and sexuality. It sold millions of copies among young Japanese. Norwegian Wood propelled the barely known Murakami into the spotlight. He was mobbed at airports and other public places, leading to his departure from Japan in 1986. Murakami traveled through Europe, lived in the United States and currently resides in Oiso, Kanagawa, with an office in Tokyo. Murakami was a writing fellow at Princeton University in Princeton, New Jersey, Tufts University in Medford, Massachusetts, and Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts. During this time he wrote South of the Border, West of the Sun and The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle. From "detachment" to "commitment" The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle (1995) fuses the realistic and fantastic and contains elements of physical violence. It is also more socially conscious than his previous work, dealing in part with the difficult topic of war crimes in Manchukuo (Northeast China). The novel won the Yomiuri Prize, awarded by one of Murakami's harshest former critics, Kenzaburō Ōe, who himself won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1994. The processing of collective trauma soon became an important theme in Murakami's writing, which had previously been more personal in nature. Murakami returned to Japan in the aftermath of the Kobe earthquake and the Aum Shinrikyo gas attack. He came to terms with these events with his first work of non-fiction, Underground, and the short story collection after the quake. Underground consists largely of interviews of victims of the gas attacks in the Tokyo subway system. In 1996, in a conversation with the psychologist Hayao Kawai, Murakami explained that he changed his position from one of "detachment" to one of "commitment" after staying in the United States in the 1990s. He called The Wind-up Bird Chronicle a turning point in his career, marking this change in focus. English translations of many of his short stories written between 1983 and 1990 have been collected in The Elephant Vanishes. Murakami has also translated many works of F. Scott Fitzgerald, Raymond Carver, Truman Capote, John Irving, and Paul Theroux, among others, into Japanese. Murakami took an active role in translation of his work into English, encouraging "adaptations" of his texts to American reality rather than direct translation. Some of his works that appeared in German turned out to be translations from English rather than Japanese (South of the Border, West of the Sun, 2000; The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle, 2000s), encouraged by Murakami himself. Both were later re-translated from Japanese. Since 1999 Sputnik Sweetheart was first published in 1999, followed by Kafka on the Shore in 2002, with the English translation following in 2005. Kafka on the Shore won the World Fantasy Award for Novels in 2006. The English version of his novel After Dark was released in May 2007. It was chosen by The New York Times as a "notable book of the year". In late 2005, Murakami published a collection of short stories titled Tōkyō Kitanshū, or 東京奇譚集, which translates loosely as "Mysteries of Tokyo". A collection of the English versions of twenty-four short stories, titled Blind Willow, Sleeping Woman, was published in August 2006. This collection includes both older works from the 1980s as well as some of Murakami's more recent short stories, including all five that appear in Tōkyō Kitanshū. In 2002, Murakami published the anthology Birthday Stories, which collects short stories on the theme of birthdays. The collection includes work by Russell Banks, Ethan Canin, Raymond Carver, David Foster Wallace, Denis Johnson, Claire Keegan, Andrea Lee, Daniel Lyons, Lynda Sexson, Paul Theroux, and William Trevor, as well as a story by Murakami himself. What I Talk About When I Talk About Running, containing tales about his experience as a marathon runner and a triathlete, was published in Japan in 2007, with English translations released in the U.K. and the U.S. in 2008. The title is a play on that of Raymond Carver's short story collection What We Talk About When We Talk About Love. Shinchosha Publishing published Murakami's novel 1Q84 in Japan on May 29, 2009. 1Q84 is pronounced "ichi kyū hachi yon", the same as 1984, as 9 is also pronounced "kyū" in Japanese. The book was longlisted for the Man Asian Literary Prize in 2011. However, after the 2012 anti-Japanese demonstrations in China, Murakami's books were removed from sale there, along with those of other Japanese authors. Murakami criticized the China–Japan political territorial dispute, characterizing the overwrought nationalistic response as "cheap liquor" which politicians were giving to the public. In April 2013, he published his novel Colorless Tsukuru Tazaki and His Years of Pilgrimage. It became an international bestseller but received mixed reviews. Killing Commendatore (Kishidancho Goroshi) was published in Japan on February 24, 2017 and in the US in October 2018, the novel is a historical fiction that has caused controversy in Hong Kong. The novel was labeled under "Class II – indecent" in Hong Kong. This classification led to mass amounts of censorship. The publisher must not distribute the book to people under the age of 18, and must have a warning label printed on the cover. Murakami's most recent novel is The City and Its Uncertain Walls, which will be published by Shinchosha in Japan on 13 April 2023. His first novel in six years, it is 1,200-pages long and is set in a "soul-stirring, 100% pure Murakami world" that involves "a story that had long been sealed". Writing style Most of Haruki Murakami's works use first-person narrative in the tradition of the Japanese I-novel. He states that because family plays a significant role in traditional Japanese literature, any main character who is independent becomes a man who values freedom and solitude over intimacy. Also notable is Murakami's unique humor, as seen in his 2000 short story collection, After the Quake. In the story "Superfrog Saves Tokyo", the protagonist is confronted with a 6-foot tall frog that talks about the destruction of Tokyo over a cup of tea. In spite of the story's sober tone, Murakami feels the reader should be entertained once the seriousness of a subject has been broached. Another notable feature of Murakami's stories are the comments that come from the main characters as to how strange the story presents itself. Murakami explains that his characters experience what he experiences as he writes, which could be compared to a movie set where the walls and props are all fake. He has further compared the process of writing to movies: "That is one of the joys of writing fiction—I'm making my own film made just for myself." Many of his novels have themes and titles that evoke classical music, such as the three books making up The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle: The Thieving Magpie (after Rossini's opera), Bird as Prophet (after a piano piece by Robert Schumann usually known in English as The Prophet Bird), and The Bird-Catcher (a character in Mozart's opera The Magic Flute). Some of his novels take their titles from songs: Dance, Dance, Dance (after The Dells' 1957 B-side song, although it is often thought it was titled after the Beach Boys' 1964 tune), Norwegian Wood (after The Beatles' song) and South of the Border, West of the Sun (after the song "South of the Border"). Some analyses see aspects of shamanism in his writing. In a 2000 article, Susan Fisher connected Shinto or Japanese shamanism with some elements of The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle, such as a descent into a dry well. At an October 2013 symposium held at the University of Hawaii, associate professor of Japanese Nobuko Ochner opined "there were many descriptions of traveling in a parallel world as well as characters who have some connection to shamanism" in Murakami's works. Recognition Prizes for books 1979: Gunzo Award (best first novel) for Hear the Wind Sing 1982: Noma Literary Prize (best newcomer) for A Wild Sheep Chase 1985: Tanizaki Prize for Hard-Boiled Wonderland and the End of the World 1995: Yomiuri Prize (best novel) for The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle 1999: Kuwabara Takeo Prize for Underground 2006: World Fantasy Award (best novel) for Kafka on the Shore 2006: Frank O'Connor International Short Story Award for Blind Willow, Sleeping Woman 2016: Hans Christian Andersen Literature Award 2018: America Award in Literature for a lifetime contribution to international writing 2022: Prix mondial Cinco Del Duca for a lifetime of work constituting, in a literary form, a message of modern humanism Murakami was also awarded the 2007 Kiriyama Prize for Fiction for his collection of short stories Blind Willow, Sleeping Woman, but according to the prize's official website, Murakami "declined to accept the award for reasons of personal principle". Personal prizes In 2006, Murakami became the sixth recipient of the Franz Kafka Prize. In January 2009, Murakami received the Jerusalem Prize, a biennial literary award given to writers whose work deals with themes of human freedom, society, politics, and government. There were protests in Japan and elsewhere against his attending the February award ceremony in Israel, including threats to boycott his work as a response against Israel's recent bombing of the Gaza. Murakami chose to attend the ceremony, but gave a speech to the gathered Israeli dignitaries harshly criticizing Israeli policies. Murakami said, "Each of us possesses a tangible living soul. The system has no such thing. We must not allow the system to exploit us." The same year he was named Knight of the Order of Arts and Letters of Spain. In 2011, Murakami donated his €80,000 winnings from the International Catalunya Prize (from the Generalitat de Catalunya) to the victims of the March 11 earthquake and tsunami, and to those affected by the Fukushima nuclear disaster. Accepting the award, he said in his speech that the situation at the Fukushima plant was "the second major nuclear disaster that the Japanese people have experienced ... however, this time it was not a bomb being dropped upon us, but a mistake committed by our very own hands". According to Murakami, the Japanese people should have rejected nuclear power after having "learned through the sacrifice of the hibakusha just how badly radiation leaves scars on the world and human wellbeing". In recent years, Haruki Murakami has often been mentioned as a possible recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature. Nonetheless, since all nomination records are sealed for 50 years from the awarding of the prize, it is pure speculation. When asked about the possibility of being awarded the Nobel Prize, Murakami responded with a laugh saying "No, I don't want prizes. That means you're finished." In October 2014, he was awarded the Welt-Literaturpreis. In April 2015, Murakami was named one of the TIME 100's most influential people. In November 2016, he was awarded the Danish Hans Christian Andersen Literature Award, an award previously won by British author JK Rowling. In 2018 he was nominated for the New Academy Prize in Literature. He requested that his nomination be withdrawn, saying he wanted to "concentrate on writing, away from media attention." In 2023 he was awarded the Princess of Asturias Award for Literature. Honorary degrees Murakami has received honorary degrees (Doctor of Letters) from the University of Liège (September 2007), Princeton University (June 2008), Tufts University (May 2014), and Yale University (May 2016). Archives In 2018 Waseda University in Tokyo agreed to house the archives of Haruki Murakami, including his manuscripts, source documents, and music collection. The collection is intended to be open to scholars, and is set to open in October 2021. In September 2021, architect Kengo Kuma announced the opening of a library dedicated entirely to Murakami's works at Waseda University. It will include more than 3,000 works by Murakami, including translations into more than 50 other languages. Films and other adaptations Murakami's first novel, Hear the Wind Sing (Kaze no uta o kike), was adapted by Japanese director Kazuki Ōmori. The film was released in 1981 and distributed by Art Theatre Guild. Naoto Yamakawa directed two short films, Attack on the Bakery (released in 1982) and A Girl, She is 100 Percent (released in 1983), based on Murakami's short stories "Bakery Attack" and "On Seeing the 100% Perfect Girl One Beautiful April Morning", respectively. Japanese director Jun Ichikawa adapted Murakami's short story "Tony Takitani" into a 75-minute feature. The film played at various film festivals and was released in New York and Los Angeles on July 29, 2005. The original short story, translated into English by Jay Rubin, is available in the April 15, 2002 issue of The New Yorker, as a stand-alone book published by Cloverfield Press, and part of Blind Willow, Sleeping Woman by Knopf. In 1998, the German film The Polar Bear (), written and directed by Granz Henman, used elements of Murakami's short story "The Second Bakery Attack" in three intersecting story lines. "The Second Bakery Attack" was also adapted as a short film in 2010, directed by Carlos Cuarón, starring Kirsten Dunst and as part of a segment in the South Korean omnibus film Acoustic. Murakami's work was also adapted for the stage in a 2003 play entitled The Elephant Vanishes, co-produced by Britain's Complicite company and Japan's Setagaya Public Theatre. The production, directed by Simon McBurney, adapted three of Murakami's short stories and received acclaim for its unique blending of multimedia (video, music, and innovative sound design) with actor-driven physical theater (mime, dance, and even acrobatic wire work). On tour, the play was performed in Japanese, with supertitle translations for European and American audiences. Two stories from Murakami's book After The Quake"Honey Pie" and "Superfrog Saves Tokyo"have been adapted for the stage and directed by Frank Galati. Entitled after the quake, the play was first performed at the Steppenwolf Theatre Company in association with La Jolla Playhouse, and opened on October 12, 2007, at Berkeley Repertory Theatre. In 2008, Galati also adapted and directed a theatrical version of Kafka on the Shore, which first ran at Chicago's Steppenwolf Theatre Company from September to November. On Max Richter's 2006 album Songs from Before, Robert Wyatt reads passages from Murakami's novels. In 2007, Robert Logevall adapted "All God's Children Can Dance" into a film, with a soundtrack composed by American jam band Sound Tribe Sector 9. In 2008, Tom Flint adapted "On Seeing the 100% Perfect Girl One Beautiful April Morning" into a short film. The film was screened at the 2008 CON-CAN Movie Festival. The film was viewed, voted, and commented upon as part of the audience award for the movie festival. It was announced in July 2008 that French-Vietnamese director Tran Anh Hung would direct an adaptation of Murakami's novel Norwegian Wood. The film was released in Japan on December 11, 2010. In 2010, Stephen Earnhart adapted The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle into a two-hour multimedia stage presentation. The show opened January 12, 2010, as part of the Public Theater's "Under the Radar" festival at the Ohio Theater in New York City, presented in association with The Asia Society and the Baryshnikov Arts Center. The show had its world premiere at the Edinburgh International Festival on August 21, 2011. The presentation incorporates live actors, video projection, traditional Japanese puppetry, and immersive soundscapes to render the surreal landscape of the original work. "Memoranda", a 2017 video game had been inspired by several Murakami short stories, mainly from Blind Willow, Sleeping Woman and The Elephant Vanishes, and features several Murakami characters, including Mizuki Ando. In 2018, "Barn Burning" from Murakami's short story collection The Elephant Vanishes was adapted into a film titled Burning by director Lee Chang-dong. The film was awarded the FIPRESCI International Critics’ Prize for best film, receiving the highest score to date. It was also South Korea’s submission for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film in 2019. A film based on the short story "Drive My Car" premiered at the 2021 Cannes Film Festival, where it won Best Screenplay, the FIPRESCI Prize, and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury. The film went on to win the Academy Award for Best International Feature and received three other nominations: Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Adapted Screenplay. Directed by Ryusuke Hamaguchi, it also takes inspiration from Chekhov's play Uncle Vanya as well as "Scheherazade" and "Kino," two other stories in the collection Men Without Women. In 2022, Confessions of a Shinagawa Monkey was translated into Yorùbá by Nigerian linguist Kola Tubosun, making it the first time a Murakami story would be translated into an African language. Personal life After receiving the Gunzo Award for his 1979 literary work Hear the Wind Sing, Murakami did not aspire to meet other writers. Aside from Sarah Lawrence's Mary Morris, whom he briefly mentions in his memoir What I Talk About When I Talk About Running alongside Joyce Carol Oates and Toni Morrison, Murakami was never a part of a community of writers, his reason being that he was a loner and was never fond of groups, schools, and literary circles. When working on a book, Murakami states that he relies on his wife, who is always his first reader. While he never acquainted himself with many writers, among the contemporary writers, he enjoys the work of Kazuo Ishiguro, Cormac McCarthy, Lee Child and Dag Solstad. While he does not read much contemporary Japanese literature, Murakami enjoys the works of Ryū Murakami and Banana Yoshimoto. Murakami enjoys baseball and describes himself as a fan of the Tokyo Yakult Swallows. In his 2015 essay for Literary Hub 'The Moment I Became a Novelist', Murakami describes how attending a Swallow's game in Jingu Stadium in 1978 led to a personal epiphany in which he decided to write his first novel. Haruki Murakami is a fan of crime novels. During his high school days while living in Kōbe, he would buy paperbacks from second hand book stores and learned to read English. The first book that he read in English was The Name is Archer, written by Ross Macdonald in 1955. Other writers he was interested in included Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoyevsky. Murakami also has a passion for listening to music, especially classical and jazz. When he was around 15, he began to develop an interest in jazz after attending an Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers concert in Kobe. He later opened the Peter Cat, a coffeehouse and jazz bar. Murakami has said that music, like writing, is a mental journey. At one time he aspired to be a musician, but because he could not play instruments well he decided to become a writer instead. In an interview with The Guardian, Murakami stated his belief that his surreal books appeal to people especially in times of turmoil and political chaos. He stated that "I was so popular in the 1990s in Russia, at the time they were changing from the Soviet Union – there was big confusion, and people in confusion like my books" and “In Germany, when the Berlin Wall fell down, there was confusion – and people liked my books.” Political views Murakami told the New York Times in 2011, "I think of myself as a political person, but I don't state my political messages to anybody." Comparing himself to George Orwell, he views himself as standing "against the system." In 2009, whilst accepting an award in Israel, he expressed his political views as:If there is a hard, high wall and an egg that breaks against it, no matter how right the wall or how wrong the egg, I will stand on the side of the egg. Why? Because each of us is an egg, a unique soul enclosed in a fragile egg. Each of us is confronting a high wall. The high wall is the system which forces us to do the things we would not ordinarily see fit to do as individuals.Murakami stated that it is natural for China and Koreas to continue to feel resentment towards Japan for its wartime aggressions. "Fundamentally, Japanese people tend not to have an idea that they were also assailants, and the tendency is getting clearer," he said. In another interview, Murakami stated: "The issue of historical understanding carries great significance, and I believe it is important that Japan makes straightforward apologies. I think that is all Japan can do – apologise until the countries say: 'We don't necessarily get over it completely, but you have apologised enough. Alright, let's leave it now.'" In January 2015, Murakami expressed support for same-sex marriage, which is not recognised in Japan, when responding to a reader's question about his stance on the issue. In August 2021, during one of his radio shows, Murakami criticized prime minister Yoshihide Suga over the handling of the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan. Murakami quoted Suga as saying "an exit is now in our sight after a long tunnel" and added, in criticism, that "If he really saw an exit, his eyes must be extremely good for his age. I'm of the same age as Mr. Suga, but I don't see any exit at all." In 2022, during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, which was part of the larger Russian-Ukrainian war, Murakami called for peace. He prepared a special radio program calling for peace. Murakami featured there around ten musical pieces that encourage to end the war and "focus on the preciousness of life". Bibliography This is an incomplete bibliography as not all works published by Murakami in Japanese have been translated into English. Kanji titles are given with Hepburn romanization. (Original titles entirely in transcribed English are given as "katakana / romaji = English".) Novels Short stories Collections List of stories Essays and nonfiction Other books ——————— Notes See also Japanese literature Surrealism Weird fiction References Further reading Pintor, Ivan. "David Lynch y Haruki Murakami, la llama en el umbral", in: VV.AA., Universo Lynch. Internacional Sitges Film Festival-Calamar 2007 () Rubin, Jay. Haruki Murakami and the Music of Words. Harvill Press, 2002 () Strecher, Matthew Carl. The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle Readers Guide. Continuum Pubublishing Group, 2002 () Strecher, Matthew Carl. Dances with Sheep: The Quest for Identity in the Fiction of Murakami Haruki. University of Michigan/Monographs in Japanese Studies, 2001 () Suter, Rebecca. The Japanization of Modernity: Murakami Haruki Between Japan and the United States. Harvard University Asian Center, 2008. () External links Haruki Murakami at Random House Haruki Murakami at The New Yorker (online essays, stories, excerpts) Haruki Murakami at The New York Times (articles about, interviews with) Haruki Murakami at Complete Review (international meta-reviews) Haruki Murakami at The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction Interviews "Haruki Murakami: The Outsider" (by Laura Miller and Don George), Salon, December 1997 (about Wind-Up Bird and Underground) "Haruki Murakami, The Art of Fiction No. 182" (by John Wray), The Paris Review, Summer 2004 Articles "The reception of Murakami Haruki in Taiwan" (PDF), Yale University "Haruki Murakami: How a Japanese writer conquered the world" (by Stephanie Hegarty), BBC News, October 17, 2011 "The 10 Best Haruki Murakami Books" (by Murakami scholar Matthew C. Strecher), Publishers Weekly, August 8, 2014 Multimedia Video about Murakami's life and work at Psychology Today's blog The Literary Mind Category:1949 births Category:20th-century Japanese novelists Category:20th-century Japanese translators Category:21st-century Japanese translators Category:21st-century Japanese novelists Category:English–Japanese translators Category:Japanese essayists Category:Japanese male short story writers Category:Japanese psychological fiction writers Category:Japanese science fiction writers Category:Japanese ultramarathon runners Category:Jerusalem Prize recipients Category:Literary translators Category:Living people Category:Magic realism writers Category:Male ultramarathon runners Category:Order of Arts and Letters of Spain recipients Category:Postmodern writers Category:Princeton University faculty Category:Tufts University faculty Category:Waseda University alumni Category:Yomiuri Prize winners Category:World Fantasy Award-winning writers Category:Writers from Kyoto Category:Weird fiction writers Category:Progressivism in Japan
[ { "text": "Multimedia is a form of communication that uses a combination of different content forms such as text, audio, images, animations, or video into a single interactive presentation, in contrast to traditional mass media, such as printed material or audio recordings, which features little to no interaction between users. Popular examples of multimedia include video podcasts, audio slideshows and animated videos. Multimedia also contains the principles and application of effective interactive communication such as the building blocks of software, hardware, and other technologies. The five main building blocks of multimedia are text, image, audio, video, and animation. \n\nMultimedia can be recorded for playback on computers, laptops, smartphones, and other electronic devices. In the early years of multimedia, the term \"rich media\" was synonymous with interactive multimedia. Over time, hypermedia extensions brought multimedia to the World Wide Web and streaming services became more common.\n\nTerminology \nThe term multimedia was coined by singer and artist Bob Goldstein (later 'Bobb Goldsteinn') to promote the July 1966 opening of his \"Lightworks at L'Oursin\" show in Southampton, New York, Long Island. Goldstein was perhaps aware of an American artist named Dick Higgins, who had two years previously discussed a new approach to art-making he called \"intermedia\".\n\nBefore the invention of the term, the idea of multimedia could be taken back to when the 19th century composer Richard Wagner believed in the concept of Gesamtkunstwerk, meaning 'total artwork'. Wagner strived to combine multiple art forms- opera, drama, music - to create a perfect synthesis on stage. He looked down on the Grand Opera at the time, which emphasized individual talent, rather than the complete work as a whole. By combining these art forms, Wagner believed the most profound art could be made.\n\nOn August 10, 1966, Richard Albarino of Variety borrowed the terminology, reporting: \"Brainchild of song scribe-comic Bob ('Washington Square') Goldstein, the 'Lightworks' is the latest multi-media music-cum-visuals to debut as discothèque fare.\" Two years later, in 1968, the term \"multimedia\" was re-appropriated to describe the work of a political consultant, David Sawyer, the husband of Iris Sawyer—one of Goldstein's producers at L'Oursin.\n\n In the intervening forty years, the word has taken on different meanings. In the late 1970s, the term referred to presentations consisting of multi-projector slide shows timed to an audio track. However, by the 1990s 'multimedia' took on its current meaning.\n\nIn the 1993 first edition of Multimedia: Making It Work, Tay Vaughan declared \"Multimedia is any combination of text, graphic art, sound, animation, and video that is delivered by computer. When you allow the user – the viewer of the project – to control what and when these elements are delivered, it is interactive multimedia. When you provide a structure of linked elements through which the user can navigate, interactive multimedia becomes hypermedia.\"\n\nThe German language society Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache recognized the word's significance and ubiquitousness in the 1990s by awarding it the title of German 'Word of the Year' in 1995. The institute summed up its rationale by stating \"[Multimedia] has become a central word in the wonderful new media world\".\n\nIn common usage, multimedia refers to an electronically delivered combination of media including video, still images, audio, and text in such a way that can be accessed interactively. Much of the content on the web today falls within this definition as understood by millions. Some computers which were marketed in the 1990s were called \"multimedia\" computers because they incorporated a CD-ROM drive, which allowed for the delivery of several hundred megabytes of video, picture, and audio data. That era saw also a boost in the production of educational multimedia CD-ROMs. A standard CD-ROM can hold on average 700 megabytes of data, while the maximum size a 3.5 inch floppy disk can hold is 2.8 megabytes, with an average of 1.44 megabytes. \n\nThe term \"video\", if not used exclusively to describe motion photography, is ambiguous in multimedia terminology. Video is often used to describe the file format, delivery format, or presentation format instead of \"footage\" which is used to distinguish motion photography from \"animation\" of rendered motion imagery. Multiple forms of information content are often not considered modern forms of presentation such as audio or video. Likewise, single forms of information content with single methods of information processing (e.g. non-interactive audio) are often called multimedia, perhaps to distinguish static media from active media. In the fine arts, for example, Leda Luss Luyken's ModulArt brings two key elements of musical composition and film into the world of painting: variation of a theme and movement of and within a picture, making ModulArt an interactive multimedia form of art. Performing arts may also be considered multimedia considering that performers and props are multiple forms of both content and media.\n\nIn modern times, a multimedia device can be referred to an electronic device, such as a smartphone, a video game system, or a computer. Each and everyone of these devices have a main function, but also have other uses beyond their intended purpose, such as reading, writing, recording video and audio, listening to music, and playing video games. This has lend them to be called \"multimedia devices\". While previous media was always local, many are now handled through web based solutions, particularly streaming.\n\nMajor characteristics \nMultimedia presentations are presentations featuring multiple types of media. The different types of media can include text, graphics, audio, video and animations. These different types of media convey information to their target audience and effectively communicate with them. Videos are a great visual example to use in multimedia presentations because they can create visual aids to the presenter's ideas. They are commonly used among education and many other industries to benefit students and workers, as they effectively retain chunks of information in a limited amount of time and can be stored easily. Another example is charts and graphs, as the presenters can show their audience the trends using data associated with their researches. This provides the audience a visual idea of a company's capabilities and performances.<ref></</ref> Audio also helps people understand the message being presented, as most modern videos are combined with audio to increase its efficiency, while animations are made to simplify things from the presenter's perspective. These technological methods allow efficient communication and understanding across a wide range of audiences (with an even wider range of abilities) throughout different fields. \n\nMultimedia games and simulations may be used in a physical environment with special effects, with multiple users in an online network, or locally with an offline computer, game system, or simulator.\n\nThe various formats of technological or digital multimedia may be intended to enhance the users' experience, for example to make it easier and faster to convey information. Or in entertainment or art, combine an array of artistic insights that includes elements from different art forms to engage, inspire, or captivate an audience.\n\nEnhanced levels of interactivity are made possible by combining multiple forms of media content. Online multimedia is increasingly becoming object-oriented and data-driven, enabling applications with collaborative end-user innovation and personalization on multiple forms of content over time. Examples of these range from multiple forms of content on Web sites like photo galleries with both images (pictures) and title (text) user-updated, to simulations whose co-efficients, events, illustrations, animations or videos are modifiable, allowing the multimedia \"experience\" to be altered without reprogramming. In addition to seeing and hearing, haptic technology enables virtual objects to be felt. Emerging technology involving illusions of taste and smell may also enhance the multimedia experience.\n\nCategorization \nMultimedia may be broadly divided into linear and non-linear categories:\nLinear active content progresses often without any navigational control, only focusing on the user to watch the entire piece by involving higher levels of emotional and sensory stimulation based on what's being shown as a cinema presentation;\nNon-linear uses interactivity to control progress as with a video game or self-paced computer-based training so that the actions made will be based on how the user interacts within the simulated world. Hypermedia is an example of non-linear content.\n\nMultimedia presentations can be live or recorded:\nA recorded presentation may allow interactivity via a navigation system;\nA live multimedia presentation may allow interactivity via an interaction with the presenter or performer.\n\nUsage/application \n\nMultimedia finds its application in various areas including, but not limited to, advertisements, art, education, entertainment, engineering, medicine, mathematics, business, scientific research and spatial temporal applications. Several examples are as follows:\n\nCreative industries \nCreative industries use multimedia for a variety of purposes ranging from fine arts, to entertainment, to commercial art, to journalism, to media and software services provided for any of the industries listed below. An individual multimedia designer may cover the spectrum throughout their career. Request for their skills range from technical, to analytical, to creative.\n\nCommercial uses \nMuch of the electronic old and new media used by commercial artists in multimedia.. Advertising companies rely heavily on social interfaces and television to promote products. Using these platforms, they are able to express their message or persuade a targeted audience. Business to business and interoffice communications are often developed by creative services firms for advanced multimedia presentations beyond simple slide shows to sell ideas or liven up training. Commercial multimedia developers may be hired to design for governmental services and nonprofit services applications as well. In addition, the prominence of data mining within multimedia platforms in order to adjust marketing techniques based on the data they mine is a crucial and notable practice of commercial advertisement to efficiently understand the demographic of a target audience. In recent years a new trend of multimedia has arrived, a new sort of digital billboard placed on the side of buildings and usually wrapping around the side of it. These take clips made at differing angles to trick the brain into seeing them as 3-Dimensional, like they're leaving the billboard entirely. This makes them eye-catching and therefore more likely to draw in people's attention which is of course, very good for commercial purposes.\n\nEntertainment and fine arts \nMultimedia is heavily used in the entertainment industry, especially to develop special effects in movies and animations (VFX, 3D animation, etc.). Multimedia games are a popular pastime and are software programs available either as CD-ROMs or online. Video games are considered multimedia, as such games meld animation, audio, and interactivity to allow the player an immersive experience. While video games can vary in terms of animation style or audio type, the element of interactivity makes them a striking example of interactive multimedia. Interactive multimedia refers to multimedia applications that allow users to actively participate instead of just sitting by as passive recipients of information.\nIn the arts, there are multimedia artists who blend techniques using different media that in some way incorporate interaction with the viewer. Another approach entails the creation of multimedia that can be displayed in a traditional fine arts arena, such as an art gallery. Video has become an intrinsic part of many concerts and theatrical productions in the modern era, and has spawned content creation opportunities for many media professionals. Although multimedia display material may be volatile, the survivability of the content is as strong as any traditional media.\n\nEducation \nIn education, multimedia is used to produce computer-based training courses (popularly called CBTs) and reference books like encyclopedia and almanacs. A CBT lets the user go through a series of presentations, text about a particular topic, and associated illustrations in various information formats.\n\nLearning theory in the past decade has expanded dramatically because of the introduction of multimedia. Several lines of research have evolved, e.g. cognitive load and multimedia learning.\n\nFrom multimedia learning (MML) theory, David Roberts has developed a large group lecture practice using PowerPoint and based on the use of full-slide images in conjunction with a reduction of visible text (all text can be placed in the notes view' section of PowerPoint). The method has been applied and evaluated in 9 disciplines. In each experiment, students' engagement and active learning have been approximately 66% greater, than with the same material being delivered using bullet points, text, and speech, corroborating a range of theories presented by multimedia learning scholars like Sweller and Mayer. The idea of media convergence is also becoming a major factor in education, particularly higher education. Defined as separate technologies such as voice (and telephony features), data (and productivity applications), and video that now share resources and interact with each other, media convergence is rapidly changing the curriculum in universities all over the world. Higher education has been implementing the use of social media applications such as Twitter, YouTube, Facebook, etc. to increase student collaboration and develop new processes in how information can be conveyed to students.\n\nEducational technology \n\nMultimedia provides students with an alternate means of acquiring knowledge designed to enhance teaching and learning through various mediums and platforms. In the 1960s, technology began to expand into the classrooms through devices such as screens and telewriters. This technology allows students to learn at their own pace and gives teachers the ability to observe the individual needs of each student. The capacity for multimedia to be used in multi-disciplinary settings is structured around the idea of creating a hands-on learning environment through the use of technology. Lessons can be tailored to the subject matter as well as be personalized to the students' varying levels of knowledge on the topic. Learning content can be managed through activities that utilize and take advantage of multimedia platforms. This kind of usage of modern multimedia encourages interactive communication between students and teachers and opens feedback channels, introducing an active learning process especially with the prevalence of new media and social media. Technology has impacted multimedia as it is largely associated with the use of computers or other electronic devices and digital media due to its capabilities concerning research, communication, problem-solving through simulations and feedback opportunities. The innovation of technology in education through the use of multimedia allows for diversification among classrooms to enhance the overall learning experience for students.\n\nSocial work \nMultimedia is a robust education methodology within the social work context. The five different multimedia which supports the education process are narrative media, interactive media, communicative media, adaptive media, and productive media. Contrary to long-standing belief, multimedia technology in social work education existed before the prevalence of the internet. It takes the form of images, audio, and video into the curriculum.\n\nFirst introduced to social work education by Seabury & Maple in 1993, multimedia technology is utilized to teach social work practice skills including interviewing, crisis intervention, and group work. In comparison with conventional teaching method, including face-to-face courses, multimedia education shortens transportation time, increases knowledge and confidence in a richer and more authentic context for learning, generates interaction between online users, and enhances understanding of conceptual materials for novice students.\n\nIn an attempt to examine the impact of multimedia technology on students' study, A. Elizabeth Cauble & Linda P. Thurston conducted a research in which Building Family Foundations (BFF), an interactive multimedia training platform, was utilized to assess social work students' reactions to multimedia technology on variables of knowledge, attitudes, and self-efficacy. The results states that respondents show a substantial increase in academic knowledge, confidence, and attitude. Multimedia also benefits students because it brings expert to students online, fits students' schedule, allows students to choose courses that suit them.\n\nMayer's Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning suggests, \"people learn more from words and pictures than from words alone.\" According to Mayer and other scholars, multimedia technology stimulates people's brains by implementing visual and auditory effects, and thereby assists online users to learn efficiently. Researchers suggest that when users establish dual channels while learning, they tend to understand and memorize better. Mixed literature of this theory are still present in the field of multimedia and social work.\n\nLanguage communication \nWith the spread and development of the English language around the world, multimedia has become an important way of communicating between different people and cultures. Multimedia Technology creates a platform where language can be taught. The traditional form of teaching English as a Second Language in classrooms have drastically changed with the prevalence of technology, making easier for students to obtain language learning skills. Multimedia motivates students to learn more languages through audio, visual and animation support. It also helps create English contexts since an important aspect of learning a language is developing their grammar, vocabulary and knowledge of pragmatics and genres. In addition, cultural connections in terms of forms, contexts, meanings and ideologies have to be constructed. By improving thought patterns, multimedia develops students' communicative competence by improving their capacity to understand the language. One of the studies, carried out by Izquierdo, Simard and Pulido, presented the correlation between \"Multimedia Instruction (MI) and learners' second language (L2)\" and its effects on learning behavior. Their findings based on Gardner's theory of the \"socio-educational model of learner motivation and attitudes\", the study shows that there is easier access to language learning materials as well as increased motivation with MI along with the use of Computer-Assisted Language Learning.\n\nJournalism \nNewspaper companies all over are trying to embrace the new phenomenon by implementing its practices in their work. While some have been slow to come around, other major newspapers like The New York Times, USA Today and The Washington Post are setting a precedent for the positioning of the newspaper industry in a globalized world. To keep up with the changing world of multimedia, journalistic practices are adopting and utilizing different multimedia functions through the inclusion of visuals such as varying audio, video, text, etc. in their writings.\n\nNews reporting is not limited to traditional media outlets. Freelance journalists can use different new media to produce multimedia pieces for their news stories. It engages global audiences and tells stories with technology, which develops new communication techniques for both media producers and consumers. The Common Language Project, later renamed to The Seattle Globalist, is an example of this type of multimedia journalism production.\n\nMultimedia reporters who are mobile (usually driving around a community with cameras, audio and video recorders, and laptop computers) are often referred to as mojos, from mobile journalist.\n\nEngineering \nSoftware engineers may use multimedia in computer simulations for anything from entertainment to training such as military or industrial training. Multimedia for software interfaces are often done as a collaboration between creative professionals and software engineers. Multimedia helps expand the teaching practices that can be found in engineering to allow for more innovated methods to not only educated future engineers, but to help evolve the scope of understanding of where multimedia can be used in specialized engineer careers like software engineers.\n\nMultimedia is also allowing major car manufactures, such as Ford, and General Motors, to expand the design, and safety standards of their cars. By using a game engine and virtual reality glasses, these companies are able to test the safety features, and the design of the car, before a prototype is even made. Building a car virtually reduces the time it takes to produce new vehicles, cutting down on the time needed to test designs, and allowing the designers to make changes in real time. It also reduces expenses, since with a virtual car making real world prototypes is no longer needed.\n\nMathematical and scientific research \nIn mathematical and scientific research, multimedia is mainly used for modeling and simulation. For example, a scientist can look at a molecular model of a particular substance and manipulate it to arrive at a new substance. Representative research can be found in journals such as the Journal of Multimedia. One well known example of this being applied would be in the movie Interstellar where Executive Director Kip Thorne helped create one of the most realistic depictions of a blackhole in film. The visual effects team under Paul Franklin took Kip Thorne's mathematical data and applied it into their own visual effects engine called \"Double Negative Gravitational Renderer\" a.k.a. \"Gargantua\", to create a \"real\" blackhole, used in the final cut. Later on the visual effects team went onto publish a blackhole study\n\nMedicine \nMedical professionals and students have a wide variety of ways to learn new techniques and procedures through interactive media and online courses and lectures. The methods of conveying information to students have drastically evolved with the help of multimedia. From the 1800s to today, lessons are commonly taught using chalkboards. Projected aids, such as the epidiascope and slide projectors, were introduced into the classrooms around the 1960s. With the growing use of computers, the medical field has begun to incorporate new devices and procedures to assist in teaching students, performing procedures, and analyzing patient data. As well as providing that data in a meaningful way to the patients.\n\nVirtual reality \nVirtual reality is a platform for multimedia in which it merges all categories of multimedia into one virtual environment. It has gained much more attention over recent years following technological advancements and is becoming much more commonly used nowadays for various uses like virtual showrooms and video games. Virtual reality was first introduced in 1957 by cinematographer Morton Heilig in the form of an arcade-style booth called Sensorama. The first virtual reality headset was created by American computer scientist Ivan Sutherland and Bob Sproull, his student, in 1968. Virtual reality is used for educational and also recreational purposes like watching movies, interactive video games, simulations etc. Ford Motor Company uses this technology to show customers the interior and exterior of their cars via their Immersion Lab. In Pima County, Arizona their police force is trained by using Virtual Reality to create scenarios for police to practice in.In 1996 Nintendo released the Virtual Boy marking one of the first attempts at a mainstream virtual reality system. Many video game platforms now support virtual reality technology, including Sony's PlayStation, Nintendo's Switch as part of their Labo project, as well as the Oculus VR headsets that can be used for Xbox and PC gaming, with it being more preferable to pair with a PC due to it only being compatible with the original Xbox One and providing limited capabilities.\n\nAugmented reality \n\nAugmented reality overlays digital content or output onto the real world, using media such as audio, animation, and text. Augmented reality became widely popular only in the 21st century; however, some of the earlier versions of such were things like the Sega Genesis Activator Controller back in 1992 which allowed users to literally stand in an octagon and control in game movement with physical movement or to stretch back even further the R.O.B. NES Robot back in 1984 which with its array of accessories was able to also provide users with the sensation of holding a firearm. These multimedia input devices are among some of the earliest of the augmented reality devices by allowing users to input commands to facilitate a different user experience. A more modern example of augmented reality is Pokémon GO, a mobile game released on July 6, 2016, which allows users to see a Pokémon in a real world environment.\n\nSee also \n\n Animation\n Artmedia\n Audio\n Audiovisual\n Computer\n Images\n Internet\n Kraftwerk\n Multi-image\n Multimedia cartography\n Multimedia Messaging Service\n Multimedia search\n New media art\n Non-linear media\n Postliterate society\n Social media\n Text\n Transmedia storytelling\n Universal multimedia access\n Video\n Video Game\n Virtual reality\n Web documentary\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nHistory of Multimedia from the University of Calgary\nMultimedia in Answers.com\n\n \nCategory:Communication design\nCategory:Design\nCategory:Film and video terminology\nCategory:Film production\nCategory:1960s neologisms", "title": "Multimedia" } ]
[ "After 2000, Murakami published several works including \"Kafka on the Shore\" in 2002, a collection of short stories titled \"Tokyo Kitanshu\" in 2005, the anthology \"Birthday Stories\" in 2002, \"What I Talk About When I Talk About Running\" in 2007, and \"1Q84\" in 2009. His book \"After Dark\" was released in English in 2007, and a collection of his short stories in English titled \"Blind Willow, Sleeping Woman\" was published in 2006. He was awarded the World Fantasy Award for Novels in 2006 for \"Kafka on the Shore\". Murakami's books were removed from sale in China after the 2012 anti-Japanese demonstrations, and in 2013, he published his novel \"Colorless Tsukuru Tazaki and His Years of Pilgrimage\", which became an international best seller.", "\"Kafka on the Shore\" received recognition and was awarded the World Fantasy Award for Novels in 2006. The English version of \"After Dark\" was chosen as a \"notable book of the year\" by The New York Times in 2007. \"1Q84\" was longlisted for the Man Asian Literary Prize in 2011, showing strong reception of the novel as well. However, due to political territorial disputes between Japan and China, Murakami's books were removed from sale in China in 2012. \"Colorless Tsukuru Tazaki and His Years of Pilgrimage\", published in 2013, became an international bestseller, although it received mixed reviews.", "Besides the novels and short stories collections mentioned previously, Murakami also wrote \"What I Talk About When I Talk About Running\", a book containing tales about his experiences as a marathon runner and a triathlete. This was published in Japan in 2007, with English translations released in the U.K. and the U.S. in 2008. The title of this book is a play on that of Raymond Carver's short story collection, \"What We Talk About When We Talk About Love\".", "The context does not provide specific information on the popularity of Murakami's book \"What I Talk About When I Talk About Running\".", "Yes, Murakami won the World Fantasy Award for Novels in 2006 for his book \"Kafka on the Shore\".", "Apart from the ones already mentioned, Murakami also wrote a collection of short stories titled \"Tokyo Kitanshu\" in 2005 and an anthology called \"Birthday Stories\" in 2002, which collects short stories on the theme of birthdays by various authors, along with a story by Murakami himself. He also released a collection of the English versions of twenty-four short stories, titled \"Blind Willow, Sleeping Woman\" in 2006. However, the context does not mention any other books by Murakami.", "The context mentions that Murakami also wrote \"After Dark\", which was released in English in May 2007, and was chosen by The New York Times as a \"notable book of the year\". Another book of his, \"Colorless Tsukuru Tazaki and His Years of Pilgrimage\", was published in April 2013. Besides these, the context does not provide information on any other books by Murakami.", "Yes, Murakami published several of his works in Japanese. Examples are \"What I Talk About When I Talk About Running\" which was published in Japan in 2007 and \"1Q84\" which was published in Japan in 2009. Another example is his collection of short stories titled \"Tokyo Kitanshu,\" which was published in late 2005. These works were later translated into English.", "Murakami's works are typically written in Japanese and later translated into English. The context does not provide specific information about him writing any books initially in English. Notably, English translations of \"Kafka on the Shore\" and \"What I Talk About When I Talk About Running\" were released in 2005 and 2008 respectively.", "The context does not provide information on whether Murakami translated his own works from Japanese to English.", "Murakami is not only a novelist but also writes short stories as seen with his collections \"Tokyo Kitanshu\" and \"Blind Willow, Sleeping Woman\". He also explores non-fiction with the book \"What I Talk About When I Talk About Running\", detailing his experiences as a marathon runner and triathlete. His work \"1Q84\", is a play on the pronunciation of the year 1984 in Japanese and was longlisted for the Man Asian Literary Prize in 2011. His books were removed from sale in China after anti-Japanese demonstrations in 2012. After this, he criticized the China-Japan political territorial dispute, characterizing the overwrought nationalistic response as \"cheap liquor\" which politicians were giving to the public." ]
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C_eba33e642b6a43a89816b76c32c95861_1
Haruki Murakami
Haruki Murakami (Cun Shang Chun Shu , Murakami Haruki, born January 12, 1949) is a Japanese writer. His books and stories have been bestsellers in Japan as well as internationally, with his work being translated into 50 languages and selling millions of copies outside his native country. The critical acclaim for his fiction and non-fiction has led to numerous awards, in Japan and internationally, including the World Fantasy Award (2006) and the Frank O'Connor International Short Story Award (2006). His oeuvre received, for example, the Franz Kafka Prize (2006) and the Jerusalem Prize (2009).
From "detachment" to "commitment"
The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle (1995) is a novel that fuses the realistic and fantastic, and contains elements of physical violence. It is also more socially conscious than his previous work, dealing in part with the difficult topic of war crimes in Manchukuo (Northeast China). The novel won the Yomiuri Prize, awarded by one of his harshest former critics, Kenzaburo Oe, winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1994. The processing of collective trauma soon became an important theme in Murakami's writing, which had previously been more personal in nature. Murakami returned to Japan in the aftermath of the Kobe earthquake and the Aum Shinrikyo gas attack. He came to terms with these events with his first work of non-fiction, Underground, and the short story collection after the quake. Underground consists largely of interviews of victims of the gas attacks in the Tokyo subway system. Murakami himself mentions that he changed his position from one of "detachment" to one of "commitment" after staying in the United States in 1991. "His early books, he said, originated in an individual darkness, while his later works tap into the darkness found in society and history." English translations of many of his short stories written between 1983 and 1990 have been collected in The Elephant Vanishes. Murakami has also translated many works of F. Scott Fitzgerald, Raymond Carver, Truman Capote, John Irving, and Paul Theroux, among others, into Japanese. Murakami took an active role in translation of his work into English, encouraging "adaptations" of his texts to American reality rather than direct translation. Some of his works which appeared in German turned out to be translations from English rather than from Japanese (South of the Border, West of the Sun, 2000; The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle, 2000s), encouraged by Murakami himself. Both were later re-translated from Japanese. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "What is the main point of the article?", "What was the trauma?", "What was his first non-fiction book?", "When did he return to Japan?", "Was The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle a popular book?", "Did he write other novels?", "Did he work with any other authors?", "What books did he help translate?", "Did he have any controversy in this time?", "What else did Murakami do during this time?", "What was the translation?" ]
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is a Japanese writer. His novels, essays, and short stories have been bestsellers in Japan and internationally, with his work translated into 50 languages and having sold millions of copies outside Japan. He has received numerous awards for his work, including the Gunzo Prize for New Writers, the World Fantasy Award, the Frank O'Connor International Short Story Award, the Franz Kafka Prize, and the Jerusalem Prize. Growing up in Kobe before moving to Tokyo to attend Waseda University, he published his first novel Hear the Wind Sing (1979) after working as the owner of a small jazz bar for seven years. His notable works include the novels Norwegian Wood (1987), The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle (1994–95), Kafka on the Shore (2002), and 1Q84 (2009–10), with 1Q84 ranked as the best work of Japan's Heisei era (1989–2019) by the national newspaper Asahi Shimbun survey of literary experts. His work spans genres including science fiction, fantasy, and crime fiction, and has become known for its use of magical realist elements. His official website lists Raymond Chandler, Kurt Vonnegut, and Richard Brautigan as key inspirations to his work, while Murakami himself has cited Kazuo Ishiguro, Cormac McCarthy, and Dag Solstad as his favourite currently active writers. Murakami has also published five short story collections, including his most recently published work, First Person Singular (2020), and non-fiction works including Underground (1997), inspired by personal interviews Murakami conducted with victims of the Tokyo subway sarin attack, and What I Talk About When I Talk About Running (2007), a series of personal essays about his experience as a marathon runner. His fiction has polarized literary critics and the reading public. He has sometimes been criticised by Japan's literary establishment as un-Japanese, leading to Murakami's recalling that he was a "black sheep in the Japanese literary world". Meanwhile, Murakami has been described by Gary Fisketjon, the editor of Murakami's collection The Elephant Vanishes (1993), as a "truly extraordinary writer", while Steven Poole of The Guardian praised Murakami as "among the world's greatest living novelists" for his oeuvre. Biography Murakami was born in Kyoto, Japan, during the post-World War II baby boom and raised in Nishinomiya, Ashiya and Kobe. He is an only child. His father was the son of a Buddhist priest, and his mother is the daughter of an Osaka merchant. Both taught Japanese literature. His father was involved in the Second Sino-Japanese War, and was deeply traumatized by it, which would, in turn, affect Murakami. Since childhood, Murakami, like Kōbō Abe, has been heavily influenced by Western culture, particularly Western as well as Russian music and literature. He grew up reading a wide range of works by European and American writers, such as Franz Kafka, Gustave Flaubert, Charles Dickens, Kurt Vonnegut, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Richard Brautigan and Jack Kerouac. These Western influences distinguish Murakami from the majority of other Japanese writers. Murakami studied drama at Waseda University in Tokyo, where he met Yoko, now his wife. His first job was at a record store. Shortly before finishing his studies, Murakami opened a coffee house and jazz bar, Peter Cat, in Kokubunji, Tokyo, which he ran with his wife, from 1974 to 1981. The couple decided not to have children. Murakami is an experienced marathon runner and triathlon enthusiast, though he did not start running until he was 33 years old, after he began as a way to stay healthy despite the hours spent at his desk writing. On June 23, 1996, he completed his first ultramarathon, a 100 km race around Lake Saroma in Hokkaido, Japan. He discusses his relationship with running in his 2007 memoir What I Talk About When I Talk About Running. Writing career Trilogy of the Rat Murakami began to write fiction when he was 29. "Before that," he said, "I didn't write anything. I was just one of those ordinary people. I was running a jazz club, and I didn't create anything at all." He was inspired to write his first novel, Hear the Wind Sing (1979), while watching a baseball game. He described the moment he realized he could write as a "warm sensation" he could still feel in his heart. He went home and began writing that night. Murakami worked on Hear the Wind Sing for ten months in very brief stretches, during nights, after working days at the bar. He completed the novel and sent it to the only literary contest that would accept a work of that length, winning first prize. Murakami's initial success with Hear the Wind Sing encouraged him to continue writing. A year later, he published a sequel, Pinball, 1973. In 1981, he co-wrote a short story collection called Yume de Aimashou with author and future Earthbound/Mother creator Shigesato Itoi. In 1982, he published A Wild Sheep Chase, a critical success. Hear the Wind Sing, Pinball, 1973, and A Wild Sheep Chase form the Trilogy of the Rat (a sequel, Dance, Dance, Dance, was written later but is not considered part of the series), centered on the same unnamed narrator and his friend, "the Rat". The first two novels were not widely available in English translation outside Japan until 2015, although an English edition, translated by Alfred Birnbaum with extensive notes, had been published by Kodansha as part of a series intended for Japanese students of English. Murakami considers his first two novels to be "immature" and "flimsy", and has not been eager to have them translated into English. A Wild Sheep Chase, he says, was "the first book where I could feel a kind of sensation, the joy of telling a story. When you read a good story, you just keep reading. When I write a good story, I just keep writing." Wider recognition In 1985, Murakami wrote Hard-Boiled Wonderland and the End of the World, a dream-like fantasy that took the magical elements of his work to a new extreme. Murakami achieved a major breakthrough and national recognition in 1987 with the publication of Norwegian Wood, a nostalgic story of loss and sexuality. It sold millions of copies among young Japanese. Norwegian Wood propelled the barely known Murakami into the spotlight. He was mobbed at airports and other public places, leading to his departure from Japan in 1986. Murakami traveled through Europe, lived in the United States and currently resides in Oiso, Kanagawa, with an office in Tokyo. Murakami was a writing fellow at Princeton University in Princeton, New Jersey, Tufts University in Medford, Massachusetts, and Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts. During this time he wrote South of the Border, West of the Sun and The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle. From "detachment" to "commitment" The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle (1995) fuses the realistic and fantastic and contains elements of physical violence. It is also more socially conscious than his previous work, dealing in part with the difficult topic of war crimes in Manchukuo (Northeast China). The novel won the Yomiuri Prize, awarded by one of Murakami's harshest former critics, Kenzaburō Ōe, who himself won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1994. The processing of collective trauma soon became an important theme in Murakami's writing, which had previously been more personal in nature. Murakami returned to Japan in the aftermath of the Kobe earthquake and the Aum Shinrikyo gas attack. He came to terms with these events with his first work of non-fiction, Underground, and the short story collection after the quake. Underground consists largely of interviews of victims of the gas attacks in the Tokyo subway system. In 1996, in a conversation with the psychologist Hayao Kawai, Murakami explained that he changed his position from one of "detachment" to one of "commitment" after staying in the United States in the 1990s. He called The Wind-up Bird Chronicle a turning point in his career, marking this change in focus. English translations of many of his short stories written between 1983 and 1990 have been collected in The Elephant Vanishes. Murakami has also translated many works of F. Scott Fitzgerald, Raymond Carver, Truman Capote, John Irving, and Paul Theroux, among others, into Japanese. Murakami took an active role in translation of his work into English, encouraging "adaptations" of his texts to American reality rather than direct translation. Some of his works that appeared in German turned out to be translations from English rather than Japanese (South of the Border, West of the Sun, 2000; The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle, 2000s), encouraged by Murakami himself. Both were later re-translated from Japanese. Since 1999 Sputnik Sweetheart was first published in 1999, followed by Kafka on the Shore in 2002, with the English translation following in 2005. Kafka on the Shore won the World Fantasy Award for Novels in 2006. The English version of his novel After Dark was released in May 2007. It was chosen by The New York Times as a "notable book of the year". In late 2005, Murakami published a collection of short stories titled Tōkyō Kitanshū, or 東京奇譚集, which translates loosely as "Mysteries of Tokyo". A collection of the English versions of twenty-four short stories, titled Blind Willow, Sleeping Woman, was published in August 2006. This collection includes both older works from the 1980s as well as some of Murakami's more recent short stories, including all five that appear in Tōkyō Kitanshū. In 2002, Murakami published the anthology Birthday Stories, which collects short stories on the theme of birthdays. The collection includes work by Russell Banks, Ethan Canin, Raymond Carver, David Foster Wallace, Denis Johnson, Claire Keegan, Andrea Lee, Daniel Lyons, Lynda Sexson, Paul Theroux, and William Trevor, as well as a story by Murakami himself. What I Talk About When I Talk About Running, containing tales about his experience as a marathon runner and a triathlete, was published in Japan in 2007, with English translations released in the U.K. and the U.S. in 2008. The title is a play on that of Raymond Carver's short story collection What We Talk About When We Talk About Love. Shinchosha Publishing published Murakami's novel 1Q84 in Japan on May 29, 2009. 1Q84 is pronounced "ichi kyū hachi yon", the same as 1984, as 9 is also pronounced "kyū" in Japanese. The book was longlisted for the Man Asian Literary Prize in 2011. However, after the 2012 anti-Japanese demonstrations in China, Murakami's books were removed from sale there, along with those of other Japanese authors. Murakami criticized the China–Japan political territorial dispute, characterizing the overwrought nationalistic response as "cheap liquor" which politicians were giving to the public. In April 2013, he published his novel Colorless Tsukuru Tazaki and His Years of Pilgrimage. It became an international bestseller but received mixed reviews. Killing Commendatore (Kishidancho Goroshi) was published in Japan on February 24, 2017 and in the US in October 2018, the novel is a historical fiction that has caused controversy in Hong Kong. The novel was labeled under "Class II – indecent" in Hong Kong. This classification led to mass amounts of censorship. The publisher must not distribute the book to people under the age of 18, and must have a warning label printed on the cover. Murakami's most recent novel is The City and Its Uncertain Walls, which will be published by Shinchosha in Japan on 13 April 2023. His first novel in six years, it is 1,200-pages long and is set in a "soul-stirring, 100% pure Murakami world" that involves "a story that had long been sealed". Writing style Most of Haruki Murakami's works use first-person narrative in the tradition of the Japanese I-novel. He states that because family plays a significant role in traditional Japanese literature, any main character who is independent becomes a man who values freedom and solitude over intimacy. Also notable is Murakami's unique humor, as seen in his 2000 short story collection, After the Quake. In the story "Superfrog Saves Tokyo", the protagonist is confronted with a 6-foot tall frog that talks about the destruction of Tokyo over a cup of tea. In spite of the story's sober tone, Murakami feels the reader should be entertained once the seriousness of a subject has been broached. Another notable feature of Murakami's stories are the comments that come from the main characters as to how strange the story presents itself. Murakami explains that his characters experience what he experiences as he writes, which could be compared to a movie set where the walls and props are all fake. He has further compared the process of writing to movies: "That is one of the joys of writing fiction—I'm making my own film made just for myself." Many of his novels have themes and titles that evoke classical music, such as the three books making up The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle: The Thieving Magpie (after Rossini's opera), Bird as Prophet (after a piano piece by Robert Schumann usually known in English as The Prophet Bird), and The Bird-Catcher (a character in Mozart's opera The Magic Flute). Some of his novels take their titles from songs: Dance, Dance, Dance (after The Dells' 1957 B-side song, although it is often thought it was titled after the Beach Boys' 1964 tune), Norwegian Wood (after The Beatles' song) and South of the Border, West of the Sun (after the song "South of the Border"). Some analyses see aspects of shamanism in his writing. In a 2000 article, Susan Fisher connected Shinto or Japanese shamanism with some elements of The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle, such as a descent into a dry well. At an October 2013 symposium held at the University of Hawaii, associate professor of Japanese Nobuko Ochner opined "there were many descriptions of traveling in a parallel world as well as characters who have some connection to shamanism" in Murakami's works. Recognition Prizes for books 1979: Gunzo Award (best first novel) for Hear the Wind Sing 1982: Noma Literary Prize (best newcomer) for A Wild Sheep Chase 1985: Tanizaki Prize for Hard-Boiled Wonderland and the End of the World 1995: Yomiuri Prize (best novel) for The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle 1999: Kuwabara Takeo Prize for Underground 2006: World Fantasy Award (best novel) for Kafka on the Shore 2006: Frank O'Connor International Short Story Award for Blind Willow, Sleeping Woman 2016: Hans Christian Andersen Literature Award 2018: America Award in Literature for a lifetime contribution to international writing 2022: Prix mondial Cinco Del Duca for a lifetime of work constituting, in a literary form, a message of modern humanism Murakami was also awarded the 2007 Kiriyama Prize for Fiction for his collection of short stories Blind Willow, Sleeping Woman, but according to the prize's official website, Murakami "declined to accept the award for reasons of personal principle". Personal prizes In 2006, Murakami became the sixth recipient of the Franz Kafka Prize. In January 2009, Murakami received the Jerusalem Prize, a biennial literary award given to writers whose work deals with themes of human freedom, society, politics, and government. There were protests in Japan and elsewhere against his attending the February award ceremony in Israel, including threats to boycott his work as a response against Israel's recent bombing of the Gaza. Murakami chose to attend the ceremony, but gave a speech to the gathered Israeli dignitaries harshly criticizing Israeli policies. Murakami said, "Each of us possesses a tangible living soul. The system has no such thing. We must not allow the system to exploit us." The same year he was named Knight of the Order of Arts and Letters of Spain. In 2011, Murakami donated his €80,000 winnings from the International Catalunya Prize (from the Generalitat de Catalunya) to the victims of the March 11 earthquake and tsunami, and to those affected by the Fukushima nuclear disaster. Accepting the award, he said in his speech that the situation at the Fukushima plant was "the second major nuclear disaster that the Japanese people have experienced ... however, this time it was not a bomb being dropped upon us, but a mistake committed by our very own hands". According to Murakami, the Japanese people should have rejected nuclear power after having "learned through the sacrifice of the hibakusha just how badly radiation leaves scars on the world and human wellbeing". In recent years, Haruki Murakami has often been mentioned as a possible recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature. Nonetheless, since all nomination records are sealed for 50 years from the awarding of the prize, it is pure speculation. When asked about the possibility of being awarded the Nobel Prize, Murakami responded with a laugh saying "No, I don't want prizes. That means you're finished." In October 2014, he was awarded the Welt-Literaturpreis. In April 2015, Murakami was named one of the TIME 100's most influential people. In November 2016, he was awarded the Danish Hans Christian Andersen Literature Award, an award previously won by British author JK Rowling. In 2018 he was nominated for the New Academy Prize in Literature. He requested that his nomination be withdrawn, saying he wanted to "concentrate on writing, away from media attention." In 2023 he was awarded the Princess of Asturias Award for Literature. Honorary degrees Murakami has received honorary degrees (Doctor of Letters) from the University of Liège (September 2007), Princeton University (June 2008), Tufts University (May 2014), and Yale University (May 2016). Archives In 2018 Waseda University in Tokyo agreed to house the archives of Haruki Murakami, including his manuscripts, source documents, and music collection. The collection is intended to be open to scholars, and is set to open in October 2021. In September 2021, architect Kengo Kuma announced the opening of a library dedicated entirely to Murakami's works at Waseda University. It will include more than 3,000 works by Murakami, including translations into more than 50 other languages. Films and other adaptations Murakami's first novel, Hear the Wind Sing (Kaze no uta o kike), was adapted by Japanese director Kazuki Ōmori. The film was released in 1981 and distributed by Art Theatre Guild. Naoto Yamakawa directed two short films, Attack on the Bakery (released in 1982) and A Girl, She is 100 Percent (released in 1983), based on Murakami's short stories "Bakery Attack" and "On Seeing the 100% Perfect Girl One Beautiful April Morning", respectively. Japanese director Jun Ichikawa adapted Murakami's short story "Tony Takitani" into a 75-minute feature. The film played at various film festivals and was released in New York and Los Angeles on July 29, 2005. The original short story, translated into English by Jay Rubin, is available in the April 15, 2002 issue of The New Yorker, as a stand-alone book published by Cloverfield Press, and part of Blind Willow, Sleeping Woman by Knopf. In 1998, the German film The Polar Bear (), written and directed by Granz Henman, used elements of Murakami's short story "The Second Bakery Attack" in three intersecting story lines. "The Second Bakery Attack" was also adapted as a short film in 2010, directed by Carlos Cuarón, starring Kirsten Dunst and as part of a segment in the South Korean omnibus film Acoustic. Murakami's work was also adapted for the stage in a 2003 play entitled The Elephant Vanishes, co-produced by Britain's Complicite company and Japan's Setagaya Public Theatre. The production, directed by Simon McBurney, adapted three of Murakami's short stories and received acclaim for its unique blending of multimedia (video, music, and innovative sound design) with actor-driven physical theater (mime, dance, and even acrobatic wire work). On tour, the play was performed in Japanese, with supertitle translations for European and American audiences. Two stories from Murakami's book After The Quake"Honey Pie" and "Superfrog Saves Tokyo"have been adapted for the stage and directed by Frank Galati. Entitled after the quake, the play was first performed at the Steppenwolf Theatre Company in association with La Jolla Playhouse, and opened on October 12, 2007, at Berkeley Repertory Theatre. In 2008, Galati also adapted and directed a theatrical version of Kafka on the Shore, which first ran at Chicago's Steppenwolf Theatre Company from September to November. On Max Richter's 2006 album Songs from Before, Robert Wyatt reads passages from Murakami's novels. In 2007, Robert Logevall adapted "All God's Children Can Dance" into a film, with a soundtrack composed by American jam band Sound Tribe Sector 9. In 2008, Tom Flint adapted "On Seeing the 100% Perfect Girl One Beautiful April Morning" into a short film. The film was screened at the 2008 CON-CAN Movie Festival. The film was viewed, voted, and commented upon as part of the audience award for the movie festival. It was announced in July 2008 that French-Vietnamese director Tran Anh Hung would direct an adaptation of Murakami's novel Norwegian Wood. The film was released in Japan on December 11, 2010. In 2010, Stephen Earnhart adapted The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle into a two-hour multimedia stage presentation. The show opened January 12, 2010, as part of the Public Theater's "Under the Radar" festival at the Ohio Theater in New York City, presented in association with The Asia Society and the Baryshnikov Arts Center. The show had its world premiere at the Edinburgh International Festival on August 21, 2011. The presentation incorporates live actors, video projection, traditional Japanese puppetry, and immersive soundscapes to render the surreal landscape of the original work. "Memoranda", a 2017 video game had been inspired by several Murakami short stories, mainly from Blind Willow, Sleeping Woman and The Elephant Vanishes, and features several Murakami characters, including Mizuki Ando. In 2018, "Barn Burning" from Murakami's short story collection The Elephant Vanishes was adapted into a film titled Burning by director Lee Chang-dong. The film was awarded the FIPRESCI International Critics’ Prize for best film, receiving the highest score to date. It was also South Korea’s submission for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film in 2019. A film based on the short story "Drive My Car" premiered at the 2021 Cannes Film Festival, where it won Best Screenplay, the FIPRESCI Prize, and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury. The film went on to win the Academy Award for Best International Feature and received three other nominations: Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Adapted Screenplay. Directed by Ryusuke Hamaguchi, it also takes inspiration from Chekhov's play Uncle Vanya as well as "Scheherazade" and "Kino," two other stories in the collection Men Without Women. In 2022, Confessions of a Shinagawa Monkey was translated into Yorùbá by Nigerian linguist Kola Tubosun, making it the first time a Murakami story would be translated into an African language. Personal life After receiving the Gunzo Award for his 1979 literary work Hear the Wind Sing, Murakami did not aspire to meet other writers. Aside from Sarah Lawrence's Mary Morris, whom he briefly mentions in his memoir What I Talk About When I Talk About Running alongside Joyce Carol Oates and Toni Morrison, Murakami was never a part of a community of writers, his reason being that he was a loner and was never fond of groups, schools, and literary circles. When working on a book, Murakami states that he relies on his wife, who is always his first reader. While he never acquainted himself with many writers, among the contemporary writers, he enjoys the work of Kazuo Ishiguro, Cormac McCarthy, Lee Child and Dag Solstad. While he does not read much contemporary Japanese literature, Murakami enjoys the works of Ryū Murakami and Banana Yoshimoto. Murakami enjoys baseball and describes himself as a fan of the Tokyo Yakult Swallows. In his 2015 essay for Literary Hub 'The Moment I Became a Novelist', Murakami describes how attending a Swallow's game in Jingu Stadium in 1978 led to a personal epiphany in which he decided to write his first novel. Haruki Murakami is a fan of crime novels. During his high school days while living in Kōbe, he would buy paperbacks from second hand book stores and learned to read English. The first book that he read in English was The Name is Archer, written by Ross Macdonald in 1955. Other writers he was interested in included Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoyevsky. Murakami also has a passion for listening to music, especially classical and jazz. When he was around 15, he began to develop an interest in jazz after attending an Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers concert in Kobe. He later opened the Peter Cat, a coffeehouse and jazz bar. Murakami has said that music, like writing, is a mental journey. At one time he aspired to be a musician, but because he could not play instruments well he decided to become a writer instead. In an interview with The Guardian, Murakami stated his belief that his surreal books appeal to people especially in times of turmoil and political chaos. He stated that "I was so popular in the 1990s in Russia, at the time they were changing from the Soviet Union – there was big confusion, and people in confusion like my books" and “In Germany, when the Berlin Wall fell down, there was confusion – and people liked my books.” Political views Murakami told the New York Times in 2011, "I think of myself as a political person, but I don't state my political messages to anybody." Comparing himself to George Orwell, he views himself as standing "against the system." In 2009, whilst accepting an award in Israel, he expressed his political views as:If there is a hard, high wall and an egg that breaks against it, no matter how right the wall or how wrong the egg, I will stand on the side of the egg. Why? Because each of us is an egg, a unique soul enclosed in a fragile egg. Each of us is confronting a high wall. The high wall is the system which forces us to do the things we would not ordinarily see fit to do as individuals.Murakami stated that it is natural for China and Koreas to continue to feel resentment towards Japan for its wartime aggressions. "Fundamentally, Japanese people tend not to have an idea that they were also assailants, and the tendency is getting clearer," he said. In another interview, Murakami stated: "The issue of historical understanding carries great significance, and I believe it is important that Japan makes straightforward apologies. I think that is all Japan can do – apologise until the countries say: 'We don't necessarily get over it completely, but you have apologised enough. Alright, let's leave it now.'" In January 2015, Murakami expressed support for same-sex marriage, which is not recognised in Japan, when responding to a reader's question about his stance on the issue. In August 2021, during one of his radio shows, Murakami criticized prime minister Yoshihide Suga over the handling of the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan. Murakami quoted Suga as saying "an exit is now in our sight after a long tunnel" and added, in criticism, that "If he really saw an exit, his eyes must be extremely good for his age. I'm of the same age as Mr. Suga, but I don't see any exit at all." In 2022, during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, which was part of the larger Russian-Ukrainian war, Murakami called for peace. He prepared a special radio program calling for peace. Murakami featured there around ten musical pieces that encourage to end the war and "focus on the preciousness of life". Bibliography This is an incomplete bibliography as not all works published by Murakami in Japanese have been translated into English. Kanji titles are given with Hepburn romanization. (Original titles entirely in transcribed English are given as "katakana / romaji = English".) Novels Short stories Collections List of stories Essays and nonfiction Other books ——————— Notes See also Japanese literature Surrealism Weird fiction References Further reading Pintor, Ivan. "David Lynch y Haruki Murakami, la llama en el umbral", in: VV.AA., Universo Lynch. Internacional Sitges Film Festival-Calamar 2007 () Rubin, Jay. Haruki Murakami and the Music of Words. Harvill Press, 2002 () Strecher, Matthew Carl. The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle Readers Guide. Continuum Pubublishing Group, 2002 () Strecher, Matthew Carl. Dances with Sheep: The Quest for Identity in the Fiction of Murakami Haruki. University of Michigan/Monographs in Japanese Studies, 2001 () Suter, Rebecca. The Japanization of Modernity: Murakami Haruki Between Japan and the United States. Harvard University Asian Center, 2008. () External links Haruki Murakami at Random House Haruki Murakami at The New Yorker (online essays, stories, excerpts) Haruki Murakami at The New York Times (articles about, interviews with) Haruki Murakami at Complete Review (international meta-reviews) Haruki Murakami at The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction Interviews "Haruki Murakami: The Outsider" (by Laura Miller and Don George), Salon, December 1997 (about Wind-Up Bird and Underground) "Haruki Murakami, The Art of Fiction No. 182" (by John Wray), The Paris Review, Summer 2004 Articles "The reception of Murakami Haruki in Taiwan" (PDF), Yale University "Haruki Murakami: How a Japanese writer conquered the world" (by Stephanie Hegarty), BBC News, October 17, 2011 "The 10 Best Haruki Murakami Books" (by Murakami scholar Matthew C. Strecher), Publishers Weekly, August 8, 2014 Multimedia Video about Murakami's life and work at Psychology Today's blog The Literary Mind Category:1949 births Category:20th-century Japanese novelists Category:20th-century Japanese translators Category:21st-century Japanese translators Category:21st-century Japanese novelists Category:English–Japanese translators Category:Japanese essayists Category:Japanese male short story writers Category:Japanese psychological fiction writers Category:Japanese science fiction writers Category:Japanese ultramarathon runners Category:Jerusalem Prize recipients Category:Literary translators Category:Living people Category:Magic realism writers Category:Male ultramarathon runners Category:Order of Arts and Letters of Spain recipients Category:Postmodern writers Category:Princeton University faculty Category:Tufts University faculty Category:Waseda University alumni Category:Yomiuri Prize winners Category:World Fantasy Award-winning writers Category:Writers from Kyoto Category:Weird fiction writers Category:Progressivism in Japan
[ { "text": "Multimedia is a form of communication that uses a combination of different content forms such as text, audio, images, animations, or video into a single interactive presentation, in contrast to traditional mass media, such as printed material or audio recordings, which features little to no interaction between users. Popular examples of multimedia include video podcasts, audio slideshows and animated videos. Multimedia also contains the principles and application of effective interactive communication such as the building blocks of software, hardware, and other technologies. The five main building blocks of multimedia are text, image, audio, video, and animation. \n\nMultimedia can be recorded for playback on computers, laptops, smartphones, and other electronic devices. In the early years of multimedia, the term \"rich media\" was synonymous with interactive multimedia. Over time, hypermedia extensions brought multimedia to the World Wide Web and streaming services became more common.\n\nTerminology \nThe term multimedia was coined by singer and artist Bob Goldstein (later 'Bobb Goldsteinn') to promote the July 1966 opening of his \"Lightworks at L'Oursin\" show in Southampton, New York, Long Island. Goldstein was perhaps aware of an American artist named Dick Higgins, who had two years previously discussed a new approach to art-making he called \"intermedia\".\n\nBefore the invention of the term, the idea of multimedia could be taken back to when the 19th century composer Richard Wagner believed in the concept of Gesamtkunstwerk, meaning 'total artwork'. Wagner strived to combine multiple art forms- opera, drama, music - to create a perfect synthesis on stage. He looked down on the Grand Opera at the time, which emphasized individual talent, rather than the complete work as a whole. By combining these art forms, Wagner believed the most profound art could be made.\n\nOn August 10, 1966, Richard Albarino of Variety borrowed the terminology, reporting: \"Brainchild of song scribe-comic Bob ('Washington Square') Goldstein, the 'Lightworks' is the latest multi-media music-cum-visuals to debut as discothèque fare.\" Two years later, in 1968, the term \"multimedia\" was re-appropriated to describe the work of a political consultant, David Sawyer, the husband of Iris Sawyer—one of Goldstein's producers at L'Oursin.\n\n In the intervening forty years, the word has taken on different meanings. In the late 1970s, the term referred to presentations consisting of multi-projector slide shows timed to an audio track. However, by the 1990s 'multimedia' took on its current meaning.\n\nIn the 1993 first edition of Multimedia: Making It Work, Tay Vaughan declared \"Multimedia is any combination of text, graphic art, sound, animation, and video that is delivered by computer. When you allow the user – the viewer of the project – to control what and when these elements are delivered, it is interactive multimedia. When you provide a structure of linked elements through which the user can navigate, interactive multimedia becomes hypermedia.\"\n\nThe German language society Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache recognized the word's significance and ubiquitousness in the 1990s by awarding it the title of German 'Word of the Year' in 1995. The institute summed up its rationale by stating \"[Multimedia] has become a central word in the wonderful new media world\".\n\nIn common usage, multimedia refers to an electronically delivered combination of media including video, still images, audio, and text in such a way that can be accessed interactively. Much of the content on the web today falls within this definition as understood by millions. Some computers which were marketed in the 1990s were called \"multimedia\" computers because they incorporated a CD-ROM drive, which allowed for the delivery of several hundred megabytes of video, picture, and audio data. That era saw also a boost in the production of educational multimedia CD-ROMs. A standard CD-ROM can hold on average 700 megabytes of data, while the maximum size a 3.5 inch floppy disk can hold is 2.8 megabytes, with an average of 1.44 megabytes. \n\nThe term \"video\", if not used exclusively to describe motion photography, is ambiguous in multimedia terminology. Video is often used to describe the file format, delivery format, or presentation format instead of \"footage\" which is used to distinguish motion photography from \"animation\" of rendered motion imagery. Multiple forms of information content are often not considered modern forms of presentation such as audio or video. Likewise, single forms of information content with single methods of information processing (e.g. non-interactive audio) are often called multimedia, perhaps to distinguish static media from active media. In the fine arts, for example, Leda Luss Luyken's ModulArt brings two key elements of musical composition and film into the world of painting: variation of a theme and movement of and within a picture, making ModulArt an interactive multimedia form of art. Performing arts may also be considered multimedia considering that performers and props are multiple forms of both content and media.\n\nIn modern times, a multimedia device can be referred to an electronic device, such as a smartphone, a video game system, or a computer. Each and everyone of these devices have a main function, but also have other uses beyond their intended purpose, such as reading, writing, recording video and audio, listening to music, and playing video games. This has lend them to be called \"multimedia devices\". While previous media was always local, many are now handled through web based solutions, particularly streaming.\n\nMajor characteristics \nMultimedia presentations are presentations featuring multiple types of media. The different types of media can include text, graphics, audio, video and animations. These different types of media convey information to their target audience and effectively communicate with them. Videos are a great visual example to use in multimedia presentations because they can create visual aids to the presenter's ideas. They are commonly used among education and many other industries to benefit students and workers, as they effectively retain chunks of information in a limited amount of time and can be stored easily. Another example is charts and graphs, as the presenters can show their audience the trends using data associated with their researches. This provides the audience a visual idea of a company's capabilities and performances.<ref></</ref> Audio also helps people understand the message being presented, as most modern videos are combined with audio to increase its efficiency, while animations are made to simplify things from the presenter's perspective. These technological methods allow efficient communication and understanding across a wide range of audiences (with an even wider range of abilities) throughout different fields. \n\nMultimedia games and simulations may be used in a physical environment with special effects, with multiple users in an online network, or locally with an offline computer, game system, or simulator.\n\nThe various formats of technological or digital multimedia may be intended to enhance the users' experience, for example to make it easier and faster to convey information. Or in entertainment or art, combine an array of artistic insights that includes elements from different art forms to engage, inspire, or captivate an audience.\n\nEnhanced levels of interactivity are made possible by combining multiple forms of media content. Online multimedia is increasingly becoming object-oriented and data-driven, enabling applications with collaborative end-user innovation and personalization on multiple forms of content over time. Examples of these range from multiple forms of content on Web sites like photo galleries with both images (pictures) and title (text) user-updated, to simulations whose co-efficients, events, illustrations, animations or videos are modifiable, allowing the multimedia \"experience\" to be altered without reprogramming. In addition to seeing and hearing, haptic technology enables virtual objects to be felt. Emerging technology involving illusions of taste and smell may also enhance the multimedia experience.\n\nCategorization \nMultimedia may be broadly divided into linear and non-linear categories:\nLinear active content progresses often without any navigational control, only focusing on the user to watch the entire piece by involving higher levels of emotional and sensory stimulation based on what's being shown as a cinema presentation;\nNon-linear uses interactivity to control progress as with a video game or self-paced computer-based training so that the actions made will be based on how the user interacts within the simulated world. Hypermedia is an example of non-linear content.\n\nMultimedia presentations can be live or recorded:\nA recorded presentation may allow interactivity via a navigation system;\nA live multimedia presentation may allow interactivity via an interaction with the presenter or performer.\n\nUsage/application \n\nMultimedia finds its application in various areas including, but not limited to, advertisements, art, education, entertainment, engineering, medicine, mathematics, business, scientific research and spatial temporal applications. Several examples are as follows:\n\nCreative industries \nCreative industries use multimedia for a variety of purposes ranging from fine arts, to entertainment, to commercial art, to journalism, to media and software services provided for any of the industries listed below. An individual multimedia designer may cover the spectrum throughout their career. Request for their skills range from technical, to analytical, to creative.\n\nCommercial uses \nMuch of the electronic old and new media used by commercial artists in multimedia.. Advertising companies rely heavily on social interfaces and television to promote products. Using these platforms, they are able to express their message or persuade a targeted audience. Business to business and interoffice communications are often developed by creative services firms for advanced multimedia presentations beyond simple slide shows to sell ideas or liven up training. Commercial multimedia developers may be hired to design for governmental services and nonprofit services applications as well. In addition, the prominence of data mining within multimedia platforms in order to adjust marketing techniques based on the data they mine is a crucial and notable practice of commercial advertisement to efficiently understand the demographic of a target audience. In recent years a new trend of multimedia has arrived, a new sort of digital billboard placed on the side of buildings and usually wrapping around the side of it. These take clips made at differing angles to trick the brain into seeing them as 3-Dimensional, like they're leaving the billboard entirely. This makes them eye-catching and therefore more likely to draw in people's attention which is of course, very good for commercial purposes.\n\nEntertainment and fine arts \nMultimedia is heavily used in the entertainment industry, especially to develop special effects in movies and animations (VFX, 3D animation, etc.). Multimedia games are a popular pastime and are software programs available either as CD-ROMs or online. Video games are considered multimedia, as such games meld animation, audio, and interactivity to allow the player an immersive experience. While video games can vary in terms of animation style or audio type, the element of interactivity makes them a striking example of interactive multimedia. Interactive multimedia refers to multimedia applications that allow users to actively participate instead of just sitting by as passive recipients of information.\nIn the arts, there are multimedia artists who blend techniques using different media that in some way incorporate interaction with the viewer. Another approach entails the creation of multimedia that can be displayed in a traditional fine arts arena, such as an art gallery. Video has become an intrinsic part of many concerts and theatrical productions in the modern era, and has spawned content creation opportunities for many media professionals. Although multimedia display material may be volatile, the survivability of the content is as strong as any traditional media.\n\nEducation \nIn education, multimedia is used to produce computer-based training courses (popularly called CBTs) and reference books like encyclopedia and almanacs. A CBT lets the user go through a series of presentations, text about a particular topic, and associated illustrations in various information formats.\n\nLearning theory in the past decade has expanded dramatically because of the introduction of multimedia. Several lines of research have evolved, e.g. cognitive load and multimedia learning.\n\nFrom multimedia learning (MML) theory, David Roberts has developed a large group lecture practice using PowerPoint and based on the use of full-slide images in conjunction with a reduction of visible text (all text can be placed in the notes view' section of PowerPoint). The method has been applied and evaluated in 9 disciplines. In each experiment, students' engagement and active learning have been approximately 66% greater, than with the same material being delivered using bullet points, text, and speech, corroborating a range of theories presented by multimedia learning scholars like Sweller and Mayer. The idea of media convergence is also becoming a major factor in education, particularly higher education. Defined as separate technologies such as voice (and telephony features), data (and productivity applications), and video that now share resources and interact with each other, media convergence is rapidly changing the curriculum in universities all over the world. Higher education has been implementing the use of social media applications such as Twitter, YouTube, Facebook, etc. to increase student collaboration and develop new processes in how information can be conveyed to students.\n\nEducational technology \n\nMultimedia provides students with an alternate means of acquiring knowledge designed to enhance teaching and learning through various mediums and platforms. In the 1960s, technology began to expand into the classrooms through devices such as screens and telewriters. This technology allows students to learn at their own pace and gives teachers the ability to observe the individual needs of each student. The capacity for multimedia to be used in multi-disciplinary settings is structured around the idea of creating a hands-on learning environment through the use of technology. Lessons can be tailored to the subject matter as well as be personalized to the students' varying levels of knowledge on the topic. Learning content can be managed through activities that utilize and take advantage of multimedia platforms. This kind of usage of modern multimedia encourages interactive communication between students and teachers and opens feedback channels, introducing an active learning process especially with the prevalence of new media and social media. Technology has impacted multimedia as it is largely associated with the use of computers or other electronic devices and digital media due to its capabilities concerning research, communication, problem-solving through simulations and feedback opportunities. The innovation of technology in education through the use of multimedia allows for diversification among classrooms to enhance the overall learning experience for students.\n\nSocial work \nMultimedia is a robust education methodology within the social work context. The five different multimedia which supports the education process are narrative media, interactive media, communicative media, adaptive media, and productive media. Contrary to long-standing belief, multimedia technology in social work education existed before the prevalence of the internet. It takes the form of images, audio, and video into the curriculum.\n\nFirst introduced to social work education by Seabury & Maple in 1993, multimedia technology is utilized to teach social work practice skills including interviewing, crisis intervention, and group work. In comparison with conventional teaching method, including face-to-face courses, multimedia education shortens transportation time, increases knowledge and confidence in a richer and more authentic context for learning, generates interaction between online users, and enhances understanding of conceptual materials for novice students.\n\nIn an attempt to examine the impact of multimedia technology on students' study, A. Elizabeth Cauble & Linda P. Thurston conducted a research in which Building Family Foundations (BFF), an interactive multimedia training platform, was utilized to assess social work students' reactions to multimedia technology on variables of knowledge, attitudes, and self-efficacy. The results states that respondents show a substantial increase in academic knowledge, confidence, and attitude. Multimedia also benefits students because it brings expert to students online, fits students' schedule, allows students to choose courses that suit them.\n\nMayer's Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning suggests, \"people learn more from words and pictures than from words alone.\" According to Mayer and other scholars, multimedia technology stimulates people's brains by implementing visual and auditory effects, and thereby assists online users to learn efficiently. Researchers suggest that when users establish dual channels while learning, they tend to understand and memorize better. Mixed literature of this theory are still present in the field of multimedia and social work.\n\nLanguage communication \nWith the spread and development of the English language around the world, multimedia has become an important way of communicating between different people and cultures. Multimedia Technology creates a platform where language can be taught. The traditional form of teaching English as a Second Language in classrooms have drastically changed with the prevalence of technology, making easier for students to obtain language learning skills. Multimedia motivates students to learn more languages through audio, visual and animation support. It also helps create English contexts since an important aspect of learning a language is developing their grammar, vocabulary and knowledge of pragmatics and genres. In addition, cultural connections in terms of forms, contexts, meanings and ideologies have to be constructed. By improving thought patterns, multimedia develops students' communicative competence by improving their capacity to understand the language. One of the studies, carried out by Izquierdo, Simard and Pulido, presented the correlation between \"Multimedia Instruction (MI) and learners' second language (L2)\" and its effects on learning behavior. Their findings based on Gardner's theory of the \"socio-educational model of learner motivation and attitudes\", the study shows that there is easier access to language learning materials as well as increased motivation with MI along with the use of Computer-Assisted Language Learning.\n\nJournalism \nNewspaper companies all over are trying to embrace the new phenomenon by implementing its practices in their work. While some have been slow to come around, other major newspapers like The New York Times, USA Today and The Washington Post are setting a precedent for the positioning of the newspaper industry in a globalized world. To keep up with the changing world of multimedia, journalistic practices are adopting and utilizing different multimedia functions through the inclusion of visuals such as varying audio, video, text, etc. in their writings.\n\nNews reporting is not limited to traditional media outlets. Freelance journalists can use different new media to produce multimedia pieces for their news stories. It engages global audiences and tells stories with technology, which develops new communication techniques for both media producers and consumers. The Common Language Project, later renamed to The Seattle Globalist, is an example of this type of multimedia journalism production.\n\nMultimedia reporters who are mobile (usually driving around a community with cameras, audio and video recorders, and laptop computers) are often referred to as mojos, from mobile journalist.\n\nEngineering \nSoftware engineers may use multimedia in computer simulations for anything from entertainment to training such as military or industrial training. Multimedia for software interfaces are often done as a collaboration between creative professionals and software engineers. Multimedia helps expand the teaching practices that can be found in engineering to allow for more innovated methods to not only educated future engineers, but to help evolve the scope of understanding of where multimedia can be used in specialized engineer careers like software engineers.\n\nMultimedia is also allowing major car manufactures, such as Ford, and General Motors, to expand the design, and safety standards of their cars. By using a game engine and virtual reality glasses, these companies are able to test the safety features, and the design of the car, before a prototype is even made. Building a car virtually reduces the time it takes to produce new vehicles, cutting down on the time needed to test designs, and allowing the designers to make changes in real time. It also reduces expenses, since with a virtual car making real world prototypes is no longer needed.\n\nMathematical and scientific research \nIn mathematical and scientific research, multimedia is mainly used for modeling and simulation. For example, a scientist can look at a molecular model of a particular substance and manipulate it to arrive at a new substance. Representative research can be found in journals such as the Journal of Multimedia. One well known example of this being applied would be in the movie Interstellar where Executive Director Kip Thorne helped create one of the most realistic depictions of a blackhole in film. The visual effects team under Paul Franklin took Kip Thorne's mathematical data and applied it into their own visual effects engine called \"Double Negative Gravitational Renderer\" a.k.a. \"Gargantua\", to create a \"real\" blackhole, used in the final cut. Later on the visual effects team went onto publish a blackhole study\n\nMedicine \nMedical professionals and students have a wide variety of ways to learn new techniques and procedures through interactive media and online courses and lectures. The methods of conveying information to students have drastically evolved with the help of multimedia. From the 1800s to today, lessons are commonly taught using chalkboards. Projected aids, such as the epidiascope and slide projectors, were introduced into the classrooms around the 1960s. With the growing use of computers, the medical field has begun to incorporate new devices and procedures to assist in teaching students, performing procedures, and analyzing patient data. As well as providing that data in a meaningful way to the patients.\n\nVirtual reality \nVirtual reality is a platform for multimedia in which it merges all categories of multimedia into one virtual environment. It has gained much more attention over recent years following technological advancements and is becoming much more commonly used nowadays for various uses like virtual showrooms and video games. Virtual reality was first introduced in 1957 by cinematographer Morton Heilig in the form of an arcade-style booth called Sensorama. The first virtual reality headset was created by American computer scientist Ivan Sutherland and Bob Sproull, his student, in 1968. Virtual reality is used for educational and also recreational purposes like watching movies, interactive video games, simulations etc. Ford Motor Company uses this technology to show customers the interior and exterior of their cars via their Immersion Lab. In Pima County, Arizona their police force is trained by using Virtual Reality to create scenarios for police to practice in.In 1996 Nintendo released the Virtual Boy marking one of the first attempts at a mainstream virtual reality system. Many video game platforms now support virtual reality technology, including Sony's PlayStation, Nintendo's Switch as part of their Labo project, as well as the Oculus VR headsets that can be used for Xbox and PC gaming, with it being more preferable to pair with a PC due to it only being compatible with the original Xbox One and providing limited capabilities.\n\nAugmented reality \n\nAugmented reality overlays digital content or output onto the real world, using media such as audio, animation, and text. Augmented reality became widely popular only in the 21st century; however, some of the earlier versions of such were things like the Sega Genesis Activator Controller back in 1992 which allowed users to literally stand in an octagon and control in game movement with physical movement or to stretch back even further the R.O.B. NES Robot back in 1984 which with its array of accessories was able to also provide users with the sensation of holding a firearm. These multimedia input devices are among some of the earliest of the augmented reality devices by allowing users to input commands to facilitate a different user experience. A more modern example of augmented reality is Pokémon GO, a mobile game released on July 6, 2016, which allows users to see a Pokémon in a real world environment.\n\nSee also \n\n Animation\n Artmedia\n Audio\n Audiovisual\n Computer\n Images\n Internet\n Kraftwerk\n Multi-image\n Multimedia cartography\n Multimedia Messaging Service\n Multimedia search\n New media art\n Non-linear media\n Postliterate society\n Social media\n Text\n Transmedia storytelling\n Universal multimedia access\n Video\n Video Game\n Virtual reality\n Web documentary\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nHistory of Multimedia from the University of Calgary\nMultimedia in Answers.com\n\n \nCategory:Communication design\nCategory:Design\nCategory:Film and video terminology\nCategory:Film production\nCategory:1960s neologisms", "title": "Multimedia" } ]
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C_0bb9ff760c5d4262a59d96b110d5adf9_0
Jason Giambi
Jason Gilbert Giambi (; born January 8, 1971) is an American former professional baseball first baseman and designated hitter. In his Major League Baseball (MLB) career, which began in 1995, he played for the Oakland Athletics, New York Yankees, Colorado Rockies and Cleveland Indians. Giambi was the American League MVP in 2000 while with the Athletics, and is a five-time All-Star who led the American League in walks four times, in on-base percentage three times, and in doubles and in slugging percentage once each, and won the Silver Slugger Award twice. Giambi has publicly apologized for using performance-enhancing drugs during his career.
BALCO scandal
Late in 2003, Giambi was named by FBI officers investigating the Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative (BALCO) as being one of the baseball players believed to have received anabolic steroids from trainer Greg Anderson. In December 2004, the San Francisco Chronicle reported it had seen Giambi's 2003 grand jury testimony in the BALCO investigation. The newspaper said that in his testimony, Giambi admitted to using several different steroids during the off-seasons from 2001 to 2003, and injecting himself with human growth hormone during the 2003 season. In a press conference prior to the 2005 season, Giambi apologized publicly to the media and his fans, though he did not specifically state what for. The lawyer who illegally leaked the testimony later pleaded guilty, and was sentenced to 2 and a half years in prison. Giambi apologized again on May 16, 2007, this time specifically for using steroids, and urged others in the sport to do the same. "I was wrong for using that stuff", he told USA Today. "What we should have done a long time ago was stand up--players, ownership, everybody--and said, 'We made a mistake.'" When asked why he used steroids, Giambi responded: "Maybe one day I'll talk about it, but not now." Giambi did speak with George J. Mitchell, after being forced to do so by Bud Selig. Subsequently, in December 2007, the Mitchell Report included Giambi along with his brother Jeremy Giambi, who also admitted to using steroids during his career. The prosecution in the Barry Bonds perjury case indicated they intended to call both Jason and Jeremy Giambi to testify against Bonds in his March 2009 trial. CANNOTANSWER
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Jason Gilbert Giambi (; born January 8, 1971) is an American former professional baseball first baseman and designated hitter. In his Major League Baseball (MLB) career, which began in 1995, Giambi played for the Oakland Athletics, New York Yankees, Colorado Rockies, and Cleveland Indians. He is the older brother of the late MLB player Jeremy Giambi. Giambi was the American League (AL) MVP in 2000 while with the Athletics, and is a five-time All-Star, who led the AL in walks four times; in on-base percentage three times; and in doubles and slugging percentage once each; he also won the Silver Slugger Award twice. Giambi has publicly apologized for using performance-enhancing drugs during his career. Early life Giambi attended Sacred Heart Private Catholic School in Covina, California. He then attended South Hills High School in his native West Covina, where he was a three-sport standout. Giambi was on the baseball team, whose roster also included his brother Jeremy and three other future major league players: infielder Shawn Wooten, pitchers Aaron Small and Cory Lidle. He batted .386 during his three years of varsity baseball, leading his team to the state finals as a senior. He was voted MVP in both baseball and basketball. In American football, he was an All-League quarterback. Giambi was selected in the 43rd round (1,118th overall) by the Milwaukee Brewers during the 1989 MLB draft. He did not sign and went on to attend college. College career Giambi attended Cal State Long Beach, where he played college baseball for the Long Beach State 49ers baseball team. Giambi played collegiate summer baseball for the Alaska Goldpanners, in the Alaska Baseball League. Professional career Draft and minor leagues The Oakland Athletics selected Giambi in the second round (58th overall) of the 1992 Major League Baseball draft. He started his career that year with the short-season Single-A Southern Oregon A's of the Northwest League, where he hit .317 in 13 games. He was a member of the fourth place United States national baseball team at the 1992 Olympics in Barcelona. The Athletics invited Giambi to spring training in 1993. He then spent the 1993 season playing for the Modesto A's, the Oakland Athletics' Single-A farm team. Giambi also played for the Huntsville Stars in the Southern League and the Kauai Emeralds in the Hawaii Winter Baseball league. Oakland Athletics (1995–2001) Giambi made his major league debut with the Athletics in 1995. Originally used occasionally as an outfielder, third baseman, and first baseman, Giambi assumed the full-time first base job upon the trade of Mark McGwire to the St. Louis Cardinals in 1997. Giambi led the team in 1998 with 27 home runs, 110 runs batted in and a .295 batting average. In 1999, Giambi hit .315 with 33 homers, 105 walks (second in the league), and 123 RBIs (sixth). He came in eighth in MLB Most Valuable Player Award voting. Giambi hit two home runs in Oakland's 2000 season opener on April 3, the first Athletics player to ever do so. In the 2000 season, he led the league in on-base percentage (.476; leading the majors) and walks (137; a personal high and still the most walks in the AL since 1991). He hit .333 (seventh in the league) with 43 homers (second; a career high), 137 RBIs (fourth; a career high), 108 runs (10th), and a .647 slugging percentage (third). Giambi narrowly won the American League Most Valuable Player Award over Frank Thomas. His 2001 season was nearly identical. He led the league for the second year in a row in both on-base percentage (.477; a career best, and still the highest OBP in the AL since 1995) and walks (129). He also led the league in slugging percentage (.660; a career best), doubles (47; a career high), times on base (320), and extra base hits (87). He batted .342 (second in the American League; a career high) with 38 homers (seventh), 109 runs (sixth), and 120 RBIs (eighth). He was second in the league in intentional walks (24), the only time in his career that he was in the top 10 in this category. He finished a close second in MVP voting to Ichiro Suzuki, and won the Silver Slugger Award. Both years, he led the Athletics to the post-season, both times losing in the American League Division Series to the New York Yankees in five games. New York Yankees (2002–2008) On December 13, 2001, Giambi signed a seven-year $120-million deal with the New York Yankees. In line with Yankee team rules, Giambi cut his long hair and shaved his goatee. The signing upset many Athletics fans, who felt betrayed by the departure of their team leader. Giambi became an object of the A's fans' wrath whenever New York visited Oakland. During a game on May 14, 2005, he was hit with a beer thrown by an unruly fan on his way back to the dugout. Giambi continued slugging with New York in 2002. He led the league for the second consecutive year in times on base (300), had 109 walks (second), was third in the league with both a .435 OBP and 15 HBP, had 41 home runs (fourth), 120 runs (fourth; a career high), and a .598 slugging percentage (fourth), knocked in 122 runs (fifth), and batted .314 (sixth). He came in fifth in AL MVP voting, and again won the Silver Slugger Award. He also hit an "ultimate grand slam"—a walk-off grand slam against the Twins in a rain-soaked extra-inning game, that won that game 13–12. Although his average dipped to .250 in 2003, he led the league in walks (129) for the third time in his career and in HBP (21) and percent of plate appearances that were walks (19.4%), maintained an extremely high on-base percentage (.412; third in the league), hit 41 home runs (fourth), and had 107 RBIs (eighth). He was also second in the major leagues in fly ball percentage (52.0%). He remained one of the most patient hitters in the majors. At the same time, he also led the league in strikeouts (140), the only season that he has even been in the top 10 in the league in that category. On July 30, 2004, test results confirmed that Giambi had a benign tumor, which placed him on the disabled list. He was treated for the tumor, and returned to the team for their game against the Kansas City Royals on September 14. That year, Giambi was voted in as the starting first baseman in the 2004 MLB All-Star Game despite finishing the year with a .208 batting average and just 12 home runs. Giambi's performance in 2004 was so poor that he was not added to the Yankees postseason roster. Towards the middle of the 2005 season, Giambi saw a resurgence in his career. On July 31, he hit his 300th career home run off of Esteban Yan of the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. This was his 14th home run of the month, tying Mickey Mantle for the Yankee record for home runs in July. Giambi ended the 2005 season leading the major leagues in walk percentage (20.6%) and leading the American League in walks for the fourth time in his career (109), and in OBP for the third time in his career (.440, as well as in fly ball percentage (47.7%); second in MLB to Todd Helton), and had an OPS of .975, placing him fifth in the AL. He hit 32 homers (10th in the league), the seventh time in his career in which he has hit 30 or more, and was fourth in HBP (19) and at-bats per home run (13.0). Giambi was named the AL Comeback Player of the Year. In 2006, Giambi was named the American League Player of the Month for April, hitting .344 with nine home runs and driving in 27 runs. However, he was left off the 2006 American League All-Star roster. He finished the season leading the majors in walk percentage (19.8%) and leading the league in % Pitches Taken (64.4), second in walks (110), HBP (16), and pitches seen per PA (4.37), fifth in at bats per home run (12.1), sixth in on-base percentage (.416), seventh in home runs (37) and slugging percentage (.558), eighth in intentional walks (12), and ninth in RBIs (113), despite playing in only 139 games (half of them at DH, and half at 1B) for the second year in a row. He performed the unusual feat of having as many RBIs as hits, and for the third time in his career had more walks than strikeouts. Giambi's numbers were down precipitously in the 2007 season due to an injury, in which he hit just .236 with 14 home runs and 39 RBIs. He played in just 83 games, 53 of which as a designated hitter. Giambi got off to a horrible start in the 2008 season, hitting below .200 for more than a month. However, by June, he had turned his season around and become one of the team's most productive players. On September 3, 2008, Giambi walked into a bathroom door in his hotel room while in Florida before playing against the Tampa Bay Rays. The accident caused him to split his eyelid open but he played through the injury later that night and went 1-for-4 with one RBI, helping the Yankees win the second game of the series. On September 21, 2008, Giambi recorded the final hit in Yankee Stadium, when he drove in Brett Gardner with an RBI single. Giambi ended the season with a home run every 14.3 at-bats, beating out Alex Rodriguez to lead the team by a small margin. He was also one of only three players to hit a home run while pinch hitting in 2008, and the only one to do it twice. However, on November 4, 2008, the Yankees declined their option on Giambi for the 2009 season making him a free agent. Second stint with the Athletics (2009) On January 6, 2009, Giambi agreed to sign with the Oakland Athletics. He officially re-joined the A's the next day, and was given his old No. 16 jersey. Giambi hit his first home run since returning to the Athletics on April 25, 2009. On May 23, 2009, Giambi hit his 400th career home run in an 8–7 loss to the Arizona Diamondbacks. He was placed on the disabled list on July 20. At the time, Giambi had the lowest batting average in the majors, and fourth-lowest slugging percentage in the American League. On August 7, 2009, he was released by the A's. Colorado Rockies (2009–2012) Looking for a veteran bat to help their playoff push, the Colorado Rockies agreed to a deal with Giambi on August 23, 2009. He was assigned to their AAA affiliate, the Colorado Springs Sky Sox. Giambi chose to wear the number 23 for his jersey number. His first RBI with the Rockies came in the form of a bases loaded walk in his first plate appearance on September 1, 2009, after being promoted to the club upon roster expansion earlier that day. That year, he had many clutch hits which kept the Rockies in contention for the National League Wild Card. He quickly became a fan favorite in Colorado. On January 23, 2010, Giambi reached an agreement to return to the Rockies. On September 12, Giambi hit a walk-off home run against the Arizona Diamondbacks, extending the winning streak for the Rockies to 10 games. The Colorado Rockies announced on January 17, 2011, a deal to put Giambi in the team's minor league organization with a spring training invite for the 2011 season. Giambi made the 2011 Opening Day roster out of spring training. On May 19, 2011, against the Philadelphia Phillies, Giambi hit three home runs in one game, the first such game for him of his career. The three home runs came in his first three at-bats. Giambi is also the second oldest player to accomplish the feat; at age 41, Stan Musial was the oldest player to hit three home runs in one game on July 8, 1962. Giambi became a free agent after the 2012 season and was a finalist for the Rockies major league managerial opening, which eventually went to Walt Weiss. Giambi was offered the position of Colorado's hitting coach but turned it down. Cleveland Indians (2013–2014) The Cleveland Indians signed Giambi to a minor league contract on February 9, 2013. Giambi made the Indians major league roster following spring training. On July 29, 2013, Giambi became the oldest player to hit a walk-off home run. He broke his own record for oldest player to hit a walk-off home run in a season saving win for the Indians against the White Sox on September 24, 2013. Giambi was re-signed by the Indians on October 31, 2013, to a one-year minor league deal. The deal included an invitation to Spring Training. Giambi was hit by an Edwin Jackson pitch on March 7, 2014. This resulted in a broken rib, and Giambi missed the first 18 games of the season. He was activated on April 21. On August 2, 2014, Giambi gave up his 25 jersey number to Jim Thome to have it unofficially retired by the Indians; Giambi switched his jersey number to 72 that day. On the jersey that he gave to Thome, Giambi put down a message to Thome saying "Jim, It was an honor to be the last person to wear your uniform number in Cleveland Indians history! – Jason Giambi" It was kept a secret from the fans, the players, Thome himself and his family, happening after Thome signed the one-day contract and threw out the first pitch. On February 16, 2015, Giambi announced his retirement. Awards 1999 Oakland Athletics Player of the Year 2000 Oakland Athletics Player of the Year 2000 AL Most Valuable Player 2000 Hutch Award 2001 Oakland Athletics Player of the Year 2001 Baseball America 1st-Team Major League All-Star 1B 2001 AL Silver Slugger Award (1B) 2002 Home Run Derby Winner 2002 Baseball America 2nd-Team Major League All-Star 1B 2002 AL Silver Slugger Award (1B) 2005 AL Comeback Player of the Year BALCO scandal Late in 2003, Giambi was named by FBI officers investigating the Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative (BALCO) as being one of the baseball players believed to have received anabolic steroids from trainer Greg Anderson. In December 2004, the San Francisco Chronicle reported it had seen Giambi's 2003 grand jury testimony in the BALCO investigation. The newspaper said that in his testimony, Giambi admitted to using several different steroids during the off-seasons from 2001 to 2003, and injecting himself with human growth hormone during the 2003 season. In a press conference prior to the 2005 season, Giambi apologized publicly to the media and his fans, though he did not specifically state what for. The lawyer who illegally leaked the testimony later pleaded guilty, and was sentenced to 2 and a half years in prison. Giambi apologized again on May 16, 2007, this time specifically for using steroids, and urged others in the sport to do the same. "I was wrong for using that stuff", he told USA Today. "What we should have done a long time ago was stand up—players, ownership, everybody—and said, 'We made a mistake.'" When asked why he used steroids, Giambi responded: "Maybe one day I'll talk about it, but not now." Giambi did speak with George J. Mitchell, after being forced to do so by Bud Selig. Subsequently, in December 2007, the Mitchell Report included Giambi along with his brother Jeremy Giambi, who also admitted to using steroids during his career. The prosecution in the Barry Bonds perjury case indicated they intended to call both Jason and Jeremy Giambi to testify against Bonds in his March 2009 trial. Personal life Giambi married Kristian on February 2, 2002. His wife is the designer and owner of a lingerie and loungewear company called Brulee. Giambi is one of the owners of Casa Cielo (also owned by Scott Deskins of SCC Development in Austin, Texas) in Cabo San Lucas, Mexico. It is an home on top of the Pedregal sign. His co-owned property was put up for auction in 2019. Giambi's siblings include former major-leaguer Jeremy Giambi, who died in 2022, and a sister named Julie. Video game covers Giambi has appeared as the featured athlete on the cover of several video games throughout his career. Giambi has also been featured as a playable character in Backyard Baseball 2001 as well as Backyard Baseball 2003. Other media Giambi also appeared in The Bronx Is Burning, a television drama that debuted on ESPN in 2007, as a taxi cab driver. See also List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders List of Major League Baseball career on-base percentage leaders List of Major League Baseball career slugging percentage leaders List of Major League Baseball career OPS leaders List of Major League Baseball career times on base leaders List of Major League Baseball career extra base hits leaders List of Major League Baseball career strikeouts by batters leaders List of Major League Baseball career bases on balls leaders List of Major League Baseball annual doubles leaders List of Major League Baseball players named in the Mitchell Report List of sportspeople sanctioned for doping offences References External links Jason Giambi at Baseball Almanac Jason Giambi at Baseball Gauge Category:1971 births Category:Living people Category:American expatriate baseball players in Canada Category:American League Most Valuable Player Award winners Category:American League All-Stars Category:American people of Italian descent Category:Baseball players at the 1991 Pan American Games Category:Baseball players at the 1992 Summer Olympics Category:Baseball players from California Category:California State University, Long Beach alumni Category:Cleveland Indians players Category:Colorado Rockies players Category:Colorado Springs Sky Sox players Category:Drugs in sport in the United States Category:Edmonton Trappers players Category:Huntsville Stars players Category:Long Beach State Dirtbags baseball players Category:Major League Baseball controversies Category:Major League Baseball designated hitters Category:Major League Baseball first basemen Category:Modesto A's players Category:New York Yankees players Category:Oakland Athletics players Category:Olympic baseball players for the United States Category:Pan American Games bronze medalists for the United States Category:Pan American Games medalists in baseball Category:People from the San Gabriel Valley Category:Southern Oregon A's players Category:Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Yankees players Category:Silver Slugger Award winners Category:Tacoma Tigers players Category:Tampa Yankees players Category:Tulsa Drillers players Category:Sportspeople from West Covina, California Category:Medalists at the 1991 Pan American Games Category:Alaska Goldpanners of Fairbanks players
[]
[ "The context does not provide a specific year for the BALCO scandal. CANNOTANSWER", "The scandal was about baseball players believed to have received anabolic steroids from trainer Greg Anderson, specifically Giambi who admitted to using several different steroids and injecting himself with human growth hormone.", "Yes, the San Francisco Chronicle reported on Giambi's 2003 grand jury testimony in the BALCO investigation.", "Yes, Giambi admitted to using several different steroids during the off seasons from 2001 to 2003, and injecting himself with human growth hormone during the 2003 season. He also publicly apologized for his use of the drugs." ]
[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]
C_7bea609b2d4e40c38d9a78435215fd19_1
Kenneth Anger
Kenneth Anger (born Kenneth Wilbur Anglemyer; February 3, 1927) is an American underground experimental filmmaker, actor and author. Working exclusively in short films, he has produced almost forty works since 1937, nine of which have been grouped together as the "Magick Lantern Cycle". His films variously merge surrealism with homoeroticism and the occult, and have been described as containing "elements of erotica, documentary, psychodrama, and spectacle". Anger himself has been described as "one of America's first openly gay filmmakers, and certainly the first whose work addressed homosexuality in an undisguised, self-implicating manner", and his "role in rendering gay culture visible within American cinema, commercial or otherwise, is impossible to overestimate", with several being released prior to the legalization of homosexuality in the United States.
1953-60: Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome and Hollywood Babylon
In 1953, soon after the production of Eaux d'Artifice, Anger's mother died and he temporarily returned to the United States in order to assist with the distribution of her estate. It was during this return that he began to once more immerse himself in the artistic scene of California, befriending the film maker Stan Brakhage, who had been inspired by Fireworks, and the two collaborated on producing a film, but it was confiscated at the film lab for obscenity and presumably destroyed. Around this time, two of Anger's friends, the couple Renate Druks and Paul Mathiesin held a party based upon the theme of "Come As Your Madness"; Anger himself attended dressed in drag as the ancient Greek goddess Hekate. The party and its many costumes inspired Anger, who produced a painting of it, and asked several of those who attended to appear in a new film that he was creating - Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome. Inauguration, which was created in 1954, was a 38-minute surrealist work featuring many Crowleyan and Thelemite themes, with many of the various characters personifying various pagan gods such as Isis, Osiris and Pan. One of the actresses in the film was Marjorie Cameron, the widow of Jack Parsons, the influential American Thelemite who had died a few years previously, while Anger himself played Hecate. He would subsequently exhibit the film at various European film festivals, winning the Prix du Cine-Club Belge and the Prix de l'Age d'Or, as well as screening it in the form of a projected triptych at Expo 58, the World Fair held in Brussels in 1958. In 1955, Anger and his friend Alfred Kinsey traveled to the derelict Abbey of Thelema in Cefalu, Sicily, to film a short documentary titled Thelema Abbey. The abbey itself had been used by Aleister Crowley for his commune during the 1920s, and Anger restored many of the erotic wall-paintings that were found there, as well as performing certain Crowleyan rituals at the site. The documentary was made for the British television series Omnibus, but was later lost. The following year Kinsey died and Anger decided to return to Paris, where he was described at the time as being "extremely remote and lonely". In desperate need of money, Anger wrote a book titled Hollywood Babylon in which he collected together gossip regarding celebrities, some of which he claims he had been told. This included claiming (with no corroboration or citing of sources) that Rudolph Valentino liked to play a sexually submissive role to dominant women, that Walt Disney was a drug user, addicted to opiates (reflected in the character of Goofy, who's perpetually stoned on cannabis), as well as describing the nature of the deaths of Peg Entwistle and Lupe Velez. The work was not published in the United States initially, and it was first released by the French publisher Jean-Jacques Pauvert. A pirated (and incomplete) version was first published in the U.S. in 1965, with the official American version not being published until 1974. Now with some financial backing from the publication of Hollywood Babylon, his next film project was The Story of O; essentially a piece of erotica featuring a heterosexual couple engaged in sadomasochistic sexual activities, although it refrained from showing any explicit sexual images. CANNOTANSWER
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Kenneth Anger (born Kenneth Wilbur Anglemyer, February 3, 1927 – May 11, 2023) was an American underground experimental filmmaker, actor, and author. Working exclusively in short films, he produced almost 40 works beginning in 1937, nine of which have been grouped together as the "Magick Lantern Cycle". Anger's films variously merge surrealism with homoeroticism and the occult, and have been described as containing "elements of erotica, documentary, psychodrama, and spectacle". He has been called "one of America's first openly gay filmmakers", with several films released before homosexuality was legalized in the U.S. Anger also explored occult themes in many of his films; he was fascinated by the English occultist Aleister Crowley and an adherent of Thelema, the religion Crowley founded. Born in a middle-class Presbyterian family in Santa Monica, California, Anger later claimed to have been a child actor who appeared in the film A Midsummer Night's Dream (1935); the accuracy of this claim is disputed. He began making short films when he was 14 years old, although his first film to gain any recognition was the homoerotic Fireworks (1947). The work's controversial nature led to his trial on obscenity charges, but he was acquitted. A friendship and working relationship subsequently began with pioneering sexologist Alfred Kinsey. Moving to Europe, Anger produced a number of shorts inspired by the avant-garde scene there, such as Eaux d'Artifice (1953) and Rabbit's Moon (1971). Returning to the U.S. in the early 1950s, Anger began work on several new projects, including the films Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome (1954), Scorpio Rising (1964), Kustom Kar Kommandos (1965), and the gossip book Hollywood Babylon (1965). The latter became infamous for various dubious and sensationalist claims, many of which were disproved, though some remain urban legends. Getting to know several notable countercultural figures of the time, Anger involved them in his subsequent Thelemite-themed works, Invocation of My Demon Brother (1969) and Lucifer Rising (1972). After failing to produce a sequel to Lucifer Rising, which he attempted through the mid-1980s, Anger retired from filmmaking, instead focusing on Hollywood Babylon II (1984). In the 2000s he returned to filmmaking, producing shorts for various film festivals and events. Anger described filmmakers such as Auguste and Louis Lumière, Georges Méliès, and Maya Deren as influences, and was cited as an important influence on directors like Martin Scorsese, David Lynch, and John Waters. Kinsey Today argued that Anger had "a profound impact on the work of many other filmmakers and artists, as well as on music video as an emergent art form using dream sequence, dance, fantasy, and narrative." Biography 1927–1936: Early life Kenneth Anger was born as Kenneth Wilbur Anglemyer on February 3, 1927, in Santa Monica, California. His family was Presbyterian, but he became more interested in the occult. His father, Wilbur Anglemyer, was of German ancestry and was born in Troy, Ohio, while his disabled mother, Lillian Coler (the older of the pair), had English ancestry. Anger's parents met at Ohio State University and after marrying had their first child, Jean Anglemyer, in 1918, followed by a second, Robert "Bob" Anglemyer, in 1921. That year they moved to Santa Monica to be near Lillian's mother, Bertha Coler, who had recently moved there. There Wilbur got a job as an electrical engineer at Douglas Aircraft, earning enough money that they could live comfortably as a middle-class family. Kenneth Anger, their third and final child, was born in 1927. Growing up, he did not get along with his parents or siblings. His brother Bob later claimed that as the youngest child, Kenneth had been spoiled by his mother and grandmother and became somewhat "bratty". His grandmother Bertha was a strong influence on the young Kenneth and supported the family financially during the Great Depression. It was she who first took Kenneth to the cinema, to see a double bill of The Singing Fool and Thunder Over Mexico. Bertha encouraged his artistic interests and later moved into a house in Hollywood with another woman, Miss Diggy, who also encouraged Kenneth. He developed an early interest in film and enjoyed reading the movie tie-in Big Little books. Kenneth later said, "I was a child prodigy who never got smarter." He remembered attending the Santa Monica Cotillion, where he met Shirley Temple, with whom he once danced. Anger claimed in Hollywood Babylon II that he played the Changeling Prince in the 1935 Warner Brothers film A Midsummer Night's Dream, but the character was played by a girl named Sheila Brown. Anger's unofficial biographer, Bill Landis, remarked in 1995 that the Changeling Prince was definitely "Anger as a child; visually, he's immediately recognizable". 1937–46: First films Anger's first film was created in 1937, when he was ten years old. The short, Ferdinand the Bull, was shot on the remains of 16 mm film that had been left unused after the Anglemyers had made home movies with it on a family vacation to Yosemite National Park. In Ferdinand the Bull, which has never been made publicly available, Kenneth dressed as a matador, wearing a cape, while two of his friends from the Boy Scouts played the bull. His second work, Who Has Been Rocking My Dreamboat (1941), which Anger has often called his first proper film, was made from footage of children playing during the summer, accompanied with popular songs by bands, including the Ink Spots. Anger had created Who Has Been Rocking My Dreamboat when he was 14. The next year, he produced another amateur film, Prisoner of Mars, which was heavily influenced by Flash Gordon. In this science fiction-inspired feature, in which he played the protagonist, Anger added elements taken from the Greek mythological myth of the Minotaur and constructed a small volcano in his back yard as a homemade special effect. Many of these early films are considered lost, with Anger burning much of his previous work in 1967. In 1944, the Anglemyers moved to Hollywood to move in with family, and Kenneth began attending Beverly Hills High School. It was here that he met Maxine Peterson, who had once been the stand-in for Shirley Temple, and he asked her – alongside another classmate and an older woman – to appear in his next film project, which was ultimately titled Escape Episode. Revolving partially around the occult, the picture was filmed in a "spooky old castle" in Hollywood and was subsequently screened at the Coronet Theatre in Los Angeles. Around this time, Anger also began attending screenings of silent films at Clara Grossman's art gallery, through which he met a fellow filmmaker, Curtis Harrington, with whom he formed Creative Film Associates (CFA). Harrington is said to have introduced Anger to the work of English occultist Aleister Crowley. Crowley's philosophy of Thelema exerted a profound influence on Anger's career. CFA was founded to distribute experimental or "underground" films, such as those of Maya Deren and John and James Whitney, as well as Anger's and Harrington's. Anger's interest in the occult deepened in high school. He first indirectly encountered the subject through reading L. Frank Baum's Oz books as a child, with their accompanying Rosicrucian philosophies. He was also interested in the works of the French ceremonial magician Eliphas Levi, as well as Sir James Frazer's The Golden Bough, although his favorite writings were Crowley's; he eventually converted to Thelema, the religion Crowley founded. 1947–49: Fireworks and early career Anger discovered his homosexuality at a time when homosexual acts were illegal in the United States, and he began associating with the underground gay scene. At some point in the mid-1940s, he was arrested by police in a "homosexual entrapment", after which he decided to move out of his parents' home, gaining his own apartment largely financed by his grandmother, and abandoning the name Anglemyer in favor of Anger. He started attending the University of Southern California (USC), where he studied cinema, and also began experimenting with the use of mind-altering drugs like cannabis and peyote. It was then that he decided to produce a film that would deal with his sexuality, just as other gay avant-garde filmmakers like Willard Maas were doing in that decade. The result was the short film Fireworks, which was created in 1947 and exhibited publicly in 1948. Upon Fireworks's release, Anger was arrested on obscenity charges. He was acquitted after the case went to the Supreme Court of California, which deemed the film art, not pornography. Twenty years old when he made Fireworks, Anger claimed to have been 17, presumably to present himself as more of an enfant terrible. A homoerotic work lasting only 14 minutes, the film revolves around a young man (played by Anger) associating with various navy sailors, who eventually turn on him, stripping him naked, beating him to death, and ripping open his chest to find a compass inside. Several fireworks then explode, accompanied by a burning Christmas tree. The final shot shows the young man lying in bed next to another shirtless man. Of this film, Anger said in 1966: "This flick is all I have to say about being 17, the United States Navy, American Christmas and the fourth of July." He continuously altered and adapted the film until 1980. It was distributed on VHS in 1986. One of the first people to buy a copy of Fireworks was the sexologist Alfred Kinsey of the Institute for Sex Research. He and Anger struck up a friendship that lasted until Kinsey's death, during which time Anger aided Kinsey in his research. According to Anger's unofficial biographer Bill Landis, Kinsey became a "father figure" whom Anger "could both interact with and emulate." In 1949, Anger began work on the film Puce Women, which unlike Fireworks was filmed in color. It starred Yvonne Marquis as a glamorous woman going about her daily life; Anger later said: "Puce Women was my love affair with Hollywood ... with all the great goddesses of the silent screen. They were to be filmed in their homes; I was, in effect, filming ghosts." Due to lack of funding, only one scene was ever produced, eventually released under the title Puce Moment. That same year, Anger directed The Love That Whirls, a film based on Aztec human sacrifice; because of the nudity it contained, it was destroyed by technicians at the film lab who deemed it obscene. 1950–53: France, Rabbit's Moon and Eaux d'Artifice In 1950, Anger moved to Paris, France, where he initially stayed with friends of his who had been forced to leave Hollywood after being blacklisted for having formerly belonged to trade union organizations. He later said he traveled to Paris after receiving a letter from the French director Jean Cocteau in which he told Anger of his admiration for Fireworks (shown in 1949 at Festival du Film Maudit in Biarritz). Upon Anger's arrival, the two became friends, with Cocteau giving him his permission to make a movie of his ballet The Young Man and Death, although at the time the project had no financial backers. In Paris, Anger continued producing short films; in 1950 he started filming Rabbit's Moon (also known as La lune des lapins), about a clown who stares up at the moon, where a rabbit lives, as in Japanese mythology. Anger produced 20 minutes of footage at the Films du Pantheon Studio before he was rushed out of the building, leaving the film uncompleted. He stored the footage in the disorganized archives of the Cinémathèque Française and retrieved it in 1970, when he finally finished and released the film. Cinémathèque Française head Henri Langlois gave Anger prints of Sergei Eisenstein's Que Viva Mexico!, which he attempted to put into Eisenstein's original order. In 1953, Anger traveled to Rome, Italy, where he planned to make a film about the 16th-century occultist Cardinal d'Este. To do so, he began filming at the garden of the Villa d'Este in Tivoli, in which a lady in 18th-century dress walked through the gardens, which featured many waterfalls (an allusion to the fact that d'Este allegedly sexually enjoyed urination), accompanied by the music of Vivaldi. This was supposedly to be only the first of four scenes, but the others were not made; the resulting one-scene film was titled Eaux d'Artifice. Landis remarked, "It's one of Anger's most tranquil works; his editing makes it soft, lush, and inviting. Eaux d'Artifice remains a secretive romp through a private garden, all for the masked figure's and the viewer-voyeur's pleasure." 1953–60: Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome and Hollywood Babylon In 1953, soon after the production of Eaux d'Artifice, Anger's mother died, and he temporarily returned to the U.S. to assist with the distribution of her estate. During this return, he began to once more immerse himself in California's artistic scene, befriending the filmmaker Stan Brakhage, who had been inspired by Fireworks. The two collaborated on a film, but it was confiscated at the film lab for obscenity and presumably destroyed. Around this time, two of Anger's friends, the couple Renate Druks and Paul Mathison, held a party with the theme "Come As Your Madness"; Anger attended dressed in drag as the ancient Greek goddess Hekate. The party and its many costumes inspired Anger, who produced a painting of it, and asked several of those who attended to appear in a new film he was creating, Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome. Inauguration, which was created in 1954, is a 38-minute surrealist work featuring many Crowleyan and Thelemite themes, with many of the various characters personifying various pagan gods such as Isis, Osiris, and Pan. One of the actresses in the film was Marjorie Cameron, the widow of Jack Parsons, the influential American Thelemite who had died a few years earlier. Anger played Hekate. He subsequently exhibited the film at various European film festivals, winning the Prix du Ciné-Club Belge and the Prix de l'Age d'Or, as well as screening it in the form of a projected triptych at Expo 58, the World Fair held in Brussels in 1958. In 1955, Anger and Kinsey traveled to the derelict Abbey of Thelema at Cefalù in Sicily to film a short documentary, Thelema Abbey. Crowley had used the abbey for his commune during the 1920s, and Anger restored many of the erotic wall paintings that were found there, as well as performing certain Crowleyan rituals at the site. The documentary was made for the British television series Omnibus, but was later lost. The next year, after Kinsey's death, Anger decided to return to Paris; he was described at the time as being "extremely remote and lonely". In desperate need of money, Anger and ghostwriter Elliott Stein wrote a book, Hollywood Babylon, in which he compiled gossip about celebrities, some of which he claimed (with no corroboration or citing of sources) he had been told, including that Rudolph Valentino liked to play a sexually submissive role to dominant women; that Walt Disney was addicted to opiates (reflected in the character of Goofy, who's perpetually stoned on cannabis); and the nature of the deaths of Peg Entwistle and Lupe Vélez. The work was not published in the U.S. initially, and was first released by the French publisher Jean-Jacques Pauvert. A pirated (and incomplete) version was printed in the U.S. in 1965, with the official American version not published until 1974. In response to a lawsuit Gloria Swanson filed against Anger and his publishers, he sent her a foot-long, sugar-filled coffin with "Here lies Gloria" painted on the lid and lined with a paper printed with Hebrew letters spelling "shalom". The coffin is preserved at the University of Texas Harry Ransom Center collection. After obtaining some financial backing from the publication of Hollywood Babylon, his next film project was The Story of O; it was essentially a piece of erotica loosely based on the novel of the same name featuring a heterosexual couple engaged in sadomasochistic sexual activities, although it refrained from showing any explicit sexual images. 1961–65: Scorpio Rising and Kustom Kar Kommandos In 1961, Anger once more returned to the U.S., where he lived for a time with Marjorie Cameron. He began work on a new feature, Scorpio Rising, about the biker subculture. For this, he employed a biker named Richard McAuley, and filmed him and some of his friends messing around, adding to it scenes of McAuley, or "Scorpio" as he became known, desecrating a derelict church. Anger incorporated more controversial visuals into the piece, including Nazi iconography, nudity, and clips of the life of Jesus Christ taken from the Family Films' The Living Bible: Last Journey to Jerusalem, images of Jesus which are intercut with those of Scorpio. The film has a soundtrack of popular 1960s songs, including "Blue Velvet" by Bobby Vinton, "Torture" by Kris Jensen, and "I Will Follow Him" by Little Peggy March. Anger called the film "a death mirror held up to American culture ... Thanatos in chrome, black leather, and bursting jeans." It immediately became popular on the underground cinema scene but was soon brought to court on obscenity charges. The jury ruled in favor of the prosecutors and Scorpio Rising was banned; the ban was overturned on appeal to the California Supreme Court. Now living in San Francisco, Anger approached the Ford Foundation, which had just started a program of grants to filmmakers. He showed the foundation his ideas for a new artistic short, Kustom Kar Kommandos, which they approved of, giving him a grant of $10,000. Anger spent much of the money on living expenses and alterations to some of his films, so that by the time he actually created Kustom Kar Kommandos, it was only one scene long. The homoerotic film involved various shots of a young man polishing a drag strip racing car, accompanied by a pink background and The Paris Sisters' song "Dream Lover". Soon after, Anger struck a deal that allowed Hollywood Babylon to be officially published for the first time in the U.S., where it proved a success, selling two million copies during the 1960s. Around the same time Anger also translated Lo Duca's History of Eroticism into English for American publication. 1966–69: The hippie movement and Invocation of My Demon Brother The mid-1960s saw the emergence of the hippie scene and increasing use of the mind-altering drugs Anger had been using for many years. In particular, the hallucinogen LSD, at the time still legal in the U.S., was very popular, and in 1966 Anger released a version of Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome he called the "Sacred Mushroom Edition", which was screened to people while taking LSD, thereby heightening their sensory experience. By this time, Anger had become well known in the American underground scene, and several cinemas screened his better-known films all in one event. With his growing fame, Anger began to react to publicity much as his idol Crowley had done, for instance calling himself "the most monstrous moviemaker in the underground", a pun on the fact that British tabloids had labeled Crowley "the wickedest man in the world" in the 1920s. Anger's underground fame allowed him to increasingly associate with other celebrities, including Anton LaVey, the founder of the Church of Satan, who named Anger godfather to his daughter Zeena Schreck. Despite their differing philosophies, Anger and LaVey became good friends and remained so for many years. But Anger also resented some celebrities, such as Andy Warhol, who at the time was achieving success not only in the art world but also in the underground film scene. In 1980, Anger threw paint on the front door of a house Warhol had recently moved out of. In 1966, Anger moved into the ground floor of the William Westerfield House, a large 19th-century Victorian house in San Francisco also known as the "Russian Embassy". Around this time he began planning a new film, Lucifer Rising, echoing his Thelemite beliefs about the emerging Aeon of Horus. He tattooed Lucifer's name on his chest and began searching for a young man who could symbolically become Lucifer, "the Crowned and Conquering Child" of the new Aeon, for the film. While living at the Russian Embassy, he met and lived with various young men who could fill the role, eventually settling on Bobby Beausoleil. Beausoleil founded a band, the Magic Powerhouse of Oz, to record the film's soundtrack. In 1967, Anger said the footage he had been filming for Lucifer Rising had been stolen, accusing Beausoleil, who denied it. Landis quotes Beausoleil as saying, "[W]hat had happened was that Kenneth had spent all the money that was invested in Lucifer Rising" and that he therefore invented the story to satisfy the film's creditors. Beausoleil and Anger fell out, with the former getting involved with Charles Manson and the Manson Family. Beausoleil later tortured and murdered Gary Hinman in a drug robbery gone wrong, for which he is serving a life sentence as of 2023. In the October 26, 1967, issue of The Village Voice, Anger publicly reinvented himself by placing a full-page ad declaring, "In Memoriam. Kenneth Anger. Filmmaker 1947–1967". He soon publicly reappeared, this time to claim he had burned all of his early work. The next year he traveled to London, where he first met John Paul Getty, Jr., who became Anger's patron, and also met and befriended Mick Jagger and Keith Richards, members of The Rolling Stones, as well as actress/model Anita Pallenberg. Anger decided to use much of the footage created for Lucifer Rising in a new film, Invocation of My Demon Brother, which starred Beausoleil, LaVey, Jagger, Richards, and Anger, the music for which was composed by Jagger. It was released in 1969 and explored many of the Thelemic themes Anger had originally intended for Lucifer Rising. Author Gary Lachman believes the film "inaugurat[ed] the midnight movie cult at the Elgin Theatre." The story of the film, its making, and the people involved inspired Zachary Lazar's novel Sway. 1970–81: Lucifer Rising Having used up much of the footage originally intended for Lucifer Rising in Invocation of My Demon Brother, Anger made a second attempt to complete Lucifer Rising. He persuaded the singer and actress Marianne Faithfull to appear in the film, and unsuccessfully tried to convince Jagger to play Lucifer; instead he offered his brother Chris the part. Anger subsequently filmed eight minutes of film and showed it to the British National Film Finance Corporation, which agreed to provide £15,000 for Anger to complete it – something that caused a level of outrage in the British press. With this money he could afford to fly the cast and crew to both West Germany and Egypt for filming. Anger befriended Led Zeppelin guitarist Jimmy Page around this time, the two sharing a great interest in Crowley. At Page's invitation, he traveled to Page's new home in Scotland, Crowley's former residence Boleskine House, to help Page exorcise the building of what Page believed to be a headless man's ghost. Page agreed to produce the soundtrack for Lucifer Rising, and used the editing suite in his London home to shape the music. Anger later fell out with Page's partner, Charlotte, who kicked him out of the house. In retaliation he called a press conference in which he ridiculed Page and threatened to "throw a Kenneth Anger curse" on him. Page's music was dumped from the film and replaced in 1979 by music written and recorded by the imprisoned Beausoleil, with whom Anger had reconciled. Meanwhile, Anger, who had moved to a small apartment on Manhattan's Upper East Side, took the footage he had filmed for Rabbit's Moon in the 1950s, finally released the film in 1972, and again in a shorter version in 1979. Around the same time he also added a new soundtrack to Puce Moment and rereleased it. Also around this time, the publisher Marvin Miller produced a low-budget documentary film based on Hollywood Babylon without Anger's permission, which upset Anger and led to a lawsuit. Anger also created a short film, Senators in Bondage, available only to private collectors and never made publicly available. He had plans to make a film about Aleister Crowley titled The Wickedest Man in the World, but this project never got off the ground. In 1981, a decade after starting the project, Anger finally finished and released the 30-minute Lucifer Rising. Based upon the Thelemite concept that mankind had entered a new period known as the Aeon of Horus, Lucifer Rising was full of occult symbolism, starring Miriam Gibril as the ancient Egyptian goddess Isis, Donald Cammell as her consort Osiris, Faithfull as Jewish mythological figure Lilith, and Leslie Huggins as Lucifer. Anger once again appeared in the film, as the Magus, the same role he played in Invocation to My Demon Brother. 1982–99: Retirement Soon after the release of Lucifer Rising, a PBS documentary about Anger and his films, Kenneth Anger's Magick, was made. It was directed by Kit Fitzgerald, who later recalled interviewing Anger in his Manhattan apartment on a very hot July evening, during which he revealed that he was so broke that he had been forced to sell his air conditioner. Anger himself considered producing other films that would continue on from Lucifer Rising in a series, and he began calling his finished film Part I: Sign Language, to be followed by two further parts. But those projects were never finished, and Anger did not produce any further films for nearly two decades. In need of money, he released Hollywood Babylon II in 1984, as well as continuing to screen his films at various festivals and universities and continuing to attempt to produce Lucifer Rising II; around this time he began wearing an eyepatch to these public events, likely due to having been beaten up and getting a bruised eye, a story he told in various interviews, although partly changing the assailant in various versions. A notorious incident occurred when Anger was invited to appear on Coca Crystal's television show in 1984. Upon arriving at the studio he demanded that somebody pay for his taxi ride there, and when they refused, he attacked talent coordinator Maureen Ivice and tried to drag her into his taxi before she was rescued by other members of staff. Anger reportedly escaped the scene by flinging a $100 bill at the cab driver and screaming, "Get me out of here!" In 1986, Anger sold the video rights to his films, which finally appeared on VHS, allowing them to have greater publicity. The next year, he attended the Avignon Film Festival in France, where his work was being celebrated in commemoration of the 40th anniversary of Fireworks. Soon thereafter, he appeared in Kenneth Anger's Hollywood Babylon, a BBC documentary directed by Nigel Finch for the Arena series. In 1991, he moved to West Arenas Boulevard in Palm Springs, California, living in what was formerly the estate of his friend Ruby Keeler, where the British Film Institute sent Rebecca Wood to assist him in writing a never-produced autobiography. Instead, in 1995, Bill Landis, who had been an associate of Anger's in the early 1980s, wrote an unofficial biography of him. Anger condemned Landis's book, calling Landis "an avowed enemy". In 1993, Anger visited Sydney and lectured at a season of his films at the Australian Film Institute Cinema. In an interview given at the time to Black and White magazine, he said he was staying in King's Cross and putting the finishing touches on the final treatment of a feature film about Australian artist and occultist Rosaleen Norton. This project was unrealized. 2000–23: Return to filmmaking and final years In 2000, Anger began screening a new short film, the anti-smoking Don't Smoke That Cigarette, followed a year later by The Man We Want to Hang, which comprised images of Crowley's paintings that had been shown at a temporary exhibition in Bloomsbury, London. In 2004, he began showing Anger Sees Red, a short surrealistic film starring himself, and the same year also began showing another work, Patriotic Penis. Anger soon followed this with a flurry of other shorts, including Mouse Heaven, which consisted of images of Mickey Mouse memorabilia; Ich Will!; and Uniform Attraction, all of which he showed at various public appearances. Anger's final project was Technicolor Skull, with musician Brian Butler, described as a "magick ritual of light and sound in the context of a live performance", in which Anger plays the theremin and Butler plays the guitar and other electronic instruments amid a psychedelic backdrop of colors and skulls. Anger made an appearance in Nik Sheehan's 2008 feature documentary about Brion Gysin and the Dreamachine, FLicKeR. He also appeared alongside Vincent Gallo in the 2009 short film Night of Pan, written and directed by Brian Butler. In 2009 his work was featured in a retrospective exhibition at the MoMA PS1 in New York City, and the next year a similar exhibition took place in London. Anger finished writing Hollywood Babylon III but did not publish it, fearing severe legal repercussions if he did. Of this, he said: "The main reason I didn't bring it out was that I had a whole section on Tom Cruise and the Scientologists. I'm not a friend of the Scientologists." Despite withholding legal action against the highly critical 2015 film Going Clear, the Church of Scientology is known to sue those making accusations against it. Anger died at a care facility in Yucca Valley, California, on May 11, 2023, at the age of 96. The announcement of his death was delayed until May 24 while his estate was being settled. Themes Several recurring themes can be seen in Anger's cinematic work. One of the most notable is homoeroticism, first seen in Fireworks (1947), which was based on Anger's own homosexual awakening and featured various navy officers flexing their muscles and a white fluid (often thought to symbolize semen) pouring over the protagonist's body. There is similar homoerotic imagery in Scorpio Rising (1963), which stars a muscled, topless, leather-clad biker, and Kustom Kar Kommandos (1965), where a young man sensually polishes a car, with close-up shots of his tight-fitting jeans and crotch. Images of naked men also appear in Invocation of My Demon Brother (1969), where they are eventually filmed wrestling, and Anger Sees Red (2004), in which a muscled, topless man performs press-ups. Another recurring theme in Anger's films is the occult, particularly the symbolism of his own esoteric religion, Thelema. This is visible in Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome, Invocation of My Demon Brother, and Lucifer Rising, all of which are based on the Thelemite concept of the Aeon of Horus and feature actors portraying pagan gods. Anger linked the creation of film to the occult, particularly the practice of ceremonial magic, something of which Crowley had been a noted practitioner. Anger once said, "making a movie is casting a spell." One of the central recurring images in Anger's work is flames and light; Fireworks has various examples, including a burning Christmas tree. This relates to Lucifer, a deity to whom Anger devoted one of his films, whose name is Latin for "light bearer". In many of his films, heavy use is made of music, both classical and pop, to accompany the visual imagery. In Scorpio Rising he makes use of the 1950s/1960s pop songs "Torture" by Kris Jensen, "I Will Follow Him" by Little Peggy March, and "Blue Velvet" by Bobby Vinton. He first used music to accompany visuals in the 1941 work Who Has Been Rocking My Dreamboat?, which uses tracks by the Mills Brothers. His use of popular music to accompany his films has been cited as a key influence on the development of music videos and MTV, although he stated his dislike for the music video industry. On one occasion the band Combustible Edison asked Anger to direct a video to accompany its song "Bluebeard"; he declined, believing that while music could be used to accompany film, it was pointless to do it the other way around. Awards Maya Deren Award, 1996 Silver Lake Film Festival Spirit of Silver Lake Award (2000) San Francisco International Film Festival Golden Gate Persistence of Vision Award (2001) Los Angeles Film Critics Association Douglas Edwards Independent/Experimental Film/Video Award (2002), "for his body of work"; tied with Michael Snow, for *Corpus Callosum Anthology Film Archives, Life Achievement Award (2010) Personality and beliefs Anger was known for his reclusive nature and had been called an "extremely private individual", although he gave various interviews over the years, with one interviewer, David Wingrove, describing him in 2008 as "a joy. Gentle, soft-spoken, immaculately tanned, he looks a good two decades younger than his 78 years". In such interviews, he refused to discuss his name change from Anglemyer to Anger, telling one interviewer: "You're being impertinent. It says 'Anger' on my passport. That's all you need to know. I would stay away from that subject if I were you." But in a 2010 interview, he said: "I just condensed my name. I knew it would be like a label, a logo. It's easy to remember." Anger once joked that he was "somewhat to the right of the KKK" in his views about black people, opening him up to criticism for racism, though this was likely a "Crowley-esque joke". He supported the Tibetan independence movement. Anger was a Thelemite and belonged to the main Thelemic organization, the Ordo Templi Orientis. He viewed many of the men he associated with as living embodiments of Lucifer, a symbol of the Aeon of Horus in Thelemic philosophy, and had his own name inked onto his chest with the Lucifer tattoo. Anger showed an interest in various other religious movements, particularly those that related in some way to occultism. For instance, he was a lifelong friend of Anton LaVey from before the founding of the Church of Satan in the 1960s, even living with him and his family during the 1990s. LaVey also appeared in Anger's Invocation of My Demon Brother as a devilish priest. Anger called himself a pagan and did not consider himself a Satanist. He has called Wicca a "lunar", feminine religion in contrast to Thelema's "solar" masculinity. Filmography Books References Notes Citations Works cited Further reading Eaton, Thomas Dylan (2008). Cinema, Messianism and Crime, Parkett 83, pp. 197–205. Eaton, Thomas Dylan (2008), 1000 WORDS; KENNETH ANGER, Artforum, September, pp. 412–415. . External links bentclouds.com. Essay on Kustom Kar Kommandos Non-Normative Sex in Kustom Kar Kommandos. The Film Journal. Review of Alice Hutchison's book on Anger Artforum 1000 Words Esquire Kenneth Anger: Where The Bodies Are Buried, by Mick Brown. Category:1927 births Category:2023 deaths Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers Category:American LGBT screenwriters Category:American Thelemites Category:American expatriates in France Category:American experimental filmmakers Category:American gay actors Category:American gay artists Category:American gay writers Category:American male child actors Category:American modern pagans Category:American people of English descent Category:American people of German descent Category:Film directors from California Category:Gay screenwriters Category:LGBT film directors Category:LGBT people from California Category:Male actors from Santa Monica, California Category:Writers from Santa Monica, California
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[ "In 1953, Anger's mother died and he temporarily returned to the United States to assist with the distribution of her estate. During this time, he began to immerse himself in the artistic scene of California and befriended film maker Stan Brakhage. Together, they collaborated to produce a film. However, the film was confiscated at the film lab due to obscenity and was presumably destroyed. Anger also attended a party themed \"Come As Your Madness\", dressed up as the Greek goddess Hekate. The party inspired him to create a new film called Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome.", "Yes, while in the U.S. in 1953, Anger reconnected with the artistic scene in California and began a collaboration with film maker Stan Brakhage. However, their film was confiscated due to obscenity and was presumably destroyed. Anger also attended a party, dressing as the ancient Greek goddess Hekate, which inspired him to create a new film, Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome.", "The film that Anger and film maker Stan Brakhage began working on during his return to the U.S. is not named in the provided context. However, it was confiscated at the film lab for obscenity and is presumed to have been destroyed.", "According to the context, Anger created a new film called Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome in the U.S., which was a 38-minute surrealist work. The film had many Crowleyan and Thelemite themes and its characters personified various pagan gods. The film was subsequently exhibited at various European film festivals and screened at the World Fair held in Brussels in 1958.", "Yes, Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome, Anger's film, was successful. It won the Prix du Cine-Club Belge and the Prix de l'Age d'Or. It was also exhibited at various European film festivals and screened as a projected triptych at Expo 58, the World Fair held in Brussels in 1958.", "Yes, after his friend Alfred Kinsey died in 1956, Kenneth Anger decided to return to Paris. At the time of his return, he was described as being \"extremely remote and lonely\".", "The context does not provide any specific information about Kenneth Anger's work in Paris after he returned there in 1956.", "The context does not provide specific information on the commercial success of Anger's book, Hollywood Babylon. However, the book did provide him with some financial backing for his next film project, The Story of O, implying that it most likely made some degree of profit." ]
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C_7bea609b2d4e40c38d9a78435215fd19_0
Kenneth Anger
Kenneth Anger (born Kenneth Wilbur Anglemyer; February 3, 1927) is an American underground experimental filmmaker, actor and author. Working exclusively in short films, he has produced almost forty works since 1937, nine of which have been grouped together as the "Magick Lantern Cycle". His films variously merge surrealism with homoeroticism and the occult, and have been described as containing "elements of erotica, documentary, psychodrama, and spectacle". Anger himself has been described as "one of America's first openly gay filmmakers, and certainly the first whose work addressed homosexuality in an undisguised, self-implicating manner", and his "role in rendering gay culture visible within American cinema, commercial or otherwise, is impossible to overestimate", with several being released prior to the legalization of homosexuality in the United States.
2000-present: Return to filmmaking
For twenty years from the early 1980s, Anger released no new material. In 2000, at the dawn of the new millennium, Anger began screening a new short film, the anti-smoking Don't Smoke That Cigarette, followed a year later by The Man We Want to Hang, which comprised images of Aleister Crowley's paintings that had been exhibited at a temporary exhibition in Bloomsbury, London. In 2004, he began showing Anger Sees Red, a short surrealistic film starring himself, and the same year also began showing another work, Patriotic Penis. He soon followed this with a flurry of other shorts, including Mouse Heaven, which consisted of images of Mickey Mouse memorabilia, Ich Will! and Uniform Attraction, all of which he showed at various public appearances. Anger's most recent project has been the Technicolor Skull with musician Brian Butler, described as a "magick ritual of light and sound in the context of a live performance", in which Anger plays the theremin, and Butler plays the guitar and other electronic instruments, behind a psychedelic backdrop of colors and skulls. Anger makes an appearance in the 2008 feature documentary by Nik Sheehan about Brion Gysin and the Dreamachine titled FLicKeR. Anger also appears alongside Vincent Gallo in the 2009 short film "Night of Pan" written and directed by Brian Butler. In 2009 his work was featured in a retrospective exhibition at the MoMA PS1 in New York City, and the following year a similar exhibition took place in London. Anger has finished writing Hollywood Babylon III, but has not yet published it, fearing severe legal repercussions if he did so. Of this he has stated that "The main reason I didn't bring it out was that I had a whole section on Tom Cruise and the Scientologists. I'm not a friend of the Scientologists." Despite withholding legal action against the highly critical 2015 film Going Clear, the Church of Scientology was known on earlier occasions to heavily sue those making accusations against them. CANNOTANSWER
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Kenneth Anger (born Kenneth Wilbur Anglemyer, February 3, 1927 – May 11, 2023) was an American underground experimental filmmaker, actor, and author. Working exclusively in short films, he produced almost 40 works beginning in 1937, nine of which have been grouped together as the "Magick Lantern Cycle". Anger's films variously merge surrealism with homoeroticism and the occult, and have been described as containing "elements of erotica, documentary, psychodrama, and spectacle". He has been called "one of America's first openly gay filmmakers", with several films released before homosexuality was legalized in the U.S. Anger also explored occult themes in many of his films; he was fascinated by the English occultist Aleister Crowley and an adherent of Thelema, the religion Crowley founded. Born in a middle-class Presbyterian family in Santa Monica, California, Anger later claimed to have been a child actor who appeared in the film A Midsummer Night's Dream (1935); the accuracy of this claim is disputed. He began making short films when he was 14 years old, although his first film to gain any recognition was the homoerotic Fireworks (1947). The work's controversial nature led to his trial on obscenity charges, but he was acquitted. A friendship and working relationship subsequently began with pioneering sexologist Alfred Kinsey. Moving to Europe, Anger produced a number of shorts inspired by the avant-garde scene there, such as Eaux d'Artifice (1953) and Rabbit's Moon (1971). Returning to the U.S. in the early 1950s, Anger began work on several new projects, including the films Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome (1954), Scorpio Rising (1964), Kustom Kar Kommandos (1965), and the gossip book Hollywood Babylon (1965). The latter became infamous for various dubious and sensationalist claims, many of which were disproved, though some remain urban legends. Getting to know several notable countercultural figures of the time, Anger involved them in his subsequent Thelemite-themed works, Invocation of My Demon Brother (1969) and Lucifer Rising (1972). After failing to produce a sequel to Lucifer Rising, which he attempted through the mid-1980s, Anger retired from filmmaking, instead focusing on Hollywood Babylon II (1984). In the 2000s he returned to filmmaking, producing shorts for various film festivals and events. Anger described filmmakers such as Auguste and Louis Lumière, Georges Méliès, and Maya Deren as influences, and was cited as an important influence on directors like Martin Scorsese, David Lynch, and John Waters. Kinsey Today argued that Anger had "a profound impact on the work of many other filmmakers and artists, as well as on music video as an emergent art form using dream sequence, dance, fantasy, and narrative." Biography 1927–1936: Early life Kenneth Anger was born as Kenneth Wilbur Anglemyer on February 3, 1927, in Santa Monica, California. His family was Presbyterian, but he became more interested in the occult. His father, Wilbur Anglemyer, was of German ancestry and was born in Troy, Ohio, while his disabled mother, Lillian Coler (the older of the pair), had English ancestry. Anger's parents met at Ohio State University and after marrying had their first child, Jean Anglemyer, in 1918, followed by a second, Robert "Bob" Anglemyer, in 1921. That year they moved to Santa Monica to be near Lillian's mother, Bertha Coler, who had recently moved there. There Wilbur got a job as an electrical engineer at Douglas Aircraft, earning enough money that they could live comfortably as a middle-class family. Kenneth Anger, their third and final child, was born in 1927. Growing up, he did not get along with his parents or siblings. His brother Bob later claimed that as the youngest child, Kenneth had been spoiled by his mother and grandmother and became somewhat "bratty". His grandmother Bertha was a strong influence on the young Kenneth and supported the family financially during the Great Depression. It was she who first took Kenneth to the cinema, to see a double bill of The Singing Fool and Thunder Over Mexico. Bertha encouraged his artistic interests and later moved into a house in Hollywood with another woman, Miss Diggy, who also encouraged Kenneth. He developed an early interest in film and enjoyed reading the movie tie-in Big Little books. Kenneth later said, "I was a child prodigy who never got smarter." He remembered attending the Santa Monica Cotillion, where he met Shirley Temple, with whom he once danced. Anger claimed in Hollywood Babylon II that he played the Changeling Prince in the 1935 Warner Brothers film A Midsummer Night's Dream, but the character was played by a girl named Sheila Brown. Anger's unofficial biographer, Bill Landis, remarked in 1995 that the Changeling Prince was definitely "Anger as a child; visually, he's immediately recognizable". 1937–46: First films Anger's first film was created in 1937, when he was ten years old. The short, Ferdinand the Bull, was shot on the remains of 16 mm film that had been left unused after the Anglemyers had made home movies with it on a family vacation to Yosemite National Park. In Ferdinand the Bull, which has never been made publicly available, Kenneth dressed as a matador, wearing a cape, while two of his friends from the Boy Scouts played the bull. His second work, Who Has Been Rocking My Dreamboat (1941), which Anger has often called his first proper film, was made from footage of children playing during the summer, accompanied with popular songs by bands, including the Ink Spots. Anger had created Who Has Been Rocking My Dreamboat when he was 14. The next year, he produced another amateur film, Prisoner of Mars, which was heavily influenced by Flash Gordon. In this science fiction-inspired feature, in which he played the protagonist, Anger added elements taken from the Greek mythological myth of the Minotaur and constructed a small volcano in his back yard as a homemade special effect. Many of these early films are considered lost, with Anger burning much of his previous work in 1967. In 1944, the Anglemyers moved to Hollywood to move in with family, and Kenneth began attending Beverly Hills High School. It was here that he met Maxine Peterson, who had once been the stand-in for Shirley Temple, and he asked her – alongside another classmate and an older woman – to appear in his next film project, which was ultimately titled Escape Episode. Revolving partially around the occult, the picture was filmed in a "spooky old castle" in Hollywood and was subsequently screened at the Coronet Theatre in Los Angeles. Around this time, Anger also began attending screenings of silent films at Clara Grossman's art gallery, through which he met a fellow filmmaker, Curtis Harrington, with whom he formed Creative Film Associates (CFA). Harrington is said to have introduced Anger to the work of English occultist Aleister Crowley. Crowley's philosophy of Thelema exerted a profound influence on Anger's career. CFA was founded to distribute experimental or "underground" films, such as those of Maya Deren and John and James Whitney, as well as Anger's and Harrington's. Anger's interest in the occult deepened in high school. He first indirectly encountered the subject through reading L. Frank Baum's Oz books as a child, with their accompanying Rosicrucian philosophies. He was also interested in the works of the French ceremonial magician Eliphas Levi, as well as Sir James Frazer's The Golden Bough, although his favorite writings were Crowley's; he eventually converted to Thelema, the religion Crowley founded. 1947–49: Fireworks and early career Anger discovered his homosexuality at a time when homosexual acts were illegal in the United States, and he began associating with the underground gay scene. At some point in the mid-1940s, he was arrested by police in a "homosexual entrapment", after which he decided to move out of his parents' home, gaining his own apartment largely financed by his grandmother, and abandoning the name Anglemyer in favor of Anger. He started attending the University of Southern California (USC), where he studied cinema, and also began experimenting with the use of mind-altering drugs like cannabis and peyote. It was then that he decided to produce a film that would deal with his sexuality, just as other gay avant-garde filmmakers like Willard Maas were doing in that decade. The result was the short film Fireworks, which was created in 1947 and exhibited publicly in 1948. Upon Fireworks's release, Anger was arrested on obscenity charges. He was acquitted after the case went to the Supreme Court of California, which deemed the film art, not pornography. Twenty years old when he made Fireworks, Anger claimed to have been 17, presumably to present himself as more of an enfant terrible. A homoerotic work lasting only 14 minutes, the film revolves around a young man (played by Anger) associating with various navy sailors, who eventually turn on him, stripping him naked, beating him to death, and ripping open his chest to find a compass inside. Several fireworks then explode, accompanied by a burning Christmas tree. The final shot shows the young man lying in bed next to another shirtless man. Of this film, Anger said in 1966: "This flick is all I have to say about being 17, the United States Navy, American Christmas and the fourth of July." He continuously altered and adapted the film until 1980. It was distributed on VHS in 1986. One of the first people to buy a copy of Fireworks was the sexologist Alfred Kinsey of the Institute for Sex Research. He and Anger struck up a friendship that lasted until Kinsey's death, during which time Anger aided Kinsey in his research. According to Anger's unofficial biographer Bill Landis, Kinsey became a "father figure" whom Anger "could both interact with and emulate." In 1949, Anger began work on the film Puce Women, which unlike Fireworks was filmed in color. It starred Yvonne Marquis as a glamorous woman going about her daily life; Anger later said: "Puce Women was my love affair with Hollywood ... with all the great goddesses of the silent screen. They were to be filmed in their homes; I was, in effect, filming ghosts." Due to lack of funding, only one scene was ever produced, eventually released under the title Puce Moment. That same year, Anger directed The Love That Whirls, a film based on Aztec human sacrifice; because of the nudity it contained, it was destroyed by technicians at the film lab who deemed it obscene. 1950–53: France, Rabbit's Moon and Eaux d'Artifice In 1950, Anger moved to Paris, France, where he initially stayed with friends of his who had been forced to leave Hollywood after being blacklisted for having formerly belonged to trade union organizations. He later said he traveled to Paris after receiving a letter from the French director Jean Cocteau in which he told Anger of his admiration for Fireworks (shown in 1949 at Festival du Film Maudit in Biarritz). Upon Anger's arrival, the two became friends, with Cocteau giving him his permission to make a movie of his ballet The Young Man and Death, although at the time the project had no financial backers. In Paris, Anger continued producing short films; in 1950 he started filming Rabbit's Moon (also known as La lune des lapins), about a clown who stares up at the moon, where a rabbit lives, as in Japanese mythology. Anger produced 20 minutes of footage at the Films du Pantheon Studio before he was rushed out of the building, leaving the film uncompleted. He stored the footage in the disorganized archives of the Cinémathèque Française and retrieved it in 1970, when he finally finished and released the film. Cinémathèque Française head Henri Langlois gave Anger prints of Sergei Eisenstein's Que Viva Mexico!, which he attempted to put into Eisenstein's original order. In 1953, Anger traveled to Rome, Italy, where he planned to make a film about the 16th-century occultist Cardinal d'Este. To do so, he began filming at the garden of the Villa d'Este in Tivoli, in which a lady in 18th-century dress walked through the gardens, which featured many waterfalls (an allusion to the fact that d'Este allegedly sexually enjoyed urination), accompanied by the music of Vivaldi. This was supposedly to be only the first of four scenes, but the others were not made; the resulting one-scene film was titled Eaux d'Artifice. Landis remarked, "It's one of Anger's most tranquil works; his editing makes it soft, lush, and inviting. Eaux d'Artifice remains a secretive romp through a private garden, all for the masked figure's and the viewer-voyeur's pleasure." 1953–60: Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome and Hollywood Babylon In 1953, soon after the production of Eaux d'Artifice, Anger's mother died, and he temporarily returned to the U.S. to assist with the distribution of her estate. During this return, he began to once more immerse himself in California's artistic scene, befriending the filmmaker Stan Brakhage, who had been inspired by Fireworks. The two collaborated on a film, but it was confiscated at the film lab for obscenity and presumably destroyed. Around this time, two of Anger's friends, the couple Renate Druks and Paul Mathison, held a party with the theme "Come As Your Madness"; Anger attended dressed in drag as the ancient Greek goddess Hekate. The party and its many costumes inspired Anger, who produced a painting of it, and asked several of those who attended to appear in a new film he was creating, Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome. Inauguration, which was created in 1954, is a 38-minute surrealist work featuring many Crowleyan and Thelemite themes, with many of the various characters personifying various pagan gods such as Isis, Osiris, and Pan. One of the actresses in the film was Marjorie Cameron, the widow of Jack Parsons, the influential American Thelemite who had died a few years earlier. Anger played Hekate. He subsequently exhibited the film at various European film festivals, winning the Prix du Ciné-Club Belge and the Prix de l'Age d'Or, as well as screening it in the form of a projected triptych at Expo 58, the World Fair held in Brussels in 1958. In 1955, Anger and Kinsey traveled to the derelict Abbey of Thelema at Cefalù in Sicily to film a short documentary, Thelema Abbey. Crowley had used the abbey for his commune during the 1920s, and Anger restored many of the erotic wall paintings that were found there, as well as performing certain Crowleyan rituals at the site. The documentary was made for the British television series Omnibus, but was later lost. The next year, after Kinsey's death, Anger decided to return to Paris; he was described at the time as being "extremely remote and lonely". In desperate need of money, Anger and ghostwriter Elliott Stein wrote a book, Hollywood Babylon, in which he compiled gossip about celebrities, some of which he claimed (with no corroboration or citing of sources) he had been told, including that Rudolph Valentino liked to play a sexually submissive role to dominant women; that Walt Disney was addicted to opiates (reflected in the character of Goofy, who's perpetually stoned on cannabis); and the nature of the deaths of Peg Entwistle and Lupe Vélez. The work was not published in the U.S. initially, and was first released by the French publisher Jean-Jacques Pauvert. A pirated (and incomplete) version was printed in the U.S. in 1965, with the official American version not published until 1974. In response to a lawsuit Gloria Swanson filed against Anger and his publishers, he sent her a foot-long, sugar-filled coffin with "Here lies Gloria" painted on the lid and lined with a paper printed with Hebrew letters spelling "shalom". The coffin is preserved at the University of Texas Harry Ransom Center collection. After obtaining some financial backing from the publication of Hollywood Babylon, his next film project was The Story of O; it was essentially a piece of erotica loosely based on the novel of the same name featuring a heterosexual couple engaged in sadomasochistic sexual activities, although it refrained from showing any explicit sexual images. 1961–65: Scorpio Rising and Kustom Kar Kommandos In 1961, Anger once more returned to the U.S., where he lived for a time with Marjorie Cameron. He began work on a new feature, Scorpio Rising, about the biker subculture. For this, he employed a biker named Richard McAuley, and filmed him and some of his friends messing around, adding to it scenes of McAuley, or "Scorpio" as he became known, desecrating a derelict church. Anger incorporated more controversial visuals into the piece, including Nazi iconography, nudity, and clips of the life of Jesus Christ taken from the Family Films' The Living Bible: Last Journey to Jerusalem, images of Jesus which are intercut with those of Scorpio. The film has a soundtrack of popular 1960s songs, including "Blue Velvet" by Bobby Vinton, "Torture" by Kris Jensen, and "I Will Follow Him" by Little Peggy March. Anger called the film "a death mirror held up to American culture ... Thanatos in chrome, black leather, and bursting jeans." It immediately became popular on the underground cinema scene but was soon brought to court on obscenity charges. The jury ruled in favor of the prosecutors and Scorpio Rising was banned; the ban was overturned on appeal to the California Supreme Court. Now living in San Francisco, Anger approached the Ford Foundation, which had just started a program of grants to filmmakers. He showed the foundation his ideas for a new artistic short, Kustom Kar Kommandos, which they approved of, giving him a grant of $10,000. Anger spent much of the money on living expenses and alterations to some of his films, so that by the time he actually created Kustom Kar Kommandos, it was only one scene long. The homoerotic film involved various shots of a young man polishing a drag strip racing car, accompanied by a pink background and The Paris Sisters' song "Dream Lover". Soon after, Anger struck a deal that allowed Hollywood Babylon to be officially published for the first time in the U.S., where it proved a success, selling two million copies during the 1960s. Around the same time Anger also translated Lo Duca's History of Eroticism into English for American publication. 1966–69: The hippie movement and Invocation of My Demon Brother The mid-1960s saw the emergence of the hippie scene and increasing use of the mind-altering drugs Anger had been using for many years. In particular, the hallucinogen LSD, at the time still legal in the U.S., was very popular, and in 1966 Anger released a version of Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome he called the "Sacred Mushroom Edition", which was screened to people while taking LSD, thereby heightening their sensory experience. By this time, Anger had become well known in the American underground scene, and several cinemas screened his better-known films all in one event. With his growing fame, Anger began to react to publicity much as his idol Crowley had done, for instance calling himself "the most monstrous moviemaker in the underground", a pun on the fact that British tabloids had labeled Crowley "the wickedest man in the world" in the 1920s. Anger's underground fame allowed him to increasingly associate with other celebrities, including Anton LaVey, the founder of the Church of Satan, who named Anger godfather to his daughter Zeena Schreck. Despite their differing philosophies, Anger and LaVey became good friends and remained so for many years. But Anger also resented some celebrities, such as Andy Warhol, who at the time was achieving success not only in the art world but also in the underground film scene. In 1980, Anger threw paint on the front door of a house Warhol had recently moved out of. In 1966, Anger moved into the ground floor of the William Westerfield House, a large 19th-century Victorian house in San Francisco also known as the "Russian Embassy". Around this time he began planning a new film, Lucifer Rising, echoing his Thelemite beliefs about the emerging Aeon of Horus. He tattooed Lucifer's name on his chest and began searching for a young man who could symbolically become Lucifer, "the Crowned and Conquering Child" of the new Aeon, for the film. While living at the Russian Embassy, he met and lived with various young men who could fill the role, eventually settling on Bobby Beausoleil. Beausoleil founded a band, the Magic Powerhouse of Oz, to record the film's soundtrack. In 1967, Anger said the footage he had been filming for Lucifer Rising had been stolen, accusing Beausoleil, who denied it. Landis quotes Beausoleil as saying, "[W]hat had happened was that Kenneth had spent all the money that was invested in Lucifer Rising" and that he therefore invented the story to satisfy the film's creditors. Beausoleil and Anger fell out, with the former getting involved with Charles Manson and the Manson Family. Beausoleil later tortured and murdered Gary Hinman in a drug robbery gone wrong, for which he is serving a life sentence as of 2023. In the October 26, 1967, issue of The Village Voice, Anger publicly reinvented himself by placing a full-page ad declaring, "In Memoriam. Kenneth Anger. Filmmaker 1947–1967". He soon publicly reappeared, this time to claim he had burned all of his early work. The next year he traveled to London, where he first met John Paul Getty, Jr., who became Anger's patron, and also met and befriended Mick Jagger and Keith Richards, members of The Rolling Stones, as well as actress/model Anita Pallenberg. Anger decided to use much of the footage created for Lucifer Rising in a new film, Invocation of My Demon Brother, which starred Beausoleil, LaVey, Jagger, Richards, and Anger, the music for which was composed by Jagger. It was released in 1969 and explored many of the Thelemic themes Anger had originally intended for Lucifer Rising. Author Gary Lachman believes the film "inaugurat[ed] the midnight movie cult at the Elgin Theatre." The story of the film, its making, and the people involved inspired Zachary Lazar's novel Sway. 1970–81: Lucifer Rising Having used up much of the footage originally intended for Lucifer Rising in Invocation of My Demon Brother, Anger made a second attempt to complete Lucifer Rising. He persuaded the singer and actress Marianne Faithfull to appear in the film, and unsuccessfully tried to convince Jagger to play Lucifer; instead he offered his brother Chris the part. Anger subsequently filmed eight minutes of film and showed it to the British National Film Finance Corporation, which agreed to provide £15,000 for Anger to complete it – something that caused a level of outrage in the British press. With this money he could afford to fly the cast and crew to both West Germany and Egypt for filming. Anger befriended Led Zeppelin guitarist Jimmy Page around this time, the two sharing a great interest in Crowley. At Page's invitation, he traveled to Page's new home in Scotland, Crowley's former residence Boleskine House, to help Page exorcise the building of what Page believed to be a headless man's ghost. Page agreed to produce the soundtrack for Lucifer Rising, and used the editing suite in his London home to shape the music. Anger later fell out with Page's partner, Charlotte, who kicked him out of the house. In retaliation he called a press conference in which he ridiculed Page and threatened to "throw a Kenneth Anger curse" on him. Page's music was dumped from the film and replaced in 1979 by music written and recorded by the imprisoned Beausoleil, with whom Anger had reconciled. Meanwhile, Anger, who had moved to a small apartment on Manhattan's Upper East Side, took the footage he had filmed for Rabbit's Moon in the 1950s, finally released the film in 1972, and again in a shorter version in 1979. Around the same time he also added a new soundtrack to Puce Moment and rereleased it. Also around this time, the publisher Marvin Miller produced a low-budget documentary film based on Hollywood Babylon without Anger's permission, which upset Anger and led to a lawsuit. Anger also created a short film, Senators in Bondage, available only to private collectors and never made publicly available. He had plans to make a film about Aleister Crowley titled The Wickedest Man in the World, but this project never got off the ground. In 1981, a decade after starting the project, Anger finally finished and released the 30-minute Lucifer Rising. Based upon the Thelemite concept that mankind had entered a new period known as the Aeon of Horus, Lucifer Rising was full of occult symbolism, starring Miriam Gibril as the ancient Egyptian goddess Isis, Donald Cammell as her consort Osiris, Faithfull as Jewish mythological figure Lilith, and Leslie Huggins as Lucifer. Anger once again appeared in the film, as the Magus, the same role he played in Invocation to My Demon Brother. 1982–99: Retirement Soon after the release of Lucifer Rising, a PBS documentary about Anger and his films, Kenneth Anger's Magick, was made. It was directed by Kit Fitzgerald, who later recalled interviewing Anger in his Manhattan apartment on a very hot July evening, during which he revealed that he was so broke that he had been forced to sell his air conditioner. Anger himself considered producing other films that would continue on from Lucifer Rising in a series, and he began calling his finished film Part I: Sign Language, to be followed by two further parts. But those projects were never finished, and Anger did not produce any further films for nearly two decades. In need of money, he released Hollywood Babylon II in 1984, as well as continuing to screen his films at various festivals and universities and continuing to attempt to produce Lucifer Rising II; around this time he began wearing an eyepatch to these public events, likely due to having been beaten up and getting a bruised eye, a story he told in various interviews, although partly changing the assailant in various versions. A notorious incident occurred when Anger was invited to appear on Coca Crystal's television show in 1984. Upon arriving at the studio he demanded that somebody pay for his taxi ride there, and when they refused, he attacked talent coordinator Maureen Ivice and tried to drag her into his taxi before she was rescued by other members of staff. Anger reportedly escaped the scene by flinging a $100 bill at the cab driver and screaming, "Get me out of here!" In 1986, Anger sold the video rights to his films, which finally appeared on VHS, allowing them to have greater publicity. The next year, he attended the Avignon Film Festival in France, where his work was being celebrated in commemoration of the 40th anniversary of Fireworks. Soon thereafter, he appeared in Kenneth Anger's Hollywood Babylon, a BBC documentary directed by Nigel Finch for the Arena series. In 1991, he moved to West Arenas Boulevard in Palm Springs, California, living in what was formerly the estate of his friend Ruby Keeler, where the British Film Institute sent Rebecca Wood to assist him in writing a never-produced autobiography. Instead, in 1995, Bill Landis, who had been an associate of Anger's in the early 1980s, wrote an unofficial biography of him. Anger condemned Landis's book, calling Landis "an avowed enemy". In 1993, Anger visited Sydney and lectured at a season of his films at the Australian Film Institute Cinema. In an interview given at the time to Black and White magazine, he said he was staying in King's Cross and putting the finishing touches on the final treatment of a feature film about Australian artist and occultist Rosaleen Norton. This project was unrealized. 2000–23: Return to filmmaking and final years In 2000, Anger began screening a new short film, the anti-smoking Don't Smoke That Cigarette, followed a year later by The Man We Want to Hang, which comprised images of Crowley's paintings that had been shown at a temporary exhibition in Bloomsbury, London. In 2004, he began showing Anger Sees Red, a short surrealistic film starring himself, and the same year also began showing another work, Patriotic Penis. Anger soon followed this with a flurry of other shorts, including Mouse Heaven, which consisted of images of Mickey Mouse memorabilia; Ich Will!; and Uniform Attraction, all of which he showed at various public appearances. Anger's final project was Technicolor Skull, with musician Brian Butler, described as a "magick ritual of light and sound in the context of a live performance", in which Anger plays the theremin and Butler plays the guitar and other electronic instruments amid a psychedelic backdrop of colors and skulls. Anger made an appearance in Nik Sheehan's 2008 feature documentary about Brion Gysin and the Dreamachine, FLicKeR. He also appeared alongside Vincent Gallo in the 2009 short film Night of Pan, written and directed by Brian Butler. In 2009 his work was featured in a retrospective exhibition at the MoMA PS1 in New York City, and the next year a similar exhibition took place in London. Anger finished writing Hollywood Babylon III but did not publish it, fearing severe legal repercussions if he did. Of this, he said: "The main reason I didn't bring it out was that I had a whole section on Tom Cruise and the Scientologists. I'm not a friend of the Scientologists." Despite withholding legal action against the highly critical 2015 film Going Clear, the Church of Scientology is known to sue those making accusations against it. Anger died at a care facility in Yucca Valley, California, on May 11, 2023, at the age of 96. The announcement of his death was delayed until May 24 while his estate was being settled. Themes Several recurring themes can be seen in Anger's cinematic work. One of the most notable is homoeroticism, first seen in Fireworks (1947), which was based on Anger's own homosexual awakening and featured various navy officers flexing their muscles and a white fluid (often thought to symbolize semen) pouring over the protagonist's body. There is similar homoerotic imagery in Scorpio Rising (1963), which stars a muscled, topless, leather-clad biker, and Kustom Kar Kommandos (1965), where a young man sensually polishes a car, with close-up shots of his tight-fitting jeans and crotch. Images of naked men also appear in Invocation of My Demon Brother (1969), where they are eventually filmed wrestling, and Anger Sees Red (2004), in which a muscled, topless man performs press-ups. Another recurring theme in Anger's films is the occult, particularly the symbolism of his own esoteric religion, Thelema. This is visible in Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome, Invocation of My Demon Brother, and Lucifer Rising, all of which are based on the Thelemite concept of the Aeon of Horus and feature actors portraying pagan gods. Anger linked the creation of film to the occult, particularly the practice of ceremonial magic, something of which Crowley had been a noted practitioner. Anger once said, "making a movie is casting a spell." One of the central recurring images in Anger's work is flames and light; Fireworks has various examples, including a burning Christmas tree. This relates to Lucifer, a deity to whom Anger devoted one of his films, whose name is Latin for "light bearer". In many of his films, heavy use is made of music, both classical and pop, to accompany the visual imagery. In Scorpio Rising he makes use of the 1950s/1960s pop songs "Torture" by Kris Jensen, "I Will Follow Him" by Little Peggy March, and "Blue Velvet" by Bobby Vinton. He first used music to accompany visuals in the 1941 work Who Has Been Rocking My Dreamboat?, which uses tracks by the Mills Brothers. His use of popular music to accompany his films has been cited as a key influence on the development of music videos and MTV, although he stated his dislike for the music video industry. On one occasion the band Combustible Edison asked Anger to direct a video to accompany its song "Bluebeard"; he declined, believing that while music could be used to accompany film, it was pointless to do it the other way around. Awards Maya Deren Award, 1996 Silver Lake Film Festival Spirit of Silver Lake Award (2000) San Francisco International Film Festival Golden Gate Persistence of Vision Award (2001) Los Angeles Film Critics Association Douglas Edwards Independent/Experimental Film/Video Award (2002), "for his body of work"; tied with Michael Snow, for *Corpus Callosum Anthology Film Archives, Life Achievement Award (2010) Personality and beliefs Anger was known for his reclusive nature and had been called an "extremely private individual", although he gave various interviews over the years, with one interviewer, David Wingrove, describing him in 2008 as "a joy. Gentle, soft-spoken, immaculately tanned, he looks a good two decades younger than his 78 years". In such interviews, he refused to discuss his name change from Anglemyer to Anger, telling one interviewer: "You're being impertinent. It says 'Anger' on my passport. That's all you need to know. I would stay away from that subject if I were you." But in a 2010 interview, he said: "I just condensed my name. I knew it would be like a label, a logo. It's easy to remember." Anger once joked that he was "somewhat to the right of the KKK" in his views about black people, opening him up to criticism for racism, though this was likely a "Crowley-esque joke". He supported the Tibetan independence movement. Anger was a Thelemite and belonged to the main Thelemic organization, the Ordo Templi Orientis. He viewed many of the men he associated with as living embodiments of Lucifer, a symbol of the Aeon of Horus in Thelemic philosophy, and had his own name inked onto his chest with the Lucifer tattoo. Anger showed an interest in various other religious movements, particularly those that related in some way to occultism. For instance, he was a lifelong friend of Anton LaVey from before the founding of the Church of Satan in the 1960s, even living with him and his family during the 1990s. LaVey also appeared in Anger's Invocation of My Demon Brother as a devilish priest. Anger called himself a pagan and did not consider himself a Satanist. He has called Wicca a "lunar", feminine religion in contrast to Thelema's "solar" masculinity. Filmography Books References Notes Citations Works cited Further reading Eaton, Thomas Dylan (2008). Cinema, Messianism and Crime, Parkett 83, pp. 197–205. Eaton, Thomas Dylan (2008), 1000 WORDS; KENNETH ANGER, Artforum, September, pp. 412–415. . External links bentclouds.com. Essay on Kustom Kar Kommandos Non-Normative Sex in Kustom Kar Kommandos. The Film Journal. Review of Alice Hutchison's book on Anger Artforum 1000 Words Esquire Kenneth Anger: Where The Bodies Are Buried, by Mick Brown. Category:1927 births Category:2023 deaths Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers Category:American LGBT screenwriters Category:American Thelemites Category:American expatriates in France Category:American experimental filmmakers Category:American gay actors Category:American gay artists Category:American gay writers Category:American male child actors Category:American modern pagans Category:American people of English descent Category:American people of German descent Category:Film directors from California Category:Gay screenwriters Category:LGBT film directors Category:LGBT people from California Category:Male actors from Santa Monica, California Category:Writers from Santa Monica, California
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[ "Anger returned to making films in 2000.", "The text does not provide information on how Anger's films were received after his return in 2000.", "After returning to filmmaking in 2000 starting with the anti-smoking film \"Don't Smoke That Cigarette\", in the following years he developed and screened a number of short films, which include \"The Man We Want to Hang\", \"Anger Sees Red\", \"Patriotic Penis\", \"Mouse Heaven\", \"Ich Will!\", and \"Uniform Attraction\". He also worked on the Technicolor Skull project with musician Brian Butler and made appearances in the 2008 documentary FLicKeR and the 2009 short film \"Night of Pan\". He wrote Hollywood Babylon III, but did not publish it due to potential legal repercussions related to its content about Tom Cruise and the Scientologists. He was also featured in retrospective exhibitions in New York City and London.", "The text does not provide information on what Anger did after the exhibitions in New York City and London.", "The text does not provide information on what Anger's next work was after the exhibitions in New York City and London.", "The text does not provide information on what else Anger did beyond his filmmaking, the Technicolor Skull project, his appearances in other films, and his writing of Hollywood Babylon III.", "The text does not provide information on whether Anger's work was successful.", "The text does not provide information on what Anger is doing currently." ]
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C_404e806c32bf41abbd286a7f15fc72f8_0
William Hogarth
William Hogarth was born at Bartholomew Close in London to Richard Hogarth, a poor Latin school teacher and textbook writer, and Anne Gibbons. In his youth he was apprenticed to the engraver Ellis Gamble in Leicester Fields, where he learned to engrave trade cards and similar products. Young Hogarth also took a lively interest in the street life of the metropolis and the London fairs, and amused himself by sketching the characters he saw. Around the same time, his father, who had opened an unsuccessful Latin-speaking coffee house at St John's Gate, was imprisoned for debt in Fleet Prison for five years.
Marriage a-la-mode
In 1743-1745, Hogarth painted the six pictures of Marriage a-la-mode (National Gallery, London), a pointed skewering of upper-class 18th-century society. This moralistic warning shows the miserable tragedy of an ill-considered marriage for money. This is regarded by many as his finest project and may be among his best-planned story serials. Marital ethics were the topic of much debate in 18th-century Britain. The many marriages of convenience and their attendant unhappiness came in for particular criticism, with a variety of authors taking the view that love was a much sounder basis for marriage. Hogarth here painted a satire - a genre that by definition has a moral point to convey - of a conventional marriage within the English upper class. All the paintings were engraved and the series achieved wide circulation in print form. The series, which is set in a Classical interior, shows the story of the fashionable marriage of Viscount Squanderfield, the son of bankrupt Earl Squander, to the daughter of a wealthy but miserly city merchant, starting with the signing of a marriage contract at the Earl's mansion and ending with the murder of the son by his wife's lover and the suicide of the daughter after her lover is hanged at Tyburn for murdering her husband. William Makepeace Thackeray wrote: This famous set of pictures contains the most important and highly wrought of the Hogarth comedies. The care and method with which the moral grounds of these pictures are laid is as remarkable as the wit and skill of the observing and dexterous artist. He has to describe the negotiations for a marriage pending between the daughter of a rich citizen Alderman and young Lord Viscount Squanderfield, the dissipated son of a gouty old Earl ... The dismal end is known. My lord draws upon the counselor, who kills him, and is apprehended while endeavouring to escape. My lady goes back perforce to the Alderman of the City, and faints upon reading Counsellor Silvertongue's dying speech at Tyburn (place of execution in old London), where the counselor has been 'executed for sending his lordship out of the world. Moral: don't listen to evil silver-tongued counselors; don't marry a man for his rank, or a woman for her money; don't frequent foolish auctions and masquerade balls unknown to your husband; don't have wicked companions abroad and neglect your wife, otherwise you will be run through the body, and ruin will ensue, and disgrace, and Tyburn. CANNOTANSWER
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William Hogarth (; 10 November 1697 – 26 October 1764) was an English painter, engraver, pictorial satirist, social critic, editorial cartoonist and occasional writer on art. His work ranges from realistic portraiture to comic strip-like series of pictures called "modern moral subjects", and he is perhaps best known for his series A Harlot's Progress, A Rake's Progress and Marriage A-la-Mode. Knowledge of his work is so pervasive that satirical political illustrations in this style are often referred to as "Hogarthian". Hogarth was born in London to a lower-middle-class family. In his youth he took up an apprenticeship with an engraver, but did not complete the apprenticeship. His father underwent periods of mixed fortune, and was at one time imprisoned in lieu of outstanding debts, an event that is thought to have informed William's paintings and prints with a hard edge. Influenced by French and Italian painting and engraving, Hogarth's works are mostly satirical caricatures, sometimes bawdily sexual, mostly of the first rank of realistic portraiture. They became widely popular and mass-produced via prints in his lifetime, and he was by far the most significant English artist of his generation. Charles Lamb deemed Hogarth's images to be books, filled with "the teeming, fruitful, suggestive meaning of words. Other pictures we look at; his pictures we read." Early life William Hogarth was born at Bartholomew Close in London to Richard Hogarth, a poor Latin school teacher and textbook writer, and Anne Gibbons. In his youth he was apprenticed to the engraver Ellis Gamble in Leicester Fields, where he learned to engrave trade cards and similar products. Young Hogarth also took a lively interest in the street life of the metropolis and the London fairs, and amused himself by sketching the characters he saw. Around the same time, his father, who had opened an unsuccessful Latin-speaking coffee house at St John's Gate, was imprisoned for debt in the Fleet Prison for five years. Hogarth never spoke of his father's imprisonment. In 1720, Hogarth enrolled at the original St Martin's Lane Academy in Peter Court, London, which was run by Louis Chéron and John Vanderbank. He attended alongside other future leading figures in art and design, such as Joseph Highmore, William Kent, and Arthur Pond. However, the academy seems to have stopped operating in 1724, at around the same time that Vanderbank fled to France in order to avoid creditors. Hogarth recalled of the first incarnation of the academy: "this lasted a few years but the treasurer sinking the subscription money the lamp stove etc were seized for rent and the whole affair put a stop to." Hogarth then enrolled in another drawing school, in Covent Garden, shortly after it opened in November 1724, which was run by Sir James Thornhill, serjeant painter to the king. On Thornhill, Hogarth later claimed that, even as an apprentice, "the painting of St Pauls and gree[n]wich hospital … were during this time runing in my head", referring to the massive schemes of decoration painted by Thornhill for the dome of St Paul's Cathedral, and Greenwich Hospital. Hogarth became a member of the Rose and Crown Club, with Peter Tillemans, George Vertue, Michael Dahl, and other artists and connoisseurs. Career By April 1720, Hogarth was an engraver in his own right, at first engraving coats of arms and shop bills and designing plates for booksellers. In 1727, he was hired by Joshua Morris, a tapestry worker, to prepare a design for the Element of Earth. Morris heard that he was "an engraver, and no painter", and consequently declined the work when completed. Hogarth accordingly sued him for the money in the Westminster Court, where the case was decided in his favour on 28 May 1728. Early works Early satirical works included an Emblematical Print on the South Sea Scheme (, published 1724), about the disastrous stock market crash of 1720, known as the South Sea Bubble, in which many English people lost a great deal of money. In the bottom left corner, he shows Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Jewish figures gambling, while in the middle there is a huge machine, like a merry-go-round, which people are boarding. At the top is a goat, written below which is "Who'l Ride". The people are scattered around the picture with a sense of disorder, while the progress of the well dressed people towards the ride in the middle shows the foolishness of the crowd in buying stock in the South Sea Company, which spent more time issuing stock than anything else. Other early works include The Lottery (1724); The Mystery of Masonry brought to Light by the Gormagons (1724); A Just View of the British Stage (1724); some book illustrations; and the small print Masquerades and Operas (1724). The latter is a satire on contemporary follies, such as the masquerades of the Swiss impresario John James Heidegger, the popular Italian opera singers, John Rich's pantomimes at Lincoln's Inn Fields, and the exaggerated popularity of Lord Burlington's protégé, the architect and painter William Kent. He continued that theme in 1727, with the Large Masquerade Ticket. In 1726, Hogarth prepared twelve large engravings illustrating Samuel Butler's Hudibras. These he himself valued highly, and they are among his best early works, though they are based on small book illustrations. In the following years, he turned his attention to the production of small "conversation pieces" (i.e., groups in oil of full-length portraits from high. Among his efforts in oil between 1728 and 1732 were The Fountaine Family (c.1730), The Assembly at Wanstead House, The House of Commons examining Bambridge, and several pictures of the chief actors in John Gay's popular The Beggar's Opera. One of his real-life subjects was Sarah Malcolm, whom he sketched two days before her execution. One of Hogarth's masterpieces of this period is the depiction of an amateur performance by children of John Dryden's The Indian Emperour, or The Conquest of Mexico by Spaniards, being the Sequel of The Indian Queen (1732–1735) at the home of John Conduitt, master of the mint, in St George's Street, Hanover Square. Hogarth's other works in the 1730s include A Midnight Modern Conversation (1733), Southwark Fair (1733), The Sleeping Congregation (1736), Before and After (1736), Scholars at a Lecture (1736), The Company of Undertakers (1736), The Distrest Poet (1736), The Four Times of the Day (1738), and Strolling Actresses Dressing in a Barn (1738). He might also have printed Burlington Gate (1731), evoked by Alexander Pope's Epistle to Lord Burlington, and defending Lord Chandos, who is therein satirized. This print gave great offence, and was suppressed. However, modern authorities such as Ronald Paulson no longer attribute it to Hogarth. Moralizing art Harlot's Progress and Rake's Progress In 1731, Hogarth completed the earliest of his series of moral works, a body of work that led to wide recognition. The collection of six scenes was entitled A Harlot's Progress and appeared first as paintings (now lost) before being published as engravings. A Harlot's Progress depicts the fate of a country girl who begins prostituting – the six scenes are chronological, starting with a meeting with a bawd and ending with a funeral ceremony that follows the character's death from venereal disease. The inaugural series was an immediate success and was followed in 1733–1735 by the sequel A Rake's Progress. The second instalment consisted of eight pictures that depicted the reckless life of Tom Rakewell, the son of a rich merchant, who spends all of his money on luxurious living, services from prostitutes, and gambling – the character's life ultimately ends in Bethlem Royal Hospital. The original paintings of A Harlot's Progress were destroyed in the fire at Fonthill House in 1755; the oil paintings of A Rake's Progress (1733–34) are displayed in the gallery room at Sir John Soane's Museum, London, UK. When the success of A Harlot's Progress and A Rake's Progress resulted in numerous pirated reproductions by unscrupulous printsellers, Hogarth lobbied in parliament for greater legal control over the reproduction of his and other artists' work. The result was the Engravers' Copyright Act (known as 'Hogarth's Act'), which became law on 25 June 1735 and was the first copyright law to deal with visual works as well as the first to recognise the authorial rights of an individual artist. Marriage A-la-Mode In 1743–1745, Hogarth painted the six pictures of Marriage A-la-Mode (National Gallery, London), a pointed skewering of upper-class 18th-century society. An engraved version of the same series, produced by French engravers, appeared in 1745. This moralistic warning shows the miserable tragedy of an ill-considered marriage for money. This is regarded by many as his finest project and may be among his best-planned story serials. Marital ethics were the topic of much debate in 18th-century Britain. The many marriages of convenience and their attendant unhappiness came in for particular criticism, with a variety of authors taking the view that love was a much sounder basis for marriage. Hogarth here painted a satire – a genre that by definition has a moral point to convey – of a conventional marriage within the English upper class. All the paintings were engraved and the series achieved wide circulation in print form. The series, which is set in a Classical interior, shows the story of the fashionable marriage of Viscount Squanderfield, the son of bankrupt Earl Squander, to the daughter of a wealthy but miserly city merchant, starting with the signing of a marriage contract at the Earl's grand house and ending with the murder of the son by his wife's lover and the suicide of the daughter after her lover is hanged at Tyburn for murdering her husband. William Makepeace Thackeray wrote: This famous set of pictures contains the most important and highly wrought of the Hogarth comedies. The care and method with which the moral grounds of these pictures are laid is as remarkable as the wit and skill of the observing and dexterous artist. He has to describe the negotiations for a marriage pending between the daughter of a rich citizen Alderman and young Lord Viscount Squanderfield, the dissipated son of a gouty old Earl ... The dismal end is known. My lord draws upon the counsellor, who kills him, and is apprehended while endeavouring to escape. My lady goes back perforce to the Alderman of the City, and faints upon reading Counsellor Silvertongue's dying speech at Tyburn (place of execution in old London), where the counsellor has been 'executed for sending his lordship out of the world. Moral: don't listen to evil silver-tongued counsellors; don't marry a man for his rank, or a woman for her money; don't frequent foolish auctions and masquerade balls unknown to your husband; don't have wicked companions abroad and neglect your wife, otherwise you will be run through the body, and ruin will ensue, and disgrace, and Tyburn. Industry and Idleness In the twelve prints of Industry and Idleness (1747), Hogarth shows the progression in the lives of two apprentices, one of whom is dedicated and hard working, while the other, who is idle, commits crime and is eventually executed. This shows the work ethic of Protestant England, where those who worked hard were rewarded, such as the industrious apprentice who becomes Sheriff (plate 8), Alderman (plate 10), and finally the Lord Mayor of London in the last plate in the series. The idle apprentice, who begins "at play in the church yard" (plate 3), holes up "in a Garrett with a Common Prostitute" after turning highwayman (plate 7) and "executed at Tyburn" (plate 11). The idle apprentice is sent to the gallows by the industrious apprentice himself. For each plate, there is at least one passage from the Bible at the bottom, mostly from the Book of Proverbs, such as for the first plate: "Industry and Idleness, shown here, 'Proverbs Ch:10 Ver:4 The hand of the diligent maketh rich.'" Beer Street and Gin Lane Later prints of significance include his pictorial warning of the consequences of alcoholism in Beer Street and Gin Lane (1751). Hogarth engraved Beer Street to show a happy city drinking the 'good' beverage, English beer, in contrast to Gin Lane, in which the effects of drinking gin are shown – as a more potent liquor, gin caused more problems for society. There had been a sharp increase in the popularity of gin at this time, which was called the 'Gin Craze.' It started in the early 18th century, after a series of legislative actions in the late 17th century impacted the importation and manufacturing of alcohol in London. Among these, were the Prohibition of 1678, which barred popular French brandy imports, and the forced disbandment, in 1690, of the London Guild of Distillers, whose members had previously been the only legal manufacturers of alcohol, leading to an increase in the production and then consumption of domestic gin. In Beer Street, people are shown as healthy, happy and prosperous, while in Gin Lane, they are scrawny, lazy and careless. The woman at the front of Gin Lane, who lets her baby fall to its death, echoes the tale of Judith Dufour, who strangled her baby so she could sell its clothes for gin money. The prints were published in support of the Gin Act 1751. Hogarth's friend, the magistrate Henry Fielding, may have enlisted Hogarth to help with propaganda for the Gin Act; Beer Street and Gin Lane were issued shortly after his work An Enquiry into the Causes of the Late Increase of Robbers, and Related Writings, and addressed the same issues. The Four Stages of Cruelty Other prints were his outcry against inhumanity in The Four Stages of Cruelty (published 21 February 1751), in which Hogarth depicts the cruel treatment of animals which he saw around him and suggests what will happen to people who carry on in this manner. In the first print, there are scenes of boys torturing dogs, cats and other animals. It centers around a poorly dressed boy committing a violent act of torture upon a dog, while being pleaded with to stop, and offered food, by another well-dressed boy. A boy behind them has graffitied a hanged stickman figure upon a wall, with the name "Tom Nero" underneath, and is pointing to this dog torturer. The second shows Tom Nero has grown up to become a Hackney coach driver. His coach has overturned with a heavy load and his horse is lying on the ground, having broken its leg. He is beating it with the handle of his whip; its eye severely wounded. Other people around him are seen abusing their work animals and livestock, and a child is being run over by the wheel of a dray, as the drayman dozes off on the job. In the third print, Tom is shown to be a murderer, surrounded by a mob of accusers. The woman he has apparently killed is lying on the ground, brutally slain, with a trunk and sack of stolen goods near by. One of the accusers holds a letter from the woman to Tom, speaking of how wronging her mistress upsets her conscience, but that she is resolved to do as he would have her, closing with: "I remain yours till death." The fourth, titled The Reward of Cruelty, shows Tom's withering corpse being publicly dissected by scientists after his execution by hanging; a noose still around his neck. The dissection reflects the Murder Act 1751, which allowed for the public dissection of criminals who had been hanged for murder. Portraits Hogarth was also a popular portrait painter. In 1745, he painted actor David Garrick as Richard III, for which he was paid £200, "which was more", he wrote, "than any English artist ever received for a single portrait." With this picture Hogarth established the genre of theatrical portraiture as a distinctively British kind of history painting. In 1746, a sketch of Simon Fraser, 11th Lord Lovat, afterwards beheaded on Tower Hill, had an exceptional success. In 1740, he created a truthful, vivid full-length portrait of his friend, the philanthropic Captain Coram, for the Thomas Coram Foundation for Children, now in the Foundling Museum. This portrait, and his unfinished oil sketch of a young fishwoman, entitled The Shrimp Girl (National Gallery, London), may be called masterpieces of British painting. There are also portraits of his wife, his two sisters, and of many other people; among them Bishop Hoadly and Bishop Herring. The engraved portrait of John Wilkes was a bestseller. Historical subjects For a long period, during the mid-18th century, Hogarth tried to achieve the status of a history painter, but did not earn much respect in this field. The painter, and later founder of the Royal Academy of Arts, Joshua Reynolds, was highly critical of Hogarth's style and work. According to art historian David Bindman, in Dr Johnson's serial of essays for London's Universal Chronicle, The Idler, the three essays written by Reynolds for the months of September through November 1759 are directed at Hogarth. In them, Reynolds argues that this "connoisseur" has a "servile attention to minute exactness" and questions their idea of the imitation of nature as "the obvious sense, that objects are represented naturally when they have such relief that they seem real." Reynolds rejected "this kind of imitation", favouring the "grand style of painting" which avoids "minute attention" to the visible world. In Reynolds' Discourse XIV, he grants Hogarth has "extraordinary talents", but reproaches him for "very imprudently, or rather presumptuously, attempt[ing] the great historical style." Writer, art historian and politician, Horace Walpole, was also critical of Hogarth as a history painter, but did find value in his satirical prints. Biblical scenes Hogarth's history pictures include The Pool of Bethesda and The Good Samaritan, executed in 1736–1737 for St Bartholomew's Hospital; Moses brought before Pharaoh's Daughter, painted for the Foundling Hospital (1747, formerly at the Thomas Coram Foundation for Children, now in the Foundling Museum); Paul before Felix (1748) at Lincoln's Inn; and his altarpiece for St. Mary Redcliffe, Bristol (1755–56). The Gate of Calais The Gate of Calais (1748; now in Tate Britain) was produced soon after his return from a visit to France. Horace Walpole wrote that Hogarth had run a great risk to go there since the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. Back home, he immediately executed a painting of the subject in which he unkindly represented his enemies, the Frenchmen, as cringing, emaciated and superstitious people, while an enormous sirloin of beef arrives, destined for the English inn as a symbol of British prosperity and superiority. He claimed to have painted himself into the picture in the left corner sketching the gate, with a "soldier's hand upon my shoulder", running him in. Other later works Notable Hogarth engravings in the 1740s include The Enraged Musician (1741), the six prints of Marriage à-la-mode (1745; executed by French artists under Hogarth's inspection), and The Stage Coach or The Country Inn Yard (1747). In 1745, Hogarth painted a self-portrait with his pug dog, Trump (now also in Tate Britain), which shows him as a learned artist supported by volumes of Shakespeare, Milton and Swift. In 1749, he represented the somewhat disorderly English troops on their March of the Guards to Finchley (formerly located in Thomas Coram Foundation for Children, now Foundling Museum). Others works included his ingenious Satire on False Perspective (1754); his satire on canvassing in his Election series (1755–1758; now in Sir John Soane's Museum); his ridicule of the English passion for cockfighting in The Cockpit (1759); his attack on Methodism in Credulity, Superstition, and Fanaticism (1762); his political anti-war satire in The Times, plate I (1762); and his pessimistic view of all things in Tailpiece, or The Bathos (1764). In 1757, Hogarth was appointed Serjeant Painter to the King. Writing Hogarth wrote and published his ideas of artistic design in his book The Analysis of Beauty (1753). In it, he professes to define the principles of beauty and grace which he, a real child of Rococo, saw realized in serpentine lines (the Line of Beauty). By some of Hogarth's adherents, the book was praised as a fine deliverance upon aesthetics; by his enemies and rivals, its obscurities and minor errors were made the subject of endless ridicule and caricature. For instance, Paul Sandby produced several caricatures against Hogarth's treatise. Hogarth wrote also a manuscript called Apology for Painters () and unpublished "autobiographical notes". Painter and engraver of modern moral subjects Hogarth lived in an age when artwork became increasingly commercialized, being viewed in shop windows, taverns, and public buildings, and sold in printshops. Old hierarchies broke down, and new forms began to flourish: the ballad opera, the bourgeois tragedy, and especially, a new form of fiction called the novel with which authors such as Henry Fielding had great success. Therefore, by that time, Hogarth hit on a new idea: "painting and engraving modern moral subjects ... to treat my subjects as a dramatic writer; my picture was my stage", as he himself remarked in his manuscript notes. He drew from the highly moralizing Protestant tradition of Dutch genre painting, and the very vigorous satirical traditions of the English broadsheet and other types of popular print. In England the fine arts had little comedy in them before Hogarth. His prints were expensive, and remained so until early 19th-century reprints brought them to a wider audience. Parodic borrowings from Old Masters When analysing the work of the artist as a whole, Ronald Paulson says, "In A Harlot's Progress, every single plate but one is based on Dürer's images of the story of the Virgin and the story of the Passion." In other works, he parodies Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper. According to Paulson, Hogarth is subverting the religious establishment and the orthodox belief in an immanent God who intervenes in the lives of people and produces miracles. Indeed, Hogarth was a Deist, a believer in a God who created the universe but takes no direct hand in the lives of his creations. Thus, as a "comic history painter", he often poked fun at the old-fashioned, "beaten" subjects of religious art in his paintings and prints. Hogarth also rejected Lord Shaftesbury's then-current ideal of the classical Greek male in favour of the living, breathing female. He said, "Who but a bigot, even to the antiques, will say that he has not seen faces and necks, hands and arms in living women, that even the Grecian Venus doth but coarsely imitate." Personal life On 23 March 1729, Hogarth eloped with Jane Thornhill at Paddington Church, against the wishes of her father, the artist Sir James Thornhill. Sir James saw the match as unequal, as Hogarth was a rather obscure artist at the time. However, when Hogarth started on his series of moral prints, A Harlot's Progress, some of the initial paintings were placed either in Sir James' drawing room or dining room, through the conspiring of Jane and her mother, in the hopes of reconciling him with the couple. When he saw them, he inquired as to the artist's name and, upon hearing it, replied: "Very well; the man who can produce such representations as these, can also maintain a wife without a portion." However, he soon after relented, becoming more generous to, and living in harmony with the couple until his death. Hogarth was initiated as a Freemason before 1728 in the Lodge at the Hand and Apple Tree Tavern, Little Queen Street, and later belonged to the Carrier Stone Lodge and the Grand Stewards' Lodge; the latter still possesses the 'Hogarth Jewel' which Hogarth designed for the Lodge's Master to wear. Today the original is in storage and a replica is worn by the Master of the Lodge. Freemasonry was a theme in some of Hogarth's work, most notably 'Night', the fourth in the quartet of paintings (later released as engravings) collectively entitled the Four Times of the Day. His main home was in Leicester Square (then known as Leicester Fields), but he bought a country retreat in Chiswick in 1749, the house now known as Hogarth's House and preserved as a museum, and spent time there for the rest of his life. The Hogarths had no children, although they fostered foundling children. He was a founding Governor of the Foundling Hospital. Among his friends and acquaintances were many English artists and satirists of the period, such as Francis Hayman, Henry Fielding, and Laurence Sterne. Death On 25 October 1764, Hogarth was conveyed from his villa in Chiswick to his home in Leicester Fields, in weak condition. He had been in a weakened state for a while by this time, but was said to be in a cheerful mood and was even still working—with some help; doing more retouches on The Bench on this same day. On 26 October, he received a letter from Benjamin Franklin and wrote up a rough draught in reply. Before going to bed that evening, he'd boasted about eating a pound of beefsteaks for dinner and reportedly looked more robust than he had in a while at this time. However, when he went to bed, he suddenly began vomiting; something that caused him to ring his bell so forcefully that it broke. Hogarth passed away around two hours later, in the arms of his servant, Mrs Mary Lewis. John Nichols claimed that he died of an aneurysm, which he said took place in the "chest." Horace Walpole claimed that he died of "a dropsy of his breast." Mrs Lewis, who stayed on with Jane Hogarth in Leicester Fields, was the only non-familial person acknowledged financially in Hogarth's will and was left £100 (approximately £18,651.61 in 2020) for her "faithful services." Hogarth was buried at St. Nicholas Church, Chiswick, now in the west of London. His friend, actor David Garrick, composed the following inscription for his tombstone: Influence and reputation Hogarth's works were a direct influence on John Collier, who was known as the "Lancashire Hogarth". The spread of Hogarth's prints throughout Europe, together with the depiction of popular scenes from his prints in faked Hogarth prints, influenced Continental book illustration through the 18th and early 19th centuries, especially in Germany and France. He also influenced many caricaturists of the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. Hogarth's influence lives on today as artists continue to draw inspiration from his work. Hogarth's paintings and prints have provided the subject matter for several other works. For example, Gavin Gordon's 1935 ballet The Rake's Progress, to choreography by Ninette de Valois, was based directly on Hogarth's series of paintings of that title. Igor Stravinsky's 1951 opera The Rake's Progress, with libretto by W. H. Auden, was less literally inspired by the same series. Hogarth's engravings also inspired the BBC radio play The Midnight House by Jonathan Hall, based on the M. R. James ghost story "The Mezzotint" and first broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in 2006. Russell Banks' short story "Indisposed" is a fictional account of Hogarth's infidelity as told from the viewpoint of his wife, Jane. Hogarth was the lead character in Nick Dear's play The Art of Success, whilst he is played by Toby Jones in the 2006 television film A Harlot's Progress. Hogarth's House in Chiswick, west London, is now a museum; the major road junction next to it is named the Hogarth Roundabout. In 2014 both Hogarth's House and the Foundling Museum held special exhibitions to mark the 250th anniversary of his death. In 2019, Sir John Soane's Museum, which owns both The Rake's Progress and The Humours of an Election, held an exhibition which assembled all Hogarth's series of paintings, and his series of engravings, in one place for the first time. Stanley Kubrick based the cinematography of his 1975 period drama film, Barry Lyndon, on several Hogarth paintings. In Roger Michell's 2003 film The Mother, starring Anne Reid and Daniel Craig, the protagonists visit Hogarth's tomb during their first outing together. They read aloud the poem inscribed there and their shared admiration of Hogarth helps to affirm their connection with one another.'Selected works PaintingsEngravingsSee also English art List of works by William Hogarth Ronald Paulson, the world's leading expert on Hogarth Judy Egerton, Hogarth curator, cataloguer, and commentator Notes References William Hogarth, John Bowyer Nichols, ed. Anecdotes of William Hogarth, Written by Himself (J. B. Nichols and Son, 25 Parliament Street, London, 1833) Peter Quennell, Hogarth's Progress (London, New York, Ayer Co., 1955, ) Quennell, Peter. "Hogarth's Election Series." History Today (Apr 1953) 3#4 pp 221–232 Frederick Antal, Hogarth and His Place in European Art (London 1962). Georg Christoph Lichtenberg, Ausführliche Erklärung der Hogarthischen Kupferstiche (Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 1972, ) Sean Shesgreen, Hogarth 101 Prints (New York: Dover 1973). David Bindman, Hogarth (London 1981). Sean Shesgreen, Hogarth and the Times-of-the-Day Tradition (Ithaca, New York: Cornell UP, 1983). Ronald Paulson, Hogarth's Graphic Works (3rd edn, London 1989). Ronald Paulson, Hogarth, 3 vols. (New Brunswick 1991–93). Elizabeth Einberg, Hogarth the Painter (London: Tate Gallery, 1997). Jenny Uglow, Hogarth: A Life and a World (London 1997). Frédéric Ogée and Hans-Peter Wagner, eds., William Hogarth: Theater and the Theater of Life (Los Angeles, 1997). Hans-Peter Wagner, William Hogarth: Das graphische Werk (Saarbrücken, 1998; revised edition, Trier 2013). David Bindman, Frédéric Ogée and Peter Wagner, eds. Hogarth: Representing Nature's Machines (Manchester, 2001) Bernadette Fort, and Angela Rosenthal, eds., The Other Hogarth: Aesthetics of Difference (Princeton: Princeton UP, 2001) Christine Riding and Mark Hallet, "Hogarth" (Tate Publishing, London, 2006). Robin Simon, Hogarth, France and British Art: The rise of the arts in eighteenth-century Britain (Paul Holberton Publishing, 2007) Ilias Chrissochoidis, "Handel, Hogarth, Goupy: Artistic intersections in Handelian biography", Early Music 37/4 (November 2009), 577–596. Bernd W. Krysmanski, Hogarth's Hidden Parts: Satiric Allusion, Erotic Wit, Blasphemous Bawdiness and Dark Humour in Eighteenth-Century English Art (Hildesheim, Zurich, New York: Olms-Verlag, 2010 ) Johann Joachim Eschenburg, Über William Hogarth und seine Erklärer, ed. Till Kinzel (Hanover: Wehrhahn, 2013 ) Cynthia Ellen Roman, ed., Hogarth's Legacy (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2016) Elizabeth Einberg, William Hogarth: A Complete Catalogue of the Paintings'' (New Haven and London, Yale University Press for Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art, 2016) Robin Simon, Shakespeare, Hogarth and Garrick: Plays, Painting and Performance (Paul Holberton Publishing, 2023) External links The Works of William Hogarth, 1822 Heath edition (engravings, with commentaries by John Nichols) William Hogarth's biography, style, artworks and influences William Hogarth at The National Gallery William Hogarth and 18th-Century Print Culture The Site for Research on William Hogarth (annotated online bibliography) Hogarth exhibition at Tate Britain, London (7 February – 29 April 2007) William Hogarth at Wikigallery The Analysis of Beauty, 1753 (abridged 1909 edition) 'Hogarth's London', lecture by Robin Simon at Gresham College, 8 October 2007 (available for download as MP3, MP4 or text files) Hogarth's London video hosted at Tate Britain's website by Martin Rowson William Hogarth's Works hosted at The Victorian Web Category:1697 births Category:1764 deaths Category:17th-century English writers Category:17th-century English male writers Category:18th-century English male artists Category:Painters from London Category:English caricaturists Category:English cartoonists Category:English engravers Category:English illustrators Category:English satirists Category:English printmakers Category:18th-century English painters Category:English male painters Category:Court painters Category:Artist authors Category:Political artists Category:Freemasons of the Premier Grand Lodge of England
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[ "Marriage a-la-mode is a series of six paintings by Hogarth, created in 1743-1745. They depict a moralistic warning about the tragedy of a marriage contracted for money, rather than love. It satirizes a conventional upper-class English marriage of convenience and shows in a serial form the story of Viscount Squanderfield, the son of bankrupt Earl Squander, marrying the daughter of a wealthy city merchant. The series covers events from the signing of their marriage contract to the murder of the Viscount by his wife's lover and the wife's suicide following her lover's execution.", "The context does not provide specific names for each of the six pictures in the Marriage a-la-mode series.", "Viscount Squanderfield married the daughter of a wealthy but miserly city merchant.", "The context does not provide specific details about what happened immediately after the signing of the marriage contract in the Marriage a-la-mode series by Hogarth.", "The context provided elaborates on Hogarth's Marriage a-la-mode as a satirical critique of upper-class 18th-century society and the prevalent practice of marrying for money. This series of paintings is considered to be one of Hogarth's best-planned story cycles. The story depicted within the series, of Viscount Squanderfield and a wealthy merchant's daughter, ends tragically, once again illustrating the moralistic point. Additionally, the paintings themselves were also engraved and widely circulated in print form. Finally, William Makepeace Thackeray, a famed British novelist, praised the wit, skill, and moral grounding of the Marriage a-la-mode series.", "In this context, the moral referred to pertains to the moralistic warning depicted in Hogarth's paintings, mainly that marrying for money rather than love can lead to tragedy. The satirical series creates a condemnation of upper-class 18th-century society and its practice of marriages of convenience, implying ethics such as love, honesty, and fidelity as being of greater value in marital relationships. The series seeks to communicate that unethical actions such as deceit, infidelity, and marrying for perceived social advancement can lead to disastrous consequences. Overall, it illustrates the moralistic belief that love is a much sounder basis for marriage." ]
[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes" ]
C_404e806c32bf41abbd286a7f15fc72f8_1
William Hogarth
William Hogarth was born at Bartholomew Close in London to Richard Hogarth, a poor Latin school teacher and textbook writer, and Anne Gibbons. In his youth he was apprenticed to the engraver Ellis Gamble in Leicester Fields, where he learned to engrave trade cards and similar products. Young Hogarth also took a lively interest in the street life of the metropolis and the London fairs, and amused himself by sketching the characters he saw. Around the same time, his father, who had opened an unsuccessful Latin-speaking coffee house at St John's Gate, was imprisoned for debt in Fleet Prison for five years.
Harlot's and Rake's Progresses
In 1731 Hogarth completed the earliest of his series of moral works, a body of work that led to significant recognition. The collection of six scenes was entitled A Harlot's Progress and appeared first as paintings (now lost) before being published as engravings. A Harlot's Progress depicts the fate of a country girl who begins prostituting - the six scenes are chronological, starting with a meeting with a bawd and ending with a funeral ceremony that follows the character's death from venereal disease. The inaugural series was an immediate success and was followed in 1733-1735 by the sequel A Rake's Progress. The second instalment consisted of eight pictures that depicted the reckless life of Tom Rakewell, the son of a rich merchant, who spends all of his money on luxurious living, services from prostitutes, and gambling - the character's life ultimately ends in Bethlem Royal Hospital. The original paintings of A Harlot's Progress were destroyed in the fire at Fonthill House in 1755; the oil paintings of A Rake's Progress (1733-34) are displayed in the gallery room at Sir John Soane's Museum, London, UK. When the success of A Harlot's Progress and A Rake's Progress resulted in numerous pirated reproductions by unscrupulous printsellers, Hogarth lobbied in parliament for greater legal control over the reproduction of his and other artists' work. The result was the Engravers' Copyright Act (known as 'Hogarth's Act'), which became law on 25 June 1735 and was the first copyright law to deal with visual works as well as the first to recognize the authorial rights of an individual artist. CANNOTANSWER
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William Hogarth (; 10 November 1697 – 26 October 1764) was an English painter, engraver, pictorial satirist, social critic, editorial cartoonist and occasional writer on art. His work ranges from realistic portraiture to comic strip-like series of pictures called "modern moral subjects", and he is perhaps best known for his series A Harlot's Progress, A Rake's Progress and Marriage A-la-Mode. Knowledge of his work is so pervasive that satirical political illustrations in this style are often referred to as "Hogarthian". Hogarth was born in London to a lower-middle-class family. In his youth he took up an apprenticeship with an engraver, but did not complete the apprenticeship. His father underwent periods of mixed fortune, and was at one time imprisoned in lieu of outstanding debts, an event that is thought to have informed William's paintings and prints with a hard edge. Influenced by French and Italian painting and engraving, Hogarth's works are mostly satirical caricatures, sometimes bawdily sexual, mostly of the first rank of realistic portraiture. They became widely popular and mass-produced via prints in his lifetime, and he was by far the most significant English artist of his generation. Charles Lamb deemed Hogarth's images to be books, filled with "the teeming, fruitful, suggestive meaning of words. Other pictures we look at; his pictures we read." Early life William Hogarth was born at Bartholomew Close in London to Richard Hogarth, a poor Latin school teacher and textbook writer, and Anne Gibbons. In his youth he was apprenticed to the engraver Ellis Gamble in Leicester Fields, where he learned to engrave trade cards and similar products. Young Hogarth also took a lively interest in the street life of the metropolis and the London fairs, and amused himself by sketching the characters he saw. Around the same time, his father, who had opened an unsuccessful Latin-speaking coffee house at St John's Gate, was imprisoned for debt in the Fleet Prison for five years. Hogarth never spoke of his father's imprisonment. In 1720, Hogarth enrolled at the original St Martin's Lane Academy in Peter Court, London, which was run by Louis Chéron and John Vanderbank. He attended alongside other future leading figures in art and design, such as Joseph Highmore, William Kent, and Arthur Pond. However, the academy seems to have stopped operating in 1724, at around the same time that Vanderbank fled to France in order to avoid creditors. Hogarth recalled of the first incarnation of the academy: "this lasted a few years but the treasurer sinking the subscription money the lamp stove etc were seized for rent and the whole affair put a stop to." Hogarth then enrolled in another drawing school, in Covent Garden, shortly after it opened in November 1724, which was run by Sir James Thornhill, serjeant painter to the king. On Thornhill, Hogarth later claimed that, even as an apprentice, "the painting of St Pauls and gree[n]wich hospital … were during this time runing in my head", referring to the massive schemes of decoration painted by Thornhill for the dome of St Paul's Cathedral, and Greenwich Hospital. Hogarth became a member of the Rose and Crown Club, with Peter Tillemans, George Vertue, Michael Dahl, and other artists and connoisseurs. Career By April 1720, Hogarth was an engraver in his own right, at first engraving coats of arms and shop bills and designing plates for booksellers. In 1727, he was hired by Joshua Morris, a tapestry worker, to prepare a design for the Element of Earth. Morris heard that he was "an engraver, and no painter", and consequently declined the work when completed. Hogarth accordingly sued him for the money in the Westminster Court, where the case was decided in his favour on 28 May 1728. Early works Early satirical works included an Emblematical Print on the South Sea Scheme (, published 1724), about the disastrous stock market crash of 1720, known as the South Sea Bubble, in which many English people lost a great deal of money. In the bottom left corner, he shows Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Jewish figures gambling, while in the middle there is a huge machine, like a merry-go-round, which people are boarding. At the top is a goat, written below which is "Who'l Ride". The people are scattered around the picture with a sense of disorder, while the progress of the well dressed people towards the ride in the middle shows the foolishness of the crowd in buying stock in the South Sea Company, which spent more time issuing stock than anything else. Other early works include The Lottery (1724); The Mystery of Masonry brought to Light by the Gormagons (1724); A Just View of the British Stage (1724); some book illustrations; and the small print Masquerades and Operas (1724). The latter is a satire on contemporary follies, such as the masquerades of the Swiss impresario John James Heidegger, the popular Italian opera singers, John Rich's pantomimes at Lincoln's Inn Fields, and the exaggerated popularity of Lord Burlington's protégé, the architect and painter William Kent. He continued that theme in 1727, with the Large Masquerade Ticket. In 1726, Hogarth prepared twelve large engravings illustrating Samuel Butler's Hudibras. These he himself valued highly, and they are among his best early works, though they are based on small book illustrations. In the following years, he turned his attention to the production of small "conversation pieces" (i.e., groups in oil of full-length portraits from high. Among his efforts in oil between 1728 and 1732 were The Fountaine Family (c.1730), The Assembly at Wanstead House, The House of Commons examining Bambridge, and several pictures of the chief actors in John Gay's popular The Beggar's Opera. One of his real-life subjects was Sarah Malcolm, whom he sketched two days before her execution. One of Hogarth's masterpieces of this period is the depiction of an amateur performance by children of John Dryden's The Indian Emperour, or The Conquest of Mexico by Spaniards, being the Sequel of The Indian Queen (1732–1735) at the home of John Conduitt, master of the mint, in St George's Street, Hanover Square. Hogarth's other works in the 1730s include A Midnight Modern Conversation (1733), Southwark Fair (1733), The Sleeping Congregation (1736), Before and After (1736), Scholars at a Lecture (1736), The Company of Undertakers (1736), The Distrest Poet (1736), The Four Times of the Day (1738), and Strolling Actresses Dressing in a Barn (1738). He might also have printed Burlington Gate (1731), evoked by Alexander Pope's Epistle to Lord Burlington, and defending Lord Chandos, who is therein satirized. This print gave great offence, and was suppressed. However, modern authorities such as Ronald Paulson no longer attribute it to Hogarth. Moralizing art Harlot's Progress and Rake's Progress In 1731, Hogarth completed the earliest of his series of moral works, a body of work that led to wide recognition. The collection of six scenes was entitled A Harlot's Progress and appeared first as paintings (now lost) before being published as engravings. A Harlot's Progress depicts the fate of a country girl who begins prostituting – the six scenes are chronological, starting with a meeting with a bawd and ending with a funeral ceremony that follows the character's death from venereal disease. The inaugural series was an immediate success and was followed in 1733–1735 by the sequel A Rake's Progress. The second instalment consisted of eight pictures that depicted the reckless life of Tom Rakewell, the son of a rich merchant, who spends all of his money on luxurious living, services from prostitutes, and gambling – the character's life ultimately ends in Bethlem Royal Hospital. The original paintings of A Harlot's Progress were destroyed in the fire at Fonthill House in 1755; the oil paintings of A Rake's Progress (1733–34) are displayed in the gallery room at Sir John Soane's Museum, London, UK. When the success of A Harlot's Progress and A Rake's Progress resulted in numerous pirated reproductions by unscrupulous printsellers, Hogarth lobbied in parliament for greater legal control over the reproduction of his and other artists' work. The result was the Engravers' Copyright Act (known as 'Hogarth's Act'), which became law on 25 June 1735 and was the first copyright law to deal with visual works as well as the first to recognise the authorial rights of an individual artist. Marriage A-la-Mode In 1743–1745, Hogarth painted the six pictures of Marriage A-la-Mode (National Gallery, London), a pointed skewering of upper-class 18th-century society. An engraved version of the same series, produced by French engravers, appeared in 1745. This moralistic warning shows the miserable tragedy of an ill-considered marriage for money. This is regarded by many as his finest project and may be among his best-planned story serials. Marital ethics were the topic of much debate in 18th-century Britain. The many marriages of convenience and their attendant unhappiness came in for particular criticism, with a variety of authors taking the view that love was a much sounder basis for marriage. Hogarth here painted a satire – a genre that by definition has a moral point to convey – of a conventional marriage within the English upper class. All the paintings were engraved and the series achieved wide circulation in print form. The series, which is set in a Classical interior, shows the story of the fashionable marriage of Viscount Squanderfield, the son of bankrupt Earl Squander, to the daughter of a wealthy but miserly city merchant, starting with the signing of a marriage contract at the Earl's grand house and ending with the murder of the son by his wife's lover and the suicide of the daughter after her lover is hanged at Tyburn for murdering her husband. William Makepeace Thackeray wrote: This famous set of pictures contains the most important and highly wrought of the Hogarth comedies. The care and method with which the moral grounds of these pictures are laid is as remarkable as the wit and skill of the observing and dexterous artist. He has to describe the negotiations for a marriage pending between the daughter of a rich citizen Alderman and young Lord Viscount Squanderfield, the dissipated son of a gouty old Earl ... The dismal end is known. My lord draws upon the counsellor, who kills him, and is apprehended while endeavouring to escape. My lady goes back perforce to the Alderman of the City, and faints upon reading Counsellor Silvertongue's dying speech at Tyburn (place of execution in old London), where the counsellor has been 'executed for sending his lordship out of the world. Moral: don't listen to evil silver-tongued counsellors; don't marry a man for his rank, or a woman for her money; don't frequent foolish auctions and masquerade balls unknown to your husband; don't have wicked companions abroad and neglect your wife, otherwise you will be run through the body, and ruin will ensue, and disgrace, and Tyburn. Industry and Idleness In the twelve prints of Industry and Idleness (1747), Hogarth shows the progression in the lives of two apprentices, one of whom is dedicated and hard working, while the other, who is idle, commits crime and is eventually executed. This shows the work ethic of Protestant England, where those who worked hard were rewarded, such as the industrious apprentice who becomes Sheriff (plate 8), Alderman (plate 10), and finally the Lord Mayor of London in the last plate in the series. The idle apprentice, who begins "at play in the church yard" (plate 3), holes up "in a Garrett with a Common Prostitute" after turning highwayman (plate 7) and "executed at Tyburn" (plate 11). The idle apprentice is sent to the gallows by the industrious apprentice himself. For each plate, there is at least one passage from the Bible at the bottom, mostly from the Book of Proverbs, such as for the first plate: "Industry and Idleness, shown here, 'Proverbs Ch:10 Ver:4 The hand of the diligent maketh rich.'" Beer Street and Gin Lane Later prints of significance include his pictorial warning of the consequences of alcoholism in Beer Street and Gin Lane (1751). Hogarth engraved Beer Street to show a happy city drinking the 'good' beverage, English beer, in contrast to Gin Lane, in which the effects of drinking gin are shown – as a more potent liquor, gin caused more problems for society. There had been a sharp increase in the popularity of gin at this time, which was called the 'Gin Craze.' It started in the early 18th century, after a series of legislative actions in the late 17th century impacted the importation and manufacturing of alcohol in London. Among these, were the Prohibition of 1678, which barred popular French brandy imports, and the forced disbandment, in 1690, of the London Guild of Distillers, whose members had previously been the only legal manufacturers of alcohol, leading to an increase in the production and then consumption of domestic gin. In Beer Street, people are shown as healthy, happy and prosperous, while in Gin Lane, they are scrawny, lazy and careless. The woman at the front of Gin Lane, who lets her baby fall to its death, echoes the tale of Judith Dufour, who strangled her baby so she could sell its clothes for gin money. The prints were published in support of the Gin Act 1751. Hogarth's friend, the magistrate Henry Fielding, may have enlisted Hogarth to help with propaganda for the Gin Act; Beer Street and Gin Lane were issued shortly after his work An Enquiry into the Causes of the Late Increase of Robbers, and Related Writings, and addressed the same issues. The Four Stages of Cruelty Other prints were his outcry against inhumanity in The Four Stages of Cruelty (published 21 February 1751), in which Hogarth depicts the cruel treatment of animals which he saw around him and suggests what will happen to people who carry on in this manner. In the first print, there are scenes of boys torturing dogs, cats and other animals. It centers around a poorly dressed boy committing a violent act of torture upon a dog, while being pleaded with to stop, and offered food, by another well-dressed boy. A boy behind them has graffitied a hanged stickman figure upon a wall, with the name "Tom Nero" underneath, and is pointing to this dog torturer. The second shows Tom Nero has grown up to become a Hackney coach driver. His coach has overturned with a heavy load and his horse is lying on the ground, having broken its leg. He is beating it with the handle of his whip; its eye severely wounded. Other people around him are seen abusing their work animals and livestock, and a child is being run over by the wheel of a dray, as the drayman dozes off on the job. In the third print, Tom is shown to be a murderer, surrounded by a mob of accusers. The woman he has apparently killed is lying on the ground, brutally slain, with a trunk and sack of stolen goods near by. One of the accusers holds a letter from the woman to Tom, speaking of how wronging her mistress upsets her conscience, but that she is resolved to do as he would have her, closing with: "I remain yours till death." The fourth, titled The Reward of Cruelty, shows Tom's withering corpse being publicly dissected by scientists after his execution by hanging; a noose still around his neck. The dissection reflects the Murder Act 1751, which allowed for the public dissection of criminals who had been hanged for murder. Portraits Hogarth was also a popular portrait painter. In 1745, he painted actor David Garrick as Richard III, for which he was paid £200, "which was more", he wrote, "than any English artist ever received for a single portrait." With this picture Hogarth established the genre of theatrical portraiture as a distinctively British kind of history painting. In 1746, a sketch of Simon Fraser, 11th Lord Lovat, afterwards beheaded on Tower Hill, had an exceptional success. In 1740, he created a truthful, vivid full-length portrait of his friend, the philanthropic Captain Coram, for the Thomas Coram Foundation for Children, now in the Foundling Museum. This portrait, and his unfinished oil sketch of a young fishwoman, entitled The Shrimp Girl (National Gallery, London), may be called masterpieces of British painting. There are also portraits of his wife, his two sisters, and of many other people; among them Bishop Hoadly and Bishop Herring. The engraved portrait of John Wilkes was a bestseller. Historical subjects For a long period, during the mid-18th century, Hogarth tried to achieve the status of a history painter, but did not earn much respect in this field. The painter, and later founder of the Royal Academy of Arts, Joshua Reynolds, was highly critical of Hogarth's style and work. According to art historian David Bindman, in Dr Johnson's serial of essays for London's Universal Chronicle, The Idler, the three essays written by Reynolds for the months of September through November 1759 are directed at Hogarth. In them, Reynolds argues that this "connoisseur" has a "servile attention to minute exactness" and questions their idea of the imitation of nature as "the obvious sense, that objects are represented naturally when they have such relief that they seem real." Reynolds rejected "this kind of imitation", favouring the "grand style of painting" which avoids "minute attention" to the visible world. In Reynolds' Discourse XIV, he grants Hogarth has "extraordinary talents", but reproaches him for "very imprudently, or rather presumptuously, attempt[ing] the great historical style." Writer, art historian and politician, Horace Walpole, was also critical of Hogarth as a history painter, but did find value in his satirical prints. Biblical scenes Hogarth's history pictures include The Pool of Bethesda and The Good Samaritan, executed in 1736–1737 for St Bartholomew's Hospital; Moses brought before Pharaoh's Daughter, painted for the Foundling Hospital (1747, formerly at the Thomas Coram Foundation for Children, now in the Foundling Museum); Paul before Felix (1748) at Lincoln's Inn; and his altarpiece for St. Mary Redcliffe, Bristol (1755–56). The Gate of Calais The Gate of Calais (1748; now in Tate Britain) was produced soon after his return from a visit to France. Horace Walpole wrote that Hogarth had run a great risk to go there since the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. Back home, he immediately executed a painting of the subject in which he unkindly represented his enemies, the Frenchmen, as cringing, emaciated and superstitious people, while an enormous sirloin of beef arrives, destined for the English inn as a symbol of British prosperity and superiority. He claimed to have painted himself into the picture in the left corner sketching the gate, with a "soldier's hand upon my shoulder", running him in. Other later works Notable Hogarth engravings in the 1740s include The Enraged Musician (1741), the six prints of Marriage à-la-mode (1745; executed by French artists under Hogarth's inspection), and The Stage Coach or The Country Inn Yard (1747). In 1745, Hogarth painted a self-portrait with his pug dog, Trump (now also in Tate Britain), which shows him as a learned artist supported by volumes of Shakespeare, Milton and Swift. In 1749, he represented the somewhat disorderly English troops on their March of the Guards to Finchley (formerly located in Thomas Coram Foundation for Children, now Foundling Museum). Others works included his ingenious Satire on False Perspective (1754); his satire on canvassing in his Election series (1755–1758; now in Sir John Soane's Museum); his ridicule of the English passion for cockfighting in The Cockpit (1759); his attack on Methodism in Credulity, Superstition, and Fanaticism (1762); his political anti-war satire in The Times, plate I (1762); and his pessimistic view of all things in Tailpiece, or The Bathos (1764). In 1757, Hogarth was appointed Serjeant Painter to the King. Writing Hogarth wrote and published his ideas of artistic design in his book The Analysis of Beauty (1753). In it, he professes to define the principles of beauty and grace which he, a real child of Rococo, saw realized in serpentine lines (the Line of Beauty). By some of Hogarth's adherents, the book was praised as a fine deliverance upon aesthetics; by his enemies and rivals, its obscurities and minor errors were made the subject of endless ridicule and caricature. For instance, Paul Sandby produced several caricatures against Hogarth's treatise. Hogarth wrote also a manuscript called Apology for Painters () and unpublished "autobiographical notes". Painter and engraver of modern moral subjects Hogarth lived in an age when artwork became increasingly commercialized, being viewed in shop windows, taverns, and public buildings, and sold in printshops. Old hierarchies broke down, and new forms began to flourish: the ballad opera, the bourgeois tragedy, and especially, a new form of fiction called the novel with which authors such as Henry Fielding had great success. Therefore, by that time, Hogarth hit on a new idea: "painting and engraving modern moral subjects ... to treat my subjects as a dramatic writer; my picture was my stage", as he himself remarked in his manuscript notes. He drew from the highly moralizing Protestant tradition of Dutch genre painting, and the very vigorous satirical traditions of the English broadsheet and other types of popular print. In England the fine arts had little comedy in them before Hogarth. His prints were expensive, and remained so until early 19th-century reprints brought them to a wider audience. Parodic borrowings from Old Masters When analysing the work of the artist as a whole, Ronald Paulson says, "In A Harlot's Progress, every single plate but one is based on Dürer's images of the story of the Virgin and the story of the Passion." In other works, he parodies Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper. According to Paulson, Hogarth is subverting the religious establishment and the orthodox belief in an immanent God who intervenes in the lives of people and produces miracles. Indeed, Hogarth was a Deist, a believer in a God who created the universe but takes no direct hand in the lives of his creations. Thus, as a "comic history painter", he often poked fun at the old-fashioned, "beaten" subjects of religious art in his paintings and prints. Hogarth also rejected Lord Shaftesbury's then-current ideal of the classical Greek male in favour of the living, breathing female. He said, "Who but a bigot, even to the antiques, will say that he has not seen faces and necks, hands and arms in living women, that even the Grecian Venus doth but coarsely imitate." Personal life On 23 March 1729, Hogarth eloped with Jane Thornhill at Paddington Church, against the wishes of her father, the artist Sir James Thornhill. Sir James saw the match as unequal, as Hogarth was a rather obscure artist at the time. However, when Hogarth started on his series of moral prints, A Harlot's Progress, some of the initial paintings were placed either in Sir James' drawing room or dining room, through the conspiring of Jane and her mother, in the hopes of reconciling him with the couple. When he saw them, he inquired as to the artist's name and, upon hearing it, replied: "Very well; the man who can produce such representations as these, can also maintain a wife without a portion." However, he soon after relented, becoming more generous to, and living in harmony with the couple until his death. Hogarth was initiated as a Freemason before 1728 in the Lodge at the Hand and Apple Tree Tavern, Little Queen Street, and later belonged to the Carrier Stone Lodge and the Grand Stewards' Lodge; the latter still possesses the 'Hogarth Jewel' which Hogarth designed for the Lodge's Master to wear. Today the original is in storage and a replica is worn by the Master of the Lodge. Freemasonry was a theme in some of Hogarth's work, most notably 'Night', the fourth in the quartet of paintings (later released as engravings) collectively entitled the Four Times of the Day. His main home was in Leicester Square (then known as Leicester Fields), but he bought a country retreat in Chiswick in 1749, the house now known as Hogarth's House and preserved as a museum, and spent time there for the rest of his life. The Hogarths had no children, although they fostered foundling children. He was a founding Governor of the Foundling Hospital. Among his friends and acquaintances were many English artists and satirists of the period, such as Francis Hayman, Henry Fielding, and Laurence Sterne. Death On 25 October 1764, Hogarth was conveyed from his villa in Chiswick to his home in Leicester Fields, in weak condition. He had been in a weakened state for a while by this time, but was said to be in a cheerful mood and was even still working—with some help; doing more retouches on The Bench on this same day. On 26 October, he received a letter from Benjamin Franklin and wrote up a rough draught in reply. Before going to bed that evening, he'd boasted about eating a pound of beefsteaks for dinner and reportedly looked more robust than he had in a while at this time. However, when he went to bed, he suddenly began vomiting; something that caused him to ring his bell so forcefully that it broke. Hogarth passed away around two hours later, in the arms of his servant, Mrs Mary Lewis. John Nichols claimed that he died of an aneurysm, which he said took place in the "chest." Horace Walpole claimed that he died of "a dropsy of his breast." Mrs Lewis, who stayed on with Jane Hogarth in Leicester Fields, was the only non-familial person acknowledged financially in Hogarth's will and was left £100 (approximately £18,651.61 in 2020) for her "faithful services." Hogarth was buried at St. Nicholas Church, Chiswick, now in the west of London. His friend, actor David Garrick, composed the following inscription for his tombstone: Influence and reputation Hogarth's works were a direct influence on John Collier, who was known as the "Lancashire Hogarth". The spread of Hogarth's prints throughout Europe, together with the depiction of popular scenes from his prints in faked Hogarth prints, influenced Continental book illustration through the 18th and early 19th centuries, especially in Germany and France. He also influenced many caricaturists of the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. Hogarth's influence lives on today as artists continue to draw inspiration from his work. Hogarth's paintings and prints have provided the subject matter for several other works. For example, Gavin Gordon's 1935 ballet The Rake's Progress, to choreography by Ninette de Valois, was based directly on Hogarth's series of paintings of that title. Igor Stravinsky's 1951 opera The Rake's Progress, with libretto by W. H. Auden, was less literally inspired by the same series. Hogarth's engravings also inspired the BBC radio play The Midnight House by Jonathan Hall, based on the M. R. James ghost story "The Mezzotint" and first broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in 2006. Russell Banks' short story "Indisposed" is a fictional account of Hogarth's infidelity as told from the viewpoint of his wife, Jane. Hogarth was the lead character in Nick Dear's play The Art of Success, whilst he is played by Toby Jones in the 2006 television film A Harlot's Progress. Hogarth's House in Chiswick, west London, is now a museum; the major road junction next to it is named the Hogarth Roundabout. In 2014 both Hogarth's House and the Foundling Museum held special exhibitions to mark the 250th anniversary of his death. In 2019, Sir John Soane's Museum, which owns both The Rake's Progress and The Humours of an Election, held an exhibition which assembled all Hogarth's series of paintings, and his series of engravings, in one place for the first time. Stanley Kubrick based the cinematography of his 1975 period drama film, Barry Lyndon, on several Hogarth paintings. In Roger Michell's 2003 film The Mother, starring Anne Reid and Daniel Craig, the protagonists visit Hogarth's tomb during their first outing together. They read aloud the poem inscribed there and their shared admiration of Hogarth helps to affirm their connection with one another.'Selected works PaintingsEngravingsSee also English art List of works by William Hogarth Ronald Paulson, the world's leading expert on Hogarth Judy Egerton, Hogarth curator, cataloguer, and commentator Notes References William Hogarth, John Bowyer Nichols, ed. Anecdotes of William Hogarth, Written by Himself (J. B. Nichols and Son, 25 Parliament Street, London, 1833) Peter Quennell, Hogarth's Progress (London, New York, Ayer Co., 1955, ) Quennell, Peter. "Hogarth's Election Series." History Today (Apr 1953) 3#4 pp 221–232 Frederick Antal, Hogarth and His Place in European Art (London 1962). Georg Christoph Lichtenberg, Ausführliche Erklärung der Hogarthischen Kupferstiche (Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 1972, ) Sean Shesgreen, Hogarth 101 Prints (New York: Dover 1973). David Bindman, Hogarth (London 1981). Sean Shesgreen, Hogarth and the Times-of-the-Day Tradition (Ithaca, New York: Cornell UP, 1983). Ronald Paulson, Hogarth's Graphic Works (3rd edn, London 1989). Ronald Paulson, Hogarth, 3 vols. (New Brunswick 1991–93). Elizabeth Einberg, Hogarth the Painter (London: Tate Gallery, 1997). Jenny Uglow, Hogarth: A Life and a World (London 1997). Frédéric Ogée and Hans-Peter Wagner, eds., William Hogarth: Theater and the Theater of Life (Los Angeles, 1997). Hans-Peter Wagner, William Hogarth: Das graphische Werk (Saarbrücken, 1998; revised edition, Trier 2013). David Bindman, Frédéric Ogée and Peter Wagner, eds. Hogarth: Representing Nature's Machines (Manchester, 2001) Bernadette Fort, and Angela Rosenthal, eds., The Other Hogarth: Aesthetics of Difference (Princeton: Princeton UP, 2001) Christine Riding and Mark Hallet, "Hogarth" (Tate Publishing, London, 2006). Robin Simon, Hogarth, France and British Art: The rise of the arts in eighteenth-century Britain (Paul Holberton Publishing, 2007) Ilias Chrissochoidis, "Handel, Hogarth, Goupy: Artistic intersections in Handelian biography", Early Music 37/4 (November 2009), 577–596. Bernd W. Krysmanski, Hogarth's Hidden Parts: Satiric Allusion, Erotic Wit, Blasphemous Bawdiness and Dark Humour in Eighteenth-Century English Art (Hildesheim, Zurich, New York: Olms-Verlag, 2010 ) Johann Joachim Eschenburg, Über William Hogarth und seine Erklärer, ed. Till Kinzel (Hanover: Wehrhahn, 2013 ) Cynthia Ellen Roman, ed., Hogarth's Legacy (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2016) Elizabeth Einberg, William Hogarth: A Complete Catalogue of the Paintings'' (New Haven and London, Yale University Press for Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art, 2016) Robin Simon, Shakespeare, Hogarth and Garrick: Plays, Painting and Performance (Paul Holberton Publishing, 2023) External links The Works of William Hogarth, 1822 Heath edition (engravings, with commentaries by John Nichols) William Hogarth's biography, style, artworks and influences William Hogarth at The National Gallery William Hogarth and 18th-Century Print Culture The Site for Research on William Hogarth (annotated online bibliography) Hogarth exhibition at Tate Britain, London (7 February – 29 April 2007) William Hogarth at Wikigallery The Analysis of Beauty, 1753 (abridged 1909 edition) 'Hogarth's London', lecture by Robin Simon at Gresham College, 8 October 2007 (available for download as MP3, MP4 or text files) Hogarth's London video hosted at Tate Britain's website by Martin Rowson William Hogarth's Works hosted at The Victorian Web Category:1697 births Category:1764 deaths Category:17th-century English writers Category:17th-century English male writers Category:18th-century English male artists Category:Painters from London Category:English caricaturists Category:English cartoonists Category:English engravers Category:English illustrators Category:English satirists Category:English printmakers Category:18th-century English painters Category:English male painters Category:Court painters Category:Artist authors Category:Political artists Category:Freemasons of the Premier Grand Lodge of England
[]
[ "Hogarth completed A Harlot's Progress in 1731 and A Rake's Progress between 1733 and 1735.", "Harlot's Progress and Rake's Progress are series of works by Hogarth. A Harlot's Progress is a collection of six scenes that depict the fate of a country girl who starts prostituting - the scenes are chronological, starting with a meeting with a bawd and ending with her death from venereal disease. A Rake's Progress is a series of eight pictures that depict the reckless life of Tom Rakewell, the son of a rich merchant, who spends his money on luxurious living, services from prostitutes, and gambling, and ends up in Bethlem Royal Hospital.", "A Rake's Progress is a series of eight pictures by Hogarth that depict the life of Tom Rakewell, the son of a rich merchant. The series chronicles Tom's reckless lifestyle, in which he squanders his money on luxurious living, services from prostitutes, and gambling, until his life ultimately ends in Bethlem Royal Hospital.", "The country girl, depicted in Hogarth's series A Harlot's Progress, starts prostituting and her life is portrayed in a chronological sequence of six scenes that start with a meeting with a bawd. The series ends with a funeral ceremony following the character's death from venereal disease.", "One interesting aspect in the passage is when the success of A Harlot's Progress and A Rake's Progress led to numerous unauthorized (pirated) reproductions, Hogarth played a major role in advocating for artists' rights. He lobbied in parliament for more control over the reproduction of his work and the work of other artists. This resulted in the Engravers' Copyright Act, also known as 'Hogarth's Act', which became law on 25 June 1735. This was not only the first copyright law to deal with visual works but also the first to recognize the authorial rights of an individual artist.", "The context does not provide information on whether Hogarth had more series apart from A Harlot's Progress and A Rake's Progress." ]
[ "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "No" ]
C_33e05296104443a890d19310606eaa33_1
Muddy Waters
Muddy Waters' birthplace and date are not conclusively known. He stated that he was born in Rolling Fork, Mississippi, in 1915, but it is believed to be more likely that he was born in Jug's Corner, in neighboring Issaquena County, in 1913. Recent research has uncovered documentation showing that in the 1930s and 1940s, before his rise to fame, the year of his birth was reported as 1913 on his marriage license, recording notes, and musicians' union card. A 1955 interview in the Chicago Defender is the earliest in which he stated 1915 as the year of his birth, and he continued to say this in interviews from that point onward.
Early career, 1941-1948
In August 1941, Alan Lomax went to Stovall, Mississippi, on behalf of the Library of Congress to record various country blues musicians. "He brought his stuff down and recorded me right in my house," Muddy recalled for Rolling Stone magazine, "and when he played back the first song I sounded just like anybody's records. Man, you don't know how I felt that Saturday afternoon when I heard that voice and it was my own voice. Later on he sent me two copies of the pressing and a check for twenty bucks, and I carried that record up to the corner and put it on the jukebox. Just played it and played it and said, 'I can do it, I can do it.'" Lomax came back in July 1942 to record him again. Both sessions were eventually released by Testament Records as Down on Stovall's Plantation. The complete recordings were reissued by Chess Records on CD as Muddy Waters: The Complete Plantation Recordings. The Historic 1941-42 Library of Congress Field Recordings in 1993 and remastered in 1997. In 1943, Muddy Waters headed to Chicago with the hope of becoming a full-time professional musician. He lived with a relative for a short period while driving a truck and working in a factory by day and performing at night. Big Bill Broonzy, then one of the leading bluesmen in Chicago, had Muddy Waters open his shows in the rowdy clubs where Broonzy played. This gave Muddy Waters the opportunity to play in front of a large audience. In 1944, he bought his first electric guitar and then formed his first electric combo. He felt obliged to electrify his sound in Chicago because, he said, "When I went into the clubs, the first thing I wanted was an amplifier. Couldn't nobody hear you with an acoustic." His sound reflected the optimism of postwar African Americans. Willie Dixon said that "There was quite a few people around singing the blues but most of them was singing all sad blues. Muddy was giving his blues a little pep." Three years later, in 1946, he recorded some songs for Mayo Williams at Columbia Records, with an old-fashioned combo consisting of clarinet, saxophone and piano; they were released a year later with Ivan Ballen's Philadelphia-based 20th Century label, billed as James "Sweet Lucy" Carter and his Orchestra - Muddy Waters' name was not mentioned on the label. Later that year, he began recording for Aristocrat Records, a newly formed label run by the brothers Leonard and Phil Chess. In 1947, he played guitar with Sunnyland Slim on piano on the cuts "Gypsy Woman" and "Little Anna Mae". These were also shelved, but in 1948, "I Can't Be Satisfied" and "I Feel Like Going Home" became hits, and his popularity in clubs began to take off. Soon after, Aristocrat changed its name to Chess Records. Muddy Waters's signature tune "Rollin' Stone" also became a hit that year. CANNOTANSWER
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McKinley Morganfield (April 4, 1913April 30, 1983), known professionally as Muddy Waters, was an American blues singer and musician who was an important figure in the post-war blues scene, and is often cited as the "father of modern Chicago blues". His style of playing has been described as "raining down Delta beatitude". Muddy Waters grew up on Stovall Plantation near Clarksdale, Mississippi, and by age 17 was playing the guitar and the harmonica, emulating the local blues artists Son House and Robert Johnson. He was recorded in Mississippi by Alan Lomax for the Library of Congress in 1941. In 1943, he moved to Chicago to become a full-time professional musician. In 1946, he recorded his first records for Columbia Records and then for Aristocrat Records, a newly formed label run by the brothers Leonard and Phil Chess. In the early 1950s, Muddy Waters and his band—Little Walter Jacobs on harmonica, Jimmy Rogers on guitar, Elga Edmonds (also known as Elgin Evans) on drums and Otis Spann on piano—recorded several blues classics, some with the bassist and songwriter Willie Dixon. These songs included "Hoochie Coochie Man," "I Just Want to Make Love to You" and "I'm Ready". In 1958, he traveled to England, laying the foundations of the resurgence of interest in the blues there. His performance at the Newport Jazz Festival in 1960 was recorded and released as his first live album, At Newport 1960. Muddy Waters' music has influenced various American music genres, including rock & roll and subsequently rock. Early life Muddy Waters' place and date of birth are not conclusively known. He stated that he was born in 1915 in Rolling Fork in Sharkey County, Mississippi, but other evidence suggests that he was born in the unincorporated community of Jug's Corner, in neighboring Issaquena County, in 1913. In the 1930s and 1940s, before his rise to fame, the year of his birth was reported as 1913 on his marriage license, recording notes, and musicians' union card. A 1955 interview in the Chicago Defender is the earliest in which he stated 1915 as the year of his birth, and he continued to state that year in interviews from that point onward. The 1920 census lists him as five years old as of March 6, 1920. The Social Security Death Index, relying on the Social Security card application submitted after his move to Chicago in the mid-1940s, lists him as being born April 4, 1913. His gravestone gives his birth year as 1915. His grandmother, Della Grant, raised him after his mother died shortly after his birth. Grant gave him the nickname "Muddy" at an early age because he loved to play in the muddy water of nearby Deer Creek. "Waters" was added years later, as he began to play harmonica and perform locally in his early teens. He taught himself to play harmonica. The remains of the cabin on Stovall Plantation where he lived in his youth are now at the Delta Blues Museum in Clarksdale, Mississippi. He had his first introduction to music in church: "I used to belong to church. I was a good Baptist, singing in the church. So I got all of my good moaning and trembling going on for me right out of church," he recalled. By the time he was 17, he had purchased his first guitar. "I sold the last horse that we had. Made about fifteen dollars for him, gave my grandmother seven dollars and fifty cents, I kept seven-fifty and paid about two-fifty for that guitar. It was a Stella. The people ordered them from Sears-Roebuck in Chicago." He started playing his songs in joints near his hometown, mostly on a plantation owned by Colonel William Howard Stovall. Career Early career, early 1930s–1948 In the early 1930s, Muddy Waters accompanied Big Joe Williams on tours of the Delta, playing harmonica. Williams recounted to Blewett Thomas that he eventually dropped Muddy "because he was takin' away my women [fans]". In August 1941, Alan Lomax went to Stovall, Mississippi, on behalf of the Library of Congress to record various country blues musicians. "He brought his stuff down and recorded me right in my house," Muddy told Rolling Stone magazine, "and when he played back the first song I sounded just like anybody's records. Man, you don't know how I felt that Saturday afternoon when I heard that voice and it was my own voice. Later on he sent me two copies of the pressing and a check for twenty bucks, and I carried that record up to the corner and put it on the jukebox. Just played it and played it and said, 'I can do it, I can do it'." Lomax came back in July 1942 to record him again. Both sessions were eventually released by Testament Records as Down on Stovall's Plantation. The complete recordings were reissued by Chess Records on CD as Muddy Waters: The Complete Plantation Recordings. The Historic 1941–42 Library of Congress Field Recordings in 1993 and remastered in 1997. In 1943, Muddy headed to Chicago with the hope of becoming a full-time professional musician. He later recalled arriving in Chicago as the single most momentous event in his life. He lived with a relative for a short period while driving a truck and working in a factory by day and performing at night. Big Bill Broonzy, then one of the leading bluesmen in Chicago, had Muddy open his shows in the rowdy clubs where Broonzy played. This gave him the opportunity to play in front of a large audience. In 1944, he bought his first electric guitar and then formed his first electric combo. He felt obliged to electrify his sound in Chicago because, he said, "When I went into the clubs, the first thing I wanted was an amplifier. Couldn't nobody hear you with an acoustic." His sound reflected the optimism of postwar African Americans. Willie Dixon said that "There was quite a few people around singing the blues but most of them was singing all sad blues. Muddy was giving his blues a little pep." In 1946, Muddy recorded some songs for Mayo Williams at Columbia Records, with an old-fashioned combo consisting of clarinet, saxophone and piano; they were released a year later with Ivan Ballen's Philadelphia-based 20th Century label, billed as James "Sweet Lucy" Carter and his Orchestra – Muddy Waters' name was not mentioned on the label. Later that year, he began recording for Aristocrat Records, a newly formed label run by the brothers Leonard and Phil Chess. In 1947, he played guitar with Sunnyland Slim on piano on the cuts "Gypsy Woman" and "Little Anna Mae". These were also shelved, but in 1948, "I Can't Be Satisfied" and "I Feel Like Going Home" became hits, and his popularity in clubs began to take off. Soon after, Aristocrat changed its name to Chess Records. Muddy Waters's signature tune "Rollin' Stone" also became a hit that year. Commercial success, 1948–1957 Initially, the Chess brothers would not allow Muddy Waters to use his working band in the recording studio; instead, he was provided with a backing bass by Ernest "Big" Crawford or by musicians assembled specifically for the recording session, including "Baby Face" Leroy Foster and Johnny Jones. Gradually, Chess relented, and by September 1953 he was recording with one of the most acclaimed blues groups in history: Little Walter Jacobs on harmonica, Jimmy Rogers on guitar, Elga Edmonds (also known as Elgin Evans) on drums, and Otis Spann on piano. The band recorded a series of blues classics during the early 1950s, some with the help of the bassist and songwriter Willie Dixon, including "Hoochie Coochie Man", "I Just Want to Make Love to You", and "I'm Ready" Muddy Waters's band became a proving ground for some of the city's best blues talent, with members of the ensemble going on to successful careers of their own. In 1952, Little Walter left when his single "Juke" became a hit, although he continued a collaborative relationship long after he left, appearing on most of the band's classic recordings in the 1950s. Howlin' Wolf moved to Chicago in 1954 with financial support earned through his successful Chess singles, and the "legendary rivalry" with Muddy Waters began. The rivalry was, in part, stoked by Willie Dixon providing songs to both artists, with Wolf suspecting that Muddy was getting Dixon's best songs. 1955 saw the departure of Jimmy Rogers, who quit to work exclusively with his own band, which had been a sideline until that time. In the mid-1950s, Muddy Waters' singles were frequently on Billboard magazine's various Rhythm & Blues charts including "Sugar Sweet" in 1955 and "Trouble No More", "Forty Days and Forty Nights", and "Don't Go No Farther" in 1956. 1956 also saw the release of one of his best-known numbers, "Got My Mojo Working", although it did not appear on the charts. However, by the late 1950s, his singles success had come to an end, with only "Close to You" reaching the chart in 1958. Also in 1958, Chess released his first compilation album, The Best of Muddy Waters, which collected twelve of his singles up to 1956. Performances and crossover, 1958–1970 Muddy toured England with Spann in 1958, where they were backed by local Dixieland-style or "trad jazz" musicians, including members of Chris Barber's band. At the time, English audiences had only been exposed to acoustic folk blues, as performed by artists such as Sonny Terry, Brownie McGhee, and Big Bill Broonzy. Both the musicians and audiences were unprepared for his performance, which included electric slide guitar playing. He recalled: Although his performances alienated the old guard, some younger musicians, including Alexis Korner and Cyril Davies from Barber's band, were inspired to go in the more modern, electric blues direction. Korner and Davies' own groups included musicians who would later form the Rolling Stones (named after Muddy's 1950 hit "Rollin' Stone"), Cream, and the original Fleetwood Mac. In the 1960s, Muddy Waters' performances continued to introduce a new generation to Chicago blues. At the Newport Jazz Festival, he recorded one of the first live blues albums, At Newport 1960, and his performance of "Got My Mojo Working" was nominated for a Grammy award. In September 1963, in Chess' attempt to connect with folk music audiences, he recorded Folk Singer, which replaced his trademark electric guitar sound with an acoustic band, including a then-unknown Buddy Guy on acoustic guitar. Folk Singer was not a commercial success, but it was lauded by critic Joe Kane, and in 2003 Rolling Stone magazine placed it at number 280 on its list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. In October 1963, Muddy Waters participated in the first of several annual European tours, organized as the American Folk Blues Festival, during which he also performed more acoustic-oriented numbers. In 1967, he re-recorded several blues standards with Bo Diddley, Little Walter, and Howlin' Wolf, which were marketed as Super Blues and The Super Super Blues Band albums in Chess' attempt to reach a rock audience. The Super Super Blues Band united Howlin' Wolf and Muddy Waters, who had a long-standing rivalry. It was, as Ken Chang wrote in his AllMusic review, flooded with "contentious studio banter [...] more entertaining than the otherwise unmemorable music from this stylistic train wreck". In 1968, at the instigation of Marshall Chess, he recorded Electric Mud, an album intended to revive his career by backing him with Rotary Connection, a psychedelic soul band that Chess had put together. The album proved controversial; although it reached number 127 on the Billboard 200 album chart, it was scorned by many critics, and eventually disowned by Muddy Waters himself: Nonetheless, six months later he recorded a follow-up album, After the Rain, which had a similar sound and featured many of the same musicians. Later in 1969, he recorded and released the album Fathers and Sons, which featured a return to his classic Chicago blues sound. Fathers and Sons had an all-star backing band that included Michael Bloomfield and Paul Butterfield, longtime fans whose desire to play with him was the impetus for the album. It was the most successful album of Muddy Waters' career, reaching number 70 on the Billboard 200. Resurgence and later career, 1971–1982 In 1971, a show at Mister Kelly's, an upmarket Chicago nightclub, was recorded and released, signalling both Muddy Waters's return to form and the completion of his transfer to white audiences. In 1972, he won his first Grammy Award, for Best Ethnic or Traditional Recording for They Call Me Muddy Waters, a 1971 album of old, but previously unreleased recordings. Later in 1972, he flew to England to record the album The London Muddy Waters Sessions. The album was a follow-up to the previous year's The London Howlin' Wolf Sessions. Both albums were the brainchild of Chess Records producer Norman Dayron, and were intended to showcase Chicago blues musicians playing with the younger British rock musicians whom they had inspired. Muddy Waters brought with him two American musicians, harmonica player Carey Bell and guitarist Sammy Lawhorn. The British and Irish musicians who played on the album included Rory Gallagher, Steve Winwood, Rick Grech, and Mitch Mitchell. Muddy was dissatisfied by the results, due to the British musicians' more rock-oriented sound. "These boys are top musicians, they can play with me, put the book before 'em and play it, you know," he told Guralnick. "But that ain't what I need to sell my people, it ain't the Muddy Waters sound. An' if you change my sound, then you gonna change the whole man." He stated, "My blues look so simple, so easy to do, but it's not. They say my blues is the hardest blues in the world to play." Nevertheless, the album won another Grammy, again for Best Ethnic or Traditional Recording. He won another Grammy for his last LP on Chess Records: The Muddy Waters Woodstock Album, recorded in 1975 with his new guitarist Bob Margolin, Pinetop Perkins, Paul Butterfield, and Levon Helm and Garth Hudson of the Band. In November 1976 he appeared as a featured special guest at The Band's Last Waltz farewell concert, and in the subsequent 1978 feature film documentary of the event. Waters performed at the Montreux Jazz Festival in 1972, 1974 and 1977. An album, CD, and streaming release featuring many of his best known sings was compiled from these performances in 2021 called Muddy Waters: The Montreux Years. In 1974, his backing musicians in Montreux included Buddy Guy, Pinetop Perkins, Junior Wells, and Rolling Stones bassist Bill Wyman; Wyman and Perkins also performed with him in 1977. From 1977 to 1981, blues musician Johnny Winter, who had idolized Muddy Waters since childhood and who had become a friend, produced four albums of his, all on the Blue Sky Records label: the studio albums Hard Again (1977), I'm Ready (1978) and King Bee (1981), and the live album Muddy "Mississippi" Waters – Live (1979). The albums were critical and commercial successes, with all but King Bee winning a Grammy. Hard Again has been especially praised by critics, who have tended to describe it as his comeback album. In 1981, Muddy Waters was invited to perform at ChicagoFest, the city's top outdoor music festival. He was joined onstage by Johnny Winter and Buddy Miles, and played classics like "Mannish Boy", "Trouble No More", and "Mojo Working" to a new generation of fans. The performance was made available on DVD in 2009 by Shout! Factory. On November 22, he performed live with three members of British rock band the Rolling Stones (Mick Jagger, Keith Richards and Ronnie Wood) at the Checkerboard Lounge, a blues club in Bronzeville, on the South Side of Chicago, which was established in 1972 by Buddy Guy and L.C. Thurman. A DVD version of the performance was released in 2012. In 1982, declining health dramatically stopped his performance schedule. His last public performance took place when he sat in with Eric Clapton's band at a concert in Florida in the summer of 1982. Personal life Muddy Waters' longtime partner, Geneva Wade, died of cancer on March 15, 1973. Gaining custody of his three children, Joseph, Renee, and Rosalind, he moved them into his home, eventually buying a new house in Westmont, Illinois. In 1977, he met Marva Jean Brooks, whom he nicknamed "Sunshine", at a Florida hotel. Eric Clapton served as best man at their wedding in 1979. His sons, Larry "Mud" Morganfield and Big Bill Morganfield, are also blues singers and musicians. In 2017 his youngest son, Joseph "Mojo" Morganfield, began publicly performing the blues, and played occasionally with his brothers. Mojo died in 2020 at the age of 56. Death Muddy Waters died in his sleep from heart failure, at his home in Westmont, Illinois, on April 30, 1983, from cancer-related complications. He was taken from his Westmont home, which he lived in for the last decade of his life, to Good Samaritan Hospital in Downers Grove, Illinois, where he was pronounced dead. His funeral was held on May 4, 1983. Throngs of blues musicians and fans attended his funeral at Restvale Cemetery in Alsip, Illinois. He is buried next to his wife, Geneva. Estate litigation After Muddy Waters' death, a decades-long court battle ensued between his heirs and Scott Cameron, his manager at the time of his demise. In 2010, his heirs were petitioning the courts to appoint Mercy Morganfield, his daughter, as administrator who would then control the assets of Morganfield's estate, which mainly comprise copyrights to his music. The petition to reopen the estate was successful. Following Cameron's death, the heirs' lawyers, in May 2018, sought to hold Scott Cameron's wife in contempt for allegedly diverting royalty income. The heirs, however, asked for that citation not to be pursued. The last court date was held on July 10, 2018, and, as of 2023, the disputed arrangement remained unchanged. Legacy Two years after his death, the city of Chicago paid tribute to him by designating the one-block section between 900 and 1000 East 43rd Street near his former home on the south side "Honorary Muddy Waters Drive". In 2017, a ten stories-mural commissioned as a part of the Chicago Blues Festival and designed by Brazilian artist Eduardo Kobra was painted on the side of the building at 17 North State Street, at the corner of State and Washington Streets. The Chicago suburb of Westmont, where he lived the last decade of his life, named a section of Cass Avenue near his home "Honorary Muddy Waters Way". In 2008, a Mississippi Blues Trail marker has been placed in Clarksdale, Mississippi, by the Mississippi Blues Commission designating the site of Muddy Waters' cabin. He also received a plaque on the Clarksdale Walk of Fame. Muddy Waters' Chicago Home in the Kenwood neighborhood is in the process of being named a Chicago Landmark. A crater on Mercury was named in his honor in 2016 by the IAU. Influence The British band The Rolling Stones named themselves after Muddy Waters' 1950 song "Rollin' Stone". Jimi Hendrix recalled that "I first heard him as a little boy and it scared me to death". The band Cream covered "Rollin' and Tumblin'" on their 1966 debut album, Fresh Cream. Eric Clapton was a big fan of Muddy Waters while growing up, and his music influenced Clapton's music career. "Rollin' and Tumblin'" was also covered by Canned Heat at the Monterey Pop Festival and later adapted by Bob Dylan on his album Modern Times. One of Led Zeppelin's biggest hits, "Whole Lotta Love", has its lyrics heavily influenced by the Muddy Waters hit "You Need Love" (written by Willie Dixon). "Hoochie Coochie Man", was covered by Allman Brothers Band, Humble Pie, Steppenwolf, Supertramp and Fear. In 1993, Paul Rodgers released the album Muddy Water Blues: A Tribute to Muddy Waters, on which he covered a number of his songs, including "Louisiana Blues", "Rollin' Stone", "(I'm your) Hoochie Coochie Man" and "I'm Ready" in collaboration with guitarists such as Gary Moore, Brian May and Jeff Beck. Angus Young, of the rock group AC/DC, has cited Muddy as one of his influences. The AC/DC song title "You Shook Me All Night Long" came from lyrics of the Muddy Waters song "You Shook Me", written by Willie Dixon and J. B. Lenoir. Earl Hooker first recorded it as an instrumental, which was then overdubbed with vocals by Muddy Waters in 1962. Led Zeppelin also covered it on their debut album. In 1981 ZZ Top guitarist Billy Gibbons went to visit the Delta Blues Museum in Clarksdale with The Blues magazine founder Jim O'Neal. The museum's director, Sid Graves, brought Gibbons to visit Waters original house, and encouraged him to pick up a piece of scrap lumber that was originally part of the roof. Gibbons eventually converted the wood into a guitar. Named Muddywood, the instrument is now exhibited at the Delta Blues Museum in Clarksdale. Following his death, fellow blues musician B.B. King told Guitar World magazine, "It's going to be years and years before most people realize how greatly he contributed to American music." John P. Hammond told Guitar World magazine, "Muddy was a master of just the right notes. It was profound guitar playing, deep and simple ... more country blues transposed to the electric guitar, the kind of playing that enhanced the lyrics, gave profundity to the words themselves." Muddy Waters' songs have been featured in long-time fan Martin Scorsese's movies, including The Color of Money, Goodfellas, and Casino. A 1970s recording of his mid-'50s hit "Mannish Boy" was used in the films Goodfellas, Better Off Dead, Risky Business, and the rockumentary The Last Waltz. In 1988 "Mannish Boy" was also used in a Levi's 501 commercial and re-released in Europe as a single with "(I'm your) Hoochie Coochie Man" on the flip side. Awards and recognition Grammy Awards Rock and Roll Hall of Fame The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame listed four songs of Muddy Waters among the 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll. Blues Foundation Awards Inductions U.S. Postage Stamp Discography Studio albums Muddy Waters Sings "Big Bill" (Chess, 1960) Folk Singer (Chess, 1964) Muddy, Brass & the Blues (Chess, 1966) Electric Mud (Cadet, 1968) After the Rain (Cadet, 1969) Fathers and Sons (Chess, 1969) The London Muddy Waters Sessions (Chess, 1972) Can't Get No Grindin' (Chess, 1973) Mud in Your Ear (Muse, 1973) London Revisited (Chess, 1974) split album with Howlin' Wolf "Unk" in Funk (Chess, 1974) The Muddy Waters Woodstock Album (Chess, 1975) Hard Again (Blue Sky, 1977) I'm Ready (Blue Sky, 1978) King Bee (Blue Sky, 1981) Notes References External links Category:1913 births Category:1983 deaths Category:20th-century African-American male singers Category:20th-century American guitarists Category:African-American guitarists Category:African-American male singer-songwriters Category:American blues guitarists Category:American blues singer-songwriters Category:American male guitarists Category:American street performers Category:Blind Pig Records artists Category:Blues musicians from Mississippi Category:Blues revival musicians Category:Burials at Restvale Cemetery Category:Chess Records artists Category:Chicago blues musicians Category:Delta blues musicians Category:Electric blues musicians Category:Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners Category:Guitarists from Illinois Category:Guitarists from Mississippi Category:Lead guitarists Category:Mississippi Blues Trail Category:Muse Records artists Category:Musicians from Clarksdale, Mississippi Category:People from Issaquena County, Mississippi Category:People from Westmont, Illinois
[]
[ "Muddy Waters' early career began with his musical recordings by Alan Lomax in August 1941 and again in July 1942, with his sessions later released as Down on Stovall's Plantation, and reissued as Muddy Waters: The Complete Plantation Recordings. In 1943, he moved to Chicago with the goal of becoming a professional musician, delivering a more upbeat version of blues that stood apart from the more melancholy tunes of his peers. Initially, he worked in a factory and played music at night, also opening shows for Big Bill Broonzy. In 1944, he bought his first electric guitar and formed an electric combo to adjust to the louder sound culture of the city. In 1946, he made some recordings with Columbia Records. Waters began recording for Aristocrat Records, later known as Chess Records, in 1947 and achieved hits with \"I Can't Be Satisfied\" and \"I Feel Like Going Home\" in 1948.", "In 1941, Alan Lomax, on behalf of the Library of Congress, went to Stovall, Mississippi, to record various country blues musicians, including Muddy Waters. The sessions were conducted at Waters' own house. Later on, these recordings were released as Down on Stovall's Plantation by Testament Records, and then reissued by Chess Records on CD as Muddy Waters: The Complete Plantation Recordings.", "According to the context provided, in 1941, Muddy Waters is specifically known for being recorded by Alan Lomax in his own house in Stovall, Mississippi. This was a notable event as it marked the beginning of his professional recording career. These sessions were later released as Down on Stovall's Plantation. Apart from this, there are no other significant events or accomplishments mentioned for Muddy Waters in the year 1941.", "In July 1942, Alan Lomax returned to record Muddy Waters for a second time. These recordings, along with the ones from 1941, were eventually released by Testament Records as Down on Stovall's Plantation. They were later reissued by Chess Records on CD as Muddy Waters: The Complete Plantation Recordings. The Historic 1941-42 Library of Congress Field Recordings.", "The article also discusses how Muddy Waters moved to Chicago in 1943 with aspirations of becoming a full-time professional musician. He bought his first electric guitar in 1944 and formed his first electric combo, stating that he wanted his sound to be heard above the noise in the clubs. In 1946, he recorded songs for Columbia Records, which were later released. He also began recording for Aristocrat Records (which later became Chess Records) in 1947. Notably, in 1948, Waters had two hits - \"I Can't Be Satisfied\" and \"I Feel Like Going Home\" which increased his popularity in clubs. His signature tune \"Rollin' Stone\" also became a hit in the same year. Another point of interest is that his upbeat style of blues was considered a reflection of the post-war optimism of African Americans, setting him apart from other artists who were \"singing all sad blues\".", "In Chicago, Muddy Waters initially lived with a relative while working in a factory and driving a truck during the day, and performing at night. He had the opportunity to open shows for Big Bill Broonzy, who was one of the leading bluesmen in Chicago at the time. In 1944, he bought his first electric guitar and formed his first electric combo because he felt that the sound from an acoustic guitar wasn't loud enough in the clubs. In 1946, he recorded some songs for Columbia Records. The following year, he began recording for Aristocrat Records, a new label run by the Chess brothers. His two songs, \"I Can't Be Satisfied\" and \"I Feel Like Going Home\", became hits in 1948 and his popularity began to grow.", "Yes, Muddy Waters did become a full-time professional musician. After moving to Chicago in 1943, he performed at night while working in a factory during the day. By 1948, he had hits with \"I Can't Be Satisfied\" and \"I Feel Like Going Home\", which played in clubs, contributing to his growing popularity. He opened shows for Big Bill Broonzy, a leading bluesman in Chicago, which gave him exposure to a larger audience. He was also recording with Columbia Records and Aristocrat Records (which later became Chess Records), which helped to establish him as a professional musician.", "In Muddy Waters' early career years, he was first recorded by Alan Lomax in Mississippi in 1941, which marked the beginning of his professional recording career. After moving to Chicago in 1943 to pursue a career as a full-time musician, he worked in a factory and played music at night. He also opened for Big Bill Broonzy in various clubs. In 1944, Waters bought his first electric guitar and formed an electric combo to better fit with the louder club scene of Chicago. He recorded some songs for Columbia Records in 1946. Then, in 1947, he began recording for Aristocrat Records, which later transformed into Chess Records. He enjoyed his first hits, \"I Can't Be Satisfied\" and \"I Feel Like Going Home\", in 1948, causing his popularity to take off in clubs. That same year, his signature tune \"Rollin' Stone\" also became a hit." ]
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C_33e05296104443a890d19310606eaa33_0
Muddy Waters
Muddy Waters' birthplace and date are not conclusively known. He stated that he was born in Rolling Fork, Mississippi, in 1915, but it is believed to be more likely that he was born in Jug's Corner, in neighboring Issaquena County, in 1913. Recent research has uncovered documentation showing that in the 1930s and 1940s, before his rise to fame, the year of his birth was reported as 1913 on his marriage license, recording notes, and musicians' union card. A 1955 interview in the Chicago Defender is the earliest in which he stated 1915 as the year of his birth, and he continued to say this in interviews from that point onward.
Commercial success, 1948-1957
Initially, the Chess brothers would not allow Muddy Waters to use his working band in the recording studio; instead, he was provided with a backing bass by Ernest "Big" Crawford or by musicians assembled specifically for the recording session, including "Baby Face" Leroy Foster and Johnny Jones. Gradually, Chess relented, and by September 1953 he was recording with one of the most acclaimed blues groups in history: Little Walter Jacobs on harmonica, Jimmy Rogers on guitar, Elga Edmonds (also known as Elgin Evans) on drums, and Otis Spann on piano. The band recorded a series of blues classics during the early 1950s, some with the help of the bassist and songwriter Willie Dixon, including "Hoochie Coochie Man", "I Just Want to Make Love to You", and "I'm Ready". Along with his former harmonica player Little Walter Jacobs and recent southern transplant Howlin' Wolf, Muddy Waters reigned over the early 1950s Chicago blues scene, his band becoming a proving ground for some of the city's best blues talent. Little Walter continued a collaborative relationship long after he left Muddy Waters's band in 1952, appearing on most of the band's classic recordings in the 1950s. Muddy Waters developed a long-running, generally good-natured rivalry with Wolf. The success of his ensemble paved the way for others in his group to make their own solo careers. In 1952, Little Walter left when his single "Juke" became a hit, and in 1955, Rogers quit to work exclusively with his own band, which had been a sideline until that time. During the mid-1950s, Muddy Waters' singles were frequently on Billboard magazine's various Rhythm & Blues charts including "Sugar Sweet" in 1955 and "Trouble No More", "Forty Days and Forty Nights", and "Don't Go No Farther" in 1956. 1956 also saw the release of one of his best-known numbers, "Got My Mojo Working", although it did not appear on the charts. However, by the late 1950s, his singles success had come to an end, with only "Close to You" reaching the chart in 1958. Also in 1958, Chess released Muddy Waters' first album, The Best of Muddy Waters, which collected twelve of his singles up to 1956. CANNOTANSWER
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McKinley Morganfield (April 4, 1913April 30, 1983), known professionally as Muddy Waters, was an American blues singer and musician who was an important figure in the post-war blues scene, and is often cited as the "father of modern Chicago blues". His style of playing has been described as "raining down Delta beatitude". Muddy Waters grew up on Stovall Plantation near Clarksdale, Mississippi, and by age 17 was playing the guitar and the harmonica, emulating the local blues artists Son House and Robert Johnson. He was recorded in Mississippi by Alan Lomax for the Library of Congress in 1941. In 1943, he moved to Chicago to become a full-time professional musician. In 1946, he recorded his first records for Columbia Records and then for Aristocrat Records, a newly formed label run by the brothers Leonard and Phil Chess. In the early 1950s, Muddy Waters and his band—Little Walter Jacobs on harmonica, Jimmy Rogers on guitar, Elga Edmonds (also known as Elgin Evans) on drums and Otis Spann on piano—recorded several blues classics, some with the bassist and songwriter Willie Dixon. These songs included "Hoochie Coochie Man," "I Just Want to Make Love to You" and "I'm Ready". In 1958, he traveled to England, laying the foundations of the resurgence of interest in the blues there. His performance at the Newport Jazz Festival in 1960 was recorded and released as his first live album, At Newport 1960. Muddy Waters' music has influenced various American music genres, including rock & roll and subsequently rock. Early life Muddy Waters' place and date of birth are not conclusively known. He stated that he was born in 1915 in Rolling Fork in Sharkey County, Mississippi, but other evidence suggests that he was born in the unincorporated community of Jug's Corner, in neighboring Issaquena County, in 1913. In the 1930s and 1940s, before his rise to fame, the year of his birth was reported as 1913 on his marriage license, recording notes, and musicians' union card. A 1955 interview in the Chicago Defender is the earliest in which he stated 1915 as the year of his birth, and he continued to state that year in interviews from that point onward. The 1920 census lists him as five years old as of March 6, 1920. The Social Security Death Index, relying on the Social Security card application submitted after his move to Chicago in the mid-1940s, lists him as being born April 4, 1913. His gravestone gives his birth year as 1915. His grandmother, Della Grant, raised him after his mother died shortly after his birth. Grant gave him the nickname "Muddy" at an early age because he loved to play in the muddy water of nearby Deer Creek. "Waters" was added years later, as he began to play harmonica and perform locally in his early teens. He taught himself to play harmonica. The remains of the cabin on Stovall Plantation where he lived in his youth are now at the Delta Blues Museum in Clarksdale, Mississippi. He had his first introduction to music in church: "I used to belong to church. I was a good Baptist, singing in the church. So I got all of my good moaning and trembling going on for me right out of church," he recalled. By the time he was 17, he had purchased his first guitar. "I sold the last horse that we had. Made about fifteen dollars for him, gave my grandmother seven dollars and fifty cents, I kept seven-fifty and paid about two-fifty for that guitar. It was a Stella. The people ordered them from Sears-Roebuck in Chicago." He started playing his songs in joints near his hometown, mostly on a plantation owned by Colonel William Howard Stovall. Career Early career, early 1930s–1948 In the early 1930s, Muddy Waters accompanied Big Joe Williams on tours of the Delta, playing harmonica. Williams recounted to Blewett Thomas that he eventually dropped Muddy "because he was takin' away my women [fans]". In August 1941, Alan Lomax went to Stovall, Mississippi, on behalf of the Library of Congress to record various country blues musicians. "He brought his stuff down and recorded me right in my house," Muddy told Rolling Stone magazine, "and when he played back the first song I sounded just like anybody's records. Man, you don't know how I felt that Saturday afternoon when I heard that voice and it was my own voice. Later on he sent me two copies of the pressing and a check for twenty bucks, and I carried that record up to the corner and put it on the jukebox. Just played it and played it and said, 'I can do it, I can do it'." Lomax came back in July 1942 to record him again. Both sessions were eventually released by Testament Records as Down on Stovall's Plantation. The complete recordings were reissued by Chess Records on CD as Muddy Waters: The Complete Plantation Recordings. The Historic 1941–42 Library of Congress Field Recordings in 1993 and remastered in 1997. In 1943, Muddy headed to Chicago with the hope of becoming a full-time professional musician. He later recalled arriving in Chicago as the single most momentous event in his life. He lived with a relative for a short period while driving a truck and working in a factory by day and performing at night. Big Bill Broonzy, then one of the leading bluesmen in Chicago, had Muddy open his shows in the rowdy clubs where Broonzy played. This gave him the opportunity to play in front of a large audience. In 1944, he bought his first electric guitar and then formed his first electric combo. He felt obliged to electrify his sound in Chicago because, he said, "When I went into the clubs, the first thing I wanted was an amplifier. Couldn't nobody hear you with an acoustic." His sound reflected the optimism of postwar African Americans. Willie Dixon said that "There was quite a few people around singing the blues but most of them was singing all sad blues. Muddy was giving his blues a little pep." In 1946, Muddy recorded some songs for Mayo Williams at Columbia Records, with an old-fashioned combo consisting of clarinet, saxophone and piano; they were released a year later with Ivan Ballen's Philadelphia-based 20th Century label, billed as James "Sweet Lucy" Carter and his Orchestra – Muddy Waters' name was not mentioned on the label. Later that year, he began recording for Aristocrat Records, a newly formed label run by the brothers Leonard and Phil Chess. In 1947, he played guitar with Sunnyland Slim on piano on the cuts "Gypsy Woman" and "Little Anna Mae". These were also shelved, but in 1948, "I Can't Be Satisfied" and "I Feel Like Going Home" became hits, and his popularity in clubs began to take off. Soon after, Aristocrat changed its name to Chess Records. Muddy Waters's signature tune "Rollin' Stone" also became a hit that year. Commercial success, 1948–1957 Initially, the Chess brothers would not allow Muddy Waters to use his working band in the recording studio; instead, he was provided with a backing bass by Ernest "Big" Crawford or by musicians assembled specifically for the recording session, including "Baby Face" Leroy Foster and Johnny Jones. Gradually, Chess relented, and by September 1953 he was recording with one of the most acclaimed blues groups in history: Little Walter Jacobs on harmonica, Jimmy Rogers on guitar, Elga Edmonds (also known as Elgin Evans) on drums, and Otis Spann on piano. The band recorded a series of blues classics during the early 1950s, some with the help of the bassist and songwriter Willie Dixon, including "Hoochie Coochie Man", "I Just Want to Make Love to You", and "I'm Ready" Muddy Waters's band became a proving ground for some of the city's best blues talent, with members of the ensemble going on to successful careers of their own. In 1952, Little Walter left when his single "Juke" became a hit, although he continued a collaborative relationship long after he left, appearing on most of the band's classic recordings in the 1950s. Howlin' Wolf moved to Chicago in 1954 with financial support earned through his successful Chess singles, and the "legendary rivalry" with Muddy Waters began. The rivalry was, in part, stoked by Willie Dixon providing songs to both artists, with Wolf suspecting that Muddy was getting Dixon's best songs. 1955 saw the departure of Jimmy Rogers, who quit to work exclusively with his own band, which had been a sideline until that time. In the mid-1950s, Muddy Waters' singles were frequently on Billboard magazine's various Rhythm & Blues charts including "Sugar Sweet" in 1955 and "Trouble No More", "Forty Days and Forty Nights", and "Don't Go No Farther" in 1956. 1956 also saw the release of one of his best-known numbers, "Got My Mojo Working", although it did not appear on the charts. However, by the late 1950s, his singles success had come to an end, with only "Close to You" reaching the chart in 1958. Also in 1958, Chess released his first compilation album, The Best of Muddy Waters, which collected twelve of his singles up to 1956. Performances and crossover, 1958–1970 Muddy toured England with Spann in 1958, where they were backed by local Dixieland-style or "trad jazz" musicians, including members of Chris Barber's band. At the time, English audiences had only been exposed to acoustic folk blues, as performed by artists such as Sonny Terry, Brownie McGhee, and Big Bill Broonzy. Both the musicians and audiences were unprepared for his performance, which included electric slide guitar playing. He recalled: Although his performances alienated the old guard, some younger musicians, including Alexis Korner and Cyril Davies from Barber's band, were inspired to go in the more modern, electric blues direction. Korner and Davies' own groups included musicians who would later form the Rolling Stones (named after Muddy's 1950 hit "Rollin' Stone"), Cream, and the original Fleetwood Mac. In the 1960s, Muddy Waters' performances continued to introduce a new generation to Chicago blues. At the Newport Jazz Festival, he recorded one of the first live blues albums, At Newport 1960, and his performance of "Got My Mojo Working" was nominated for a Grammy award. In September 1963, in Chess' attempt to connect with folk music audiences, he recorded Folk Singer, which replaced his trademark electric guitar sound with an acoustic band, including a then-unknown Buddy Guy on acoustic guitar. Folk Singer was not a commercial success, but it was lauded by critic Joe Kane, and in 2003 Rolling Stone magazine placed it at number 280 on its list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. In October 1963, Muddy Waters participated in the first of several annual European tours, organized as the American Folk Blues Festival, during which he also performed more acoustic-oriented numbers. In 1967, he re-recorded several blues standards with Bo Diddley, Little Walter, and Howlin' Wolf, which were marketed as Super Blues and The Super Super Blues Band albums in Chess' attempt to reach a rock audience. The Super Super Blues Band united Howlin' Wolf and Muddy Waters, who had a long-standing rivalry. It was, as Ken Chang wrote in his AllMusic review, flooded with "contentious studio banter [...] more entertaining than the otherwise unmemorable music from this stylistic train wreck". In 1968, at the instigation of Marshall Chess, he recorded Electric Mud, an album intended to revive his career by backing him with Rotary Connection, a psychedelic soul band that Chess had put together. The album proved controversial; although it reached number 127 on the Billboard 200 album chart, it was scorned by many critics, and eventually disowned by Muddy Waters himself: Nonetheless, six months later he recorded a follow-up album, After the Rain, which had a similar sound and featured many of the same musicians. Later in 1969, he recorded and released the album Fathers and Sons, which featured a return to his classic Chicago blues sound. Fathers and Sons had an all-star backing band that included Michael Bloomfield and Paul Butterfield, longtime fans whose desire to play with him was the impetus for the album. It was the most successful album of Muddy Waters' career, reaching number 70 on the Billboard 200. Resurgence and later career, 1971–1982 In 1971, a show at Mister Kelly's, an upmarket Chicago nightclub, was recorded and released, signalling both Muddy Waters's return to form and the completion of his transfer to white audiences. In 1972, he won his first Grammy Award, for Best Ethnic or Traditional Recording for They Call Me Muddy Waters, a 1971 album of old, but previously unreleased recordings. Later in 1972, he flew to England to record the album The London Muddy Waters Sessions. The album was a follow-up to the previous year's The London Howlin' Wolf Sessions. Both albums were the brainchild of Chess Records producer Norman Dayron, and were intended to showcase Chicago blues musicians playing with the younger British rock musicians whom they had inspired. Muddy Waters brought with him two American musicians, harmonica player Carey Bell and guitarist Sammy Lawhorn. The British and Irish musicians who played on the album included Rory Gallagher, Steve Winwood, Rick Grech, and Mitch Mitchell. Muddy was dissatisfied by the results, due to the British musicians' more rock-oriented sound. "These boys are top musicians, they can play with me, put the book before 'em and play it, you know," he told Guralnick. "But that ain't what I need to sell my people, it ain't the Muddy Waters sound. An' if you change my sound, then you gonna change the whole man." He stated, "My blues look so simple, so easy to do, but it's not. They say my blues is the hardest blues in the world to play." Nevertheless, the album won another Grammy, again for Best Ethnic or Traditional Recording. He won another Grammy for his last LP on Chess Records: The Muddy Waters Woodstock Album, recorded in 1975 with his new guitarist Bob Margolin, Pinetop Perkins, Paul Butterfield, and Levon Helm and Garth Hudson of the Band. In November 1976 he appeared as a featured special guest at The Band's Last Waltz farewell concert, and in the subsequent 1978 feature film documentary of the event. Waters performed at the Montreux Jazz Festival in 1972, 1974 and 1977. An album, CD, and streaming release featuring many of his best known sings was compiled from these performances in 2021 called Muddy Waters: The Montreux Years. In 1974, his backing musicians in Montreux included Buddy Guy, Pinetop Perkins, Junior Wells, and Rolling Stones bassist Bill Wyman; Wyman and Perkins also performed with him in 1977. From 1977 to 1981, blues musician Johnny Winter, who had idolized Muddy Waters since childhood and who had become a friend, produced four albums of his, all on the Blue Sky Records label: the studio albums Hard Again (1977), I'm Ready (1978) and King Bee (1981), and the live album Muddy "Mississippi" Waters – Live (1979). The albums were critical and commercial successes, with all but King Bee winning a Grammy. Hard Again has been especially praised by critics, who have tended to describe it as his comeback album. In 1981, Muddy Waters was invited to perform at ChicagoFest, the city's top outdoor music festival. He was joined onstage by Johnny Winter and Buddy Miles, and played classics like "Mannish Boy", "Trouble No More", and "Mojo Working" to a new generation of fans. The performance was made available on DVD in 2009 by Shout! Factory. On November 22, he performed live with three members of British rock band the Rolling Stones (Mick Jagger, Keith Richards and Ronnie Wood) at the Checkerboard Lounge, a blues club in Bronzeville, on the South Side of Chicago, which was established in 1972 by Buddy Guy and L.C. Thurman. A DVD version of the performance was released in 2012. In 1982, declining health dramatically stopped his performance schedule. His last public performance took place when he sat in with Eric Clapton's band at a concert in Florida in the summer of 1982. Personal life Muddy Waters' longtime partner, Geneva Wade, died of cancer on March 15, 1973. Gaining custody of his three children, Joseph, Renee, and Rosalind, he moved them into his home, eventually buying a new house in Westmont, Illinois. In 1977, he met Marva Jean Brooks, whom he nicknamed "Sunshine", at a Florida hotel. Eric Clapton served as best man at their wedding in 1979. His sons, Larry "Mud" Morganfield and Big Bill Morganfield, are also blues singers and musicians. In 2017 his youngest son, Joseph "Mojo" Morganfield, began publicly performing the blues, and played occasionally with his brothers. Mojo died in 2020 at the age of 56. Death Muddy Waters died in his sleep from heart failure, at his home in Westmont, Illinois, on April 30, 1983, from cancer-related complications. He was taken from his Westmont home, which he lived in for the last decade of his life, to Good Samaritan Hospital in Downers Grove, Illinois, where he was pronounced dead. His funeral was held on May 4, 1983. Throngs of blues musicians and fans attended his funeral at Restvale Cemetery in Alsip, Illinois. He is buried next to his wife, Geneva. Estate litigation After Muddy Waters' death, a decades-long court battle ensued between his heirs and Scott Cameron, his manager at the time of his demise. In 2010, his heirs were petitioning the courts to appoint Mercy Morganfield, his daughter, as administrator who would then control the assets of Morganfield's estate, which mainly comprise copyrights to his music. The petition to reopen the estate was successful. Following Cameron's death, the heirs' lawyers, in May 2018, sought to hold Scott Cameron's wife in contempt for allegedly diverting royalty income. The heirs, however, asked for that citation not to be pursued. The last court date was held on July 10, 2018, and, as of 2023, the disputed arrangement remained unchanged. Legacy Two years after his death, the city of Chicago paid tribute to him by designating the one-block section between 900 and 1000 East 43rd Street near his former home on the south side "Honorary Muddy Waters Drive". In 2017, a ten stories-mural commissioned as a part of the Chicago Blues Festival and designed by Brazilian artist Eduardo Kobra was painted on the side of the building at 17 North State Street, at the corner of State and Washington Streets. The Chicago suburb of Westmont, where he lived the last decade of his life, named a section of Cass Avenue near his home "Honorary Muddy Waters Way". In 2008, a Mississippi Blues Trail marker has been placed in Clarksdale, Mississippi, by the Mississippi Blues Commission designating the site of Muddy Waters' cabin. He also received a plaque on the Clarksdale Walk of Fame. Muddy Waters' Chicago Home in the Kenwood neighborhood is in the process of being named a Chicago Landmark. A crater on Mercury was named in his honor in 2016 by the IAU. Influence The British band The Rolling Stones named themselves after Muddy Waters' 1950 song "Rollin' Stone". Jimi Hendrix recalled that "I first heard him as a little boy and it scared me to death". The band Cream covered "Rollin' and Tumblin'" on their 1966 debut album, Fresh Cream. Eric Clapton was a big fan of Muddy Waters while growing up, and his music influenced Clapton's music career. "Rollin' and Tumblin'" was also covered by Canned Heat at the Monterey Pop Festival and later adapted by Bob Dylan on his album Modern Times. One of Led Zeppelin's biggest hits, "Whole Lotta Love", has its lyrics heavily influenced by the Muddy Waters hit "You Need Love" (written by Willie Dixon). "Hoochie Coochie Man", was covered by Allman Brothers Band, Humble Pie, Steppenwolf, Supertramp and Fear. In 1993, Paul Rodgers released the album Muddy Water Blues: A Tribute to Muddy Waters, on which he covered a number of his songs, including "Louisiana Blues", "Rollin' Stone", "(I'm your) Hoochie Coochie Man" and "I'm Ready" in collaboration with guitarists such as Gary Moore, Brian May and Jeff Beck. Angus Young, of the rock group AC/DC, has cited Muddy as one of his influences. The AC/DC song title "You Shook Me All Night Long" came from lyrics of the Muddy Waters song "You Shook Me", written by Willie Dixon and J. B. Lenoir. Earl Hooker first recorded it as an instrumental, which was then overdubbed with vocals by Muddy Waters in 1962. Led Zeppelin also covered it on their debut album. In 1981 ZZ Top guitarist Billy Gibbons went to visit the Delta Blues Museum in Clarksdale with The Blues magazine founder Jim O'Neal. The museum's director, Sid Graves, brought Gibbons to visit Waters original house, and encouraged him to pick up a piece of scrap lumber that was originally part of the roof. Gibbons eventually converted the wood into a guitar. Named Muddywood, the instrument is now exhibited at the Delta Blues Museum in Clarksdale. Following his death, fellow blues musician B.B. King told Guitar World magazine, "It's going to be years and years before most people realize how greatly he contributed to American music." John P. Hammond told Guitar World magazine, "Muddy was a master of just the right notes. It was profound guitar playing, deep and simple ... more country blues transposed to the electric guitar, the kind of playing that enhanced the lyrics, gave profundity to the words themselves." Muddy Waters' songs have been featured in long-time fan Martin Scorsese's movies, including The Color of Money, Goodfellas, and Casino. A 1970s recording of his mid-'50s hit "Mannish Boy" was used in the films Goodfellas, Better Off Dead, Risky Business, and the rockumentary The Last Waltz. In 1988 "Mannish Boy" was also used in a Levi's 501 commercial and re-released in Europe as a single with "(I'm your) Hoochie Coochie Man" on the flip side. Awards and recognition Grammy Awards Rock and Roll Hall of Fame The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame listed four songs of Muddy Waters among the 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll. Blues Foundation Awards Inductions U.S. Postage Stamp Discography Studio albums Muddy Waters Sings "Big Bill" (Chess, 1960) Folk Singer (Chess, 1964) Muddy, Brass & the Blues (Chess, 1966) Electric Mud (Cadet, 1968) After the Rain (Cadet, 1969) Fathers and Sons (Chess, 1969) The London Muddy Waters Sessions (Chess, 1972) Can't Get No Grindin' (Chess, 1973) Mud in Your Ear (Muse, 1973) London Revisited (Chess, 1974) split album with Howlin' Wolf "Unk" in Funk (Chess, 1974) The Muddy Waters Woodstock Album (Chess, 1975) Hard Again (Blue Sky, 1977) I'm Ready (Blue Sky, 1978) King Bee (Blue Sky, 1981) Notes References External links Category:1913 births Category:1983 deaths Category:20th-century African-American male singers Category:20th-century American guitarists Category:African-American guitarists Category:African-American male singer-songwriters Category:American blues guitarists Category:American blues singer-songwriters Category:American male guitarists Category:American street performers Category:Blind Pig Records artists Category:Blues musicians from Mississippi Category:Blues revival musicians Category:Burials at Restvale Cemetery Category:Chess Records artists Category:Chicago blues musicians Category:Delta blues musicians Category:Electric blues musicians Category:Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners Category:Guitarists from Illinois Category:Guitarists from Mississippi Category:Lead guitarists Category:Mississippi Blues Trail Category:Muse Records artists Category:Musicians from Clarksdale, Mississippi Category:People from Issaquena County, Mississippi Category:People from Westmont, Illinois
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[ "The text does not provide information on what Muddy Waters' biggest success was.", "The text does not provide information on the sales of \"Hoochie Coochie Man\".", "Muddy Waters achieved success by recording a series of blues classics during the early 1950s. He worked with a highly acclaimed blues groups including musicians like Little Walter Jacobs, Jimmy Rogers, Elga Edmonds (also known as Elgin Evans), and Otis Spann. Some of his successful tracks included \"Hoochie Coochie Man\", \"I Just Want to Make Love to You\", and \"I'm Ready\", some of which were produced with the help of bassist and songwriter Willie Dixon. Muddy Waters and his band became a significant part of the early 1950s Chicago blues scene. His successful ensemble paved the way for other group members to launch their own solo careers.", "The text only mentions one album, The Best of Muddy Waters, which was released in 1958. Information about any other albums is not provided in the text.", "The text does not provide information on how well The Best of Muddy Waters album did after its release in 1958.", "The text mentions a number of interesting aspects about Muddy Waters and his career. One is that he was not initially permitted to use his own band for studio recordings by the Chess brothers. Instead, he was given a backing band. This changed over time and by September 1953, he was recording with his own band which was one of the most acclaimed blues groups in history. Another interesting element is the long-running rivalry he had with Howlin' Wolf, which is described as generally good-natured. Additionally, the text notes that Muddy Waters' band served as a proving ground for some of the city's best blues talent, with members such as Little Walter and Rogers going on to have successful solo careers.", "The text does not provide information on whether Muddy Waters or his band won any awards.", "The text does not provide information on whether Muddy Waters or his band had a big tour." ]
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Jan Žižka
Jan Zizka z Trocnova a Kalicha (Czech pronunciation: ['jan 'ZISka] ( listen); German: Johann Ziska; English: John Zizka of Trocnov and the Chalice) was a Czech general, a contemporary and follower of Jan Hus, Hussite military leader, and later also a Radical Hussite who led the Taborites. Zizka is held to be one of the most renowned military leaders by many historians and today he is widely considered a Czech national hero. He was born in the small village of Trocnov (now part of Borovany) in the Kingdom of Bohemia into an aristocratic family.
Civil war
Early in 1423, internal dissent among the Hussites led to civil war. Zizka, as leader of the Taborites, defeated the men of Prague and the Utraquist nobles at Horice on April 20. Shortly afterwards came news that a new crusade against Bohemia was being prepared. This induced the Hussites to conclude an armistice at Konopiste on June 24. As soon as the crusaders had dispersed, internal dissent broke out anew. During his temporary rule over Bohemia, Prince Sigismund Korybut of Lithuania had appointed Borek, the lord of Miletinek, governor of the city of Hradec Kralove. Borek belonged to a moderate Hussite faction, the Utraquist party. After the departure of Sigismund Korybut, the city of Hradec Kralove refused to recognize Borek as its ruler, due to the democratic party gaining the upper hand. They called Zizka to its aid. He acceded to the demand and defeated the Utraquists under Borek at the farm of Strachov, near the city of Hradec Kralove on August 4, 1423. Zizka now attempted to invade Hungary, which was under the rule of his old enemy King Sigismund. Though this Hungarian campaign was unsuccessful owing to the great superiority of the Hungarians, it ranks among the greatest military exploits of Zizka, on account of the skill he displayed in retreat. In 1424, civil war having again broken out in Bohemia, Zizka decisively defeated the "Praguers" and Utraquist nobles at Skalice on January 6, and at Malesov on June 7. In September, he marched on Prague. On the 14th of that month, peace was concluded between the Hussite parties through the influence of John of Rokycany, afterwards Utraquist archbishop of Prague. It was agreed that the now reunited Hussites should attack Moravia, part of which was still held by Sigismund's partisans, and that Zizka should be the leader in this campaign. However, he died of the plague at Pribyslav on October 11, 1424 on the Moravian frontier. According to chronicler Piccolomini, Zizka's dying wish was to have his skin used to make drums so that he might continue to lead his troops even after death. Zizka was so well regarded that when he died, his soldiers called themselves the Orphans (sirotci) because they felt like they had lost their father. His enemies said that "The one whom no mortal hand could destroy was extinguished by the finger of God." He was succeeded by Prokop the Great. CANNOTANSWER
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Jan Žižka z Trocnova a Kalicha (; 1360 – 11 October 1424) was a Czech general – a contemporary and follower of Jan Hus and a Radical Hussite who led the Taborites. Žižka was a successful military leader and is now a Czech national hero. He was nicknamed "One-eyed Žižka", having lost one and then both eyes. Jan Žižka led Hussite forces against three crusades and never lost a single battle despite being completely blind in his last stages of life. He was born in the small village of Trocnov in the Kingdom of Bohemia into a family from the Czech nobility. According to Piccolomini's Historia Bohemica, he had some connections with the royal court from his youth, and later held the office of Chamberlain to Queen Sofia of Bavaria. He fought in the Battle of Grunwald (15 July 1410), where he defended Radzyń against the Teutonic Order. Later he played a prominent role in the civil wars in Bohemia. He led the Hussites during the first important clashes of this conflict in the Battle of Sudoměř (1420) and in the Battle of Vítkov Hill (1420). In the Battle of Kutná Hora (1421) he defeated the army of the Holy Roman Empire and the Hungarian Kingdom. The effectiveness of his field artillery against the royal cavalry in this battle made it a successful element of Hussite armies. Žižka's tactics were unorthodox and innovative. In addition to training and equipping his army according to their abilities, he used armored wagons fitted with small cannons and muskets, anticipating the tank of five hundred years later. He exploited geographic features to the full and maintained good discipline in his armies. He had to quickly train peasants to repeatedly face highly trained and armored opponents who usually outnumbered his own troops. For these reasons, he is often regarded as one of the greatest military commanders of all time. A monument was erected on the Vítkov Hill in Prague to honor Jan Žižka and his victory on this hill in 1420. It is the third largest bronze equestrian statue in the world. Early life Jan Žižka was born in one of two Meierhofs of the village Trocnov (nowadays part of Borovany). An old legend says that he was born in the forest under an oak growing just next to the fields and little ponds belonging to the Meierhof. Žižka's family belonged to the lower Czech gentry () but did not own much estate. Little is known of the rest of the family. Jan Žižka had several siblings but the only names known to historians are brother Jaroslav and sister Anežka. The family had a crayfish in their coat of arms. The date of Žižka's birth is not known. A document dated 3 April 1378 mentions (Jan called Zizka of Trocnov) as a witness on a marriage contract. On the basis of this document, it is assumed that Žižka must have been of legal age at this time and was born around 1360. Nevertheless, there is no direct evidence whether Jan Žižka listed on this document was identical with the Hussite general. For example, Czech historian Tomek and his followers supposed it could have been the military leader's father. They argued that if Žižka were adult in 1378, he would be too old to become such an able commander after 1419. Others, such as Šmahel, admitted that even such an age might not have prevented him from successful leadership. Furthermore, historian Petr Čornej notes that "Žižka" was not a family name but a specific nickname that is not attested in any other member of Žižka's family. In the years 1378–1384, Žižka's name appears on several property documents, which indicate that he was struggling with long-term financial problems. In 1381, Žižka is attested in Prague, in connection with the settlement of the inheritance on the Trocnov estate. It is unclear how to connect this stay with Piccolomini's later report that young Žížka received an education at the Prague royal court. A 1384 document also mentions some Kateřina, a wife of Johannes dictus Zizka. This document states that Žižka sold the field he had once acquired from Kateřina as a dowry. After this date, Žižka's name disappears from historical documents for 20 years and it is generally assumed that he became a mercenary soldier. Žižka as an outlaw Although some of the south Bohemian nobility led by Henry III of Rosenberg took part in various revolts against king Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia at the turn of the 14th and 15th century (the king was even held captive in the Rosenberg's castles of Příběnice and Český Krumlov for a short time), there is no evidence of Žižka's participation in these conflicts. It is supposed that in the early years of the 15th century Jan Žižka already controlled his family property. However, the family probably got into financial problems and started selling parts of their estate. Some sources suggest that Žižka's father took the place of the royal gamekeeper before he died in 1407 near Plzeň and Žižka himself might have been taken into the royal service, too, but the evidence is not clear enough. However, beginning in 1406, Žižka starts appearing in the black book () of the Rosenberg estate as an accused bandit. Unfortunately the reasons of this charge are not known, but the fact that he declared open hostility to Henry of Rosenberg and also to the city of Budějovice and their allies suggests that he was trying to fight some injustice against his house and to enforce some of his rights in this way. Šmahel assigns the boom of south-Bohemian banditry in that time to the continual growth of the estates of the rich house of Rosenberg (and of the church estates) and simultaneous indebtedness and pauperization of the lower gentry together with the thirst for land among their subjects, which resulted in social tension in the area. These circumstances may have eventually forced Žižka to leave his residence in Trocnov. Historian Tomek also speculated that he might have been forcibly deprived of his small hereditary property, which was not uncommon in that time. As a result he started leading the life of an outlaw, partly supported by the local nobleman Valkoun. In any case, violence broke out and Žižka tried to harm his enemies on any possible occasion using as his allies, also local bandits, led by Matěj Vůdce (Matthew the Leader) who were seeking only financial profit. The group camped in various places, including a farm in the village of Sedlo (nowadays part of Číměř), a mill not far from Lomnice nad Lužnicí, at a house of an unknown woman in Hlavatce or simply in the woods. During that period robbery, holding people for ransom, and attacking small towns were the main source of the group's income. They used it to pay their living expenses (including paying temporary hosts) and to pay spies. Žižka took part in these raids and at least one murder: a man belonging to the cohort of Henry of Rosenberg. Žižka and the bandits were also in touch with some more powerful enemies of Henry of Rosenberg. For example in 1408 Žižka took part in preparations for conquering the castle Hus near Prachatice (whose burgrave was Mikuláš of Hus who later became one of first commandants in Žižka's army in the beginning of the Hussite Wars). He also negotiated with Aleš of Bítov to secure Jan's help attempting to conquer the towns of Nové Hrady and Třeboň. Another nobleman asking Jan's help was Erhart of Kunštát who wanted to capture the stronghold of Slověnice. Some of Žižka's companions were eventually captured, tortured, and executed, including Matěj Vůdce. Žižka's situation changed on 25 of April 1409 when king Wenceslas agreed that his conflict with the city of Budějovice should be finished and on 27 June he pardoned him (calling him "faithful and beloved") by a special letter. At the same time he ordered the city council of Budějovice to do so too. This suggests that the king admitted that Žižka was at least partly justified in the conflict. Grunwald (1410) According to the Polish chronicler Jan Długosz, in the following year (1410) Žižka served as a mercenary during the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War. It is assumed that he was on the winning Polish-Lithuanian side of the Battle of Grunwald, also called the 1st Battle of Tannenberg, one of the largest battles in Medieval Europe. It was fought on 15 July 1410, and the alliance of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, led respectively by King of Poland Jogaila (Władysław II Jagiełło) and Grand Duke Vytautas (Witold), decisively defeated the Teutonic Knights, led by Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen. Most of the Teutonic Knights' leadership were killed or taken prisoner. The Knights never recovered their former power and the financial burden of war reparations caused internal conflicts and an economic downturn in their lands. The battle shifted the balance of power in Eastern Europe. Długosz reports that after the battle, Žižka was serving in the garrison of the town of Radzyń. A stay in Prague The place of Žižka's activity in the years 1411–1419 is not entirely certain. According to a later report by Lukáš Pražský (from 1527), Žižka entered the service of Sophia of Bavaria, the wife of Wenceslas IV, as her chamberlain, and he accompanied her when she was attending the preachings of Jan Hus. Given that Hus went to the South Bohemian exile in 1413, this report must relate to the years 1411–1412. According to the Hussite historian Vavřinec z Březové (Vavřinec of Březová), who knew Žižka personally and referred to the events of 1419, the future Hussite leader then served as a familiaris regis Bohemiae (literally "a family member of the Bohemian king", i.e. a king's courtier). This is confirmed by later chronicles from the 16th century, which specifically highlight the exceptional position that Žižka had among the servants of Wenceslas IV. It is possible that Žižka took part in the unsuccessful war of the Polish king against the Teutonic Knights in 1414, but concrete evidence is lacking. However, it is interesting that just one month after the end of this war campaign, on 7 November 1414, a house in Na Příkopě street in Prague was bought by the one-eyed royal "doorman" Janek (Janek portulanus regius). Czech historiography generally accepts that this "doorman" was identical with Žižka. On 27 May 1416, the "doorman" Janek sells this house and buys another, smaller one in the Old Town. Rise to prominence Jan Žižka made his first significant mark in history on 30 July 1419 in Prague, when he joined a Hussite procession led by the priest Jan Želivský. The crowd gathered in front of the New Town hall and demanded the release of several Hussites held in prison. When these demands were rejected by the councilors, the crowd stormed the town hall and threw the councilors out of the windows. This so-called First Defenestration of Prague is regarded as the beginning of the Hussite revolution. Wenceslaus IV died 17 days after hearing about these events, likely from suffering a heart attack. The Hussites subsequently seized the city and expelled all their opponents. On 13 November 1419 a temporary armistice was concluded between the partisans of King Sigismund, the last Emperor of the House of Luxemburg and the citizens of Prague. Žižka disapproved of this compromise and left Prague for Plzeň, one of the richest cities of the kingdom with his followers, but soon left that city. On 25 March 1420 he defeated the partisans of Sigismund at Sudoměř, the first pitched battle of the Hussite wars. He later arrived at Tábor, the then-recently established stronghold of the Hussite movement. The ecclesiastical organization of Tabor had a somewhat puritanical character with a very strict military discipline being instituted though the government was established on a thoroughly democratic basis. Žižka took a large part in the organization of the new military community and became one of the four captains of the people (hejtman) who were at its head. Wagenburg tactics Žižka helped develop tactics of using wagon forts, called vozová hradba in Czech or Wagenburg by the Germans, as mobile fortifications. When the Hussite army faced a numerically superior opponent they prepared carts for the battle by forming them into squares or circles. The carts were joined wheel to wheel by chains and positioned aslant, with their corners attached to each other, so that horses could be harnessed to them quickly, if necessary. In front of this wall of carts a ditch was dug by camp followers. The crew of each cart consisted of 16–22 soldiers: 4–8 crossbowmen, 2 handgunners, 6–8 soldiers equipped with pikes or flails (the flail was the Hussite "national weapon"), 2 shield carriers and 2 drivers. The Hussites' battle consisted of two stages, the first defensive, the second an offensive counterattack. In the first stage the army placed the carts near the enemy army and by means of artillery fire provoked the enemy into battle. The artillery would usually inflict heavy casualties at close range. In order to avoid more losses, the enemy knights finally attacked. Then the infantry hidden behind the carts used firearms and crossbows to ward off the attack, weakening the enemy. The shooters aimed first at the horses, depriving the cavalry of its main advantage. Many of the knights died as their horses were shot and they fell. As soon as the enemy's morale was lowered, the second stage, an offensive counterattack, began. The infantry and the cavalry burst out from behind the carts striking violently at the enemy, mostly from the flanks. While fighting on the flanks and being shelled from the carts the enemy was not able to put up much resistance. They were forced to withdraw, leaving behind dismounted knights in heavy armor who were unable to escape the battlefield. The enemy armies suffered heavy losses and the Hussites soon had the reputation of not taking captives. Gunpowder weapons The Hussite wars also marked the earliest successful use of pistols on the battlefield and Žižka was an innovator in the use of gunpowder. He was the first European commander to maneuver on the field with cannon of medium caliber mounted on carts in between the wagons. The Czechs called the handgun a píšťala, and anti-infantry field guns houfnice, from which the English words "pistol" and "howitzer" have been derived. The Germans had just started corning gunpowder, making it suitable for use in smaller, tactical weapons. A musketeer on an open field armed with only a single-shot weapon was no match for a charging knight on a horse; however, from behind a castle wall, or from within the enclosure of the wagenburg, massed and disciplined gunmen could use the handgun to its greatest potential. From his experiences at the Battle of Grunwald, Žižka knew exactly how his enemies would attack, and he found new ways to defeat forces numerically superior to his own. Hussite Crusades The Hussite Wars were fought to win recognition of faith of the Hussites, the forerunners of the Protestant Reformation, and though predominantly a religious movement, it was also propelled by social issues and strengthened Czech national awareness. The Catholic Church deemed Hus's teachings heretical. He was excommunicated in 1411, condemned by the Council of Constance, and burned at the stake in 1415. The wars proper began in July 1419, with the First Defenestration of Prague, when protesting Hussites threw the town councillors and the judge out the windows of the New Town Hall. It has been reputed that King Wenceslaus IV was so stunned by the defenestration that he died from the shock shortly afterward on 16 August 1419. This led to the armed conflict in which Žižka was to earn his fame. The first anti-Hussite crusade King Sigismund was king of Hungary but only the titular king of Bohemia. Sigismund had acquired a claim on the Bohemian crown, though it was then in question (and remained so till much later) whether Bohemia was a hereditary or an elective monarchy, especially as the line through which Sigismund claimed the throne had accepted that the Kingdom of Bohemia was an elective monarchy elected by the nobles, and thus the regent of the kingdom (Čeněk of Wartenberg) also explicitly stated that Sigismund had not been elected as reason for Sigismund's claim to not be accepted. A firm adherent of the Church of Rome, Sigismund was successful in obtaining aid from Pope Martin V, who issued a bull on 17 March 1420 which proclaimed a crusade “for the destruction of the John Wycliffe, Hussites and all other heretics in Bohemia". Sigismund and many German princes arrived before the walls of Prague on 30 June at the head of a vast army of crusaders from all parts of Europe, largely consisting of adventurers attracted by the possibility of pillage. They immediately began a siege of the city and Žižka was compelled to defend the Kingdom. He was a pragmatist in developing his military strategy. His army consisted of farmers and peasants, lacking both the funds and equipment to be classic soldiers with sword, horse and armor, so Žižka used their farmers' skills to boost their military efficiency. He adapted the tools of agriculture into the tools of war. The agricultural flail was transformed into the flail. Menaced by Sigismund, the citizens of Prague entreated the Taborites for assistance. Led by Žižka and their other captains, the Taborites set out to take part in the defence of the capital. At Prague, Žižka and his men took up a strong position on the hill just outside the city known as the Vítkov, now in Žižkov, a district of Prague named after the battle in his honour. On 14 July the armies of Sigismund made a general attack. A strong German Crusader-led force assaulted the position on the Vítkov, the stronghold that secured the Hussite communications with the open country. Thanks to Žižka's personal leadership, the attack was thrown back and the forces of Sigismund abandoned the siege. On August 22 the Taborites left Prague and returned to Tábor. Though Sigismund had retired from Prague, the castles of Vyšehrad and Hradčany remained in possession of his troops. The citizens of Prague laid siege to the Vyšehrad (see Battle of Vyšehrad), and towards the end of October the garrison was on the point of capitulating through famine. Sigismund attempted to relieve the fortress, but was decisively defeated by the Hussites on November 1 near the village of Pankrác. The castles of Vyšehrad and Hradčany now capitulated, and shortly afterwards almost all Bohemia fell into the hands of the Hussites. Žižka now engaged in constant warfare with the partisans of Sigismund, particularly with the powerful Romanist, Oldřich II of Rožmberk. Through this struggle, the Hussites obtained possession of the greater part of Bohemia from Sigismund. It was proposed to elect the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vytautas to the throne. However, the estates of Bohemia and Moravia met at Čáslav on 1 June 1421 and decided to appoint a provisional government, consisting of twenty members chosen from all the political and religious parties of the country. Žižka, who took part in the deliberations at Čáslav, was elected as one of the two representatives of Tábor. Žižka summarily suppressed some disturbances on the part of a fanatical sect called the Adamites. He then continued his campaigns against the Romanists and the adherents of Sigismund, and having captured and rebuilt a small castle near Litoměřice (Leitmeritz) he retained possession of it, the only reward for his great services that he ever received or claimed. According to the Hussite custom he gave the Biblical name of Chalice (Kalich in Czech) to this new possession, and henceforth adopted the signature of Žižka of the Chalice. Jan Žižka did not capture any more properties for himself during the Hussite Wars. This fact was unusual for the time and distinguished Žižka from his contemporaries. Later that year he was severely wounded while besieging the Rabí Castle, and lost the use of his remaining eye. Though now totally blind, he continued to command the armies of Tábor. The second anti-Hussite crusade At the end of 1421, Sigismund again attempted to subdue Bohemia and gained possession of the important town of Kutná Hora. The mainly German citizens of the city killed a few of the Hussites in the town and closed the city to Žižka, whose armies were camped outside the city walls. Sigismund's armies arrived and surrounded the Hussites. Žižka was at the head of the united armies of Tábor and Prague and though trapped managed to execute what some historians call the first mobile artillery manoeuver in history. Žižka broke through the enemy lines and retreated to Kolín, but having received reinforcements he attacked and defeated Sigismund's unsuspecting army at the village of Nebovidy between Kolín and Kutná Hora on 6 January 1422. Sigismund lost 12,000 men and only escaped himself by rapid flight. Sigismund's forces made a last stand at Battle of Deutschbrod (Německý Brod) on 10 January, but the city was stormed by the Czechs, and contrary to Žižka's orders, its defenders were put to the sword. Civil war Early in 1423, internal dissent among the Hussites led to civil war. Žižka, as leader of the Taborites, defeated the men of Prague and the Utraquist nobles at Hořice on 20 April. Shortly afterwards came news that a new crusade against Bohemia was being prepared. This induced the Hussites to conclude an armistice at Konopiště on 24 June. As soon as the crusaders had dispersed, internal dissent broke out anew. During his temporary rule over Bohemia, Prince Sigismund Korybut of Lithuania had appointed Bořek, the lord of Miletínek, governor of the city of Hradec Králové. Bořek belonged to a moderate Hussite faction, the Utraquist party. After the departure of Sigismund Korybut, the city of Hradec Králové refused to recognize Bořek as its ruler, due to the democratic party gaining the upper hand. They called Žižka to its aid. He acceded to the demand and defeated the Utraquists under Bořek at the farm of Strachov (in the area of today's Kukleny within Hradec Králové) on 4 August 1423. Žižka now attempted to invade Hungary, which was under the rule of his old enemy King Sigismund. Though this Hungarian campaign was unsuccessful owing to the great superiority of the Hungarians, it ranks among the greatest military exploits of Žižka, on account of the skill he displayed in retreat. In 1424, civil war having again broken out in Bohemia, Žižka decisively defeated the "Praguers" and Utraquist nobles at Skalice on 6 January, and at Malešov on 7 June. In September, he marched on Prague. On the 14th of that month, peace was concluded between the Hussite parties through the influence of John of Rokycany, afterwards Utraquist archbishop of Prague. It was agreed that the now reunited Hussites should attack Moravia, part of which was still held by Sigismund's partisans, and that Žižka should be the leader in this campaign. However, Žižka died on the Moravian frontier near Přibyslav, during the siege of the castle in Přibyslav in what is today Žižkovo Pole, on 11 October 1424. Traditionally, it was said that he died of the plague; however, modern knowledge of historians excludes this theory. Even the theory of arsenic poisoning was ruled out after examining the skeletal remains. According to historians, the purulent disease carbuncle is considered the most likely cause of death. According to chronicler Piccolomini, Žižka's dying wish was to have his skin used to make drums so that he might continue to lead his troops even after death. Žižka was so highly regarded that when he died, his soldiers called themselves Sirotci ("the Orphans") because they felt as if they had lost their father. His enemies said that "The one whom no mortal hand could destroy was extinguished by the finger of God." He was interred in the church of Saints Peter & Paul in Caslau, but in 1623 his remains were removed and his grave destroyed by order of the Emperor Ferdinand II. He was succeeded by Prokop the Great. In popular culture Literature Žižka appears as one of the main characters in the Armed Garden graphic novella (The Armed Garden and Other Stories) by David B. He is the hero of a novel by George Sand, of a German epic by Meissner, and of a Bohemian tragedy by Alois Jirásek. Films Jan Žižka is a central figure of the "Hussite Revolutionary Trilogy" directed by Otakar Vávra. The films starred Zdeněk Štěpánek as Žižka. It consists of Jan Hus, Jan Žižka and Against All. Jan Žižka appeared in a 1960 Polish film Knights of the Teutonic Order. He is played by Tadeusz Schmidt. In 1968 Czechoslovak film Na Žižkově válečném voze, Žižka was played by Ilja Prachař. 2013 animated film The Hussites is set during Hussite wars. Protagonist of the film Záboj serves as film's version of Jan Žižka. A film Jan Žižka (English title Medieval) by director Petr Jákl was released in 2022. It follows Jan Žižka during his youth. It is the most expensive Czech film ever made. Žižka was portrayed by Ben Foster. It was released on Netflix in 2022. Games In the game Age of Empires II: Definitive Edition - Dawn of the Dukes, there is a single player campaign during which player takes role of Jan Žižka. Age of Empires III features Hussite wagons as a unit used by Germans. Unit infobox directly mentions Žižka with the anglicized version of his name: John Zizka. Žižka appears in Europa Universalis II as a default general for the Bohemia faction. Field of Glory II: Medieval features Hussite campaign during which player takes role of Jan Žižka. Žižka is the main protagonist of upcoming independent 3D Realtime strategy game Songs of the Chalice which is set in the years 1419–1420. Jan Žižka is one of the legendary cavalry commanders in the mobile game ROK (Rise of Kingdoms). Hrot includes a power-up called Calvaria of Čáslav which is a nod to the Calva of Caslav, the top part of the human skull found in Čáslav which attributed to Jan Žižka Jan Žižka is a I age leader in the expansion New Leaders and Wonders released in 2020 to the board game Through the Ages: A New Story of Civilization. Other Early in 1917 was created 3rd Czechoslovak Rifle Regiment of the Czechoslovak legions in Russia and named after "Jan Žižka z Trocnova". During World War II a number of military units were named after Jan Žižka. One of them, the 1st Czechoslovak Partisan Brigade of Jan Žižka, was among the first anti-Nazi guerrilla units in occupied Czechoslovakia. A Yugoslav partisan brigade of the same name was formed in western Slavonia on 26 October 1943 and operated in areas inhabited by a large Czech and Slovak minority. Jan Žižka is one of the main characters in the manga series (2013) by . References Sources Bílek, Jiří (2007), Hádanky naší minulosti 7. Čtyři Janové a bratr Prokop, Euromedia Group Praha. pp. 172–173. .Count Lützow, The Hussite Wars, J. M. Dent & Sons London, E. P. Dutton & Co. New York (1909). Čornej, Petr (2019), Jan Žižka. Nakladatelství Paseka. . Fudge, Thomas A., The Crusade Against Heretics in Bohemia, 1418–1437: Sources and Documents for the Hussite Crusades (Crusade Texts in Translation S.).Höfler, Konstantin, Geschichtsquellen Böhmens. Heymann, Frederick G. (1969), John Zizka & the Hussite Revolution, Russell & Russell New York (1955). Šmahel, František, Die Hussitische Revolution I–III, MGH-Schriften. 43/I–III, Hannover (2002).Turnbull, Stephen, The Hussite Wars (1419–36), Osprey Publishing. . Verney, Victor (2009), Warrior of God: Jan Žižka and the Hussite Revolution, Frontline Books London.. External links Category:1360 births Category:1424 deaths Category:15th-century deaths from plague (disease) Category:15th-century soldiers Category:Blind people Category:Czech people with disabilities Category:Czech generals Category:Czech military leaders Category:Hussite people Category:People from Borovany Category:People from the Kingdom of Bohemia Category:People in the Battle of Grunwald Category:Czech revolutionaries Category:People of the Hussite Wars Category:15th-century Bohemian people Category:Medieval Bohemian nobility
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C_cde3de585f5b4ab2a16a743f5fb8e0b2_1
Jan Žižka
Jan Zizka z Trocnova a Kalicha (Czech pronunciation: ['jan 'ZISka] ( listen); German: Johann Ziska; English: John Zizka of Trocnov and the Chalice) was a Czech general, a contemporary and follower of Jan Hus, Hussite military leader, and later also a Radical Hussite who led the Taborites. Zizka is held to be one of the most renowned military leaders by many historians and today he is widely considered a Czech national hero. He was born in the small village of Trocnov (now part of Borovany) in the Kingdom of Bohemia into an aristocratic family.
Wagenburg tactics
Zizka helped develop tactics of using wagon forts, called vozova hradba in Czech or Wagenburg by the Germans, as mobile fortifications. When the Hussite army faced a numerically superior opponent they prepared carts for the battle by forming them into squares or circles. The carts were joined wheel to wheel by chains and positioned aslant, with their corners attached to each other, so that horses could be harnessed to them quickly, if necessary. In front of this wall of carts a ditch was dug by camp followers. The crew of each cart consisted of 16-22 soldiers: 4-8 crossbowmen, 2 handgunners, 6-8 soldiers equipped with pikes or flails (the flail was the Hussite "national weapon"), 2 shield carriers and 2 drivers. The Hussites' battle consisted of two stages, the first defensive, the second an offensive counterattack. In the first stage the army placed the carts near the enemy army and by means of artillery fire provoked the enemy into battle. The artillery would usually inflict heavy casualties at close range. In order to avoid more losses, the enemy knights finally attacked. Then the infantry hidden behind the carts used firearms and crossbows to ward off the attack, weakening the enemy. The shooters aimed first at the horses, depriving the cavalry of its main advantage. Many of the knights died as their horses were shot and they fell. As soon as the enemy's morale was lowered, the second stage, an offensive counterattack, began. The infantry and the cavalry burst out from behind the carts striking violently at the enemy, mostly from the flanks. While fighting on the flanks and being shelled from the carts the enemy was not able to put up much resistance. They were forced to withdraw, leaving behind dismounted knights in heavy armor who were unable to escape the battlefield. The enemy armies suffered heavy losses and the Hussites soon had the reputation of not taking captives. CANNOTANSWER
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Jan Žižka z Trocnova a Kalicha (; 1360 – 11 October 1424) was a Czech general – a contemporary and follower of Jan Hus and a Radical Hussite who led the Taborites. Žižka was a successful military leader and is now a Czech national hero. He was nicknamed "One-eyed Žižka", having lost one and then both eyes. Jan Žižka led Hussite forces against three crusades and never lost a single battle despite being completely blind in his last stages of life. He was born in the small village of Trocnov in the Kingdom of Bohemia into a family from the Czech nobility. According to Piccolomini's Historia Bohemica, he had some connections with the royal court from his youth, and later held the office of Chamberlain to Queen Sofia of Bavaria. He fought in the Battle of Grunwald (15 July 1410), where he defended Radzyń against the Teutonic Order. Later he played a prominent role in the civil wars in Bohemia. He led the Hussites during the first important clashes of this conflict in the Battle of Sudoměř (1420) and in the Battle of Vítkov Hill (1420). In the Battle of Kutná Hora (1421) he defeated the army of the Holy Roman Empire and the Hungarian Kingdom. The effectiveness of his field artillery against the royal cavalry in this battle made it a successful element of Hussite armies. Žižka's tactics were unorthodox and innovative. In addition to training and equipping his army according to their abilities, he used armored wagons fitted with small cannons and muskets, anticipating the tank of five hundred years later. He exploited geographic features to the full and maintained good discipline in his armies. He had to quickly train peasants to repeatedly face highly trained and armored opponents who usually outnumbered his own troops. For these reasons, he is often regarded as one of the greatest military commanders of all time. A monument was erected on the Vítkov Hill in Prague to honor Jan Žižka and his victory on this hill in 1420. It is the third largest bronze equestrian statue in the world. Early life Jan Žižka was born in one of two Meierhofs of the village Trocnov (nowadays part of Borovany). An old legend says that he was born in the forest under an oak growing just next to the fields and little ponds belonging to the Meierhof. Žižka's family belonged to the lower Czech gentry () but did not own much estate. Little is known of the rest of the family. Jan Žižka had several siblings but the only names known to historians are brother Jaroslav and sister Anežka. The family had a crayfish in their coat of arms. The date of Žižka's birth is not known. A document dated 3 April 1378 mentions (Jan called Zizka of Trocnov) as a witness on a marriage contract. On the basis of this document, it is assumed that Žižka must have been of legal age at this time and was born around 1360. Nevertheless, there is no direct evidence whether Jan Žižka listed on this document was identical with the Hussite general. For example, Czech historian Tomek and his followers supposed it could have been the military leader's father. They argued that if Žižka were adult in 1378, he would be too old to become such an able commander after 1419. Others, such as Šmahel, admitted that even such an age might not have prevented him from successful leadership. Furthermore, historian Petr Čornej notes that "Žižka" was not a family name but a specific nickname that is not attested in any other member of Žižka's family. In the years 1378–1384, Žižka's name appears on several property documents, which indicate that he was struggling with long-term financial problems. In 1381, Žižka is attested in Prague, in connection with the settlement of the inheritance on the Trocnov estate. It is unclear how to connect this stay with Piccolomini's later report that young Žížka received an education at the Prague royal court. A 1384 document also mentions some Kateřina, a wife of Johannes dictus Zizka. This document states that Žižka sold the field he had once acquired from Kateřina as a dowry. After this date, Žižka's name disappears from historical documents for 20 years and it is generally assumed that he became a mercenary soldier. Žižka as an outlaw Although some of the south Bohemian nobility led by Henry III of Rosenberg took part in various revolts against king Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia at the turn of the 14th and 15th century (the king was even held captive in the Rosenberg's castles of Příběnice and Český Krumlov for a short time), there is no evidence of Žižka's participation in these conflicts. It is supposed that in the early years of the 15th century Jan Žižka already controlled his family property. However, the family probably got into financial problems and started selling parts of their estate. Some sources suggest that Žižka's father took the place of the royal gamekeeper before he died in 1407 near Plzeň and Žižka himself might have been taken into the royal service, too, but the evidence is not clear enough. However, beginning in 1406, Žižka starts appearing in the black book () of the Rosenberg estate as an accused bandit. Unfortunately the reasons of this charge are not known, but the fact that he declared open hostility to Henry of Rosenberg and also to the city of Budějovice and their allies suggests that he was trying to fight some injustice against his house and to enforce some of his rights in this way. Šmahel assigns the boom of south-Bohemian banditry in that time to the continual growth of the estates of the rich house of Rosenberg (and of the church estates) and simultaneous indebtedness and pauperization of the lower gentry together with the thirst for land among their subjects, which resulted in social tension in the area. These circumstances may have eventually forced Žižka to leave his residence in Trocnov. Historian Tomek also speculated that he might have been forcibly deprived of his small hereditary property, which was not uncommon in that time. As a result he started leading the life of an outlaw, partly supported by the local nobleman Valkoun. In any case, violence broke out and Žižka tried to harm his enemies on any possible occasion using as his allies, also local bandits, led by Matěj Vůdce (Matthew the Leader) who were seeking only financial profit. The group camped in various places, including a farm in the village of Sedlo (nowadays part of Číměř), a mill not far from Lomnice nad Lužnicí, at a house of an unknown woman in Hlavatce or simply in the woods. During that period robbery, holding people for ransom, and attacking small towns were the main source of the group's income. They used it to pay their living expenses (including paying temporary hosts) and to pay spies. Žižka took part in these raids and at least one murder: a man belonging to the cohort of Henry of Rosenberg. Žižka and the bandits were also in touch with some more powerful enemies of Henry of Rosenberg. For example in 1408 Žižka took part in preparations for conquering the castle Hus near Prachatice (whose burgrave was Mikuláš of Hus who later became one of first commandants in Žižka's army in the beginning of the Hussite Wars). He also negotiated with Aleš of Bítov to secure Jan's help attempting to conquer the towns of Nové Hrady and Třeboň. Another nobleman asking Jan's help was Erhart of Kunštát who wanted to capture the stronghold of Slověnice. Some of Žižka's companions were eventually captured, tortured, and executed, including Matěj Vůdce. Žižka's situation changed on 25 of April 1409 when king Wenceslas agreed that his conflict with the city of Budějovice should be finished and on 27 June he pardoned him (calling him "faithful and beloved") by a special letter. At the same time he ordered the city council of Budějovice to do so too. This suggests that the king admitted that Žižka was at least partly justified in the conflict. Grunwald (1410) According to the Polish chronicler Jan Długosz, in the following year (1410) Žižka served as a mercenary during the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War. It is assumed that he was on the winning Polish-Lithuanian side of the Battle of Grunwald, also called the 1st Battle of Tannenberg, one of the largest battles in Medieval Europe. It was fought on 15 July 1410, and the alliance of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, led respectively by King of Poland Jogaila (Władysław II Jagiełło) and Grand Duke Vytautas (Witold), decisively defeated the Teutonic Knights, led by Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen. Most of the Teutonic Knights' leadership were killed or taken prisoner. The Knights never recovered their former power and the financial burden of war reparations caused internal conflicts and an economic downturn in their lands. The battle shifted the balance of power in Eastern Europe. Długosz reports that after the battle, Žižka was serving in the garrison of the town of Radzyń. A stay in Prague The place of Žižka's activity in the years 1411–1419 is not entirely certain. According to a later report by Lukáš Pražský (from 1527), Žižka entered the service of Sophia of Bavaria, the wife of Wenceslas IV, as her chamberlain, and he accompanied her when she was attending the preachings of Jan Hus. Given that Hus went to the South Bohemian exile in 1413, this report must relate to the years 1411–1412. According to the Hussite historian Vavřinec z Březové (Vavřinec of Březová), who knew Žižka personally and referred to the events of 1419, the future Hussite leader then served as a familiaris regis Bohemiae (literally "a family member of the Bohemian king", i.e. a king's courtier). This is confirmed by later chronicles from the 16th century, which specifically highlight the exceptional position that Žižka had among the servants of Wenceslas IV. It is possible that Žižka took part in the unsuccessful war of the Polish king against the Teutonic Knights in 1414, but concrete evidence is lacking. However, it is interesting that just one month after the end of this war campaign, on 7 November 1414, a house in Na Příkopě street in Prague was bought by the one-eyed royal "doorman" Janek (Janek portulanus regius). Czech historiography generally accepts that this "doorman" was identical with Žižka. On 27 May 1416, the "doorman" Janek sells this house and buys another, smaller one in the Old Town. Rise to prominence Jan Žižka made his first significant mark in history on 30 July 1419 in Prague, when he joined a Hussite procession led by the priest Jan Želivský. The crowd gathered in front of the New Town hall and demanded the release of several Hussites held in prison. When these demands were rejected by the councilors, the crowd stormed the town hall and threw the councilors out of the windows. This so-called First Defenestration of Prague is regarded as the beginning of the Hussite revolution. Wenceslaus IV died 17 days after hearing about these events, likely from suffering a heart attack. The Hussites subsequently seized the city and expelled all their opponents. On 13 November 1419 a temporary armistice was concluded between the partisans of King Sigismund, the last Emperor of the House of Luxemburg and the citizens of Prague. Žižka disapproved of this compromise and left Prague for Plzeň, one of the richest cities of the kingdom with his followers, but soon left that city. On 25 March 1420 he defeated the partisans of Sigismund at Sudoměř, the first pitched battle of the Hussite wars. He later arrived at Tábor, the then-recently established stronghold of the Hussite movement. The ecclesiastical organization of Tabor had a somewhat puritanical character with a very strict military discipline being instituted though the government was established on a thoroughly democratic basis. Žižka took a large part in the organization of the new military community and became one of the four captains of the people (hejtman) who were at its head. Wagenburg tactics Žižka helped develop tactics of using wagon forts, called vozová hradba in Czech or Wagenburg by the Germans, as mobile fortifications. When the Hussite army faced a numerically superior opponent they prepared carts for the battle by forming them into squares or circles. The carts were joined wheel to wheel by chains and positioned aslant, with their corners attached to each other, so that horses could be harnessed to them quickly, if necessary. In front of this wall of carts a ditch was dug by camp followers. The crew of each cart consisted of 16–22 soldiers: 4–8 crossbowmen, 2 handgunners, 6–8 soldiers equipped with pikes or flails (the flail was the Hussite "national weapon"), 2 shield carriers and 2 drivers. The Hussites' battle consisted of two stages, the first defensive, the second an offensive counterattack. In the first stage the army placed the carts near the enemy army and by means of artillery fire provoked the enemy into battle. The artillery would usually inflict heavy casualties at close range. In order to avoid more losses, the enemy knights finally attacked. Then the infantry hidden behind the carts used firearms and crossbows to ward off the attack, weakening the enemy. The shooters aimed first at the horses, depriving the cavalry of its main advantage. Many of the knights died as their horses were shot and they fell. As soon as the enemy's morale was lowered, the second stage, an offensive counterattack, began. The infantry and the cavalry burst out from behind the carts striking violently at the enemy, mostly from the flanks. While fighting on the flanks and being shelled from the carts the enemy was not able to put up much resistance. They were forced to withdraw, leaving behind dismounted knights in heavy armor who were unable to escape the battlefield. The enemy armies suffered heavy losses and the Hussites soon had the reputation of not taking captives. Gunpowder weapons The Hussite wars also marked the earliest successful use of pistols on the battlefield and Žižka was an innovator in the use of gunpowder. He was the first European commander to maneuver on the field with cannon of medium caliber mounted on carts in between the wagons. The Czechs called the handgun a píšťala, and anti-infantry field guns houfnice, from which the English words "pistol" and "howitzer" have been derived. The Germans had just started corning gunpowder, making it suitable for use in smaller, tactical weapons. A musketeer on an open field armed with only a single-shot weapon was no match for a charging knight on a horse; however, from behind a castle wall, or from within the enclosure of the wagenburg, massed and disciplined gunmen could use the handgun to its greatest potential. From his experiences at the Battle of Grunwald, Žižka knew exactly how his enemies would attack, and he found new ways to defeat forces numerically superior to his own. Hussite Crusades The Hussite Wars were fought to win recognition of faith of the Hussites, the forerunners of the Protestant Reformation, and though predominantly a religious movement, it was also propelled by social issues and strengthened Czech national awareness. The Catholic Church deemed Hus's teachings heretical. He was excommunicated in 1411, condemned by the Council of Constance, and burned at the stake in 1415. The wars proper began in July 1419, with the First Defenestration of Prague, when protesting Hussites threw the town councillors and the judge out the windows of the New Town Hall. It has been reputed that King Wenceslaus IV was so stunned by the defenestration that he died from the shock shortly afterward on 16 August 1419. This led to the armed conflict in which Žižka was to earn his fame. The first anti-Hussite crusade King Sigismund was king of Hungary but only the titular king of Bohemia. Sigismund had acquired a claim on the Bohemian crown, though it was then in question (and remained so till much later) whether Bohemia was a hereditary or an elective monarchy, especially as the line through which Sigismund claimed the throne had accepted that the Kingdom of Bohemia was an elective monarchy elected by the nobles, and thus the regent of the kingdom (Čeněk of Wartenberg) also explicitly stated that Sigismund had not been elected as reason for Sigismund's claim to not be accepted. A firm adherent of the Church of Rome, Sigismund was successful in obtaining aid from Pope Martin V, who issued a bull on 17 March 1420 which proclaimed a crusade “for the destruction of the John Wycliffe, Hussites and all other heretics in Bohemia". Sigismund and many German princes arrived before the walls of Prague on 30 June at the head of a vast army of crusaders from all parts of Europe, largely consisting of adventurers attracted by the possibility of pillage. They immediately began a siege of the city and Žižka was compelled to defend the Kingdom. He was a pragmatist in developing his military strategy. His army consisted of farmers and peasants, lacking both the funds and equipment to be classic soldiers with sword, horse and armor, so Žižka used their farmers' skills to boost their military efficiency. He adapted the tools of agriculture into the tools of war. The agricultural flail was transformed into the flail. Menaced by Sigismund, the citizens of Prague entreated the Taborites for assistance. Led by Žižka and their other captains, the Taborites set out to take part in the defence of the capital. At Prague, Žižka and his men took up a strong position on the hill just outside the city known as the Vítkov, now in Žižkov, a district of Prague named after the battle in his honour. On 14 July the armies of Sigismund made a general attack. A strong German Crusader-led force assaulted the position on the Vítkov, the stronghold that secured the Hussite communications with the open country. Thanks to Žižka's personal leadership, the attack was thrown back and the forces of Sigismund abandoned the siege. On August 22 the Taborites left Prague and returned to Tábor. Though Sigismund had retired from Prague, the castles of Vyšehrad and Hradčany remained in possession of his troops. The citizens of Prague laid siege to the Vyšehrad (see Battle of Vyšehrad), and towards the end of October the garrison was on the point of capitulating through famine. Sigismund attempted to relieve the fortress, but was decisively defeated by the Hussites on November 1 near the village of Pankrác. The castles of Vyšehrad and Hradčany now capitulated, and shortly afterwards almost all Bohemia fell into the hands of the Hussites. Žižka now engaged in constant warfare with the partisans of Sigismund, particularly with the powerful Romanist, Oldřich II of Rožmberk. Through this struggle, the Hussites obtained possession of the greater part of Bohemia from Sigismund. It was proposed to elect the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vytautas to the throne. However, the estates of Bohemia and Moravia met at Čáslav on 1 June 1421 and decided to appoint a provisional government, consisting of twenty members chosen from all the political and religious parties of the country. Žižka, who took part in the deliberations at Čáslav, was elected as one of the two representatives of Tábor. Žižka summarily suppressed some disturbances on the part of a fanatical sect called the Adamites. He then continued his campaigns against the Romanists and the adherents of Sigismund, and having captured and rebuilt a small castle near Litoměřice (Leitmeritz) he retained possession of it, the only reward for his great services that he ever received or claimed. According to the Hussite custom he gave the Biblical name of Chalice (Kalich in Czech) to this new possession, and henceforth adopted the signature of Žižka of the Chalice. Jan Žižka did not capture any more properties for himself during the Hussite Wars. This fact was unusual for the time and distinguished Žižka from his contemporaries. Later that year he was severely wounded while besieging the Rabí Castle, and lost the use of his remaining eye. Though now totally blind, he continued to command the armies of Tábor. The second anti-Hussite crusade At the end of 1421, Sigismund again attempted to subdue Bohemia and gained possession of the important town of Kutná Hora. The mainly German citizens of the city killed a few of the Hussites in the town and closed the city to Žižka, whose armies were camped outside the city walls. Sigismund's armies arrived and surrounded the Hussites. Žižka was at the head of the united armies of Tábor and Prague and though trapped managed to execute what some historians call the first mobile artillery manoeuver in history. Žižka broke through the enemy lines and retreated to Kolín, but having received reinforcements he attacked and defeated Sigismund's unsuspecting army at the village of Nebovidy between Kolín and Kutná Hora on 6 January 1422. Sigismund lost 12,000 men and only escaped himself by rapid flight. Sigismund's forces made a last stand at Battle of Deutschbrod (Německý Brod) on 10 January, but the city was stormed by the Czechs, and contrary to Žižka's orders, its defenders were put to the sword. Civil war Early in 1423, internal dissent among the Hussites led to civil war. Žižka, as leader of the Taborites, defeated the men of Prague and the Utraquist nobles at Hořice on 20 April. Shortly afterwards came news that a new crusade against Bohemia was being prepared. This induced the Hussites to conclude an armistice at Konopiště on 24 June. As soon as the crusaders had dispersed, internal dissent broke out anew. During his temporary rule over Bohemia, Prince Sigismund Korybut of Lithuania had appointed Bořek, the lord of Miletínek, governor of the city of Hradec Králové. Bořek belonged to a moderate Hussite faction, the Utraquist party. After the departure of Sigismund Korybut, the city of Hradec Králové refused to recognize Bořek as its ruler, due to the democratic party gaining the upper hand. They called Žižka to its aid. He acceded to the demand and defeated the Utraquists under Bořek at the farm of Strachov (in the area of today's Kukleny within Hradec Králové) on 4 August 1423. Žižka now attempted to invade Hungary, which was under the rule of his old enemy King Sigismund. Though this Hungarian campaign was unsuccessful owing to the great superiority of the Hungarians, it ranks among the greatest military exploits of Žižka, on account of the skill he displayed in retreat. In 1424, civil war having again broken out in Bohemia, Žižka decisively defeated the "Praguers" and Utraquist nobles at Skalice on 6 January, and at Malešov on 7 June. In September, he marched on Prague. On the 14th of that month, peace was concluded between the Hussite parties through the influence of John of Rokycany, afterwards Utraquist archbishop of Prague. It was agreed that the now reunited Hussites should attack Moravia, part of which was still held by Sigismund's partisans, and that Žižka should be the leader in this campaign. However, Žižka died on the Moravian frontier near Přibyslav, during the siege of the castle in Přibyslav in what is today Žižkovo Pole, on 11 October 1424. Traditionally, it was said that he died of the plague; however, modern knowledge of historians excludes this theory. Even the theory of arsenic poisoning was ruled out after examining the skeletal remains. According to historians, the purulent disease carbuncle is considered the most likely cause of death. According to chronicler Piccolomini, Žižka's dying wish was to have his skin used to make drums so that he might continue to lead his troops even after death. Žižka was so highly regarded that when he died, his soldiers called themselves Sirotci ("the Orphans") because they felt as if they had lost their father. His enemies said that "The one whom no mortal hand could destroy was extinguished by the finger of God." He was interred in the church of Saints Peter & Paul in Caslau, but in 1623 his remains were removed and his grave destroyed by order of the Emperor Ferdinand II. He was succeeded by Prokop the Great. In popular culture Literature Žižka appears as one of the main characters in the Armed Garden graphic novella (The Armed Garden and Other Stories) by David B. He is the hero of a novel by George Sand, of a German epic by Meissner, and of a Bohemian tragedy by Alois Jirásek. Films Jan Žižka is a central figure of the "Hussite Revolutionary Trilogy" directed by Otakar Vávra. The films starred Zdeněk Štěpánek as Žižka. It consists of Jan Hus, Jan Žižka and Against All. Jan Žižka appeared in a 1960 Polish film Knights of the Teutonic Order. He is played by Tadeusz Schmidt. In 1968 Czechoslovak film Na Žižkově válečném voze, Žižka was played by Ilja Prachař. 2013 animated film The Hussites is set during Hussite wars. Protagonist of the film Záboj serves as film's version of Jan Žižka. A film Jan Žižka (English title Medieval) by director Petr Jákl was released in 2022. It follows Jan Žižka during his youth. It is the most expensive Czech film ever made. Žižka was portrayed by Ben Foster. It was released on Netflix in 2022. Games In the game Age of Empires II: Definitive Edition - Dawn of the Dukes, there is a single player campaign during which player takes role of Jan Žižka. Age of Empires III features Hussite wagons as a unit used by Germans. Unit infobox directly mentions Žižka with the anglicized version of his name: John Zizka. Žižka appears in Europa Universalis II as a default general for the Bohemia faction. Field of Glory II: Medieval features Hussite campaign during which player takes role of Jan Žižka. Žižka is the main protagonist of upcoming independent 3D Realtime strategy game Songs of the Chalice which is set in the years 1419–1420. Jan Žižka is one of the legendary cavalry commanders in the mobile game ROK (Rise of Kingdoms). Hrot includes a power-up called Calvaria of Čáslav which is a nod to the Calva of Caslav, the top part of the human skull found in Čáslav which attributed to Jan Žižka Jan Žižka is a I age leader in the expansion New Leaders and Wonders released in 2020 to the board game Through the Ages: A New Story of Civilization. Other Early in 1917 was created 3rd Czechoslovak Rifle Regiment of the Czechoslovak legions in Russia and named after "Jan Žižka z Trocnova". During World War II a number of military units were named after Jan Žižka. One of them, the 1st Czechoslovak Partisan Brigade of Jan Žižka, was among the first anti-Nazi guerrilla units in occupied Czechoslovakia. A Yugoslav partisan brigade of the same name was formed in western Slavonia on 26 October 1943 and operated in areas inhabited by a large Czech and Slovak minority. Jan Žižka is one of the main characters in the manga series (2013) by . References Sources Bílek, Jiří (2007), Hádanky naší minulosti 7. Čtyři Janové a bratr Prokop, Euromedia Group Praha. pp. 172–173. .Count Lützow, The Hussite Wars, J. M. Dent & Sons London, E. P. Dutton & Co. New York (1909). Čornej, Petr (2019), Jan Žižka. Nakladatelství Paseka. . Fudge, Thomas A., The Crusade Against Heretics in Bohemia, 1418–1437: Sources and Documents for the Hussite Crusades (Crusade Texts in Translation S.).Höfler, Konstantin, Geschichtsquellen Böhmens. Heymann, Frederick G. (1969), John Zizka & the Hussite Revolution, Russell & Russell New York (1955). Šmahel, František, Die Hussitische Revolution I–III, MGH-Schriften. 43/I–III, Hannover (2002).Turnbull, Stephen, The Hussite Wars (1419–36), Osprey Publishing. . Verney, Victor (2009), Warrior of God: Jan Žižka and the Hussite Revolution, Frontline Books London.. External links Category:1360 births Category:1424 deaths Category:15th-century deaths from plague (disease) Category:15th-century soldiers Category:Blind people Category:Czech people with disabilities Category:Czech generals Category:Czech military leaders Category:Hussite people Category:People from Borovany Category:People from the Kingdom of Bohemia Category:People in the Battle of Grunwald Category:Czech revolutionaries Category:People of the Hussite Wars Category:15th-century Bohemian people Category:Medieval Bohemian nobility
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[ "Wagenburg was a tactic developed by Zizka, which involved using wagons or carts as mobile fortifications. These were arranged in squares or circles when the Hussite army was facing a numerically superior opponent. The carts were connected wheel to wheel by chains and positioned in such a way that horses could quickly be harnessed to them if needed. A crew of 16-22 soldiers manned each cart, and a ditch was dug in front of this wall of carts.", "The usage of wagons as mobile fortifications helped the Hussites win because they allowed the army to take both defensive and offensive steps effectively. In the first stage, the army placed the carts near the enemy and provoked them into battle through artillery fire which inflicted heavy casualties. The soldiers hidden behind the carts used guns and crossbows to fight off the attacking enemy, primarily targeting the horses to deprive the cavalry of its advantage. This weakened the enemy forces and decreased their morale. In the second stage, the Hussite infantry and cavalry would burst from behind the carts, striking harshly at the enemy, mostly from the flank. Simultaneously, the enemy was being shelled from the carts which led to their eventual withdrawal, leaving dismounted knights unable to escape. This led to heavy losses in the enemy armies contributing to the Hussites victories.", "The context does not provide information on whether the Hussites ultimately won their battles or wars using the wagon fort (Wagenburg) tactic.", "The context does not provide information on what happened after the Hussites used the wagon fort (Wagenburg) tactic in their battles.", "The Hussite tactics, as detailed in the context, included a two-stage approach to battle. The first phase was defensive, using their wagon forts or \"Wagenburg\" as a shield and a means to provoke the enemy into battle with artillery fire, often resulting in heavy enemy casualties. Soldiers hidden behind the carts would use firearms and crossbows to counter the enemy attack, aiming primarily at the horses to eliminate the cavalry's advantage.\n\nOnce the enemy’s morale was lowered, the Hussites would transition to the second, offensive stage. Their infantry and cavalry would emerge from behind their carts to strike aggressively at the enemy, often from the flanks. The enemy forces would be simultaneously attacked from the front by shots from the cart-mounted troops and engaged on the ground. The combined shock often forced the enemy to withdraw, suffering heavy losses. Knights that had been dismounted and were left behind were particularly vulnerable, as their heavy armor made escape difficult. The Hussites gained a reputation for not taking captives. These multi-pronged tactics allowed the Hussites to effectively counter numerically superior forces.", "The Hussites tactics helped them by countering the enemy in a defensive and offensive manner. Initially, the wagons or carts provided a defensive fortification, with heavy artillery taking initial aim at the enemy's cavalry and significantly weakening their forces. The key was to break the morale of the enemy. Then the Hussites would transition to the offensive, attacking from both the carts and the flanks, leading to a multi-pronged attack that the enemy found difficult to resist. This caught the enemy off guard and forced them to withdraw with heavy losses. If knights were dismounted in the process, their heavy armor made them unable to escape, leaving them at the mercy of the Hussites who had a reputation for not taking captives. Through these tactics, they effectively neutralised the numerical superiority of their adversaries.", "The crew of each cart, consisting of 16-22 soldiers, would fight by using a mix of crossbows, firearms, pikes, and flails. These crew members would hide behind the carts as they faced the enemy. When the enemy attacked, the soldiers first neutralized the horses of the opposing cavalry using firearms and crossbows from behind the safety of the carts. This strategy deprived the opposing cavalry of its main advantage and led to heavy losses, demoralizing the enemy. After the morale of the enemy was lowered, the infantry, including the crew members, would burst out from behind the carts and launch an offensive attack mainly from the flanks, thus effectively overcoming the enemy.", "The context does not provide specific information on the success rate of the Hussites using their Wagenburg tactic. However, it does indicate that they inflicted heavy casualties on enemy forces and forced them to withdraw, which implies they had some degree of success with this method.", "The context suggests that the Hussites had a reputation for not taking captives, which implies they might have killed their prisoners, but it does not explicitly state they did so." ]
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C_98972e9161304fec8f56f5acf1f35360_1
Giannina Braschi
Giannina Braschi (born February 5, 1953) is a Puerto Rican writer. She is credited with writing the first Spanglish novel Yo-Yo Boing! (1998), the post-modern poetry trilogy Empire of Dreams (Yale, 1994) and the philosophical fiction United States of Banana (AmazonCrossing, 2011), which chronicles the Latin American immigrants' experiences in the United States. "
Literary influences
In the 1970s, Giannina Braschi was a student of literature in Madrid, Rome, Paris and London, before she settled in New York City. She obtained a PhD in Hispanic Literatures (State University of New York, Stony Brook, 1980) and has taught at Rutgers University, City University of New York, and Colgate University, where she served as a Distinguished Chair of Creative Writing (1997). She was a foreign correspondent for Grazie magazine (2001-2002). As an adolescent in San Juan, Giannina Braschi ranked first place in the U.S. Tennis Association's national tournament in Puerto Rico, becoming the youngest female tennis player to win the Women's Division (1966) on the island. Her father Euripides ("Pilo") Braschi was also a tennis champion. She was also a founding member of the San Juan Children's Choir ("Coro de ninos de San Juan") under music director Evy Lucio and a fashion model during her teen years. In the 1980s, Braschi's early writings were scholarly in nature and focused on the titans of the Spanish Golden Age, as well as the vanguard poets of Latin America and Spain. She published a book on the Romantic poet Gustavo Adolfo Becquer and essays on Cervantes, Garcilaso, Cesar Vallejo, Juan Ramon Jimenez and Federico Garcia Lorca. She later became obsessed with the dramatic and philosophical works of French, German, Polish, Irish, and Russian authors. Though categorized as novels, her later mixed-genre works are experimental in style and format and celebratory of foreign influences. In the 50th anniversary edition of Evergreen Review, Braschi notes that she considers herself "more French than Beckett, Picasso and Gertrude Stein", and believes that she is the "granddaughter of Alfred Jarry and Antonin Artaud, bastard child of Samuel Beckett and James Joyce, half-sister to Heiner Muller, kissing cousin of Tadeusz Kantor, and lover of Witkiewicz". CANNOTANSWER
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Giannina Braschi (born February 5, 1953) is a Puerto Rican poet, novelist, dramatist, and scholar. Her notable works include Empire of Dreams (1988), Yo-Yo Boing! (1998) and United States of Banana (2011). Braschi writes cross-genre literature and political philosophy in Spanish, Spanglish, and English. Her work is a hybrid of poetry, metafiction, postdramatic theatre, memoir, manifesto, and political philosophy. Her writings explore the enculturation journey of Hispanic immigrants, and dramatize the three main political options of Puerto Rico: independence, colony, and state. Early life Giannina Braschi was born to an upper-class family of Italian ancestry in San Juan, Puerto Rico. In her teen years, she was a founding member of the San Juan Children's Choir, a fashion model, and a tennis champion. Her father Euripides ("Pilo") Braschi was also a tennis champion. Her brother, Miguel Braschi, was the plaintiff in a landmark case in 1989 regarding the rights of same-sex couples. In the 1970s, Braschi studied literature and philosophy in Madrid, Rome, Rouen, and London, before she settled in New York City. She credited her start in poetry to the older Spanish poets who mentored her when she lived in Madrid: Claudio Rodríguez, Carlos Bousoño, Vicente Aleixandre, and Blas de Otero. Academic career With a PhD in Hispanic Literatures from State University of New York, Stony Brook (1980), Braschi was a professor at Rutgers University, City University of New York, and Colgate University. Braschi has received awards and fellowships from institutions including Ford Foundation, Danforth Scholarship, National Endowment for the Arts, New York Foundation for the Arts, Rutgers University, and PEN, among others. She published a book on the poetry of Gustavo Adolfo Becquer and essays on Cervantes, Garcilaso, César Vallejo, Juan Ramon Jimenez and Federico García Lorca. Literary career Braschi's work is situated in the Latino avant-garde, a "burgeoning body of work that testifies to Latino writers’ abiding interest in the avant-garde as a means for engaging ideas of material, social relevance". Her writings are also placed within the fields of Postcolonial, Postmodern, and Nuyorican literatures, as well as Latino political philosophy. Braschi is considered a "revolutionary voice" in contemporary Latin American literature". Spanish: El Imperio de los sueños In the 1980s, Braschi wrote dramatic poetry in Spanish prose in New York City. Her postmodern poetry titles were published in Barcelona, Spain, including: Asalto al tiempo (Assault on Time, 1980), La Comedia profana (Profane Comedy, 1985), and El Imperio de los sueños (Empire of Dreams, 1988). She was part of the Nuyorican movement. New York City is the site and subject of much of her poetry. In a climactic episode of Braschi's Empire of Dreams, "Pastoral or the Inquisition of Memories", shepherds invade 5th Avenue during the Puerto Rican Day Parade and take over the City of New York; the shepherds ring the bells of St. Patrick's Cathedral, and seize the observation deck of the Empire State Building. Immigrant characters play the role of other characters, swapping names, genders, personal histories, and identities. Alicia Ostriker situates her gender-bending and genre-blending poetry as having a "sheer erotic energy that defies definition and dogma." Spanglish: Yo-Yo Boing! She published the first full-length Spanglish novel Yo-Yo Boing! in 1998. Yo-Yo Boing! explores "the lived experiences of urban life for Hispanics, as in the case with New York City, and her principal interest is in representing how individuals move in and out of different cultural coordinates, including one so crucial as language." The book was written in an era of renewed calls for English-only laws, ethnic cleansing campaigns, and corporate censorship. "For decades, Dominican and Puerto Rican authors have carried out a linguistic revolution", noted The Boston Globe, "and Giannina Braschi, especially in her novel Yo-Yo Boing!, testify to it". English: United States of Banana Braschi published the geopolitical comic-tragedy United States of Banana, her first book written entirely in English, in 2011. It is a postmodern cross-genre work that opens with the collapse of the World Trade Center on 9/11. The work is a scathing critique of 21st-century capitalism and the global war on terror. Subjects include immigration, mass incarceration, financial terrorism, colonial debt structures, and "power imbalances within the Americas." The work is celebratory of foreign influences. Braschi stated in Evergreen Review that she considered herself "more French than Beckett, Picasso and Gertrude Stein", and identifies as the "granddaughter of Alfred Jarry and Antonin Artaud, bastard child of Samuel Beckett and James Joyce, half-sister to Heiner Müller, kissing cousin of Tadeusz Kantor, and lover of Witkiewicz". Adaptations and translations Giannina Braschi's texts have been adapted and applied to popular culture and fields such as television comedy, chamber music, comic books, industrial design, and ecological urban planning. Michael Zansky has used Braschi's texts in his paintings and Michael Somoroff has created short films with her works. There is a theater play by Juan Pablo Felix and a graphic novel by Joakim Lindengren of United States of Banana. Puerto Rican composer Gabriel Bouche Caro has composed chamber music works with her poems. There is a namesake Giannina chair designed by American industrial designer Ian Stell. Her books have been translated into English by Tess O'Dwyer, into Spanish by Manuel Broncano, and into Swedish by Helena Eriksson and Hannah Nordenhok. Political activism Braschi is an advocate for Puerto Rican independence. She declared the independence of Puerto Rico in United States of Banana and stated in the press that "Liberty is not an option — it is a human right." In the 1990s, she protested the United States Navy's bombing exercises in Vieques, along with politicians Rubén Berríos and Robert F. Kennedy, Jr., singers Danny Rivera and Willie Colón, and fellow authors Ana Lydia Vega and Rigoberta Menchú. Braschi spoke on a panel on "The New Censorship" at the PEN 2012 World Voices Festival where she offered "a critique of 21st century capitalism in which [she] condemned corporate censorship and control." In July 2019, Braschi led early marches outside La Fortaleza in Old San Juan to demand the resignation of Puerto Rican Governor Ricardo Rossello, and joined massive protests, with singers Bad Bunny, Residente, and Ricky Martin, that led to the Governor's resignation. Books Urbanismo ecológico en América Latina. Mohsen Mostafavi, Gareth Doherty, Marina Correia, Ana Maria Duran Calisto, and Luis Valenzuela (eds.). Editorial Gustavo Gili/Harvard University Graduate School of Design, 2019. . Two Crowns of The Egg, with Michael Somoroff, Donald Kuspit. Estados Unidos de Banana, with Manuel Broncano, AmazonCrossing, Madrid, 2015. United States of Banana, AmazonCrossing, Seattle, 2011. Yo-Yo Boing!, AmazonCrossing, Seattle, 2011. Empire of Dreams, AmazonCrossing, Seattle, 2011. El imperio de los sueños, Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras, 2000. Yo-Yo Boing!, Latin American Literary Review, Pittsburgh, 1998. Empire of Dreams (English translation by Tess O'Dwyer; Introduction by Alicia Ostriker), Yale University Press, New Haven/London, 1994. El imperio de los sueños, Anthropos Editorial del hombre, Barcelona, 1988. Libro de payasos y bufones, Grafica Uno, Giorgio Upiglio, Milan, 1987. La comedia profana, Anthropos Editorial del hombre, Barcelona, 1985. Asalto al tiempo, Ambitos Literarios, Barcelona, 1980. Scholarly works "Breve tratado del poeta artista", Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos, No. 433-36, 1986 (an essay on the poetry of Federico García Lorca). "La gravedad de la armonía en ‘Soledades galerías y otros pomas’ de Machado," Plural, 1983 (an essay on the poetry of Antonio Machado). "La poesía de Bécquer: El tiempo de los objetos o los espacios de la luz", Costa Amic, Mexico City, 1982 (a scholarly book on the poetry of Gustavo Adolfo Becquer). "La Metamorfosis del ingenio en la Égloga III de Garcilaso," Revista canadiense de estudios hispánicos, 1979 (an essay on Garcilaso's third eclogue). "Cinco personajes fugaces en el camino de Don Quijote", Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos, No. 328, 1977 (an essay on Don Quixote by Cervantes). Awards and honors Danforth Scholarship El Diario La Prensa's Outstanding Women of 1998 Ford Foundation Fellowship National Endowment for the Arts Fellowship New York Foundation for the Arts Fellowship Peter S. Reed Foundation/InterAmericas PEN American Center's Open Book Award Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña/grant Enrique Anderson Imbert, 2022 See also Hysterical realism Puerto Rican literature American literature in Spanish American poetry Caribbean poetry References Further reading Aldama, Frederick Luis, Ilan Stavans, and Tess O'Dwyer. (2020) Poets, Philosophers, Lovers: On the Writings of Giannina Braschi. U Pittsburgh. Gonzalez, Christopher. (2017) Permissible Narratives: The Promise of Latino/a Literature. The Ohio State University Press. Gonzales, Madelena and Laplace-Claverie, Helene, “Minority Theatre on the Global Stage: Challenging Paradigms from the Margins," Cambridge Scholars, Newcastle, England, page xix and pages 255–264, 2012. Marting, Diane E. (2010). "New/Nueva York in Giannina Braschi's 'Poetic Egg': Fragile Identity, Postmodernism, and Globalization." The Global South 4:1. Torres-Padilla, J.L. (2007). "When Hybridity Doesn't Resist: Giannina Braschi's Yo-Yo Boing! In Complicating Constructions: Race, Ethnicity, and Hybridity in American Texts. U. of Washington P. Eds. David S. Goldstein and Audrey B. Thacker, 290-307. Popovich, Ljudmila Mila (2010). "Metafictions, Migrations, Metalives: Narrative Innovations and Migrant Women’s Aesthetics in Giannina Braschi and Etel Adnan." International Journal of the Humanities 9:10. pp. 117–128. Zimmerman, Marc (2011). "Defending Their Own in the Cold: The Cultural Turns of U.S. Puerto Ricans", University of Illinois, Chicago External links Library of Congress, National Book Festival, Giannina Braschi. , The Evergreen Review:"United States of Banana" Reviewed by Cristina Garrigos and Daniela Daniele (2011) , WAPA TV, "Escritora puertorriqueña que poco a poco se ha abierto paso en Estados Unidos" by Normando Valentín, December 2011. , television program in Spanish, "Celebrities desde Nueva York," con Alfonso Diaz, (Giannina Braschi on the collapse of the American Empire on September 11), November 2011. , "What to Read Now: Mixed-Genre Literature," World Literature Today, September–October 2012. Category:1953 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century Puerto Rican poets Category:20th-century Puerto Rican women writers Category:21st-century Puerto Rican poets Category:21st-century Puerto Rican women writers Category:Continental philosophers Category:Epic poets Category:Hispanic and Latino American novelists Category:Hispanic and Latino American poets Category:Hispanic and Latino American writers Category:National Endowment for the Arts Fellows Category:Novelists from New York (state) Category:People from San Juan, Puerto Rico Category:Postmodern feminists Category:Postmodern writers Category:Puerto Rican female tennis players Category:Puerto Rican feminists Category:Puerto Rican independence activists Category:Puerto Rican novelists Category:Puerto Rican people of Italian descent Category:Puerto Rican poets Category:Puerto Rican women short story writers Category:Puerto Rican women writers Category:Weird fiction writers Category:Women satirists
[ { "text": "Puerto Rican literature is the body of literature produced by writers of Puerto Rican descent. It evolved from the art of oral storytelling. Written works by the indigenous inhabitants of Puerto Rico were originally prohibited and repressed by the Spanish colonial government.\n\nIt was not until the late 19th century, with the arrival of the first printing press and the founding of the Royal Academy of Belles Letters, that Puerto Rican literature began to flourish. The first writers to express their political views in regard to Spanish colonial rule of the island were journalists. After the United States invaded Puerto Rico during the Spanish–American War and the island was ceded to the United States as a condition of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, writers and poets began to express their opposition of the new colonial rule by writing about patriotic themes.\n\nWith the Puerto Rican diaspora of the early and mid-20th century, and the subsequent rise of the Nuyorican Movement, Puerto Rican literature continued to evolve and many Puerto Ricans have distinguished themselves as authors, poets, novelists, playwrights, and essayists.\n\nEarly history\nThe development of Puerto Rican literature was hampered by the Spanish colonial government, which ruled over Puerto Rico since the early 1500s. The Spanish feared that, through literature, Puerto Rico would develop its own social and cultural identity and eventually seek independence. Written works by the indigenous inhabitants were prohibited and punishable by prison or banishment. Even though the first library in Puerto Rico was established in 1642, in the Convent of San Francisco, access to its books was limited to those who belonged to the religious order. The only people who had access to the libraries and who could afford books were either appointed Spanish government officials or wealthy land owners. The poor had to resort to oral story-telling in what are traditionally known in Puerto Rico as Coplas and Decimas.\n\nThe island's first writers were commissioned by the Spanish Crown to document the chronological history of the island. Among these writers were Father Diego de Torres Vargas, who wrote about the history of Puerto Rico, Father Francisco Ayerra de Santa María, who wrote poems about religious and historical themes, and Juan Ponce de León II, who was commissioned to write a general description of the West Indies.\n\nThe first native-born Puerto Rican governor, Ponce de León II, wrote about Taíno culture, particularly their religious ceremonies and language. He also documented the early exploits of the conquistadors. These works were sent to the National Archives in Sevilla, Spain, where they were kept.\n\nPuerto Rican literary history changed with the arrival of the first printing press from Mexico, in 1806. That same year Juan Rodríguez Calderón (a Spaniard) wrote and published the first book in the island, titled Ocios de la Juventud. In 1851, the Spanish appointed governor of Puerto Rico, Juan de la Pezuela Cevallo, founded the Royal Academy of Belles Letters. This institution contributed greatly to the intellectual and literary progress of the island. The school licensed primary school teachers, formulated school methods, and held literary contests. However, only those with government positions and the wealthy benefited from the formation of the institution. The first Puerto Rican writers came from some of the island's wealthiest families, and they were critical of the injustices of the Spanish Crown.\n\n19th century\nIn 1806, the Spanish Colonial Government established \"La Gaceta de Puerto Rico\" (The Puerto Rico Gazette), Puerto Rico's first newspaper. The newspaper was biased in favor of the ideals of the government.\n\nThe first written works in Puerto Rico were influenced by the Romanticism of the time. Journalists were the first writers to express their political views in the newspapers of the day and later in books. Through their books and novels, they illuminated social injustices, which included slavery and poverty. Many of these writers were considered to be dangerous liberals by the colonial government and were banished from the island. An example of this treatment was poet and journalist Francisco Gonzalo Marín, who wrote against the Spanish Crown. Some went to the Dominican Republic, Cuba or New York City where they continued to write about patriotic themes while in exile. The literature of these writers helped fuel the desire of some to revolt against the Spanish government in Puerto Rico, resulting in the failed attempt known as the Grito de Lares in 1868.\n\nThe period between 1868 and 1898 was crucial to the development of Puerto Rican institutions and the birth of a national arts and culture: there was a pro-independence rebellion, colonial reform, the formation of national political parties, the abolition of slavery (in 1873), and a brief period of autonomy. These events coincide with the promotion of a national culture expressed through literary language, music, architecture, and other arts.\n\nWhen the United States invaded Puerto Rico during the Spanish–American War in 1898, many members of the Puerto Rican literary class welcomed them, believing that eventually Puerto Rico would be granted independence. Instead, the island was declared a territory of the United States. Many writers and poets expressed their opposition by writing about patriotic themes through their work.\n\nTwentieth-century migration to the United States\n\nDuring the early part of the 20th century, many Puerto Ricans moved to the eastern coast and mid-western parts of the United States in search of a better way of life. Most settled in cities such as New York and Chicago. There they faced ethnic and racial discrimination and other hardships. Jesús Colón, known as the father of the Nuyorican Movement, was discriminated against because he was Black and had difficulty speaking English. He wrote about his experiences, as well as the experiences of other immigrants, becoming among the first Puerto Ricans to do so in English.\n\nOne of his works, A Puerto Rican in New York, preceded the literary movement known as the \"Nuyorican Movement\". Ultimately, the Nuyorican Movement significantly influenced Puerto Rican literature, spurring themes such as cultural identity and discrimination. The goal of the Nuyorican Movement is to maintain the cultural identity of the Puerto Rican people in a foreign land. This circle of intellectuals, writers, poets and playwrights express their experiences as Nuyoricans living in the United States, including those whose works eventually found mainstream audiences and scholarly attention: Nicholasa Mohr (El Bronx), Piri Thomas (Down These Mean Streets), Pedro Pietri (The Masses are Asses), Giannina Braschi (Yo-Yo Boing!), Esmeralda Santiago (When I Was Puerto Rican), and others.\n\nFoundational fiction \n\nProminent 19th century Puerto Rican authors include Manuel A. Alonso, author of El Gíbaro (1849), a collection of verses whose main themes were the poor Puerto Rican country farmer. Eugenio María de Hostos wrote La peregrinación de Bayoán (1863), which used Bartolomé de las Casas as a spring board to reflect on Caribbean identity. After this first novel, Hostos abandoned fiction in favor of the essay which he saw as offering greater possibilities for inspiring social change.\n\nAlejandro Tapia y Rivera ushered in a new age of historiography with the publication of The Historical Library of Puerto Rico. Cayetano Coll y Toste published a historical work that illuminated Taínos culture in The Indo-Antillano Vocabulary is valuable. Manuel Zeno Gandía (1894) wrote La Charca about the mountainous coffee regions in Puerto Rico. Antonio S. Pedreira, described in his work Insularismo the cultural survival of the Puerto Rican identity after the U.S. invasion.\n\nA trend in Puerto Rican fiction to narrate urban stories and novels about migration and displacement is jettisoned by Puerto Rican authors who themselves migrate to New York City, including Edgardo Vega Yunqué, author of Omaha Bigelow and Blood Fugues; Giannina Braschi, author of Yo-Yo Boing! and United States of Banana; Pedro Juan Soto, author of Spiks; and Manuel Ramos Otero, author of \"Loca la de la locura.\"\n\nPoetry\n\nEarly poetry\n\nMaría Bibiana Benítez published her first poem \"La Ninfa de Puerto Rico\" in 1832. Her niece was Alejandrina Benítez de Gautier, whose \"Aguinaldo Puertorriqueño,\" published in 1843, gave her the recognition of being one of the island's great poets. Alejandrina's son José Gautier Benítez is considered by many to be Puerto Rico's greatest Romantic-era poet. Lola Rodríguez de Tió wrote the lyrics to \"La Borinqueña,\" which was used by the revolutionists in the Grito de Lares. Poets José de Diego, Virgilio Dávila, Luis Lloréns Torres, Nemesio Canales, Francisco Matos Paoli, Juan Antonio Corretjer, Clemente Soto Vélez and Hugo Margenat were independence advocates who wrote poems with patriotic inspired themes.\n\nNationalism\nIn 1928, Soto Vélez, along with Alfredo Margenat (father of Hugo Margenat), Pedro Carrasquillo, Graciany Miranda Archilla, Fernando González Alberti, Luis Hernández Aquino, Samuel Lugo, Juan Calderón Escobar, and Antonio Cruz Nieves founded the group \"El Atalaya de los Dioses,\" which launched the literary movement known as \"Atalayismo.\" The \"El Grupo Atalaya\" movement sought to connect the poetic/literary world with political action and most of its members, including Soto Vélez became involved with the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party. Giannina Braschi's postmodern work United States of Banana (2011) addresses the history of Puerto Rico decolonization efforts and declares the independence of Puerto Rico.\n\nUniversal lyricism\nMercedes Negrón Muñoz wrote under the name \"Clara Lair\" and published \"Arras de Cristal\" (1937), which describes the everyday struggles of the Puerto Rican. However, it was Julia de Burgos who was to be considered by many as one of the greatest poets to be born in Puerto Rico and who later lived in New York. The inspiration spurred by her love of Puerto Rico is reflected in her poem \"Río Grande de Loíza\". Other important lyric poets of the early twentieth century include Luis Palés Matos, Luis Lloréns Torres, and Evaristo Ribera Chevremont.\n\nAfter the Spanish Civil War, poets Juan Ramón Jiménez (Nobel Laureate, 1956) and his wife Zenobia Camprubí emigrate to Puerto Rico and settle in Juan Juan in 1946. Jiménez's lyrical, philosophical poems influenced major Puerto Rican-born writers such as Giannina Braschi (Empire of Dreams, 1988), Manuel Ramos Otero (El Libro de la Muerte, 1985), and René Marqués (La Carreta, 1950).\n\nEvaristo Ribera Chevremont's verses deal with nationality, folklore and regionalism, but also touch upon universal lyricism. Victor Hernández Cruz became the first Hispanic poet to be published by a mainstream publishing house (Random House) with the collection Snaps, in 1969.\n\nPlaywrights\n\nAmong the major figures in Puerto Rican theater is René Marqués (1919-1979 ) author of The Oxcart (La Carreta), which dramatizes the hardships of a Puerto Rican family who move from the island to New York City. His prose contributions include El Puertorriqueño Dócil y Otros Ensayos. Francisco Arriví (1915–2007), a prominent voice of Puerto Rican theater, developed a dramatic style known as Areyto and authored \"Bolero y plena\" (1958) and Vejigantes. He helped to establish various theater festivals and the Centro de Bellas Artes Luis A. Ferré (Luis A. Ferré Performing Arts Center) in Puerto Rico.\n\nLuis Rafael Sánchez (1936-) wrote Pasión según Antígona Pérez (The Passion According to Antigona Perez), a tragedy based on the life of Olga Viscal Garriga.\n\nAmong the Puerto Rican experimental theater writers is Giannina Braschi whose dramatic dialogues celebrate Puerto Rican artistic expression and acknowledge the works of her compatriots Luis Palés Matos, Nilita Vientos, Luis Pales Matos, Pedro Pietri, and Julia de Burgos. Braschi's work United States of Banana, which features Hamlet, Zarathustra and Hamlet on a mission to liberate Puerto Rico, was staged at the Shapiro Theater in New York City (2015).\n\nEmerging Puerto Rican playwrights include Aravind Enrique Adyanthaya, founder of Casa Cruz de la Luna in San Germán, Puerto Rico. Also notable in this category is playwright and screenwriter José Rivera, the first Puerto Rican screenwriter to be nominated for an Academy Award.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Vigil|first=Delfin|date=2008-01-20|title=Jose Rivera's Che Guevara play: 'School of the Americas|url=https://www.sfgate.com/performance/article/Jose-Rivera-s-Che-Guevara-play-School-of-the-3297525.php|access-date=2020-08-29|website=SFGate}}</ref>\n\nStateside playwrights of Puerto Rican ancestry include Lin-Manual Miranda, who won a Pulitzer Prize and Grammy Awards for the Broadway musical Hamilton. Miranda, whose parents are Puerto Rican, co-created In the Heights with Quiara Alegría Hudes, whose mother is Puerto Rican.\n\nJournalists\nA variety of journalists and columnists further enrich Puerto Rican letters.\n\nNelson Antonio Denis published more than 300 editorials in El Diario La Prensa about the New York/Puerto Rican diaspora, which were recognized with repeated \"Best Editorial Writing\" awards from the National Association of Hispanic Journalists. Denis's history book War Against All Puerto Ricans, about the evolution of US-Puerto Rico relations since 1898, was the best-selling book in Puerto Rico in 2015 and 2016.\n\nJosé Luis González (1926-1996) whose work País de cuatro pisos y otros ensayos describes the rigid structures of island society.\n\nDavid Gonzalez is a journalist at the New York Times. Over a 25-year career, Gonzalez has written hundreds of stories in the New York Times which deal with the history, culture, politics and people of Puerto Rico. In 2013, the National Association of Hispanic Journalists inducted Gonzalez into its Hall of Fame, in recognition of his lifetime of committed and compassionate journalism.\n\nGerson Borrero is a journalist, radio host, and TV commentator in New York City. He has been editor-at-large of City & State NY and editor-in-chief of El Diario/La Prensa, the largest Spanish-language newspaper in New York City. His press coverage has ranged from New York City politics,Gerson Borrero; New York Post; April 22, 2012; \"Hispanic vote not uno-fied\" cultural reviews and personality profiles, to the Somos Uno Conference and the Puerto Rican Day Parade.\n\nHistorians\nHistorians such as Dr. Delma S. Arrigoitia have written books and documented the contributions that Puerto Rican women have made to society. Arrigoitia was the first person in the University of Puerto Rico to earn a master's degree in the field of history. Her publications, which cover Puerto Rico's early-20th-century politicians, include: Jose De Diego el legislador, San Juan, Eduardo Giorgetti Y Su Mundo: La Aparente Paradoja De Un Millonario Genio Empresarial Y Su Noble Humanismo;, Puerto Rico Por Encima de Todo: Vida y Obra de Antonio R. Barcelo, 1868-1938; and Introduccion a la Historia de la Moda en Puerto Rico.\n\nTeresita A. Levy's Puerto Ricans in the Empire: The History of Tobacco Cultivation in Puerto Rico, 1898-1940, a study of the tobacco-growing regions in the eastern and western highlands of Puerto Rico, is the first book to tell how Puerto Ricans challenged United States officials and fought successfully for legislation that benefited the island. Her book has been praised by scholars.Tostones and Matzoh, a Puerto Rican-Jewish journey Puerto Ricans in the Empire provides an excellent introduction to Puerto Rico's crucial tobacco industry, with fascinating material on farmer organizations and agricultural research.\"\n—Herbert S. Klein, Gouverneur Morris Professor Emeritus of History Columbia University\n\nModern and contemporary Puerto Rican literature\nAfter a nationalist tradition of Puerto Rican writers from the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s, authors are catalogued by decade into \"generations.\" Some highly representative writers from the early and mid-20th century were: Juan Antonio Corretjer, Luis Lloréns Torres, Palés Matos, Enrique Laguerre, and Francisco Matos Paoli. These Puerto Rican writers wrote in Spanish and reflected a literary Latin American tradition, and offered a variety of universal and social themes. Major writers who got their start in the 1950s include José Luis González, René Marqués, Pedro Juan Soto, and Emilio Díaz Valcárcel.\n\nAuthors whose careers began in the 1960s and 1970s include Jack Agüeros, Angelamaría Dávila, Lourdes Vázquez, Rosario Ferré, Luis Rafael Sánchez, Manuel Ramos Otero, Olga Nolla, Edgardo Rodríguez Juliá, Myrna Casas, and Luis López Nieves. Major writers of the 1980s and 1990s include Ana Lydia Vega, Giannina Braschi, Mayra Santos-Febres, Luz María Umpierre, and Eduardo Lalo.\n\nBreakthrough voices of a new Puerto Rican literature began to emerge at the turn of the new century with the publication of Pedro Cabiya's Historias tremendas in 1999. Identity politics and the complexities of Puerto Rico's relationship with the U.S. — topics that had dominated the work of previous writers — gave way to the exploration of new genres and themes, such as Latinx speculative fiction, horror, fantasy, and noir, as seen in the short stories, novels, and comics by Pedro Cabiya, the experimentation by Bruno Soreno, and the short stories by José Liboy and Luis Negrón (whose Mundo Cruel won a Lambda Literary Award for Gay Fiction, 2014).\n\nEmerging voices on the island include Rafael Acevedo, Moisés Agosto, Yolanda Arroyo Pizarro, Janette Becerra, Ricardo A. Domínguez, Ana María Fuster Lavín, Zoé Jiménez Corretjer, Juan López Bauzá, Alberto Martínez Márquez, Luis Negrón, Maribel Ortiz, Max Resto, and José E. Santos. Lawrence La Fountain-Stokes, Ángel Lozada, Benito Pastoriza Iyodo, Alfredo Villanueva Collado write and publish their works in Spanish on the mainland USA. Puerto Rican authors who write in English include Erika Lopez, Ivelisse Rodriguez, Lilliam Rivera, Quiara Alegría Hudes, Jaquira Díaz, Richie Narvaez, and Ernesto Quiñonez.\n\n Anthologies \nAnthologies that focus on Puerto Rican writers include: \n Aftershocks of Disaster: Puerto Rico Before and After the Storm, edited by Yarimar Bonilla and Marisol LeBrón (Haymarket Books, 2019)\n Boricua en la Luna, edited by Elena M. Aponte \n Boricuas: Influential Puerto Rican Writings, edited by Roberto Santiago (Ballantine Books, 1995)\n Borinquen: An Anthology of Puerto Rican Literature, edited by Maria Teresa Babin and Stan Steiner (Knopf, 1974)\n Breaking Ground/Abriendo Caminos: Anthology of Puerto Rican Women Writers in New York, 1980-2012, edited by Myrna Nieves\n Growing Up Puerto Rican, edited by Joy L. De Jesús (William Morrow and Company, 1997)\n Literatura y narrativa puertorriqueña: La escritura entre siglos, edited by Mario Cancel\n Literatura puertorriqueña del siglo XX: Antología, edited by Mercedes López Baralt \n Los otros cuerpos: Antología de temática gay, lésbica y queer desde Puerto Rico y su diáspora, edited by David Caleb Acevedo, Moisés Agosto, and Luis Negrón, which focuses on LGBT themes \n Nuestro New York: An Anthology of Puerto Rican Plays, edited by John V. Antush (SIgnet, 1994)\n ¡Pa'que Tu Lo Sepas! edited by Angel Luis Colón\n Puerto Rico en Mi Corazón, edited by Raquel Salas Rivera, Ricardo Maldonado, Carina del Valle Schorske (Anomalous Press, 2019)\n Puerto Rican Poetry: A Selection from Aboriginal to Contemporary Times, edited by Robert Márquez\n Puerto Rican Writers at Home in the U.S.A., edited by Faythe Turner (Open Hand, 1991)\n San Juan Noir, edited by Mayra Santos-Febres (Akashic Noir, 2016\n\nSee also\n\n American literature in Spanish\n Cultural diversity in Puerto Rico \n Latin American literature\n List of Puerto Rican writers\n History of women in Puerto Rico\n Nuyorican Movement\n Nuyorican Poets Café\n Media in Puerto Rico\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n Aldama, Frederick Luis and Ilan Stavans. Poets, Philosophers, Lovers: On The Writings of Giannina Braschi. U Pittsburgh. (2020)\n Brahan, Persephone. From Amazons to Zombies: Monsters in Latin America (Bucknell Studies in Latin American Literature and Theory). Bucknell University Press (November 19, 2015).\n Caulfield, Carlota. \"US Latina Caribbean Women Poets.\" In Carlota Caulfield and Darién Davis, Jr., eds., A Companion to US Latino Literatures. Woodbridge: Tamesis, 2007. \n Gordis, Yanis. \"Island and Continental Puerto Rican Literature: Cross-Cultural and Intertextual Considerations\". Special Section: Multicultural Literature, Part IV. In ADE Bulletin 91 (Winter 1988). One of five articles about Puerto Rican literature.\n Loustau, Laura R. Cuerpos errantes: literatura latina y latinoamericana en Estados Unidos. Rosario, Argentina: Beatriz Viterbo Editora, 2002. \n Moreira, Rubén A., ed. Antología de Poesía Puertorriqueña. (Vol. 1: Romanticismo, Vol. 2 Modernismo y Post Modernismo, Vol. 3 Contemporánea, Vol.4 Contemporánea). San Juan, P.R.: Tríptico Editores, 1992-1993.\n Pausides, Alex, Pedro Antonio Valdez, and Carlos Roberto Gómez Beras, eds. Los nuevos caníbales: Antología de la más reciente poesía del Caribe hispano. San Juan: Isla Negra Editores, 2003. \n Rosado, José Ángel, ed. El rostro y la máscara: Antología alterna de cuentistas puertorriqueños contemporáneos. San Juan, Puerto Rico. Isla Negra Editores, 1995.\n van Haesendonck, Kristian. \"Enchantment or Fright? Identity and Postmodern Writing in Contemporary Puerto Rico.\" In Theo D'Haen and Pieter Vemeulen, eds., Cultural Identity and Postmodern Writing. New York and Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2006. \n Torres-Padilla, Jose L. and Carmen Haydee Rivera. Writing Off the Hyphen: New Critical Perspectives on the Literature of the Puerto Rican Diaspora''. Seattle: U. of Washington Press, 2008.\n\nExternal links\n\nUniversity of Notre Dame Library, The Hispanic Caribbean Literature Collection\nEvaristo Ribera Chevremont; Bio and Poems\n''Sargasso''' a journal of literature, language, and culture is online in the Digital Library of the Caribbean from the University of Puerto Rico\n\n \nCategory:Cultural history of Puerto Rico\nCategory:Latin American literature by country", "title": "Puerto Rican literature" }, { "text": "American literature written in Spanish in the United States dates back as 1610 when the Spanish explorer Gaspar Pérez de Villagrá published his epic poem Historia de Nuevo México (History of New Mexico). He was an early chronicler of the conquest of the Americas and a forerunner of Spanish-language literature in the United States given his focus on the American landscape and the customs of the people. However, it was not until the late 20th century that Spanish language literature written by Americans was regularly published in the United States.\n\nThe rise of Spanish-language Latino literature has been fraught with obstacles related to publication and audience. Latino/a authors have expanded audience expectations by attending to narrative innovation and design and by creating challenging reading situations. Rather than compose their narratives with an actual audience in mind, many Latino/a authors sought to write for a new, ideal audience capable of engaging with even the most complex story worlds and stylistic innovations. From the 1960s to the present, breakthrough authors who created new audiences include Oscar “Zeta” Acosta, Gloria Anzaldúa, Piri Thomas, Giannina Braschi, Sandra Cisneros, Junot Díaz, and Gilbert Hernandez have engaged a sophisticated bilingual readership in their avant-garde narratives, code-switching, serialization, and intertextual play in Spanish, Spanglish, and English. Their works, often first published in independent and academic presses, were widely taught as foundational works in the burgeoning fields of Latino Studies and Third World Feminisms; their academic following helped to create a commercial market for Latino literature.\n\nBy 2000, many more Mexican-Americans/Chicanos, Cuban-Americans, Puerto Ricans on the island and Nuyoricans on the mainland, and US immigrants from Latin America have published literature in Spanish in US trade, academic, and mainstream publishing houses. Other US based authors who either write in Spanish or who regularly use Spanish phrases in their works include: Julia Álvarez, Martín Espada, Nicholasa Mohr, Cristina García, Óscar Hijuelos, Cherríe Moraga, Ricardo Pau-Llosa, Gustavo Pérez Firmat, and Ilan Stavans.\n\nAmerican novels in Spanish and Spanglish \n\nPiri Thomas's Down These Mean Streets and Giannina Braschi's Yo-Yo Boing! are groundbreaking American novels for their prominent use Spanish and Spanglish and their unflinching description of urban life for Hispanic Americans. Piri Thomas was pressured to self-translate Spanish passages into English for the publication of his 1967 novel at his publisher’s insistence that the text not alienate monolingual English readers. Nonetheless, the book was banned by New York City public schools because it was perceived, as reported by The New York Times in 1971, as \"a threat to their values. Many... who assail 'Down These Mean Streets' indicate they do so not so much because it portrays life in New York's Puerto Rican community as because the portrayal includes vulgarities and descriptions of sexual acts\". Three decades years later, Giannina Braschi's 1998 novel, featured entire chapters written in untranslated Spanish and extensive dramatic dialogues that mixed Spanish, Spanglish, and English. Though Braschi's bilingual work also used vulgarities and addressed social justice issues such as domestic violence, racism, discrimination, sexual harassment directly, Yo-Yo Boing! book was not censored. However, critic Christopher Gonzalez observes that non-Spanish speaking reviewers considered the work 'an affront'\". Gonzalez notes that bilingual reviewers, such as David William Foster in Review of Contemporary Fiction praised Yo-Yo Boing! for its \"superb exploration for the lived experiences of Hispanics.\" Other critics such as Harold Augenbraum, Ilan Stavans, Doris Sommer, and Adriana Estill have used the phrase \"a tour de force\" to describe the novel\n\nAmerican poetry in Spanish and Spanglish \n\nMajor Spanish poets who spent time in the United States and wrote poetry in Spanish during their stay include Federico García Lorca who wrote his best known works, including Poeta en Nueva York in New York City in 1929. Though Lorca only stayed in the United States for 10 months, the work is considered both Spanish and American literature given the subject of New York City. While in exile in San Juan, Puerto Rico after the Spanish civil war, Nobel Prize laureate Juan Ramón Jiménez wrote Voces de mi copla (Voices of My Song) and Animal de fondo (Animal of Depth) in the 1940s.\n\nProminent American-born poets who wrote in Spanish about life in American cities include Pedro Pietri (Puerto Rican Obituary), Giannina Braschi (El imperio de los sueños/Empire of Dreams, 1988), Julia de Burgos (Yo Misma Fui Mi Ruta (I Was My Own Path), and Ana Castillo. Williams Carlos Williams used Spanish titles and flourishes in his poetry but did not write publish extensive works in Spanish.\n\nSince 2012, when University of Iowa established the country's first MFA Spanish Creative Writings Program, other American universities such as Hofstra and New York University has also established MFA programs in Spanish.\n\nAnthologies and magazines \nOrganized by decades, these publications debuted new work by US based Latino/a and Latinx authors who wrote in Spanish and Spanglish.\n\n1970s \n\n Revista Chicano-Riqueña was the first national magazine of US Hispanic literature in Spanish. It was first published in 1973 and co-edited by Nicolás Kanellos and Luis Dávila to provide a much-needed outlet for the creative work of young Hispanic writers, who were not yet picked up by the mainstream press, including Lorna Dee Cervantes, Sandra Cisneros, Giannina Braschi, Gary Soto, Luis Raphael Sanchez, and Ana Castillo.\n\n1980s\n\n This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color is a feminist anthology edited by leaders of Chicana literature, Cherríe Moraga and Gloria E. Anzaldúa. First published in 1981 by Persephone Press, the work included Latina authors who wrote in Spanish and Spanglish, among others.\n La ciudad prestada poesía latinoamericana posmoderna en Nueva York edited by Pedro López Adorno featured early works by Postmodern Latino/a/x authors.\n\n1990s\n\n Floricanto Si!: A Collection of Latina Poetry co-edited by Bryce Milligan and Angela de Hoyos featured lyrical and prose poems by Marjorie Agosin, Julia Alvarez, Giannina Braschi, Anna Castillo, Sandra Cisneros, Rosario Ferre, Carmen Gimenez Smith, Lucha Corpi, and Lorna Dee Cervantes, among others. Select poems were written in Spanish or used Spanglish. (Penguin, 1998)\n\n2000s \nSe habla español: Voces Latinas in the US (2000). McOndo authors Edmundo Paz Soldan and Alberto Fuguet co-edited this anthology of short stories in Spanish by Iván Thays (Peru), Ignacio Padilla (Mexico), Jorge Volpi (Mexico), Junot Díaz (Dominican-American), Alvaro Enrigue (Mexico), Silvana Paternostro (Colombia), Mayra Santos-Febres (Puerto Rico), Ilan Stavans (Mexico), Lina Meruane (Chile), Rodrigo Rey Rosa (Guatemala), Ángel Lozada (Puerto Rico), and Giannina Braschi (Puerto Rico). The anthology marked the New Latino Boom of Spanish writing in the United States.\n\n2010 to 2020\n\n The Norton Anthology of Latino Literature, a 2,700-page compendium that includes two hundred authors from the colonial period (the earliest author included is Fray Bartolomé de las Casas) to the present time. Among the featured writers are: Daniel Alarcón, Julia Alvarez, Giannina Braschi, Julia de Burgos, Fray Bartolomé de las Casas, Junot Díaz, Cristina García (journalist), Oscar Hijuelos, José Martí, Octavio Paz, Rolando Pérez (Cuban poet), Esmeralda Santiago, and William Carlos Williams. \nThe FSG Book of Latin American Poetry, (2011) a 728-page volume that contextualizes the history of Latin American poets including those who migrated to the US. Featured poets: José Martí, Rubén Darío, César Vallejo, Oswald de Andrade, Pablo Neruda, Violeta Parra, Nicanor Parra, Gabriela Mistral, Luis Palés Matos, Octavio Paz, Giannina Braschi, and Roberto Bolaño.\n Abriendo Caminos/Breaking Ground: Anthology of Puerto Rican Women Writers in New York 1980-2012 edited by Myrna Nieves. Featured poets: Giannina Braschi and Sandra María Esteves.\nCrisis by Jorge Majfud is one of contemporary classics of the new Latino literature.\nEscribir en Nueva York (2014) edited by Claudia Salazar. This is an anthology of Hispanic American, Latino/a, and Latinx narrators who have lived in New York and written stories in Spanish. It was published in Spanish and includes short stories by: Carmen Boullosa, Lorea Canales (México), Giannina Braschi (Puerto Rico), Sergio Chejfec, Federico Falco, Sylvia Molloy (Argentina), Isaac Goldemberg (Perú), Mónica Ríos, Carlos Labbé, Diamela Eltit (Chile), Jaime Manrique (Colombia), and José Manuel Prieto (Cuba).\n\nLatino authors\nU.S. based authors who write and publish stories, poetry, novels, or theater in Spanish include: \n Giannina Braschi\n Ariel Dorfman \n Isabel Allende \n Jorge Majfud \n Junot Díaz\n Mayra Santos-Febres \n René Marqués\n Lina Meruane\n Manuel Ramos Otero\n Pedro Pietri\n Miguel Piñero \n Reinaldo Arenas \n Tomás Eloy Martínez\n Rolando Hinojosa-Smith\n Tomás Rivera\n Ilan Stavans\n Miguel Méndez\n Daína Chaviano\n Carlos Labbé\n Marco Katz\n Julio César Aguilar\n\nUS publishers of Spanish language books \n\n Latin American Literary Review Press\n Bilingual Review Press\n Alfaguara USA\n Artepoética Press\n AmazonCrossing\n Arte Público Press\n Floricanto Press\n Jade Publishing \n Restless Books\n Random House Español\n Sangría\n HarperCollins's Rayo \n Harlequin Bianca and Harlequin Deseo\n\nSpanish bookstores in the US \n\n LA Libreria\n Lectorum\n Libros in Español \n Libreria Barco De Papel\n Libreria Giron\n Libreria Tesoros\n Tertulia\n\nSee also\nPuerto Rican literature\nSpanish language in the United States\nSpanish-language literature\nSpanglish\nChicano literature\nChicano poetry\nNuyorican\nHispanic and Latino literature\nLatino literature\nLatino poetry\n\nReferences \n\nCategory:American literature\n \nCategory:American poetry\nCategory:Spanish language in the United States\nCategory:American literature in Spanish", "title": "American literature in Spanish" }, { "text": "American poetry refers to the poetry of the United States. It arose first as efforts by American colonists to add their voices to English poetry in the 17th century, well before the constitutional unification of the Thirteen Colonies (although a strong oral tradition often likened to poetry already existed among Native American societies). Most of the early colonists' work was similar to contemporary English models of poetic form, diction, and theme. However, in the 19th century, an American idiom began to emerge. By the later part of that century, poets like Walt Whitman were winning an enthusiastic audience abroad and had joined the English-language avant-garde.\n\nMuch of the American poetry published between 1910 and 1945 remains lost in the pages of small circulation political periodicals, particularly the ones on the far left, destroyed by librarians during the 1950s McCarthy era. Modernist poets like Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot (who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948) are often cited as creative and influential English-language poets of the first half of the 20th century. African American and women poets were published and read widely in the same period but were often somewhat prejudicially marginalized. By the 1960's, the Beat Movement and Black Mountain poets had developed new models for poetry and their contemporaries influenced the British Poetry Revival. Towards the end of the millennium, consideration of American poetry had diversified, as scholars placed an increased emphasis on poetry by women, African Americans, Hispanics, Chicanos, Native Americans, and other ethnic groups. Louise Glück is the only contemporary American writer writing primarily poetry who has been awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, while Bob Dylan, a folk-rock songwriter and poet, has been awarded the same prize.\n\nPoetry in the colonies\nAs England's contact with the Americas increased after the 1490s, English explorers sometimes included verse with their descriptions of the New World up through 1650, the year of Anne Bradstreet's \"The Tenth Muse\", which was written in America (most likely in Ipswich, Massachusetts or North Andover, Massachusetts) and printed and distributed in London by her brother-in-law, Rev. John Woodbridge. There are 14 such writers whom might be termed American poets (they had been to America and to different degrees, written poems or verses about the place). Early examples include a 1616 \"testimonial poem\" on the \"sterling and warlike\" character of Captain John Smith (in Barbour, ed. \"Works\") and Rev. William Morrell's 1625 \"Nova Anglia\" or \"New England\", which is a rhymed catalog of everything from American weather to his glimpses of Native American women. Then in May 1627, Thomas Morton of Merrymount – a Devon-born West Country outdoorsman, attorney at law, man of letters and colonial adventurer – raised a maypole to celebrate and foster success at his fur-trading settlement and nailed a \"Poem\" and \"Song\" (one a densely literary manifesto on how European and Native people came together there and must keep doing so for a successful America; the other a light \"drinking song\" also full of deeper American implications). These were published in book form along with other examples of Morton's American poetry in \"New English Canaan\" (1637); and based on the criteria of \"First,\" \"American\" and \"Poetry,\" they make Morton (and not Anne Bradstreet) America's first poet in English.\n\nOne of the first recorded poets of the Thirteen Colonies was Anne Bradstreet (1612 – 1672), who remains one of the early known women poets who wrote in English.\nThe poems she published during her lifetime address religious and political themes. She also wrote tender evocations of home, family life and of her love for her husband, many of which remained unpublished until the 20th century.\n\nEdward Taylor (1645–1729) wrote poems expounding Puritan virtues in a highly wrought metaphysical style that can be seen as typical of the early colonial period.\n\nThis narrow focus on the Puritan ethic was, understandably, the dominant note of most of the poetry written in the colonies during the 17th and early 18th centuries. The earliest \"secular\" poetry published in New England was by Samuel Danforth in his \"almanacks\" for 1647–1649, published at Cambridge; these included \"puzzle poems\" as well as poems on caterpillars, pigeons, earthquakes, and hurricanes. Of course, being a Puritan minister as well as a poet, Danforth never ventured far from a spiritual message.\n\nA distinctly American lyric voice of the colonial period was Phillis Wheatley, a slave whose book \"Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral,\" was published in 1773. She was one of the best-known poets of her day, at least in the colonies, and her poems were typical of New England culture at the time, meditating on religious and classical ideas.\n\nThe 18th century saw an increasing emphasis on America as fit subject matter for its poets. This trend is most evident in the works of Philip Freneau (1752–1832), who is notable for the unusually sympathetic attitude to Native Americans shown in his writings, which had been interpreted as being reflective of his skepticism toward American culture. However, as might be expected from what was essentially provincial writing, this late colonial-era poetry is generally somewhat old-fashioned in form and syntax, deploying the means and methods of Pope and Gray in the era of Blake and Burns. The work of Rebecca Hammond Lard (1772–1855), although quite old, still apply to life in today's world. She writes about nature, not only the nature of environment, but the nature of humans.\n\nOn the whole, the development of poetry in the American colonies mirrors the development of the colonies themselves. The early poetry is dominated by the need to preserve the integrity of the Puritan ideals that created the settlement in the first place. As the colonists grew in confidence, the poetry they wrote increasingly reflected their drive towards independence. This shift in subject matter was not reflected in the mode of writing which tended to be conservative, to say the least. This can be seen as a product of the physical remove at which American poets operated from the center of English-language poetic developments in London.\n\nPostcolonial poetry\n\nThe first significant poet of the independent United States was William Cullen Bryant (1794–1878), whose great contribution was to write rhapsodic poems on the grandeur of prairies and forests. However, the first internationally acclaimed poet was Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807–1882) who nearly surpassed Alfred, Lord Tennyson in international popularity, and, alongside William Cullen Bryant, John Greenleaf Whittier, James Russell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., formed the Fireside Poets (known as the Schoolroom or Household Poets). The Fireside Poets were a group of 19th-century American poets from New England. The name \"Fireside Poets\" is derived from that popularity: their general adherence to poetic convention (standard forms, regular meter, and rhymed stanzas) made their body of work particularly suitable for being memorized and recited in school and at home, where it was a source of entertainment for families gathered around the fire. The poets' primary subjects were the domestic life, mythology, and politics of the United States, in which several of the poets were directly involved.\n\nOther notable poets to emerge in the early and middle 19th century include Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882), Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849), Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862), Sidney Lanier (1842–1881), and James Whitcomb Riley (1849–1916). As might be expected, the works of all these writers are united by a common search for a distinctive American voice to distinguish them from their British counterparts. To this end, they explored the landscape and traditions of their native country as materials for their poetry.\n\nThe most significant example of this tendency may be The Song of Hiawatha by Longfellow. This poem uses Native American tales collected by Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, who was superintendent of Indian affairs for Michigan from 1836 to 1841. Longfellow imitated the meter of the Finnish epic poem Kalevala, possibly to avoid British models. The resulting poem, while a popular success, did not provide a model for future U.S. poets.\n\nAs time went on, the influence of the transcendentalism of the poet/philosophers Emerson and Thoreau increasingly influenced American poetry. Transcendentalism was the distinctly American strain of English Romanticism that began with William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Emerson, arguably one of the founders of transcendentalism, had visited England as a young man to meet these two English poets, as well as Thomas Carlyle. While Romanticism transitioned into Victorianism in post-reform England, it became energetic in America from the 1830s through to the Civil War.\n\nEdgar Allan Poe was a unique poet during this time, brooding over themes of the macabre and dark, connecting his poetry and aesthetic vision to his philosophical, psychological, moral, and cosmological theories. In the 20th century, American poet William Carlos Williams said of Poe that \"in him American literature is anchored, in him alone, on solid ground.\"\n\nWhitman and Dickinson\n\nThe final emergence of a truly indigenous English-language poetry in the United States was the work of two poets, Walt Whitman (1819–1892) and Emily Dickinson (1830–1886). On the surface, these two poets could not have been less alike. Whitman's long lines, derived from the metric of the King James Version of the Bible, and his democratic inclusiveness stand in stark contrast with Dickinson's concentrated phrases and short lines and stanzas, derived from Protestant hymnals.\n\nWhat links them is their common connection to Emerson (a passage from whom Whitman printed on the second edition of Leaves of Grass), and the daring originality of their visions. These two poets can be said to represent the birth of two major American poetic idioms—the free metric and direct emotional expression of Whitman, and the gnomic obscurity and irony of Dickinson—both of which would profoundly stamp the American poetry of the 20th century.\n\nThe development of these idioms, as well as conservative reactions against them, can be traced through the works of poets such as Edwin Arlington Robinson (1869–1935), Stephen Crane (1871–1900), Robert Frost (1874–1963), Carl Sandburg (1878–1967), and Edna St. Vincent Millay (1892-1950). Frost, in particular, is a commanding figure, who aligned strict poetic meter, particularly blank verse and terser lyrical forms, with a \"vurry Amur'k'n\" (as Pound put it) idiom. He successfully revitalized a rural tradition with many English antecedents from his beloved Golden Treasury and produced an oeuvre of major importance, rivaling or even excelling in achievement that of the key modernists and making him, within the full sweep of traditional modern English-language verse, a peer of Hardy and Yeats. But from Whitman and Dickinson the outlines of a distinctively new organic poetic tradition, less indebted to English formalism than Frost's work, were clear to see, and they would come to full fruition in the 1910s and 1920s. As Colin Falck noted, \"To the Whitmanian heritage of cadenced free verse she [Millay] brings the greater reflective tightness of Robinson Jeffers.\"\n\nModernism and after\n\nThis new idiom, combined with a study of 19th-century French poetry, formed the basis of American input into 20th-century English-language poetic modernism. Ezra Pound (1885–1972) and T.S. Eliot (1888–1965) were the leading figures at the time, with their rejection of traditional poetic form and meter and of Victorian diction. Both steered American poetry toward greater density, difficulty, and opacity, with an emphasis on techniques such as fragmentation, ellipsis, allusion, juxtaposition, ironic and shifting personae, and mythic parallelism. Pound, in particular, opened up American poetry to diverse influences, including the traditional poetries of China and Japan.\n\nNumerous other poets made important contributions at this revolutionary juncture, including Gertrude Stein (1874–1946), Wallace Stevens (1879–1955), William Carlos Williams (1883–1963), Hilda Doolittle (H.D.) (1886–1961), Marianne Moore (1887–1972), E.E. Cummings (1894–1962), and Hart Crane (1899–1932). The cerebral and skeptical Romantic Stevens helped revive the philosophical lyric, and Williams was to become exemplary for many later poets because he, more than any of his peers, contrived to marry spoken American English with free verse rhythms. Cummings remains notable for his experiments with typography and evocation of a spontaneous, childlike vision of reality.\n\nWhereas these poets were unambiguously aligned with high modernism, other poets active in the United States in the first third of the 20th century were not. Among the more important of the latter were those who were associated with what came to be known as the New Criticism. These included John Crowe Ransom (1888–1974), Allen Tate (1899–1979), and Robert Penn Warren (1905–1989). Other poets of the era, such as Archibald MacLeish (1892–1982), experimented with modernist techniques but were drawn toward traditional modes of writing. Still others, such as Robinson Jeffers (1887–1962), adopted Modernist freedom while remaining aloof from Modernist factions and programs.\n\nIn addition, there were still other, early 20th-century poets who maintained or were forced to maintain a peripheral relationship to high modernism, likely due to the racially charged themes of their work. They include Countee Cullen (1903–1946), Alice Dunbar Nelson (1875–1935), Gwendolyn Bennett (1902–1981), Langston Hughes (1902–1967), Claude McKay (1889–1948), Jean Toomer (1894–1967), and other African American poets of the Harlem Renaissance.\n\nThe modernist torch was carried in the 1930s mainly by the group of poets known as the Objectivists. These included Louis Zukofsky (1904–1978), Charles Reznikoff (1894–1976), George Oppen (1908–1984), Carl Rakosi (1903–2004) and, later, Lorine Niedecker (1903–1970). Kenneth Rexroth, who was published in the Objectivist Anthology, was, along with Madeline Gleason (1909–1973), a forerunner of the San Francisco Renaissance. Many of the Objectivists came from urban communities of new immigrants, and this new vein of experience and language enriched the growing American idiom.\n\nWorld War II and after\nArchibald Macleish called John Gillespie Magee, Jr. \"the first poet of the war\".\n\nWorld War II saw the emergence of a new generation of poets, many of whom were influenced by Wallace Stevens and Richard Eberhart (1904–2005).\nKarl Shapiro (1913–2000), Randall Jarrell (1914–1965) and James Dickey (1923–1997) all wrote poetry that sprang from experience of active service. Together with Elizabeth Bishop (1911–1979), Theodor Seuss Geisel (Dr. Seuss) (1904-1991), Theodore Roethke (1908–1963) and Delmore Schwartz (1913–1966), they formed a generation of poets that in contrast to the preceding generation often wrote in traditional verse forms.\n\nAfter the war, a number of new poets and poetic movements emerged. John Berryman (1914–1972) and Robert Lowell (1917–1977) were the leading lights in what was to become known as the Confessional movement, which was to have a strong influence on later poets like Sylvia Plath (1932–1963) and Anne Sexton (1928–1974). Though both Berryman and Lowell were closely acquainted with Modernism, they were mainly interested in exploring their own experiences as subject matter and a style that Lowell referred to as \"cooked\" – that is, consciously and carefully crafted.\n\nIn contrast, the Beat poets, who included such figures as Jack Kerouac (1922–1969), Allen Ginsberg (1926–1997), Gregory Corso (1930–2001), Joanne Kyger (1934-2017), Gary Snyder (born 1930), Diane Di Prima (1934-2020), Amiri Baraka (1934-2014) and Lawrence Ferlinghetti (1919-2020), were distinctly raw. Reflecting, sometimes in an extreme form, the open, relaxed and searching society of the 1950s and 1960s, the Beats pushed the boundaries of the American idiom in the direction of demotic speech perhaps further than any other group.\n\nAround the same time, the Black Mountain poets, under the leadership of Charles Olson (1910–1970), were working at Black Mountain College in North Carolina. These poets were exploring the possibilities of open form but in a much more programmatic way than the Beats. The main poets involved were Robert Creeley (1926–2005), Robert Duncan (1919–1988), Denise Levertov (1923–1997), Ed Dorn (1929–1999), Paul Blackburn (1926–1971), Hilda Morley (1916–1998), John Wieners (1934–2002), and Larry Eigner (1927–1996). They based their approach to poetry on Olson's 1950 essay Projective Verse, in which he called for a form based on the line, a line based on human breath and a mode of writing based on perceptions juxtaposed so that one perception leads directly to another. This in turn influenced the works of Michael McClure (1932-2020), Kenneth Irby (1936–2015), and Ronald Johnson (1935–1998), poets from the Midwestern United States who moved to San Francisco, and in so doing extended the influence of the Black Mountain school geographically westward; their participation in the poetic circles of San Francisco can be seen as partly forming the basis for what would later be known as \"Language poetry.\"\n\nOther poets often associated with the Black Mountain are Cid Corman (1924–2004) and Theodore Enslin (1925-2011), but they are perhaps correctly viewed as direct descendants of the Objectivists. One-time Black Mountain College resident, composer John Cage (1912–1992), along with Jackson Mac Low (1922–2004), wrote poetry based on chance or aleatory techniques. Inspired by Zen, Dada and scientific theories of indeterminacy, they were to prove to be important influences on the 1970s U.S avant-garde.\n\nThe Beats and some of the Black Mountain poets often are considered to have been responsible for the San Francisco Renaissance. However, as previously noted, San Francisco had become a hub of experimental activity from the 1930s thanks to Kenneth Rexroth and Gleason. Other poets involved in this scene included Charles Bukowski (1920–1994) and Jack Spicer (1925–1965). These poets sought to combine a contemporary spoken idiom with inventive formal experiment.\n\nJerome Rothenberg (born 1931) is well known for his work in ethnopoetics, but he was the coiner of the term \"deep image\", which he used to describe the work of poets like Robert Kelly (born 1935), Diane Wakoski (born 1937) and Clayton Eshleman (1935-2021). Deep Image poetry was inspired by the symbolist theory of correspondences, in particular the work of Spanish poet Federico García Lorca. The term later was popularized by Robert Bly. The Deep Image movement was the most international, accompanied by a flood of new translations from Latin American and European poets such as Pablo Neruda, César Vallejo and Tomas Tranströmer. Some of the poets who became associated with Deep Image are Galway Kinnell, James Wright, Mark Strand and W.S. Merwin. Both Merwin and California poet Gary Snyder became known for their interest in environmental and ecological concerns.\n\nThe Small Press poets (sometimes called the mimeograph movement) are another influential and eclectic group of poets who surfaced in the San Francisco Bay Area in the late 1950s and are still active today. Fiercely independent editors, who were also poets, edited and published low-budget periodicals and chapbooks of emerging poets who might otherwise have gone unnoticed. This work ranged from formal to experimental. Gene Fowler, A.D. Winans, Hugh Fox, street poet and activist Jack Hirschman, Paul Foreman, Jim Cohn, John Bennett, and F.A. Nettelbeck are among the many poets who are still actively continuing the Small Press Poets tradition. Many have turned to the new medium of the Web for its distribution capabilities.\n\nLos Angeles poets: Leland Hickman (1934–1991), Holly Prado (1938-2019), Harry Northup (born 1940), Wanda Coleman (1946-2013),\nMichael C. Ford (born 1939), Kate Braverman (1949-2019), Eloise Klein Healy (born 1943), Bill Mohr, Laurel Ann Bogen, met at Beyond Baroque\nLiterary Arts Center, in Venice, California. They are lyric poets, heavily autobiographical; some are practitioners of the experimental long poem. Their predecessors in Los Angeles were Ann Stanford (1916–1987), Thomas McGrath (1916–1990), Jack Hirschman (1933-2021). Beyond Baroque Literary Arts Center, created by George Drury Smith in 1968, is the central literary arts center in the Los Angeles area.\n\nJust as the West Coast had the San Francisco Renaissance and the Small Press Movement, the East Coast produced the New York School. This group aimed to write poetry that spoke directly of everyday experience in everyday language and produced a poetry of urbane wit and elegance that contrasts with the work of their Beat contemporaries (though in other ways, including their mutual respect for American slang and disdain for academic or \"cooked\" poetry, they were similar). Leading members of the group include John Ashbery (1927-2017), Frank O'Hara (1926–1966), Kenneth Koch (1925–2002), James Schuyler (1923–1991), Barbara Guest (1920–2006), Ted Berrigan (1934–1983), Anne Waldman (born 1945) and Bernadette Mayer (born 1945). Of this group, John Ashbery, in particular, has emerged as a defining force in recent poetics, and he is regarded by many as the most important American poet since World War II.\n\nAmerican poetry today\n\nThe last 40 years of poetry in the United States have brought new groups, schools, and trends into vogue. The 1970s saw a revival of interest in surrealism, with the more prominent poets working in this field being Andrei Codrescu (born in 1946), Russell Edson (1935-2014) and Maxine Chernoff (born in 1952). Performance poetry emerged from the Beat and hippie happenings, the talk-poems of David Antin (1932-2016), and ritual events performed by Rothenberg, to become a serious poetic stance which embraces multiculturalism and a range of poets from a multiplicity of cultures. This mirrored a general growth of interest in poetry by African Americans including Gwendolyn Brooks (1917–2000), Maya Angelou (1928–2014), Ishmael Reed (born in 1938), Nikki Giovanni (born in 1943), and Detrick Hughes (born in 1966).\n\nAnother group of poets, the Language school (or L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E, after the magazine that bears that name), have continued and extended the Modernist and Objectivist traditions of the 1930s. Some poets associated with the group are Lyn Hejinian, Ron Silliman, Bob Perelman and Leslie Scalapino. Their poems—fragmentary, purposefully ungrammatical, sometimes mixing texts from different sources and idioms—can be by turns abstract, lyrical, and highly comic.\n\nThe Language school includes a high proportion of women, which mirrors another general trend—the rediscovery and promotion of poetry written both by earlier and contemporary women poets. A number of the more prominent African American poets to emerge are women, and other prominent women writers include Adrienne Rich (1929–2012), Jean Valentine (1934–2020), and Amy Gerstler (born in 1956).\n\nAlthough poetry in traditional classical forms had mostly fallen out of fashion by the 1960s, the practice was kept alive by poets of great formal virtuosity like James Merrill (1926–1995), author of the epic poem The Changing Light at Sandover, Richard Wilbur, and British-born San Francisco poet Thom Gunn. The 1980s and 1990s saw a re-emergent interest in traditional form, sometimes dubbed New Formalism or Neoformalism. These include poets such as Molly Peacock, Brad Leithauser, Dana Gioia, Donna J. Stone, Timothy Steele, Alicia Ostriker, and Marilyn Hacker. Some of the more outspoken New Formalists have declared that the return to rhyme and more fixed meters to be the new avant-garde. Their critics sometimes associate this traditionalism with the conservative politics of the Reagan era, noting the recent appointment of Gioia as chair of the National Endowment for the Arts. \n\nHaiku has attracted a community of American poets dedicated to its development as a poetic genre in English. The extremely terse Japanese haiku first influenced the work of Ezra Pound and the Imagists, and post-war poets such as Kerouac and Richard Wright wrote substantial bodies of original haiku in English. Other poets such as Ginsberg, Snyder, Wilbur, Merwin, and many others have at least dabbled with haiku, often simply as a syllabic form. Starting in 1963, with the founding of the journal American Haiku, poets such as Cor van den Heuvel, Nick Virgilio, Raymond Roseliep, John Wills, Anita Virgil, Gary Hotham, Marlene Mountain, Wally Swist, Peggy Willis Lyles, George Swede, Michael Dylan Welch, Jim Kacian, and others have created significant oeuvres of haiku poetry, evincing continuities with both Transcendentalism and Imagism and often maintaining an anti-anthropocentric environmental focus on nature during an unparalleled age of habitat destruction and human alienation.\n\nThe last two decades have seen a revival of the Beat poetry spoken word tradition, in the form of the poetry slam. Chicago construction worker Marc Smith turned urban poetry performance into audience-judged competitions in 1984. Poetry slams emphasize a style of writing that is topical, provocative and easily understood. Poetry slam opened the door for a generation of writers and spoken word performers, including Alix Olson, Apollo Poetry, Taylor Mali, and Saul Williams, and inspired hundreds of open mics across the U.S.\n\nPoetry has become a significant presence on the Web, with a number of new online journals, 'zines, blogs and other websites. An example of the fluid nature of web-based poetry communities is, \"thisisbyus, now defunct, yet this community of writers continues and expands on Facebook and has allowed both novice and professional poets to explore writing styles.\n\nDuring the contemporary time frame, there were major independent voices who defied links to well-known American poetic movements and forms such as poet and literary critic Robert Peters, greatly influenced by the Victorian English poet Robert Browning’s poetic monologues, became reputable for executing his monologic personae like his Mad King Ludwig II of Bavaria into popular one-man performances. Another example is Louise Glück who cites Emily Dickinson and William Blake as her influences. Critics and scholars have discussed whether or not she is a confessional poet. Sylvia Plath may be another of her influences.\n\nThe Library of Congress produces a guide to American poetry inspired by the 9/11 attacks, including anthologies and books dedicated to the subject.\n\nRobert Pinsky has a special place in American poetry as he was the poet laureate of the United States for three terms. No other poet has been so honored. His \"Favorite Poem Project\" is unique, inviting all citizens to share their all-time favorite poetic composition and why they love it. He is a professor at Boston University and the poetry editor at Slate. \"Poems to Read\" is a demonstration of his poetic vision, joining the word and the common man.\n\nWith increased consciousness of society's impact on natural ecosystems, it is inexorable that such themes would become integrated into poetry. The foundations of poems about nature are found in the work of Henry David Thoreau and Walt Whitman. The modern ecopoetics movement was pioneered by Jack Collom, who taught a dedicated course on ecopoetics at Naropa University in Boulder, Colorado for 17 years. Contemporary poetry on environmental sustainability is found among the works of J.S. Shipman, for example, in, \"Calling on You.\"\n\nThe growth in the popularity of graduate creative writing programs has given poets the opportunity to make a living as teachers. This increased professionalization of poetry, combined with the reluctance of most major book and magazine presses to publish poetry, has meant that, for the foreseeable future at least, poetry may have found its new home in the academy and in small independent journals. \nA prominent example is Nobel Laureate Louise Glück who teaches at Yale University.\n\nSee also\n\n Academy of American Poets\n Biker Poetry\n Chicano poetry\n Cowboy poetry\n Haiku in English\n Irish language outside Ireland\n List of national poetries\n List of poets from the United States\n Nuyorican Poetry\n Proletarian poetry\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \nBaym, Nina, et al. (eds.): The Norton Anthology of American Literature (Shorter sixth edition, 2003). \nCavitch, Max, American Elegy: The Poetry of Mourning from the Puritans to Whitman (University of Minnesota Press, 2007). \nHoover, Paul (ed): Postmodern American Poetry - A Norton Anthology (1994). \nMoore, Geoffrey (ed): The Penguin Book of American Verse (Revised edition 1983) \nShipman, J.S. 2005. \"Calling on You\"In: Surrender to the Moon. International Library of Poetry. Watermark Press. Owings Mills, MD. P 3.\n\nExternal links \n\nCary Nelson, Ed. (1999–2002) Poet biographies at Modern American Poetry. Retrieved December 5, 2004\nPoet biographies at the Academy of American Poets Captured December 10, 2004\nPoet biographies at the Electronic Poetry Centre Captured December 10, 2004\nVarious anthologies of American verse at Bartleby.com Captured December 10, 2004\nPoetry Resource a website for students of poetry\n\n \nCategory:Poetry by country", "title": "American poetry" }, { "text": "Caribbean poetry is vast and rapidly evolving field of poetry written by people from the Caribbean region and the diaspora.\n\nCaribbean poetry generally refers to a myriad of poetic forms, spanning epic, lyrical verse, prose poems, dramatic poetry and oral poetry, composed in Caribbean territories regardless of language. It is most often, however, written in English, Spanish, Spanglish, French, Hindustani, Dutch, or any number of creoles. Poetry in English from the former British West Indies has been referred to as Anglo-Caribbean poetry or West Indian poetry.\n\nSince the mid-1970s, Caribbean poetry has gained increasing visibility with the publication in Britain and North America of several anthologies. Over the decades the canon has shifted and expanded, drawing both on oral and literary traditions and including more women poets and politically charged works. Caribbean writers, performance poets, newspaper poets, singer-songwriters have created a popular art form, a poetry heard by audiences all over the world. Caribbean oral poetry shares the vigour of the written tradition.\n\nAmong the most prominent Caribbean poets whose works are widely studied (and translated into other languages) are: Derek Walcott (who won the 1992 Nobel Prize for Literature), Kamau Brathwaite, Edouard Glissant, Giannina Braschi, Lorna Goodinson, Aimé Fernand Césaire, Linton Kwesi Johnson, Kwame Dawes, and Claudia Rankine.\n\nCommon themes include: exile and return to the motherland; the relationship of language to nation; colonialism and postcolonialism; self-determination and liberty; racial identity.\n\nCaribbean epic poetry \n\nDerek Walcott's Omeros (1990) is one of the most renown epic poems of the 20th century and of the Caribbean. The work is divided into seven books containing sixty-four chapters. Most of the poem is composed in a three-line form that is reminiscent of the terza rima form that Dante used for The Divine Comedy. The work, referencing Homer and other characters from the Iliad, refers to Greek, Roman, and American slavery. The narrative arch of the epic takes place on the island of St. Lucia, where Walcott was born and raised, but includes imaginings of ancient Greece and Rome, as well as travels to modern day Lisbon, London, Dublin, Toronto.\n\nGiannina Braschi's Empire of Dreams (1988) is a postmodern Caribbean epic composed of six books of poetry that blend elements of eclogues, epigrams, lyrics, prose poem, and manifesto. Braschi's United States of Banana (2011) is a geopolitical tragic-comedy about the fall of the American empire, the liberation of Puerto Rico, and the unification of the Caribbean isles. Blending elements of poetry, lyrical essay, and dramatic dialogues, this postmodern epic tackles the subjects of global debt, labor abuse, and environmental crises on the rise.\n\nAnthony Kellman created the Caribbean poetic form Tuk Verse, which incorporates melodic and rhythmic elements of Barbadian indigenous folk music called Tuk. His 2008 book Limestone: An Epic Poem of Barbados is the first published epic poem of Barbados.\n\nCaribbean poets by country\nGrouped by territory of birth or upbringing.\n\nAnguilla\n\n Bankie Banx\n\nBarbados\n\n Kamau Brathwaite\nFrank Collymore\n George Lamming\n Anthony Kellman\n Paterika Hengreaves (Patricia Hendy)\n Claudia Rankine\n\nCuba\n\n Roberto Fernández Retamar\n Nicolás Guillén\n Lezama Lima\n José Martí\n Nancy Morejon\n Jorge Enrique González Pacheco\n\nDominican Republic\n\n Rafael Nino Féliz\n Blas Jiménez\n Pedro Mir\n Chiqui Vicioso\n\nGuyana\n\n John Agard\n Martin Carter\n Mahadai Das\n Mark McWatt\n Grace Nichols\n\nHaiti\n\n René Depestre\n Félix Morisseau-Leroy \n Jacques Roumain\n\nJamaica\n\n Louise Bennett\n Jean \"Binta\" Breeze\n Michelle Cliff\n Kwame Dawes\n Lorna Goodison\n Ishion Hutchinson\n Linton Kwesi Johnson\n Una Marson\n Claude McKay\n Kei Miller\n Mutabaruka\n Oku Onuora\n Claudia Rankine\n Olive Senior\n Mikey Smith\n\nMartinique\n\n Nicole Cage\n Aimé Césaire\n Edouard Glissant\n\nMontserrat\n\n Howard Fergus\n E. A. Markham\n Yvonne Weekes\n\nPuerto Rico\n\n Julia de Burgos\n Giannina Braschi\n Luis Pales Matos\n Mara Pastor\n\nSt Lucia\n Adrian Augier\n Kendel Hippolyte\n Derek Walcott\n\nSt Martin\n\n Charles Borromeo Hodge\n Drisana Deborah Jack\n Lasana M. Sekou\n\nSt Vincent and the Grenadines\n\n Shake Keane\n N.C. Marks\n Cecil “Blazer” Williams\n\nThe Bahamas\n\n Marion Bethel\n Christian Campbell (poet)\n Telcine Turner-Rolle\n Nicolette Bethel\n Patricia Glinton-Meicholas\n\nTrinidad & Tobago\n\n Vahni Capildeo\n Anthony Joseph\n John La Rose\n Tricia David\n Lauren K. Alleyne\n M. NourbeSe Philip\n\nFurther reading\n Arnold, James. A History of Literature in the Caribbean v. I and II. Philadelphia/Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. (2001)\n Breiner, Laurence A. An Introduction to West Indian Poetry, Cambridge University Press, 1998.\n Brown, Lloyd. West Indian Poetry. Boston: Twayne, 1978.\n Bryan, Beverley. Teaching Caribbean Poetry. London: Routledge, 2014.\n Jenkins, Lee Margaret. The Language of Caribbean Poetry. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004.\n \n Perisic, Alexandra. Precarious Crossings: Immigration, Neoliberalism, and the Atlantic. The Ohio State University Press.(2019)\n\nSelected anthologies\n\n James Berry, Bluefoot Traveller, London: Limestone Publications, 1976.\n Stewart Brown, Caribbean Poetry Now, 1984.\n Paula Burnett, The Penguin Book of Caribbean Verse in English, 1986.\n Stewart Brown, Mervyn Morris, Gordon Rohlehr (eds), Voiceprint: An Anthology of Oral and Related Poetry from the Caribbean, 1989.\n E. A. Markham, Hinterland: Caribbean Poetry from the West Indies and Britain, Newcastle upon Tyne: Bloodaxe, 1989.\n Stewart Brown and Ian McDonald (eds), The Heinemann Book of Caribbean Poetry, 1992.\n Anthony Kellman (ed.), Crossing Water: Contemporary Poetry from the English-Speaking Caribbean, NY: Greenfield Review Press, 1992.\n Stewart Brown, Mark McWatt (eds), The Oxford Book of Caribbean Verse, 2005.\n Lasana M. Sekou (ed.), Where I See The Sun – Contemporary Poetry in St. Martin, 2013.\n Lasana M. Sekou (ed.), Where I See The Sun – Contemporary Poetry in Anguilla. St. Martin: House of Nehesi Publishers, 2015.\n Lasana M. Sekou (ed.), Where I See the Sun – Contemporary Poetry in The Virgin Islands (Tortola, Virgin Gorda, Anegada, Jost Van Dyke). St. Martin: House of Nehesi Publishers, 2016.\n\nSee also\n Caribbean literature\n Dub poetry\n Nation language\n Postcolonial literature\n Cuban literature\n Puerto Rican poetry\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n\nCategory:Caribbean culture\nCategory:Poetry", "title": "Caribbean poetry" } ]
[ "Yes, Giannina Braschi studied literature in Madrid, Rome, Paris and London in the 1970s.", "Yes, Giannina Braschi studied literature in Madrid, Rome, Paris and London in the 1970s.", "Yes, Giannina Braschi was influenced by other poets. Her early writings focused on the titans of the Spanish Golden Age, and vanguard poets of Latin America and Spain. She later became obsessed with the dramatic and philosophical works of French, German, Polish, Irish, and Russian authors.", "No, Giannina Braschi's profession was not only writing. Besides being a writer, she was also a professor at various universities, a fashion model during her teen years, a foreign correspondent for Grazie magazine, and a tennis player, having ranked first place in the U.S. Tennis Association's national tournament in Puerto Rico.", "Giannina Braschi played tennis as an adolescent. She achieved recognition when she ranked first place in the U.S. Tennis Association's national tournament in Puerto Rico in 1966, becoming the youngest female tennis player to win the Women's Division on the island.", "Yes, besides being a writer and a tennis player, Giannina Braschi was also a professor at various universities including Rutgers University, City University of New York, and Colgate University. Additionally, she was a foreign correspondent for Grazie magazine (2001-2002), a founding member of the San Juan Children's Choir, and a fashion model during her teen years.", "Giannina Braschi was a professor at Rutgers University, City University of New York, and Colgate University. She was also a foreign correspondent for Grazie magazine, and she was a founding member of the San Juan Children's Choir. The text does not specify for whom she modeled as a teenager.", "The text does not provide specific information about her writing during the time she was involved in these various activities. However, it is mentioned that her early writings in the 1980s were scholarly and focused on titans of the Spanish Golden Age and vanguard poets of Latin America and Spain. She later became interested in the works of French, German, Polish, Irish, and Russian authors and began creating novel-like, experimental works that incorporated mixed-genres and celebrated foreign influences.", "Giannina Braschi's writing style is experimental and mixed-genre. While her early writings were scholarly and focused on the titans of the Spanish Golden Age and vanguard poets of Latin America and Spain, her later works, categorized as novels, are said to be celebratory of foreign influences and are distinguished by their experimental style and format.", "Yes, something interesting about Giannina Braschi is her expressive alignment with foreign authors. In the 50th anniversary edition of Evergreen Review, Braschi stated that she considers herself \"more French than Beckett, Picasso and Gertrude Stein\", believes that she is the \"granddaughter of Alfred Jarry and Antonin Artaud, bastard child of Samuel Beckett and James Joyce, half-sister to Heiner Muller, kissing cousin of Tadeusz Kantor, and lover of Witkiewicz\". This illustrates her deep engagement with and respect for the works of these seminal authors, suggesting a profound, perhaps even familial, connection with their writing and thinking.", "According to the text, Giannina Braschi's work has been influenced by literature from notable authors across multiple nationalities including French, German, Polish, Irish, and Russian authors. She has also been influenced by her experiences as a scholar, a professor, a tennis player, a foreign correspondent, a choir member, and a fashion model." ]
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C_98972e9161304fec8f56f5acf1f35360_0
Giannina Braschi
Giannina Braschi (born February 5, 1953) is a Puerto Rican writer. She is credited with writing the first Spanglish novel Yo-Yo Boing! (1998), the post-modern poetry trilogy Empire of Dreams (Yale, 1994) and the philosophical fiction United States of Banana (AmazonCrossing, 2011), which chronicles the Latin American immigrants' experiences in the United States. "
Pivotal works
In the 1980s, Giannina Braschi burst onto the downtown Nuyorican poetry scene with spoken word performances of rhythmic intensity, humorous gusto, and anti-imperialistic politics. Her prose poems were written, recited, and published entirely in Spanish during this period. Her first collection of Spanish prose poetry, Asalto al tiempo, debuted in Barcelona in 1980 and was followed by La Comedia profana in 1985 and El imperio de los suenos in 1988. New York is the site and subject of much of her work. In a climatic episode of "Pastoral or the Inquisition of Memories", shepherds invade 5th Avenue on the Puerto Rican Day Parade and take over the City of New York; the shepherds ring the bells of St. Patrick's Cathedral and seize the observation deck of the Empire State Building. Poet and feminist scholar Alicia Ostriker has praised Braschi's Empire of Dreams, which features gender role-playing and transvestism, for having "sheer erotic energy that defies definition and dogma." "Those three award winning books were published together as the inaugural volume of the Yale Library of Literature in Translation." (Braschi 1998: Yo-Yo Boing!: 13) In the 1990s, Giannina Braschi began writing dramatic dialogues in English, Spanish, and Spanglish. Her bilingual novel Yo-Yo Boing! (AmazonCrossing) is experimental in format and radical in its defiance of English-only laws, ethnic cleansing campaigns, and the corporate censorship. In 2011, Giannina Braschi debuted "United States of Banana," her first work written entirely in English; it is a postmodern dramatic novel about the powers of the world shifting after September 11. The work is a poetic critique of 21st century capitalism and corporate censorship. In 2012, "The Economist cited "United States of Banana" among the best sources for bold statements on the economy: "Banks are the temples of America. This is a holy war. Our economy is our religion". "United States of Banana," takes as a springboard the collapse of the World Trade Center, the event which displaced her from the Battery Park neighborhood that became known as the Ground Zero vicinity. Braschi writes about the death of the businessman, the end of democracy, and the delusion that all men are created equal. "Revolutionary in subject and form, "United States of Banana" is a beautifully written declaration of personal independence," declared the late publisher Barney Rosset former owner of Grove Press of "Evergreen Review." The main characters are Zarathustra, Segismundo, Hamlet, Giannina and the Statue of Liberty; cameos are made by Latin American left wing leaders Fidel Castro, Raul Castro, Hugo Chavez, Cristina Kirchner, and Evo Morales. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "What was a pivotal work for Giannina?", "How well was this work received?", "Was she influenced by anyone for this work?", "Is there other interesting notes about this work?", "What was the format of this work, was it also experimental?", "What was the subject of the poetry?", "Did she have any other pivotal works?", "How did the critics react to La Comedia?", "What awards did she win for her writing?", "Did she have any more works than those 3?", "How well did the critics receive it?", "Was the book a success?" ]
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Giannina Braschi (born February 5, 1953) is a Puerto Rican poet, novelist, dramatist, and scholar. Her notable works include Empire of Dreams (1988), Yo-Yo Boing! (1998) and United States of Banana (2011). Braschi writes cross-genre literature and political philosophy in Spanish, Spanglish, and English. Her work is a hybrid of poetry, metafiction, postdramatic theatre, memoir, manifesto, and political philosophy. Her writings explore the enculturation journey of Hispanic immigrants, and dramatize the three main political options of Puerto Rico: independence, colony, and state. Early life Giannina Braschi was born to an upper-class family of Italian ancestry in San Juan, Puerto Rico. In her teen years, she was a founding member of the San Juan Children's Choir, a fashion model, and a tennis champion. Her father Euripides ("Pilo") Braschi was also a tennis champion. Her brother, Miguel Braschi, was the plaintiff in a landmark case in 1989 regarding the rights of same-sex couples. In the 1970s, Braschi studied literature and philosophy in Madrid, Rome, Rouen, and London, before she settled in New York City. She credited her start in poetry to the older Spanish poets who mentored her when she lived in Madrid: Claudio Rodríguez, Carlos Bousoño, Vicente Aleixandre, and Blas de Otero. Academic career With a PhD in Hispanic Literatures from State University of New York, Stony Brook (1980), Braschi was a professor at Rutgers University, City University of New York, and Colgate University. Braschi has received awards and fellowships from institutions including Ford Foundation, Danforth Scholarship, National Endowment for the Arts, New York Foundation for the Arts, Rutgers University, and PEN, among others. She published a book on the poetry of Gustavo Adolfo Becquer and essays on Cervantes, Garcilaso, César Vallejo, Juan Ramon Jimenez and Federico García Lorca. Literary career Braschi's work is situated in the Latino avant-garde, a "burgeoning body of work that testifies to Latino writers’ abiding interest in the avant-garde as a means for engaging ideas of material, social relevance". Her writings are also placed within the fields of Postcolonial, Postmodern, and Nuyorican literatures, as well as Latino political philosophy. Braschi is considered a "revolutionary voice" in contemporary Latin American literature". Spanish: El Imperio de los sueños In the 1980s, Braschi wrote dramatic poetry in Spanish prose in New York City. Her postmodern poetry titles were published in Barcelona, Spain, including: Asalto al tiempo (Assault on Time, 1980), La Comedia profana (Profane Comedy, 1985), and El Imperio de los sueños (Empire of Dreams, 1988). She was part of the Nuyorican movement. New York City is the site and subject of much of her poetry. In a climactic episode of Braschi's Empire of Dreams, "Pastoral or the Inquisition of Memories", shepherds invade 5th Avenue during the Puerto Rican Day Parade and take over the City of New York; the shepherds ring the bells of St. Patrick's Cathedral, and seize the observation deck of the Empire State Building. Immigrant characters play the role of other characters, swapping names, genders, personal histories, and identities. Alicia Ostriker situates her gender-bending and genre-blending poetry as having a "sheer erotic energy that defies definition and dogma." Spanglish: Yo-Yo Boing! She published the first full-length Spanglish novel Yo-Yo Boing! in 1998. Yo-Yo Boing! explores "the lived experiences of urban life for Hispanics, as in the case with New York City, and her principal interest is in representing how individuals move in and out of different cultural coordinates, including one so crucial as language." The book was written in an era of renewed calls for English-only laws, ethnic cleansing campaigns, and corporate censorship. "For decades, Dominican and Puerto Rican authors have carried out a linguistic revolution", noted The Boston Globe, "and Giannina Braschi, especially in her novel Yo-Yo Boing!, testify to it". English: United States of Banana Braschi published the geopolitical comic-tragedy United States of Banana, her first book written entirely in English, in 2011. It is a postmodern cross-genre work that opens with the collapse of the World Trade Center on 9/11. The work is a scathing critique of 21st-century capitalism and the global war on terror. Subjects include immigration, mass incarceration, financial terrorism, colonial debt structures, and "power imbalances within the Americas." The work is celebratory of foreign influences. Braschi stated in Evergreen Review that she considered herself "more French than Beckett, Picasso and Gertrude Stein", and identifies as the "granddaughter of Alfred Jarry and Antonin Artaud, bastard child of Samuel Beckett and James Joyce, half-sister to Heiner Müller, kissing cousin of Tadeusz Kantor, and lover of Witkiewicz". Adaptations and translations Giannina Braschi's texts have been adapted and applied to popular culture and fields such as television comedy, chamber music, comic books, industrial design, and ecological urban planning. Michael Zansky has used Braschi's texts in his paintings and Michael Somoroff has created short films with her works. There is a theater play by Juan Pablo Felix and a graphic novel by Joakim Lindengren of United States of Banana. Puerto Rican composer Gabriel Bouche Caro has composed chamber music works with her poems. There is a namesake Giannina chair designed by American industrial designer Ian Stell. Her books have been translated into English by Tess O'Dwyer, into Spanish by Manuel Broncano, and into Swedish by Helena Eriksson and Hannah Nordenhok. Political activism Braschi is an advocate for Puerto Rican independence. She declared the independence of Puerto Rico in United States of Banana and stated in the press that "Liberty is not an option — it is a human right." In the 1990s, she protested the United States Navy's bombing exercises in Vieques, along with politicians Rubén Berríos and Robert F. Kennedy, Jr., singers Danny Rivera and Willie Colón, and fellow authors Ana Lydia Vega and Rigoberta Menchú. Braschi spoke on a panel on "The New Censorship" at the PEN 2012 World Voices Festival where she offered "a critique of 21st century capitalism in which [she] condemned corporate censorship and control." In July 2019, Braschi led early marches outside La Fortaleza in Old San Juan to demand the resignation of Puerto Rican Governor Ricardo Rossello, and joined massive protests, with singers Bad Bunny, Residente, and Ricky Martin, that led to the Governor's resignation. Books Urbanismo ecológico en América Latina. Mohsen Mostafavi, Gareth Doherty, Marina Correia, Ana Maria Duran Calisto, and Luis Valenzuela (eds.). Editorial Gustavo Gili/Harvard University Graduate School of Design, 2019. . Two Crowns of The Egg, with Michael Somoroff, Donald Kuspit. Estados Unidos de Banana, with Manuel Broncano, AmazonCrossing, Madrid, 2015. United States of Banana, AmazonCrossing, Seattle, 2011. Yo-Yo Boing!, AmazonCrossing, Seattle, 2011. Empire of Dreams, AmazonCrossing, Seattle, 2011. El imperio de los sueños, Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras, 2000. Yo-Yo Boing!, Latin American Literary Review, Pittsburgh, 1998. Empire of Dreams (English translation by Tess O'Dwyer; Introduction by Alicia Ostriker), Yale University Press, New Haven/London, 1994. El imperio de los sueños, Anthropos Editorial del hombre, Barcelona, 1988. Libro de payasos y bufones, Grafica Uno, Giorgio Upiglio, Milan, 1987. La comedia profana, Anthropos Editorial del hombre, Barcelona, 1985. Asalto al tiempo, Ambitos Literarios, Barcelona, 1980. Scholarly works "Breve tratado del poeta artista", Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos, No. 433-36, 1986 (an essay on the poetry of Federico García Lorca). "La gravedad de la armonía en ‘Soledades galerías y otros pomas’ de Machado," Plural, 1983 (an essay on the poetry of Antonio Machado). "La poesía de Bécquer: El tiempo de los objetos o los espacios de la luz", Costa Amic, Mexico City, 1982 (a scholarly book on the poetry of Gustavo Adolfo Becquer). "La Metamorfosis del ingenio en la Égloga III de Garcilaso," Revista canadiense de estudios hispánicos, 1979 (an essay on Garcilaso's third eclogue). "Cinco personajes fugaces en el camino de Don Quijote", Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos, No. 328, 1977 (an essay on Don Quixote by Cervantes). Awards and honors Danforth Scholarship El Diario La Prensa's Outstanding Women of 1998 Ford Foundation Fellowship National Endowment for the Arts Fellowship New York Foundation for the Arts Fellowship Peter S. Reed Foundation/InterAmericas PEN American Center's Open Book Award Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña/grant Enrique Anderson Imbert, 2022 See also Hysterical realism Puerto Rican literature American literature in Spanish American poetry Caribbean poetry References Further reading Aldama, Frederick Luis, Ilan Stavans, and Tess O'Dwyer. (2020) Poets, Philosophers, Lovers: On the Writings of Giannina Braschi. U Pittsburgh. Gonzalez, Christopher. (2017) Permissible Narratives: The Promise of Latino/a Literature. The Ohio State University Press. Gonzales, Madelena and Laplace-Claverie, Helene, “Minority Theatre on the Global Stage: Challenging Paradigms from the Margins," Cambridge Scholars, Newcastle, England, page xix and pages 255–264, 2012. Marting, Diane E. (2010). "New/Nueva York in Giannina Braschi's 'Poetic Egg': Fragile Identity, Postmodernism, and Globalization." The Global South 4:1. Torres-Padilla, J.L. (2007). "When Hybridity Doesn't Resist: Giannina Braschi's Yo-Yo Boing! In Complicating Constructions: Race, Ethnicity, and Hybridity in American Texts. U. of Washington P. Eds. David S. Goldstein and Audrey B. Thacker, 290-307. Popovich, Ljudmila Mila (2010). "Metafictions, Migrations, Metalives: Narrative Innovations and Migrant Women’s Aesthetics in Giannina Braschi and Etel Adnan." International Journal of the Humanities 9:10. pp. 117–128. Zimmerman, Marc (2011). "Defending Their Own in the Cold: The Cultural Turns of U.S. Puerto Ricans", University of Illinois, Chicago External links Library of Congress, National Book Festival, Giannina Braschi. , The Evergreen Review:"United States of Banana" Reviewed by Cristina Garrigos and Daniela Daniele (2011) , WAPA TV, "Escritora puertorriqueña que poco a poco se ha abierto paso en Estados Unidos" by Normando Valentín, December 2011. , television program in Spanish, "Celebrities desde Nueva York," con Alfonso Diaz, (Giannina Braschi on the collapse of the American Empire on September 11), November 2011. , "What to Read Now: Mixed-Genre Literature," World Literature Today, September–October 2012. Category:1953 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century Puerto Rican poets Category:20th-century Puerto Rican women writers Category:21st-century Puerto Rican poets Category:21st-century Puerto Rican women writers Category:Continental philosophers Category:Epic poets Category:Hispanic and Latino American novelists Category:Hispanic and Latino American poets Category:Hispanic and Latino American writers Category:National Endowment for the Arts Fellows Category:Novelists from New York (state) Category:People from San Juan, Puerto Rico Category:Postmodern feminists Category:Postmodern writers Category:Puerto Rican female tennis players Category:Puerto Rican feminists Category:Puerto Rican independence activists Category:Puerto Rican novelists Category:Puerto Rican people of Italian descent Category:Puerto Rican poets Category:Puerto Rican women short story writers Category:Puerto Rican women writers Category:Weird fiction writers Category:Women satirists
[ { "text": "Puerto Rican literature is the body of literature produced by writers of Puerto Rican descent. It evolved from the art of oral storytelling. Written works by the indigenous inhabitants of Puerto Rico were originally prohibited and repressed by the Spanish colonial government.\n\nIt was not until the late 19th century, with the arrival of the first printing press and the founding of the Royal Academy of Belles Letters, that Puerto Rican literature began to flourish. The first writers to express their political views in regard to Spanish colonial rule of the island were journalists. After the United States invaded Puerto Rico during the Spanish–American War and the island was ceded to the United States as a condition of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, writers and poets began to express their opposition of the new colonial rule by writing about patriotic themes.\n\nWith the Puerto Rican diaspora of the early and mid-20th century, and the subsequent rise of the Nuyorican Movement, Puerto Rican literature continued to evolve and many Puerto Ricans have distinguished themselves as authors, poets, novelists, playwrights, and essayists.\n\nEarly history\nThe development of Puerto Rican literature was hampered by the Spanish colonial government, which ruled over Puerto Rico since the early 1500s. The Spanish feared that, through literature, Puerto Rico would develop its own social and cultural identity and eventually seek independence. Written works by the indigenous inhabitants were prohibited and punishable by prison or banishment. Even though the first library in Puerto Rico was established in 1642, in the Convent of San Francisco, access to its books was limited to those who belonged to the religious order. The only people who had access to the libraries and who could afford books were either appointed Spanish government officials or wealthy land owners. The poor had to resort to oral story-telling in what are traditionally known in Puerto Rico as Coplas and Decimas.\n\nThe island's first writers were commissioned by the Spanish Crown to document the chronological history of the island. Among these writers were Father Diego de Torres Vargas, who wrote about the history of Puerto Rico, Father Francisco Ayerra de Santa María, who wrote poems about religious and historical themes, and Juan Ponce de León II, who was commissioned to write a general description of the West Indies.\n\nThe first native-born Puerto Rican governor, Ponce de León II, wrote about Taíno culture, particularly their religious ceremonies and language. He also documented the early exploits of the conquistadors. These works were sent to the National Archives in Sevilla, Spain, where they were kept.\n\nPuerto Rican literary history changed with the arrival of the first printing press from Mexico, in 1806. That same year Juan Rodríguez Calderón (a Spaniard) wrote and published the first book in the island, titled Ocios de la Juventud. In 1851, the Spanish appointed governor of Puerto Rico, Juan de la Pezuela Cevallo, founded the Royal Academy of Belles Letters. This institution contributed greatly to the intellectual and literary progress of the island. The school licensed primary school teachers, formulated school methods, and held literary contests. However, only those with government positions and the wealthy benefited from the formation of the institution. The first Puerto Rican writers came from some of the island's wealthiest families, and they were critical of the injustices of the Spanish Crown.\n\n19th century\nIn 1806, the Spanish Colonial Government established \"La Gaceta de Puerto Rico\" (The Puerto Rico Gazette), Puerto Rico's first newspaper. The newspaper was biased in favor of the ideals of the government.\n\nThe first written works in Puerto Rico were influenced by the Romanticism of the time. Journalists were the first writers to express their political views in the newspapers of the day and later in books. Through their books and novels, they illuminated social injustices, which included slavery and poverty. Many of these writers were considered to be dangerous liberals by the colonial government and were banished from the island. An example of this treatment was poet and journalist Francisco Gonzalo Marín, who wrote against the Spanish Crown. Some went to the Dominican Republic, Cuba or New York City where they continued to write about patriotic themes while in exile. The literature of these writers helped fuel the desire of some to revolt against the Spanish government in Puerto Rico, resulting in the failed attempt known as the Grito de Lares in 1868.\n\nThe period between 1868 and 1898 was crucial to the development of Puerto Rican institutions and the birth of a national arts and culture: there was a pro-independence rebellion, colonial reform, the formation of national political parties, the abolition of slavery (in 1873), and a brief period of autonomy. These events coincide with the promotion of a national culture expressed through literary language, music, architecture, and other arts.\n\nWhen the United States invaded Puerto Rico during the Spanish–American War in 1898, many members of the Puerto Rican literary class welcomed them, believing that eventually Puerto Rico would be granted independence. Instead, the island was declared a territory of the United States. Many writers and poets expressed their opposition by writing about patriotic themes through their work.\n\nTwentieth-century migration to the United States\n\nDuring the early part of the 20th century, many Puerto Ricans moved to the eastern coast and mid-western parts of the United States in search of a better way of life. Most settled in cities such as New York and Chicago. There they faced ethnic and racial discrimination and other hardships. Jesús Colón, known as the father of the Nuyorican Movement, was discriminated against because he was Black and had difficulty speaking English. He wrote about his experiences, as well as the experiences of other immigrants, becoming among the first Puerto Ricans to do so in English.\n\nOne of his works, A Puerto Rican in New York, preceded the literary movement known as the \"Nuyorican Movement\". Ultimately, the Nuyorican Movement significantly influenced Puerto Rican literature, spurring themes such as cultural identity and discrimination. The goal of the Nuyorican Movement is to maintain the cultural identity of the Puerto Rican people in a foreign land. This circle of intellectuals, writers, poets and playwrights express their experiences as Nuyoricans living in the United States, including those whose works eventually found mainstream audiences and scholarly attention: Nicholasa Mohr (El Bronx), Piri Thomas (Down These Mean Streets), Pedro Pietri (The Masses are Asses), Giannina Braschi (Yo-Yo Boing!), Esmeralda Santiago (When I Was Puerto Rican), and others.\n\nFoundational fiction \n\nProminent 19th century Puerto Rican authors include Manuel A. Alonso, author of El Gíbaro (1849), a collection of verses whose main themes were the poor Puerto Rican country farmer. Eugenio María de Hostos wrote La peregrinación de Bayoán (1863), which used Bartolomé de las Casas as a spring board to reflect on Caribbean identity. After this first novel, Hostos abandoned fiction in favor of the essay which he saw as offering greater possibilities for inspiring social change.\n\nAlejandro Tapia y Rivera ushered in a new age of historiography with the publication of The Historical Library of Puerto Rico. Cayetano Coll y Toste published a historical work that illuminated Taínos culture in The Indo-Antillano Vocabulary is valuable. Manuel Zeno Gandía (1894) wrote La Charca about the mountainous coffee regions in Puerto Rico. Antonio S. Pedreira, described in his work Insularismo the cultural survival of the Puerto Rican identity after the U.S. invasion.\n\nA trend in Puerto Rican fiction to narrate urban stories and novels about migration and displacement is jettisoned by Puerto Rican authors who themselves migrate to New York City, including Edgardo Vega Yunqué, author of Omaha Bigelow and Blood Fugues; Giannina Braschi, author of Yo-Yo Boing! and United States of Banana; Pedro Juan Soto, author of Spiks; and Manuel Ramos Otero, author of \"Loca la de la locura.\"\n\nPoetry\n\nEarly poetry\n\nMaría Bibiana Benítez published her first poem \"La Ninfa de Puerto Rico\" in 1832. Her niece was Alejandrina Benítez de Gautier, whose \"Aguinaldo Puertorriqueño,\" published in 1843, gave her the recognition of being one of the island's great poets. Alejandrina's son José Gautier Benítez is considered by many to be Puerto Rico's greatest Romantic-era poet. Lola Rodríguez de Tió wrote the lyrics to \"La Borinqueña,\" which was used by the revolutionists in the Grito de Lares. Poets José de Diego, Virgilio Dávila, Luis Lloréns Torres, Nemesio Canales, Francisco Matos Paoli, Juan Antonio Corretjer, Clemente Soto Vélez and Hugo Margenat were independence advocates who wrote poems with patriotic inspired themes.\n\nNationalism\nIn 1928, Soto Vélez, along with Alfredo Margenat (father of Hugo Margenat), Pedro Carrasquillo, Graciany Miranda Archilla, Fernando González Alberti, Luis Hernández Aquino, Samuel Lugo, Juan Calderón Escobar, and Antonio Cruz Nieves founded the group \"El Atalaya de los Dioses,\" which launched the literary movement known as \"Atalayismo.\" The \"El Grupo Atalaya\" movement sought to connect the poetic/literary world with political action and most of its members, including Soto Vélez became involved with the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party. Giannina Braschi's postmodern work United States of Banana (2011) addresses the history of Puerto Rico decolonization efforts and declares the independence of Puerto Rico.\n\nUniversal lyricism\nMercedes Negrón Muñoz wrote under the name \"Clara Lair\" and published \"Arras de Cristal\" (1937), which describes the everyday struggles of the Puerto Rican. However, it was Julia de Burgos who was to be considered by many as one of the greatest poets to be born in Puerto Rico and who later lived in New York. The inspiration spurred by her love of Puerto Rico is reflected in her poem \"Río Grande de Loíza\". Other important lyric poets of the early twentieth century include Luis Palés Matos, Luis Lloréns Torres, and Evaristo Ribera Chevremont.\n\nAfter the Spanish Civil War, poets Juan Ramón Jiménez (Nobel Laureate, 1956) and his wife Zenobia Camprubí emigrate to Puerto Rico and settle in Juan Juan in 1946. Jiménez's lyrical, philosophical poems influenced major Puerto Rican-born writers such as Giannina Braschi (Empire of Dreams, 1988), Manuel Ramos Otero (El Libro de la Muerte, 1985), and René Marqués (La Carreta, 1950).\n\nEvaristo Ribera Chevremont's verses deal with nationality, folklore and regionalism, but also touch upon universal lyricism. Victor Hernández Cruz became the first Hispanic poet to be published by a mainstream publishing house (Random House) with the collection Snaps, in 1969.\n\nPlaywrights\n\nAmong the major figures in Puerto Rican theater is René Marqués (1919-1979 ) author of The Oxcart (La Carreta), which dramatizes the hardships of a Puerto Rican family who move from the island to New York City. His prose contributions include El Puertorriqueño Dócil y Otros Ensayos. Francisco Arriví (1915–2007), a prominent voice of Puerto Rican theater, developed a dramatic style known as Areyto and authored \"Bolero y plena\" (1958) and Vejigantes. He helped to establish various theater festivals and the Centro de Bellas Artes Luis A. Ferré (Luis A. Ferré Performing Arts Center) in Puerto Rico.\n\nLuis Rafael Sánchez (1936-) wrote Pasión según Antígona Pérez (The Passion According to Antigona Perez), a tragedy based on the life of Olga Viscal Garriga.\n\nAmong the Puerto Rican experimental theater writers is Giannina Braschi whose dramatic dialogues celebrate Puerto Rican artistic expression and acknowledge the works of her compatriots Luis Palés Matos, Nilita Vientos, Luis Pales Matos, Pedro Pietri, and Julia de Burgos. Braschi's work United States of Banana, which features Hamlet, Zarathustra and Hamlet on a mission to liberate Puerto Rico, was staged at the Shapiro Theater in New York City (2015).\n\nEmerging Puerto Rican playwrights include Aravind Enrique Adyanthaya, founder of Casa Cruz de la Luna in San Germán, Puerto Rico. Also notable in this category is playwright and screenwriter José Rivera, the first Puerto Rican screenwriter to be nominated for an Academy Award.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Vigil|first=Delfin|date=2008-01-20|title=Jose Rivera's Che Guevara play: 'School of the Americas|url=https://www.sfgate.com/performance/article/Jose-Rivera-s-Che-Guevara-play-School-of-the-3297525.php|access-date=2020-08-29|website=SFGate}}</ref>\n\nStateside playwrights of Puerto Rican ancestry include Lin-Manual Miranda, who won a Pulitzer Prize and Grammy Awards for the Broadway musical Hamilton. Miranda, whose parents are Puerto Rican, co-created In the Heights with Quiara Alegría Hudes, whose mother is Puerto Rican.\n\nJournalists\nA variety of journalists and columnists further enrich Puerto Rican letters.\n\nNelson Antonio Denis published more than 300 editorials in El Diario La Prensa about the New York/Puerto Rican diaspora, which were recognized with repeated \"Best Editorial Writing\" awards from the National Association of Hispanic Journalists. Denis's history book War Against All Puerto Ricans, about the evolution of US-Puerto Rico relations since 1898, was the best-selling book in Puerto Rico in 2015 and 2016.\n\nJosé Luis González (1926-1996) whose work País de cuatro pisos y otros ensayos describes the rigid structures of island society.\n\nDavid Gonzalez is a journalist at the New York Times. Over a 25-year career, Gonzalez has written hundreds of stories in the New York Times which deal with the history, culture, politics and people of Puerto Rico. In 2013, the National Association of Hispanic Journalists inducted Gonzalez into its Hall of Fame, in recognition of his lifetime of committed and compassionate journalism.\n\nGerson Borrero is a journalist, radio host, and TV commentator in New York City. He has been editor-at-large of City & State NY and editor-in-chief of El Diario/La Prensa, the largest Spanish-language newspaper in New York City. His press coverage has ranged from New York City politics,Gerson Borrero; New York Post; April 22, 2012; \"Hispanic vote not uno-fied\" cultural reviews and personality profiles, to the Somos Uno Conference and the Puerto Rican Day Parade.\n\nHistorians\nHistorians such as Dr. Delma S. Arrigoitia have written books and documented the contributions that Puerto Rican women have made to society. Arrigoitia was the first person in the University of Puerto Rico to earn a master's degree in the field of history. Her publications, which cover Puerto Rico's early-20th-century politicians, include: Jose De Diego el legislador, San Juan, Eduardo Giorgetti Y Su Mundo: La Aparente Paradoja De Un Millonario Genio Empresarial Y Su Noble Humanismo;, Puerto Rico Por Encima de Todo: Vida y Obra de Antonio R. Barcelo, 1868-1938; and Introduccion a la Historia de la Moda en Puerto Rico.\n\nTeresita A. Levy's Puerto Ricans in the Empire: The History of Tobacco Cultivation in Puerto Rico, 1898-1940, a study of the tobacco-growing regions in the eastern and western highlands of Puerto Rico, is the first book to tell how Puerto Ricans challenged United States officials and fought successfully for legislation that benefited the island. Her book has been praised by scholars.Tostones and Matzoh, a Puerto Rican-Jewish journey Puerto Ricans in the Empire provides an excellent introduction to Puerto Rico's crucial tobacco industry, with fascinating material on farmer organizations and agricultural research.\"\n—Herbert S. Klein, Gouverneur Morris Professor Emeritus of History Columbia University\n\nModern and contemporary Puerto Rican literature\nAfter a nationalist tradition of Puerto Rican writers from the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s, authors are catalogued by decade into \"generations.\" Some highly representative writers from the early and mid-20th century were: Juan Antonio Corretjer, Luis Lloréns Torres, Palés Matos, Enrique Laguerre, and Francisco Matos Paoli. These Puerto Rican writers wrote in Spanish and reflected a literary Latin American tradition, and offered a variety of universal and social themes. Major writers who got their start in the 1950s include José Luis González, René Marqués, Pedro Juan Soto, and Emilio Díaz Valcárcel.\n\nAuthors whose careers began in the 1960s and 1970s include Jack Agüeros, Angelamaría Dávila, Lourdes Vázquez, Rosario Ferré, Luis Rafael Sánchez, Manuel Ramos Otero, Olga Nolla, Edgardo Rodríguez Juliá, Myrna Casas, and Luis López Nieves. Major writers of the 1980s and 1990s include Ana Lydia Vega, Giannina Braschi, Mayra Santos-Febres, Luz María Umpierre, and Eduardo Lalo.\n\nBreakthrough voices of a new Puerto Rican literature began to emerge at the turn of the new century with the publication of Pedro Cabiya's Historias tremendas in 1999. Identity politics and the complexities of Puerto Rico's relationship with the U.S. — topics that had dominated the work of previous writers — gave way to the exploration of new genres and themes, such as Latinx speculative fiction, horror, fantasy, and noir, as seen in the short stories, novels, and comics by Pedro Cabiya, the experimentation by Bruno Soreno, and the short stories by José Liboy and Luis Negrón (whose Mundo Cruel won a Lambda Literary Award for Gay Fiction, 2014).\n\nEmerging voices on the island include Rafael Acevedo, Moisés Agosto, Yolanda Arroyo Pizarro, Janette Becerra, Ricardo A. Domínguez, Ana María Fuster Lavín, Zoé Jiménez Corretjer, Juan López Bauzá, Alberto Martínez Márquez, Luis Negrón, Maribel Ortiz, Max Resto, and José E. Santos. Lawrence La Fountain-Stokes, Ángel Lozada, Benito Pastoriza Iyodo, Alfredo Villanueva Collado write and publish their works in Spanish on the mainland USA. Puerto Rican authors who write in English include Erika Lopez, Ivelisse Rodriguez, Lilliam Rivera, Quiara Alegría Hudes, Jaquira Díaz, Richie Narvaez, and Ernesto Quiñonez.\n\n Anthologies \nAnthologies that focus on Puerto Rican writers include: \n Aftershocks of Disaster: Puerto Rico Before and After the Storm, edited by Yarimar Bonilla and Marisol LeBrón (Haymarket Books, 2019)\n Boricua en la Luna, edited by Elena M. Aponte \n Boricuas: Influential Puerto Rican Writings, edited by Roberto Santiago (Ballantine Books, 1995)\n Borinquen: An Anthology of Puerto Rican Literature, edited by Maria Teresa Babin and Stan Steiner (Knopf, 1974)\n Breaking Ground/Abriendo Caminos: Anthology of Puerto Rican Women Writers in New York, 1980-2012, edited by Myrna Nieves\n Growing Up Puerto Rican, edited by Joy L. De Jesús (William Morrow and Company, 1997)\n Literatura y narrativa puertorriqueña: La escritura entre siglos, edited by Mario Cancel\n Literatura puertorriqueña del siglo XX: Antología, edited by Mercedes López Baralt \n Los otros cuerpos: Antología de temática gay, lésbica y queer desde Puerto Rico y su diáspora, edited by David Caleb Acevedo, Moisés Agosto, and Luis Negrón, which focuses on LGBT themes \n Nuestro New York: An Anthology of Puerto Rican Plays, edited by John V. Antush (SIgnet, 1994)\n ¡Pa'que Tu Lo Sepas! edited by Angel Luis Colón\n Puerto Rico en Mi Corazón, edited by Raquel Salas Rivera, Ricardo Maldonado, Carina del Valle Schorske (Anomalous Press, 2019)\n Puerto Rican Poetry: A Selection from Aboriginal to Contemporary Times, edited by Robert Márquez\n Puerto Rican Writers at Home in the U.S.A., edited by Faythe Turner (Open Hand, 1991)\n San Juan Noir, edited by Mayra Santos-Febres (Akashic Noir, 2016\n\nSee also\n\n American literature in Spanish\n Cultural diversity in Puerto Rico \n Latin American literature\n List of Puerto Rican writers\n History of women in Puerto Rico\n Nuyorican Movement\n Nuyorican Poets Café\n Media in Puerto Rico\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n Aldama, Frederick Luis and Ilan Stavans. Poets, Philosophers, Lovers: On The Writings of Giannina Braschi. U Pittsburgh. (2020)\n Brahan, Persephone. From Amazons to Zombies: Monsters in Latin America (Bucknell Studies in Latin American Literature and Theory). Bucknell University Press (November 19, 2015).\n Caulfield, Carlota. \"US Latina Caribbean Women Poets.\" In Carlota Caulfield and Darién Davis, Jr., eds., A Companion to US Latino Literatures. Woodbridge: Tamesis, 2007. \n Gordis, Yanis. \"Island and Continental Puerto Rican Literature: Cross-Cultural and Intertextual Considerations\". Special Section: Multicultural Literature, Part IV. In ADE Bulletin 91 (Winter 1988). One of five articles about Puerto Rican literature.\n Loustau, Laura R. Cuerpos errantes: literatura latina y latinoamericana en Estados Unidos. Rosario, Argentina: Beatriz Viterbo Editora, 2002. \n Moreira, Rubén A., ed. Antología de Poesía Puertorriqueña. (Vol. 1: Romanticismo, Vol. 2 Modernismo y Post Modernismo, Vol. 3 Contemporánea, Vol.4 Contemporánea). San Juan, P.R.: Tríptico Editores, 1992-1993.\n Pausides, Alex, Pedro Antonio Valdez, and Carlos Roberto Gómez Beras, eds. Los nuevos caníbales: Antología de la más reciente poesía del Caribe hispano. San Juan: Isla Negra Editores, 2003. \n Rosado, José Ángel, ed. El rostro y la máscara: Antología alterna de cuentistas puertorriqueños contemporáneos. San Juan, Puerto Rico. Isla Negra Editores, 1995.\n van Haesendonck, Kristian. \"Enchantment or Fright? Identity and Postmodern Writing in Contemporary Puerto Rico.\" In Theo D'Haen and Pieter Vemeulen, eds., Cultural Identity and Postmodern Writing. New York and Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2006. \n Torres-Padilla, Jose L. and Carmen Haydee Rivera. Writing Off the Hyphen: New Critical Perspectives on the Literature of the Puerto Rican Diaspora''. Seattle: U. of Washington Press, 2008.\n\nExternal links\n\nUniversity of Notre Dame Library, The Hispanic Caribbean Literature Collection\nEvaristo Ribera Chevremont; Bio and Poems\n''Sargasso''' a journal of literature, language, and culture is online in the Digital Library of the Caribbean from the University of Puerto Rico\n\n \nCategory:Cultural history of Puerto Rico\nCategory:Latin American literature by country", "title": "Puerto Rican literature" }, { "text": "American literature written in Spanish in the United States dates back as 1610 when the Spanish explorer Gaspar Pérez de Villagrá published his epic poem Historia de Nuevo México (History of New Mexico). He was an early chronicler of the conquest of the Americas and a forerunner of Spanish-language literature in the United States given his focus on the American landscape and the customs of the people. However, it was not until the late 20th century that Spanish language literature written by Americans was regularly published in the United States.\n\nThe rise of Spanish-language Latino literature has been fraught with obstacles related to publication and audience. Latino/a authors have expanded audience expectations by attending to narrative innovation and design and by creating challenging reading situations. Rather than compose their narratives with an actual audience in mind, many Latino/a authors sought to write for a new, ideal audience capable of engaging with even the most complex story worlds and stylistic innovations. From the 1960s to the present, breakthrough authors who created new audiences include Oscar “Zeta” Acosta, Gloria Anzaldúa, Piri Thomas, Giannina Braschi, Sandra Cisneros, Junot Díaz, and Gilbert Hernandez have engaged a sophisticated bilingual readership in their avant-garde narratives, code-switching, serialization, and intertextual play in Spanish, Spanglish, and English. Their works, often first published in independent and academic presses, were widely taught as foundational works in the burgeoning fields of Latino Studies and Third World Feminisms; their academic following helped to create a commercial market for Latino literature.\n\nBy 2000, many more Mexican-Americans/Chicanos, Cuban-Americans, Puerto Ricans on the island and Nuyoricans on the mainland, and US immigrants from Latin America have published literature in Spanish in US trade, academic, and mainstream publishing houses. Other US based authors who either write in Spanish or who regularly use Spanish phrases in their works include: Julia Álvarez, Martín Espada, Nicholasa Mohr, Cristina García, Óscar Hijuelos, Cherríe Moraga, Ricardo Pau-Llosa, Gustavo Pérez Firmat, and Ilan Stavans.\n\nAmerican novels in Spanish and Spanglish \n\nPiri Thomas's Down These Mean Streets and Giannina Braschi's Yo-Yo Boing! are groundbreaking American novels for their prominent use Spanish and Spanglish and their unflinching description of urban life for Hispanic Americans. Piri Thomas was pressured to self-translate Spanish passages into English for the publication of his 1967 novel at his publisher’s insistence that the text not alienate monolingual English readers. Nonetheless, the book was banned by New York City public schools because it was perceived, as reported by The New York Times in 1971, as \"a threat to their values. Many... who assail 'Down These Mean Streets' indicate they do so not so much because it portrays life in New York's Puerto Rican community as because the portrayal includes vulgarities and descriptions of sexual acts\". Three decades years later, Giannina Braschi's 1998 novel, featured entire chapters written in untranslated Spanish and extensive dramatic dialogues that mixed Spanish, Spanglish, and English. Though Braschi's bilingual work also used vulgarities and addressed social justice issues such as domestic violence, racism, discrimination, sexual harassment directly, Yo-Yo Boing! book was not censored. However, critic Christopher Gonzalez observes that non-Spanish speaking reviewers considered the work 'an affront'\". Gonzalez notes that bilingual reviewers, such as David William Foster in Review of Contemporary Fiction praised Yo-Yo Boing! for its \"superb exploration for the lived experiences of Hispanics.\" Other critics such as Harold Augenbraum, Ilan Stavans, Doris Sommer, and Adriana Estill have used the phrase \"a tour de force\" to describe the novel\n\nAmerican poetry in Spanish and Spanglish \n\nMajor Spanish poets who spent time in the United States and wrote poetry in Spanish during their stay include Federico García Lorca who wrote his best known works, including Poeta en Nueva York in New York City in 1929. Though Lorca only stayed in the United States for 10 months, the work is considered both Spanish and American literature given the subject of New York City. While in exile in San Juan, Puerto Rico after the Spanish civil war, Nobel Prize laureate Juan Ramón Jiménez wrote Voces de mi copla (Voices of My Song) and Animal de fondo (Animal of Depth) in the 1940s.\n\nProminent American-born poets who wrote in Spanish about life in American cities include Pedro Pietri (Puerto Rican Obituary), Giannina Braschi (El imperio de los sueños/Empire of Dreams, 1988), Julia de Burgos (Yo Misma Fui Mi Ruta (I Was My Own Path), and Ana Castillo. Williams Carlos Williams used Spanish titles and flourishes in his poetry but did not write publish extensive works in Spanish.\n\nSince 2012, when University of Iowa established the country's first MFA Spanish Creative Writings Program, other American universities such as Hofstra and New York University has also established MFA programs in Spanish.\n\nAnthologies and magazines \nOrganized by decades, these publications debuted new work by US based Latino/a and Latinx authors who wrote in Spanish and Spanglish.\n\n1970s \n\n Revista Chicano-Riqueña was the first national magazine of US Hispanic literature in Spanish. It was first published in 1973 and co-edited by Nicolás Kanellos and Luis Dávila to provide a much-needed outlet for the creative work of young Hispanic writers, who were not yet picked up by the mainstream press, including Lorna Dee Cervantes, Sandra Cisneros, Giannina Braschi, Gary Soto, Luis Raphael Sanchez, and Ana Castillo.\n\n1980s\n\n This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color is a feminist anthology edited by leaders of Chicana literature, Cherríe Moraga and Gloria E. Anzaldúa. First published in 1981 by Persephone Press, the work included Latina authors who wrote in Spanish and Spanglish, among others.\n La ciudad prestada poesía latinoamericana posmoderna en Nueva York edited by Pedro López Adorno featured early works by Postmodern Latino/a/x authors.\n\n1990s\n\n Floricanto Si!: A Collection of Latina Poetry co-edited by Bryce Milligan and Angela de Hoyos featured lyrical and prose poems by Marjorie Agosin, Julia Alvarez, Giannina Braschi, Anna Castillo, Sandra Cisneros, Rosario Ferre, Carmen Gimenez Smith, Lucha Corpi, and Lorna Dee Cervantes, among others. Select poems were written in Spanish or used Spanglish. (Penguin, 1998)\n\n2000s \nSe habla español: Voces Latinas in the US (2000). McOndo authors Edmundo Paz Soldan and Alberto Fuguet co-edited this anthology of short stories in Spanish by Iván Thays (Peru), Ignacio Padilla (Mexico), Jorge Volpi (Mexico), Junot Díaz (Dominican-American), Alvaro Enrigue (Mexico), Silvana Paternostro (Colombia), Mayra Santos-Febres (Puerto Rico), Ilan Stavans (Mexico), Lina Meruane (Chile), Rodrigo Rey Rosa (Guatemala), Ángel Lozada (Puerto Rico), and Giannina Braschi (Puerto Rico). The anthology marked the New Latino Boom of Spanish writing in the United States.\n\n2010 to 2020\n\n The Norton Anthology of Latino Literature, a 2,700-page compendium that includes two hundred authors from the colonial period (the earliest author included is Fray Bartolomé de las Casas) to the present time. Among the featured writers are: Daniel Alarcón, Julia Alvarez, Giannina Braschi, Julia de Burgos, Fray Bartolomé de las Casas, Junot Díaz, Cristina García (journalist), Oscar Hijuelos, José Martí, Octavio Paz, Rolando Pérez (Cuban poet), Esmeralda Santiago, and William Carlos Williams. \nThe FSG Book of Latin American Poetry, (2011) a 728-page volume that contextualizes the history of Latin American poets including those who migrated to the US. Featured poets: José Martí, Rubén Darío, César Vallejo, Oswald de Andrade, Pablo Neruda, Violeta Parra, Nicanor Parra, Gabriela Mistral, Luis Palés Matos, Octavio Paz, Giannina Braschi, and Roberto Bolaño.\n Abriendo Caminos/Breaking Ground: Anthology of Puerto Rican Women Writers in New York 1980-2012 edited by Myrna Nieves. Featured poets: Giannina Braschi and Sandra María Esteves.\nCrisis by Jorge Majfud is one of contemporary classics of the new Latino literature.\nEscribir en Nueva York (2014) edited by Claudia Salazar. This is an anthology of Hispanic American, Latino/a, and Latinx narrators who have lived in New York and written stories in Spanish. It was published in Spanish and includes short stories by: Carmen Boullosa, Lorea Canales (México), Giannina Braschi (Puerto Rico), Sergio Chejfec, Federico Falco, Sylvia Molloy (Argentina), Isaac Goldemberg (Perú), Mónica Ríos, Carlos Labbé, Diamela Eltit (Chile), Jaime Manrique (Colombia), and José Manuel Prieto (Cuba).\n\nLatino authors\nU.S. based authors who write and publish stories, poetry, novels, or theater in Spanish include: \n Giannina Braschi\n Ariel Dorfman \n Isabel Allende \n Jorge Majfud \n Junot Díaz\n Mayra Santos-Febres \n René Marqués\n Lina Meruane\n Manuel Ramos Otero\n Pedro Pietri\n Miguel Piñero \n Reinaldo Arenas \n Tomás Eloy Martínez\n Rolando Hinojosa-Smith\n Tomás Rivera\n Ilan Stavans\n Miguel Méndez\n Daína Chaviano\n Carlos Labbé\n Marco Katz\n Julio César Aguilar\n\nUS publishers of Spanish language books \n\n Latin American Literary Review Press\n Bilingual Review Press\n Alfaguara USA\n Artepoética Press\n AmazonCrossing\n Arte Público Press\n Floricanto Press\n Jade Publishing \n Restless Books\n Random House Español\n Sangría\n HarperCollins's Rayo \n Harlequin Bianca and Harlequin Deseo\n\nSpanish bookstores in the US \n\n LA Libreria\n Lectorum\n Libros in Español \n Libreria Barco De Papel\n Libreria Giron\n Libreria Tesoros\n Tertulia\n\nSee also\nPuerto Rican literature\nSpanish language in the United States\nSpanish-language literature\nSpanglish\nChicano literature\nChicano poetry\nNuyorican\nHispanic and Latino literature\nLatino literature\nLatino poetry\n\nReferences \n\nCategory:American literature\n \nCategory:American poetry\nCategory:Spanish language in the United States\nCategory:American literature in Spanish", "title": "American literature in Spanish" }, { "text": "American poetry refers to the poetry of the United States. It arose first as efforts by American colonists to add their voices to English poetry in the 17th century, well before the constitutional unification of the Thirteen Colonies (although a strong oral tradition often likened to poetry already existed among Native American societies). Most of the early colonists' work was similar to contemporary English models of poetic form, diction, and theme. However, in the 19th century, an American idiom began to emerge. By the later part of that century, poets like Walt Whitman were winning an enthusiastic audience abroad and had joined the English-language avant-garde.\n\nMuch of the American poetry published between 1910 and 1945 remains lost in the pages of small circulation political periodicals, particularly the ones on the far left, destroyed by librarians during the 1950s McCarthy era. Modernist poets like Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot (who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948) are often cited as creative and influential English-language poets of the first half of the 20th century. African American and women poets were published and read widely in the same period but were often somewhat prejudicially marginalized. By the 1960's, the Beat Movement and Black Mountain poets had developed new models for poetry and their contemporaries influenced the British Poetry Revival. Towards the end of the millennium, consideration of American poetry had diversified, as scholars placed an increased emphasis on poetry by women, African Americans, Hispanics, Chicanos, Native Americans, and other ethnic groups. Louise Glück is the only contemporary American writer writing primarily poetry who has been awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, while Bob Dylan, a folk-rock songwriter and poet, has been awarded the same prize.\n\nPoetry in the colonies\nAs England's contact with the Americas increased after the 1490s, English explorers sometimes included verse with their descriptions of the New World up through 1650, the year of Anne Bradstreet's \"The Tenth Muse\", which was written in America (most likely in Ipswich, Massachusetts or North Andover, Massachusetts) and printed and distributed in London by her brother-in-law, Rev. John Woodbridge. There are 14 such writers whom might be termed American poets (they had been to America and to different degrees, written poems or verses about the place). Early examples include a 1616 \"testimonial poem\" on the \"sterling and warlike\" character of Captain John Smith (in Barbour, ed. \"Works\") and Rev. William Morrell's 1625 \"Nova Anglia\" or \"New England\", which is a rhymed catalog of everything from American weather to his glimpses of Native American women. Then in May 1627, Thomas Morton of Merrymount – a Devon-born West Country outdoorsman, attorney at law, man of letters and colonial adventurer – raised a maypole to celebrate and foster success at his fur-trading settlement and nailed a \"Poem\" and \"Song\" (one a densely literary manifesto on how European and Native people came together there and must keep doing so for a successful America; the other a light \"drinking song\" also full of deeper American implications). These were published in book form along with other examples of Morton's American poetry in \"New English Canaan\" (1637); and based on the criteria of \"First,\" \"American\" and \"Poetry,\" they make Morton (and not Anne Bradstreet) America's first poet in English.\n\nOne of the first recorded poets of the Thirteen Colonies was Anne Bradstreet (1612 – 1672), who remains one of the early known women poets who wrote in English.\nThe poems she published during her lifetime address religious and political themes. She also wrote tender evocations of home, family life and of her love for her husband, many of which remained unpublished until the 20th century.\n\nEdward Taylor (1645–1729) wrote poems expounding Puritan virtues in a highly wrought metaphysical style that can be seen as typical of the early colonial period.\n\nThis narrow focus on the Puritan ethic was, understandably, the dominant note of most of the poetry written in the colonies during the 17th and early 18th centuries. The earliest \"secular\" poetry published in New England was by Samuel Danforth in his \"almanacks\" for 1647–1649, published at Cambridge; these included \"puzzle poems\" as well as poems on caterpillars, pigeons, earthquakes, and hurricanes. Of course, being a Puritan minister as well as a poet, Danforth never ventured far from a spiritual message.\n\nA distinctly American lyric voice of the colonial period was Phillis Wheatley, a slave whose book \"Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral,\" was published in 1773. She was one of the best-known poets of her day, at least in the colonies, and her poems were typical of New England culture at the time, meditating on religious and classical ideas.\n\nThe 18th century saw an increasing emphasis on America as fit subject matter for its poets. This trend is most evident in the works of Philip Freneau (1752–1832), who is notable for the unusually sympathetic attitude to Native Americans shown in his writings, which had been interpreted as being reflective of his skepticism toward American culture. However, as might be expected from what was essentially provincial writing, this late colonial-era poetry is generally somewhat old-fashioned in form and syntax, deploying the means and methods of Pope and Gray in the era of Blake and Burns. The work of Rebecca Hammond Lard (1772–1855), although quite old, still apply to life in today's world. She writes about nature, not only the nature of environment, but the nature of humans.\n\nOn the whole, the development of poetry in the American colonies mirrors the development of the colonies themselves. The early poetry is dominated by the need to preserve the integrity of the Puritan ideals that created the settlement in the first place. As the colonists grew in confidence, the poetry they wrote increasingly reflected their drive towards independence. This shift in subject matter was not reflected in the mode of writing which tended to be conservative, to say the least. This can be seen as a product of the physical remove at which American poets operated from the center of English-language poetic developments in London.\n\nPostcolonial poetry\n\nThe first significant poet of the independent United States was William Cullen Bryant (1794–1878), whose great contribution was to write rhapsodic poems on the grandeur of prairies and forests. However, the first internationally acclaimed poet was Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807–1882) who nearly surpassed Alfred, Lord Tennyson in international popularity, and, alongside William Cullen Bryant, John Greenleaf Whittier, James Russell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., formed the Fireside Poets (known as the Schoolroom or Household Poets). The Fireside Poets were a group of 19th-century American poets from New England. The name \"Fireside Poets\" is derived from that popularity: their general adherence to poetic convention (standard forms, regular meter, and rhymed stanzas) made their body of work particularly suitable for being memorized and recited in school and at home, where it was a source of entertainment for families gathered around the fire. The poets' primary subjects were the domestic life, mythology, and politics of the United States, in which several of the poets were directly involved.\n\nOther notable poets to emerge in the early and middle 19th century include Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882), Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849), Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862), Sidney Lanier (1842–1881), and James Whitcomb Riley (1849–1916). As might be expected, the works of all these writers are united by a common search for a distinctive American voice to distinguish them from their British counterparts. To this end, they explored the landscape and traditions of their native country as materials for their poetry.\n\nThe most significant example of this tendency may be The Song of Hiawatha by Longfellow. This poem uses Native American tales collected by Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, who was superintendent of Indian affairs for Michigan from 1836 to 1841. Longfellow imitated the meter of the Finnish epic poem Kalevala, possibly to avoid British models. The resulting poem, while a popular success, did not provide a model for future U.S. poets.\n\nAs time went on, the influence of the transcendentalism of the poet/philosophers Emerson and Thoreau increasingly influenced American poetry. Transcendentalism was the distinctly American strain of English Romanticism that began with William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Emerson, arguably one of the founders of transcendentalism, had visited England as a young man to meet these two English poets, as well as Thomas Carlyle. While Romanticism transitioned into Victorianism in post-reform England, it became energetic in America from the 1830s through to the Civil War.\n\nEdgar Allan Poe was a unique poet during this time, brooding over themes of the macabre and dark, connecting his poetry and aesthetic vision to his philosophical, psychological, moral, and cosmological theories. In the 20th century, American poet William Carlos Williams said of Poe that \"in him American literature is anchored, in him alone, on solid ground.\"\n\nWhitman and Dickinson\n\nThe final emergence of a truly indigenous English-language poetry in the United States was the work of two poets, Walt Whitman (1819–1892) and Emily Dickinson (1830–1886). On the surface, these two poets could not have been less alike. Whitman's long lines, derived from the metric of the King James Version of the Bible, and his democratic inclusiveness stand in stark contrast with Dickinson's concentrated phrases and short lines and stanzas, derived from Protestant hymnals.\n\nWhat links them is their common connection to Emerson (a passage from whom Whitman printed on the second edition of Leaves of Grass), and the daring originality of their visions. These two poets can be said to represent the birth of two major American poetic idioms—the free metric and direct emotional expression of Whitman, and the gnomic obscurity and irony of Dickinson—both of which would profoundly stamp the American poetry of the 20th century.\n\nThe development of these idioms, as well as conservative reactions against them, can be traced through the works of poets such as Edwin Arlington Robinson (1869–1935), Stephen Crane (1871–1900), Robert Frost (1874–1963), Carl Sandburg (1878–1967), and Edna St. Vincent Millay (1892-1950). Frost, in particular, is a commanding figure, who aligned strict poetic meter, particularly blank verse and terser lyrical forms, with a \"vurry Amur'k'n\" (as Pound put it) idiom. He successfully revitalized a rural tradition with many English antecedents from his beloved Golden Treasury and produced an oeuvre of major importance, rivaling or even excelling in achievement that of the key modernists and making him, within the full sweep of traditional modern English-language verse, a peer of Hardy and Yeats. But from Whitman and Dickinson the outlines of a distinctively new organic poetic tradition, less indebted to English formalism than Frost's work, were clear to see, and they would come to full fruition in the 1910s and 1920s. As Colin Falck noted, \"To the Whitmanian heritage of cadenced free verse she [Millay] brings the greater reflective tightness of Robinson Jeffers.\"\n\nModernism and after\n\nThis new idiom, combined with a study of 19th-century French poetry, formed the basis of American input into 20th-century English-language poetic modernism. Ezra Pound (1885–1972) and T.S. Eliot (1888–1965) were the leading figures at the time, with their rejection of traditional poetic form and meter and of Victorian diction. Both steered American poetry toward greater density, difficulty, and opacity, with an emphasis on techniques such as fragmentation, ellipsis, allusion, juxtaposition, ironic and shifting personae, and mythic parallelism. Pound, in particular, opened up American poetry to diverse influences, including the traditional poetries of China and Japan.\n\nNumerous other poets made important contributions at this revolutionary juncture, including Gertrude Stein (1874–1946), Wallace Stevens (1879–1955), William Carlos Williams (1883–1963), Hilda Doolittle (H.D.) (1886–1961), Marianne Moore (1887–1972), E.E. Cummings (1894–1962), and Hart Crane (1899–1932). The cerebral and skeptical Romantic Stevens helped revive the philosophical lyric, and Williams was to become exemplary for many later poets because he, more than any of his peers, contrived to marry spoken American English with free verse rhythms. Cummings remains notable for his experiments with typography and evocation of a spontaneous, childlike vision of reality.\n\nWhereas these poets were unambiguously aligned with high modernism, other poets active in the United States in the first third of the 20th century were not. Among the more important of the latter were those who were associated with what came to be known as the New Criticism. These included John Crowe Ransom (1888–1974), Allen Tate (1899–1979), and Robert Penn Warren (1905–1989). Other poets of the era, such as Archibald MacLeish (1892–1982), experimented with modernist techniques but were drawn toward traditional modes of writing. Still others, such as Robinson Jeffers (1887–1962), adopted Modernist freedom while remaining aloof from Modernist factions and programs.\n\nIn addition, there were still other, early 20th-century poets who maintained or were forced to maintain a peripheral relationship to high modernism, likely due to the racially charged themes of their work. They include Countee Cullen (1903–1946), Alice Dunbar Nelson (1875–1935), Gwendolyn Bennett (1902–1981), Langston Hughes (1902–1967), Claude McKay (1889–1948), Jean Toomer (1894–1967), and other African American poets of the Harlem Renaissance.\n\nThe modernist torch was carried in the 1930s mainly by the group of poets known as the Objectivists. These included Louis Zukofsky (1904–1978), Charles Reznikoff (1894–1976), George Oppen (1908–1984), Carl Rakosi (1903–2004) and, later, Lorine Niedecker (1903–1970). Kenneth Rexroth, who was published in the Objectivist Anthology, was, along with Madeline Gleason (1909–1973), a forerunner of the San Francisco Renaissance. Many of the Objectivists came from urban communities of new immigrants, and this new vein of experience and language enriched the growing American idiom.\n\nWorld War II and after\nArchibald Macleish called John Gillespie Magee, Jr. \"the first poet of the war\".\n\nWorld War II saw the emergence of a new generation of poets, many of whom were influenced by Wallace Stevens and Richard Eberhart (1904–2005).\nKarl Shapiro (1913–2000), Randall Jarrell (1914–1965) and James Dickey (1923–1997) all wrote poetry that sprang from experience of active service. Together with Elizabeth Bishop (1911–1979), Theodor Seuss Geisel (Dr. Seuss) (1904-1991), Theodore Roethke (1908–1963) and Delmore Schwartz (1913–1966), they formed a generation of poets that in contrast to the preceding generation often wrote in traditional verse forms.\n\nAfter the war, a number of new poets and poetic movements emerged. John Berryman (1914–1972) and Robert Lowell (1917–1977) were the leading lights in what was to become known as the Confessional movement, which was to have a strong influence on later poets like Sylvia Plath (1932–1963) and Anne Sexton (1928–1974). Though both Berryman and Lowell were closely acquainted with Modernism, they were mainly interested in exploring their own experiences as subject matter and a style that Lowell referred to as \"cooked\" – that is, consciously and carefully crafted.\n\nIn contrast, the Beat poets, who included such figures as Jack Kerouac (1922–1969), Allen Ginsberg (1926–1997), Gregory Corso (1930–2001), Joanne Kyger (1934-2017), Gary Snyder (born 1930), Diane Di Prima (1934-2020), Amiri Baraka (1934-2014) and Lawrence Ferlinghetti (1919-2020), were distinctly raw. Reflecting, sometimes in an extreme form, the open, relaxed and searching society of the 1950s and 1960s, the Beats pushed the boundaries of the American idiom in the direction of demotic speech perhaps further than any other group.\n\nAround the same time, the Black Mountain poets, under the leadership of Charles Olson (1910–1970), were working at Black Mountain College in North Carolina. These poets were exploring the possibilities of open form but in a much more programmatic way than the Beats. The main poets involved were Robert Creeley (1926–2005), Robert Duncan (1919–1988), Denise Levertov (1923–1997), Ed Dorn (1929–1999), Paul Blackburn (1926–1971), Hilda Morley (1916–1998), John Wieners (1934–2002), and Larry Eigner (1927–1996). They based their approach to poetry on Olson's 1950 essay Projective Verse, in which he called for a form based on the line, a line based on human breath and a mode of writing based on perceptions juxtaposed so that one perception leads directly to another. This in turn influenced the works of Michael McClure (1932-2020), Kenneth Irby (1936–2015), and Ronald Johnson (1935–1998), poets from the Midwestern United States who moved to San Francisco, and in so doing extended the influence of the Black Mountain school geographically westward; their participation in the poetic circles of San Francisco can be seen as partly forming the basis for what would later be known as \"Language poetry.\"\n\nOther poets often associated with the Black Mountain are Cid Corman (1924–2004) and Theodore Enslin (1925-2011), but they are perhaps correctly viewed as direct descendants of the Objectivists. One-time Black Mountain College resident, composer John Cage (1912–1992), along with Jackson Mac Low (1922–2004), wrote poetry based on chance or aleatory techniques. Inspired by Zen, Dada and scientific theories of indeterminacy, they were to prove to be important influences on the 1970s U.S avant-garde.\n\nThe Beats and some of the Black Mountain poets often are considered to have been responsible for the San Francisco Renaissance. However, as previously noted, San Francisco had become a hub of experimental activity from the 1930s thanks to Kenneth Rexroth and Gleason. Other poets involved in this scene included Charles Bukowski (1920–1994) and Jack Spicer (1925–1965). These poets sought to combine a contemporary spoken idiom with inventive formal experiment.\n\nJerome Rothenberg (born 1931) is well known for his work in ethnopoetics, but he was the coiner of the term \"deep image\", which he used to describe the work of poets like Robert Kelly (born 1935), Diane Wakoski (born 1937) and Clayton Eshleman (1935-2021). Deep Image poetry was inspired by the symbolist theory of correspondences, in particular the work of Spanish poet Federico García Lorca. The term later was popularized by Robert Bly. The Deep Image movement was the most international, accompanied by a flood of new translations from Latin American and European poets such as Pablo Neruda, César Vallejo and Tomas Tranströmer. Some of the poets who became associated with Deep Image are Galway Kinnell, James Wright, Mark Strand and W.S. Merwin. Both Merwin and California poet Gary Snyder became known for their interest in environmental and ecological concerns.\n\nThe Small Press poets (sometimes called the mimeograph movement) are another influential and eclectic group of poets who surfaced in the San Francisco Bay Area in the late 1950s and are still active today. Fiercely independent editors, who were also poets, edited and published low-budget periodicals and chapbooks of emerging poets who might otherwise have gone unnoticed. This work ranged from formal to experimental. Gene Fowler, A.D. Winans, Hugh Fox, street poet and activist Jack Hirschman, Paul Foreman, Jim Cohn, John Bennett, and F.A. Nettelbeck are among the many poets who are still actively continuing the Small Press Poets tradition. Many have turned to the new medium of the Web for its distribution capabilities.\n\nLos Angeles poets: Leland Hickman (1934–1991), Holly Prado (1938-2019), Harry Northup (born 1940), Wanda Coleman (1946-2013),\nMichael C. Ford (born 1939), Kate Braverman (1949-2019), Eloise Klein Healy (born 1943), Bill Mohr, Laurel Ann Bogen, met at Beyond Baroque\nLiterary Arts Center, in Venice, California. They are lyric poets, heavily autobiographical; some are practitioners of the experimental long poem. Their predecessors in Los Angeles were Ann Stanford (1916–1987), Thomas McGrath (1916–1990), Jack Hirschman (1933-2021). Beyond Baroque Literary Arts Center, created by George Drury Smith in 1968, is the central literary arts center in the Los Angeles area.\n\nJust as the West Coast had the San Francisco Renaissance and the Small Press Movement, the East Coast produced the New York School. This group aimed to write poetry that spoke directly of everyday experience in everyday language and produced a poetry of urbane wit and elegance that contrasts with the work of their Beat contemporaries (though in other ways, including their mutual respect for American slang and disdain for academic or \"cooked\" poetry, they were similar). Leading members of the group include John Ashbery (1927-2017), Frank O'Hara (1926–1966), Kenneth Koch (1925–2002), James Schuyler (1923–1991), Barbara Guest (1920–2006), Ted Berrigan (1934–1983), Anne Waldman (born 1945) and Bernadette Mayer (born 1945). Of this group, John Ashbery, in particular, has emerged as a defining force in recent poetics, and he is regarded by many as the most important American poet since World War II.\n\nAmerican poetry today\n\nThe last 40 years of poetry in the United States have brought new groups, schools, and trends into vogue. The 1970s saw a revival of interest in surrealism, with the more prominent poets working in this field being Andrei Codrescu (born in 1946), Russell Edson (1935-2014) and Maxine Chernoff (born in 1952). Performance poetry emerged from the Beat and hippie happenings, the talk-poems of David Antin (1932-2016), and ritual events performed by Rothenberg, to become a serious poetic stance which embraces multiculturalism and a range of poets from a multiplicity of cultures. This mirrored a general growth of interest in poetry by African Americans including Gwendolyn Brooks (1917–2000), Maya Angelou (1928–2014), Ishmael Reed (born in 1938), Nikki Giovanni (born in 1943), and Detrick Hughes (born in 1966).\n\nAnother group of poets, the Language school (or L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E, after the magazine that bears that name), have continued and extended the Modernist and Objectivist traditions of the 1930s. Some poets associated with the group are Lyn Hejinian, Ron Silliman, Bob Perelman and Leslie Scalapino. Their poems—fragmentary, purposefully ungrammatical, sometimes mixing texts from different sources and idioms—can be by turns abstract, lyrical, and highly comic.\n\nThe Language school includes a high proportion of women, which mirrors another general trend—the rediscovery and promotion of poetry written both by earlier and contemporary women poets. A number of the more prominent African American poets to emerge are women, and other prominent women writers include Adrienne Rich (1929–2012), Jean Valentine (1934–2020), and Amy Gerstler (born in 1956).\n\nAlthough poetry in traditional classical forms had mostly fallen out of fashion by the 1960s, the practice was kept alive by poets of great formal virtuosity like James Merrill (1926–1995), author of the epic poem The Changing Light at Sandover, Richard Wilbur, and British-born San Francisco poet Thom Gunn. The 1980s and 1990s saw a re-emergent interest in traditional form, sometimes dubbed New Formalism or Neoformalism. These include poets such as Molly Peacock, Brad Leithauser, Dana Gioia, Donna J. Stone, Timothy Steele, Alicia Ostriker, and Marilyn Hacker. Some of the more outspoken New Formalists have declared that the return to rhyme and more fixed meters to be the new avant-garde. Their critics sometimes associate this traditionalism with the conservative politics of the Reagan era, noting the recent appointment of Gioia as chair of the National Endowment for the Arts. \n\nHaiku has attracted a community of American poets dedicated to its development as a poetic genre in English. The extremely terse Japanese haiku first influenced the work of Ezra Pound and the Imagists, and post-war poets such as Kerouac and Richard Wright wrote substantial bodies of original haiku in English. Other poets such as Ginsberg, Snyder, Wilbur, Merwin, and many others have at least dabbled with haiku, often simply as a syllabic form. Starting in 1963, with the founding of the journal American Haiku, poets such as Cor van den Heuvel, Nick Virgilio, Raymond Roseliep, John Wills, Anita Virgil, Gary Hotham, Marlene Mountain, Wally Swist, Peggy Willis Lyles, George Swede, Michael Dylan Welch, Jim Kacian, and others have created significant oeuvres of haiku poetry, evincing continuities with both Transcendentalism and Imagism and often maintaining an anti-anthropocentric environmental focus on nature during an unparalleled age of habitat destruction and human alienation.\n\nThe last two decades have seen a revival of the Beat poetry spoken word tradition, in the form of the poetry slam. Chicago construction worker Marc Smith turned urban poetry performance into audience-judged competitions in 1984. Poetry slams emphasize a style of writing that is topical, provocative and easily understood. Poetry slam opened the door for a generation of writers and spoken word performers, including Alix Olson, Apollo Poetry, Taylor Mali, and Saul Williams, and inspired hundreds of open mics across the U.S.\n\nPoetry has become a significant presence on the Web, with a number of new online journals, 'zines, blogs and other websites. An example of the fluid nature of web-based poetry communities is, \"thisisbyus, now defunct, yet this community of writers continues and expands on Facebook and has allowed both novice and professional poets to explore writing styles.\n\nDuring the contemporary time frame, there were major independent voices who defied links to well-known American poetic movements and forms such as poet and literary critic Robert Peters, greatly influenced by the Victorian English poet Robert Browning’s poetic monologues, became reputable for executing his monologic personae like his Mad King Ludwig II of Bavaria into popular one-man performances. Another example is Louise Glück who cites Emily Dickinson and William Blake as her influences. Critics and scholars have discussed whether or not she is a confessional poet. Sylvia Plath may be another of her influences.\n\nThe Library of Congress produces a guide to American poetry inspired by the 9/11 attacks, including anthologies and books dedicated to the subject.\n\nRobert Pinsky has a special place in American poetry as he was the poet laureate of the United States for three terms. No other poet has been so honored. His \"Favorite Poem Project\" is unique, inviting all citizens to share their all-time favorite poetic composition and why they love it. He is a professor at Boston University and the poetry editor at Slate. \"Poems to Read\" is a demonstration of his poetic vision, joining the word and the common man.\n\nWith increased consciousness of society's impact on natural ecosystems, it is inexorable that such themes would become integrated into poetry. The foundations of poems about nature are found in the work of Henry David Thoreau and Walt Whitman. The modern ecopoetics movement was pioneered by Jack Collom, who taught a dedicated course on ecopoetics at Naropa University in Boulder, Colorado for 17 years. Contemporary poetry on environmental sustainability is found among the works of J.S. Shipman, for example, in, \"Calling on You.\"\n\nThe growth in the popularity of graduate creative writing programs has given poets the opportunity to make a living as teachers. This increased professionalization of poetry, combined with the reluctance of most major book and magazine presses to publish poetry, has meant that, for the foreseeable future at least, poetry may have found its new home in the academy and in small independent journals. \nA prominent example is Nobel Laureate Louise Glück who teaches at Yale University.\n\nSee also\n\n Academy of American Poets\n Biker Poetry\n Chicano poetry\n Cowboy poetry\n Haiku in English\n Irish language outside Ireland\n List of national poetries\n List of poets from the United States\n Nuyorican Poetry\n Proletarian poetry\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \nBaym, Nina, et al. (eds.): The Norton Anthology of American Literature (Shorter sixth edition, 2003). \nCavitch, Max, American Elegy: The Poetry of Mourning from the Puritans to Whitman (University of Minnesota Press, 2007). \nHoover, Paul (ed): Postmodern American Poetry - A Norton Anthology (1994). \nMoore, Geoffrey (ed): The Penguin Book of American Verse (Revised edition 1983) \nShipman, J.S. 2005. \"Calling on You\"In: Surrender to the Moon. International Library of Poetry. Watermark Press. Owings Mills, MD. P 3.\n\nExternal links \n\nCary Nelson, Ed. (1999–2002) Poet biographies at Modern American Poetry. Retrieved December 5, 2004\nPoet biographies at the Academy of American Poets Captured December 10, 2004\nPoet biographies at the Electronic Poetry Centre Captured December 10, 2004\nVarious anthologies of American verse at Bartleby.com Captured December 10, 2004\nPoetry Resource a website for students of poetry\n\n \nCategory:Poetry by country", "title": "American poetry" }, { "text": "Caribbean poetry is vast and rapidly evolving field of poetry written by people from the Caribbean region and the diaspora.\n\nCaribbean poetry generally refers to a myriad of poetic forms, spanning epic, lyrical verse, prose poems, dramatic poetry and oral poetry, composed in Caribbean territories regardless of language. It is most often, however, written in English, Spanish, Spanglish, French, Hindustani, Dutch, or any number of creoles. Poetry in English from the former British West Indies has been referred to as Anglo-Caribbean poetry or West Indian poetry.\n\nSince the mid-1970s, Caribbean poetry has gained increasing visibility with the publication in Britain and North America of several anthologies. Over the decades the canon has shifted and expanded, drawing both on oral and literary traditions and including more women poets and politically charged works. Caribbean writers, performance poets, newspaper poets, singer-songwriters have created a popular art form, a poetry heard by audiences all over the world. Caribbean oral poetry shares the vigour of the written tradition.\n\nAmong the most prominent Caribbean poets whose works are widely studied (and translated into other languages) are: Derek Walcott (who won the 1992 Nobel Prize for Literature), Kamau Brathwaite, Edouard Glissant, Giannina Braschi, Lorna Goodinson, Aimé Fernand Césaire, Linton Kwesi Johnson, Kwame Dawes, and Claudia Rankine.\n\nCommon themes include: exile and return to the motherland; the relationship of language to nation; colonialism and postcolonialism; self-determination and liberty; racial identity.\n\nCaribbean epic poetry \n\nDerek Walcott's Omeros (1990) is one of the most renown epic poems of the 20th century and of the Caribbean. The work is divided into seven books containing sixty-four chapters. Most of the poem is composed in a three-line form that is reminiscent of the terza rima form that Dante used for The Divine Comedy. The work, referencing Homer and other characters from the Iliad, refers to Greek, Roman, and American slavery. The narrative arch of the epic takes place on the island of St. Lucia, where Walcott was born and raised, but includes imaginings of ancient Greece and Rome, as well as travels to modern day Lisbon, London, Dublin, Toronto.\n\nGiannina Braschi's Empire of Dreams (1988) is a postmodern Caribbean epic composed of six books of poetry that blend elements of eclogues, epigrams, lyrics, prose poem, and manifesto. Braschi's United States of Banana (2011) is a geopolitical tragic-comedy about the fall of the American empire, the liberation of Puerto Rico, and the unification of the Caribbean isles. Blending elements of poetry, lyrical essay, and dramatic dialogues, this postmodern epic tackles the subjects of global debt, labor abuse, and environmental crises on the rise.\n\nAnthony Kellman created the Caribbean poetic form Tuk Verse, which incorporates melodic and rhythmic elements of Barbadian indigenous folk music called Tuk. His 2008 book Limestone: An Epic Poem of Barbados is the first published epic poem of Barbados.\n\nCaribbean poets by country\nGrouped by territory of birth or upbringing.\n\nAnguilla\n\n Bankie Banx\n\nBarbados\n\n Kamau Brathwaite\nFrank Collymore\n George Lamming\n Anthony Kellman\n Paterika Hengreaves (Patricia Hendy)\n Claudia Rankine\n\nCuba\n\n Roberto Fernández Retamar\n Nicolás Guillén\n Lezama Lima\n José Martí\n Nancy Morejon\n Jorge Enrique González Pacheco\n\nDominican Republic\n\n Rafael Nino Féliz\n Blas Jiménez\n Pedro Mir\n Chiqui Vicioso\n\nGuyana\n\n John Agard\n Martin Carter\n Mahadai Das\n Mark McWatt\n Grace Nichols\n\nHaiti\n\n René Depestre\n Félix Morisseau-Leroy \n Jacques Roumain\n\nJamaica\n\n Louise Bennett\n Jean \"Binta\" Breeze\n Michelle Cliff\n Kwame Dawes\n Lorna Goodison\n Ishion Hutchinson\n Linton Kwesi Johnson\n Una Marson\n Claude McKay\n Kei Miller\n Mutabaruka\n Oku Onuora\n Claudia Rankine\n Olive Senior\n Mikey Smith\n\nMartinique\n\n Nicole Cage\n Aimé Césaire\n Edouard Glissant\n\nMontserrat\n\n Howard Fergus\n E. A. Markham\n Yvonne Weekes\n\nPuerto Rico\n\n Julia de Burgos\n Giannina Braschi\n Luis Pales Matos\n Mara Pastor\n\nSt Lucia\n Adrian Augier\n Kendel Hippolyte\n Derek Walcott\n\nSt Martin\n\n Charles Borromeo Hodge\n Drisana Deborah Jack\n Lasana M. Sekou\n\nSt Vincent and the Grenadines\n\n Shake Keane\n N.C. Marks\n Cecil “Blazer” Williams\n\nThe Bahamas\n\n Marion Bethel\n Christian Campbell (poet)\n Telcine Turner-Rolle\n Nicolette Bethel\n Patricia Glinton-Meicholas\n\nTrinidad & Tobago\n\n Vahni Capildeo\n Anthony Joseph\n John La Rose\n Tricia David\n Lauren K. Alleyne\n M. NourbeSe Philip\n\nFurther reading\n Arnold, James. A History of Literature in the Caribbean v. I and II. Philadelphia/Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. (2001)\n Breiner, Laurence A. An Introduction to West Indian Poetry, Cambridge University Press, 1998.\n Brown, Lloyd. West Indian Poetry. Boston: Twayne, 1978.\n Bryan, Beverley. Teaching Caribbean Poetry. London: Routledge, 2014.\n Jenkins, Lee Margaret. The Language of Caribbean Poetry. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004.\n \n Perisic, Alexandra. Precarious Crossings: Immigration, Neoliberalism, and the Atlantic. The Ohio State University Press.(2019)\n\nSelected anthologies\n\n James Berry, Bluefoot Traveller, London: Limestone Publications, 1976.\n Stewart Brown, Caribbean Poetry Now, 1984.\n Paula Burnett, The Penguin Book of Caribbean Verse in English, 1986.\n Stewart Brown, Mervyn Morris, Gordon Rohlehr (eds), Voiceprint: An Anthology of Oral and Related Poetry from the Caribbean, 1989.\n E. A. Markham, Hinterland: Caribbean Poetry from the West Indies and Britain, Newcastle upon Tyne: Bloodaxe, 1989.\n Stewart Brown and Ian McDonald (eds), The Heinemann Book of Caribbean Poetry, 1992.\n Anthony Kellman (ed.), Crossing Water: Contemporary Poetry from the English-Speaking Caribbean, NY: Greenfield Review Press, 1992.\n Stewart Brown, Mark McWatt (eds), The Oxford Book of Caribbean Verse, 2005.\n Lasana M. Sekou (ed.), Where I See The Sun – Contemporary Poetry in St. Martin, 2013.\n Lasana M. Sekou (ed.), Where I See The Sun – Contemporary Poetry in Anguilla. St. Martin: House of Nehesi Publishers, 2015.\n Lasana M. Sekou (ed.), Where I See the Sun – Contemporary Poetry in The Virgin Islands (Tortola, Virgin Gorda, Anegada, Jost Van Dyke). St. Martin: House of Nehesi Publishers, 2016.\n\nSee also\n Caribbean literature\n Dub poetry\n Nation language\n Postcolonial literature\n Cuban literature\n Puerto Rican poetry\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n\nCategory:Caribbean culture\nCategory:Poetry", "title": "Caribbean poetry" } ]
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C_7d21e5c9ed1049c9a3951692a44a8377_0
Rihanna
Robyn Rihanna Fenty was born on 20 February 1988, in Saint Michael, Barbados. Her mother, Monica (Braithwaite), is a retired accountant of Afro-Guyanese background, and her father, Ronald Fenty, is a warehouse supervisor of Afro-Barbadian and Irish descent. Rihanna has two brothers, Rorrey and Rajad Fenty, and two half-sisters and a half-brother from her father's side, each born to different mothers from his previous relationships. She grew up in a three-bedroom bungalow in Bridgetown and sold clothes with her father in a stall on the street.
Philanthropy
In 2006, she created her Believe Foundation to help terminally ill children. In 2007, Rihanna was named as one of the Cartier Love Charity Bracelet Ambassadors, with each celebrity representing a different global charity. To help raise awareness and combat HIV/AIDS, Rihanna and other public figures designed clothing for the February 2008 H&M Fashion Against AIDS line. In 2008, Rihanna performed a series of charity concerts entitled A Girl's Night Out to benefit the Believe Foundation. The concerts were made free for the public. Money from sponsors and advertisers were to be donated to provide medical supplies, school supplies and toys to children in need. In September 2008, Rihanna contributed to the song "Just Stand Up!" with fifteen other female artists, who shared the stage to perform the song live on 5 September 2008, during the "Stand Up to Cancer" television special. The proceeds from the single were given to the fundraiser. The television special helped raise $100 million for cancer research. Rihanna founded the Clara Lionel Foundation (CLF) in 2012, in honor of her grandparents, Clara and Lionel Braithwaite. Current programs include the Clara Braithwaite Center for Oncology and Nuclear Medicine at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Barbados, and education programs. The CLF hosts an annual Diamond Ball charity fundraiser event. The inaugural event in 2014 raised over $2 million, and the second raised over $3 million. On 12 February 2012, Rihanna performed a benefit show at the House of Blues to raise money for the Children's Orthopaedic Center and the Mark Taper-Johnny Mercer Artists Program at Children's Hospital. In November 2012, Rihanna gave $100,000 to food bank donation for Hurricane Sandy, On 3 January 2014 Rihanna was part of the MAC Viva Glam campaign, which benefits women, men, and children living with HIV/AIDS. In February 2017, Rihanna was named Harvard University's "Humanitarian of the Year" by the Harvard Foundation. During Rihanna's third annual "Diamond Ball", the ex president of the United States; Barack Obama praised Rihanna's work stating "You've become a powerful force in the fight to give people dignity." CANNOTANSWER
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Robyn Rihanna Fenty ( ; born February 20, 1988) is a Barbadian singer, actress, and businesswoman. Born in Saint Michael and raised in Bridgetown, Rihanna auditioned for American record producer Evan Rogers who invited her to the United States to record demo tapes. After signing with Def Jam in 2005, she soon gained recognition with the release of her first two studio albums, Music of the Sun (2005) and A Girl Like Me (2006), both of which were influenced by Caribbean music and peaked within the top ten on the US Billboard 200 chart. Rihanna's third album, Good Girl Gone Bad (2007), incorporated elements of dance-pop and established her status as a major icon in the music industry. The chart-topping single "Umbrella" earned Rihanna her first Grammy Award and catapulted her to global stardom. She continued to mix pop, dance, and R&B genres on her next studio albums, Rated R (2009), Loud (2010), Talk That Talk (2011), and Unapologetic (2012), the last of which became her first Billboard 200 number one. The albums spawned a string of chart-topping singles, including "Rude Boy", "Only Girl (In the World)", "What's My Name?", "S&M", "We Found Love", and "Diamonds". Her eighth album, Anti (2016), showcased a new creative control following her departure from Def Jam. It became her second US number one album and featured the chart-topping single "Work". During her musical career, Rihanna has collaborated with many artists, such as Drake, Eminem, Jay-Z, Kanye West, Ne-Yo, and Shakira. With sales of over 250 million records worldwide, Rihanna is the second-best-selling female music artist of all time and the highest-certified female artist of all time on the RIAA's Top Artists (Digital Singles) ranking. She has achieved 14 number-one singles, 32 top-ten singles in the US, and 31 top-ten entries in the UK. Her accolades include nine Grammy Awards, 13 American Music Awards (including the Icon Award), 12 Billboard Music Awards, five World Music Awards, six Guinness World Records, the NAACP's President's Award, and an Academy Award nomination. Her acclaimed Super Bowl halftime show performance in 2023 is the most watched in history. Time named her one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2012 and 2018. Forbes ranked her among the top ten highest-paid celebrities in 2012 and 2014. As of , she is the wealthiest female musician, with an estimated net worth of $1.4 billion. Aside from music, Rihanna is known for her involvement in humanitarian causes, entrepreneurial ventures, and the fashion industry. She is the founder of the nonprofit organization Clara Lionel Foundation, cosmetics brand Fenty Beauty, and fashion house Fenty under LVMH; she is the first black woman to head a luxury brand for LVMH. Rihanna has also ventured into acting, appearing in major roles in Battleship (2012), Home (2015), Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets (2017), and Ocean's 8 (2018). She was appointed as an ambassador of education, tourism, and investment by the Government of Barbados in 2018 and was declared a National Hero of Barbados on the first day of the country's parliamentary republic in 2021, entitling her to the style of "The Right Excellent" for life. Early life Robyn Rihanna Fenty was born on February 20, 1988, in Saint Michael, Barbados. She is the daughter of accountant Monica (née Braithwaite) and warehouse supervisor Ronald Fenty. Her mother is an Afro-Guyanese, while her father is a Barbadian of African, Irish, English, and Scottish descent. Rihanna has two brothers, Rorrey and Rajad Fenty, and two half-sisters and a half-brother from her father's side, each born to different mothers from his previous relationships. She grew up in a three-bedroom bungalow in Bridgetown and sold clothes with her father in a stall on the street. Her childhood was deeply affected by her father's alcoholism and crack cocaine addiction, which contributed to her parents' strained marriage. Rihanna's father used to abuse her mother physically, and Rihanna would try to get in between them to break up fights. As a child, Rihanna had many CT scans for the excruciating headaches she suffered, recalling, "The doctors even thought it was a tumor, because it was that intense." By the time she was 14, her parents had divorced, and her health began to improve. She grew up listening to reggae music. She attended Charles F. Broome Memorial Primary School and Combermere School, where she studied alongside future international cricketers Chris Jordan and Carlos Brathwaite. As an 11-year-old, Rihanna was an army cadet in a sub-military programme, where the later Barbadian singer-songwriter Shontelle was her drill sergeant. Although she initially wanted to graduate from high school, she chose to pursue a musical career instead. Music career 2003–2006: Beginnings and early releases In 2003, Rihanna formed a musical trio with two of her classmates in her home country of Barbados. Without a name or any material, the girl group auditioned with American record producer Evan Rogers, who commented, "The minute Rihanna walked into the room, it was like the other two girls didn't exist." Rihanna went to Rogers's hotel room, where she performed renditions of Destiny's Child's "Emotion" and Mariah Carey's "Hero". Impressed, Rogers scheduled a second meeting with Rihanna's mother present and then invited Rihanna to his hometown in the United States to record some demo tapes that could be sent to record labels. Recordings were intermittent, taking about a year because she was only able to record during school holidays. "Pon de Replay" and "The Last Time" were two tracks recorded for the demo tape, which were eventually included on her debut album Music of the Sun. That same year, Rihanna was signed to Rogers's and Carl Sturken's production company, Syndicated Rhythm Productions. Rihanna's demo was shipped out to Def Jam Recordings, where Jay Brown, an A&R executive at the record label, was one of the first to hear the demo. Brown played the demo tape for rapper Jay-Z, who had recently been appointed as president and CEO of Def Jam. When Jay-Z first heard the track "Pon de Replay", he felt the song was too big for her. Despite being skeptical, he invited Rihanna to audition for the label. In early 2005, Rihanna auditioned for Def Jam in New York City, where Jay-Z introduced her to music mogul Antonio "L.A." Reid. At the audition, she sang Whitney Houston's cover of "For the Love of You", as well as the demo tracks "Pon de Replay" and "The Last Time". Jay-Z was absolutely certain about signing her after she performed her future single "Pon de Replay". His boss, L.A. Reid, was also impressed with her audition, telling Jay-Z not to let Rihanna leave the building until the contract was signed. Reid left it to Jay-Z and his team to close the deal which resulted in a six-album record deal with Def Jam. She waited in Jay-Z's office until 3:00 in the morning to get lawyers to draft up a contract because he wanted to prevent her from signing with another label. Rihanna canceled other meetings with record labels and relocated from Barbados to the United States to live with Rogers and his wife. After signing with Def Jam, Jay-Z and his team did the A&R for Rihanna's debut album and spent the next three months recording and completing her debut album. She worked with different producers to complete her debut studio album, primarily Rogers and his production partner Carl Sturken. With several songs to pick as a lead single, "Pon de Replay" was chosen because it seemed like the best song suited for a summer release. In May 2005, her debut single, "Pon de Replay", was released under her mononym "Rihanna". It charted successfully worldwide, peaking in the top five in fifteen countries, including at No. 2 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and the UK Singles Chart. The song became a club hit in the United States, peaking at No. 1 on the Billboard Dance Club Songs. Music of the Sun was released in August 2005. It debuted at No. 10 on the Billboard 200 and received a gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting shipments of over 500,000 units. The album sold over 2 million copies worldwide. A second single, "If It's Lovin' that You Want", was not as successful as its predecessor, but reached the top 10 in Australia, Ireland and New Zealand. Aside from her work in music, Rihanna made her acting debut in a cameo role in the successful straight-to-DVD film Bring It On: All or Nothing, released in August 2006. A month after the release of her debut album, Rihanna began working on her second studio album. A Girl like Me was released in April 2006. Rolling Stone felt that "the burning rock guitar" and haunted strings of some of the album's tracks made "A Girl like Me [...] likable." The album was a commercial success, charting in the top 10 in 13 countries. The album reached No. 1 in Canada and No. 5 in the United Kingdom and the United States, where it sold 115,000 copies in its first week. The album became Rihanna's first to be certified Platinum by the RIAA, after selling over 1,000,000 units. Its lead single, "SOS", was an international success, charting in the top five in 11 countries. The song reached No. 1 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and in Australia, her first to reach this chart position. "Unfaithful", the album's second single, reached the top 10 in 18 countries, including No. 1 in Canada and Switzerland. Two more singles were released from the album: "We Ride" and "Break It Off". 2007–2008: Breakthrough with Good Girl Gone Bad In early 2007, Rihanna appeared on the single "Roll It" with Jamaican band J-Status and fellow Barbadian singer-songwriter Shontelle. The song appeared on J-Status' debut album The Beginning, released in several European countries only. Around that time, Rihanna had already begun work on her third studio album, Good Girl Gone Bad. With the help of producers Timbaland, Tricky Stewart and Sean Garrett she embraced a new musical direction through uptempo dance tracks. Released in May 2007, the album charted at No. 2 in Australia and the US and topped the charts in multiple countries, including Brazil, Canada, Ireland and the UK. The album received the most positive critical reviews of her first three albums. The lead single, "Umbrella", topped the charts in 13 countries and remained at No. 1 in the UK for 10 consecutive weeks, the longest-running No. 1 single there since Wet Wet Wet's single "Love Is All Around" spent 15 weeks at the top in 1994. It was Rihanna's first single to be named one of the best-selling singles worldwide, with sales of over 8 million copies. The songs "Shut Up and Drive", "Hate That I Love You" (featuring Ne-Yo), and "Don't Stop the Music" were also released as singles, with the latter becoming an international hit. In support of the album, Rihanna began the Good Girl Gone Bad Tour in September 2007, with 80 shows across the US, Canada, and Europe. Rihanna was nominated for several 2008 Grammy Awards for Good Girl Gone Bad, winning Best Rap/Sung Collaboration for "Umbrella" alongside Jay-Z, her first Grammy Award. On June 9, 2008, Rihanna released Good Girl Gone Bad Live, her first live long-form video. The DVD and Blu-ray release featured Rihanna's concert at the Manchester Arena in Manchester, United Kingdom, held on December 6, 2007, as part of the Good Girl Gone Bad Tour. The release also contained a special documentary that presented Rihanna discussing her experiences during the tour. By late 2008, Rihanna still remained on the charts with the release of the fifth single from Good Girl Gone Bad, "Rehab", and was named "Diva of the Year" by Entertainment Weekly for her "newfound staying power". Good Girl Gone Bad has sold over 2.8 million units in the United States alone, receiving a two-times-Platinum certification from the RIAA. It is Rihanna's bestselling album in the country to date. The album has sold 9 million units worldwide. During the late 2000s, Rihanna experimented further with pop, dubstep, and rock music, officially shifting her musical style and image away from the Barbados island girl. Throughout 2008, Rihanna performed on the Glow in the Dark Tour alongside Kanye West, Lupe Fiasco, and N.E.R.D. Her third studio album's reissue, Good Girl Gone Bad: Reloaded, was released in June 2008 with three new songs: "Disturbia", "Take a Bow" and the Maroon 5 duet "If I Never See Your Face Again", plus a Spanglish version of "Hate That I Love You" featuring Spanish pop singer David Bisbal. All four were released as singles and charted highly, reaching peak positions worldwide. In August 2008, Rihanna and a host of other female singers recorded the charity single "Just Stand Up!", the theme song to the anti-cancer campaign Stand Up to Cancer. "Live Your Life", a duet between T.I. and Rihanna, was released that November and topped the Billboard Hot 100. 2009–2011: Rated R and Loud On February 8, 2009, Rihanna's scheduled performance at the 51st Annual Grammy Awards was canceled. Reports surfaced that then-boyfriend, singer Chris Brown, had physically assaulted her. He was arrested on suspicion of making criminal threats. On March 5, 2009, Brown was charged with assault and making criminal threats. A leaked photograph from the police department obtained by TMZ.com revealed that Rihanna had sustained visible injuries. A few months after the incident, Rihanna was featured on the single "Run This Town" by Jay-Z, which also featured Kanye West and was released as the second single from Jay-Z's eleventh studio album The Blueprint 3. In early 2009, Rihanna began working on her fourth studio album, Rated R. Rated R was released in November 2009. The album had Rolling Stone magazine stating that Rihanna "transformed her sound and made one of the best pop records of the year". Rated R featured a darker and more foreboding tone than Rihanna's previous albums. Rated R debuted at No. 4 on the US Billboard 200 chart. The album was supported by six singles, including "Rude Boy", which was the biggest worldwide success from the album, topping the US Billboard Hot 100 for six weeks and reaching top 10 positions in 22 other countries. In January 2010, Rihanna released her charity cover version of "Redemption Song" for the Hope for Haiti Now campaign. She also recorded the song "Stranded (Haiti Mon Amour)" together with Jay-Z, Bono and The Edge for the same campaign to alleviate the 2010 Haiti earthquake. In summer 2010, Rihanna collaborated with rapper Eminem on "Love the Way You Lie", which was a major worldwide success, reaching No. 1 in over 20 countries. Reaching number 2, the song became the biggest-selling song of 2010 in the UK and the first of Rihanna's singles to sell over a million copies in the country. In October 2010, Rihanna switched managers, joining Jay-Z's Roc Nation Management. In late 2010, she was featured on three singles: Kanye West's "All of the Lights", from the album My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy (2010), Nicki Minaj's "Fly", from her debut studio album Pink Friday (2010) and David Guetta's "Who's That Chick?", from the album One More Love (2010). Loud, Rihanna's fifth studio album, was released in November 2010. The album produced three US Billboard Hot 100s. Its lead single, "Only Girl (In the World)", "What's My Name?", featuring rapper Drake and "S&M", following the release of its official remix featuring Britney Spears. Rihanna set a record as the solo artist with the fastest accumulation of 10 chart toppers in the Hot 100s history. At the 53rd Grammy Awards, "Only Girl (In the World)" won the award for Best Dance Recording. "Man Down" and "California King Bed" were released as singles in May 2011 with moderate success. "Cheers (Drink to That)", which interpolates Avril Lavigne's 2002 single "I'm with You", was released as the seventh and final single from the album. To promote the album, Rihanna embarked on her Loud Tour in June 2011, which sold out 10 nights at The O2 Arena in West London, the most sold-out shows for a female artist in the venue's history. The tour was the seventh highest-grossing tour worldwide of 2011. In September 2020 she put her St John's Wood, North London house for sale with a price of £32 million. 2011–2013: Talk That Talk and Unapologetic Rihanna's sixth album, Talk That Talk, was released in November 2011. The album debuted at No. 3 in the U.S and number No. 1 in the UK The album's lead single, "We Found Love", topped charts in twenty-seven countries and peaked in the top 10 in 30 countries and broke many chart records worldwide. The single topped the Billboard Hot 100 for 10 non-consecutive weeks, becoming Rihanna's longest-running No. 1 single on the chart and the longest-running No. 1 single of 2011 in the US. The song was later named the 24th biggest hit of all time on the Billboard Hot 100. "You Da One" and the album's title track, featuring Jay-Z, were released as the second and third singles, to moderate success. "Where Have You Been", the fifth single, successfully charted worldwide, reaching No. 5 in the US and No. 6 in the UK. "Cockiness (Love It)" was released as the album's sixth and final single in a remixed form featuring rapper ASAP Rocky. In early 2012, two collaborations featuring Rihanna were released: Coldplay's "Princess of China", from their album Mylo Xyloto, and Drake's "Take Care", from his album of the same name. In February 2012, Rihanna won her third Grammy Award for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration at the 2012 Grammy Awards for her Kanye West collaboration "All of the Lights" and was voted the Best International Female Solo Artist at the 2012 BRIT Awards for the second consecutive year. March 2012 saw the simultaneous releases of two collaborations between Rihanna and Chris Brown: remixes of her song "Birthday Cake" and his "Turn Up the Music". The recordings received mainly negative responses due to the pair's history of domestic violence. In September 2012, "We Found Love" won the MTV Video Music Award for Video of the Year, making Rihanna the first woman to receive the accolade more than once. Rihanna's seventh studio album, Unapologetic, was released in November 2012. In the United States, the album debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 albums chart, marking Rihanna's first No. 1 album in the country. The lead single from the album, "Diamonds", reached No. 1 in more than 20 countries worldwide, including on the US Billboard Hot 100, where it became Rihanna's 12 No. 1 on the chart. The album's second single, "Stay", featuring Mikky Ekko, reached the top five in over twenty countries, including No. 3 on the Billboard Hot 100. As promotion prior to the album's release, Rihanna embarked on the 777 Tour, a mini tour of seven shows in seven countries in seven days. On May 6, 2013, Fox aired a documentary about the tour, with a documentary DVD being released the following day as Rihanna's third live long-form video release. In February 2013, at the 55th Grammy Awards, Rihanna won her sixth Grammy Award, in the category Best Short Form Music Video for "We Found Love" (2011). Also that month, the United Kingdom's Official Charts Company announced that Rihanna had sold 3,868,000 records in the past year in the country, ranking at No. 1 in the list of 2013 BRIT Awards artist nominees. Rihanna's fifth headlining concert tour, the Diamonds World Tour, began in March 2013, in support of Unapologetic. Rihanna then appeared in the Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg comedy film This Is the End, which was released in June 2013. That same month, American hip hop artist Wale released a remixed version of his single "Bad" featuring Rihanna. In October 2013, Eminem released his Rihanna-assisted single, "The Monster", as the fourth release from his eighth studio album The Marshall Mathers LP 2 (2013). 2014–2017: Standalone releases, Home soundtrack and Anti In 2014, Rihanna appeared on Shakira's single, "Can't Remember to Forget You". Following the release of Unapologetic and its accompanying tour, Rihanna aimed to take a hiatus from recording music, stating: "I wanted to have a year to just do whatever I want artistically, creatively." In May 2014, Rihanna left Def Jam Recordings to sign fully with Roc Nation, the record label that had managed her career since October 2010. A year after Rihanna began working on her eighth studio album, the single "FourFiveSeconds" was released, which featured Rihanna paired up with Kanye West and Paul McCartney. Two further singles followed its release: "Bitch Better Have My Money" and "American Oxygen"; neither made the final track listing for Rihanna's eighth studio album. During the creation of the album, Rihanna ventured into other endeavors and appeared in the voice role of Tip in the animated feature film Home alongside Jim Parsons and Jennifer Lopez, the film was based on The True Meaning of Smekday by Adam Rex. Rihanna also released a concept album soundtrack for the film. In late 2015, Rihanna inked a $25 million contract with Samsung that would see her promoting Samsung's Galaxy line of products whilst Samsung would sponsor the release of her eighth studio album and its supporting tour. The Anti World Tour was announced in November 2015 and began in March 2016, with Travis Scott supporting in North America and Big Sean supporting at selected European dates. The Weeknd had also initially planned to support at certain European sites, but he backed out citing "unforeseen changes in upcoming projects". On January 28, 2016, Rihanna released her eighth studio album, Anti, exclusively through streaming service Tidal. The album peaked at No. 1 on the US Billboard 200, becoming Rihanna's second No. 1 and eighth top 10 album on the chart. The album was supported by the release of four singles, including the lead single "Work", featuring Drake, which topped the US Billboard Hot 100 chart. Further Platinum-certified singles "Needed Me" and "Love on the Brain" both peaked inside the top 10 of the US Hot 100. In 2016, Rihanna was featured in several singles. The first collaboration single was Kanye West's "Famous", where Rihanna provided uncredited guest vocals. She was then officially featured on Calvin Harris' "This Is What You Came For", which was a success.<ref name="Came">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/music/music-news/listen-rihanna-calvin-harris-this-is-what-you-came-for-dance-7350215/|title=Listen to Rihanna and Calvin Harris' 'This Is What You Came For|magazine=Billboard|last=Kaufman|first=Gil|date=April 29, 2016|access-date=January 31, 2022}}</ref> Rihanna was also featured on Drake's "Too Good" and on Mike Will Made Its "Nothing Is Promised". In June 2016, Rihanna released "Sledgehammer", a single from the Star Trek Beyond movie soundtrack. On August 28, 2016, Rihanna was honored with the Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award at the 2016 MTV Video Music Awards after performing various medleys of her hit songs. Rihanna released several collaborations in 2017. First she was the featured part in Future's "Selfish", the lead single from the rapper's sixth studio album, Hndrxx. Summer 2017 saw the release of Rihanna's collaborations with record producer DJ Khaled, "Wild Thoughts", which also featured Bryson Tiller and was a worldwide success, and Kendrick Lamar's single, "Loyalty", which earned Rihanna her ninth Grammy Award at the 60th Annual Grammy Awards. In November 2017, Rihanna was part of N.E.R.Ds comeback single "Lemon" from the band's album No One Ever Really Dies. 2018–present: Hiatus, upcoming ninth studio album and Super Bowl LVII halftime show In October 2017, Shakka revealed that he was working with Rihanna on her "absolutely insane" album. In December 2018, Rihanna confirmed that the album would be released in 2019, and later announced that it is a reggae project. In August 2019, fans noticed that Rihanna and co-songwriters Collin Edwards, Monique Lawrence, and Alexander Ogunmokun registered a song titled "Private Loving" with the music publishing organization BMI. In September 2019, it was announced she had signed with Sony/ATV Music Publishing. In December 2019, Rihanna alluded to her album being complete and indefinitely withholding the release date in an Instagram post. She was next featured on Canadian singer PartyNextDoor's song "Believe It", which was released on March 27, 2020. On September 25, 2022, Rihanna announced that she would be headlining the Super Bowl LVII halftime show, which marked her first live performance in over five years, and the end of her previously self-imposed boycott of the event, which she instigated in solidarity with Colin Kaepernick. The show was critically acclaimed. It was initially reported that the performance gained a total of 118.7 million viewers across TV and digital platforms, however the figure was later revised by Nielsen Media Research, who adjusted the number to 121.017 million viewers, making it the most-watched halftime show in history, surpassing Katy Perry's performance at the Super Bowl XLIX halftime show. In October, HDD confirmed that Rihanna will do a stadium tour in 2023. On October 28, 2022, Rihanna released the lead single from the Black Panther: Wakanda Forever soundtrack, "Lift Me Up", her first solo musical release since Anti. The song earned her nominations for the Golden Globe and Academy Award for Best Original Song. Artistry Music and voice Rihanna is a mezzo-soprano, with a range spanning from B2 to C6. While recording tracks for her third studio album, Good Girl Gone Bad (2007), Rihanna took vocal lessons from Ne-Yo. She said of the experience, "I've never had vocal training, so when I'm in the studio, he'll tell me how to breathe and stuff... He'll call out these big fancy words: 'OK, I want you to do staccato.' And I'm like, 'OK, I don't know what that is.'" Her vocal performance on Loud (2010) received positive reviews from music critics. James Skinner from BBC praised Rihanna's vocals on the song "Love the Way You Lie (Part II)" and wrote that her voice is powerful and that "it is Rihanna's vocal – at once commanding, soulful and vulnerable – that anchors the song, and Loud itself". Andy Gill from The Independent feels that "California King Bed" features her best vocal performance. In a review of Unapologetic, Billboard magazine wrote, "Diamonds finds Rihanna doing one of her throatiest, most impassioned vocals to date, on this inspirational pop ballad." Jon Caramanica of the New York Times stated, "over the years, as her game face froze in place, her voice cured into a weapon of emotional chill and strategic indifference. It's decidedly unfriendly, made to give orders". Growing up in Barbados, she mainly listened to reggae, hip hop and soca music. When she first came to the US, she was exposed to different types of music with "rock being one of them, and I fell in love with it. [Now] I love rock music." During her debut, she recorded songs that were inspired by her Caribbean roots and described her early sound as "a fusion of reggae, hip-hop and R&B, with a little something different thrown in". Her early dancehall roots can be found on her debut album, Music of the Sun, and its follow-up, A Girl like Me. Her debut album demonstrates the influence of Rihanna's musical heritage of the Caribbean. Kelefa Sanneh of the New York Times complimented its combination of dancehall and reggae, who said, "Dancehall reggae sometimes seems like a furiously insular form of music, but ... Rihanna is only the latest singer to discover how versatile the genre's spring-loaded electronic rhythms can be". Her debut single, "Pon de Replay" features a dancehall-pop mixture that infuses a reggae style, while "If It's Lovin' that You Want" talks about a girl seducing a guy to be her boyfriend. Aiming for artistic growth, A Girl like Me expresses personal experiences that typical 18-year-old girls go through with ballads that were described as elegant and mature. After her second album, she slowly dismissed her dancehall and reggae roots. Rihanna's musical career has been an experiment with new musical ideas and stated that she wants "to make music that could be heard in parts of the world that I'd never been to". With its provocative subject matter and lyrics, she began incorporating a wide range of genres including, pop, R&B, reggae, dubstep, hip hop and EDM. During a review for Good Girl Gone Bad, Slant Magazine to write that Rihanna "finally figured out that she's a dance artist and the majority of the album is uptempo dance-pop [songs like]" "Push Up on Me" and "Don't Stop the Music". It represents a departure from the Caribbean sound of her previous albums and is described as a turning point in her career. While the first half of the record shares many 1980s pop influences with songs like "Don't Stop the Music" and "Shut Up and Drive", the second half retreats into standard R&B. Recorded after the assault by her then-boyfriend, Chris Brown, Rated R had a much darker tone and was filled with various emotions she experienced throughout 2009. In her fifth album Loud, Rihanna reflects on the fun and energetic vibe she had while recording the album. The album is a mixture of ballads, party anthems and empowering love songs. Talk That Talk was similar to Rated R, as both contain hip hop, R&B, dancehall and dubstep genres. Loud and Talk That Talk saw her explore sexuality in her work ("S&M" and "Birthday Cake") and return to her dancehall roots ("Man Down" and "Watch n' Learn"). She also branched out into house music with tracks like "We Found Love", "Only Girl (In the World)" and "Complicated". Her songs are also inspired through record sampling from other artists. Influences Rihanna has named Madonna as her idol and biggest influence. She said that she wanted to be the "black Madonna" and praised her ability to reinvent herself throughout her career. She noted, "I think that Madonna was a great inspiration for me, especially on my earlier work. If I had to examine her evolution through time, I think she reinvented her clothing style and music with success every single time. And at the same time remained a real force in entertainment in the whole world." Another major influence on Rihanna's music and career has been Mariah Carey, whose song "Hero" she performed when Rihanna was still a teenager at her high school talent show. She revealed that Carey's song "Vision of Love" "was the song that made [her] want to do music." In her youth, she would see Bob Marley on television because of his fame in the Caribbean. She stated, "He's one of my favourite artists of all time – he really paved the way for every other artist out of the Caribbean". She built a shrine in her home dedicated to the reggae legend and has covered Marley's "Is This Love" and Bob Marley & The Wailers' "Redemption Song" during her concert tours. During her childhood, she would go around singing Whitney Houston songs and "A Whole New World" into her hairbrush so much that her neighbors started calling her "Robyn Redbreast". She also stated that one of the first songs she remembers falling in love with was Houston's version of "I Will Always Love You" and that it "was really inspiring, and it made me develop a passion for music, so really, she's partly responsible for me being here in this industry." Rihanna was also influenced by Janet Jackson, Aaliyah, Tupac, Beyoncé and Destiny's Child.Rihanna – Fashion Inspired By Bob Marley, Tupac & Aaliyah . Shelby.tv. Retrieved June 5, 2014. Other musical influences and idols include Celine Dion, Grace Jones, Lil' Kim, Alicia Keys, Prince, Fefe Dobson, and Brandy. Rihanna takes influence from the different types of music she discovered when she came to America and revealed that rock music was one of the first genres she fell in love with. She commented, "as I grow older, I want to know more about music. I want to discover more types of music". She cited Brandy's fourth studio album, Afrodisiac (2004), as her main inspiration for her third album, Good Girl Gone Bad (2007). In her early career, her music contained strong influences of Caribbean music, including reggae and dancehall. The music video of the song "Rude Boy" featured images inspired by her Caribbean roots. Videos and stage Rihanna has worked with music video director Anthony Mandler on more than a dozen music videos, the first being "Unfaithful" (2006). "We've done 16 videos together; they're not all tough, [...] Yeah, I mean, I'm known for the 'Disturbia's and the 'Russian Roulette's and things like that, but 'Only Girl (In the World)' is certainly an ethereal kind of empowering, beauty-filled video," Mandler said. Jocelyn Vena of MTV wrote, "Rihanna, like Madonna, also has a tendency to make truly thought-provoking music videos that fit the songs they represent. Smattered in between glitzier, more glamorous clips, Madge and Ri want us to think about bigger issues". Jon Bream of the Star Tribune commented "[i]n the tradition of Madonna and Janet Jackson, Rihanna has become the video vixen of the '00s ... Rihanna has perfected the pout, the long-legged strut, and trend-setting hairdos that keep women and men alike checking her out on YouTube." George Epaminondas of InStyle considers Rihanna's music videos to be "cinematic" due to her "blend of lush island rhythms and swinging pop and ... mischievous sensuality." Many of her music videos were shot as short films exploring issues such as love triangles, abuse and substance abuse romance, including "We Found Love" and "Man Down". Her music video for "Umbrella" shows Rihanna's transition into adulthood and her newly adopted image. The "dark, creepy" scenes of "Disturbia" have been compared to Michael Jackson's Thriller. The video for "Russian Roulette" features Rihanna in a padded room playing a game of russian roulette with her partner. A scene of Rihanna being approached by a speeding car at night was compared to the altercation with Chris Brown. In 2011, Rihanna released three controversial music videos about sadomasochism, rape and domestic violence. "Man Down", which features Rihanna shooting a man in a train station, was criticized by the Parents Television Council. "We Found Love", which shows Rihanna and her love interest in a drug-filled unhealthy relationship, sparked criticism from the Rape Crisis Centre for its message. Charne Graham of the Houston Press defended her, asking, "Why should Rihanna's music videos get everyone riled up when others' equally sexual and controversial videos are in rotation? [...] she just like[s] to make music videos that give us something to talk about." Rihanna was the first woman to pass 2 billion cumulative views on the music video website Vevo. As of December 2016, she has accumulated over 10 billion views on the site. Denis Armstrong of Canadian Online Explorer commented on her performance at the Ottawa Bluesfest, saying "her show was a Disney-esque choreographed fantasy of non-stop hip-swiveling, sassy attitude and personal endearments and a string of funky, sugar-free hits." Her performance of "Disturbia" at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards was ranked tenth best on the MTV Video Music Awards, according to a Billboard poll. Her revealing leather costumes during her Good Girl Gone Bad Tour were highly criticized by the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party, who recommended that her concert tour should be banned. Whilst commenting on her third album's accompanying tour, The Times compared Rihanna's stage wardrobe styling to that of Janet Jackson and called her "a vision of Ann Summers couture in thigh-high boots and a few scraps of black PVC." In the October 2011 issue of British Vogue, Rihanna said her performance outfits and appearances are all an act; "[t]hat's not me. That's a part I play. You know, like it's a piece of art, with all these toys and textures to play with". Public image Known for her style and image, the media have constantly followed the evolution of Rihanna's music and fashion sense. In 2009, New York magazine described Rihanna's early look as that of "a cookie-cutter teen queen", noting she has the ability "to shift looks dramatically and with such ease". Around the time of the release of her second studio album, A Girl like Me (2006), many critics felt that Rihanna's style, sound and musical material were too similar to those of Beyoncé. In an interview with Look magazine, Rihanna spoke about comparisons to Beyoncé: "Beyoncé is a great artist and I feel honored to be mentioned in the same sentence, but we're different performers with different styles". She revealed during Oprah's Next Chapter that Def Jam's pop-princess blueprint made her feel claustrophobic during her early years with the label. According to Rihanna, "I felt like they were giving me a blueprint. [...] They had a brand, they had an idea of what they wanted me to be without figuring out who I was." With the release of her third album, Good Girl Gone Bad (2007), Rihanna dismissed her innocent image for an edgier look with a new hairstyle, which was inspired by Charlize Theron's bob cut in the science fiction thriller Æon Flux (2005). She followed the likes of recording artists Janet Jackson and Christina Aguilera who also shed their innocent image for an edgier look and sound. Nico Amarca of Highsnobiety magazine wrote, "over the course of her now 10-year career, [Rihanna] has undergone one of the most significant aesthetic metamorphoses the world has ever seen". Her image and fashion has changed several times with different hairstyles since the release of her third album. She commented that as a child she "used to watch her [mother] get dressed" and that her love and admiration for fashion started with her mother. When putting together her own wardrobe she stated, "It's become more about taking a risk ... I always look for the most interesting silhouette or something that's a little off." Jess Cartner-Morley of The Guardian wrote that "Rihanna's wardrobe is the most talked-about, influential and dissected in pop right now" and that whatever she wears "is immediately reproduced on the high street, because it sells". Country singer Miranda Lambert admires Rihanna's fashion and style stating, "I don't necessarily get inspired by the whole no-bra thing, but I love that you never know what she's going to wear. It always keeps you guessing, which makes her sassy and interesting." In an interview with Alexa Chung during Vogue Festival 2015, Balmain designer Olivier Rousteing praised Rihanna by stylistically comparing her to some of the biggest fashion icons in music history, such as Madonna, David Bowie, Michael Jackson, and Prince. Commenting on the cultural expectation for pop stars to be role models, Rihanna said "[being a role model] became more of my job than I wanted it to be. But no, I just want to make music. That's it." In a May 2013 interview with MTV, The Vagina Monologues writer and feminist Eve Ensler said, "I'm a huge Rihanna fan, I think she has a kind of agency over her sexuality and she's open about her sexuality, she has enormous grace and she's immensely talented." Described as one of the sexiest women of her generation, she revealed that being a sex symbol is not a priority and that "it's definitely flattering, but also uncomfortable." Her appearance has landed her on the cover of magazines such as Maxim, FHM, Rolling Stone, and in December 2012, Rihanna became the first woman to be featured on the cover of GQ magazine's "Men of the Year" issue. Rihanna made her first appearance at the Met Gala in 2007. She has made eight appearances in the years since; notably in 2015, for China: Through the Looking Glass, her Guo Pei-designed yellow dress garnered the most attention of the event, accruing a billion impressions on social media. The dress, which had taken two years to make before Rihanna came across it, became the subject of a documentary by Pietra Brettkelly, entitled Yellow Is Forbidden. She co-chaired the 2018 Heavenly Bodies: Fashion and the Catholic Imagination themed event, wearing Maison Margiela. Legacy Rihanna is regarded by the media as a pop and fashion icon, particularly since her third studio album Good Girl Gone Bad (2007). Nick Levine of Digital Spy described Good Girl Gone Bad as "the closest thing to a Thriller that 2007/08 is likely to produce". According to Rolling Stone, her single "Umbrella" and her eighth album Anti are regarded as among the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time and 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, respectively. Her single "We Found Love" was ranked by Billboard as the 24th biggest US Billboard Hot 100 hit of all time and her single "Work" has been credited by a Billboard editor for bringing the dancehall genre to the forefront of mainstream American music. Music critic Jayson Greene of Pitchfork described Rihanna as the most influential singer of the past decade, writing:"Rihanna Voice has become an industry-wide idea, a creative property like the Korg synth or LinnDrum [...] We crave the thrill that you can only get when a dozen or so good ideas manifest themselves in a single voice. For the past 10 years, that voice has more or less been Rihanna's. Now that she's gleefully shredding it apart, she'll probably generate a whole new comet trail of Rihannabes. Inevitably, none of them will carry the charge, the glassy cool and subterranean heat, of the real thing." Time magazine included Rihanna on its 100 Most Influential People in the World issue in 2012 and 2018, with Stella McCartney writing: "She's one of the coolest, hottest, most talented, most liked, most listened to, most followed, most impressive artists at work today, but she does it in her own stride. She works hard, very hard. She gives to her fans, friends and foundation not just herself but her energy and spirit." Rihanna was ranked one of the best dressed women in 2018, by luxury fashion retailer Net-a-Porter. On June 2, 2014, Rihanna was presented with the Fashion Icon lifetime achievement award from Council of Fashion Designers of America (CFDA), a special prize reserved for "an individual whose style has made a significant impact on popular culture on an international stage". In August 2018, Billboard ranked Rihanna as the tenth biggest Hot 100 artist of all time, as well as the fifth biggest female act of all time.Billboard also ranked Rihanna the top Hot 100 artist of the 2010s decade. In 2014, Time magazine's pop stardom ranking metric ranked Rihanna second in history, based on all-time chart performance and contemporary significance. Rihanna has become a dominating figure on social media and internet streaming, ranking at No. 1 on Forbes' 2012 list of Social Networking Superstars. In 2013, Rihanna was also named the most influential pop star in the United Kingdom by UK channel 4Music. Rihanna's work has directly influenced numerous artists such as Lorde, Sam Smith, Little Mix, Rita Ora, Billie Eilish, Selena Gomez, Justin Bieber, Ellie Goulding, Kim Petras, Jennie from Blackpink, Marilyn Manson, Jessie J, SZA, Fifth Harmony, Camila Cabello, Demi Lovato, Alexandra Stan, Grimes, Sleater-Kinney, Tegan and Sara, Cover Drive, Cher Lloyd, Bad Gyal, and Era Istrefi. Rihanna has an honorary title of Ambassador for Culture and Youth in Barbados. On February 22, 2008, former Barbados Prime Minister David Thompson launched the national "Rihanna Day" in their country. Although it is not a bank holiday, Barbadians celebrate it every year in honor of Rihanna. In February 2017, Rihanna was named Harvard University's "Humanitarian of the Year" by the Harvard Foundation. During Rihanna's third annual "Diamond Ball", former U.S. president Barack Obama, praised Rihanna's work and stated: "[She's] become a powerful force in the fight to give people dignity." On September 20, 2018, Rihanna was appointed by the government of Barbados to be an Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary, with special duties of promoting "education, tourism and investment for the island." As of 2021, Rihanna is the world's wealthiest female musician with an estimated net worth of $1.7 billion. She was also listed among Forbes Top 100 Most Powerful Women of 2019. In 2020, she debuted on the Sunday Times Rich List, claiming third place on the list of Britain's richest musicians. At the 2020 NAACP Image Awards, hosted by BET, Rihanna accepted the President's Award from Derrick Johnson. Johnson stated that "Rihanna has not only enjoyed a groundbreaking career as an artist and musician but has also distinguished herself as a stellar public servant. From her business achievements through Fenty to her tremendous record as an activist and philanthropist, Rihanna epitomizes the type of character, grace, and devotion to justice that we seek to highlight in our President's Award." Business career Rihanna's first fragrance, Reb'l Fleur, was released in January 2011. According to Rolling Stone, Reb'l Fleur was a financial success and was expected to gross US$80 million at retail by the end of 2011. Rihanna's second fragrance, Rebelle, was released in February 2012. The promotional campaign for Rebelle, was shot by director, Anthony Mandler, who also shot the promotional campaign for Reb'l Fleur. In November 2012, Rihanna released her third fragrance, Nude. Rihanna's fourth women's fragrance, titled Rogue was released on September 14, 2013, followed by a male version entitled Rogue Men which was released in 2014. On March 30, 2015, it was announced that Rihanna is a co-owner, with various other music artists, in the music streaming service Tidal. The service specializes in lossless audio and high definition music videos. Jay-Z acquired the parent company of Tidal, Aspiro, in the first quarter of 2015. Including Beyoncé and Jay-Z, sixteen artist stakeholders (such as Kanye West, Beyoncé, Madonna, Chris Martin, Nicki Minaj and more) co-own Tidal, with the majority owning a 3% equity stake. "The challenge is to get everyone to respect music again, to recognize its value", stated Jay-Z on the release of Tidal. In 2016, it was revealed that Rihanna would be releasing her music through her own label Westbury Road Entertainment, which was established in 2005. Westbury Road is the name of her Barbados residence. The music would be distributed through Universal Music Group. Westbury Road Entertainment's artist roster includes Melissa Forde as the label's photographer, and KazeLoon. In November 2015, Rihanna and Benoit Demouy launched a beauty and stylist agency named Fr8me. The business based in Los Angeles was set up to assist artists in booking commercials, editorial shoots, ad campaigns, and red-carpet appearances. Rihanna stated, "Hair, makeup, and styling play an important role in creativity; I am very involved with that part of my process, so this agency was an organic thing for me to do." The roster includes Rihanna's makeup artist Mylah Morales, wardrobe stylist Jason Bolden, hairstylist Patricia Morales and Marcia Hamilton. In addition to Fr8me, Rihanna opened a photo agency called "A Dog Ate My Homework", which represents photographers Erik Asla and Deborah Anderson. Fenty Fenty was a fashion brand by Rihanna under the luxury fashion group LVMH, which launched in May 2019. She was the first woman to create an original brand for LVMH and also the first woman of color to lead an LVMH brand. The house launched in a pop-up store on May 22, 2019, in Paris, before launching worldwide online on May 29 and included clothing, accessories, and footwear. It was the first line that LVMH had launched since 1987. The fashion brand was described as groundbreaking, and in a statement regarding the launch, Rihanna said that she had been given a "unique opportunity to develop a fashion house in the luxury sector, with no artistic limits." Due to the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, in February 2021, Rihanna and LVMH decided to "put on hold" her Fenty fashion house and continue building on the SavagexFenty lingerie line. Rihanna exclusively uses her surname for business endeavors not related to her music career so as not to conflate the two. In January 2019, Rihanna filed a lawsuit against her father, Ronald Fenty, over the use of the Fenty name for commercial purposes. The lawsuit alleges Rihanna's cosmetics brand, Fenty Beauty, was damaged commercially by her father's company, Fenty Entertainment, through misrepresentation of his company being affiliated with her. In September 2021 Rihanna dropped the lawsuit against her father. Fenty Beauty In 2017, Rihanna launched her critically acclaimed cosmetics company Fenty Beauty under LVMH's Kendo Brands. Rihanna owns 50 percent of Fenty Beauty, according to Forbes. The partnership was worth $10 million and would see Rihanna release various beauty products. The first installment of Fenty Beauty was released on September 8, 2017, in stores and online, available in over 150 countries. It included an array of products including foundations, highlighters, bronzers, blush compacts, lip glosses and blotting sheets and was praised for its diverse range for all skin colors. Time magazine named Fenty Beauty as one of "The 25 Best Inventions of 2017", citing the breadth of its range. In what has been dubbed the "Fenty Effect", the brand revolutionized the way other cosmetic brands approached diversity in marketing and product formulation: "Suddenly beauty houses – niche, establishment and those in between – began extending their shade ranges to accommodate a wider variety of skin tones. Forty shades became the new standard." Savage X Fenty In 2018, Rihanna launched a lingerie brand named Savage X Fenty. The line was born from Rihanna's vision creating an inclusive brand. Products come in a variety of shades to match all skin tones and a range of sizes. She showcased the brand at the New York Fashion Week in September 2018. The brand has been positively reviewed by the public for including plus size models in their promotion, though some fans argued there were not enough plus sizes. In September 2019, Rihanna promoted the brand in a show again during the New York Fashion Week held at the Barclays Center with modeling appearances from models Alex Wek, Bella Hadid, Cara Delevingne, actress Laverne Cox, and musicians Normani and 21 Savage. The show featured performances by DJ Khaled, Halsey, ASAP Ferg, Big Sean, Migos, Fat Joe, Fabolous, and Tierra Whack and premiered on Amazon Prime Video on September 20, 2019, as the Savage X Fenty Show. The show was renewed for a third time in 2020, with appearances from musicians such as Travis Scott, Rosalía, Bad Bunny, Ella Mai, Lizzo, Big Sean, Miguel, Roddy Ricch and Rico Nasty. This version also premiered on Amazon Prime Video on October 2, 2020. Fenty Skin In July 2020, Rihanna launched a skin care brand called Fenty Skin. Other ventures Rihanna has ventured into other businesses and industries. In October 2005, Rihanna struck an endorsement deal with Secret Body Spray. In 2010, Rihanna featured in the Optus commercial, in conjunction with Optus supporting Rihanna's Last Girl on Earth. The same year Rihanna also featured in the Kodak commercial along with rapper Pitbull. In October 2010, she released a photo book featuring photos from the Last Girl on Earth tour and served as an accompaniment to her fourth studio album Rated R (2009). In 2011, Rihanna was the face of Nivea and Vita Coco. Her first television program, Styled to Rock, premiered in the UK in August 2012 on Sky Living. In the 10-week series, Rihanna, Nicola Roberts, Lysa Cooper and Henry Holland assist up-and-coming British designers with their clothing lines. The US version of Styled to Rock premiered on October 25, 2013, on Bravo. In 2013, Rihanna collaborated with MAC Cosmetics and released her own summer, fall and holiday lines of makeup called "RiRi hearts MAC". In July 2013, lager production company Budweiser announced that Rihanna had become a part of their global "Made For Music" campaign, also co-starring Jay-Z. Early in her career, Rihanna made clear her interest in fashion and desire to work in the clothing design industry. Regarding this, she said, "Fashion has always been my defense mechanism". In November 2011, Rihanna announced her first fashion venture with Armani. In February 2013, Rihanna presented her first women's fashion collection at London Fashion Week for British brand River Island, collaborating with her personal stylist Adam Selman. They published three more collections for the brand. Rihanna then collaborated with numerous fashion house's including Dior, Stance and Manolo Blahnik. In March 2015, Rihanna was chosen as the new face of Dior; making her the first black woman to be the face of the brand. In 2014, Rihanna became the creative director of the fashion sportswear Puma, overseeing the brand's women's line which will include collaborations in apparel and footwear. The following year, Rihanna released her first trainer with Puma and it sold out online within three hours of its pre-sale launch. Over the next two years, Rihanna released various other footwear in different colorways and styles, which were all met positively by both critics and buyers. 2016 saw Rihanna debut her first clothing line in collaboration with Puma at New York Fashion Week; the collection was met with rave reviews from fashion critics. Acting career Rihanna made her acting debut in a cameo role in the straight-to-DVD film Bring It On: All or Nothing, released in August 2006. Rihanna starred as Petty Officer (GM2) Cora Raikes in her first theatrical feature film Battleship, which was released on May 18, 2012. Loosely based on the game of the same name, both the film and Rihanna's performance received mixed-to-negative reviews; the New York Times said she was "just fine in the rather generic role". In 2015, Rihanna appeared in the voice role of Tip in the animated feature film Home alongside Jim Parsons and Jennifer Lopez; the film was based on The True Meaning of Smekday by Adam Rex. Rihanna played the recurring role of Marion Crane in the fifth and final season of Bates Motel. The show received universal acclaim from critics. Rihanna also had a major role in the Luc Besson film Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets, an adaptation of the comic book series Valérian and Laureline. Also starring Dane DeHaan and Cara Delevingne, the film was released by STX Entertainment on July 21, 2017, in the US Rihanna was one of the all-female cast in the heist film Ocean's 8, directed by Gary Ross and released by Warner Bros. on June 8, 2018. The movie grossed $300 million worldwide and became a major box office success. In August 2018, it had been reported that Rihanna had been filming a secret project in Cuba titled Guava Island throughout that summer alongside Donald Glover. Glover's Atlanta collaborator Hiro Murai was directing, with Letitia Wright and Nonso Anozie also involved. The trailer for the full-length movie premiered on November 24 at the PHAROS festival in New Zealand. The exact details project were not announced until April 2019 when advertisements for Guava Island appeared on Spotify indicating something happening on "Saturday Night | April 13". It was later revealed Amazon Studios would distribute the film and Regency Enterprises had financed the film, which was released on April 13. Activism Philanthropy In 2006, she created her Believe Foundation to help terminally ill children. In 2007, Rihanna was named as one of the Cartier Love Charity Bracelet Ambassadors, with each celebrity representing a different global charity. To help raise awareness and combat HIV/AIDS, Rihanna and other public figures designed clothing for the February 2008 H&M Fashion Against AIDS line. In 2008, Rihanna performed a series of charity concerts entitled A Girl's Night Out to benefit the Believe Foundation. The concerts were made free for the public. Money from sponsors and advertisers were to be donated to provide medical supplies, school supplies and toys to children in need. In September 2008, Rihanna contributed to the song "Just Stand Up!" with fifteen other female artists, who shared the stage to perform the song live on September 5, 2008, during the "Stand Up to Cancer" television special. The proceeds from the single were given to the fundraiser. The television special helped raise $100 million for cancer research. Rihanna founded the Clara Lionel Foundation (CLF) in 2012, in honor of her grandparents, Clara and Lionel Braithwaite. Programs include the Clara Braithwaite Center for Oncology and Nuclear Medicine at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Barbados, and education programs. The CLF hosts an annual Diamond Ball charity fundraiser event. The inaugural event in 2014 raised over $2 million and the second raised over $3 million. On February 12, 2012, Rihanna performed a benefit show at the House of Blues to raise money for the Children's Orthopaedic Center and the Mark Taper-Johnny Mercer Artists Program at Children's Hospital. In November 2012, Rihanna gave $100,000 to food bank donation for Hurricane Sandy. On January 3, 2014, Rihanna was part of the MAC Viva Glam campaign, which benefits women, men and children living with HIV/AIDS. In March 2020, Rihanna donated $5,000,000 to COVID-19 relief and followed that up with additional donations of personal protective equipment to the state of New York and an offer of $700,000 worth of ventilators to her home country Barbados. In April 2020, Rihanna further donated an additional $2,100,000, matching Twitter CEO Jack Dorsey for a total of $4,200,000, to provide support and resources to individuals and children suffering from domestic violence amid the lockdown. Advocacy During her performance at the NCAA March Madness Music Festival, Rihanna expressed her disagreement with Indiana's Religious Freedom Restoration Act that allows companies and individuals to use their religious beliefs as protection, in case of being accused of discrimination against LGBT people. Rihanna along with numerous other high-profile celebrities featured in an online video titled "23 Ways You Could Be Killed If You Are Black in America". The video was released in partnership with the We Are Here Movement and called for action against police brutality. In January 2017, Rihanna participated in the 2017 Women's March, which took place in New York among protests the day after US President Donald Trump's inauguration. She has also criticized President Trump's immigration policies–including Executive Order 13769, which sought to ban citizens of Iran, Iraq, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, and Yemen from entering the United States–and his response to the 2019 shootings in El Paso and Dayton. In October 2019, she stated that she declined to perform at the 2020 Super Bowl halftime show in support of Colin Kaepernick following the controversy surrounding his role in the national anthem protests. In February 2021, Rihanna extended her support to Indian farmers' protest against the farm bills through Twitter. Personal life Rihanna owns a $14 million penthouse in Lower Manhattan. She also purchased a house in West London for £7 million in June 2018, to be closer to her work with her FENTY fashion label. In December 2018, Rihanna put her Hollywood Hills mansion up for sale after a break-in six months before. The mansion was reported to have sold for $10.4m. Forbes began reporting on Rihanna's earnings in 2012. Rihanna began dating American singer Chris Brown in 2007. After their relationship ended in February 2009, she entered an on-again, off-again relationship with Canadian rapper Drake, which lasted from 2009 to 2016. During an interview with Rolling Stone in January 2013, Rihanna confirmed that she had rekindled her relationship with Brown, although he remained under probation for their 2009 domestic violence case. Their reunion followed persistent media speculation that occurred throughout 2012. In May 2013, Brown stated during an interview that he and Rihanna had broken up again. In 2017, Rihanna began dating Saudi businessman Hassan Jameel. They split in January 2020. On May 19, 2021, American rapper ASAP Rocky confirmed during an interview with GQ that he and Rihanna were in a relationship. On January 31, 2022, it was revealed that the couple was expecting their first child. On May 19, 2022, it was confirmed that Rihanna had given birth to a son. On February 12, 2023, during the Super Bowl LVII halftime show performance, Rihanna revealed she is pregnant with her second child, becoming the first person to headline a Super Bowl halftime show while pregnant. The pregnancy was confirmed in a British Vogue cover story featuring her family, which was released days after the Super Bowl appearance. Domestic violence case On February 8, 2009, Rihanna's scheduled performance at the 51st Annual Grammy Awards was canceled. Reports surfaced that her boyfriend at the time, Chris Brown, had physically assaulted her. He turned himself in to the police and was booked on suspicion of making criminal threats. On March 5, 2009, Brown was charged with assault and making criminal threats. Due to a leaked photograph from the police department obtained by TMZ.com—which revealed that Rihanna had sustained extensive visible injuries—an organization known as STOParazzi proposed "Rihanna's Law", which, if enacted, would "deter employees of law enforcement agencies from releasing photos or information that exploits crime victims." Gil Kaufman of VH1 reported the "nonstop coverage of the Rihanna/Brown case has brought up a number of issues regarding the privacy of alleged victims of domestic violence, including the decision by almost all major news outlets to divulge the identity of the victim—which is not typically done in domestic-violence cases" and discussed the controversial distribution of the leaked photograph. Rihanna was subpoenaed to testify during a preliminary hearing in Los Angeles on June 22, 2009. On June 22, 2009, Brown pleaded guilty to felony assault. Brown received five years of probation and was ordered to stay away from Rihanna unless at public events, which then would be reduced to . On September 2, 2009, Brown spoke about the domestic violence case in a pre-recorded Larry King Live interview, his first public interview about the matter. He was accompanied to the interview by his mother, Joyce Hawkins, and attorney Mark Geragos, as he discussed growing up in a household with his mother being repeatedly assaulted by his stepfather. Brown said of hearing details of his assault of Rihanna, "I'm in shock, because, first of all, that's not who I am as a person, and that's not who I promise I want to be." Awards and achievements , Rihanna has sold over 250 million records worldwide, making her one of the best-selling music artists of all time. Throughout her career, she has received numerous awards and honors, including 9 Grammy Awards, 12 Billboard Music Awards, 13 American Music Awards, 8 People's Choice Awards, among others. Rihanna received the "Icon Award" at the 2013 American Music Awards and the Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award at the 2016 MTV Video Music Awards. She holds six Guinness World Records. In the United States, Rihanna has sold over 10 million albums, while Nielsen SoundScan ranked her as the bestselling digital artist in the country, breaking a Guinness World Record for digital single sales of over 58 million as of 2012. On July 1, 2015, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) announced that Rihanna had surpassed more than 100 million Gold and Platinum song certifications. In doing so, Rihanna has the most digital single awards and is the first and only artist to surpass RIAA's 100 million cumulative singles award threshold. In the United Kingdom, she has sold over 7 million albums, making her the third bestselling female artist this century. According to Billboard, her total album sales stand at 54 million copies sold worldwide. Rihanna has accumulated 14 No. 1 singles on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart for the third most No. 1 songs in the chart's history. She has been named the top Mainstream Top 40 chart artist of the past twenty years by Billboard; she ranks first with most entries (36), most top tens (23) and most No. 1 songs (10). , Rihanna has sold over 18 million singles and 6 million albums in the United Kingdom. She is the tenth bestselling and the second bestselling female singles artist in the country, only behind Madonna and is second only to the Beatles for the most million-selling singles in the UK of all time. Her collaboration with Eminem, "Love the Way You Lie", along with "Umbrella", "Disturbia", "Only Girl (In the World)", "We Found Love" and "Diamonds", are among the best-selling singles of all time. Rihanna has seven No. 1 singles on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, and Airplay chart, as well as sixteen No. 1 singles on the Rhythmic chart. She has also earned over 30 top-ten songs in the UK and Australia. Discography Music of the Sun (2005) A Girl like Me (2006) Good Girl Gone Bad (2007) Rated R (2009) Loud (2010) Talk That Talk (2011) Unapologetic (2012) Anti (2016) Selected filmography Bring It On: All or Nothing (2006) Battleship (2012) This Is the End (2013) Home (2015) Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets (2017) Ocean's 8 (2018) Guava Island (2019) Tours As a headliner Rihanna: Live in Concert (2006) Good Girl Gone Bad Tour (2007–2009) Last Girl on Earth Tour (2010–2011) Loud Tour (2011) Diamonds World Tour (2013) Anti World Tour (2016) As a co-headliner The Monster Tour (with Eminem) (2014) Promotional tours A Girl's Night Out (2008; a series of charity concerts to benefit the "Believe Foundation") 777 Tour (2012; in support of her seventh studio album Unapologetic'') See also Culture of Barbados Music of Barbados Honorific nicknames in popular music List of Billboard Social 50 number-one artists List of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements and milestones Rihanna (given name) Notes References External links Category:1988 births Category:Living people Category:21st-century Barbadian women Category:21st-century women singers Category:Ambassadors of Barbados to the United States Category:Barbadian actresses Category:Barbadian expatriates in the United Kingdom Category:Barbadian expatriates in the United States Category:Barbadian fashion designers Category:Barbadian people of Guyanese descent Category:Barbadian pop singers Category:Barbadian women ambassadors Category:Barbadian women singers Category:Brit Award winners Category:Contemporary R&B singers Category:Cosmetics businesspeople Category:Creative directors Category:Dance-pop musicians Category:Def Jam Recordings artists Category:Female billionaires Category:Grammy Award winners for dance and electronic music Category:Grammy Award winners for rap music Category:Juno Award for International Album of the Year winners Category:MTV Europe Music Award winners Category:National Heroes of Barbados Category:People educated at Combermere School Category:People from Saint Michael, Barbados Category:Roc Nation artists Category:Shorty Award winners Category:Singers with a three-octave vocal range Category:World Music Awards winners Category:Barbadian women fashion designers Category:Electronic dance music musicians
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C_5d96edda80914255a3e006531ad0110b_0
Fabolous
John David Jackson (born November 18, 1977), better known by his stage name Fabolous, is an American rapper,hip hop recording artist from Brooklyn, New York City. Jackson's career began when he was a senior in high school and ended up rapping live on American record producer and music executive DJ Clue's radio show, then on Hot 97. Jackson was subsequently signed by DJ Clue to his label Desert Storm, and later secured a distribution deal with Elektra Records. Fabolous' first release, Ghetto Fabolous (2001), spawned the hit singles "Can't Deny It" and "Young'n (Holla Back)", which led Jackson to prominence.
2004-08: Real Talk and From Nothin' to Somethin'
Fabolous' third album Real Talk was released on November 5, 2004. It debuted at number six on the Billboard 200 with 10,000 copies and had two charting singles, the lowest in his career. The two charting singles are his street anthem "Breathe" and "Baby," which features Mike Shorey, and shows his more sensitive side that he has shown on many songs in the past. His second single was not promoted until weeks after the album's release. "Tit 4 Tat" was his third single. Pharrell of The Neptunes produced it and did the hook. Fab feels that the single didn't hit it as big as it should have due to poor advertising. Making the music video for his fourth single, "Do the Damn Thing" cost Jackson $30,000. The song featured Young Jeezy, who became known to the public through the video. The same year, Fabolous was nominated for a Grammy Award for his collaboration on the "Dip It Low" remix by Christina Milian. Fabolous stated in 2004 that he wanted to release his own clothing line. The line called "Rich Yung Society" was launched in 2006. In early 2006, Fabolous was let out of his contract with Atlantic and officially signed a recording contract with Def Jam Recordings, after a de facto trade that sent Def Jam artist Musiq, to Atlantic. His fourth studio album, From Nothin' to Somethin, was released in June 2007. Fabolous took the number one spot on Billboard's Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums and Top Rap Albums charts for the first time in his career and it debuted at number two on the Billboard 200, selling 159,000 copies in its first week. The album was certified Gold in July 2007. It is his first album on Def Jam Recordings. He was featured on the cover of video game Def Jam: Icon. The first single and video, "Diamonds", features Young Jeezy who also appeared on the Real Talk track "Do the Damn Thing". Lil Wayne and Remy Ma are featured on the remix. His second single was "Return of the Hustle" which featured Swizz Beatz, also came out before the album release, to some acclaim, but little airplay. His third single though, "Make Me Better," which features fellow Def Jam artist Ne-Yo, and is produced by Timbaland, was his biggest hit to date, spending 14 weeks at number one on the Hot Rap Track Billboard Chart. The fourth single was "Baby Don't Go." Jermaine Dupri produced it and T-Pain sings the hook. However, in music video version of the song, Jermaine Dupri sings the hook. This song also found success, reaching number four on the Hot Rap Track Chart. CANNOTANSWER
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John David Jackson (born November 18, 1977), better known by his stage name Fabolous, is an American rapper. Raised in Brooklyn, he first gained recognition while still a senior in high school, when he performed live on American music executive DJ Clue's radio show, then on Hot 97. Jackson subsequently signed to DJ Clue's Desert Storm imprint, and later secured a distribution deal with major-label, Elektra. Jackson gained prominence with his first release, Ghetto Fabolous (2001), which spawned the hit singles "Can't Deny It" (featuring Nate Dogg) and "Young'n (Holla Back)". His second release was 2003's Street Dreams, which was supported by two US top 10 singles, "Can't Let You Go" (featuring Lil' Mo) and "Into You" (featuring Tamia or Ashanti). Including the aforementioned songs, Jackson's series of hit singles extended throughout the 2000s, including "Trade It All, Pt. 2" (featuring Diddy and Jagged Edge), "Breathe", "Make Me Better" (featuring Ne-Yo), "Baby Don't Go" (featuring T-Pain), "Throw It in the Bag" (featuring The-Dream) and "You Be Killin' Em". He is also known for his appearances on several R&B singles, including "Superwoman Pt. II" by Lil' Mo, "Shawty Is a 10" by The-Dream, "Addiction" by Ryan Leslie, "She Got Her Own" by Jamie Foxx, and "Say Aah" by Trey Songz, among others. In 2004, Jackson signed to Atlantic Records (another subsidiary of Warner Music Group), after leaving Elektra, where he released Real Talk, his first and only album under Atlantic. In 2006, Jackson was let out of his contract with Atlantic and officially signed with Def Jam Recordings (owned by Warner competitor Universal Music Group). Also in 2006, Jackson founded his own record label, Street Family Records. In 2007, he released From Nothin' to Somethin', under Def Jam. In 2009, he released his fifth album, Loso's Way. Throughout the years, Jackson has amassed a number of self-released mixtapes, including several installments of his highly acclaimed There Is No Competition series and The S.O.U.L. Tape series. He released his sixth album, The Young OG Project, in 2014. Life and career 1977–2000: Early life and career beginnings Fabolous was born John David Jackson on November 18, 1977, and is of Dominican and African-American descent. He grew up in Breevort Houses in the Bedford-Stuyvesant neighborhood of the Brooklyn borough of New York City. Jackson attended High School of Art & Design and City-As-School High School in Manhattan, and eventually Boys and Girls High School in Bed-Stuy. While in his senior year of high school, Jackson began to pursue a career in hip hop music. In the early years of his career, he rapped under the name Fabolous Sport, in reference to Ralph Lauren's Polo Sport line, however this was later shortened to simply Fabolous. The misspelling was unintentional; Jackson originally intended to be simply called "Fabulous" but incorrectly spelled it during a freestyle and it stuck. He was invited to rap live on American record producer and music executive DJ Clue's radio show, then on New York City radio station Hot 97. Fabolous and N.O.R.E. rapped over the instrumental to The Lox's Money, Power & Respect, and DJ Clue subsequently signed Fabolous to his record label, Desert Storm Records. Fabolous was then featured on several DJ Clue mixtapes, as well as mixtapes with Roc-A-Fella artists. This earned Fabolous and Desert Storm a distribution deal with Elektra Records. In a September 6, 2001, interview with Hot104.com, Fabolous said he never planned on becoming a rapper and told the website: "I was just trying to make some money, ya know? I got tired of being broke. This was something where I could make some money. It just happened for me." 2001–2003: Ghetto Fabolous and Street Dreams Fabolous released his debut album, Ghetto Fabolous, on September 11, 2001. It debuted at number four on the Billboard 200, selling over 140,000 copies in its first week. The album's first single, "Can't Deny It", was produced by Rick Rock and features a chorus by Nate Dogg interpolating Tupac Shakur's song "Ambitionz Az a Ridah". It charted on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, along with two of the subsequent singles. The other charting singles were "Young'n (Holla Back)", which was produced by The Neptunes and "Trade It All", which features vocals from Jagged Edge and was produced by DJ Clue and Duro. Fabolous released his second album Street Dreams on March 4, 2003. Powered by a Just Blaze beat and guest vocals from Lil' Mo and Mike Shorey, "Can't Let You Go" reached number one on the Rhythmic Top 40 chart and number four on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. "Into You" with Tamia also reached number four on the Billboard Hot 100. Also released on Street Dreams was the lead single club banger "This Is My Party" and "Trade It All Pt. 2" which featured Jagged Edge as it did on the Ghetto Fabolous version, as well as Diddy. Exactly seven months later, on November 4, 2003, Fabolous dropped his official mixtape, More Street Dreams, Pt. 2: The Mixtape. It was an official release by his record label, Elektra. The album featured remixes and tracks not originally on Street Dreams. This album was also an outlet for his three-man crew, known as the Triangle Offense, consisting of himself, Paul Cain, and Joe Budden. The album actually features a remix to song Fire, which was originally on Joe Budden's self-titled debut album. === 2004–2008: Real Talk and From Nothin' to Somethin''' === Fabolous' third album Real Talk was released on November 5, 2004. It debuted at number six on the Billboard 200 with 179,000 copies and had two charting singles, the lowest in his career. The two charting singles are his street anthem "Breathe" and "Baby," which features Mike Shorey, and shows his more sensitive side that he has shown on many songs in the past. His second single was not promoted until weeks after the album's release. "Tit 4 Tat" was his third single. Pharrell of The Neptunes produced it and did the hook. Fab feels that the single didn't hit it as big as it should have due to poor advertising. Making the music video for his fourth single, "Do the Damn Thing" cost Jackson $30,000. The song featured Young Jeezy, who became known to the public through the video. The same year, Fabolous was nominated for a Grammy Award for his collaboration on the "Dip It Low" remix by Christina Milian. Fabolous stated in 2004 that he wanted to release his own clothing line. The line called "Rich Yung Society" was launched in 2006.C. Khid (March 18, 2006). Rich Yung Society Clothing Launched By Fabolous; a RichYung LifeStyle. Retrieved February 23, 2007. In early 2006, Fabolous was let out of his contract with Atlantic and officially signed a recording contract with Def Jam Recordings, after a de facto trade that sent Def Jam artist Musiq, to Atlantic. His fourth studio album, From Nothin' to Somethin, was released in June 2007. Fabolous took the number one spot on Billboards Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums and Top Rap Albums charts for the first time in his career and it debuted at number two on the Billboard 200, selling 159,000 copies in its first week. The album was certified Gold in July 2007. It is his first album on Def Jam Recordings. He was featured on the cover of video game Def Jam: Icon. The first single and video, "Diamonds", features Young Jeezy who also appeared on the Real Talk track "Do the Damn Thing". Lil Wayne and Remy Ma are featured on the remix. His second single was "Return of the Hustle" which featured Swizz Beatz, also came out before the album release, to some acclaim, but little airplay. His third single though, "Make Me Better," which features fellow Def Jam artist Ne-Yo, and is produced by Timbaland, was his biggest hit to date, spending 14 weeks at number one on the Hot Rap Track Billboard Chart. The fourth single was "Baby Don't Go." Jermaine Dupri produced it and T-Pain sings the hook. However, in music video version of the song, Jermaine Dupri sings the hook. This song also found success, reaching number four on the Hot Rap Track Chart. 2009–2010: Loso's Way Fabolous released his fifth studio album, Loso's Way, in July 2009. The album is based on the 1993 film Carlito's Way, similar to Jay-Z's American Gangster. The first official single is "Throw It in the Bag", featuring The-Dream, and is produced by Christopher "Tricky" Stewart. The second single is "My Time", featuring Jeremih, and is produced by The Runners and Kevin "KC" Cossom. The third single is "Everything, Everyday, Everywhere", featuring Keri Hilson, and is produced by Ryan Leslie. The album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, selling 99,000 copies in its first week. It became Fabolous' first album to top the chart. In its second week of sales, the album dropped 8 spots from #1 to #9, selling 37,000 copies. A deluxe album was released on the same day as the standard release. The edition features a bonus DVD, ("Loso's Way" the movie). The movie features Fabolous (and three other of his friends). Fabolous is leaving a restaurant when he is shot. His three friends quickly rush Fabolous to the hospital, but are stopped by the police after running a red light. Fellow rapper Styles P has a role in the movie. DJ Clue, DJ Khaled, Jadakiss, Swizz Beatz, DJ Envy, and Ryan Leslie make cameo appearances. The movie "Loso's Way" runs for 33:03 minutes. In order to view "Loso's Way", the deluxe album "Loso's Way" must be purchased. In September 2009, Fabolous was ranked number eight on MTV's Hottest MC in the Game list. In an interview on December 10, 2009, with MTV, he announced that he would be releasing part two to his mixtape series with DJ Drama entitled: "There is No Competition – Part 2: The Funeral Service." Fabolous announced that it would be released on Christmas Day as a gift to his fans. He then pushed back the release date multiple times via Twitter before he and DJ Drama finally released the mixtape online on March 4, 2010. 2010–2014: There Is No Competition series and The Soul Tape series On March 5, 2010, Fabolous released There Is No Competition 2: The Funeral Service, his fourth solo mixtape and the sequel to 2008's There Is No Competition. Due to the popularity of the mixtape, Fabolous re-released it for retail in the form of an extended play (EP) titled There Is No Competition 2: The Grieving Music EP. The EP, which was preceded by the Ryan Leslie-produced single "You Be Killin Em", was released on August 29, 2010. The single peaked at number 68 on the US Billboard Hot 100. After it was announced that his sixth album would once again be delayed, Fabolous chose to release a new project titled The S.O.U.L. Tape. The mixtape was released on April 22, 2011, and features Fabolous rapping over soul-sampling production, inspired by a freestyle he had done over the instrumental to Kanye West's "Devil in a New Dress". On Christmas Day 2011, Fabolous released There Is No Competition 3: Death Comes in 3's, the third installment in his There Is No Competition mixtape series. On November 22, 2012, Fabolous released his seventh mixtape, The S.O.U.L. Tape 2. The S.O.U.L. Tape 2 featured guest appearances from Trey Songz, Pusha T, Cassie, J. Cole, Wale and Joe Budden. The mixtape's production was handled by Streetrunner, Treddy da Don, AraabMuzik and Cardiak, among others, and follows the theme of the first album by utilising heavy usage of soul samples throughout. In late 2012, Fabolous announced his sixth album, then-titled Loso's Way 2: Rise to Power, would be released in 2013. The first official single from Loso's Way 2, "Ready" featuring singer Chris Brown was released on January 17, 2013. The second single "When I Feel Like It" featuring 2 Chainz was released on July 9, 2013. In an interview Fabolous revealed the list of features included Trey Songz, Ne-Yo, FYUTCH, Rick Ross, and Young Jeezy and stated that the album was about him "evolving and growing as a person, as a man, as an artist, as a father, as a friend." Loso's Way 2 was scheduled to be released in 2013 by Desert Storm and Def Jam, however, the album was delayed all year long and subsequently rescheduled for release in 2014.S. Samuel, "With 'Loso's Way 2' Nowhere In Sight, Fabolous Finds His Soul", SOHH, November 8, 2013. On July 30, 2014, Fabolous announced that the lead single from the album would be released by "the end of summer" and would again feature Chris Brown. He stated that "Ready" was just a "warmup record" for this song and that it would be very melodic. 2014–present: The Young OG Project series, Summertime Shootout series, and collab album with Jadakiss On August 22, 2014, Fabolous announced that his much delayed sixth studio album had been renamed to Young OG. This was later changed to The Young OG Project. On December 1, 2014, Fabolous announced the release date for The Young OG Project to be December 25, 2014, with the announcement posted on his new Keek page. Speaking to MTV, Fabolous said the album would be "very '90s-inspired and '90s themed.". On the same day of the album release announcement, Roc Nation announced Fabolous had signed a management deal. The Young OG Project was released on Christmas Day 2014 and debuted at number 12 on the Billboard 200 chart, with first-week sales of 71,000 copies in the United States. In October 2015, Fabolous confirmed that he would be releasing two new projects by the end of the year, announcing one of them would follow the trend set by There Is No Competition 2 and The Young OG Project by releasing on Christmas Day. On November 26, Fabolous released the free mixtape Summertime Shootout, and announced the second installment of The Young OG Project for December 25, however, it has since been delayed indefinitely. On February 29, 2016, Fabolous and Jadakiss announced that work had begun on their first collaborative project, a mixtape pre-emptively titled Freddy vs. Jason. On April 2, 2016, they released a freestyle to Future's "Wicked" that they confirmed would appear on the project, which they also announced would not be a mixtape, but a full album. On April 29, 2016, Fabolous worked with K-pop artist Jessica Jung as a featured artist and co-writer on a track titled "Fly", the lead single for her first mini album, With Love, J. On September 3, 2016, Fabolous released the second installment of the Summertime Shootout mixtape series, titled Summertime Shootout 2: The Level Up. On October 31, 2017, the first single off the album "Stand Up" featuring Future. On November 21, 2017, it was announced that the album title was changed to Friday on Elm Street. The album was released on November 24, 2017, and had features from Future, Swizz Beatz, and French Montana. On July 8, 2018, Fabolous released a single called "Ooh Yeah" featuring Ty Dolla Sign. On October 14, 2019, released a single called "Choosy" featuring Jeremih and Davido. On November 19, 2019, Fabolous released a 30-second trailer on his instagram for Summertime Shootout 3: Coldest Summer Ever along with its release date, confirming that it would be released November 29, 2019. A week later, the tracklist and the cover art were released for the album and it was also confirmed to be the final installment of the Summertime Shootout series. The album debuted at number 7 on the Billboard 200 with first week sales of 44,000 album-equivalent units, making it Fabolous's seventh top-10 album. Street Family Records Street Family Records is a record label imprint, founded by Fabolous in 2006, in Brooklyn, New York. Current artists Fabolous Freck Billionaire Paul Cain Broadway Red Cafe Personal life Fabolous and his girlfriend Emily Bustamante have two sons & one daughter, born in 2008, 2015 & 2020. Legal issues In January and March 2003, Fabolous was arrested for possessing an unlicensed gun in his car. His bodyguard later showed proof of ownership for the gun.Vineyard, Jennifer (January 17, 2003). Fabolous Arrested Twice in Two Days . MTV. Retrieved October 8, 2007. In the morning of October 17, 2006, Fabolous was shot once near his leg after exiting Justin's, a restaurant owned by Sean "Diddy" Combs in Manhattan. After the shooting, he and his entourage were charged with criminal possession of a weapon and criminal possession of a defaced firearm after being pulled over for running a red light, in which police discovered two unlicensed guns. Later on, Fabolous was treated at a local hospital and was released eight days later. On March 29, 2018, Fabolous was arrested for domestic violence after allegedly assaulting his girlfriend Emily Bustamante. On October 10, 2018, he was indicted by a grand jury in New Jersey on four felony charges of domestic assault. He reportedly accepted a plea deal in March 2019. Discography Studio albums Ghetto Fabolous (2001) Street Dreams (2003) Real Talk (2004) From Nothin' to Somethin' (2007) Loso's Way (2009) The Young OG Project (2014) Summertime Shootout 3: Coldest Summer Ever (2019) Collaboration albums Friday on Elm Street (with Jadakiss) (2017) Filmography Awards and nominations American Music Awards 2007, Favorite Rap/Hip Hop Male Artist [Nominated] ASCAP Rhythm and Soul Music Awards2008, Top Rap Song, "Make Me Better" [Won]BET Awards 2010, Best Male Hip Hop Artist [Nominated] 2010, Best Collaboration, "Say Aah" with Trey Songz [Nominated] 2010, Best Viewer's Choice, "Say Aah" with Trey Songz [Nominated] BET Hip Hop Awards 2014, Best Mixtape, The Soul Tape 3 [Nominated]2009, Viewer's Choice, "Throw It in the Bag" with The-Dream [Won]''' 2007, Best Hip Hop Collabo, "Make Me Better" with Ne-Yo [Nominated] Grammy Awards 2010, Best Rap Performance by a Duo or a Group, "Money Goes, Honey Stays" with Jay-Z [Nominated] 2005, Best Rap/Sung Collaboration, "Dip It Low" with Christina Milian [Nominated] The Source Awards 2003, Best Rap/R&B Collabo, "Can't Let You Go" with Lil Mo and Mike Shorey [Nominated] 2003, Trendsetter of the Year [Nominated] Teen Choice Awards 2007, Best Choice: Rap Artist [Nominated] 2003, Choice Rap Track, "Can't Let You Go" with Lil Mo and Mike Shorey [Nominated] 2003, Choice R&B/Hip Hop Track, "4Ever" with Lil Mo [Nominated] References External links Category:1977 births Category:Living people Category:American rappers of Dominican Republic descent Category:Hispanic and Latino American rappers Category:African-American male rappers Category:African-American male songwriters Category:American shooting survivors Category:Desert Storm Records artists Category:East Coast hip hop musicians Category:Pop rappers Category:People from Bedford–Stuyvesant, Brooklyn Category:Rappers from Brooklyn Category:Songwriters from New York (state) Category:21st-century American rappers Category:21st-century American male musicians Category:People convicted of domestic violence Category:Gangsta rappers Category:21st-century African-American musicians Category:20th-century African-American people
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[ "In 2004, Fabolous released his third album, Real Talk, which debuted at number six on the Billboard 200 with two charting singles - \"Breathe\" and \"Baby.\" After the album's release, his second single was promoted. He later released his third single, \"Tit 4 Tat,\" produced by Pharrell of The Neptunes. Fabolous also expressed his desire to launch his own clothing line that year, and was nominated for a Grammy for his collaboration on Christina Milian's \"Dip it Low\" remix.", "The album Real Talk did achieve success and debuted at number six on the Billboard 200, but the two singles from the album were the lowest in his career. Fabulous felt that his third single, \"Tit 4 Tat,\" did not achieve the success it should have because of poor advertising. However, he was nominated for a Grammy Award in that same year for his collaboration on the \"Dip It Low\" remix by Christina Milian, which indicates some degree of success.", "The context does not provide information on whether Fabolous went on tour in 2004.", "Aside from \"Real Talk,\" the context also mentions that Fabolous released the album \"From Nothin' to Somethin\" in June 2007 after signing a recording contract with Def Jam Recordings.", "Yes, Fabolous' album \"From Nothin' to Somethin\" had hits. One of the singles, \"Make Me Better,\" which features Ne-Yo, spent 14 weeks at number one on the Hot Rap Track Billboard Chart. A song from the album called \"Baby Don't Go\" also found success, reaching number four on the Hot Rap Track Chart.", "The context does not provide information on whether Fabolous won any awards.", "The context does not provide information on whether Fabolous went on tour.", "Some interesting aspects from this article include Fabolous expressing his desire to launch his own clothing line in 2004, and eventually launching the \"Rich Yung Society\" line in 2006. He was let out of his contract with Atlantic in early 2006 and officially signed a recording contract with Def Jam Recordings. His album \"From Nothin' to Somethin\" took the number one spot on Billboard's Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums and Top Rap Albums charts, and debuted at number two on the Billboard 200. He was featured on the cover of the video game Def Jam: Icon." ]
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C_5d96edda80914255a3e006531ad0110b_1
Fabolous
John David Jackson (born November 18, 1977), better known by his stage name Fabolous, is an American rapper,hip hop recording artist from Brooklyn, New York City. Jackson's career began when he was a senior in high school and ended up rapping live on American record producer and music executive DJ Clue's radio show, then on Hot 97. Jackson was subsequently signed by DJ Clue to his label Desert Storm, and later secured a distribution deal with Elektra Records. Fabolous' first release, Ghetto Fabolous (2001), spawned the hit singles "Can't Deny It" and "Young'n (Holla Back)", which led Jackson to prominence.
2001-03: Ghetto Fabolous and Street Dreams
Fabolous released his debut album, Ghetto Fabolous, on September 11, 2001. It debuted at number four on the Billboard 200, selling over 140,000 copies in its first week. The album's first single, "Can't Deny It", was produced by Rick Rock and features a chorus by Nate Dogg interpolating Tupac Shakur's song "Ambitionz Az a Ridah". It charted on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, along with two of the subsequent singles. The other charting singles were "Young'n (Holla Back)", which was produced by The Neptunes and "Trade It All", which features vocals from Jagged Edge and was produced by DJ Clue and Duro. Fabolous released his second album Street Dreams on March 4, 2003. Powered by a Just Blaze beat and guest vocals from Lil' Mo and Mike Shorey, "Can't Let You Go" reached number one on the Rhythmic Top 40 chart and number four on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. "Into You" with Tamia also reached number four on the Billboard Hot 100. Also released on Street Dreams was the lead single club banger "This Is My Party" and "Trade It All Pt. 2" which featured Jagged Edge as it did on the Ghetto Fabolous version, as well as Diddy. Exactly seven months later, on November 4, 2003, Fabolous dropped his official mixtape, More Street Dreams, Pt. 2: The Mixtape. It was an official release by his record label, Elektra. The album featured remixes and tracks not originally on Street Dreams. This album was also an outlet for his three-man crew, known as the Triangle Offense, consisting of himself, Paul Cain, and Joe Budden. The album actually features a remix to song Fire, which was originally on Joe Budden's self-titled debut album. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "what happeend in 2001?", "was the album successful?", "did it have any hit singles?", "did it make the charts?", "did they produce any other albums?", "was this album successful?", "did they go on tour at all?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?" ]
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John David Jackson (born November 18, 1977), better known by his stage name Fabolous, is an American rapper. Raised in Brooklyn, he first gained recognition while still a senior in high school, when he performed live on American music executive DJ Clue's radio show, then on Hot 97. Jackson subsequently signed to DJ Clue's Desert Storm imprint, and later secured a distribution deal with major-label, Elektra. Jackson gained prominence with his first release, Ghetto Fabolous (2001), which spawned the hit singles "Can't Deny It" (featuring Nate Dogg) and "Young'n (Holla Back)". His second release was 2003's Street Dreams, which was supported by two US top 10 singles, "Can't Let You Go" (featuring Lil' Mo) and "Into You" (featuring Tamia or Ashanti). Including the aforementioned songs, Jackson's series of hit singles extended throughout the 2000s, including "Trade It All, Pt. 2" (featuring Diddy and Jagged Edge), "Breathe", "Make Me Better" (featuring Ne-Yo), "Baby Don't Go" (featuring T-Pain), "Throw It in the Bag" (featuring The-Dream) and "You Be Killin' Em". He is also known for his appearances on several R&B singles, including "Superwoman Pt. II" by Lil' Mo, "Shawty Is a 10" by The-Dream, "Addiction" by Ryan Leslie, "She Got Her Own" by Jamie Foxx, and "Say Aah" by Trey Songz, among others. In 2004, Jackson signed to Atlantic Records (another subsidiary of Warner Music Group), after leaving Elektra, where he released Real Talk, his first and only album under Atlantic. In 2006, Jackson was let out of his contract with Atlantic and officially signed with Def Jam Recordings (owned by Warner competitor Universal Music Group). Also in 2006, Jackson founded his own record label, Street Family Records. In 2007, he released From Nothin' to Somethin', under Def Jam. In 2009, he released his fifth album, Loso's Way. Throughout the years, Jackson has amassed a number of self-released mixtapes, including several installments of his highly acclaimed There Is No Competition series and The S.O.U.L. Tape series. He released his sixth album, The Young OG Project, in 2014. Life and career 1977–2000: Early life and career beginnings Fabolous was born John David Jackson on November 18, 1977, and is of Dominican and African-American descent. He grew up in Breevort Houses in the Bedford-Stuyvesant neighborhood of the Brooklyn borough of New York City. Jackson attended High School of Art & Design and City-As-School High School in Manhattan, and eventually Boys and Girls High School in Bed-Stuy. While in his senior year of high school, Jackson began to pursue a career in hip hop music. In the early years of his career, he rapped under the name Fabolous Sport, in reference to Ralph Lauren's Polo Sport line, however this was later shortened to simply Fabolous. The misspelling was unintentional; Jackson originally intended to be simply called "Fabulous" but incorrectly spelled it during a freestyle and it stuck. He was invited to rap live on American record producer and music executive DJ Clue's radio show, then on New York City radio station Hot 97. Fabolous and N.O.R.E. rapped over the instrumental to The Lox's Money, Power & Respect, and DJ Clue subsequently signed Fabolous to his record label, Desert Storm Records. Fabolous was then featured on several DJ Clue mixtapes, as well as mixtapes with Roc-A-Fella artists. This earned Fabolous and Desert Storm a distribution deal with Elektra Records. In a September 6, 2001, interview with Hot104.com, Fabolous said he never planned on becoming a rapper and told the website: "I was just trying to make some money, ya know? I got tired of being broke. This was something where I could make some money. It just happened for me." 2001–2003: Ghetto Fabolous and Street Dreams Fabolous released his debut album, Ghetto Fabolous, on September 11, 2001. It debuted at number four on the Billboard 200, selling over 140,000 copies in its first week. The album's first single, "Can't Deny It", was produced by Rick Rock and features a chorus by Nate Dogg interpolating Tupac Shakur's song "Ambitionz Az a Ridah". It charted on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, along with two of the subsequent singles. The other charting singles were "Young'n (Holla Back)", which was produced by The Neptunes and "Trade It All", which features vocals from Jagged Edge and was produced by DJ Clue and Duro. Fabolous released his second album Street Dreams on March 4, 2003. Powered by a Just Blaze beat and guest vocals from Lil' Mo and Mike Shorey, "Can't Let You Go" reached number one on the Rhythmic Top 40 chart and number four on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. "Into You" with Tamia also reached number four on the Billboard Hot 100. Also released on Street Dreams was the lead single club banger "This Is My Party" and "Trade It All Pt. 2" which featured Jagged Edge as it did on the Ghetto Fabolous version, as well as Diddy. Exactly seven months later, on November 4, 2003, Fabolous dropped his official mixtape, More Street Dreams, Pt. 2: The Mixtape. It was an official release by his record label, Elektra. The album featured remixes and tracks not originally on Street Dreams. This album was also an outlet for his three-man crew, known as the Triangle Offense, consisting of himself, Paul Cain, and Joe Budden. The album actually features a remix to song Fire, which was originally on Joe Budden's self-titled debut album. === 2004–2008: Real Talk and From Nothin' to Somethin''' === Fabolous' third album Real Talk was released on November 5, 2004. It debuted at number six on the Billboard 200 with 179,000 copies and had two charting singles, the lowest in his career. The two charting singles are his street anthem "Breathe" and "Baby," which features Mike Shorey, and shows his more sensitive side that he has shown on many songs in the past. His second single was not promoted until weeks after the album's release. "Tit 4 Tat" was his third single. Pharrell of The Neptunes produced it and did the hook. Fab feels that the single didn't hit it as big as it should have due to poor advertising. Making the music video for his fourth single, "Do the Damn Thing" cost Jackson $30,000. The song featured Young Jeezy, who became known to the public through the video. The same year, Fabolous was nominated for a Grammy Award for his collaboration on the "Dip It Low" remix by Christina Milian. Fabolous stated in 2004 that he wanted to release his own clothing line. The line called "Rich Yung Society" was launched in 2006.C. Khid (March 18, 2006). Rich Yung Society Clothing Launched By Fabolous; a RichYung LifeStyle. Retrieved February 23, 2007. In early 2006, Fabolous was let out of his contract with Atlantic and officially signed a recording contract with Def Jam Recordings, after a de facto trade that sent Def Jam artist Musiq, to Atlantic. His fourth studio album, From Nothin' to Somethin, was released in June 2007. Fabolous took the number one spot on Billboards Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums and Top Rap Albums charts for the first time in his career and it debuted at number two on the Billboard 200, selling 159,000 copies in its first week. The album was certified Gold in July 2007. It is his first album on Def Jam Recordings. He was featured on the cover of video game Def Jam: Icon. The first single and video, "Diamonds", features Young Jeezy who also appeared on the Real Talk track "Do the Damn Thing". Lil Wayne and Remy Ma are featured on the remix. His second single was "Return of the Hustle" which featured Swizz Beatz, also came out before the album release, to some acclaim, but little airplay. His third single though, "Make Me Better," which features fellow Def Jam artist Ne-Yo, and is produced by Timbaland, was his biggest hit to date, spending 14 weeks at number one on the Hot Rap Track Billboard Chart. The fourth single was "Baby Don't Go." Jermaine Dupri produced it and T-Pain sings the hook. However, in music video version of the song, Jermaine Dupri sings the hook. This song also found success, reaching number four on the Hot Rap Track Chart. 2009–2010: Loso's Way Fabolous released his fifth studio album, Loso's Way, in July 2009. The album is based on the 1993 film Carlito's Way, similar to Jay-Z's American Gangster. The first official single is "Throw It in the Bag", featuring The-Dream, and is produced by Christopher "Tricky" Stewart. The second single is "My Time", featuring Jeremih, and is produced by The Runners and Kevin "KC" Cossom. The third single is "Everything, Everyday, Everywhere", featuring Keri Hilson, and is produced by Ryan Leslie. The album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, selling 99,000 copies in its first week. It became Fabolous' first album to top the chart. In its second week of sales, the album dropped 8 spots from #1 to #9, selling 37,000 copies. A deluxe album was released on the same day as the standard release. The edition features a bonus DVD, ("Loso's Way" the movie). The movie features Fabolous (and three other of his friends). Fabolous is leaving a restaurant when he is shot. His three friends quickly rush Fabolous to the hospital, but are stopped by the police after running a red light. Fellow rapper Styles P has a role in the movie. DJ Clue, DJ Khaled, Jadakiss, Swizz Beatz, DJ Envy, and Ryan Leslie make cameo appearances. The movie "Loso's Way" runs for 33:03 minutes. In order to view "Loso's Way", the deluxe album "Loso's Way" must be purchased. In September 2009, Fabolous was ranked number eight on MTV's Hottest MC in the Game list. In an interview on December 10, 2009, with MTV, he announced that he would be releasing part two to his mixtape series with DJ Drama entitled: "There is No Competition – Part 2: The Funeral Service." Fabolous announced that it would be released on Christmas Day as a gift to his fans. He then pushed back the release date multiple times via Twitter before he and DJ Drama finally released the mixtape online on March 4, 2010. 2010–2014: There Is No Competition series and The Soul Tape series On March 5, 2010, Fabolous released There Is No Competition 2: The Funeral Service, his fourth solo mixtape and the sequel to 2008's There Is No Competition. Due to the popularity of the mixtape, Fabolous re-released it for retail in the form of an extended play (EP) titled There Is No Competition 2: The Grieving Music EP. The EP, which was preceded by the Ryan Leslie-produced single "You Be Killin Em", was released on August 29, 2010. The single peaked at number 68 on the US Billboard Hot 100. After it was announced that his sixth album would once again be delayed, Fabolous chose to release a new project titled The S.O.U.L. Tape. The mixtape was released on April 22, 2011, and features Fabolous rapping over soul-sampling production, inspired by a freestyle he had done over the instrumental to Kanye West's "Devil in a New Dress". On Christmas Day 2011, Fabolous released There Is No Competition 3: Death Comes in 3's, the third installment in his There Is No Competition mixtape series. On November 22, 2012, Fabolous released his seventh mixtape, The S.O.U.L. Tape 2. The S.O.U.L. Tape 2 featured guest appearances from Trey Songz, Pusha T, Cassie, J. Cole, Wale and Joe Budden. The mixtape's production was handled by Streetrunner, Treddy da Don, AraabMuzik and Cardiak, among others, and follows the theme of the first album by utilising heavy usage of soul samples throughout. In late 2012, Fabolous announced his sixth album, then-titled Loso's Way 2: Rise to Power, would be released in 2013. The first official single from Loso's Way 2, "Ready" featuring singer Chris Brown was released on January 17, 2013. The second single "When I Feel Like It" featuring 2 Chainz was released on July 9, 2013. In an interview Fabolous revealed the list of features included Trey Songz, Ne-Yo, FYUTCH, Rick Ross, and Young Jeezy and stated that the album was about him "evolving and growing as a person, as a man, as an artist, as a father, as a friend." Loso's Way 2 was scheduled to be released in 2013 by Desert Storm and Def Jam, however, the album was delayed all year long and subsequently rescheduled for release in 2014.S. Samuel, "With 'Loso's Way 2' Nowhere In Sight, Fabolous Finds His Soul", SOHH, November 8, 2013. On July 30, 2014, Fabolous announced that the lead single from the album would be released by "the end of summer" and would again feature Chris Brown. He stated that "Ready" was just a "warmup record" for this song and that it would be very melodic. 2014–present: The Young OG Project series, Summertime Shootout series, and collab album with Jadakiss On August 22, 2014, Fabolous announced that his much delayed sixth studio album had been renamed to Young OG. This was later changed to The Young OG Project. On December 1, 2014, Fabolous announced the release date for The Young OG Project to be December 25, 2014, with the announcement posted on his new Keek page. Speaking to MTV, Fabolous said the album would be "very '90s-inspired and '90s themed.". On the same day of the album release announcement, Roc Nation announced Fabolous had signed a management deal. The Young OG Project was released on Christmas Day 2014 and debuted at number 12 on the Billboard 200 chart, with first-week sales of 71,000 copies in the United States. In October 2015, Fabolous confirmed that he would be releasing two new projects by the end of the year, announcing one of them would follow the trend set by There Is No Competition 2 and The Young OG Project by releasing on Christmas Day. On November 26, Fabolous released the free mixtape Summertime Shootout, and announced the second installment of The Young OG Project for December 25, however, it has since been delayed indefinitely. On February 29, 2016, Fabolous and Jadakiss announced that work had begun on their first collaborative project, a mixtape pre-emptively titled Freddy vs. Jason. On April 2, 2016, they released a freestyle to Future's "Wicked" that they confirmed would appear on the project, which they also announced would not be a mixtape, but a full album. On April 29, 2016, Fabolous worked with K-pop artist Jessica Jung as a featured artist and co-writer on a track titled "Fly", the lead single for her first mini album, With Love, J. On September 3, 2016, Fabolous released the second installment of the Summertime Shootout mixtape series, titled Summertime Shootout 2: The Level Up. On October 31, 2017, the first single off the album "Stand Up" featuring Future. On November 21, 2017, it was announced that the album title was changed to Friday on Elm Street. The album was released on November 24, 2017, and had features from Future, Swizz Beatz, and French Montana. On July 8, 2018, Fabolous released a single called "Ooh Yeah" featuring Ty Dolla Sign. On October 14, 2019, released a single called "Choosy" featuring Jeremih and Davido. On November 19, 2019, Fabolous released a 30-second trailer on his instagram for Summertime Shootout 3: Coldest Summer Ever along with its release date, confirming that it would be released November 29, 2019. A week later, the tracklist and the cover art were released for the album and it was also confirmed to be the final installment of the Summertime Shootout series. The album debuted at number 7 on the Billboard 200 with first week sales of 44,000 album-equivalent units, making it Fabolous's seventh top-10 album. Street Family Records Street Family Records is a record label imprint, founded by Fabolous in 2006, in Brooklyn, New York. Current artists Fabolous Freck Billionaire Paul Cain Broadway Red Cafe Personal life Fabolous and his girlfriend Emily Bustamante have two sons & one daughter, born in 2008, 2015 & 2020. Legal issues In January and March 2003, Fabolous was arrested for possessing an unlicensed gun in his car. His bodyguard later showed proof of ownership for the gun.Vineyard, Jennifer (January 17, 2003). Fabolous Arrested Twice in Two Days . MTV. Retrieved October 8, 2007. In the morning of October 17, 2006, Fabolous was shot once near his leg after exiting Justin's, a restaurant owned by Sean "Diddy" Combs in Manhattan. After the shooting, he and his entourage were charged with criminal possession of a weapon and criminal possession of a defaced firearm after being pulled over for running a red light, in which police discovered two unlicensed guns. Later on, Fabolous was treated at a local hospital and was released eight days later. On March 29, 2018, Fabolous was arrested for domestic violence after allegedly assaulting his girlfriend Emily Bustamante. On October 10, 2018, he was indicted by a grand jury in New Jersey on four felony charges of domestic assault. He reportedly accepted a plea deal in March 2019. Discography Studio albums Ghetto Fabolous (2001) Street Dreams (2003) Real Talk (2004) From Nothin' to Somethin' (2007) Loso's Way (2009) The Young OG Project (2014) Summertime Shootout 3: Coldest Summer Ever (2019) Collaboration albums Friday on Elm Street (with Jadakiss) (2017) Filmography Awards and nominations American Music Awards 2007, Favorite Rap/Hip Hop Male Artist [Nominated] ASCAP Rhythm and Soul Music Awards2008, Top Rap Song, "Make Me Better" [Won]BET Awards 2010, Best Male Hip Hop Artist [Nominated] 2010, Best Collaboration, "Say Aah" with Trey Songz [Nominated] 2010, Best Viewer's Choice, "Say Aah" with Trey Songz [Nominated] BET Hip Hop Awards 2014, Best Mixtape, The Soul Tape 3 [Nominated]2009, Viewer's Choice, "Throw It in the Bag" with The-Dream [Won]''' 2007, Best Hip Hop Collabo, "Make Me Better" with Ne-Yo [Nominated] Grammy Awards 2010, Best Rap Performance by a Duo or a Group, "Money Goes, Honey Stays" with Jay-Z [Nominated] 2005, Best Rap/Sung Collaboration, "Dip It Low" with Christina Milian [Nominated] The Source Awards 2003, Best Rap/R&B Collabo, "Can't Let You Go" with Lil Mo and Mike Shorey [Nominated] 2003, Trendsetter of the Year [Nominated] Teen Choice Awards 2007, Best Choice: Rap Artist [Nominated] 2003, Choice Rap Track, "Can't Let You Go" with Lil Mo and Mike Shorey [Nominated] 2003, Choice R&B/Hip Hop Track, "4Ever" with Lil Mo [Nominated] References External links Category:1977 births Category:Living people Category:American rappers of Dominican Republic descent Category:Hispanic and Latino American rappers Category:African-American male rappers Category:African-American male songwriters Category:American shooting survivors Category:Desert Storm Records artists Category:East Coast hip hop musicians Category:Pop rappers Category:People from Bedford–Stuyvesant, Brooklyn Category:Rappers from Brooklyn Category:Songwriters from New York (state) Category:21st-century American rappers Category:21st-century American male musicians Category:People convicted of domestic violence Category:Gangsta rappers Category:21st-century African-American musicians Category:20th-century African-American people
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[ "Fabolous released his debut album, Ghetto Fabolous, in 2001. The album debuted at number four on the Billboard 200, selling over 140,000 copies in its first week.", "Yes, the album was successful. It debuted at number four on the Billboard 200, selling over 140,000 copies in its first week.", "Yes, the album included hit singles such as \"Can't Deny It\" and \"Young'n (Holla Back)\", and \"Trade It All\". These songs all charted on the US Billboard Hot 100.", "Yes, Ghetto Fabolous, debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 and some of its singles also charted on the US Billboard Hot 100.", "Yes, after Ghetto Fabolous, Fabolous released his second album Street Dreams on March 4, 2003. After that, he also dropped an official mixtape titled More Street Dreams, Pt. 2: The Mixtape on November 4, 2003.", "Yes, Fabolous' second album, Street Dreams was successful. Two of its singles, \"Can't Let You Go\" and \"Into You\", reached number one on the Rhythmic Top 40 chart and number four on the Billboard Hot 100 chart respectively.", "The context doesn't provide information on whether or not Fabolous went on tour for these albums.", "Yes, there are a few other interesting aspects in the article. One is that Fabolous' song \"Can't Deny It\" samples a chorus from Tupac Shakur's song \"Ambitionz Az a Ridah\". Additionally, his second album, Street Dreams, includes a club banger titled \"This Is My Party\" and \"Trade It All Pt. 2,\" which features Jagged Edge and Diddy. Furthermore, Fabolous released an official mixtape called More Street Dreams, Pt. 2: The Mixtape which was a release by his record label, Elektra. It featured remixes and tracks not originally on Street Dreams and involved his three-man crew, known as the Triangle Offense, consisting of himself, Paul Cain, and Joe Budden." ]
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C_d28f048e70a24b08a8be14bd0ccfb482_1
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V (Spanish: Carlos; German: Karl; Italian: Carlo; Latin: Carolus; Dutch: Karel; French: Charles, 24 February 1500 - 21 September 1558) was ruler of both the Spanish Empire as Charles I from 1516 and the Holy Roman Empire as Charles V from 1519, as well as of the lands of the former Duchy of Burgundy from 1506. He stepped down from these and other positions by a series of abdications between 1554 and 1556. Through inheritance, he brought together under his rule extensive territories in western, central, and southern Europe, and the Spanish viceroyalties in the Americas and Asia.
Burgundy and the Low Countries
In 1506, Charles inherited his father's Burgundian territories, most notably the Low Countries and Franche-Comte. Most of the holdings were fiefs of the German Kingdom (part of the Holy Roman Empire), except his birthplace of Flanders, which was still a French fief, a last remnant of what had been a powerful player in the Hundred Years' War. As he was a minor, his aunt Margaret of Austria (born as Archduchess of Austria and in both her marriages as the Dowager Princess of Asturias and Dowager Duchess of Savoy) acted as regent, as appointed by Emperor Maximilian until 1515. She soon found herself at war with France over the question of Charles' requirement to pay homage to the French king for Flanders, as his father had done. The outcome was that France relinquished its ancient claim on Flanders in 1528. From 1515 to 1523, Charles's government in the Netherlands also had to contend with the rebellion of Frisian peasants (led by Pier Gerlofs Donia and Wijard Jelckama). The rebels were initially successful but after a series of defeats, the remaining leaders were captured and decapitated in 1523. Charles extended the Burgundian territory with the annexation of Tournai, Artois, Utrecht, Groningen and Guelders. The Seventeen Provinces had been unified by Charles's Burgundian ancestors, but nominally were fiefs of either France or the Holy Roman Empire. In 1549, Charles issued a Pragmatic Sanction, declaring the Low Countries to be a unified entity of which his family would be the heirs. The Low Countries held an important place in the Empire. For Charles V personally they were his home, the region where he was born and spent his childhood. Because of trade and industry and the wealth of the region's cities, the Low Countries also represented an important income for the Imperial treasury. The Burgundian territories were generally loyal to Charles throughout his reign. The important city of Ghent rebelled in 1539 due to heavy tax payments demanded by Charles. The rebellion did not last long, however, as Charles's military response, with reinforcement from the Duke of Alba, was swift and humiliating to the rebels of Ghent. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "what was the name of the country chsrles had the most issue with?", "what year did he have his conflict with his nemisis?", "did France concur Milan?", "what year was the final war? Who was in it?", "What did Henrys eventual defeat lead to?", "What year did he come to a truce and who was involved?", "who seceded Charles after the last war?" ]
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Charles V (24 February 1500 – 21 September 1558) was Holy Roman Emperor and Archduke of Austria from 1519 to 1556, King of Spain from 1516 to 1556, and Lord of the Netherlands as titular Duke of Burgundy from 1506 to 1555. He was heir to and then head of the rising House of Habsburg during the first half of the 16th century. His dominions in Europe included the Holy Roman Empire, extending from Germany to northern Italy with direct rule over the Austrian hereditary lands and the Burgundian Low Countries, and Spain with its possessions of the southern Italian kingdoms of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia. In the Americas, he oversaw both the continuation of the long-lasting Spanish colonization as well as a short-lived German colonization. The personal union of the European and American territories of Charles V was the first collection of realms labelled "the empire on which the sun never sets". Charles was born in Flanders to Habsburg prince Philip the Handsome, the son of Maximilian I of Habsburg and Mary of Burgundy, and Joanna of Castile, younger child of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, the Catholic Monarchs of Spain. The heir of his four grandparents, Charles inherited all his family dominions at a young age. After the death of his father Philip in 1506, he inherited the Burgundian states, originally held by his paternal grandmother Mary. In 1516, inheriting the dynastic union formed by his maternal grandparents Isabella I and Ferdinand II, he became king of Spain as co-monarch of the Spanish kingdoms with his mother, who was deemed incapable of ruling due to mental illness. Spain's possessions at his accession also included the Castilian colonies of the West Indies and the Spanish Main as well as the Aragonese kingdoms of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia. At the death of his paternal grandfather Maximilian in 1519, he inherited Austria and was elected to succeed him as Holy Roman Emperor. He adopted the Imperial name of Charles V as his main title, and styled himself as a new Charlemagne. Charles V revitalized the medieval concept of universal monarchy. With no fixed capital city, he made 40 journeys through the different entities he ruled; he spent a quarter of his reign travelling within his realms. Although his empire came to him peacefully as inheritances from strategic marriages, he spent most of his life waging war, exhausting his own royal revenues and leaving debts to his successors in his attempt to defend the integrity of the Holy Roman Empire from the Protestant Reformation, the expansion of the Muslim realms of the Ottoman Empire, and in a series of wars with France. The imperial wars were fought by German Landsknechte, Spanish tercios, Burgundian knights, and Italian condottieri. Charles V borrowed money from German and Italian bankers and, in order to repay such loans, he relied on the proto-capitalist economy of the Low Countries and on the flow of precious metal, especially silver, from Mexico and Peru to Spain, which caused widespread inflation. During his reign his realms expanded by the Spanish conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires by the Spanish conquistadores Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro, as well as the establishment of Klein-Venedig by the German Welser family in search of the legendary El Dorado. In order to consolidate power early in his reign, Charles overcame two insurrections in Spain (the Comuneros' Revolt and Brotherhoods' Revolt) and two German rebellions (the Knights' Revolt and Great Peasants' Revolt). He suppressed a major rebellion of Spanish colonists in Peru in the 1540s. Crowned King in Germany, Charles sided with Pope Leo X and declared Martin Luther an outlaw at the Diet of Worms (1521). The same year, Francis I of France, surrounded by the Habsburg possessions, started a conflict in Lombardy that lasted until the Battle of Pavia (1525), which led to the French king's temporary imprisonment. The Protestant affair re-emerged in 1527 as Rome was sacked by an army of Charles's mutinous soldiers, largely of Lutheran faith. In the following years, Charles V defended Vienna from the Turks and obtained a coronation as King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor from Pope Clement VII. In 1535, he annexed the vacant Duchy of Milan and captured Tunis. Nevertheless, the loss of Buda during the struggle for Hungary and the Algiers expedition in the early 1540s frustrated his anti-Ottoman policies. After years of negotiations, Charles V had come to an agreement with Pope Paul III for the organization of the Council of Trent (1545). The refusal of the Lutheran Schmalkaldic League to recognize the council's validity led to a war, won by Charles V with the imprisonment of the Protestant princes. However, Henry II of France offered new support to the Lutheran cause and strengthened a close alliance with the Muslim sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, the ruler of the Ottoman Empire since 1520. Ultimately, Charles V conceded the Peace of Augsburg and abandoned his multi-national project with a series of abdications in 1556 that divided his hereditary and imperial domains between the Spanish Habsburgs, headed by his son Philip II of Spain, and the Austrian Habsburgs, headed by his brother Ferdinand. Ferdinand had been archduke of Austria in Charles's name since 1521 and the designated successor as emperor since 1531. The Duchy of Milan and the Habsburg Netherlands were also left in personal union to the king of Spain, although initially also belonging to the Holy Roman Empire. The two Habsburg dynasties remained allied until the extinction of the Spanish line in 1700. In 1557, Charles retired to the Monastery of Yuste in Extremadura and died there a year later. Ancestry Charles of Habsburg was born on 24 February 1500 in the Prinsenhof of Ghent, a Flemish city of the Burgundian Low Countries, to Philip of Habsburg and Joanna of Trastámara. His father Philip, nicknamed Philip the Handsome, was the firstborn son of Maximilian I of Habsburg, Archduke of Austria as well as Holy Roman Emperor, and Mary the Rich, Burgundian duchess of the Low Countries. Charles's mother Joanna was a younger daughter of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the Catholic Monarchs of Spain from the House of Trastámara. The political marriage of Philip and Joanna was first conceived in a letter sent by Maximilian to Ferdinand in order to seal an Austro-Spanish alliance, established as part of the League of Venice directed against the Kingdom of France during the Italian Wars. From the moment he became King of the Romans in 1486, Charles's paternal grandfather Maximilian had carried a very financially risky policy of maximum expansionism, relying mostly on the resources of the Austrian hereditary lands. Even though it is often implied (among others, by Erasmus of Rotterdam) that Charles V and the Habsburgs gained their vast empire through peaceful policies (exemplified by the saying or "Let others wage war, but thou, O happy Austria, marry; for those kingdoms which Mars gives to others, Venus gives to thee.", reportedly spoken by Mathias Corvinus), Maximilian and his descendants fought wars aplenty (Maximilian alone fought 27 wars during his four decades of ruling). His general strategy was to combine his intricate systems of alliance, wars, military threats and offers of marriage to realize his expansionist ambitions. Ultimately he succeeded in coercing Bohemia, Hungary and Poland into acquiescence in the Habsburgs' expansionist plan. The fact that the marriages between the Habsburgs and the Trastámaras, originally conceived as a marital alliance against France, would bring the crowns of Castille and Aragon to Maximilian's male line, however, was unexpected. The marriage contract between Philip and Joanna was signed in 1495, and celebrations were held in 1496. Philip was already Duke of Burgundy, given Mary's death in 1482, and also heir apparent of Austria as honorific Archduke. Joanna, in contrast, was only third in the Spanish line of succession, preceded by her older brother John of Castile and older sister Isabella of Aragon. Both heirs to the crowns of Castile and Aragon John and Isabella died in 1498, and the Catholic Monarchs desired to keep the Spanish kingdoms in Iberian hands, so they designated their Portuguese grandson Miguel da Paz as heir presumptive of Spain by naming him Prince of the Asturias. Birth and childhood Charles's mother went into labor at a ball in February 1500. At that point the newborn's royal prospects were relatively modest as heir to the Burgundian Habsburg realms in the Low Countries. He was named in honor of Charles "the Bold" of Burgundy, who had tried to turn the Burgundian state into a continuous territory. When Charles was born, a poet at the court reported that the people of Ghent "shouted Austria and Burgundy throughout the whole city for three hours" to celebrate his birth. Given the dynastic situation, the newborn was originally heir apparent only of the Burgundian Low Countries as the honorific Duke of Luxembourg and became known in his early years simply as "Charles of Ghent". He was baptized at the Church of Saint John by the Bishop of Tournai: Charles I de Croÿ and John III of Glymes were his godfathers; Margaret of York and Margaret of Austria his godmothers. Charles's baptism gifts were a sword and a helmet, objects of Burgundian chivalric tradition representing, respectively, the instrument of war and the symbol of peace. The death in July 1500 of young heir presumptive Miguel de Paz to Iberian realms of his maternal grandparents meant baby Charles's future inheritance potentially expanded to include Castile, Aragon, and the overseas possessions in the Americas. In 1501, his parents Philip and Joanna left Charles in care of Philip's step-grandmother Margaret of York and went to Spain. The main goal of their Spanish mission was the recognition of Joanna as Princess of Asturias, given prince Miguel's death a year earlier. They succeeded despite facing some opposition from the Spanish Cortes, which was reluctant to create the premises for Habsburg succession. In 1504, when her mother Isabella died, Joanna became Queen of Castile. Charles only met his father again in 1503 while his mother returned in 1504 (after giving birth to Ferdinand in Spain). The Spanish Ambassador Fuensalida reported that Philip often visited and they had lots of fun. The couple's unhappy marriage and Joanna's unstable mental state however created many difficulties, making it unsafe for the children to stay with the parents. Philip was recognized king of Castile in 1506. He died shortly after, an event that was said to drive the mentally unstable Joanna into complete insanity. She was retired in isolation into a tower of Tordesillas. Charles's grandfather Ferdinand took control of all the Spanish kingdoms, under the pretext of protecting Charles's rights, which in reality he wanted to elude. Ferdinand's new marriage with Germaine de Foix failed to produce a surviving Trastámara heir to the throne, so Charles remained the heir presumptive to the Iberian realms. With his father dead and his mother confined, Charles became Duke of Burgundy and was recognized as prince of Asturias (heir presumptive of Spain) and honorific archduke (heir apparent of Austria). His father's sister Margaret was the mother figure in his life. She was a huge influence on Charles. A canny, learned, and artistic woman, with a court that included artists Bernard van Orley and Albrecht Dürer and master tapestry-maker Pieter van Aelst, she taught her nephew "above all that a court could be a salon." She saw to his education, securing as tutor Adrian of Utrecht, a member of the Brethren of the Common Life, which advocated simplicity and promoted a cult of indigence and deprivation. The Brethren had many important members, including Thomas à Kempis. Adrian later became Pope Adrian VI. A third major influence in Charles's early life was Guillaume de Croÿ, Sieur de Chièves, who became his "governor and grand chamberlain", giving Charles a chivalrous education. He was tough taskmaster, and when questioned about it he said "Cousin, I am the defender and guardian of his youth. I do not want him to be incapable because he has not understood affairs nor been trained to work." Inheritances The Burgundian inheritance included the Habsburg Netherlands, which consisted of a large number of the lordships that formed the Low Countries and covered modern-day Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg. It excluded Burgundy proper, annexed by France in 1477, with the exception of Franche-Comté. At the death of Philip in 1506, Charles was recognized Lord of the Netherlands with the title of Charles II of Burgundy. During his childhood and teen years, Charles lived in Mechelen together with his sisters Mary, Eleanor, and Isabeau at the court of his aunt Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy. William de Croÿ (later prime minister) and Adrian of Utrecht (later Pope Adrian VI) served as his tutors. The culture and courtly life of the Low Countries played an important part in the development of Charles's beliefs. As a member of the Burgundian Order of the Golden Fleece in his infancy, and later its grandmaster, Charles was educated to the ideals of the medieval knights and the desire for Christian unity to fight the infidel. The Low Countries were very rich during his reign, both economically and culturally. Charles was very attached to his homeland and spent much of his life in Brussels and various Flemish cities. The Spanish inheritance, resulting from a dynastic union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon, included Spain as well as the Castilian possessions in the Americas (the Spanish West Indies and the Province of Tierra Firme) and the Aragonese kingdoms of Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia. Joanna inherited these territories in 1516 while confined, allegedly because she was mentally ill. Charles, therefore, claimed the crowns for himself jure matris, thus becoming co-monarch with Joanna with the title of Charles I of Castile and Aragon or Charles I of Spain. Castile and Aragon together formed the largest of Charles's personal possessions, and they also provided a great number of generals and tercios (the formidable Spanish infantry of the time), while Joanna remained confined in Tordesillas until her death. However, at his accession to the Iberian throne, Charles was viewed as a foreign prince. Two rebellions, the revolt of the Germanies and the revolt of the comuneros, contested Charles's rule in the 1520s. Following these revolts, Charles placed Spanish counselors in a position of power and spent a considerable part of his life in Castile, including his final years in a monastery. Indeed, Charles's motto "Plus Oultre" (Further Beyond), rendered as Plus Ultra from the original French, became the national motto of Spain and his heir, later Philip II, was born and raised in Castile. Nonetheless, many Spaniards believed that their resources (largely consisting of flows of silver from the Americas) were being used to sustain Imperial-Habsburg policies that were not in the country's interest. Charles inherited the Austrian hereditary lands in 1519, as Charles I of Austria, and obtained the election as Holy Roman Emperor against the candidacy of the French King. Since the Imperial election, he was known as Emperor Charles V even outside of Germany and the Habsburg motto A.E.I.O.U. ("Austria Est Imperare Orbi Universo"; "it is Austria's destiny to rule the world") acquired political significance. Charles staunchly defended Catholicism as Lutheranism spread. Various German princes broke with him on religious grounds, fighting against him. Charles's presence in Germany was often marked by the organization of imperial diets to maintain religious and political unity. He was frequently in Northern Italy, often taking part in complicated negotiations with the Popes to address the rise of Protestantism. It is important to note, though, that the German Catholics supported the Emperor. Charles had a close relationship with important German families, like the House of Nassau, many of which were represented at his Imperial court. Several German princes or noblemen accompanied him in his military campaigns against France or the Ottomans, and the bulk of his army was generally composed of German troops, especially the Imperial Landsknechte. Charles never traveled to his overseas possessions in the Americas, since such a transatlantic crossing to a place not central to his political interests at the time was unthinkable. He did, however, establish strong administrative structures to rule them, including the European-based Council of the Indies in 1524 and the establishment of the Viceroyalty of New Spain and the Viceroyalty of Peru when the Aztec and Inca civilizations were conquered in his name. Charles spoke several languages. He was fluent in French and Dutch, his native languages. He later added an acceptable Castilian Spanish, which he was required to learn by the Castilian Cortes Generales. He could also speak some Basque, acquired by the influence of the Basque secretaries serving in the royal court. He gained a decent command of German following the Imperial election, though he never spoke it as well as French. By 1532, Charles was proficient in Portuguese, and spoke Latin. A witticism sometimes attributed to Charles is: "I speak Spanish/Latin (depending on the source) to God, Italian to women, French to men and German to my horse." A variant of the quote is attributed to him by Swift in his 1726 Gulliver's Travels, but there are no contemporary accounts referencing the quotation (which has many other variants) and it is often attributed instead to Frederick the Great. Reign Given the vast dominions of the House of Habsburg, Charles was often on the road and needed deputies to govern his realms for the times he was absent from his territories. His first Governor of the Netherlands was Margaret of Austria (succeeded by Mary of Hungary and Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy). His first Regent of Spain was Adrian of Utrecht (succeeded by Isabella of Portugal and Philip II of Spain). For the regency and governorship of the Austrian hereditary lands, Charles named his brother Ferdinand Archduke in the Austrian lands under his authority at the Diet of Worms (1521). Charles also agreed to favor the election of Ferdinand as King of the Romans in Germany, which took place in 1531. By virtue of these agreements Ferdinand became Holy Roman Emperor and obtained hereditary rights over Austria at the abdication of Charles in 1556. Charles de Lannoy, Carafa and Antonio Folc de Cardona y Enriquez were the viceroys of the kingdoms of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia, respectively. Charles V travelled ten times to the Low Countries, nine to Germany, seven to Spain, seven to Italy, four to France, two to England, and two to North Africa. During all his travels, the Emperor left a documentary trail in almost every place he went, allowing historians to surmise that he spent 10,000 days in the Low Countries, 6,500 days in Spain, 3,000 days in Germany, and 1,000 days in Italy. He further spent 195 days in France, 99 in North Africa and 44 days in England. For only 260 days his exact location is unrecorded, all of them being days spent at sea travelling between his dominions. As he put it in his last public speech: "my life has been one long journey". Burgundy and the Low Countries In 1506, Charles inherited his father's Burgundian territories that included Franche-Comté and, most notably, the Low Countries. The latter territories lay within the Holy Roman Empire and its borders, but were formally divided between fiefs of the German kingdom and French fiefs such as Charles's birthplace of Flanders, a last remnant of what had been a powerful player in the Hundred Years' War. Since he was a minor, his aunt Margaret of Austria acted as regent, as appointed by Emperor Maximilian until 1515. She soon found herself at war with France over Charles's requirement to pay homage to the French king for Flanders, as his father had done. The outcome was that France relinquished its ancient claim on Flanders in 1528. From 1515 to 1523, Charles's government in the Netherlands also had to contend with the rebellion of Frisian peasants (led by Pier Gerlofs Donia and Wijard Jelckama). The rebels were initially successful but after a series of defeats, the remaining leaders were captured and decapitated in 1523. Charles extended the Burgundian territory with the annexation of Tournai, Artois, Utrecht, Groningen, and Guelders. The Seventeen Provinces had been unified by Charles's Burgundian ancestors, but nominally were fiefs of either France or the Holy Roman Empire. Charles eventually won the Guelders Wars and united all provinces under his rule, the last one being the Duchy of Guelders. In 1549, Charles issued a Pragmatic Sanction, declaring the Low Countries to be a unified entity of which his family would be the heirs. The Low Countries held an essential place in the Empire. For Charles V, they were his home, the region where he was born and spent his childhood. Because of trade and industry and the wealth of the region's cities, the Low Countries also represented a significant income for the Imperial treasury. The Burgundian territories were generally loyal to Charles throughout his reign. The important city of Ghent rebelled in 1539 due to heavy tax payments demanded by Charles. The rebellion did not last long, however, as Charles's military response, with reinforcement from the Duke of Alba, was swift and humiliating to the rebels of Ghent. Spanish kingdoms In the Castilian Cortes of Valladolid in 1506 and of Madrid in 1510, Charles was sworn as the Prince of Asturias, heir-apparent to his mother Queen Joanna. On the other hand, in 1502, the Aragonese Corts gathered in Saragossa and pledged an oath to Joanna as heiress-presumptive, but the Archbishop of Saragossa expressed firmly that this oath could not establish jurisprudence, that is to say, modify the right of the succession, except by virtue of a formal agreement between the Cortes and the King. So, upon the death of King Ferdinand II of Aragon, on 23 January 1516, Joanna inherited the Crown of Aragon, which consisted of Aragon, Majorca, Catalonia, Valencia, Naples, Sicily and Sardinia, while Charles became governor general. Nevertheless, the Flemings wished Charles to assume the royal title, and this was supported by Emperor Maximilian I and Pope Leo X. Thus, after the celebration of Ferdinand II's obsequies on 14 March 1516, Charles was proclaimed king of the crowns of Castile and Aragon jointly with his mother. Finally, when the Castilian regent Cardinal Jiménez de Cisneros accepted the fait accompli, he acceded to Charles's desire to be proclaimed king and imposed his instatement throughout the kingdom. Charles arrived in his new kingdoms in autumn of 1517. Jiménez de Cisneros came to meet him but fell ill along the way, not without a suspicion of poison, and he died before reaching the King. Due to the irregularity of Charles assuming the royal title while his mother, the legitimate queen, was alive, the negotiations with the Castilian Cortes in Valladolid (1518) proved difficult. In the end Charles was accepted under the following conditions: he would learn to speak Castilian; he would not appoint foreigners; he was prohibited from taking precious metals from Castile beyond the Quinto Real; and he would respect the rights of his mother, Queen Joanna. The Cortes paid homage to him in Valladolid in February 1518. After this, Charles departed to the crown of Aragon. He managed to overcome the resistance of the Aragonese Cortes and Catalan Corts, and he was recognized as king of Aragon and count of Barcelona jointly with his mother, while his mother was kept confined and could only rule in name. The Kingdom of Navarre had been invaded by Ferdinand of Aragon jointly with Castile in 1512, but he pledged a formal oath to respect the kingdom. On Charles's accession to the Spanish thrones, the Parliament of Navarre (Cortes) required him to attend the coronation ceremony (to become Charles IV of Navarre). Still, this demand fell on deaf ears, and the Parliament kept piling up grievances. Charles was accepted as sovereign, even though the Spanish felt uneasy with the Imperial style. Spanish kingdoms varied in their traditions. Castile had become an authoritarian, highly centralized kingdom, where the monarch's own will easily overrode legislative and justice institutions. By contrast, in the crown of Aragon, and especially in the Pyrenean kingdom of Navarre, law prevailed, and the monarchy was seen as a contract with the people. This became an inconvenience and a matter of dispute for Charles V and later kings since realm-specific traditions limited their absolute power. With Charles, the government became more absolute, even though until his mother died in 1555, Charles did not hold the full kingship of the country. Soon resistance to the Emperor arose because of heavy taxation to support foreign wars in which Castilians had little interest and because Charles tended to select Flemings for high offices in Castile and America, ignoring Castilian candidates. The resistance culminated in the Revolt of the Comuneros, which Charles suppressed. Comuneros once released Joanna and wanted to depose Charles and support Joanna to be the sole monarch instead. While Joanna refused to depose her son, her confinement would continue after the revolt to prevent possible events alike. Immediately after crushing the Castilian revolt, Charles was confronted again with the hot issue of Navarre when King Henry II attempted to reconquer the kingdom. Main military operations lasted until 1524, when Hondarribia surrendered to Charles's forces, but frequent cross-border clashes in the western Pyrenees only stopped in 1528 (Treaties of Madrid and Cambrai). After these events, Navarre remained a matter of domestic and international litigation still for a century (a French dynastic claim to the throne did not end until the July Revolution in 1830). Charles wanted his son and heir Philip II to marry the heiress of Navarre, Jeanne d'Albret. Jeanne was instead forced to marry William, Duke of Julich-Cleves-Berg, but that childless marriage was annulled after four years. She next married Antoine de Bourbon, and both she and their son would oppose Philip II in the French Wars of Religion. After its integration into Charles's empire, Castile guaranteed effective military units and its American possessions provided the bulk of the empire's financial resources. However, the two conflicting strategies of Charles V, enhancing the possessions of his family and protecting Catholicism against Protestants heretics, diverted resources away from building up the Spanish economy. Elite elements in Spain called for more protection for the commercial networks, which were threatened by the Ottoman Empire. Charles instead focused on defeating Protestantism in Germany and the Netherlands, which proved to be lost causes. Each hastened the economic decline of the Spanish Empire in the next generation. The enormous budget deficit accumulated during Charles's reign, along with the inflation that affected the kingdom, resulted in declaring bankruptcy during the reign of Philip II. Italian states The Crown of Aragon inherited by Charles included the Kingdom of Naples, the Kingdom of Sicily and the Kingdom of Sardinia. As Holy Roman Emperor, Charles was sovereign in several states of northern Italy and had a claim to the Iron Crown of Lombardy (obtained in 1530). The Duchy of Milan, however, was under French control. France took Milan from the House of Sforza after victory against Switzerland at the Battle of Marignano in 1515. Imperial-Papal troops succeeded in re-installing the Sforza in Milan in 1521, in the context of an alliance between Charles V and Pope Leo X. A Franco-Swiss army was expelled from Lombardy at the Battle of Bicocca 1522. In 1524, Francis I of France retook the initiative, crossing into Lombardy where Milan, along with several other cities, once again fell to his attack. Pavia alone held out, and on 24 February 1525 (Charles's twenty-fifth birthday), Charles's forces led by Charles de Lannoy captured Francis and crushed his army in the Battle of Pavia. In 1535 Francesco II Sforza died without heirs, and Charles V annexed the territory as a vacant Imperial state with the help of Massimiliano Stampa, one of the most influential courtiers of the late Duke. Charles successfully held on to all of its Italian territories, though they were invaded again on multiple occasions during the Italian Wars. In addition, Habsburg trade in the Mediterranean was consistently disrupted by the Ottoman Empire. In 1538 a Holy League consisting of all the Italian states and the Spanish kingdoms was formed to drive the Ottomans back, but it was defeated at the Battle of Preveza. Decisive naval victory eluded Charles; it would not be achieved until after his death, at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. Americas From his maternal grandmother, Isabel I of Castile, who had funded Christopher Columbus's first voyage in 1492, Charles inherited Castile's overseas territories in the Americas. Spanish colonization of the Americas began in 1493, but these permanent settlements in the Caribbean and Spanish Main were marginal to Charles's European empire and not the focus of his attention. Through the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), Spain and Portugal had agreed on a division of overseas territories, so that with the exception of Brazil, which Portugal could claim, Charles could claim the rest of the New World. The realm of his known possessions expanded with the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire (1519-21) under conquistador Hernán Cortés and the circumnavigation of the globe by Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe in 1522. These successes convinced Charles of his divine mission to become the leader of Christendom, which still perceived a significant threat from Islam. The conquest of central Mexico, bringing a high indigenous civilization under Spanish rule, compelled Charles to grapple with creating structures of institutional rule in the Americas. Charles had begun creating councils to oversee aspects of his realms, first reorganizing the existing Council of Castile, established by the Catholic Monarchs. Indicating the Americas' importance, he founded the Council of the Indies in 1524 to deal with the complexities of Castile's overseas possessions. Unlike his European possessions that were not consolidated geographically but were nonetheless all relatively near each other, ruling the Americas had to take into account the Atlantic Ocean. Prior to the creation of the viceroyalties, he established a high court audiencia to administer justice; formalized conversion of indigenous populations to Christianity, the so-called "spiritual conquest", by sending Franciscan, Dominican, and Augustinian friars starting in the mid 1520s. With the discovery of large deposits of silver in northern Mexico in the 1540s and in 1545 in Peru at Potosí, Charles's advisors urged regulation of mining and ensure that bullion was directed to crown coffers. Ad hoc administrative solutions of the early conquest period gave way to Charles's establishment of the Viceroyalty of New Spain in Mexico City (1535), the Spanish capital founded on the ruins of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 1530s, Charles established the Viceroyalty of Peru in the newly founded Spanish capital of Lima (1544). As it became clear that establishing royal control was important, Charles sought to undermine growing power of the group of conquistadors in Mexico and Peru, awarded personal grants of indigenous labor in perpetuity, by issuing the New Laws of 1542, ending grant holders' rights in perpetuity. Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas's long term campaign to protect indigenous populations from Spanish conquerors' exploitation influenced Charles's new policy. In Peru, it resulted in a major Spanish rebellion against the crown when the newly appointed viceroy, Blasco Núñez Vela, attempted to implement the measure. In Mexico, Viceroy don Antonio de Mendoza prudently did not. In Peru, the new viceroy was murdered. "To many Spanish settlers the New Laws seemed like a declaration of war, and their hostile reaction was swift and overwhelming." The violent uprising necessitated a major military response, organized by Pedro de la Gasca, to whom Charles granted sweeping powers in order to re-establish royal authority. The rebellion in Peru coincided with one in Germany. In the Americas, Charles was forced to temper the initial order ending inheritance, allowing grants to be passed on to one further generation, but he refused to yield on the question of allowing the enslavement of indigenous. Regarding the Spanish rebels supporting the cause of Gonzalo Pizarro, who might have set up a kingdom of Peru with himself as ruler, Charles fully supported Pizarro's beheading and his supporters' execution and confiscation of property. This was similar to the treatment of comunero rebels early in his Iberian rule. Pizarro's execution marks the end of Spanish rebellion against the crown. Relatively early in his rule, Charles assigned a concession (1528) in Venezuela Province to Bartholomeus V. Welser, in compensation for his inability to repay debts owed. The concession, known as Klein-Venedig (little Venice), was revoked in 1546 during the rebellion in Peru by Spanish colonists against Charles. The question of labor and treatment of indigenous populations had occupied Charles's maternal grandparents, and as indigenous populations in the Caribbean were decimated by disease and overwork, transshipment of African slaves to replace the labor force began. On 28 August 1518, Charles issued a charter authorizing the transportation of slaves directly from Africa to the Americas. Up until that point (since at least 1510), African slaves had usually been transported to Castile or Portugal and had then been transshipped to the Caribbean. Charles's decision to create a direct, more economically viable Africa to America slave trade fundamentally changed the nature and scale of the transatlantic slave trade. Protection of indigenous populations against Spaniards' exploitation was the key motivation behind Charles's issuance of the 1542 New Laws. With Gasca's suppression of Spanish colonists' rebellion in Peru, Charles was still concerned about the welfare of his indigenous subjects. In 1550, Charles convened a conference at Valladolid in order to consider the morality of the force used against the indigenous populations of the New World, which included figures such as Bartolomé de las Casas. Holy Roman Empire After the death of his paternal grandfather, Maximilian, in 1519, Charles inherited the Habsburg monarchy. He was also the natural candidate of the electors to succeed his grandfather as Holy Roman Emperor. He defeated the candidacies of Frederick III of Saxony, Francis I of France, and Henry VIII of England. According to some, Charles became emperor due to the fact that by paying huge bribes to the electors, he was the highest bidder. He won the crown on 28 June 1519. On 23 October 1520, he was crowned in Germany and some ten years later, on 24 February 1530, he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Clement VII in Bologna, the last emperor to receive a papal coronation. Others point out that while the electors were paid, this was not the reason for the outcome, or at most played only a small part. The important factor that swayed the final decision was that Frederick refused the offer, and made a speech in support of Charles on the ground that they needed a strong leader against the Ottomans, Charles had the resources and was a prince of German extraction. Although even at the beginning of his reign, his position was more powerful than that of any of his predecessors, the decentralized structure of the Empire proved resilient, not least because of the Reformation and the emergence in 1525 of the Common Man. It was exactly during this crucial period, Charles V and Ferdinand were too busy with non-German affairs to prevent Imperial Cities in Upper Germany from becoming estranged from imperial power. Due to Charles V's difficulties in coordinating between the Austrian, Hungarian fronts and his Mediterranean fronts in the face of the Ottoman threat, as well as in his German, Burgundian and Italian theatres of war against German Protestant Princes and France, the defense of central Europe, as well as many responsibilities involving the management of the Empire, was subcontracted to Ferdinand. Charles V abdicated as archduke of Austria in 1522, and nine years after that he had the German princes elect Ferdinand as King of the Romans, who thus became his designated successor, a move that "had profound implications for state formation in south-eastern Europe". Afterwards, Ferdinand managed to gain control of Bohemia, Silesia, Croatia and Hungary, with support from local nobles and his German vassals. Charles abdicated as emperor in 1556 in favour of his brother Ferdinand; however, due to lengthy debate and bureaucratic procedure, the Imperial Diet did not accept the abdication (and thus make it legally valid) until 24 February 1558. Up to that date, Charles continued to use the title of emperor. Wars with France Much of Charles's reign was taken up by conflicts with France, which found itself encircled by Charles's empire while it still maintained ambitions in Italy. In 1520, Charles visited England, where his aunt, Catherine of Aragon, urged her husband, Henry VIII, to ally himself with the emperor. In 1508 Charles was nominated by Henry VII to the Order of the Garter. His Garter stall plate survives in Saint George's Chapel. The first war with Charles's great nemesis Francis I of France began in 1521. Charles allied with England and Pope Leo X against the French and the Venetians, and was highly successful, driving the French out of Milan and defeating and capturing Francis at the Battle of Pavia in 1525. To gain his freedom, Francis ceded Burgundy to Charles in the Treaty of Madrid, as well as renouncing his support of Henry II's claim over Navarre. When he was released, however, Francis had the Parliament of Paris denounce the treaty because it had been signed under duress. France then joined the League of Cognac that Pope Clement VII had formed with Henry VIII of England, the Venetians, the Florentines, and the Milanese to resist imperial domination of Italy. In the ensuing war, Charles's sack of Rome (1527) and virtual imprisonment of Pope Clement VII in 1527 prevented the Pope from annulling the marriage of Henry VIII of England and Charles's aunt Catherine of Aragon, so Henry eventually broke with Rome, thus leading to the English Reformation. In other respects, the war was inconclusive. In the Treaty of Cambrai (1529), called the "Ladies' Peace" because it was negotiated between Charles's aunt and Francis' mother, Francis renounced his claims in Italy but retained control of Burgundy. A third war erupted in 1536. Following the death of the last Sforza Duke of Milan, Charles installed his son Philip in the duchy, despite Francis' claims on it. This war too was inconclusive. Francis failed to conquer Milan, but he succeeded in conquering most of the lands of Charles's ally, the Duke of Savoy, including his capital Turin. A truce at Nice in 1538 on the basis of uti possidetis ended the war but lasted only a short time. War resumed in 1542, with Francis now allied with Ottoman Sultan Suleiman I and Charles once again allied with Henry VIII. Despite the conquest of Nice by a Franco-Ottoman fleet, the French could not advance toward Milan, while a joint Anglo-Imperial invasion of northern France, led by Charles himself, won some successes but was ultimately abandoned, leading to another peace and restoration of the status quo ante bellum in 1544. A final war erupted with Francis' son and successor, Henry II, in 1551. Henry won early success in Lorraine, where he captured Metz, but French offensives in Italy failed. Charles abdicated midway through this conflict, leaving further conduct of the war to his son, Philip II, and his brother, Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor. Conflicts with the Ottoman Empire Charles fought continually with the Ottoman Empire and its sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent. The defeat of Hungary at the Battle of Mohács in 1526 "sent a wave of terror over Europe." The Muslim advance in Central Europe was halted at the Siege of Vienna in 1529, followed by a counter-attack of Charles V across the Danube river. However, by 1541, central and southern Hungary fell under Ottoman control. Suleiman won the contest for mastery of the Mediterranean, in spite of Christian victories such as the conquest of Tunis in 1535. The regular Ottoman fleet came to dominate the Eastern Mediterranean after its victories at Preveza in 1538 and Djerba in 1560 (shortly after Charles's death), which severely decimated the Spanish marine arm. At the same time, the Muslim Barbary corsairs, acting under the general authority and supervision of the sultan, regularly devastated the Spanish and Italian coasts and crippled Spanish trade. The advance of the Ottomans in the Mediterranean and central Europe chipped at the foundations of Habsburg power and diminished Imperial prestige. In 1536 Francis I allied France with Suleiman against Charles. While Francis was persuaded to sign a peace treaty in 1538, he again allied himself with the Ottomans in 1542 in a Franco-Ottoman alliance. In 1543 Charles allied himself with Henry VIII and forced Francis to sign the Truce of Crépy-en-Laonnois. Later, in 1547, Charles signed a humiliating treaty with the Ottomans to gain himself some respite from the huge expenses of their war. Charles V made overtures to the Safavid Empire to open a second front against the Ottomans, in an attempt at creating a Habsburg-Persian alliance. Contacts were positive, but rendered difficult by enormous distances. In effect, however, the Safavids did enter in conflict with the Ottoman Empire in the Ottoman-Safavid War, forcing it to split its military resources. Protestant Reformation The issue of the Protestant Reformation was first brought to the imperial attention under Charles V. As Holy Roman Emperor, Charles called Martin Luther to the Diet of Worms in 1521, promising him safe conduct if he would appear. After Luther defended the Ninety-five Theses and his writings, the Emperor commented: "that monk will never make me a heretic". Charles V relied on religious unity to govern his various realms, otherwise unified only in his person, and perceived Luther's teachings as a disruptive form of heresy. He outlawed Luther and issued the Edict of Worms, declaring: Charles V, however, kept his word, and left Martin Luther free to leave the city. Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony and protector of Luther, lamented the outcome of the Diet. On the road back from Worms, Luther was kidnapped by Frederick's men and hidden in a distant castle in Wartburg. There, he began to work on his German translation of the bible. The spread of Lutheranism led to two major revolts: that of the knights in 1522–1523 and that of the peasants led by Thomas Muntzer in 1524–1525. While the pro-Imperial Swabian League, in conjunction with Protestant princes afraid of social revolts, restored order, Charles V used the instrument of pardon to maintain peace. Following this, Charles V took a tolerant approach and pursued a policy of reconciliation with the Lutherans. At the 1530 Imperial Diet of Augsburg was requested by Emperor Charles V to decide on three issues: first, the defence of the Empire against the Ottoman threat; second, issues related to policy, currency and public well-being; and, third, disagreements about Christianity, in attempt to reach some compromise and a chance to deal with the German situation. The Diet was inaugurated by the emperor on 20 June. It produced numerous outcomes, most notably the 1530 declaration of the Lutheran estates known as the Augsburg Confession (Confessio Augustana), a central document of Lutheranism. Luther's assistant Philip Melanchthon went even further and presented it to Charles V. The emperor strongly rejected it, and in 1531 the Schmalkaldic League was formed by Protestant princes. In 1532, Charles V recognized the League and effectively suspended the Edict of Worms with the standstill of Nuremberg. The standstill required the Protestants to continue to take part in the Imperial wars against the Turks and the French, and postponed religious affairs until an ecumenical council of the Catholic Church was called by the Pope to solve the issue. Due to Papal delays in organizing a general council, Charles V decided to organize a German summit and presided over the Regensburg talks between Catholics and Lutherans in 1541, but no compromise was achieved. In 1545, the Council of Trent was finally opened and the Counter-Reformation began. The Catholic initiative was supported by a number of the princes of the Holy Roman Empire. However, the Schmalkaldic League refused to recognize the validity of the council and occupied territories of Catholic princes. Therefore, Charles V outlawed the Schmalkaldic League and opened hostilities against it in 1546. The next year his forces drove the League's troops out of southern Germany, and defeated John Frederick, Elector of Saxony, and Philip of Hesse at the Battle of Mühlberg, capturing both. At the Augsburg Interim in 1548, he created a solution giving certain allowances to Protestants until the Council of Trent would restore unity. However, members of both sides resented the Interim and some actively opposed it. The council was re-opened in 1550 with the participation of Lutherans, and Charles V set up the Imperial court in Innsbruck, Austria, sufficiently close to Trent for him to follow the evolution of the debates. In 1552 Protestant princes, in alliance with Henry II of France, rebelled again and the second Schmalkaldic War began. Maurice of Saxony, instrumental for the Imperial victory in the first conflict, switched side to the Protestant cause and bypassed the Imperial army by marching directly into Innsbruck with the goal of capturing the Emperor. Charles V was forced to flee the city during an attack of gout and barely made it alive to Villach in a state of semi-consciousness carried in a litter. After failing to recapture Metz from the French, Charles V returned to the Low Countries for the last years of his emperorship. In 1555, he instructed his brother Ferdinand to sign the Peace of Augsburg in his name. The agreements led to the religious division of Germany between Catholic and Protestant princedoms. Finance Charles's main sources of revenue were from Castile, Naples and the Low Countries, which yielded in total an annual amount of around 2.8 million Spanish ducats in the 1520s and about 4.8 million Spanish ducats in the 1540s. Ferdinand I's annual revenue totalled between 1.7 million and 1.9 million Venetian ducats (2.15–2.5 million florin or Rhine gulden). Their chief enemy, the Ottomans, had a more streamlined and profitable system, yielding in total 10 million gold ducats in 1527–1528 and also did not suffer from deficit. He often had to depend on loans from bankers. He borrowed 28 million ducats in total during his reign, of which 5.5 million ducats came from the Fuggers and 4.2 million from the Welsers of Augsburg. Other creditors were from Genoa, Antwerp and Spain. Military system Under the organization and patronage of Maximilian I, Southern Germany had become the leading arms industry region of the 16th century, rivalled only by Northern Italy with the chief centers being Nuremberg, Augsburg, Milan, and Brescia. Charles V continued with the development of mass production (and standardization of gun caliber), which greatly affected warfare. The Helmschmied of Augsburg and the Negroli of Milan were among the foremost families of armourers of the time. Under Charles V, the Spanish arms industry was also significantly expanded, with significant improvements of the muskets. The Landsknechte, originally recruited and organized by Maximilian and Georg von Frundsberg, formed the bulk of Charles V's Imperial army. They surpassed the Swiss mercenaries in quality and quantity as the "best and most easily available mercenaries in Europe" and were considered best fighting troops in the first half of the 16th century for their brutal and ruthless efficiency, with a French saying going "a Landsknecht thrown out heaven couldn't get in hell because he would frighten the devil". Terrence McIntosh notes that, Charles V, like his grandfather, "relied heavily on German military manpower, fearsome landsknechts, as well as redoubtable Swiss-German mercenaries. Maximilian invaded northern Italy in 1496, 1508, and repeatedly between 1509 and 1516. Soon after the imperial election in 1519, Charles V was waging war there. His overwhelmingly German troops won the battle of Pavia and captured the French king in 1525; two years later they sacked the city of Rome, murdering between six and twelve thousand residents and pillaging for eight months." His expansionist and aggressive policy, in combination with brutal behaviours of the Landsknechte, which incidentally happened right at the formation of the early modern German nation, would leave an indelible mark on the neighbours' impression of the German polity, despite the fact that in the long term, it was in general not belligerent. Charles V also favoured German heavy cavalry, although costly. Many cavalrymen and noblemen fighting for Charles V were of Burgundian extraction, often part of the Order of the Golden Fleece. Italian condottieri were also recruited. In Spain, inheriting the reform work of Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, in 1536, Charles reorganized his infantry and created the first units of the tercios. Later they would become "the most formidable fighting force of the sixteenth century". The original tercios were exclusively Spanish and this situation remained until Philip II organized the Italian tercios in 1584. Communication, diplomatic, and espionage systems The Habsburg expansion and consolidation of rule was accompanied by remarkable development of communication, diplomatic and espionage systems. In 1495, Emperor Maximilian and (from the Thurn und Taxis family) developed the Niederländische Postkurs, a postal system that connected the Low Countries with Innsbruck. The system quickly converged with the European trade system and an emerging market for news, spurring a pan-Europe communication revolution The system was developed further by Philip the Handsome, who negotiated new standards for the systems with the Taxis, and unified communication between Germany, the Netherlands, France and Spain by adding stations in Granada, Toledo, Blois, Paris and Lyon in 1505. After his father's death, Charles, as Duke of Burgundy, continued to develop the system. Behringer notes that, "Whereas the status of private mail remains unclear in the treaty of 1506, it is obvious from the contract of 1516 that the Taxis company had the right to carry mail and keep the profit as long as it guaranteed the delivery of court mail at clearly defined speeds, regulated by time sheets to be filled in by the post riders on the way to their destination. In return, imperial privileges guaranteed exemption from local taxes, local jurisdiction, and military service. 21 The terminology of the early modern communications system and the legal status of its participants were invented at these negotiations." He confirmed Jannetto's son Giovanni Battista as Postmaster General (chief et maistre general de noz postes par tous noz royaumes, pays, et seigneuries) in 1520. By Charles V's time, "the Holy Roman Empire had become the centre of the European communication(s) universe." Charles V also inherited efficient multinational diplomatic networks from both the Trastamara and Habsburg-Burgundian dynasties. Following the example of the papal curia, in the late fifteenth century, both dynasties also began to employ permanent envoys (earlier than other secular powers). The Habsburg network developed in parallel to their postal system. Charles V combined the Spanish and the Imperial systems into one. His opponents, chiefly France, found a counterweight though, by the alliance with the Ottoman Empire, which Francis I admitted to be the only force that could prevent the Habsburgs from transforming European states into a Europe-wide empire. Moreover, Charles V's military might frightened other European rulers, thus while he was able to make the pope a reluctant agent like his grandfather Ferdinand had done, no lasting alliance could be achieved. After the Battle of Pavia, the European rulers united to prevent harsh terms from being placed upon France. In the 1530s, in the context of the conflict between the Habsburg empire and their greatest opponent, the Ottomans, an espionage network was built by Charles and Don Alfonso Granai Castriota, the marquis of Atripalda, who conducted its operations. Naples became the main rearguard of the system. Gennaro Varriale writes that, "on the eve of the Tunis campaign, Emperor Charles V possessed a network of spies based in the Kingdom of Naples that watched over all the corners of the Ottoman Empire." Patronage of the arts and architecture Several notable men were recognized with patronage by Charles. Noted Spanish poet Garcilaso de la Vega, a nobleman and ambassador in the royal court of Charles, was first appointed contino (imperial guard) of the King in 1520. Alfonso de Valdés, twin brother of the humanist Juan de Valdés and secretary of the emperor, was a Spanish humanist. Peter Martyr d'Anghiera, an Italian historian at the service of Spain, wrote the first accounts of explorations in Central and South America in a series of letters and reports, grouped in the original Latin publications of 1511 to 1530 into sets of ten chapters called "decades". His Decades are of great value in the history of geography and discovery. His De Orbe Novo (On the New World, 1530) describes the first contacts of Europeans and Native Americans, Native American civilizations in the Caribbean and North America, as well as Mesoamerica, and includes, for example, the first European reference to India rubber. Martyr was given the post of chronicler (cronista) in the newly formed Council of the Indies (1524), commissioned by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor to describe what was occurring in the explorations of the New World. In 1523 Charles gave him the title of Count Palatine, and in 1524 called him once more into the Council of the Indies. Martyr was invested by Pope Clement VII, as proposed by Charles V, as Abbot of Jamaica. Juan Boscán Almogáver was a poet who participated with Garcilaso de la Vega in giving naval assistance to the Isle of Rhodes during a Turkish invasion. Boscà fought against the Turks again in 1532 with Álvarez de Toledo and Charles I in Vienna. During this period, Boscán had made serious progress in his mastery of verse in the Italian style. The building of the Palace of Charles V was commissioned Charles, who wished to establish his residence close to the Alhambra palaces. Although the Catholic Monarchs had already altered some rooms of the Alhambra after the conquest of the city in 1492, Charles V intended to construct a permanent residence befitting an emperor. The project was given to Pedro Machuca, an architect whose life and development are poorly documented. At the time, Spanish architecture was immersed in the Plateresque style, with traces of Gothic architecture still visible. Machuca built a palace corresponding stylistically to Mannerism, a mode then in its infancy in Italy. The exterior of the building uses a typically Renaissance combination of rustication on the lower level and ashlar on the upper. The building has never been a home to a monarch and stood roofless until 1957. Marriage and private life On 21 December 1507, Charles was betrothed to 11-year-old Mary, the daughter of King Henry VII of England and younger sister to the future King Henry VIII of England, who was to take the throne in two years. However, the engagement was called off in 1513, on the advice of Cardinal Wolsey, and Mary was instead married to King Louis XII of France in 1514. After his ascension to the Spanish thrones of Castile and Aragon, negotiations for Charles's marriage began shortly after his arrival in Castile, with the Castilian nobles expressing their wishes for him to marry his first cousin Isabella of Portugal, the daughter of King Manuel I of Portugal and Charles's aunt Maria of Aragon. The nobles desired Charles's marriage to a princess of Castilian blood, and a marriage to Isabella would have secured an alliance between Castile and Portugal. However, the 18-year-old King was in no hurry to marry and ignored the nobles' advice, exploring other marriage options. Instead of marrying Isabella, he sent his sister Eleanor to marry Isabella's widowed father, King Manuel, in 1518. In 1521, on the advice of his Flemish counsellors, especially Guillaume de Croÿ, Charles became engaged to his other first cousin, Mary, daughter of his aunt, Catherine of Aragon, and King Henry VIII, in order to secure an alliance with England. However, this engagement was very problematic because Mary was only 6 years old at the time, sixteen years Charles's junior, which meant that he would have to wait for her to be old enough to marry. By 1525, Charles could not wait any longer to marry and have legitimate children as heirs. Following the victory in the Battle of Pavia in which Francis I of France was captured Charles abandoned the idea of an English alliance, cancelled his engagement to Mary and decided to marry Isabella and form an alliance with Portugal. He wrote to Isabella's brother, King John III of Portugal, making a double marriage contract – Charles would marry Isabella and John would marry Charles's youngest sister, Catherine. A marriage to Isabella was more beneficial for Charles, as she was closer to him in age, was fluent in Spanish and provided him with a very handsome dowry of 900,000 doblas de oro castellanas would help to solve the financial problems brought on by the Italian Wars. The marriage brought him the additional titles as "monarch of the Canaries [Canary Islands] and of the [Portuguese] Indies, the isles of mainland, and the Ocean Sea." Marrying Isabella would allow Charles to have her serve as regent in Spain whenever he left. On 10 March 1526, Charles and Isabella met at the Alcázar Palace in Seville. The marriage was originally a political arrangement, but on their first meeting, the couple fell deeply in love: Isabella captivated the Emperor with her beauty and charm. They were married that very same night in a quiet ceremony in the Hall of Ambassadors, just after midnight. Following their wedding, Charles and Isabella spent a long and happy honeymoon at the Alhambra in Granada. Charles began the construction of the Palace of Charles V in 1527, wishing to establish a permanent residence befitting an emperor and empress in the Alhambra palaces. However, the palace was not completed during their lifetimes and remained roofless until the late 20th century. Despite the Emperor's long absences due to political affairs abroad, the marriage was a happy one, as both partners were always devoted and faithful to each other. The Empress acted as regent of Spain during her husband's absences, and she proved herself to be a good politician and ruler, thoroughly impressing the Emperor with many of her political accomplishments and decisions. The marriage lasted for 13 years until Isabella's death in 1539. The Empress contracted a fever during the third month of her seventh pregnancy, which resulted in antenatal complications that caused her to miscarry a stillborn son. Her health further deteriorated due to an infection, and she died two weeks later on 1 May 1539, aged 35. Charles was left so grief-stricken by his wife's death that for two months he shut himself up in a monastery, where he prayed and mourned for her in solitude. Charles never recovered from Isabella's death, dressing in black for the rest of his life to show his eternal mourning, and, unlike most kings of the time, he never remarried. In memory of his wife, the Emperor commissioned the painter Titian to paint several posthumous portraits of Isabella; the finished portraits included Titian's Portrait of Empress Isabel of Portugal and La Gloria. Charles kept these paintings with him whenever he travelled, and they were among those that he brought with him after his retirement to the Monastery of Yuste in 1557. In 1540, Charles paid tribute to Isabella's memory when he commissioned the Flemish composer Thomas Crecquillon to compose new music as a memorial to her. Crecquillon composed his Missa 'Mort m'a privé in memory of the Empress. It expresses the Emperor's grief and great wish for a heavenly reunion with his beloved wife. During his lifetime, Charles V had several nonmarital liaisons, including some that produced children. One relationship was with his step-grandmother, Germaine de Foix, which may have produced a child, Isabel. After the death of his wife, Charles "seduced Barbara Blomberg, a teenager exactly the same age as his son Philip." He kept the relationship and the existence of this out-of-wedlock son secret, "no doubt because he felt ashamed of his affair with a teenager when he was forty-six." The child named Gerónimo, later became known as John of Austria; the emperor made provisions for the child in a secret codicil to his will. As with his other out-of-wedlock children, the baby was taken from the mother. He met this son once. The relationship was not revealed to his legitimate children in his lifetime, but they became aware of the relationship after his death. Siblings Issue Charles and Isabella had seven legitimate children, but only three of them survived to adulthood. Charles also had natural children before he married and after he was widowed. Due to Philip II being a grandson of Manuel I of Portugal through his mother he was in the line of succession to the throne of Portugal, and claimed it after his uncle's death (Henry, the Cardinal-King, in 1580), thus establishing the personal union between Spain and Portugal. Charles also had five children out of wedlock: Infanta Isabella of Castile (20 August 1518–1537), perhaps daughter of Charles's maternal step-grandmother, Germaine of Foix, but strongly disputed by biographer Geoffrey Parker; Isabella died at the age of 19, never married, and had no issue. Margaret of Austria (1522–1586), daughter of Johanna Maria van der Gheynst, who Charles recognized a servant of Charles I de Lalaing, Seigneur de Montigny, daughter of Gilles Johann van der Gheynst and wife Johanna van der Caye van Cocamby. Married firstly with Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence, and secondly with Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma. Joanna of Austria (1522–1530), daughter of Catalina de Rebolledo (or de Xériga), lady-in-waiting of Queen Joanna I of Castile and Aragonor attached to the household of Henry of Nassau. She was brought up in an Augustinian convent in Madrigal de las Altas Torres. Tadea of Austria (1523? – ), daughter of Orsolina della Penna. Married to Sinibaldo di Copeschi. John of Austria (1547–1578), victor of the Battle of Lepanto, son of Barbara Blomberg. Health Charles suffered from an enlarged lower jaw (mandibular prognathism), a congenital deformity that became considerably worse in later Habsburg generations, giving rise to the term Habsburg jaw. This deformity may have been caused by the family's long history of repeated intermarriages between close family members, as commonly practiced in royal families of that era to maintain dynastic control of territory. Some advisors considered him physically weak and used that as a reason for him to delay his marriage to Mary Tudor. A diplomat in Charles's court described him as "not much of a womaniser" and did not have out of wedlock children during his marriage. He suffered from fainting spells, which might have been epilepsy. He was seriously afflicted with gout, presumably caused by a diet consisting mainly of red meat. As he aged, his gout progressed from painful to crippling. In his retirement, he was carried around the monastery of St. Yuste in a sedan chair. A ramp was specially constructed to allow him easy access to his rooms. Abdications Between 1554 and 1556, Charles V gradually divided the Habsburg empire and the House of Habsburg between a Spanish line and a German-Austrian branch. His abdications all occurred at the Palace of Coudenberg in the city of Brussels. First he abdicated the thrones of Sicily and Naples, both fiefs of the Papacy, and the Imperial Duchy of Milan, in favour of his son Philip on 25 July 1554. Philip was secretly invested with Milan already in 1540 and again in 1546, but only in 1554 did the emperor make it public. Upon the abdications of Naples and Sicily, Philip was invested by Pope Julius III with the Kingdom of Naples on 2 October and with the Kingdom of Sicily on 18 November. The most famousand only publicabdication took place a year later, on 25 October 1555, when Charles announced to the States General of the Netherlands (reunited in the great hall where he was emancipated exactly forty years before by Emperor Maximilian) his abdication in favour of his son of those territories as well as his intention to step down from all of his positions and retire to a monastery. During the ceremony, the gout-afflicted Emperor Charles V leaned on the shoulder of his advisor William the Silent and, crying, pronounced his resignation speech: He concluded the speech by mentioning his voyages: ten to the Low Countries, nine to Germany, seven to Spain, seven to Italy, four to France, two to England, and two to North Africa. His last public words were, "My life has been one long journey." With no fanfare, in 1556 he finalised his abdications. On 16 January 1556, he gave Spain and the Spanish Empire in the Americas to Philip. On 27 August 1556, he abdicated as Holy Roman Emperor in favour of his brother Ferdinand, elected King of the Romans in 1531. The succession was recognized by the prince-electors assembled at Frankfurt only in 1558, and by the Pope only in 1559. The Imperial abdication also marked the beginning of Ferdinand's legal and suo jure rule in the Austrian possessions, that he governed in Charles's name since 1521–1522 and were attached to Hungary and Bohemia since 1526. According to scholars, Charles decided to abdicate for a variety of reasons: the religious division of Germany sanctioned in 1555; the state of Spanish finances, bankrupted with inflation by the time his reign ended; the revival of Italian Wars with attacks from Henri II of France; the never-ending advance of the Ottomans in the Mediterranean and central Europe; and his declining health, in particular attacks of gout such as the one that forced him to postpone an attempt to recapture the city of Metz where he was later defeated. Retirement and death In September 1556, Charles left the Low Countries and sailed to Spain accompanied by Mary of Hungary and Eleanor of Austria. He arrived at the Monastery of Yuste of Extremadura in 1557. He continued to correspond widely and kept an interest in the situation of the empire, while suffering from severe gout. He lived alone in a secluded monastery, surrounded by paintings by Titian and with clocks lining every wall, which some historians believe were symbols of his reign and his lack of time. In August 1558, Charles was taken seriously ill with what was revealed in the twenty-first century to be malaria. He died in the early hours of the morning on 21 September 1558, at the age of 58, holding in his hand the cross that his wife Isabella had been holding when she died. Following his death, there were a plethora of commemorations in his empire, including in Mexico and Peru. Some 30,000 masses were arranged for the soul of the emperor and some 30,000 gold ducats that he had set aside for the ransom of prisoners, poor virgins, and paupers were distributed, but he owed huge debts from his constant warfare far beyond the funds on hand, which his heirs spent decades paying off. Charles was originally buried in the chapel of the Monastery of Yuste, but he left a codicil in his last will and testament asking for the establishment of a new religious foundation in which he would be reburied with Isabella. Following his return to Spain in 1559, their son Philip undertook the task of fulfilling his father's wish when he founded the Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial. After the Monastery's Royal Crypt was completed in 1574, the bodies of Charles and Isabella were relocated and re-interred into a small vault in directly underneath the altar of the Royal Chapel, in accordance with Charles's wishes to be buried "half-body under the altar and half-body under the priest's feet" side by side with Isabella. They remained in the Royal Chapel while the famous Basilica of the Monastery and the Royal tombs were still under construction. In 1654, after the Basilica and Royal tombs were finally completed during the reign of their great-grandson Philip IV, the remains of Charles and Isabella were moved into the Royal Pantheon of Kings, which lies directly under the Basilica. On one side of the Basilica are bronze effigies of Charles and Isabella, with effigies of their daughter Maria of Austria and Charles's sisters Eleanor of Austria and Maria of Hungary behind them. Exactly adjacent to them on the opposite side of the Basilica are effigies of their son Philip with three of his wives and their ill-fated grandson Carlos, Prince of Asturias. Titles Charles V styled himself as Holy Roman Emperor after his election, according to a Papal dispensation conferred to the Habsburg family by Pope Julius II in 1508 and confirmed in 1519 to the prince-electors by the legates of Pope Leo X. Although Papal coronation was not necessary to confirm the Imperial title, Charles V was crowned in the city of Bologna by Pope Clement VII in the medieval fashion. Charles V accumulated a large number of titles due to his vast inheritance of Burgundian, Spanish, and Austrian realms. Following the Pacts of Worms (21 April 1521) and Brussels (7 February 1522), he secretly gave the Austrian lands to his younger brother Ferdinand and elevated him to the status of Archduke. Nevertheless, according to the agreements, Charles continued to style himself as Archduke of Austria and maintained that Ferdinand acted as his vassal and vicar. Furthermore, the pacts of 1521–1522 imposed restrictions on the governorship and regency of Ferdinand. For example, all of Ferdinand's letters to Charles V were signed "your obedient brother and servant". Nonetheless, the same agreements promised Ferdinand the designation as future emperor and the transfer of hereditary rights over Austria at the imperial succession. Following the death of Louis II, King of Hungary and Bohemia, at the Battle of Mohacs in 1526, Charles V favoured the election of Ferdinand as King of Hungary (and Croatia and Dalmatia) and Bohemia. Despite this, Charles also styled himself as King of Hungary and Bohemia and retained this titular use in official acts (such as his testament) as in the case of the Austrian lands. As a consequence, cartographers and historians have described those kingdoms both as realms of Charles V and as possessions of Ferdinand, not without confusion. Others, such as the Venetian envoys, reported that the states of Ferdinand were "all held in common with the Emperor". Therefore, although he had agreed on the future division of the dynasty between Ferdinand and Philip II of Spain, during his own reign Charles V conceived the existence of a single "House of Austria" of which he was the sole head. In the abdications of 1554–1556, Charles left his personal possessions to Philip II and the Imperial title to Ferdinand. The titles of King of Hungary, of Dalmatia, Croatia, etc., were also nominally left to the Spanish line (in particular to Don Carlos, Prince of Asturias and son of Philip II). However, Charles's Imperial abdication marked the beginning of Ferdinand's suo jure rule in Austria and his other lands: despite the claims of Philip and his descendants, Hungary and Bohemia were left under the nominal and substantial rule of Ferdinand and his successors. Formal disputes between the two lines over Hungary and Bohemia were to be solved with the Onate treaty of 1617. Charles's full titulature went as follows: Charles, by the grace of God, Emperor of the Romans, forever August, King in (of) Germany, King of Italy, King of all Spains, of Castile, Aragon, León, of Hungary, of Dalmatia, of Croatia, Navarra, Grenada, Toledo, Valencia, Galicia, Majorca, Sevilla, Cordova, Murcia, Jaén, Algarves, Algeciras, Gibraltar, the Canary Islands, King of both Hither and Ultra Sicily, of Sardinia, Corsica, King of Jerusalem, King of the Indies, of the Islands and Mainland of the Ocean Sea, Archduke of Austria, Duke of Burgundy, Brabant, Lorraine, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Limburg, Luxembourg, Gelderland, Neopatria, Württemberg, Landgrave of Alsace, Prince of Swabia, Asturia and Catalonia, Count of Flanders, Habsburg, Tyrol, Gorizia, Barcelona, Artois, Burgundy Palatine, Hainaut, Holland, Seeland, Ferrette, Kyburg, Namur, Roussillon, Cerdagne, Drenthe, Zutphen, Margrave of the Holy Roman Empire, Burgau, Oristano and Gociano, Lord of Frisia, the Wendish March, Pordenone, Biscay, Molin, Salins, Tripoli and Mechelen. Coat of arms of Charles V Coat of arms of Charles I of Spain and V of the Holy Roman Empire according to the description: Arms of Charles I added to those of Castile, Leon, Aragon, Two Sicilies and Granada present in the previous coat, those of Austria, ancient Burgundy, modern Burgundy, Brabant, Flanders and Tyrol. Charles I also incorporates the pillars of Hercules with the inscription "Plus Ultra", representing the overseas Spanish empire and surrounding coat with the collar of the Golden Fleece, as sovereign of the Order ringing the shield with the imperial crown and Acola double-headed eagle of the Holy Roman Empire and behind it the Cross of Burgundy. From 1520 added to the corresponding quarter to Aragon and Sicily, one in which the arms of Jerusalem, Naples and Navarre are incorporated. Ancestors Historiography, commemoration, and popular culture Charles V has traditionally attracted considerable scholarly attention. There are differences among historians regarding his character, his rule and achievements (or failures) in the countries in his personal empire as well as various social movements and wider problems associated with his reign. Historically seen as a great ruler by some or a tragic failure of a politician by others, he is generally seen by modern historians as an overall capable politician, a brave and effective military leader, although his political vision and financial management tend to be questioned. References to Charles in popular culture include a large number of legends and folk tales; literary renderings of historical events connected to his life and romantic adventures, his relationship to Flanders, and his abdication; and products marketed in his name. Charles V as a ruler has been commemorated over time in many parts of Europe. An imperial resolution of Franz Joseph I of Austria, dated 28 February 1863, included Charles V in the list of the "most famous Austrian rulers and generals worthy of everlasting emulation", and honored him with a life-size statue, made by the Bohemian sculptor Emanuel Max Ritter von Wachstein, located at the Museum of Military History, Vienna. The 400th anniversary of his death, celebrated in 1958 in Francoist Spain, brought together the local national catholic intelligentsia and a number of European (Catholic) conservative figures, underpinning an imperial nostalgia for Charles V's Europe and the Universitas Christiana, also propelling a peculiar brand of europeanism. In 2000, celebrations for the 500th anniversary of Charles's birth took place in Belgium. Public monuments Unusually among major European monarchs, Charles V discouraged monumental depictions of himself during his lifetime. The Charles V Monument in Palermo was erected in 1631 and depicts him triumphant following the Conquest of Tunis. Among other posthumous depictions, there are statues of Charles on the facade of the City Hall in Ghent and the Royal Palace of Caserta. A statue of Charles, donated by the city of Toledo, was erected in 1966 in the Prinsenhof in Ghent where he was born. The Plaza del Emperador Carlos V is a square in the city of Madrid that is named after Charles V. Literature In , published by Joan de Grieck in 1674, the short stories, anecdotes, citations attributed to the emperor, and legends about his encounters with famous and ordinary people, depict a noble Christian monarch with a perfect cosmopolitan personality and a strong sense of humour. Conversely, in Charles De Coster's masterpiece Thyl Ulenspiegel (1867), after his death Charles V is consigned to Hell as punishment for the acts of the Inquisition under his rule, his punishment being that he would feel the pain of anyone tortured by the Inquisition. De Coster's book also mentions the story on the spectacles in the coat of arms of Oudenaarde, the one about a paysant of Berchem in Het geuzenboek (1979) by Louis Paul Boon, while (1882–1939) included both tales in De liefdesavonturen van keizer Karel in Vlaanderen. Lord Byron's Ode to Napoleon Buonaparte refers to Charles as "The Spaniard". Charles V is a notable character in Simone de Beauvoir's All Men Are Mortal. In The Maltese Falcon, the title object is said to have been an intended gift to Charles V. Plays Charles V appears as a character in the play Doctor Faustus by the Elizabethan playwright Christopher Marlowe. In Act 4 Scene 1 of the A Text, Faustus attends Court by the Emperor's request and with the assistance of Mephistopheles conjures up spirits representing Alexander the Great and his paramour as a demonstration of his magical powers. Opera Ernst Krenek's opera Karl V (opus 73, 1930) examines the title character's career via flashbacks. In the third act of Giuseppe Verdi's opera Ernani, the election of Charles as Holy Roman Emperor is presented. Charles (Don Carlo in the opera) prays before the tomb of Charlemagne. With the announcement that he is elected as Carlo Quinto he declares an amnesty including the eponymous bandit Ernani who had followed him there to murder him as a rival for the love of Elvira. The opera, based on the Victor Hugo play Hernani, portrays Charles as a callous and cynical adventurer whose character is transformed by the election into a responsible and clement ruler. In another Verdi opera, Don Carlo, the final scene implies that it is Charles V, now living the last years of his life as a hermit, who rescues his grandson, Don Carlo, from his father Philip II and the Inquisition, by taking Carlo with him to his hermitage at the monastery in Yuste. Food A Flemish legend about Charles being served a beer at the village of Olen, as well as the emperor's lifelong preference of beer above wine, led to the naming of several beer varieties in his honor. The Haacht Brewery of Boortmeerbeek produces Charles Quint, while Het Anker Brewery in Mechelen produces Gouden Carolus, including a Grand Cru of the Emperor, brewed once a year on Charles V's birthday. Grupo Cruzcampo brews Legado De Yuste in honor of Charles and attributes the inspiration to his Flemish origin and his last days at the monastery of Yuste. Carlos V is the name of a popular chocolate bar in Mexico. Its tagline is "El Rey de los Chocolates" or "The King of Chocolates" and "Carlos V, El Emperador del Chocolate" or "Charles V, the Emperor of Chocolates". Television and film Charles V is portrayed by Hans Lefebre and is figured prominently in the 1953 film Martin Luther, covering Luther's years from 1505 to 1530. Charles V is portrayed by Torben Liebrecht and is figured prominently in the 2003 film Luther covering the life of Martin Luther up until the Diet of Augsburg. Charles V is portrayed by Sebastian Armesto in one episode of the Showtime series The Tudors. Charles V is the main subject of the TVE series Carlos, Rey Emperador and is portrayed by Álvaro Cervantes. Charles V is played by Adrien Brody in the upcoming movie Emperor. Charles V is portrayed by Rupert Everett in The Serpent Queen. See also Royal Armoury of Madrid Museum of Military History, Vienna Notes References Further reading English Atkins, Sinclair. "Charles V and the Turks", History Today (Dec 1980) 30#12 pp. 13–18 Blockmans, W. P., and Nicolette Mout. The World of Emperor Charles V (2005) Blockmans, Wim. Emperor Charles V, 1500–1558. (Oxford University Press, 2002). online Brandi, Karl. The Emperor Charles V: The growth and destiny of a man and of a world-empire (1939) online Espinosa, Aurelio. "The Grand Strategy of Charles V (1500–1558): Castile, War, and Dynastic Priority in the Mediterranean", Journal of Early Modern History (2005) 9#3 pp. 239–283. online Espinosa, Aurelio. "The Spanish Reformation: Institutional Reform, Taxation, and the Secularization of Ecclesiastical Properties under Charles V", Sixteenth Century Journal (2006) 37#1 pp 3–24. . Espinosa, Aurelio. The Empire of the Cities: Emperor Charles V, the Comunero Revolt, and the Transformation of the Spanish System (2008) Ferer, Mary Tiffany. Music and Ceremony at the Court of Charles V: The Capilla Flamenca and the Art of Political Promotion (Boydell & Brewer, 2012). Headley, John M. The Emperor and His Chancellor: A Study of the Imperial Chancellery under Gattinara (1983) covers 1518 to 1530. Heath, Richard. Charles V: Duty and Dynasty: The Emperor and his Changing World 1500–1558. (2018) Kleinschmidt, Harald. Charles V: The World Emperor Merriman, Roger Bigelow. The Rise of the Spanish Empire in the Old World and the New: Volume 3 The Emperor (1925) online Norwich, John Julius. Four Princes: Henry VIII, Francis I, Charles V, Suleiman the Magnificent and the Obsessions that Forged Modern Europe (2017), popular history; excerpt Parker, Geoffrey. Emperor: A New Life of Charles V. New Haven: Yale University Press (2019) excerpt Reston Jr., James. Defenders of the Faith: Charles V, Suleyman the Magnificent, and the Battle for Europe, 1520–1536 (2009), popular history. Richardson, Glenn. Renaissance Monarchy: The Reigns of Henry VIII, Francis I and Charles V (2002) 246 pp., covers 1497 to 1558. Robertson, William. History of the Reign of the Emperor Charles V, with a View of the Progress of Society in Europe (1769). Rodriguez-Salgado, Mia. Changing Face of Empire: Charles V, Philip II and Habsburg Authority, 1551–1559 (1988), 375 pp. Rosenthal, Earl E. Palace of Charles V in Granada (1986) 383 pp. Saint-Saëns, Alain, ed. Young Charles V. (New Orleans: University Press of the South, 2000). Thomas, Hugh. The Golden Empire: Spain, Charles V, and the Creation of America. New York: Random House 2010. Other languages Salvatore Agati (2009). Carlo V e la Sicilia. Tra guerre, rivolte, fede e ragion di Stato, Giuseppe Maimone Editore, Catania 2009, D'Amico, Juan Carlos. Charles Quint, Maître du Monde: Entre Mythe et Realite 2004, 290p. Norbert Conrads: Die Abdankung Kaiser Karls V. Abschiedsvorlesung, Universität Stuttgart, 2003 (text ) Stephan Diller, Joachim Andraschke, Martin Brecht: Kaiser Karl V. und seine Zeit. Ausstellungskatalog. Universitäts-Verlag, Bamberg 2000, Alfred Kohler: Karl V. 1500–1558. Eine Biographie. C. H. Beck, München 2001, Alfred Kohler: Quellen zur Geschichte Karls V. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1990, Alfred Kohler, Barbara Haider. Christine Ortner (Hrsg): Karl V. 1500–1558. Neue Perspektiven seiner Herrschaft in Europa und Übersee. Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 2002, Ernst Schulin: Kaiser Karl V. Geschichte eines übergroßen Wirkungsbereichs. Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart 1999, Ferdinant Seibt: Karl V. Goldmann, München 1999, Manuel Fernández Álvarez: Imperator mundi: Karl V. – Kaiser des Heiligen Römischen Reiches Deutscher Nation.. Stuttgart 1977, External links Genealogy history of Charles V and his ancestors The Life and Times of Emperor Charles V 1500–1558 The Library of Charles V preserved in the National Library of France Luminarium Encyclopedia biography of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor New Advent biography of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and the Tiburtine Sibyl Charles V the Habsburg emperor, video |- |- Category:1500 births Category:1558 deaths Category:16th-century Holy Roman Emperors Category:16th-century Aragonese monarchs Category:16th-century Castilian monarchs Category:16th-century kings of Sicily Category:16th-century Roman Catholics Category:16th-century archdukes of Austria Category:16th-century Spanish monarchs Category:16th-century monarchs of Naples Category:16th-century Navarrese monarchs Category:Aragonese infantes Category:Burials in the Pantheon of Kings at El Escorial Category:Castilian infantes Category:Counts of Barcelona Category:Counts of Burgundy Category:Counts of Charolais Category:Deaths from malaria Category:Dukes of Burgundy Category:Dukes of Milan Category:Dukes of Montblanc Category:Grand Masters of the Order of the Golden Fleece Category:Infectious disease deaths in Spain Category:Knights of Santiago Category:Knights of the Garter Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece Charles 05 Category:Modern child monarchs Category:Monarchs who abdicated Category:Nobility from Ghent Category:Princes of Asturias Category:Spanish exploration in the Age of Discovery Category:Spanish infantes Category:Counts of Malta Category:Royal reburials
[ { "text": "The Royal Armoury of Madrid or Real Armería de Madrid, is a collection that, among many other things, contains the personal arms of the Kings of Spain, and also houses military weapons, armours and diplomatic works of art like mixed tapestries, paintings and other works of art and trophies. Among the most notable parts of the collection are armor and full tools that Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and Philip II used. It is considered, along with the Imperial Armory of Vienna, one of the best in the world.\n\nThe decision to grant preferential treatment to the Armory dates back at least to the death of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, which occurred on 21 September 1558.\n\nLocation\n\nThe armory of the Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, had come, mostly, from Brussels to Spain via the port of Laredo, in September 1556, from where it went to Valladolid. At his death his weapons were scattered between Valladolid, the Monastery of Yuste, and possibly the Alcázar of Madrid.\n\nFormer building\n\nThis building that is currently known as \"Antigua Real Armería de Felipe II\" was chosen, apparently, in 1553, to provide the Alcázar of a new Stables. Its conception was probably due to Philip II himself, judging by a sketch he made that is preserved in the Archivo General de Simancas.\n\nThis former armoury was located in the complex of the Royal Stables of the Alcázar of the Habsburgs, built by the master builder Gaspar de Vega between 1556 and 1564 at the behest of King Philip II. When works were completed, the king commanded that the Armoury be moved to the wing of the Stables that was in front of the main facade of the Alcázar.\n\nThe new site was structured around a rectangular hall of 63 meters long by 10 meters wide, and consisted of a ground floor and main floor. Crowning the building was a ledge of stone on which stood the roof truss and slate roof, with stepped gables at both front ends. Downstairs were three naves, while the upper floor, housing the Armory, was completely open. The interior of the hall was completed in 1565. It was whitewashed and a large portion decorated with azulejos from Talavera de la Reina pottery by Juan Florez.\n\nThe most characteristic element of its structure was the called \"Arc of the Armoury\" that connected the Alcázar with the outside. The arc was built during the reign of Charles II of Habsburg.\n\nCurrent location\n\nIn 1884 a fire partially destroyed the structure built by Philip II. Alfonso XII ordered no expense be spared in the construction of a new building which is its current headquarters. Alfonso's early death meant he did not see the culmination of his work, which was finally completed by the will of the Queen Maria Cristina. The main floor of the new building was conceived as a large room decorated with tapestries, weapons and outfits in which was installed the entire collection. The new facility was inaugurated in 1893.\n\nThe current Royal Armoury of Madrid is located on the ground floor of the Royal Palace of Madrid, and is considered, along with the Imperial Armoury of Vienna, one of the best in the world. It consists of pieces from as early as the 15th century. The collection highlights the tournament pieces made for Charles V and Philip II by the leading armourers of Milan and Augsburg. Among the most remarkable works are the full armour and weapons that Emperor Charles V used in the Battle of Mühlberg, and which was portrayed by Titian in his famous equestrian portrait housed at the Museo del Prado. The armoury retains some of the most important pieces of this art in Europe and the world, including several signed by Filippo Negroli, one of the most famous designers in the armourers' guild.\n\nCollections\nThe weapons were guarded in the former building in large \"drawers\" of wood, i.e. large closets like cloakrooms. The distribution of the weapons in the room was thought through thoroughly. Higher grade weapons were stored inside the drawers. Firearms, archery, and to a lesser extent, some knives and small, were placed over the windows. The remaining pole weapons occupied the front ends of the room and the drawers. The western headwall highlighted two small pieces of artillery and four sledges with fittings of its shots.\n\nThe criteria of distribution and management inside the drawers were more complex. The first criterion of distribution catered to the owners of the weapons. Those belonging to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor occupied mainly the first eight drawers in the southern side, while those of Philip II were stored next to those of his father in the northern wall. According to the second criterion, certain drawers housed the set of armor, spines, trappings and clothing that constituted each of the harnesses of Charles V and Philip II. The third criterion, broader, responded to the types of objects. Thus each drawer kept only one type of weapon, dedicated for example to knives, or chain mail, or other objects with common features, duch as arms decorated in damascene. Other drawers guarded weapons of particular interest to the dynasty, such as the trophies of Mülhberg and Pavia, guns of legendary characters or some symbolic importance, the ceremonial sword of the Catholic Monarchs, the rapier sent by Pope Clement VII to Charles V, the armor sent to Philip II by the shogun Toyotomi Hideyoshi or the swords attributed to El Cid, to el Gran Capitán, to Roland and to Boabdil.\n\nThe core of the current collection corresponds to the armory guarded by Philip II when he established the Court in Madrid, consisting of his personal armory, but especially that of his father, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, who in turn had retained weapons belonging to his father, Philip I of Castile and his grandparents, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. Within this set stand the armor of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and Philip II as a set of most important and core on which is based the rest of the collection. Alongside are other significant sets of the formation of the current collection, despite the irregular increase of its funds from the 16th to the 19th century: among these are the medieval weapons from the Treasury of the Alcázar of Segovia; the firearms of Charles V and Philip II; the child armor of the Princes and Infantes of Spain; military trophies; and diplomatic and family gifts sent by the following persons: the Duke of Mantua to Charles V; the shogun Toyotomi Hideyoshi to Philip II; Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy and James I of England to Philip III; Infanta Isabel Clara Eugenia and Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria to Philip IV; or the Sultan of Turkey to Charles III among others. The last set of special importance in the collection are the firearms forged in Madrid for the venatoria activities of the Court, of great reputation throughout the continent.\n\nThe medieval and transition to Renaissance funds are a set of importance for its meaning, despite its number and diverse origins. One part was in the armory of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, who had inherited his father's weapons, of his grandparents and some of his contemporaries. A second set comes from the Royal Treasury of the Alcazar of Segovia, moved to the Armory of Madrid by Philip II. A third group consists of several purchases, donations and transfers of royal medals made between the reigns of Ferdinand VII to Alfonso XII. Highlights the depiction of the emblems of the kingdoms of Castile, León and Aragon, present in the acicates and the mantle of Ferdinand III of Castile, those coming from his burial in the Cathedral of Seville, and the crest of Drac Alat attributed to Martin of Aragon. Together with them stand the royal sword of the Catholic Monarchs, used as ceremonial sword in the Spanish Court until the 18th century.\n\nThe reign of the Catholic Monarchs and the weaponry of Late Middle Ages, is also represented by weapons from various sources that frame the activity in this period. Also preserved are contemporary war weapons to the Granada War, consisting of illustrative defensive pieces of the Spanish, Italian and German workshops; and two of the oldest portable fire weapons known in Spain, even debtors in some ways, of the archery that supersede with the time. Within this group it deserve special mention the helmets and the armor pieces associated with a peculiar prestigious peninsular production, whose workshops have not yet been identified, but are supposed are from Aragonese origin; The Nasrid sultanate of Granada is present through a small but important sample of its panoply, since are preserved an example of each of the three types of weapons of Granadan creation; one genet from the collection of Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria; one leather shield preserved in the armory of Charles V; and a dagger wing associated with a belt with pouch and a holster for a Quran, those latter captured at the Battle of Lucena to Muhammad XII (Boabdil), and those presented to Alfonso XIII by the Marquis of Viana as part of the Villaseca legacy.\n\nThe collection retains weapons related with some of the facts and prominent figures of the reign of the Catholic Monarchs through their weapons, such as the sword of Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba (el Gran Capitán), or the weapons of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, specifically a headpiece of horse, a coracina and two fences. The firsts allude to his power and dynasty by a decoration and heraldic and allegorical character that puts the imperial emblems. These weapons come from the collection of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor where were also guarding the weapons of his father, Philip I of Castile, representative of the marriage alliances between the Catholic Monarchs and Maximilian. The armory of Philip I of Castile is currently divided between the Hofjagd und Rüstkammer (Kunsthistorisches Museum) of Vienna and the Royal Armory of Madrid, where are primarily the weapons used since his marriage with Joanna of Castile, among which a two hands sword with his personal motto, and helmets and testeras of Flemish, German and Italian origin; between these, two helmets by the Milanos workshop of Filippo Negroli and three armor that match only two examples in the Flemish and Spanish production period.\n\nThe Armouries of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and Philip II\nThe armouries of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and Philip II constitute the core of the collection, especially in regard to the imperial armory. Meanwhile, the weapons of Philip II can not be dissociated from those of his father, given the close relationship between the two, and by their German or Italian origin within the same chronological period. In fact, most of the armors of Philip II were forged when Charles V lived, coinciding at times in its development with those of the Emperor. The whole of the armors of Charles V and Philip II was forged between 1519 and 1560, during the Renaissance, during the time of splendor of the art of the armour.\n\nEssentially, is not a set of war weapons, but a collection of luxury weapons as a representation of power, intended to be used in the various events of the Court: fairs, tournaments, military parades, jousting, etc. Most of the armours of Charles V and Philip II were forged following the concept of fitting armor invented by Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor: consisted of a base armour provided with reinforcement parts or complement, decorated uniformly, so that the exchange of the different pieces that compose it, could lead to the formation of various figures intended to the combat on foot, to the fair and to the equestrian tournament, to the war in its different variants or to the parade. The Spanish Royal Collection retains much of these auxiliary pieces and a high number of fences or armors of horse, associated, in some cases, to such armors.\n\nIn this type of weapons is especially valued the constructive and technical wit, the formal design and the decoration, the latter rich in connotations of all being, from chivalry to the reflection of the ideas and themes of humanism through allegorical, religious, heraldic and / or dynastic, or recreating the classical tradition of the Roman times. The physical implementation of the decoration is done by techniques to show or enhance the beauty and richness of the pieces sculpted thanks to etched surfaces, light embossed, golden or silver surfaces, bluing, gold and silver damascened, etc. Therefore, throughout Europe the luxury weapons could only be forged and decorated in a limited number of highly specialized workshops. The most important were located, for historical and geographical reasons, in Germany and northern Italy. In the case of Charles V stand out the workshops of Kolman and Desiderius Helmschmid from Augsburg, and of Filippo Negroli and brothers from Milan. In the case of Philip II, Franz and Wolfgang Grosschedel from Landshut, Desiderius Helmschmid and Antoni Peffenhauser from Augsburg. These armourers are given special preference, but both Charles V and Philip II possessed weapons coming from other high-level workshops, such as Mattheus Frawenbrys, Caremolo Mondrone, or Bartolomeo Campi, either because these are specific orders, or by being parts submitted by various personages related to the Spanish Court.\n\nNotes\n\nBibliography\n\nMarchesi, José María (1849). Catálogo de la Real Armería, mandado formar por S.M.... Madrid: Aguado. https://books.google.com/books?id=_G6ynFwGCMoC\nMuseo Nacional del Prado (2012). «La Real Armería de Madrid».\n\nExternal links\n\nCategory:Royal Palace of Madrid\nCategory:Culture in Madrid\nCategory:Demolished buildings and structures in Madrid\nCategory:Armour collections\nCategory:History museums in Spain\nCategory:Military and war museums in Spain\nCategory:Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor\nCategory:Philip II of Spain\nCategory:Buildings and structures completed in 1565\nCategory:1558 establishments in Spain", "title": "Royal Armoury of Madrid" }, { "text": "The Museum of Military History – Military History Institute () in Vienna is the leading museum of the Austrian Armed Forces. It documents the history of Austrian military affairs through a wide range of exhibits comprising, above all, weapons, armours, tanks, aeroplanes, uniforms, flags, paintings, medals and badges of honour, photographs, battleship models, and documents. Although the museum is owned by the Federal Government, it is not affiliated with the Federal museums but is organised as a subordinate agency reporting directly to the Ministry of Defence and Sports.\n\nThe museum building and its history \nThe museum building (Arsenal object number 18) is the centrepiece of Vienna's Arsenal, a huge military complex previously consisting of a total of 72 buildings erected in the wake of the 1848/49 revolution. The Arsenal was the largest building project of the young Kaiser Franz Joseph I in his first years of reign, and served to consolidate his neoabsolutist position of power, as opposed to the revolutionary Vienna of 1848.\nIt was Danish architect Theophil Hansen who designed what was then referred to as the weapons museum. The museum was completed on 8 May 1856, just six years after the beginning of construction (15 April 1850), making it the oldest museum building – planned and executed as such – in Austria.\nAt the time of its construction, the Arsenal was located outside the outer ring of fortifications; in 1850, however, the area was incorporated into Vienna along with the original Favoriten (4th District; as of 1874, 10th District; since 1938, the Arsenal forms part of Vienna's 3rd District). Along the south-west side of the Arsenal ran the Vienna-Raab railway, for which the main Vienna station, the Wiener Bahnhof had been opened in 1848.\n\nThe front \nHansen's plan provided for a 235-meter long building with protruding transverse sections and corner towers, and a tower-like central segment with a square shape, crowned with a dome, with a total height of 43 meters. Just as many other historicist buildings borrowed models from historic architecture, Theophil Hansen chose the Venetian Arsenal, built after 1104, as his prototype. He borrowed Byzantine style elements, adding some Gothic elements in the process. What really stands out is the characteristic brickwork structure. The brickwork, consisting of two-tone bricks, is decorated with terracotta ornaments and wrought iron clasps, the segmentation of the façade is set off in natural stone, and the median risalit is rich with decorative elements such as the three round windows in front of the side wings. The richly adorned attic section is borne by a magnificent lombard band reminiscent of Florentine palazzi. The dovetail crenellation is interrupted by turrets at the axes of the side wings and at the corners of the central part of the building, with terracotta trophy sculptures positioned inside their alcoves. Allegoric representations of military virtues made of sandstone are featured on and in front of the facade, created by Hans Gasser, one of the most influential sculptors of his time. Just below the round windows, the female figures (from left to right) represent strength, vigilance, piety, and wisdom; next to the three openings leading to the lobby are four male figures, which stand for bravery, loyalty to the flag, self-sacrifice, and military intelligence.\n\nThe interior \nThe interior of the Museum of Military History is witness to the intention of Emperor Franz Joseph to create not just a building to house the imperial arms collections, but above all to establish a magnificent hall of fame and a memorial for the Imperial Army. The Feldherrenhalle, for instance, exhibits 56 full-figure statues of \"Austria's most famous warlords and field commanders worthy of eternal emulation\", as they are described in the Imperial resolution of 28 February 1863. All statutes are made of Carrara marble and stand equally tall at exactly 186 centimetres. The names and biographical data of those depicted can be found on plates located above each statue, while the base of each statue bears one of the 32 names of the artists who created them, the date it was installed, and the name of the patron who paid for the statue. Half of the costs were borne by Emperor Franz Joseph himself, and the rest was financed by private sponsors who were often descendants of the respective field commanders depicted. The chronological period covered by these statues ranges from the Margrave Leopold I of Babenberg to the Habsburg Archduke Charles.\n\nThe staircase too, was lavishly decorated. An additional four statues of field commanders are exhibited in the mezzanine, thus bringing the total to the aforementioned 60, though contrary to the ones in the Feldherrenhalle, these stand in considerably more elevated positions in wall niches. These portray important personalities of the revolutionary year 1848, namely those military leaders who – at times very bloodily – quelled the revolutionary efforts in all parts of the Empire on behalf of the House of Habsburg: Julius von Haynau, Joseph Wenzel Radetzky, Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, and Count Josip Jelačić of Bužim. Carl Rahl was assigned with the pictorial decoration of the Staircase, a task he carried out together with his students Christian Griepenkerl and Eduard Bitterlich in 1864. The centre of the gold-ornamented ceiling features frescos with allegorical depictions of power and unity (centre), fame and honour (right), and cleverness and courage (left). The staircase is crowned by an allegorical marble sculpture group titled Austria, created by Johannes Benk in 1869.\n\nIndisputably, the most representative section of the entire museum is the Ruhmeshalle (hall of fame) located in the first floor. A particular highlight of the Ruhmeshalle are the frescos by Karl von Blaas, portraying the most important military events (victories) in Austrian history since the times of the Babenberg dynasty. The four large wall arches show the victories of the Imperial Army, the battle of Nördlingen 1634, the war council at the battle of St. Gotthard 1664, the battle of Zenta 1697, and the relief of Turin 1706; the left adjacent hall contains depictions of events during the reign of Maria Theresia and Joseph II until the siege of Belgrade in 1789; the right adjacent hall contains depictions of the Napoleonic Wars stretching from the battle of Würzburg in 1796 to Tyrol's struggle for freedom in 1809 and the armistice negotiations of field Marshal Radetzky with King Vittorio Emanuele II of Sardinia following the battle of Novara in 1849. The true significance of the Ruhmeshalle, that of a memorial, however, only becomes discernible at the second glance: On the walls of the adjacent halls and in the Ruhmeshalle itself, one will find several marble plaques, bearing the names of over 500 officers (from colonels to generals of the Imperial Army, known as Imperial and Royal (k.u.k.) Army as of the beginning of the Thirty Years' War in 1618 until the end of World War I in 1918), indicating the place and date of their death.\n\nHistory \nAlthough the museum building itself was already completed in 1856, work on its interior lasted until 1872. The collection was completed with pieces from the former court arms collection of the Imperial armoury, the Imperial private collection in the Laxenburg Palace, and the Imperial treasury in Vienna. Initially, the collection consisted exclusively of arms and trophies, with a major focus on suits of armour and weapons of the Imperial Leibrüstkammer (Chamber of Personal Armour). After the collection was systematically arranged, it was opened to the public as the k.k. Hofwaffenmuseum in 1869. When construction of the Museum of Fine Arts began in Vienna in 1871 (it was opened in 1891), many believed in the beginning of the 1880s that significant parts of the collections previously exhibited in the Hofwaffenmuseum could be moved there. These considerations brought great uncertainty over the future and orientation of the k.k. Hofwaffenmuseum. Therefore, a committee chaired by Crown Prince Rudolf was formed in 1885, assigned with the task of defining the new orientation of the museum, henceforth called the k.k. Heeresmuseum. From there on, the focus of the collections and exhibitions would be placed on the deeds of the Imperial Army. On the foundation meeting of the committee on 22 February 1885, the Crown Prince underscored the purpose of the museum: He stressed the importance of the museum, which \"would contribute to glorifying the nimbus and the honour of the Army, in which the genuine old Imperial spirit lives on, which has held the Imperial position in high esteem at all times and thus constitutes the symbol of cohesiveness of all people\". For this reason, he hoped \"that the museum would come to life in the greatest possible magnificence″.\n\nThe committee consisted of the following members:\n Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria, Protector and Chairman\n Archduke Wilhelm of Austria, Deputy Protector and Chairman\n Quirin Ritter von Leitner, then Director of the Hofwaffenmuseum.\n Alfred Ritter von Arneth, President of the Imperial Academy of Sciences\n Johann Nepomuk Count Wilczek, patron and collector, and main sponsor of the Payer-Weyprecht polar expedition.\n\nApart from the requests addressed to various military institutions, the committee also approached private civilians to obtain historic objects for the new museum. The principle applied was: The collections were to be divided into war trophies and ″otherwise historically interesting objects of exclusively Austrian origin which are of significance for the proper acknowledgement of the past of the Imperial and Royal Army in all its factors″. Only originals were allowed to be exhibited, and projects and models were admissible only under special circumstances. As a result of the work of the committee and the generous support of the Emperor, his family, the nobility, and the bourgeoisie, as well as the Imperial War Ministry, ″a plethora of treasures was gathered, which a contemporary individual can hardly imagine.″ Finally, on 25 May 1891, the new k.u.k. Heeresmuseum in the Arsenal was solemnly inaugurated by Emperor Franz Joseph and dedicated to its intended use.\nOnce World War I broke out, the museum was immediately closed down for visitors. This was mainly attributed to the fact that so much material was appropriated from the various war theatres that it became impossible to manage an orderly exhibition. The end of the war in 1918 also seemed to bring the final curtain down for the museum. There was even a plan to sell the museum's collections to improve the precarious economic situation, but this was eventually averted. In September 1921, the building was reopened as the Österreichisches Heeresmuseum (Austrian Military Museum). From there on, the museum was to focus primarily on documenting the most recent military events, especially those of World War I. The opening of a gallery for war paintings in 1923 marked the first time that the museum dedicated a large section to fine arts. These did not only depict army chiefs and battles, but also the everyday life of soldiers during wartime. \nFollowing Austria's annexation into the Third Reich, the museum was placed under the management of the director of military museums in Berlin and was renamed to Heeresmuseum Wien (Vienna military museum). During World War II, the museum was once again inaccessible to the public, and admission remained reserved to military personnel. As of 1943, civilians were allowed into the museum as visitors only on weekends. During this time, the museum was primarily used for propaganda purposes. For instance, military campaigns of the Wehrmacht were documented in special propaganda exhibitions (Sieg im Westen (summer 1940), Griechenland und Kreta 1941 – Bild und Beute (March/May 1942) and Kampfraum Südost (summer 1944)).\nAs with all museums in Vienna, the most valuable collections were evacuated once the allied bombings on Vienna began in autumn 1943. These measures proved absolutely necessary, since the Arsenal and the Südbahnhof were directly hit by allied bomber groups on 10 September and 11 December 1944, severely damaging or completely destroying not only the museum building but also several depots. Toward the end of the war, in particular during the so-called Vienna Offensive, the Arsenal grounds, too, were heavily damaged.\nDuring the occupation, many of the evacuated collection items that had survived the turmoil of war were requisitioned by the Allies. Several items, however, also fell victim to theft and looting by the soldiers of the Red Army and the civilian population. In the end, the museum faced the prospect of a complete shutdown. Despite the aforementioned difficulties, reconstruction of the museum already began in 1946 under the direction of Alfred Mell, who proposed what was eventually to become its final name, the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum. The management of the museum at the time received particular support from the Austrian Belvedere Gallery and the Museum of Fine Arts. The collection of ship models provided by the Vienna Technical Museum has remained the core attraction of the Marinesaal to this day. During the term of Rudolf Pühringer as director, the museum, now called Heeresgeschichtliches Museum, was solemnly reopened by the Federal Minister for Education, Heinrich Drimmel on 24 June 1955.\nIn the post-war period, the halls of the reopened museum were designed primarily as exhibition areas for trophies (″A cult site and a shrine″). It was not until Johann Christoph Allmayer-Beck became the museum's director in 1965 (through to 1983) that the exhibition areas were comprehensively renovated. The halls for the 16th and 17th century periods, and for the time between 1866 and 1914 were rebuilt and presented in a different design. The purpose was to go beyond the mere display of objects and to scientifically address the topic while thoroughly composing the halls as an artistic synthesis, matching the status of the institution as one of the world's most significant museums. Allmayer-Beck believed that the museum was not a place for maintaining tradition: ″Tradition must be maintained outside - inside, the objective is to make the history of the Austrian and Imperial Army visible - including those often neglected cultural and social elements.″ In September 1998, during the term of Manfried Rauchensteiner as director, the museum opened the Republik und Diktatur hall, which exhibited objects from the period from 1918 until 1945. On 9 December 2008, the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum was awarded the Austrian Museum Quality Seal, a distinction it received again in 2013. Following two years of construction under director Christian Ortner, the hall group on World War I opened its doors to the public in a modernized and redesigned form on 28 June 2014, just in time for the 100th anniversary of the Assassination at Sarajevo.\n\nExhibition \nThe collections of the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum count among the oldest state collections in the city of Vienna. They can be traced back to the collections that had been gathered in the old armoury of the Imperial Army in the Inner City since the 17th century and had already become a much-admired attraction in the 18th century.\nThe museum illustrates the history of the Habsburg monarchy and the fortunes of Austria from the late 16th century until 1945, and various special exhibitions are dedicated to other (sometimes contemporary) themes. The exhibits on display in the tank collection, such as the Kürassier tank destroyer or the M109 self-propelled howitzer include references reaching to the present day. Yet the exhibition items do not only include weapons and military equipment such as the huge medieval cannon Pumhart von Steyr, but also exhibits that trace the path to the war, such as the car in which Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, and his wife Sophie Chotek, Duchess of Hohenberg were murdered on 28 June 1914.\n\nHall I – From the Thirty Years' War to Prince Eugene (16th century–1700) \nThe first hall of the museum is dedicated to the history of Europe in the 16th and 17th century. The Holy Roman Empire, of which Vienna became the capital with Emperor Maximilian I (1508-1519), Emperor Charles V (1519-1556) and Emperor Ferdinand I (1556-1564), was often a theatre of war during this period and was consistently involved in military conflicts over power, confessions, land, and people. The collections of the Museum of Military History begin at a time when military history is undergoing a transformation from the Volksaufgebot (people's volunteer corps) to the standing army. The Imperial armies, which up to the Thirty Years' War were inconsistently equipped and enlisted only for the period of a campaign, were now transformed into a salaried, \"standing\" army. These armies were primarily financed by field commanders like Albrecht von Wallenstein. One can follow the technical development of firearms from the arquebus of the 16th century to the matchlock, the wheellock, and the flintlock musket. Several suits of armour, batons, and thrusting weapons round off the theme of the Thirty Years' War. A special exhibit is a hand-written letter of Wallenstein to his field Marshal Gottfried Heinrich zu Pappenheim of 15 November 1632, which he wrote on the evening before the battle of Lützen. Pappenheim was to be fatally injured in battle on the next day, carrying the letter on him, to which the large blood stains on the paper bear witness. The collection also includes a ribauldequin from the year 1678, the so-called death organ, which was constructed by the Imperial gun founder Daniel Kollmann, and represents an attempt to manufacture a quick-firing gun for the Imperial Army.\n\nA lot of space is dedicated to the Ottoman Wars, in particular the Second Siege of Vienna in 1683. Several objects of the Ottoman Army are on display, including the reflex bows of the famous Sipahi. Special exhibits include a Turkish mail shirt belonging to the victor of the battle of Mogersdorf, Imperial field commander Raimondo Montecuccoli, a Turkish silver calendar dial, numerous Turkish insignia – including guidons, flags, and horsetails, as well as the seal of the Turkish Sultan Mustafa II, captured by Prince Eugene of Savoy at the battle of Zenta in 1697. The last bay in Hall I is exclusively dedicated to this exceptional field commander and important patron. The exhibits include two of his personal clothing pieces, his cuirass, his baton and sword, and the funeral decoration that was kept after the prince's death in 1736.\n\nHall II – Spanish War of Succession and Maria Theresia Hall (1701–1789) \nHall II is dedicated to the 18th century and is also called the Maria Theresia Hall, though the beginning of this section is still dominated by the personality of Prince Eugene and his achievements. The noble knight did not only fight and win in the Ottoman Wars, but also in the Spanish War of Succession. As a consequence of the Great Turkish War, which culminated in the victories of Peterwardein (1716) and Belgrade (1717) and ended with the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718, the Habsburg monarchy achieved its greatest territorial expansion. The sphere of influence of the Habsburg Empire thus extended over Central and South Eastern Europe, rendering it a major power. Items particularly reminiscent of this period include a Turkish state tent and the ten-pound mortar of Belgrade, which destroyed an entire district of Sarajevo in 1717 with a direct hit on a Turkish gunpowder depot.\n\nThe death of Prince Eugene in 1736 and of the last male Habsburg, Emperor Karl VI. marked a turning point, which was followed by the reign of Maria Theresia, who was faced with a wide front of enemies from the very beginning. During the Austrian War of Succession, she did not only defend her claim to power but also all the inherited territories against almost all neighbouring countries. At the helm of her enemies was King Friedrich II of Prussia. Although Austria won quite a few of the many battles fought in the so-called three Silesian Wars, this never sufficed for a victory in a decisive confrontation. Several spoils of war such as Fusilier caps, backswords, flags and uniforms serve to document the Austrian and Prussian armies during this period. The personal items of field Marshal Gideon Ernst Freiherr von Laudon are exhibited in a separate display cabinet and include the Maria Theresia Order, Austria's highest military distinction awarded to Laudon for his bravery during the battle of Hochkirch in 1758. On display are also items documenting the establishment of the Theresian Military Academy in 1751, the world's oldest military academy still to be found at its original location.\n\nHall III – Hall of Revolutions (1789–1848) \nEmperor Joseph II fought the last Ottoman War of the Habsburg monarchy together with the Russian troops of Empress Catherine II of Russia. This conflict, too, ended with the capture of Belgrade in 1789, at the moment when revolution broke out in France, heralding the downfall of the French monarchy. The French king and his wife Marie Antoinette lost their throne and their lives during the revolution. At the same time, however, began the rise of the man who would dramatically transform Europe's political map: Napoleon Bonaparte. The Hall of Revolutions is dominated by the battles of Austerlitz, Würzburg, Aspern, Deutsch-Wagram, and Leipzig, and by the Tyrolean Rebellion of 1809 led by Andreas Hofer. A highlight of the exhibition is the world's oldest remaining military aircraft, the French war balloon \"L' Intrépide\", captured by Austrian troops at the battle of Würzburg on 3 September 1796. The large paintings by Johann Peter Krafft (Archeduke Karl and his staff at the battle of Aspern and Victory declaration in the battle of Leipzig) impressively illustrate the events of these turbulent times.\n\nA documentation of a special kind are the figurines by Helmut Krauhs (1912–1995), which illustrate the soldiers' uniforms of the Josephinist and Napoleonic eras with meticulous precision and authenticity. Uniforms, medals, and weapons, and also special individual items add to the overall picture, such as the coat of the Russian general Pavel Andreyevich Shuvalov, worn by Napoleon on his journey to exile on the island of Elba. The Vienna Congress and the personality of Archduke Karl are documented in detail, and the so-called Info-Points – interactive touchscreen monitors which visitors can use - provide further information on the events of this period using contemporary graphics, maps, and biographical notes. Hall III is also called the Hall of Revolutions because the exhibition it contains begins with the French Revolution and ends with the Revolution of 1848.\n\nHall IV – Field Marshal Radetzky and his era (1848–1866) \nHall IV is dedicated to Joseph Radetzky von Radetz and his era. He joined the Imperial Army as a cadet already in 1784 and fought in the last Ottoman War under commanders Lacy and Laudon. After an impressive 72 years of service, he was retired only after he reached the age of 90. He served under a total of five emperors and participated in no fewer than 17 campaigns, for which he was awarded 146 Austrian and foreign medals. His victories against Sardinia-Piemont at Santa Lucia, Verona, Vicenza, and Custoza in 1848 and those in Mortara and Novara in 1849 consolidated the reign of young emperor Franz Joseph, at least temporarily. Poet Franz Grillparzer even composed an ode to Radetzky: \"Glück auf, mein Feldherr, führe den Streich! Nicht bloß um des Ruhmes Schimmer – In deinem Lager ist Österreich!\", for which the poet was awarded an honorary cup now on display in the hall. The Radetzky hall also contains numerous paintings of contemporary artists such as Albrecht Adam and Wilhelm Richter, which make his military campaigns come alive.\n\nFollowing the death of Radetzky, the tables turned radically in Northern Italy for young Emperor Franz Joseph, who had only recently ascended to the throne on 2 December 1848: In the battle of Solferino in 1859, at which Franz Joseph was personally in command of the troops, Austria suffered a heavy defeat. The atrocity of the battle and the helplessness of the wounded soldiers prompted Henry Dunant to found the Red Cross, and led to the agreement of the Geneva Convention. The flow of young men to the Imperial Army, however, did not recede, because the \"magic of the uniform\" continued to cast its spell, illustrated by the numerous uniforms of different branches and regiments on display in the hall. As of 1864, the Austrian artillery was in possession of developments that rendered it superior to the enemy's guns, both in terms of precision and manoeuvrability. This is demonstrated by the exhibited M 1863 field gun. The situation was exactly the opposite in the case of infantry weaponry, however, exemplified by the comparison between the Austria muzzle-loader system and the Prussian breech-loading needle rifle. The defeat of the Austrian army at the battle of Königgrätz in 1866 is the subject of an impressive monumental painting by Vaclav Sochor. A separate room is dedicated to the fate of the emperor's brother Ferdinand Maximilian, who ascended to the throne of Mexico in 1864, only to be executed there at the order of Benito Juárez in 1867. The collection on display features private items which were partly obtained from Miramare Castle, and which provide evidence of his unfortunate reign in Mexico (including his death mask).\n\nHall V – Franz Joseph Hall and Sarajevo (1867–1914) \nApart from the uniforms and guns, when entering the Franz Joseph Hall visitors immediately notice the 34 uniform presentations of the Imperial and Royal Army painted by Oskar Brüch for the Budapest Millennium Exhibition in 1896. A section of the hall is devoted to the 1878 occupation campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina under the command of Joseph Philippovich von Philippsberg. The central display cabinet in the hall shows the technical innovations of the army prior to 1914, such as the model of a chain-driven combat vehicle (Burstyn tank) that was never actually built, the first powerful machine-gun of the Imperial and Royal Army (Schwarzlose) and the model of a field kitchen. Also on display are examples of the beginnings of military aviation, such as models of the Etrich Taube, the Lohner Pfeilflieger, and the M 1896 k.u.k. military balloon. The highlight of the exhibition is certainly the display cabinet with the personal items of Emperor Franz Joseph. These are the only ones accessible to the public, and they include his campaign and gala surcoats, his medals, cigar holders, and pince-nez. The next items on display here are the magnificent uniforms of the Arcièren Imperial Guards, a strong contrast to the uniforms of the Imperial and Royal Army before the outbreak of World War I on the opposite side. Certainly of particular significance are the personal utensils of the Chief of General Staff of the k.u.k. Army, Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf.\n\nA separate bay is dedicated to the Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, which directly triggered World War I. This is where one of the highlights of the entire exhibition is on display, the Gräf & Stift automobile in which the Austrian heir to the throne, Archduke Ferdinand and his wife Sophie Chotek were murdered on 28 June 1914 in Sarajevo. The traces of both assassinations are still clearly discernible on the car. Equally visible are the traces on two other items accessible to visitors: the blood-stained uniform of the Archduke, and the chaise longue on which the heir to the throne subsequently died of his injuries. Also on display are the weapons with which the assassins waited in Sarajevo for their moment to come, including Browning M.1910/12 pistols and a Kragujevac-hand grenade. In addition to the exhibits, photographs and films of the events are also displayed on digital monitors in the Sarajevo hall.\n\nHall VI – World War I and the end of the Habsburg monarchy (1914–1918) \nBetween 2012 and 2014, the group of halls dedicated to World War I was completely converted, modernised, and redesigned. To enlarge the initial exhibition area from 1,000 to 1,400 m2, the room height was reduced and an intermediate platform was introduced, so that the entire exhibition now spreads over three levels. As a result of these measures, some 2,000 items relating to World War I are now accessible to the public, about twice as many as were on display in the previous exhibition.\nA series of display cabinets contain the uniforms, weapons, and equipment of the warring powers. At the beginning of the exhibition, the themes focus on the mobilization of the troops in the summer of 1914, the Austrian infantry, followed by the cavalry. Next on display are uniforms and arms of the opposing parties, the Kingdom of Serbia, the Russian Empire, and the Kingdom of Italy, which declared war on Austria-Hungary in 1915. This led to the so-called Italian Front of 1915–1918, to which a separate area is dedicated to in the exhibition. A particular exhibit is the 7-cm M 1899 mountain gun which was positioned around the Ortler summit at an altitude of 3,850 meters, making it Europe's highest gun emplacement. Apart from the weapons, uniforms, and military equipment items, the exhibition also thematizes other related material in separate areas, such as women in war, the k.u.k. military justice system, escape and displacement, deprivation and propaganda, injury and emergency medical services, religion, war captivity, disability and death. Hundreds of digital images and films are presented on flat screens.\n\nCentrepiece of the exhibition is an Austrian M 1916 38 cm siege-howitzer, which could fire shells weighing 750 kg over a distance of 15 km and shell-damaged cupolas from the Antwerp and Przemyśl Forts show the effect of bombardments by such heavy artillery. A replicated emplacement system features a series of display cabinets showing the innovations in weapons technology and equipment as of 1916, including the first Austrian steel-helmet built on the basis of the German model. Another particularly noteworthy exhibit is the Phönix 20.01 training and reconnaissance aircraft, prototype of the Austro-Hungarian produced Albatros B.I(Ph), one of 5,200 planes that the Army and the k.u.k. Navy used in World War I. Moreover, a separate area was dedicated to the k.u.k. Kriegspressequartier (k.u.k. war press bureau) and thus to the arts in war, featuring works by war painters such as Albin Egger-Lienz, Wilhelm Thöny, Oswald Roux, Fritz Schwarz-Waldegg, Stephanie Hollenstein, Anton Faistauer, Ludwig Heinrich Jungnickel, Alexander Pock, and Egon Schiele.\n\nHall VII – Republic and Dictatorship (1918–1955) \nThis Hall is dedicated to the quite turbulent history of the First Republic and World War II. It focuses mainly on the impact of the political events on society and the military, such as, for instance, the July Revolt of 1927 triggered by the Schattendorf judgement and the clashes of February 1934. Exhibits include the weapon used in Schattendorf, and even an M 1918 field howitzer developed in the final stage of World War I and used against the Schutzbund in 1934. The museum only recently obtained those two writings that sculptors Wilhelm Frass and Alfons Riedel had hidden in a shell underneath the monument of the dead soldier in the crypt of Vienna's Heldenplatz. On display are copies of the two documents. Also documented is the history of the Volkswehr and the subsequent Austrian Federal Army; moreover, the assassination of Federal Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss, Austria's annexation to the Nazi Germany and the resulting integration of the Federal Army in the Wehrmacht in 1938, and the resistance against national socialism in Austria.\n\nApart from infantry/army, navy and air force uniforms of the German Wehrmacht, the exhibition also features uniforms and armour used by the opposing war parties. In addition, a large variety of technical equipment is on display, including: BMW R 12 motorcycle in camouflage painting, NSU Kettenkrad (Sd.Kfz. 2), 8.8-cm anti-aircraft gun, VW type 82 VW Kübelwagen, Fieseler Fi 156 Storch aircraft, Goliath tracked mine, engine fragments of a V-2 rocket, Raupenschlepper Ost caterpillar tractor, and bunker systems from the South-east wall. The exhibition also features separate theme areas such as the Battle of Stalingrad, the aerial war above Austria, and the fate of the civilian population. Moreover, it addresses the issue of resistance against the Nazi regime, the Holocaust, and the consequences of total war. Another major topic is the Battle of Vienna in April 1945, featuring weapons and uniforms that were given to the troops in the final stage of the war, such as the Panzerschreck anti-tank rocket launcher and the Sturmgewehr 44 rifle. The final section of the exhibition deals with the transition to the period of occupation by the Allies (four in a jeep) and the postwar situation in Austria. In 2012, the permanent exhibition received an additional item, the heavy explosive carrier Borgward IV, which was discovered during demolition work on the former Vienna Südbahnhof and was transferred to the museum.\n\nHall VIII – Austria as a naval power \nA separate hall (VIII) is dedicated to the history of the Austrian navy. The exhibition covers the entire period from the creation of the first Danube flotilla to the end of the k.u.k. war navy in 1918. What really stands out are the numerous ship models and figureheads. Various oil paintings, including some of monumental dimensions, illustrate the turbulent history of the Austrian navy, such as the one by navy painter Alexander Kircher depicting the naval battle of Lissa, an Austrian naval victory to which the exhibition devotes quite some space. Apart from some personal items of Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff, exhibits also feature the model of his flagship, the SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max.\n\nThe particular significance of the Austrian war navy from the point of view of scientific research is illustrated by those areas dedicated to expeditions (including the circumnavigation of the globe by the SMS Novara (1857–1859) and the Austro-Hungarian North Pole Expedition (1872–1874) led by Julius von Payer and Karl Weyprecht). Spoils of war and photographs of the mission in the International Squadron off Crete in 1897-1898 and of the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion in China in 1900 illustrate the military aspects in the run-up to World War I. One particular item is the cutaway model of the flagship of the k.u.k. war navy, SMS Viribus Unitis on a scale of 1:25 and a total length of 6 metres, built between 1913 and 1917 by eight craftsmen of the shipyard Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino. The model is true to the original in structure, layout, and engine system. It is accurate to the point that, for instance, the painting in the wardroom of the model exactly replicates the original not only in subject but also in the painting technique (oil on canvas).\nThe collection documents the first k.u.k. navy pilots such as Gottfried von Banfield, and the fate of the submarine fleet in World War I. Particularly noteworthy is the only surviving fragment of a k.u.k. submarine, the sail of U-20, which was sunk in 1918 in the estuary of the Tagliamento River and salvaged in 1962. The exhibition reaches its logic conclusion with the models of the Danube fleet, the so-called Donaumonitore, which had to be surrendered to the SHS-state on 31 December 1918.\n\nTank Garden (Panzergarten) \nThe \"Tank Garden\" (Panzergarten), located behind the museum building and usually open to the public from March to October, accommodates the most important combat vehicles of the Austrian Armed Forces from 1955 to the present, with the different types demonstrating the continuous advancement of tank weaponry. The first Austrian tank troops were equipped entirely with vehicles of the occupation powers, such as the M24 Chaffee, the Charioteer, the Centurion and the AMX-13.\n\nTwo major Soviet World War II tank types are represented in the collection, the T-34 battle tank and the SU-100 tank destroyer, initially on display in front of the Soviet War Memorial on Vienna's Schwarzenbergplatz. Several exhibits of Austrian origin, however, are also on display here, such as the prototype of the Saurer armoured personnel carrier and the Kürassier tank destroyer, shown here in the newer A1 version. The last two armoured vehicles mentioned are still in use in the Austrian Armed Forces, just like the M109 tank howitzer, also on display in the tank garden. A Jaguar 1 tank destroyer is on display and the M60 main battle tank, in use by the Austrian Armed Forces for several years, is the largest and heaviest track vehicle of this collection. In addition, two aircraft are on display in the outdoor area in front of the museum, a Saab 29 Tunnan, also known as the \"Flying barrel\", and a Saab 35-OE Draken.\n\nArtillery halls \nThe collection of cannons of the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum comprises a total of 550 guns and barrels, making it one of the most important collections of its kind in the world. The majority of the exhibits in the collection are still from the old Imperial armoury. Initially, the collection was more than double the size of the current one, but several historically valuable items were melted down for their metal content. Many of the gun barrels are located either inside the halls or in front of the museum building, yet the majority is on display in the two artillery halls (buildings 2 and 17) which flank building 1, the former headquarters of the Arsenal. Building 2 - the one on the left as seen from the museum - is dedicated to the development of artillery from the Middle Ages until the 18th century.\n\nA side chamber contains what is probably the historically most valuable part of the collection, the wrought-iron guns of the Middle Ages. These include the world-famous Pumhart von Steyr, a thousand-pound, 80 cm-calibre stone cannon from the early 15th century. This is the oldest gun from the Imperial armoury and one of the very few surviving huge medieval guns. The opposite chamber and the central area contain brass barrels in all sizes dating back to the 17th and 18th century. The right artillery hall (building 17) contains mostly foreign exhibits, such as Venetian and Turkish gun barrels, though French gun barrels - spoils from the Napoleonic Wars - are also on display. The two side chambers, on the other hand, feature Austrian gun barrels, including some early breech-loading guns.\nThe frescos in the artillery halls are the work of various artists. Painter Hans Wulz, for instance, created the fresco titled Seizure of Utrecht by Maximilian I for building 17; portraitist and military painter Hugo von Bouvard decorated building 2 with illustrations of the medieval army and transportation systems, various military vehicles, and means of carriage from the Maximilian era. The opposite hall of the artillery hall in building 2 was designed by Arbert Janesch with the help of contemporary references from Jörg Kölderer's Artillerie Maximilians I.\n\nEvents, information, special exhibitions, branches\n\nEvents \nThousands of visitors flock to the museum to see four major events:\n Go Modelling, an exhibition for scale models organised each year around mid-March by the International Plastic Modellers Society Austria (IPMS). The items on display include several models of historical military vehicles, aircraft, and ships built in true scale dimensions.\n Auf Rädern und Ketten (on wheels and chains), is a major gathering of historical military vehicles built until 1969, which takes place each year around the beginning of June. More than 100 vehicles from various branches of the military - from tanks to bicycles - are presented to the public in the outdoor area behind the museum building.\n Montur und Pulverdampf (Uniform and Gunpowder) a three-day festival of time-travel in military history from the Middle Ages to the present, which takes place each year between early and mid-July. The large outdoor area behind the museum serves as a stage for story tellers, historical battle re-enactments, craftsmen, traders, musicians, culinary delights, and a comprehensive children's programme.\n Mittelalterlicher Adventmarkt (Medieval Christmas market), is usually organised on a weekend in early December and draws up to 20,000 visitors. It involves a medieval Christmas market with jugglers, musicians, fencing performances, and trader's tents.\n\nApart from these large events, the museum regularly hosts fencing performances by the Rittersporn and Klingenspiel groups, as well as drill performances and gun salutes by the 2nd horse artillery division. Particular highlights during the year include the Long Night of Museums organised by the Austrian Broadcasting Corporation ORF, and events accompanying the Austrian National Day on 26 October.\n\nInformation \nThe museum is open daily from 9 am to 5 pm (except on New Year's Day, Easter Sunday, 1 May, All Saints' Day, and on 25 and 31 Decembe)r. Admission is free of charge on the first Sunday of each month and on Austrian National Day (26 October). Each Sunday and holiday, museum employees offer guided tours on special historical eras and areas. Of great importance is the work of the museum's educational team, which offers a diversified children's and school programme for the different grades. Moreover, it is possible to organize children's birthday parties and other special events.\n\nSpecial exhibitions \nAs a rule, the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum hosts a special exhibition twice a year on a military history theme. Past and present exhibitions include:\n Seelen der gewesenen Zeit - Historische Schätze der Bibliothek (Souls of past time - historical treasures of the library, 3 December 2013 to 31 August 2014)\n Dröhnende Motoren (Roaring engines, 7 September to 20 October 2013), Zeltweg Air Base\n Fliegen im Ersten Weltkrieg (Flying in World War I, 26 April to 20 October 2013), Zeltweg Air Base, Hangar 8\n WoMen at War – k.u.k. Frauenbilder 1914-1918 (14 March 2013 to 29 September 2013)\n Alexander Pock – Militärmalerei als Beruf (Alexander Pock - Military painting as a profession, 12 September 2012 to 13 January 2013)\n Kaiser Karl I. – Gesalbt, Geweiht, Gekrönt (Emperor Charles I, anointed, sacred, crowned, 12 April to 19 August 2012)\n Projekt & Entwurf – Militärische Innovationen aus fünf Jahrhunderten (Project & Conception - Military innovations from five centuries, 2011)\n Schutz und Hilfe – 50 Jahre Auslandseinsatz (Protection and Help - 50 years of foreign assignment, 2010)\n Bulgarien – Der unbekannte Verbündete (Bulgaria - the unknown ally, 2009)\n\nBranches \n Patrol boats Oberst Brecht and Niederösterreich: In 2006, the Austrian Armed Forces committed the two Patrol boats to the Museum of Military History. The boats are now berthed in the shipyard of Korneuburg under the care of the Austrian Naval Force and are accessible to the public.\n Ungerberg bunker system near Bruckneudorf: since 2014, this largely preserved bunker system of the Austrian Armed Forces from the time of the Cold War has been accessible to the public as an open-air museum.\n Military aviation exhibition in the Zeltweg Air Base: Since 2005, 23 historical aircraft ranging from a Jak-18 to a Swedish Draken are on display in a 5,000m² exhibition area in Hangar 8. In addition, the exhibition includes aircraft motors and jet engines, air surveillance radar systems, flight equipment, anti-aircraft guns, historical vehicles of the air force, equipment of the Imperial German Army Air Service and signal corps, uniforms, flight suits, models, insignia, and historical photographs. Special exhibitions are also staged here, such as Fliegen im Ersten Weltkrieg (26 April to 20 October 2013) or Dröhnende Motoren (7 September to 20 October 2013).\n Collection of signalling equipment in the Starhemberg barracks: This collection contains a large number of historical signalling equipment, ranging from historically valuable exhibits from the 19th century, communications and coding technology from the Cold War, to state-of-the-art military communication equipment.\n\nReception\n\nLiterature \n In his essays titled Eine Reise in das Innere von Wien, Austrian writer Gerhard Roth describes his impressions from a guided tour through the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum.\n\nFilm \n In 1993, historian Ernst Trost (narrator: Axel Corti) filmed the documentary Zwingburg und Ruhmeshalle. Das Wiener Arsenal, which mainly focuses on the Museum of Military History as the centrepiece of the Arsenal.\n Parts of the television film Kronprinz Rudolf, starring Max von Thun were shot in the Ruhmeshalle of the Museum of Military History in 2005.\n In January 2013, Karl Hohenlohe paid tribute to the Museum of Military History in the documentary Aus dem Rahmen by the special-interest channel ORF III of the Austrian Broadcasting Corporation.\n\nMiscellaneous \n The stately rooms of the Museum of Military History, i.e. the Feldherrenhalle and the Ruhmeshalle, can be rented for events and celebrations.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\n Museum of Military History official website\n Documentary Aus dem Rahmen (ORF III) from January 2013.\n Documentary Zwingburg und Ruhmeshalle. Das Wiener Arsenal by Ernst Trost and Axel Corti from 1993.\n Homepage of the Austrian Armed Forces\n Austro-Hungarian Navy in WWI See item 24 for information on the U.20, the submarine on display in the museum.\n\nCategory:Buildings and structures in Landstraße\nCategory:Government buildings completed in 1856\nCategory:Infrastructure completed in 1856\nCategory:Military and war museums in Austria\nCategory:Museums in Vienna\nCategory:World War I museums\nCategory:World War II museums\nCategory:Theophil Hansen buildings\nCategory:1856 establishments in the Austrian Empire\nCategory:19th-century architecture in Austria", "title": "Museum of Military History, Vienna" } ]
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C_06ab9e00914742d6a82b0583b27d0d79_1
Kara (South Korean band)
Kara (Hangul: kara, Japanese: kara, often stylized as KARA) was a South Korean pop girl group formed by DSP Media in 2007. The group's final lineup was composed of Park Gyuri, Han Seungyeon, Goo Hara and Heo Youngji. Members Nicole Jung and Kang Ji-young officially departed from the group in 2014, while Kim Sung-hee left in 2008. The group's name comes from the Greek word "chara" (khara, lit. "joy"), which they interpreted to mean "sweet melody".
2008: First line-up changes, Rock U, Pretty Girl and career breakthrough
The group was scheduled to have their comeback in March 2008 with their second album, however, member Kim Sung-hee suddenly announced that she would be leaving the group due to parental pressure because her participation in the group was contingent on the maintenance of her grades. In response, DSP stated that the second album that was recorded would be shelved and replaced by a mini-album to come in May; in addition, two members would join the group. Auditions were held, and the two new members were eventually revealed to be Goo Ha-ra and Kang Jiyoung. The group made their return in the music industry as a quintet on July 24, 2008 with "Rock U" on M! Countdown. They made their comeback with the "cute" and "playful" image which was the complete opposite of the group's original image from their debut. In the same month, their first mini-album titled Rock U was also released. The second season of Kara Self Camera was premiered on August 18, 2008, which chronicled how the group was adapting to their two new members. On November 29, 2008, DSP released a teaser video for their upcoming single, "Pretty Girl", which received over 40,000 hits within 12 hours. The full video was released on December 2, 2008 online and was positively received by the public. The EP, Pretty Girl, was released on December 4, embodying a "fun-party" concept. The group began its comeback on all major music shows on December 4, 2008, starting with M! Countdown. During their first national performance on KBS's Music Bank, member Goo Hara accidentally gasped "ah!" live on air due to slipping on falling confetti, and reportedly cried profusely afterwards. The incident became a hot issue to many viewers, but Goo Hara received comfort instead of criticism from the general public. Park Gyuri attributed their popularity increase to their "pretty but natural" appeal, while media reports gave credit to the band for finally finding its own identity in the music industry since the group's debut and to older male fans, most notably singer Shin Hae Chul. Due to their increasingly hectic schedule as their popularity rose, a few of the group's members were taken to the hospital on December 19 after a Music Bank rehearsal for cold symptoms and exhaustion. CANNOTANSWER
[ "C_06ab9e00914742d6a82b0583b27d0d79_1_q#0", "C_06ab9e00914742d6a82b0583b27d0d79_1_q#1", "C_06ab9e00914742d6a82b0583b27d0d79_1_q#2", "C_06ab9e00914742d6a82b0583b27d0d79_1_q#3", "C_06ab9e00914742d6a82b0583b27d0d79_1_q#4" ]
[ "What happened in 2008?", "why did she leave?", "did they have a replacement?", "what were the members?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?" ]
[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]
[ 2, 2, 0, 2, 0 ]
{ "answer_starts": [ [ 4 ], [ 177 ], [ 456 ], [ 532 ], [ 560 ] ], "texts": [ [ "group was scheduled to have their comeback in March 2008 with their second album, however, member Kim Sung-hee suddenly announced that she would be leaving" ], [ "parental pressure because her participation in the group was contingent on the maintenance of her grades." ], [ "Auditions were held, and the two new members were eventually revealed" ], [ "Goo Ha-ra and Kang Jiyoung." ], [ "The group made their return in the music industry as a quintet on July 24, 2008" ] ] }
{ "answer_starts": [ 4, 177, 456, 532, 560 ], "texts": [ "group was scheduled to have their comeback in March 2008 with their second album, however, member Kim Sung-hee suddenly announced that she would be leaving", "parental pressure because her participation in the group was contingent on the maintenance of her grades.", "Auditions were held, and the two new members were eventually revealed", "Goo Ha-ra and Kang Jiyoung.", "The group made their return in the music industry as a quintet on July 24, 2008" ] }
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[ "In 2008, the group experienced a member change when Kim Sung-hee left due to parental pressure regarding her grades. New members Goo Ha-ra and Kang Jiyoung were added after auditions and the group made a comeback in the music industry as a quintet in July 2008 with \"Rock U\" on M! Countdown. They also released their first mini-album \"Rock U\". The second season of Kara Self Camera premiered, showcasing how the group was adapting to its new members. In November 2008, a teaser video for their single \"Pretty Girl\" was released and it received over 40,000 hits within 12 hours. The full video was released online on December 2 and was positively received. The EP, Pretty Girl, was released on December 4. The group's popularity increased and their busy schedule led to some members being taken to the hospital for cold symptoms and exhaustion in December.", "Kim Sung-hee left the group due to parental pressure because her participation in the group was contingent on the maintenance of her grades.", "Yes, after Kim Sung-hee left the group, auditions were held to find replacements. Two new members, Goo Ha-ra and Kang Jiyoung, were added to the group.", "The context does not list all the members of the group, only mentioning the member who left, Kim Sung-hee, and the two new members who joined, Goo Ha-ra and Kang Jiyoung.", "The article also mentions an incident during a performance at KBS's Music Bank where member Goo Hara unexpectedly gasped live on air due to slipping on falling confetti and reportedly cried a lot afterwards. This caused a significant reaction among viewers, but instead of criticism, Goo Hara received comfort from the public. The group's popularity increased, with Park Gyuri attributing it to their \"pretty but natural\" appeal. Media reports also credited the band for finding its own identity in the music industry." ]
[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]
C_06ab9e00914742d6a82b0583b27d0d79_0
Kara (South Korean band)
Kara (Hangul: kara, Japanese: kara, often stylized as KARA) was a South Korean pop girl group formed by DSP Media in 2007. The group's final lineup was composed of Park Gyuri, Han Seungyeon, Goo Hara and Heo Youngji. Members Nicole Jung and Kang Ji-young officially departed from the group in 2014, while Kim Sung-hee left in 2008. The group's name comes from the Greek word "chara" (khara, lit. "joy"), which they interpreted to mean "sweet melody".
2009: Rise in popularity in South Korea, Honey and Revolution
At the end of January 2009, DSP announced that it would commence voting on January 28 at the group's official website for the follow-up single to "Pretty Girl", which ended on February 2. By the deadline of February 2, "Honey" was the clear winner, with 60% of the votes. The song was remixed from the original version, and also underwent a slight name change from "hani" (Ha-ni) to "Honey". The group released the music video for "Honey" on February 16 and had their first live broadcasting comeback on KBS's Music Bank program on February 13, 2009; a repackaged mini-album entitled Honey followed on February 19 which featured remixed versions of songs from the group's previous EP. "Honey" became the group's first number one single when it topped Gaon's weekly singles chart. The song earned the group their first music show award on M! Countdown on March 5. It held onto the position for three nonconsecutive weeks. The song also won the Mutizen award on SBS's program Inkigayo and the "Best Dance Award" at the 2009 Mnet Asian Music Awards. At the end of March, the group was chosen for the fourth season of MBC's Idol Show, which marked the group's first hosting duties for a show. The group then had a reality show called MTV Meta Friends, which chronicled a group of fans getting a chance to become friends with the group members. For the show, the group had their first concert since their debut in 2007. In June 2009, the group stated they would make their comeback in late July, with their concept upgraded. The first teaser pictures of the group were then released in mid-July, showing radical changes in the group's style and also saw a slight return of their "strong and mature" image previously seen from their debut. Their single "Wanna" was released on July 28, 2009 and immediately charted on various digital music charts. The music video was released on July 29, with the full album, Revolution, available online on July 30. Comeback activities commenced on July 31, beginning with KBS's Music Bank; the group performed both "Wanna" and "Mister". "Mister" proved to be popular with netizens due to the "butt dance" that is featured prominently in the choreography. Due to the popularity of "Mister", Kara's overall popularity increased, evidenced by an influx of advertisement requests by various companies; in total, they had more advertisements in October 2009 than they had had the previous two years. "Wanna" also became a number one single for the group and won the Mutizen award on August 30, 2009 from Inkigayo. During promotions for Revolution, the group also performed internationally, including at Bangkok's Parc Paragon. On November 25, 2009, M.Net premiered the reality show called Kara Bakery, which followed the group as they attempted to plan, open, and advertise their own bakery. The show had 8 episodes and ran until early 2010. All proceeds from the bakery was donated to charity. On December 14, 2009, it was reported that the group held a fan-meeting for their Japanese fans earlier that year on February marking the group's first promotional tour in Japan. Over 3,000 fans were reportedly registered, exceeding the capacity of the venue which resulted in a second showcase. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "What happened in 2009?", "What was the ending vote?", "Did Honey do well?", "Did it receive any awards?", "Did they get any other titles?", "What was Revolution?" ]
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{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 220, 685, 921, 3220, 2541 ], "texts": [ "At the end of January 2009, DSP announced that it would commence voting on January 28 at the group's official website for the follow-up single to \"Pretty Girl\",", "Honey\" was the clear winner, with 60% of the votes.", "\"Honey\" became the group's first number one single when it topped Gaon's weekly singles chart.", "The song also won the Mutizen award on SBS's program Inkigayo and the \"Best Dance Award\" at the 2009 Mnet Asian Music Awards.", "CANNOTANSWER", "During promotions for Revolution, the group also performed internationally, including at Bangkok's Parc Paragon." ] }
null
[]
[ "In 2009, DSP announced in January that voting would begin for the follow-up single to \"Pretty Girl\". By February 2nd \"Honey\" was announced as the winner with 60% of the votes. It was remixed and underwent a slight name change. The music video for \"Honey\" was released on February 16. They also had a live broadcast comeback on KBS's Music Bank program on February 13, followed by a repackaged mini-album release on February 19. The song topped Gaon's weekly singles chart, becoming the group's first number one single.\n\nIn March, the group was picked for the fourth season of MBC's Idol Show marking their first hosting duties. They also had a reality show called MTV Meta Friends and held their first concert since their debut in 2007. In June 2009, the group announced a comeback with upgraded concept. Their single \"Wanna\" was released on July 28, and the full album, Revolution, on July 30. \n\nThe popular \"butt dance\" featured in the choreography of \"Mister\" also led to Kara's increased popularity. They also had more advertisements in October 2009 than the previous two years. \"Wanna\" won the Mutizen award on August 30, 2009 from Inkigayo.\n\nIn November, M.Net premiered a reality show called Kara Bakery. The show followed the group as they planned and promoted their own bakery. The proceeds were donated to charity.\n\nOn December 14, 2009, reports stated that the group held a fan-meeting for their Japanese fans earlier that year in February marking their first promotional tour in Japan. The number of fans that registered exceeded the venue's capacity which led to a second showcase.", "The ending vote resulted in the song \"Honey\" being chosen as the winner with 60% of the votes.", "Yes, \"Honey\" did well. It became the group's first number one single when it topped Gaon's weekly singles chart. The song also earned the group their first music show award on M! Countdown and held onto the position for three nonconsecutive weeks. Additionally, the song won the Mutizen award on SBS's program Inkigayo and the \"Best Dance Award\" at the 2009 Mnet Asian Music Awards.", "Yes, the song \"Honey\" received several awards. It earned the group their first music show award on the program M! Countdown. It also won the Mutizen award on SBS's program Inkigayo and the \"Best Dance Award\" at the 2009 Mnet Asian Music Awards.", "Yes, in 2009, the group's single \"Wanna\" also became a number one single for the group and won the Mutizen award from the program Inkigayo. Furthermore, the group's increased popularity led to a surge in advertisement requests and they had more advertisements in October 2009 than they had in the previous two years. Additionally, they were chosen for the fourth season of MBC's Idol Show, marking their first time hosting a show.", "\"Revolution\" was the full album released by the group in 2009. The album was made available online on July 30, after the release of the music video for the single \"Wanna\" which was included in the album. The group commenced comeback activities with performances, beginning with KBS's Music Bank, following the album's release." ]
[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]
C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_1
Walter Winterbottom
Sir Walter Winterbottom, CBE (31 March 1913 - 16 February 2002) was the first manager of the England football team (1946-1962) and FA Director of Coaching. He resigned from the FA in 1962 to become General Secretary of the Central Council of Physical Recreation (CCPR) and was appointed as the first Director of the Sports Council in 1965. He was knighted for his services to sport in 1978 when he retired. The Football Association marked the 100th anniversary of Winterbottom's birth by commissioning a bust which was unveiled by Roy Hodgson at St Georges Park on 23 April 2013 in recognition of his outstanding contribution to the development of English football.
England Team Manager
Walter Winterbottom has the distinction of being England's first, youngest and longest serving England team manager; he is also the only England manager to have had no previous professional managerial experience. In all matches in which he was in charge, England played 139, won 78, drew 33, and lost 28; goals for 383, against 196. At home England lost six matches in sixteen years. England won the British championship in thirteen out of his sixteen seasons (seven times outright and six times sharing top place). In the World Cup tournament England qualified on all four occasions, reaching the quarter finals twice, playing 28 matches, winning 15, drawing 7 and losing 6; goals for 75 against 35 (including World Cup qualifying matches). Although he had coaching and managerial responsibilities, Winterbottom never had the power to pick his own team (it was chosen by a selection committee). Over time his technical knowledge increasingly influenced selectors. Finally, prior to Alf Ramsey's arrival in 1962, he convinced the FA that the team manager must have sole control of selection. During his time Winterbottom repeatedly warned the English football establishment that countries in Continental Europe and South America were overtaking England and that English football had to change. His sixteen years as England team manager helped greatly in creating a modern and competitive national team and four years after his departure in 1966 England won the World Cup. His innovations included the introduction of England B, Under 23, youth and schoolboy teams providing players with continuity and experience in international football before being selected for the full England team. Notable victories during his era were 10-0 away to Portugal in 1947, 4-0 away to Italy in 1948, 4-2 at home to Brazil in 1956 and 9-3 at home to Scotland in 1961. Notable defeats were losing 1-0 to the USA in the 1950 World Cup and 6-3 at home to Hungary in 1953 when England lost her unbeaten home record to a foreign team, followed by a 7-1 away defeat to the same team in 1954. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "Can you provide me with a little information about Walter Winterbottom and his career as an England Team Manager?", "How long did he serve as an England team manager?", "How old was he when he first began his career as a team manager?", "What led to his career as a team manager?", "Was he ever trained?", "What else is unique about this time as a team manager?", "What are some important aspects of his career?", "What happened after?", "Is there anything elsse that happened after this took place?", "Can you tell me what followed that?", "Did the team celebrate after their winnings?" ]
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Sir Walter Winterbottom (31 March 1913 – 16 February 2002) was an English football player and coach. He was the first manager of the England national team (1946–1962) and Director of Coaching for The Football Association (the FA). He resigned from the FA in 1962 to become General Secretary of the Central Council of Physical Recreation (CCPR) and was appointed as the first Director of the Sports Council in 1965. He was knighted for his services to sport in 1978 when he retired. The Football Association marked the 100th anniversary of Winterbottom's birth by commissioning a bust which was unveiled by Roy Hodgson at St Georges Park on 23 April 2013 in recognition of his outstanding contribution to the development of English football. Early years Born in Oldham, Lancashire, Walter Winterbottom was the only son of James Winterbottom, a ring frame fitter in a textile machine works. At the age of 12 he was awarded a scholarship to Oldham High School where he excelled. He won a bursary to Chester Diocesan Teachers Training College, graduating as the top student in 1933 and took a teaching post at the Alexandra Road School, Oldham. Whilst teaching he played football for Royton Amateurs and then Mossley where he was spotted by Manchester United. He signed for United as a part-time professional in 1936 but continued teaching. In his first season (1936/37) at Manchester United he showed great promise, playing 21 first team League games and 2 FA cup games, appearing as wing half and centre half. But in the following two seasons he made only 4 first team appearances. and 41 Central League appearances, his playing career effectively ended by a spinal disease, later diagnosed as ankylosing spondylitis. Whilst still playing for Manchester United he left his teaching position to study at Carnegie College of Physical Education, Leeds. On graduating he was appointed as a lecturer. During World War II Winterbottom served as an officer in the Royal Air Force, reaching the rank of wing commander and working at the Air Ministry with overall responsibility for training PE instructors at home and overseas. He was also a guest player with Chelsea and ran coaching courses for the FA at grammar schools in London. In 1946 Stanley Rous, who was the secretary of The Football Association, persuaded the FA council to appoint Winterbottom as The FA's first Director of Coaching and suggested he take on the additional responsibility of being the first England team manager. England team manager Walter Winterbottom has the distinction of being England's first, youngest and longest serving England team manager; he is also the only England manager to have had no previous professional managerial experience. In all matches in which he was in charge, England played 139, won 78, drew 33, and lost 28; goals for 383, against 196. At home England lost six matches in sixteen years. England won the British championship in thirteen out of his sixteen seasons (seven times outright and six times sharing top place). In the World Cup tournament England qualified on all four occasions, reaching the quarter-finals twice, playing 28 matches, winning 15, drawing 7 and losing 6; goals for 75 against 35 (including World Cup qualifying matches). Although he had coaching and managerial responsibilities, Winterbottom never had the power to pick his own team (it was chosen by a selection committee). Over time his technical knowledge increasingly influenced selectors. Finally, prior to Alf Ramsey's arrival in 1962, he convinced the FA that the team manager must have sole control of selection. During his time Winterbottom repeatedly warned the English football establishment that countries in Continental Europe and South America were overtaking England and that English football had to change. His sixteen years as England team manager helped greatly in creating a modern and competitive national team and four years after his departure in 1966 England won the World Cup. His innovations included the introduction of England B, Under 23, youth and schoolboy teams providing players with continuity and experience in international football before being selected for the full England team. Notable victories during his era were 10—0 away to Portugal in 1947, 4—0 away to Italy in 1948, 3—1 at home to recently crowned World Champions West Germany in 1954 after the 4—2 at home to Brazil in 1956 and 9—3 at home to Scotland in 1961. Notable defeats were losing 2–0 to the Republic of Ireland at Goodison Park, losing 1—0 to the USA in the 1950 World Cup and 6—3 at home to Hungary in 1953 when England lost their unbeaten home record to a foreign team at Wembley, followed by a 7—1 away defeat to the same team in 1954. Also while he was manager, England visited Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Denmark, Mexico, Peru, Portugal, the Soviet Union, United States and Uruguay for the first time. FIFA World Cup record Winterbottom led England to four consecutive World Cup finals, a record subsequently equalled only by Helmut Schön of West Germany. England entered the World Cup for the first time in 1950, qualifying for the tournament in Brazil by winning the British Home Championship. England had never before played in South America. They beat Chile by 2–0 but lost 1—0 to the USA and 1—0 to Spain to be eliminated in the first round. Winterbottom again led England to qualification in Switzerland in 1954 by winning the British Home championship. A 4—4 draw against Belgium and a 2—0 victory against Switzerland took them to the quarter-finals where they were beaten 4—2 by the defending champions, Uruguay. England qualified for the 1958 FIFA World Cup in Sweden with wins over the Republic of Ireland and Denmark, with a team that had lost only once in 17 games. Three months before the tournament began the Munich air disaster robbed the team of key players from Manchester United: Roger Byrne, Tommy Taylor and Duncan Edwards died. England drew against the USSR, Brazil and Austria but lost to the Soviet Union in a playoff for a quarter-final place. Winterbottom again led his team to qualification for the 1962 World Cup in Chile with wins over Portugal and Luxembourg. After progressing from their group on goal average, England reached the quarter-finals but were beaten 3—1 by the eventual winners, Brazil. FA Director of Coaching Although Winterbottom is best known as the England team manager, it is in coaching that he made important contributions to the development of English football. He made no secret of his belief that his job as Director of Coaching was the more important of his two roles at the FA. When he joined the FA in 1946, club directors, managers and players were cynical about the need for coaching but Winterbottom had a passion for coaching and a vision of how it should develop. He soon created a national coaching scheme with summer residential courses at Lilleshall, Shropshire, and persuaded some of his international players to take the courses that led to exams for the FA preliminary and full coaching badges. This gave the scheme credibility. They developed their teaching skills by coaching in schools and then moved into part-time coaching positions in junior clubs. He gathered around him a cadre of young FA staff coaches: men like Bill Nicholson, Don Howe, Alan Brown, Ron Greenwood, Dave Sexton, Malcolm Allison, Joe Mercer, Vic Buckingham, Jimmy Hill and Bobby Robson. Over time a new breed of managers emerged in the League clubs and began to change attitudes to coaching. Winterbottom's courses were expanded to include professional players, referees, schoolmasters, club trainers, schoolboys and youth leaders. In addition to Lilleshall they were held at Loughborough College, Carnegie College, Bisham Abbey and Birmingham University. In 1947 three hundred had taken the full coaching award and the numbers of qualified coaches grew each year. The courses attracted international participation and praise. Winterbottom was regarded by many as a leading technical thinker and exponent of association football, of his generation, in the world and lectured internationally. He inspired a new generation of managers, most notably Ron Greenwood and Bobby Robson, who graduated through every level of coaching, both eventually becoming England team manager. Criticism In assessing Winterbottom's tenure as England manager, Goldblatt writes that "[Winterbottom] introduced a measure of tactical thinking and discussion to the England squad, though his inability to anticipate or learn significantly from the Hungarian debacle suggests that his grasp of tactics and communication with the players was limited." William Baker writes that Winterbottom, because of his "upper-class origins [sic]", could not "effectively instruct, much less inspire, working-class footballers." Football journalist Brian Glanville said in an interview: "I got on very well with Walter Winterbottom, but he was a rotten manager." Publishing Winterbottom was also responsible for the publishing at the FA. The first coaching bulletin was launched in 1946 and this became the FA Bulletin and then the FA News. The FA Year Book was introduced in 1948 along with the FA Book for Boys annual. The first coaching films and film strips followed in 1950. An important landmark was the publication of Winterbottom's book, Soccer Coaching, the first modern soccer coaching manual. This was followed by three more books, Skilful Soccer, Modern Soccer and Training for Soccer. Sports administrator In 1962 Winterbottom resigned from the FA and took up an appointment as General Secretary of the Central Council of Physical Recreation and two years later became the Director of the newly formed Sports Council. He stepped onto the wider stage of sport and emerged to have a profound effect on sport in Britain during the second half of the twentieth century. Central Council of Physical Recreation At the Central Council of Physical Education (CCPR) Winterbottom worked to provide coaches and better facilities for sports governing bodies. He soon became involved in the ongoing political debate about the recommendations of the 1960 Report of the Wolfenden Committee on Sport, which had recommended the establishment of a Sports Council responsible for distributing government money to sport. He was in favour but the CCPR was divided on the issue. In 1965 the Government under set up a Sports Council and Winterbottom was seconded to become the first Director of the Sports Council with Denis Howell as his chairman. Sports Council Winterbottom believed that participation in a sport played a much more important role in society that was generally accepted. For 16 years he battled to win significantly more investment in sport from national and local government to support a Sport for All campaign. Despite a harsh economic climate great progress was made in providing new facilities. In ten years 499 sports centres were built and 524 new swimming pools. Under his leadership sports governing bodies were helped to develop more professional organisations and provide more coaches. He conceived the idea of the Sports Aid Foundation, raising money from industry to back young elite sportsmen and women with Olympic medal winning chances. He was a member of the Council of Europe and Chairman of the Committee for the Development of Sport and was influential in the acceptance of the Sport For All concept by Canada and UNESCO. Later life In 1978, after reaching the age of 65, Winterbottom retired from the Sports Council and was knighted for his services to sport. He became an advisor to the British government on ways in which British manufacturers of sports equipment could work with foreign firms. In 1979, he visited Australia and New Zealand to help their governments to support sport in the community. He was head of the FIFA Technical Studies Group for the World Cup in 1966, 1970, 1974, 1978 and a member in 1982. In 1985 The Winterbottom Report, an FA enquiry into artificial playing surfaces was published and in 1987–89 he was a member of the Football League enquiry into artificial pitches. He died in the Royal Surrey Hospital after an operation for cancer on 16 February 2002. He was 88 years old. A memorial service was held at St. Nicolas Church, Cranleigh, Surrey on 1 March 2002. Managerial statistics Honours British Home Championship Champions: 1947, 1948, 1950, 1952 (shared), 1953 (shared), 1954, 1955, 1956 (shared), 1957, 1958 (shared), 1959 (shared), 1960 (shared), 1961 Runners-up: 1949, 1951 Notes External links Literature Graham Morse: Sir Walter Winterbottom - The Father of Modern English Football, Kings Road Publishing, 2013. Category:People from Oldham Category:1913 births Category:2002 deaths Category:Royal Air Force personnel of World War II Category:English footballers Category:Footballers from Oldham Category:Manchester United F.C. players Category:English Football League players Category:English football managers Category:England national football team managers Category:1950 FIFA World Cup managers Category:1954 FIFA World Cup managers Category:1958 FIFA World Cup managers Category:1962 FIFA World Cup managers Category:Alumni of the University of Chester Category:Association football people awarded knighthoods Category:Knights Bachelor Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire Category:Chelsea F.C. wartime guest players Category:English Football Hall of Fame inductees Category:Men's association football midfielders Category:Mossley A.F.C. players Category:Great Britain men's Olympic football team managers Category:Royal Air Force wing commanders Category:Deaths from cancer in England Category:Association football coaches
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C_ec5491bbf741493a9efd0e572c087a79_0
Walter Winterbottom
Sir Walter Winterbottom, CBE (31 March 1913 - 16 February 2002) was the first manager of the England football team (1946-1962) and FA Director of Coaching. He resigned from the FA in 1962 to become General Secretary of the Central Council of Physical Recreation (CCPR) and was appointed as the first Director of the Sports Council in 1965. He was knighted for his services to sport in 1978 when he retired. The Football Association marked the 100th anniversary of Winterbottom's birth by commissioning a bust which was unveiled by Roy Hodgson at St Georges Park on 23 April 2013 in recognition of his outstanding contribution to the development of English football.
FA Director of Coaching
Although Winterbottom is best known as the England team manager, it is in coaching that he made important contributions to the development of English football. He made no secret of his belief that his job as Director of Coaching was the more important of his two roles at the FA. When he joined the FA in 1946, club directors, managers and players were cynical about the need for coaching but Winterbottom had a passion for coaching and a vision of how it should develop. He soon created a national coaching scheme with summer residential courses at Lilleshall, Shropshire, and persuaded some of his international players to take the courses that led to exams for the FA preliminary and full coaching badges. This gave the scheme credibility. They developed their teaching skills by coaching in schools and then moved into part-time coaching positions in junior clubs. He gathered around him a cadre of young FA staff coaches: men like Bill Nicholson, Don Howe, Alan Brown, Ron Greenwood, Dave Sexton, Malcolm Allison, Joe Mercer, Vic Buckingham, Jimmy Hill and Bobby Robson. Over time a new breed of managers emerged in the League clubs and began to change attitudes to coaching. Winterbottom's courses were expanded to include professional players, referees, school masters, club trainers, schoolboys and youth leaders. In addition to Lilleshall they were held at Loughborough College, Carnegie College, Bisham Abbey and Birmingham University. In 1947 three hundred had taken the full coaching award and the numbers of qualified coaches grew each year. The courses attracted international participation and praise. Winterbottom was regarded by many as a leading technical thinker and exponent of association football, of his generation, in the world and lectured internationally. He inspired a new generation of managers, most notably Ron Greenwood and Bobby Robson, who graduated through every level of coaching, both eventually becoming England team manager. CANNOTANSWER
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Sir Walter Winterbottom (31 March 1913 – 16 February 2002) was an English football player and coach. He was the first manager of the England national team (1946–1962) and Director of Coaching for The Football Association (the FA). He resigned from the FA in 1962 to become General Secretary of the Central Council of Physical Recreation (CCPR) and was appointed as the first Director of the Sports Council in 1965. He was knighted for his services to sport in 1978 when he retired. The Football Association marked the 100th anniversary of Winterbottom's birth by commissioning a bust which was unveiled by Roy Hodgson at St Georges Park on 23 April 2013 in recognition of his outstanding contribution to the development of English football. Early years Born in Oldham, Lancashire, Walter Winterbottom was the only son of James Winterbottom, a ring frame fitter in a textile machine works. At the age of 12 he was awarded a scholarship to Oldham High School where he excelled. He won a bursary to Chester Diocesan Teachers Training College, graduating as the top student in 1933 and took a teaching post at the Alexandra Road School, Oldham. Whilst teaching he played football for Royton Amateurs and then Mossley where he was spotted by Manchester United. He signed for United as a part-time professional in 1936 but continued teaching. In his first season (1936/37) at Manchester United he showed great promise, playing 21 first team League games and 2 FA cup games, appearing as wing half and centre half. But in the following two seasons he made only 4 first team appearances. and 41 Central League appearances, his playing career effectively ended by a spinal disease, later diagnosed as ankylosing spondylitis. Whilst still playing for Manchester United he left his teaching position to study at Carnegie College of Physical Education, Leeds. On graduating he was appointed as a lecturer. During World War II Winterbottom served as an officer in the Royal Air Force, reaching the rank of wing commander and working at the Air Ministry with overall responsibility for training PE instructors at home and overseas. He was also a guest player with Chelsea and ran coaching courses for the FA at grammar schools in London. In 1946 Stanley Rous, who was the secretary of The Football Association, persuaded the FA council to appoint Winterbottom as The FA's first Director of Coaching and suggested he take on the additional responsibility of being the first England team manager. England team manager Walter Winterbottom has the distinction of being England's first, youngest and longest serving England team manager; he is also the only England manager to have had no previous professional managerial experience. In all matches in which he was in charge, England played 139, won 78, drew 33, and lost 28; goals for 383, against 196. At home England lost six matches in sixteen years. England won the British championship in thirteen out of his sixteen seasons (seven times outright and six times sharing top place). In the World Cup tournament England qualified on all four occasions, reaching the quarter-finals twice, playing 28 matches, winning 15, drawing 7 and losing 6; goals for 75 against 35 (including World Cup qualifying matches). Although he had coaching and managerial responsibilities, Winterbottom never had the power to pick his own team (it was chosen by a selection committee). Over time his technical knowledge increasingly influenced selectors. Finally, prior to Alf Ramsey's arrival in 1962, he convinced the FA that the team manager must have sole control of selection. During his time Winterbottom repeatedly warned the English football establishment that countries in Continental Europe and South America were overtaking England and that English football had to change. His sixteen years as England team manager helped greatly in creating a modern and competitive national team and four years after his departure in 1966 England won the World Cup. His innovations included the introduction of England B, Under 23, youth and schoolboy teams providing players with continuity and experience in international football before being selected for the full England team. Notable victories during his era were 10—0 away to Portugal in 1947, 4—0 away to Italy in 1948, 3—1 at home to recently crowned World Champions West Germany in 1954 after the 4—2 at home to Brazil in 1956 and 9—3 at home to Scotland in 1961. Notable defeats were losing 2–0 to the Republic of Ireland at Goodison Park, losing 1—0 to the USA in the 1950 World Cup and 6—3 at home to Hungary in 1953 when England lost their unbeaten home record to a foreign team at Wembley, followed by a 7—1 away defeat to the same team in 1954. Also while he was manager, England visited Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Denmark, Mexico, Peru, Portugal, the Soviet Union, United States and Uruguay for the first time. FIFA World Cup record Winterbottom led England to four consecutive World Cup finals, a record subsequently equalled only by Helmut Schön of West Germany. England entered the World Cup for the first time in 1950, qualifying for the tournament in Brazil by winning the British Home Championship. England had never before played in South America. They beat Chile by 2–0 but lost 1—0 to the USA and 1—0 to Spain to be eliminated in the first round. Winterbottom again led England to qualification in Switzerland in 1954 by winning the British Home championship. A 4—4 draw against Belgium and a 2—0 victory against Switzerland took them to the quarter-finals where they were beaten 4—2 by the defending champions, Uruguay. England qualified for the 1958 FIFA World Cup in Sweden with wins over the Republic of Ireland and Denmark, with a team that had lost only once in 17 games. Three months before the tournament began the Munich air disaster robbed the team of key players from Manchester United: Roger Byrne, Tommy Taylor and Duncan Edwards died. England drew against the USSR, Brazil and Austria but lost to the Soviet Union in a playoff for a quarter-final place. Winterbottom again led his team to qualification for the 1962 World Cup in Chile with wins over Portugal and Luxembourg. After progressing from their group on goal average, England reached the quarter-finals but were beaten 3—1 by the eventual winners, Brazil. FA Director of Coaching Although Winterbottom is best known as the England team manager, it is in coaching that he made important contributions to the development of English football. He made no secret of his belief that his job as Director of Coaching was the more important of his two roles at the FA. When he joined the FA in 1946, club directors, managers and players were cynical about the need for coaching but Winterbottom had a passion for coaching and a vision of how it should develop. He soon created a national coaching scheme with summer residential courses at Lilleshall, Shropshire, and persuaded some of his international players to take the courses that led to exams for the FA preliminary and full coaching badges. This gave the scheme credibility. They developed their teaching skills by coaching in schools and then moved into part-time coaching positions in junior clubs. He gathered around him a cadre of young FA staff coaches: men like Bill Nicholson, Don Howe, Alan Brown, Ron Greenwood, Dave Sexton, Malcolm Allison, Joe Mercer, Vic Buckingham, Jimmy Hill and Bobby Robson. Over time a new breed of managers emerged in the League clubs and began to change attitudes to coaching. Winterbottom's courses were expanded to include professional players, referees, schoolmasters, club trainers, schoolboys and youth leaders. In addition to Lilleshall they were held at Loughborough College, Carnegie College, Bisham Abbey and Birmingham University. In 1947 three hundred had taken the full coaching award and the numbers of qualified coaches grew each year. The courses attracted international participation and praise. Winterbottom was regarded by many as a leading technical thinker and exponent of association football, of his generation, in the world and lectured internationally. He inspired a new generation of managers, most notably Ron Greenwood and Bobby Robson, who graduated through every level of coaching, both eventually becoming England team manager. Criticism In assessing Winterbottom's tenure as England manager, Goldblatt writes that "[Winterbottom] introduced a measure of tactical thinking and discussion to the England squad, though his inability to anticipate or learn significantly from the Hungarian debacle suggests that his grasp of tactics and communication with the players was limited." William Baker writes that Winterbottom, because of his "upper-class origins [sic]", could not "effectively instruct, much less inspire, working-class footballers." Football journalist Brian Glanville said in an interview: "I got on very well with Walter Winterbottom, but he was a rotten manager." Publishing Winterbottom was also responsible for the publishing at the FA. The first coaching bulletin was launched in 1946 and this became the FA Bulletin and then the FA News. The FA Year Book was introduced in 1948 along with the FA Book for Boys annual. The first coaching films and film strips followed in 1950. An important landmark was the publication of Winterbottom's book, Soccer Coaching, the first modern soccer coaching manual. This was followed by three more books, Skilful Soccer, Modern Soccer and Training for Soccer. Sports administrator In 1962 Winterbottom resigned from the FA and took up an appointment as General Secretary of the Central Council of Physical Recreation and two years later became the Director of the newly formed Sports Council. He stepped onto the wider stage of sport and emerged to have a profound effect on sport in Britain during the second half of the twentieth century. Central Council of Physical Recreation At the Central Council of Physical Education (CCPR) Winterbottom worked to provide coaches and better facilities for sports governing bodies. He soon became involved in the ongoing political debate about the recommendations of the 1960 Report of the Wolfenden Committee on Sport, which had recommended the establishment of a Sports Council responsible for distributing government money to sport. He was in favour but the CCPR was divided on the issue. In 1965 the Government under set up a Sports Council and Winterbottom was seconded to become the first Director of the Sports Council with Denis Howell as his chairman. Sports Council Winterbottom believed that participation in a sport played a much more important role in society that was generally accepted. For 16 years he battled to win significantly more investment in sport from national and local government to support a Sport for All campaign. Despite a harsh economic climate great progress was made in providing new facilities. In ten years 499 sports centres were built and 524 new swimming pools. Under his leadership sports governing bodies were helped to develop more professional organisations and provide more coaches. He conceived the idea of the Sports Aid Foundation, raising money from industry to back young elite sportsmen and women with Olympic medal winning chances. He was a member of the Council of Europe and Chairman of the Committee for the Development of Sport and was influential in the acceptance of the Sport For All concept by Canada and UNESCO. Later life In 1978, after reaching the age of 65, Winterbottom retired from the Sports Council and was knighted for his services to sport. He became an advisor to the British government on ways in which British manufacturers of sports equipment could work with foreign firms. In 1979, he visited Australia and New Zealand to help their governments to support sport in the community. He was head of the FIFA Technical Studies Group for the World Cup in 1966, 1970, 1974, 1978 and a member in 1982. In 1985 The Winterbottom Report, an FA enquiry into artificial playing surfaces was published and in 1987–89 he was a member of the Football League enquiry into artificial pitches. He died in the Royal Surrey Hospital after an operation for cancer on 16 February 2002. He was 88 years old. A memorial service was held at St. Nicolas Church, Cranleigh, Surrey on 1 March 2002. Managerial statistics Honours British Home Championship Champions: 1947, 1948, 1950, 1952 (shared), 1953 (shared), 1954, 1955, 1956 (shared), 1957, 1958 (shared), 1959 (shared), 1960 (shared), 1961 Runners-up: 1949, 1951 Notes External links Literature Graham Morse: Sir Walter Winterbottom - The Father of Modern English Football, Kings Road Publishing, 2013. Category:People from Oldham Category:1913 births Category:2002 deaths Category:Royal Air Force personnel of World War II Category:English footballers Category:Footballers from Oldham Category:Manchester United F.C. players Category:English Football League players Category:English football managers Category:England national football team managers Category:1950 FIFA World Cup managers Category:1954 FIFA World Cup managers Category:1958 FIFA World Cup managers Category:1962 FIFA World Cup managers Category:Alumni of the University of Chester Category:Association football people awarded knighthoods Category:Knights Bachelor Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire Category:Chelsea F.C. wartime guest players Category:English Football Hall of Fame inductees Category:Men's association football midfielders Category:Mossley A.F.C. players Category:Great Britain men's Olympic football team managers Category:Royal Air Force wing commanders Category:Deaths from cancer in England Category:Association football coaches
[]
[ "The text does not provide specific information on when Winterbottom was the FA Director of Coaching.", "Yes, Winterbottom was successful as the FA Director of Coaching. Under his leadership, a national coaching scheme was created, and the number of qualified coaches increased every year. He was regarded as a leading thinker in association football and was successful in changing attitudes towards coaching in English football. He also inspired a new generation of managers, including Ron Greenwood and Bobby Robson.", "Some of the new managers that emerged under Winterbottom's influence were Bill Nicholson, Don Howe, Alan Brown, Ron Greenwood, Dave Sexton, Malcolm Allison, Joe Mercer, Vic Buckingham, Jimmy Hill, Bobby Robson, with Ron Greenwood and Bobby Robson eventually becoming England team managers.", "The text does not provide specific information on how long these managers were with the England team.", "Yes, Winterbottom gathered around him a cadre of young FA staff coaches which included Bill Nicholson, Don Howe, Alan Brown, Ron Greenwood, Dave Sexton, Malcolm Allison, Joe Mercer, Vic Buckingham, Jimmy Hill, and Bobby Robson.", "As FA Director of Coaching, Winterbottom created a national coaching scheme that included the establishment of summer residential courses at several locations like Lilleshall, Shropshire, Loughborough College, Carnegie College, Bisham Abbey, and Birmingham University. He convinced his international players to attend these courses, giving the scheme credibility, and encouraged them to earn their FA preliminary and full coaching badges. He expanded the scheme to include professional players, referees, school masters, club trainers, schoolboys, and youth leaders. By 1947, three hundred people had taken the full coaching award and the number of qualified coaches grew each year with international participation and praise. In addition to these duties, Winterbottom also served as a lecturer internationally and was recognized globally as a leading technical thinker and exponent of association football in his time.", "Yes, Winterbottom's efforts as FA Director of Coaching were successful. He established a national coaching scheme that witnessed an increase in the number of qualified coaches each year. The creation of summer residential courses, the encouragement of international players to earn their coaching badges, and the inclusion of a wide range of people - from professional players to schoolboys - in the scheme, collectively speak to its success. Winterbottom's work transformed attitudes towards coaching in English football, and his courses attracted international participation and praise. His influence also helped inspire and guide noteworthy managers like Ron Greenwood and Bobby Robson in their careers.", "The text does not provide specific information on which clubs the coaches trained under Winterbottom's scheme coached in.", "The text does not provide specific details about the new attitude that emerged among League clubs under Winterbottom's influence. However, it implies that there was a shift in perception about the importance and role of coaching in football, likely towards recognizing coaching as a vital aspect of the sport's development and success.\n", "The text mentions that Winterbottom gathered a cadre of young FA staff coaches around him. These included Bill Nicholson, Don Howe, Alan Brown, Ron Greenwood, Dave Sexton, Malcolm Allison, Joe Mercer, Vic Buckingham, Jimmy Hill, and Bobby Robson. These coaches participated in his national coaching scheme.", "The text does not provide specific information on how long Winterbottom ran the national coaching scheme." ]
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C_b75490a09bfa482eb3d5f3d613617661_0
Tommy Lawton
Thomas Lawton was born on 6 October 1919 to Elizabeth Riley and Thomas Lawton senior in Farnworth, Lancashire. His father was a railway signalman of Irish extraction, and his mother worked as a weaver at Harrowby Mill. His father left the family 18 months after Lawton was born, and Elizabeth moved back into her parents' home in Bolton. Elizabeth's father, James Hugh "Jim" Riley, became Lawton's surrogate father.
Notts County
In November 1947, Lawton was sold to Notts County of the Third Division South for a British record transfer fee of PS20,000 (equivalent to PS718,100 in 2016). He made the surprise decision to drop down two divisions so as to be reunited with manager Arthur Stollery, his former masseur and friend at Chelsea, and because he was promised a job outside of football upon his retirement by vice-chairman Harold Walmsley. Walmsley told the Nottingham Guardian Journal that "we are prepared to spend to the limit to put this old club back where it belongs". He scored two goals on his home debut, a 4-2 win over Bristol Rovers in front of 38,000 spectators at Meadow Lane - a huge increase on previous home games of typically 6,000 to 7,000 supporters. He ended the 1947-48 season with 24 goals in as many games, though was resented by the club's directors after he insisted on pay rises for his teammates and stopped the practice of director's friends and family travelling to away games on the team coach. He formed a productive forward partnership with Jackie Sewell in the 1948-49 campaign, and scored 23 goals in 40 league and cup appearances. County finished in mid-table despite scoring 102 goals, 15 more than champions Swansea. Stollery was sacked and upon Lawton's suggestion the club appointed Eric Houghton as manager after Lawton turned down the role as player-manager. Lawton and Sewell's understanding grew throughout the 1949-50 campaign, and Lawton finished as the division's top-scorer with 31 goals in 37 league games as County won promotion as champions, seven points ahead of second-placed Northampton Town. Promotion was secured with a 2-0 win over local rivals Nottingham Forest at Meadow Lane on 22 April. However he struggled with poor form during the 1950-51 season as his first marriage was coming to an end and he came into increasing conflict with his teammates. He was angered when the club sold Jackie Sewell to Sheffield Wednesday in March 1951 - breaking Lawton's own transfer record in the process - as he felt the move showed a lack of ambition from the club's directors. He also found that the well paid job he was promised outside of football did not transpire. His tally of nine goals in 31 games in 1950-51 and 13 goals in 31 games in 1951-52 was disappointing, and he was made available for transfer. CANNOTANSWER
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Thomas Lawton (6 October 1919 – 6 November 1996) was an English football player and manager. A strong centre-forward with excellent all-round attacking skills, he was able to head the ball with tremendous power and accuracy. Born in Farnworth and raised in Bolton, he played amateur football at Rossendale United, before he turned professional at Burnley on his 17th birthday. He also played cricket for Burnley Cricket Club, before his potential as a footballer won him a £6,500 move to Everton in January 1937. He went on to finish as the First Division's top-scorer in 1938 and 1939, helping Everton to finish as champions of the Football League in the latter campaign. League football was then suspended for seven full seasons due to the outbreak of war in Europe, during which time he scored 24 goals in 23 appearances for England whilst guesting for Everton and a number of other clubs. In November 1945, he moved to Chelsea for £14,000, and scored a club record 26 goals in 34 league games in the 1946–47 season. In November 1947, he made a surprise move to Third Division South club Notts County for a British record transfer fee of £20,000. He helped the club to win promotion as champions in 1949–50, before he moved on to Brentford in March 1952 for a club record £16,000. In January 1953, Brentford appointed him player-manager, though he would only remain in charge for nine months. He joined Arsenal as a player in November 1953 for £10,000, where he saw out the remainder of his playing career. Despite losing much of his best years to World War II, he scored 260 goals in 433 league and cup competitions in 14 full seasons in the Football League. He had a promising start to his managerial career by leading Kettering Town to the Southern League title in 1956–57, but then only had two more seasons as manager, getting relegated with Notts County in 1957–58 and then relegated with Kettering Town in 1963–64. During the 1970s he struggled with debt and related legal problems, which were reported in the media as an example of a celebrated person having fallen from grace. He scored 22 goals in his 23 England appearances over a ten-year international career from 1938 to 1948, including four against Portugal in May 1947. He helped England to win two British Home Championship titles outright (1946–47 and 1947–48), and to share the Championship in 1938–39. He fell out of international contention at the age of 28 due to his contempt for manager Walter Winterbottom, his decision to drop out of the First Division, and the emergence of Jackie Milburn and Nat Lofthouse. As well as his England caps, he also represented The Football League XI and played in a special Great Britain game against Europe in 1947. He married twice, and had two children and one step-child. His ashes are held in the National Football Museum, and he was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame in 2003. Early life Thomas Lawton was born on 6 October 1919 to Elizabeth Riley and Thomas Lawton senior in Farnworth, Lancashire. His father was a railway signalman, and his mother worked as a weaver at Harrowby Mill. His father left the family 18 months after Lawton was born, and Elizabeth moved back into her parents' home in Bolton. Elizabeth's father, James Hugh "Jim" Riley, became Lawton's surrogate father. Lawton's natural footballing ability earned him a place on the Bolton Town Schools team in 1930. He was picked by Lancashire Schools at the age of 13. Despite scoring a hat-trick in a trial game for England Schoolboys, he never earned a full England Schoolboy cap. At the age of 14 he began playing for Hayes Athletic in the Bolton Senior League, and went on to score 570 goals in three seasons. The FA's rules meant he was unable to turn professional at a club until he was 17, and Lawton's grandfather rejected Bolton Wanderers's offer for Lawton to work as a delivery driver for two years before turning professional at the club. Lawton instead played as an amateur for Rossendale United in the Lancashire Combination, scoring a hat-trick on his debut against Bacup. He took up temporary work at a tannery, and then joined Burnley as assistant groundsman after his mother rejected an offer from Sheffield Wednesday as she objected to him travelling to Sheffield on a daily basis. Club career Burnley Lawton played his first game for Burnley Reserves against Manchester City Reserves in September 1935, and though he struggled in this game he went on to become a regular Reserve team player by the age of 16. After a poor run of form from Cecil Smith, Lawton was selected ahead of Smith for the Second Division game against Doncaster Rovers at Turf Moor on 28 March 1936; aged 16 years and 174 days, this made him the youngest centre-forward ever to play in the Football League. Rovers centre-half Syd Bycroft, also making his league debut, marked Lawton out of the game, which ended in a 1–1 draw. Burnley had played poorly, though Lawton was praised for his "keen and fearless" performance by the Express & News newspaper. He retained his place for the following game, and scored two goals in a 3–1 victory over Swansea Town at Vetch Field. He picked up a groin strain in his third appearance which caused him to miss two fixtures, before he returned to the first team for the final four games of the 1935–36 season; he claimed three more goals to take his season tally to five goals from seven games. Lawton continued to train his heading skills intensely in the summer of 1936, and also played cricket for Burnley Cricket Club as a batsman in the Lancashire League. He scored a six against both Learie Constantine and Amar Singh. He scored 369 runs in 15 completed innings for an average of 24.06. He turned professional at Burnley at the age of 17 on wages of £7 a week. His grandfather attempted to negotiate a £500 signing-on fee on his behalf but was rebuffed after the club alerted Charles Sutcliffe, Secretary of the Football League, who informed them that any attempt to circumvent the league's maximum wage was illegal. Lawton scored in his first appearance since signing the contract after just 30 seconds, before going on to record a hat-trick in a 3–1 win over Tottenham Hotspur, scoring a goal with either foot and one with his head. Everton In January 1937, First Division club Everton paid Burnley £6,500 to secure Lawton's services, and also gave his grandfather a job as deputy groundsman at Goodison Park; the fee was a record for a player under 21. The move to Everton made him a teammate of Dixie Dean, his boyhood idol, who he was expected to gradually replace as first choice centre-forward. He later recalled that on his way to Goodison Park on his first day as an Everton player he was told by a tram conductor that "You're that young Lawton, aren't you? You'll never be as good as Dixie." Dean was finally rested on 13 February, which allowed Lawton to make his first team debut against Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux; the match ended in a 6–2 defeat, though Lawton scored a penalty. He spent the rest of the season at inside-left, with Dean at centre-forward, and ended the 1936–37 campaign with four goals in 11 games. He started the 1937–38 season in the Reserves, but was installed as first choice centre-forward in September after Dean was dropped for punching club secretary Theo Kelly. On 2 October, Lawton scored the winning penalty in a 2–1 victory over Merseyside derby rivals Liverpool at Anfield. He ended the campaign with 28 goals in 39 appearances to become the division's top-scorer. Everton had a young but highly effective team for the 1938–39 campaign, and Lawton was praised for the way he led the attack, with the Evening Standards Roland Allen describing Lawton as a "clever footballer, bringing his wing men into the game with shrewd flicks and widely flung and accurate passes" after Everton recorded a 2–1 victory over Arsenal at Highbury. The game against Arsenal was part of a run of six wins in the first six games of the campaign, during which time Lawton scored eight goals. Everton lost their lead at the top of the table to Derby County over Christmas, but returned to form and to first position by Easter. They faced a difficult final run of games, but beat Chelsea and recorded two victories over Sunderland to secure the club's fifth league title, finishing four points ahead of second-place Wolverhampton Wanderers. Lawton scored 35 goals in 38 league games to finish as the division's top-scorer for the second successive season. However, in the summer he wrote to Leicester City to request that the club buy him from Everton; it was reported that he reached out to Leicester as they were managed by Tom Bromilow, his former Burnley manager. Everton were fifth in the league and Lawton was the division's top-scorer with four goals when league football was suspended three games into the 1939–40 season due to the outbreak of World War II. Lawton later remarked that "I'm convinced that if it hadn't been for the War, we'd have won the Championship again, the average age of those players was about 24 or 25". World War II Lawton continued to play for both Everton and England during the war. However the FA decided to not award full caps for England appearances during the war, and as a result his 24 goals in 23 international games were not counted in statistics for the official England team. As was common for footballers during the war, he also made guest appearances for a number of clubs besides Everton, including Leicester City, Greenock Morton, Chester City, Aldershot, and Tranmere Rovers.Sumner, Chas (1997) On the Borderline: The Official History of Chester City F.C. 1885–1997 He was called up to the British Army in January 1940, and his status as an England international saw him recruited to the Royal Army Physical Training Corps. He also played for the British Army team and his Area Command team. He was posted in Birkenhead, which allowed him to frequently appear for Everton. On Christmas Day 1940, he played for Everton against Liverpool at Anfield in the morning and for Tranmere Rovers at Crewe Alexandra in the afternoon. Explaining this later, he said, 'The Tranmere people came into the dressing room and asked if anyone wanted to play as they were two men short. I said, "Go on, I'll help you out." And I did.' In 1942 he scored a hat-trick for England in a 5–4 win over Scotland at Hampden Park. Later in the year he scored six goals for Aldershot in a 9–0 win over Luton Town. On 16 October 1943, he scored four goals in an 8–0 victory over Scotland at Maine Road. Chelsea In July 1945, Lawton handed in a transfer request at Everton as he wanted a move to a Southern club so as to see more of his increasingly estranged wife. In November 1945, he was sold to Chelsea for a fee of £14,000. Chelsea continued to play regional wartime fixtures as national league football had not resumed for the 1945–46 season, and Lawton also continued his uncapped appearances for the England national team. In the summer of 1946, following his demobilisation, he coached for the FA in a summer camp in Switzerland. He scored a club record 26 goals in 34 league games in the 1946–47 season. However he struggled to settle at Stamford Bridge and came into conflict with manager Billy Birrell after refusing to go on a pre-season tour of Sweden in 1947, which resulted in him requesting a transfer. He favoured a move to Arsenal, but this was ruled out by the Chelsea hierarchy. Lawton turned down an approach by Sunderland manager Bill Murray as he held out hope that Chelsea would relent and allow him a move to Arsenal. Notts County In November 1947, Lawton was sold to Notts County of the Third Division South for a British record transfer fee of £20,000 (). He made the surprise decision to drop down two divisions so as to be reunited with manager Arthur Stollery, his former masseur and friend at Chelsea, and because he was promised a job outside of football upon his retirement by vice-chairman Harold Walmsley. Walmsley told the Nottingham Guardian Journal that "we are prepared to spend to the limit to put this old club back where it belongs". He scored two goals on his home debut, a 4–2 win over Bristol Rovers in front of 38,000 spectators at Meadow Lane – a huge increase on previous home games of typically 6,000 to 7,000 supporters. He ended the 1947–48 season with 24 goals in as many games, though was resented by the club's directors after he insisted on pay rises for his teammates and stopped the practice of director's friends and family travelling to away games on the team coach. He formed a productive forward partnership with Jackie Sewell in the 1948–49 campaign, and scored 23 goals in 40 league and cup appearances. County finished in mid-table despite scoring 102 goals, 15 more than champions Swansea. Stollery was sacked and upon Lawton's suggestion the club appointed Eric Houghton as manager after Lawton turned down the role as player-manager. Lawton and Sewell's understanding grew throughout the 1949–50 campaign, and Lawton finished as the division's top-scorer with 31 goals in 37 league games as County won promotion as champions, seven points ahead of second-placed Northampton Town. Promotion was secured with a 2–0 win over local rivals Nottingham Forest at Meadow Lane on 22 April. However he struggled with poor form during the 1950–51 season as his first marriage was coming to an end and he came into increasing conflict with his teammates. He was angered when the club sold Jackie Sewell to Sheffield Wednesday in March 1951 – breaking Lawton's own transfer record in the process – as he felt the move showed a lack of ambition from the club's directors. He also found that the well paid job he was promised outside of football did not transpire. His tally of nine goals in 31 games in 1950–51 and 13 goals in 31 games in 1951–52 was disappointing, and he was made available for transfer. Brentford In March 1952, Lawton joined Second Division side Brentford for a club record £16,000 fee. Manager Jackie Gibbons left the club at the start of the 1952–53 season and was succeeded by his assistant Jimmy Bain, who proved ill-suited to management, and so in January 1953 Lawton was appointed as player-manager, with Bain as his assistant. However he lost the dressing room due to his excessive demands of the players, and the strains of management were having a negative impact on his form. Brentford also lost their best players having sold both Ron Greenwood and Jimmy Hill. He signed two veterans in former Notts County teammate Frank Broome and Ian McPherson to play on the wings, who, with Lawton, formed an attacking trio with a combined age of 104. They got off to a poor start to the 1953–54 season, and Lawton resigned as manager after the Griffin Park crowd began to mock the forward line by singing Dear Old Pals. Arsenal In November 1953, Lawton was traded to First Division champions Arsenal for £7,500 plus James Robertson who was valued at £2,500. He was signed by manager Tom Whittaker, who had previously found success in bringing in veterans such as Ronnie Rooke and Joe Mercer. However Lawton was limited to ten appearances in the 1953–54 campaign after picking up an injury on his debut. He also played in the 1953 Charity Shield, scoring one goal as Arsenal beat Blackpool 3–1. He scored seven goals in 20 appearances throughout the 1954–55 season, including winning goals against Chelsea and Cardiff City. He scored a hat-trick past Cardiff City on the opening day of the 1955–56 season, before he announced his decision to leave Arsenal to pursue a career in management eight games into the campaign. International career Lawton was called up to play for The Football League XI against a League of Ireland XI at Windsor Park on 21 September 1938, and scored four goals in what finished as an 8–2 win. A month later he went on to win his first cap for England on 22 October, England's first game of the 1938–39 British Home Championship, a 4–2 defeat to Wales at Ninian Park, and converted a penalty kick to mark his first England appearance with a goal. This made him the youngest player to score on his England debut, a record which lasted until Marcus Rashford broke it in 2016. Four days after Lawton's debut, he scored again for England at Highbury in a 3–0 win over 'The Rest of Europe', a team of players selected from Italy, Germany, France, Belgium, Hungary and Norway. Later in the year he also scored in victories over Norway and Ireland. He played in all four games of 1939, scoring against Scotland and Italy; the goal against Scotland secured a 2–1 win in front of 149,269 spectators at Hampden Park. Newly appointed England manager Walter Winterbottom played Lawton in England's first official match in seven years on 28 September 1946, a 7–2 win over Ireland. He played the remaining three fixtures of 1946, and scored four goals in an 8–2 victory over the Netherlands at Leeds Road on 27 November. On 10 May 1947, he scored two goals playing for the Great Britain XI in a 6–1 victory over a Rest of Europe XI that was billed as the 'Match of the Century'. Five days later he scored four goals in a 10–0 victory over Portugal at Lisbon's Estádio Nacional. On 21 September, he scored after just 12 seconds in a 5–2 win over Belgium at Heysel Stadium. He retained his place in the England team following his club move to Notts County, and in doing so became the first Third Division footballer to represent England when he scored from the penalty spot in a 4–2 win over Sweden on 19 November. However he only won three further caps in 1948, his final appearance coming in a 0–0 draw with Denmark in Copenhagen on 26 September. He had become increasingly disillusioned with the England set-up, and told Winterbottom that "if you think you can teach Stanley Matthews to play on the wing and me how to score goals, you've got another think coming!" Winterbottom was also frustrated by Lawton's smoking habit, and preferred Jackie Milburn ahead of Lawton. Hopes of any future comeback were ended by the emergence of powerful centre-forward Nat Lofthouse, who made his England debut in November 1950. Style of play Lawton was widely regarded as the finest centre-forward of his generation. He boasted a strong physique and good ball control skills, as well as a great passing range and a powerful shot. He was naturally right-footed, though worked to improve his left foot to a good enough standard to be considered a two-footed player. His greatest strength though was his ability to head the ball with power and accuracy, as he possessed muscular legs to give himself a strong jump and long hang-time, and was also able to time his jumps to perfection. Stanley Matthews surmised that "Quite simply, Tommy was the greatest header of the ball I ever saw." Lawton was never booked throughout his career. Coaching career and later life An Arsenal director helped Lawton to secure the position of the player-manager at Southern League side Kettering Town. He took up the role at the club on wages of £1,500 a year in the summer of 1956. At the helm he thereafter signed several footballers such as Jim Standen of Arsenal, Amos Moss of Aston Villa, Jack Wheeler who played for Huddersfield Town and Brentford's Jack Goodwin. He was also successful in bringing to Kettering Fulham's Bob Thomas, Harry McDonald who was previously with Crystal Palace and Sunderland's Geoff Toseland. During his debut season as manager, 1956–1957, Kettering found themselves ten points clear at the top of the table by Christmas. As a result of this success, in January 1956 he turned down an approach from Notts County. Lawton then went on to foster Kettering towards their winning of the league title in 1956–57 by eight points. Out of Kettering's 106 league goals, Lawton scored 15. He was appointed as Notts County manager in May 1957, controversially replacing caretaker-manager Frank Broome. Broome, who had steered the club away from being relegated from the Second Division, was installed as his assistant manager. He found it tedious making new signings due to financial constraints on the part of the club. He did though take on forwards Jeff Astle and Tony Hateley as apprentices, who would both go on to have long careers in the First Division. Lawton agreed to go without his wages for six months so as to improve the club's finances. County were however relegated at the end of the 1957–58 season, finishing one point short of safety, and Lawton was sacked. He received a total of just three months pay for his time at the club, having only a verbal offer of a three-year contract to fall back on, and nothing in writing. After being sacked as Notts County manager, Lawton ran the Magna Charta public house in Lowdham from October 1958. An employee stole £2,500 from the business and Lawton decided to leave the pub trade after four years. He then took up a job selling insurance. He returned to football management with Kettering Town for the 1963–64 season as a caretaker following the resignation of Wally Akers, but the season ended with Kettering being relegated from the Southern League Premier Division. He was offered the job on a permanent basis, but turned it down so as to concentrate on his job as an insurance salesman. He lost his job in insurance in 1967, and then opened a sporting goods shop that bore his name after going into partnership with a friend, but was forced to close the business after just two months due to poor sales. After a period on unemployment benefits he found work at a betting company in Nottingham. He returned to Notts County to work as a coach and chief scout from 1968 to 1970. He was sacked after new manager Jimmy Sirrel decided to appoint his own backroom staff, and Lawton returned to unemployment. In May 1970, he wrote to Chelsea chairman Richard Attenborough asking for a loan of £250 and for possible employment; Attenborough lent him £100. He was interviewed by Eamonn Andrews on ITV's Today programme on his fall from England star to the unemployment line. After his financial troubles became public knowledge he was offered a lucrative job as director of his own subsidiary furniture company by a large furnishing company on Tottenham Court Road; however the company went into liquidation the following year. He continued to write cheques in the company's name, and in June 1972 pleaded Guilty to seven charges of obtaining goods and cash by deception. He was sentenced to three years probation, and ordered to pay £240 compensation and £100 in costs. In 1972 a testimonial match was organised by Everton on Lawton's behalf to help him pay off his debts of around £6,000. However his financial situation was still bleak, and on two occasions he narrowly avoided a prison sentence for failing to pay his rates after an Arsenal supporters club and later an anonymous former co-worker stepped in to pay the bill for him. In August 1974, he was again found Guilty of obtaining goods by deception after failing to repay a £10 debt to a publican, and was sentenced to 200 hours of Community service and ordered to pay £40 costs. In 1984, he began writing a column for the Nottingham Evening Post. Brentford also organised a testimonial match for him in May 1985. Lawton's health deteriorated in his old age and he died in November 1996, aged 77, as a result of pneumonia. His ashes were donated to the National Football Museum. He was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame in 2003. Personal life Lawton married Rosaleen May Kavanagh in January 1941; the marriage bore one child, Amanda. Rosaleen never watched Lawton play football during their ten-year marriage. Divorce was granted with a decree nisi in March 1951 after Rosaleen was found to have committed adultery with Notts County director Adrian Van Geffen; Lawton never saw Amanda again and was not required to pay child support. He would not hear from his daughter until she was convicted of stealing from playwright George Axelrod in 1968, by which time Rosaleen was on her fourth marriage and living in Jamaica. Lawton married second wife Gladys Rose in September 1952, who bore him a son, Thomas Junior. Gladys was also divorced, and her ex-husband cited Lawton as a co-respondent in the divorce proceedings as the pair had begun their relationship whilst Gladys was still married; her family were staunch Catholics, and Gladys was ostracised by her family following her divorce. Gladys had a daughter, Carol, from her previous marriage, who Lawton raised as his own. Thomas Junior went on to play rugby union for Leicester Tigers. He starred alongside Thora Hird and Diana Dors in 1953 film The Great Game, playing himself in a cameo role. Throughout the 1950s he went on to appear on What's My Line? amongst other radio and television programmes. He published a total of four books: Tommy Lawton's all star football book (1950), Soccer the Lawton way (1954), My Twenty Years of Soccer (1955), and When the Cheering Stopped (1973). Career statistics Club International Managerial statistics Honours PlayerEvertonFootball League First Division: 1938–39Notts CountyFootball League Third Division South: 1949–50ArsenalCharity Shield: 1953EnglandBritish Home Championship: 1938–39 (shared), 1946–47, 1947–48 ManagerialKettering Town''' Southern Football League: 1956–57 Individual First Division top scorer: 1937–38, 1938–39 Third Division South top scorer: 1949–50 English Football Hall of Fame: 2003 Notts County FC Hall of Fame: 2014 See also List of men's footballers with 500 or more goals References Specific General Lawton, T (1950) Tommy Lawton's all star football book ISBN B0000CHTOA Lawton, T (1954) Soccer the Lawton way ISBN B0000CIYT5 Lawton, T (1955) My Twenty Years of Soccer ISBN B0007JENCK Lawton, T (1973) When the Cheering Stopped McVay, D &, Smith, A (2000) The Complete Centre Forward: The Authorised Biography of Tommy Lawton'' Category:1919 births Category:1996 deaths Category:Military personnel from Lancashire Category:People from Farnworth Category:English people of Irish descent Category:English cricketers Category:English footballers Category:England men's international footballers Category:England men's wartime international footballers Category:Men's association football forwards Category:Rossendale United F.C. players Category:Burnley F.C. players Category:Everton F.C. players Category:Leicester City F.C. wartime guest players Category:Greenock Morton F.C. wartime guest players Category:Chester City F.C. wartime guest players Category:Aldershot F.C. wartime guest players Category:Tranmere Rovers F.C. wartime guest players Category:Chelsea F.C. players Category:Notts County F.C. players Category:Brentford F.C. players Category:Arsenal F.C. players Category:Kettering Town F.C. players Category:English Football League players Category:English Football League representative players Category:Southern Football League players Category:First Division/Premier League top scorers Category:English Football Hall of Fame inductees Category:British Army personnel of World War II Category:Royal Army Physical Training Corps soldiers Category:English football managers Category:Brentford F.C. managers Category:Kettering Town F.C. managers Category:Notts County F.C. managers Category:English Football League managers Category:Southern Football League managers Category:Association football coaches Category:Association football scouts Category:Notts County F.C. non-playing staff Category:English autobiographers Category:English columnists Category:Deaths from pneumonia in England
[ { "text": "Specific may refer to:\n\n Specificity (disambiguation)\n Specific, a cure or therapy for a specific illness\n\nLaw \n Specific deterrence, focussed on an individual\n Specific finding, intermediate verdict used by a jury in determining the final verdict\n Specific jurisdiction over an out-of-state party, specific to cases that have a substantial connection to the party's in-state activity\n Order of specific performance, court order to perform a specific act\n\nEconomics, finance, and accounting\n Asset specificity, the extent to which the investments made to support a particular transaction have a higher value to that transaction than they would have if they were redeployed for any other purpose\n Specific identification (inventories), summing purchase costs of all inventory items\n Specific rate duty, duty paid at a specific amount per unit\n Specific risk, risk that affects a very small number of assets\n\nPsychology \n Domain specificity, theory that many aspects of cognition are supported by specialized, presumably evolutionarily specified, learning devices\n Specific developmental disorder, disorders in which development is delayed in one specific area or areas, and in which basically all other areas of development are not affected\n Specific learning disability\n Specific phobia, phobia of a specific thing or situation\n Specific social phobia, triggered only by specific social situations\n\nBiology \n pertaining to a species\n Specific name (botany), species name of a plant\n Specific name (zoology), species name of an animal\n Specific appetite, drive to eat foods with specific flavors or other characteristics\n Specific granule, secretory vesicle in granulocytes\n Specific immunity, to a particular pathogen\n Specific Pathogen Free, of a laboratory animal guaranteed free of particular (i.e., specific and named) pathogens\n\nOther fields \n A specific quantity generally means a physical quantity normalized \"per unit\" of something (often mass).\n SPECIFIC, The Sustainable Product Engineering Centre for Innovative Functional Industrial Coatings\n Specific creation, creationism as opposed to evolution\n Specific interval, shortest possible clockwise distance between pitch classes on the chromatic circle\n Specific integral, in calculus, eliminates the constant of integration\n Specific Physical Preparedness, being prepared for the movements in a specific physical activity (usually a sport)\n\nSee also \n Species (disambiguation)\n Specification (disambiguation)\n Specialty (disambiguation)\n Site-specific (disambiguation)\n Language for specific purposes, has been primarily used to refer to two areas within applied linguistics", "title": "Specific" } ]
[ "Notts County is important to Tommy Lawton because it was the club he decided to join in 1947, a decision that surprised many as he dropped down two divisions to do so. He also had a productive career there, forming a notable forward partnership with Jackie Sewell and scoring numerous goals. Additionally, the move reunited Lawton with Arthur Stollery, his former masseur and friend at Chelsea. Lawton was also promised a job outside of football upon his retirement by Notts County's vice-chairman. However, Lawton had disagreements with the club's directors and was made available for transfer later on.", "In the provided context, Lawton and Notts County are described as playing against Bristol Rovers, Northampton Town, Nottingham Forest, and, indirectly, Sheffield Wednesday.", "Lawton and Notts County performed well against Bristol Rovers. They won 4-2 in Lawton's home debut, with Lawton scoring two of the goals. The game was in front of 38,000 spectators at Meadow Lane.", "In the provided context, aside from Bristol Rovers, Notts County - with Lawton on the team - also played against Northampton Town, Nottingham Forest, and Sheffield Wednesday. They secured promotion with a victory over Nottingham Forest, and the sale of Lawton's teammate Jackie Sewell to Sheffield Wednesday is mentioned, though a specific match against them is not detailed." ]
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C_b75490a09bfa482eb3d5f3d613617661_1
Tommy Lawton
Thomas Lawton was born on 6 October 1919 to Elizabeth Riley and Thomas Lawton senior in Farnworth, Lancashire. His father was a railway signalman of Irish extraction, and his mother worked as a weaver at Harrowby Mill. His father left the family 18 months after Lawton was born, and Elizabeth moved back into her parents' home in Bolton. Elizabeth's father, James Hugh "Jim" Riley, became Lawton's surrogate father.
Burnley
Lawton played his first game for Burnley Reserves against Manchester City Reserves in September 1935, and though he struggled in this game he went on to become a regular Reserve team player by the age of 16. After a poor run of form from Cecil Smith, Lawton was selected ahead of Smith for the Second Division game against Doncaster Rovers at Turf Moor on 28 March 1936; aged 16 years and 174 days, this made him the youngest centre-forward ever to play in the Football League. Rovers centre-half Syd Bycroft, also making his league debut, marked Lawton out of the game, which ended in a 1-1 draw. Burnley had played poorly, though Lawton was praised for his "keen and fearless" performance by the Express & News newspaper. He retained his place for the following game, and scored two goals in a 3-1 victory over Swansea Town at Vetch Field. He picked up a groin strain in his third appearance which caused him to miss two fixtures, before he returned to the first team for the final four games of the 1935-36 season; he claimed three more goals to take his season tally to five goals from seven games. Lawton continued to train his heading skills intensely in the summer of 1936, and also played cricket for Burnley Cricket Club as a batsman in the Lancashire League. He scored a six against both Learie Constantine and Amar Singh. He scored 369 runs in 15 completed innings for an average of 24.06. He turned professional at Burnley at the age of 17 on wages of PS7 a week. His grandfather attempted to negotiate a PS500 signing-on fee on his behalf but was rebuffed after the club alerted Charles Sutcliffe, Secretary of the Football League, who informed them that any attempt to circumvent the league's maximum wage was illegal. Lawton scored in his first appearance since signing the contract after just 30 seconds, before going on to record a hat-trick in a 3-1 win over Tottenham Hotspur, scoring a goal with either foot and one with his head. CANNOTANSWER
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Thomas Lawton (6 October 1919 – 6 November 1996) was an English football player and manager. A strong centre-forward with excellent all-round attacking skills, he was able to head the ball with tremendous power and accuracy. Born in Farnworth and raised in Bolton, he played amateur football at Rossendale United, before he turned professional at Burnley on his 17th birthday. He also played cricket for Burnley Cricket Club, before his potential as a footballer won him a £6,500 move to Everton in January 1937. He went on to finish as the First Division's top-scorer in 1938 and 1939, helping Everton to finish as champions of the Football League in the latter campaign. League football was then suspended for seven full seasons due to the outbreak of war in Europe, during which time he scored 24 goals in 23 appearances for England whilst guesting for Everton and a number of other clubs. In November 1945, he moved to Chelsea for £14,000, and scored a club record 26 goals in 34 league games in the 1946–47 season. In November 1947, he made a surprise move to Third Division South club Notts County for a British record transfer fee of £20,000. He helped the club to win promotion as champions in 1949–50, before he moved on to Brentford in March 1952 for a club record £16,000. In January 1953, Brentford appointed him player-manager, though he would only remain in charge for nine months. He joined Arsenal as a player in November 1953 for £10,000, where he saw out the remainder of his playing career. Despite losing much of his best years to World War II, he scored 260 goals in 433 league and cup competitions in 14 full seasons in the Football League. He had a promising start to his managerial career by leading Kettering Town to the Southern League title in 1956–57, but then only had two more seasons as manager, getting relegated with Notts County in 1957–58 and then relegated with Kettering Town in 1963–64. During the 1970s he struggled with debt and related legal problems, which were reported in the media as an example of a celebrated person having fallen from grace. He scored 22 goals in his 23 England appearances over a ten-year international career from 1938 to 1948, including four against Portugal in May 1947. He helped England to win two British Home Championship titles outright (1946–47 and 1947–48), and to share the Championship in 1938–39. He fell out of international contention at the age of 28 due to his contempt for manager Walter Winterbottom, his decision to drop out of the First Division, and the emergence of Jackie Milburn and Nat Lofthouse. As well as his England caps, he also represented The Football League XI and played in a special Great Britain game against Europe in 1947. He married twice, and had two children and one step-child. His ashes are held in the National Football Museum, and he was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame in 2003. Early life Thomas Lawton was born on 6 October 1919 to Elizabeth Riley and Thomas Lawton senior in Farnworth, Lancashire. His father was a railway signalman, and his mother worked as a weaver at Harrowby Mill. His father left the family 18 months after Lawton was born, and Elizabeth moved back into her parents' home in Bolton. Elizabeth's father, James Hugh "Jim" Riley, became Lawton's surrogate father. Lawton's natural footballing ability earned him a place on the Bolton Town Schools team in 1930. He was picked by Lancashire Schools at the age of 13. Despite scoring a hat-trick in a trial game for England Schoolboys, he never earned a full England Schoolboy cap. At the age of 14 he began playing for Hayes Athletic in the Bolton Senior League, and went on to score 570 goals in three seasons. The FA's rules meant he was unable to turn professional at a club until he was 17, and Lawton's grandfather rejected Bolton Wanderers's offer for Lawton to work as a delivery driver for two years before turning professional at the club. Lawton instead played as an amateur for Rossendale United in the Lancashire Combination, scoring a hat-trick on his debut against Bacup. He took up temporary work at a tannery, and then joined Burnley as assistant groundsman after his mother rejected an offer from Sheffield Wednesday as she objected to him travelling to Sheffield on a daily basis. Club career Burnley Lawton played his first game for Burnley Reserves against Manchester City Reserves in September 1935, and though he struggled in this game he went on to become a regular Reserve team player by the age of 16. After a poor run of form from Cecil Smith, Lawton was selected ahead of Smith for the Second Division game against Doncaster Rovers at Turf Moor on 28 March 1936; aged 16 years and 174 days, this made him the youngest centre-forward ever to play in the Football League. Rovers centre-half Syd Bycroft, also making his league debut, marked Lawton out of the game, which ended in a 1–1 draw. Burnley had played poorly, though Lawton was praised for his "keen and fearless" performance by the Express & News newspaper. He retained his place for the following game, and scored two goals in a 3–1 victory over Swansea Town at Vetch Field. He picked up a groin strain in his third appearance which caused him to miss two fixtures, before he returned to the first team for the final four games of the 1935–36 season; he claimed three more goals to take his season tally to five goals from seven games. Lawton continued to train his heading skills intensely in the summer of 1936, and also played cricket for Burnley Cricket Club as a batsman in the Lancashire League. He scored a six against both Learie Constantine and Amar Singh. He scored 369 runs in 15 completed innings for an average of 24.06. He turned professional at Burnley at the age of 17 on wages of £7 a week. His grandfather attempted to negotiate a £500 signing-on fee on his behalf but was rebuffed after the club alerted Charles Sutcliffe, Secretary of the Football League, who informed them that any attempt to circumvent the league's maximum wage was illegal. Lawton scored in his first appearance since signing the contract after just 30 seconds, before going on to record a hat-trick in a 3–1 win over Tottenham Hotspur, scoring a goal with either foot and one with his head. Everton In January 1937, First Division club Everton paid Burnley £6,500 to secure Lawton's services, and also gave his grandfather a job as deputy groundsman at Goodison Park; the fee was a record for a player under 21. The move to Everton made him a teammate of Dixie Dean, his boyhood idol, who he was expected to gradually replace as first choice centre-forward. He later recalled that on his way to Goodison Park on his first day as an Everton player he was told by a tram conductor that "You're that young Lawton, aren't you? You'll never be as good as Dixie." Dean was finally rested on 13 February, which allowed Lawton to make his first team debut against Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux; the match ended in a 6–2 defeat, though Lawton scored a penalty. He spent the rest of the season at inside-left, with Dean at centre-forward, and ended the 1936–37 campaign with four goals in 11 games. He started the 1937–38 season in the Reserves, but was installed as first choice centre-forward in September after Dean was dropped for punching club secretary Theo Kelly. On 2 October, Lawton scored the winning penalty in a 2–1 victory over Merseyside derby rivals Liverpool at Anfield. He ended the campaign with 28 goals in 39 appearances to become the division's top-scorer. Everton had a young but highly effective team for the 1938–39 campaign, and Lawton was praised for the way he led the attack, with the Evening Standards Roland Allen describing Lawton as a "clever footballer, bringing his wing men into the game with shrewd flicks and widely flung and accurate passes" after Everton recorded a 2–1 victory over Arsenal at Highbury. The game against Arsenal was part of a run of six wins in the first six games of the campaign, during which time Lawton scored eight goals. Everton lost their lead at the top of the table to Derby County over Christmas, but returned to form and to first position by Easter. They faced a difficult final run of games, but beat Chelsea and recorded two victories over Sunderland to secure the club's fifth league title, finishing four points ahead of second-place Wolverhampton Wanderers. Lawton scored 35 goals in 38 league games to finish as the division's top-scorer for the second successive season. However, in the summer he wrote to Leicester City to request that the club buy him from Everton; it was reported that he reached out to Leicester as they were managed by Tom Bromilow, his former Burnley manager. Everton were fifth in the league and Lawton was the division's top-scorer with four goals when league football was suspended three games into the 1939–40 season due to the outbreak of World War II. Lawton later remarked that "I'm convinced that if it hadn't been for the War, we'd have won the Championship again, the average age of those players was about 24 or 25". World War II Lawton continued to play for both Everton and England during the war. However the FA decided to not award full caps for England appearances during the war, and as a result his 24 goals in 23 international games were not counted in statistics for the official England team. As was common for footballers during the war, he also made guest appearances for a number of clubs besides Everton, including Leicester City, Greenock Morton, Chester City, Aldershot, and Tranmere Rovers.Sumner, Chas (1997) On the Borderline: The Official History of Chester City F.C. 1885–1997 He was called up to the British Army in January 1940, and his status as an England international saw him recruited to the Royal Army Physical Training Corps. He also played for the British Army team and his Area Command team. He was posted in Birkenhead, which allowed him to frequently appear for Everton. On Christmas Day 1940, he played for Everton against Liverpool at Anfield in the morning and for Tranmere Rovers at Crewe Alexandra in the afternoon. Explaining this later, he said, 'The Tranmere people came into the dressing room and asked if anyone wanted to play as they were two men short. I said, "Go on, I'll help you out." And I did.' In 1942 he scored a hat-trick for England in a 5–4 win over Scotland at Hampden Park. Later in the year he scored six goals for Aldershot in a 9–0 win over Luton Town. On 16 October 1943, he scored four goals in an 8–0 victory over Scotland at Maine Road. Chelsea In July 1945, Lawton handed in a transfer request at Everton as he wanted a move to a Southern club so as to see more of his increasingly estranged wife. In November 1945, he was sold to Chelsea for a fee of £14,000. Chelsea continued to play regional wartime fixtures as national league football had not resumed for the 1945–46 season, and Lawton also continued his uncapped appearances for the England national team. In the summer of 1946, following his demobilisation, he coached for the FA in a summer camp in Switzerland. He scored a club record 26 goals in 34 league games in the 1946–47 season. However he struggled to settle at Stamford Bridge and came into conflict with manager Billy Birrell after refusing to go on a pre-season tour of Sweden in 1947, which resulted in him requesting a transfer. He favoured a move to Arsenal, but this was ruled out by the Chelsea hierarchy. Lawton turned down an approach by Sunderland manager Bill Murray as he held out hope that Chelsea would relent and allow him a move to Arsenal. Notts County In November 1947, Lawton was sold to Notts County of the Third Division South for a British record transfer fee of £20,000 (). He made the surprise decision to drop down two divisions so as to be reunited with manager Arthur Stollery, his former masseur and friend at Chelsea, and because he was promised a job outside of football upon his retirement by vice-chairman Harold Walmsley. Walmsley told the Nottingham Guardian Journal that "we are prepared to spend to the limit to put this old club back where it belongs". He scored two goals on his home debut, a 4–2 win over Bristol Rovers in front of 38,000 spectators at Meadow Lane – a huge increase on previous home games of typically 6,000 to 7,000 supporters. He ended the 1947–48 season with 24 goals in as many games, though was resented by the club's directors after he insisted on pay rises for his teammates and stopped the practice of director's friends and family travelling to away games on the team coach. He formed a productive forward partnership with Jackie Sewell in the 1948–49 campaign, and scored 23 goals in 40 league and cup appearances. County finished in mid-table despite scoring 102 goals, 15 more than champions Swansea. Stollery was sacked and upon Lawton's suggestion the club appointed Eric Houghton as manager after Lawton turned down the role as player-manager. Lawton and Sewell's understanding grew throughout the 1949–50 campaign, and Lawton finished as the division's top-scorer with 31 goals in 37 league games as County won promotion as champions, seven points ahead of second-placed Northampton Town. Promotion was secured with a 2–0 win over local rivals Nottingham Forest at Meadow Lane on 22 April. However he struggled with poor form during the 1950–51 season as his first marriage was coming to an end and he came into increasing conflict with his teammates. He was angered when the club sold Jackie Sewell to Sheffield Wednesday in March 1951 – breaking Lawton's own transfer record in the process – as he felt the move showed a lack of ambition from the club's directors. He also found that the well paid job he was promised outside of football did not transpire. His tally of nine goals in 31 games in 1950–51 and 13 goals in 31 games in 1951–52 was disappointing, and he was made available for transfer. Brentford In March 1952, Lawton joined Second Division side Brentford for a club record £16,000 fee. Manager Jackie Gibbons left the club at the start of the 1952–53 season and was succeeded by his assistant Jimmy Bain, who proved ill-suited to management, and so in January 1953 Lawton was appointed as player-manager, with Bain as his assistant. However he lost the dressing room due to his excessive demands of the players, and the strains of management were having a negative impact on his form. Brentford also lost their best players having sold both Ron Greenwood and Jimmy Hill. He signed two veterans in former Notts County teammate Frank Broome and Ian McPherson to play on the wings, who, with Lawton, formed an attacking trio with a combined age of 104. They got off to a poor start to the 1953–54 season, and Lawton resigned as manager after the Griffin Park crowd began to mock the forward line by singing Dear Old Pals. Arsenal In November 1953, Lawton was traded to First Division champions Arsenal for £7,500 plus James Robertson who was valued at £2,500. He was signed by manager Tom Whittaker, who had previously found success in bringing in veterans such as Ronnie Rooke and Joe Mercer. However Lawton was limited to ten appearances in the 1953–54 campaign after picking up an injury on his debut. He also played in the 1953 Charity Shield, scoring one goal as Arsenal beat Blackpool 3–1. He scored seven goals in 20 appearances throughout the 1954–55 season, including winning goals against Chelsea and Cardiff City. He scored a hat-trick past Cardiff City on the opening day of the 1955–56 season, before he announced his decision to leave Arsenal to pursue a career in management eight games into the campaign. International career Lawton was called up to play for The Football League XI against a League of Ireland XI at Windsor Park on 21 September 1938, and scored four goals in what finished as an 8–2 win. A month later he went on to win his first cap for England on 22 October, England's first game of the 1938–39 British Home Championship, a 4–2 defeat to Wales at Ninian Park, and converted a penalty kick to mark his first England appearance with a goal. This made him the youngest player to score on his England debut, a record which lasted until Marcus Rashford broke it in 2016. Four days after Lawton's debut, he scored again for England at Highbury in a 3–0 win over 'The Rest of Europe', a team of players selected from Italy, Germany, France, Belgium, Hungary and Norway. Later in the year he also scored in victories over Norway and Ireland. He played in all four games of 1939, scoring against Scotland and Italy; the goal against Scotland secured a 2–1 win in front of 149,269 spectators at Hampden Park. Newly appointed England manager Walter Winterbottom played Lawton in England's first official match in seven years on 28 September 1946, a 7–2 win over Ireland. He played the remaining three fixtures of 1946, and scored four goals in an 8–2 victory over the Netherlands at Leeds Road on 27 November. On 10 May 1947, he scored two goals playing for the Great Britain XI in a 6–1 victory over a Rest of Europe XI that was billed as the 'Match of the Century'. Five days later he scored four goals in a 10–0 victory over Portugal at Lisbon's Estádio Nacional. On 21 September, he scored after just 12 seconds in a 5–2 win over Belgium at Heysel Stadium. He retained his place in the England team following his club move to Notts County, and in doing so became the first Third Division footballer to represent England when he scored from the penalty spot in a 4–2 win over Sweden on 19 November. However he only won three further caps in 1948, his final appearance coming in a 0–0 draw with Denmark in Copenhagen on 26 September. He had become increasingly disillusioned with the England set-up, and told Winterbottom that "if you think you can teach Stanley Matthews to play on the wing and me how to score goals, you've got another think coming!" Winterbottom was also frustrated by Lawton's smoking habit, and preferred Jackie Milburn ahead of Lawton. Hopes of any future comeback were ended by the emergence of powerful centre-forward Nat Lofthouse, who made his England debut in November 1950. Style of play Lawton was widely regarded as the finest centre-forward of his generation. He boasted a strong physique and good ball control skills, as well as a great passing range and a powerful shot. He was naturally right-footed, though worked to improve his left foot to a good enough standard to be considered a two-footed player. His greatest strength though was his ability to head the ball with power and accuracy, as he possessed muscular legs to give himself a strong jump and long hang-time, and was also able to time his jumps to perfection. Stanley Matthews surmised that "Quite simply, Tommy was the greatest header of the ball I ever saw." Lawton was never booked throughout his career. Coaching career and later life An Arsenal director helped Lawton to secure the position of the player-manager at Southern League side Kettering Town. He took up the role at the club on wages of £1,500 a year in the summer of 1956. At the helm he thereafter signed several footballers such as Jim Standen of Arsenal, Amos Moss of Aston Villa, Jack Wheeler who played for Huddersfield Town and Brentford's Jack Goodwin. He was also successful in bringing to Kettering Fulham's Bob Thomas, Harry McDonald who was previously with Crystal Palace and Sunderland's Geoff Toseland. During his debut season as manager, 1956–1957, Kettering found themselves ten points clear at the top of the table by Christmas. As a result of this success, in January 1956 he turned down an approach from Notts County. Lawton then went on to foster Kettering towards their winning of the league title in 1956–57 by eight points. Out of Kettering's 106 league goals, Lawton scored 15. He was appointed as Notts County manager in May 1957, controversially replacing caretaker-manager Frank Broome. Broome, who had steered the club away from being relegated from the Second Division, was installed as his assistant manager. He found it tedious making new signings due to financial constraints on the part of the club. He did though take on forwards Jeff Astle and Tony Hateley as apprentices, who would both go on to have long careers in the First Division. Lawton agreed to go without his wages for six months so as to improve the club's finances. County were however relegated at the end of the 1957–58 season, finishing one point short of safety, and Lawton was sacked. He received a total of just three months pay for his time at the club, having only a verbal offer of a three-year contract to fall back on, and nothing in writing. After being sacked as Notts County manager, Lawton ran the Magna Charta public house in Lowdham from October 1958. An employee stole £2,500 from the business and Lawton decided to leave the pub trade after four years. He then took up a job selling insurance. He returned to football management with Kettering Town for the 1963–64 season as a caretaker following the resignation of Wally Akers, but the season ended with Kettering being relegated from the Southern League Premier Division. He was offered the job on a permanent basis, but turned it down so as to concentrate on his job as an insurance salesman. He lost his job in insurance in 1967, and then opened a sporting goods shop that bore his name after going into partnership with a friend, but was forced to close the business after just two months due to poor sales. After a period on unemployment benefits he found work at a betting company in Nottingham. He returned to Notts County to work as a coach and chief scout from 1968 to 1970. He was sacked after new manager Jimmy Sirrel decided to appoint his own backroom staff, and Lawton returned to unemployment. In May 1970, he wrote to Chelsea chairman Richard Attenborough asking for a loan of £250 and for possible employment; Attenborough lent him £100. He was interviewed by Eamonn Andrews on ITV's Today programme on his fall from England star to the unemployment line. After his financial troubles became public knowledge he was offered a lucrative job as director of his own subsidiary furniture company by a large furnishing company on Tottenham Court Road; however the company went into liquidation the following year. He continued to write cheques in the company's name, and in June 1972 pleaded Guilty to seven charges of obtaining goods and cash by deception. He was sentenced to three years probation, and ordered to pay £240 compensation and £100 in costs. In 1972 a testimonial match was organised by Everton on Lawton's behalf to help him pay off his debts of around £6,000. However his financial situation was still bleak, and on two occasions he narrowly avoided a prison sentence for failing to pay his rates after an Arsenal supporters club and later an anonymous former co-worker stepped in to pay the bill for him. In August 1974, he was again found Guilty of obtaining goods by deception after failing to repay a £10 debt to a publican, and was sentenced to 200 hours of Community service and ordered to pay £40 costs. In 1984, he began writing a column for the Nottingham Evening Post. Brentford also organised a testimonial match for him in May 1985. Lawton's health deteriorated in his old age and he died in November 1996, aged 77, as a result of pneumonia. His ashes were donated to the National Football Museum. He was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame in 2003. Personal life Lawton married Rosaleen May Kavanagh in January 1941; the marriage bore one child, Amanda. Rosaleen never watched Lawton play football during their ten-year marriage. Divorce was granted with a decree nisi in March 1951 after Rosaleen was found to have committed adultery with Notts County director Adrian Van Geffen; Lawton never saw Amanda again and was not required to pay child support. He would not hear from his daughter until she was convicted of stealing from playwright George Axelrod in 1968, by which time Rosaleen was on her fourth marriage and living in Jamaica. Lawton married second wife Gladys Rose in September 1952, who bore him a son, Thomas Junior. Gladys was also divorced, and her ex-husband cited Lawton as a co-respondent in the divorce proceedings as the pair had begun their relationship whilst Gladys was still married; her family were staunch Catholics, and Gladys was ostracised by her family following her divorce. Gladys had a daughter, Carol, from her previous marriage, who Lawton raised as his own. Thomas Junior went on to play rugby union for Leicester Tigers. He starred alongside Thora Hird and Diana Dors in 1953 film The Great Game, playing himself in a cameo role. Throughout the 1950s he went on to appear on What's My Line? amongst other radio and television programmes. He published a total of four books: Tommy Lawton's all star football book (1950), Soccer the Lawton way (1954), My Twenty Years of Soccer (1955), and When the Cheering Stopped (1973). Career statistics Club International Managerial statistics Honours PlayerEvertonFootball League First Division: 1938–39Notts CountyFootball League Third Division South: 1949–50ArsenalCharity Shield: 1953EnglandBritish Home Championship: 1938–39 (shared), 1946–47, 1947–48 ManagerialKettering Town''' Southern Football League: 1956–57 Individual First Division top scorer: 1937–38, 1938–39 Third Division South top scorer: 1949–50 English Football Hall of Fame: 2003 Notts County FC Hall of Fame: 2014 See also List of men's footballers with 500 or more goals References Specific General Lawton, T (1950) Tommy Lawton's all star football book ISBN B0000CHTOA Lawton, T (1954) Soccer the Lawton way ISBN B0000CIYT5 Lawton, T (1955) My Twenty Years of Soccer ISBN B0007JENCK Lawton, T (1973) When the Cheering Stopped McVay, D &, Smith, A (2000) The Complete Centre Forward: The Authorised Biography of Tommy Lawton'' Category:1919 births Category:1996 deaths Category:Military personnel from Lancashire Category:People from Farnworth Category:English people of Irish descent Category:English cricketers Category:English footballers Category:England men's international footballers Category:England men's wartime international footballers Category:Men's association football forwards Category:Rossendale United F.C. players Category:Burnley F.C. players Category:Everton F.C. players Category:Leicester City F.C. wartime guest players Category:Greenock Morton F.C. wartime guest players Category:Chester City F.C. wartime guest players Category:Aldershot F.C. wartime guest players Category:Tranmere Rovers F.C. wartime guest players Category:Chelsea F.C. players Category:Notts County F.C. players Category:Brentford F.C. players Category:Arsenal F.C. players Category:Kettering Town F.C. players Category:English Football League players Category:English Football League representative players Category:Southern Football League players Category:First Division/Premier League top scorers Category:English Football Hall of Fame inductees Category:British Army personnel of World War II Category:Royal Army Physical Training Corps soldiers Category:English football managers Category:Brentford F.C. managers Category:Kettering Town F.C. managers Category:Notts County F.C. managers Category:English Football League managers Category:Southern Football League managers Category:Association football coaches Category:Association football scouts Category:Notts County F.C. non-playing staff Category:English autobiographers Category:English columnists Category:Deaths from pneumonia in England
[ { "text": "Specific may refer to:\n\n Specificity (disambiguation)\n Specific, a cure or therapy for a specific illness\n\nLaw \n Specific deterrence, focussed on an individual\n Specific finding, intermediate verdict used by a jury in determining the final verdict\n Specific jurisdiction over an out-of-state party, specific to cases that have a substantial connection to the party's in-state activity\n Order of specific performance, court order to perform a specific act\n\nEconomics, finance, and accounting\n Asset specificity, the extent to which the investments made to support a particular transaction have a higher value to that transaction than they would have if they were redeployed for any other purpose\n Specific identification (inventories), summing purchase costs of all inventory items\n Specific rate duty, duty paid at a specific amount per unit\n Specific risk, risk that affects a very small number of assets\n\nPsychology \n Domain specificity, theory that many aspects of cognition are supported by specialized, presumably evolutionarily specified, learning devices\n Specific developmental disorder, disorders in which development is delayed in one specific area or areas, and in which basically all other areas of development are not affected\n Specific learning disability\n Specific phobia, phobia of a specific thing or situation\n Specific social phobia, triggered only by specific social situations\n\nBiology \n pertaining to a species\n Specific name (botany), species name of a plant\n Specific name (zoology), species name of an animal\n Specific appetite, drive to eat foods with specific flavors or other characteristics\n Specific granule, secretory vesicle in granulocytes\n Specific immunity, to a particular pathogen\n Specific Pathogen Free, of a laboratory animal guaranteed free of particular (i.e., specific and named) pathogens\n\nOther fields \n A specific quantity generally means a physical quantity normalized \"per unit\" of something (often mass).\n SPECIFIC, The Sustainable Product Engineering Centre for Innovative Functional Industrial Coatings\n Specific creation, creationism as opposed to evolution\n Specific interval, shortest possible clockwise distance between pitch classes on the chromatic circle\n Specific integral, in calculus, eliminates the constant of integration\n Specific Physical Preparedness, being prepared for the movements in a specific physical activity (usually a sport)\n\nSee also \n Species (disambiguation)\n Specification (disambiguation)\n Specialty (disambiguation)\n Site-specific (disambiguation)\n Language for specific purposes, has been primarily used to refer to two areas within applied linguistics", "title": "Specific" } ]
[ "Burnley is a football club.", "Lawton played football and cricket.", "Lawton played as the centre-forward in football.", "Yes, besides his football career, the article mentioned that Lawton also played cricket for the Burnley Cricket Club in the Lancashire League where he scored 369 runs in 15 completed innings for an average of 24.06. Additionally, Lawton turned professional at Burnley football club at the age of 17, earning wages of PS7 a week. His grandfather tried to negotiate a PS500 signing-on fee on his behalf, but the attempt was thwarted after the Football League declared it illegal. In his first professional match, Lawton scored a goal within the first 30 seconds, and then went on to score a hat-trick in a 3-1 victory over Tottenham Hotspur." ]
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C_76e434aa1ed64b5884f831f59f0300c8_1
Steve Nash
Nash was born in Johannesburg, South Africa, to a Welsh mother, Jean, and English father, John, on February 7, 1974. His family moved to Regina, Saskatchewan when he was 18 months old, before settling in Victoria, British Columbia. He therefore holds British as well as Canadian citizenship. Before the family settled in Canada, his father played professional soccer in various parts of the world.
College career
Although Nash's high school coach, Ian Hyde-Lay, sent letters of inquiry and highlight reels on Nash's behalf to over 30 American universities, Nash was not recruited by any university, until Santa Clara coach Dick Davey requested video footage of the young guard. After watching Nash in person, Davey said he "was nervous as hell just hoping that no one else would see him. It didn't take a Nobel Prize winner to figure out this guy's pretty good. It was just a case of hoping that none of the big names came around." However, Davey also told Nash that he was "the worst defensive player" he had ever seen. Nash was awarded a scholarship by Santa Clara for the 1992-93 season. At that time, it had been five years since the Broncos appeared in the NCAA tournament. That changed when Nash led the Broncos to a WCC Tournament title and an upset win over the No. 2 seeded Arizona in the first round of the NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament. In that game, Nash scored six straight free throws in the last 30 seconds of the contest. Although Santa Clara was defeated by Temple in the next round, the 1992-93 campaign was considered a successful one. However, the Broncos failed to sustain the momentum the following season, and only managed a 5-7 record in the conference. The team rebounded in the 1994-95 season, with Nash being named Conference Player of the Year and the Broncos topping the WCC. Featuring the league leader for scoring and assists in Nash, the Broncos returned to the NCAA tournament, but they were defeated by Mississippi State. After the season, Nash contemplated turning professional, and decided against it when he learned that he would probably not be considered as a first-round pick in the 1995 NBA draft. In the 1995-96 season, Nash began attracting the attention of the national media and professional scouts. He had spent the summer before that honing his skills, playing with the Canadian national team and working out with the likes of established NBA players Jason Kidd and Gary Payton. Santa Clara again captured the WCC title, and for the second consecutive year, Nash was named Conference Player of the Year, the first Bronco to do so since Kurt Rambis. He scored 28 points in leading the No. 10 seed Broncos to a first round upset win over No. 7 seed Maryland, but then the Broncos were eliminated by Kansas. Nash's performances ensured that he earned an honourable mention All-America as a senior by The Associated Press and the USBWA. He also finished his career as Santa Clara's all-time leader in career assists (510), free-throw percentage (.862), and made and attempted three-pointers (263-656). He remains third on the school's all-time scoring list (1,689), and holds Santa Clara's single-season free-throw percentage record (.894). In September 2006, Nash had his jersey (#11) retired, becoming the first Santa Clara student-athlete to receive that honour. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "When did Nash go to college?", "What years was he in college?", "How did his college team perform?", "What happened when his college career ended?" ]
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Stephen John Nash (born 7 February 1974) is a Canadian professional basketball coach and former player who most recently served as head coach of the Brooklyn Nets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played 18 seasons in the NBA, where he was an eight-time All-Star and a seven-time All-NBA selection. Nash was a two-time NBA Most Valuable Player while playing for the Phoenix Suns. After a successful high school basketball career in British Columbia, Nash earned a scholarship to Santa Clara University in California. In his four seasons with the Broncos, the team made three NCAA tournament appearances, and he was twice named the West Coast Conference (WCC) Player of the Year. Nash graduated from Santa Clara as the team's all-time leader in assists and was taken as the 15th pick in the 1996 NBA draft by the Phoenix Suns. He had minimal impact and was traded to the Dallas Mavericks in 1998. By his fourth season with the Mavericks, he was voted to his first NBA All-Star Game and earned his first All-NBA selection. Together with Dirk Nowitzki and Michael Finley, Nash led the Mavericks to the Western Conference Finals the following season. He became a free agent after the and returned to the Phoenix Suns. In the , Nash led the Suns to the Western Conference Finals and was named the league's MVP. He was named MVP again in the and was runner-up for a third consecutive MVP to Nowitzki in 2006–07. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest point guards of all time. Nash led the league in assists and free throw percentage at various points in his career. He is also ranked as one of the top players in NBA league history in three-point shooting, free throw shooting, total assists, and assists per game. Nash has been honoured for his contributions to various philanthropic causes. In 2006, he was named by Time as one of the 100 most influential people in the world. Nash was appointed to the Order of Canada in 2007 and invested to the order in 2016, and was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Laws from the University of Victoria in 2008. Nash has been a co-owner of the Vancouver Whitecaps FC of Major League Soccer (MLS) since the team entered the league in 2011. From 2012 to 2019, he served as general manager of the Canadian men's national basketball team, for whom he played from 1991 to 2003, making one Olympic appearance and being twice named FIBA AmeriCup MVP. In 2021, Nash was named to the NBA 75th Anniversary Team. Early life Nash was born in Johannesburg, South Africa, to a Welsh mother, Jean, and English father, John, on 7 February 1974. His family moved to Regina, Saskatchewan, when he was 18 months old, before settling in Victoria, British Columbia. He, therefore, holds British as well as Canadian citizenship. Before the family settled in Canada, his father played professional soccer in various parts of the world. Nash often played soccer and ice hockey with his younger brother Martin, and he did not start playing basketball until he was 12 or 13 years old. In grade eight, however, he told his mother that one day he would play in the NBA and become a star. He was a neighbour to future NHL stars Russ and Geoff Courtnall, who used to babysit him and played soccer coached by Nash's father. Nash originally attended Mount Douglas Secondary School in Saanich, British Columbia, but after his grades began to drop, his parents decided to enroll him at St. Michaels University School, a private school in Victoria. There, he starred in basketball, soccer, and rugby union. While playing basketball during his senior season, Nash averaged 21.3 points, 11.2 assists, and 9.1 rebounds per game. In the 1991–92 season, he led his team in his final year to the British Columbia AAA provincial championship title, and was named the province's Player of the Year. College career Although Nash's high school coach, Ian Hyde-Lay, sent letters of inquiry and highlight reels to over 30 American universities, Nash was not recruited by any university, until Santa Clara coach Dick Davey requested video footage of the young guard. After watching Nash in person, Davey said he "was nervous as hell just hoping that no one else would see him. It didn't take a Nobel Prize winner to figure out this guy's pretty good. It was just a case of hoping that none of the big names came around." However, Davey also told Nash he was "the worst defensive player" he had ever seen. Nash was awarded a scholarship by Santa Clara for the 1992–93 season. At the time, it had been five years since the Broncos appeared in the NCAA tournament. That changed when Nash led the Broncos to a WCC tournament title and an upset win over the 2 seeded Arizona in the first round of the NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament. In that game, Nash scored six straight free throws in the last 30 seconds of the contest. Although Temple defeated Santa Clara in the next round, the 1992–93 campaign was considered a successful one. However, the Broncos failed to sustain the momentum the following season and only managed a 5–7 record in the conference. The team rebounded in the 1994–95 season, with Nash being named Conference Player of the Year and the Broncos topping the WCC. Featuring the league leader for scoring and assists in Nash, the Broncos returned to the NCAA tournament, but Mississippi State defeated them. After the season, Nash contemplated turning professional and decided against it when he learned that he would probably not be considered as a first-round pick in the 1995 NBA draft. In the 1995–96 season, Nash began attracting the attention of the national media and professional scouts. He had spent the previous summer honing his skills, playing with the Canadian national team and working out with established NBA players Jason Kidd and Gary Payton. Santa Clara again captured the WCC title, and for the second consecutive year, Nash was named Conference Player of the Year, the first Bronco to repeat since Kurt Rambis. He scored 28 points in leading the No. 10 seed Broncos to a first-round upset win over No. 7 seed Maryland, but then the Broncos were eliminated by Kansas. Nash's performances ensured that he earned an honourable mention All-America as a senior by The Associated Press and the USBWA. He also finished his career as Santa Clara's all-time leader in assists (510), free throw percentage (.862), and made and attempted three-pointers (263–656). He remains third on the school's all-time scoring list (1,689) and holds Santa Clara's single-season free throw percentage record (.894). In September 2006, Nash's jersey was retired, becoming the first Santa Clara student-athlete to receive that honour. Professional career Phoenix Suns (1996–1998) After graduating with a degree in sociology, Nash was selected 15th overall by the Phoenix Suns in the first round of the 1996 NBA draft. Upon hearing the draft announcement, Suns fans booed in disapproval of the relatively unknown player. This was because despite his impressive college accomplishments, Nash had not played in one of the major college conferences. A major influence in Phoenix's choice was assistant coach Donnie Nelson, who met Nash back in high school as he was coached by Nelson's friend Ken Shields, and would eventually befriend the player as he played in Santa Clara. During his first two seasons in the NBA, Nash played a supporting role behind NBA star point guards Kevin Johnson, Sam Cassell, and later, Jason Kidd. Both Johnson and Cassell had NBA Finals experience, while Kidd was the second overall pick in the 1994 NBA draft and already an All-Star when he arrived at Phoenix. In his rookie season, Nash only managed 10.5 minutes a game, but in his second season, his playing time increased significantly and he was even ranked 13th in the league for three-point field-goal percentage. Nevertheless, the Canadian's tenure with the Suns did not last. Nelson had just taken a job as assistant general manager of the Dallas Mavericks under his father, Don Nelson, and convinced him to acquire the under-utilised Nash. Following the 1998 NBA draft, Nash was traded from the Suns to the Mavericks in exchange for Martin Müürsepp, Bubba Wells, the draft rights to Pat Garrity and a first-round draft pick (who later turned out to be future Phoenix teammate Shawn Marion). Dallas Mavericks (1998–2004) It was in Dallas that Nash established himself as a formidable point guard, beginning a decade as one of the game's top players. During his first year as a Maverick (the lockout-shortened ) he started in all 40 games he played in, and averaged 7.9 points, 2.9 rebounds and 5.5 assists per game. The 19–31 Mavericks failed to make the 1999 playoffs, but in the 1999–2000 season, the team's prospects improved considerably. Nash missed 25 mid-season games due to an ankle injury, but came back to record six double-doubles in the last month of play. He finished the season with averages of 8.6 points and 4.9 assists per game. More importantly for the team, second-year teammate and friend Dirk Nowitzki was blossoming quickly into a top player, veteran Michael Finley was having an All-Star-calibre year, and the team's new owner, billionaire Mark Cuban, was bringing new energy and excitement to the franchise. Nash now had a supportive environment in which he could thrive. In the , Nash averaged 15.6 points and 7.3 assists per game in a breakout season. With Nash directing the team's offense, Nowitzki and Finley playing at their best, and the acquisition of All-Star Juwan Howard complementing the high-scoring trio, the Mavericks earned a playoff berth for the first time in more than a decade. Dallas lost in the Western Conference Semifinals four games to one to the San Antonio Spurs, but it marked the beginning of a memorable run for Nash and the Mavericks. In the , Nash posted career-highs of 17.9 points and 7.7 assists per game and earned a spot in the NBA All-Star Game and on the All-NBA Third Team. He was now an All-Star, increasingly appearing in television commercials and, with Finley and Nowitzki, a part of the Dallas Mavericks "Big Three". Dallas earned another trip to the playoffs but lost again in the Semifinals to the Sacramento Kings four games to one. Nash closely replicated his previous season's performance in the , averaging 17.7 points and 7.3 assists per game, again earning All-Star and All-NBA Third Team honours. Nowitzki and Nash led the Mavericks from a 14-game winning streak to open the season all the way to the Western Conference Finals, where they lost to the eventual NBA champions, the San Antonio Spurs four games to two. It was only the second Conference Finals appearance in the franchise's history. The saw an offensively boosted Mavericks roster (with the acquisitions of Antoine Walker and Antawn Jamison) but a dip in Nash's scoring contributions. As a result, he was not selected for the All-Star and All-NBA team rosters even though he achieved new career highs in assists per game (8.8) and free throw accuracy (91.6%). In the 2004 playoffs, the fifth-seeded Dallas failed to make progress yet again as the Sacramento Kings saw them off four games to one. After the 2003–04 season, Nash became a free agent. He attempted to negotiate a long-term contract with Cuban, who was paying Walker, Finley, Nowitzki and Jamison nearly $50 million in combined salaries that season. Cuban wanted to build his franchise around the younger Nowitzki and did not want to risk signing the 30-year-old Nash to a long-term deal, and offered Nash a four-year deal worth about $9 million annually, with a fifth year partially guaranteed. The Phoenix Suns on the other hand offered the point guard a six-year, $63 million contract. Nash was reluctant to leave Dallas and returned to Cuban to see if he would match the deal; Cuban did not, and Nash signed with the Suns for the . The Canadian would go on to win two League MVP awards with Phoenix, and on a 14 June 2006 appearance on the Late Show with David Letterman, Cuban wondered out loud, "...you know Steve's a great guy and I love him to death, but why couldn't he play like an MVP for us?" Return to Phoenix (2004–2012) 2004–05 season Nash joined a Suns team which had emerging young players in Shawn Marion, Joe Johnson, and Amar'e Stoudemire. In the season before Nash arrived, the Suns had recorded a 29–53 win–loss record, and they were projected to have another poor season. Head coach Mike D'Antoni favoured an up-tempo style of basketball; this required smaller and more athletic players with the capability to outrun and outshoot their opponents. On 21 November 2004, Nash recorded 22 points, 18 assists and 4 steals in a 122–111 win over the LA Clippers. Nash's familiarity with this style combined with the athleticism of his teammates produced an NBA-best 62–20 record and a points-per-game average of 110.4, the highest in a decade. The catalyst of this turnaround, Nash averaged 11.5 assists per game while making 50.2% of his field goals and 43.1% of his three-pointers in the regular season. He edged Shaquille O'Neal to win the NBA MVP award, becoming the first Canadian to earn the honour, as well as the third point guard ever to be named MVP, along with Magic Johnson and Bob Cousy. In the 2005 playoffs, Phoenix swept the Memphis Grizzlies in four games before meeting the Dallas Mavericks in the second round. Nash led the Suns to a 4–2 series win, and the Suns reached the Western Conference finals for the first time since 1993, but lost to the eventual NBA Champions and arch-rival, the San Antonio Spurs, in five games. 2005–06 season In the next season, Stoudemire suffered a serious knee injury, and Johnson and Quentin Richardson were traded away. The Suns were not expected to repeat their successful 2005 season, but with Nash directing the same high-tempo offence, the team compiled a respectable 54–28 record and won the division title. On 2 January 2006, Nash recorded 28 points, 5 rebounds and 22 assists in a 140–133 triple overtime loss to the New York Knicks. The Suns were again the highest-scoring team in the league with seven players averaging double figures in points per game, and Nash was voted for the first time to start for the 2006 Western All-Star team. In the last game of the season, Nash recorded a triple-double of 16 points, 10 rebounds and 12 assists in a 106–96 road win over the Trail Blazers. Having recorded career highs in points (18.8), rebounds (4.2), field goal percentage (.512) and free throw percentage (a league-leading .921), and leading the league with 10.5 assists per game, Nash was named the league MVP for the second year in a row. In the first round of the 2006 playoffs, Phoenix overcame a 3–1 deficit against the Los Angeles Lakers and won the series 4–3. The Los Angeles Clippers were their Conference Semifinals opponents, and the Suns again needed seven games to clinch the series. For the second year in a row, however, the Suns bowed out in the Conference Finals, this time to Nash's former team, Dallas. 2006–07 season In the , Nash had another stellar campaign, averaging 18.6 points and a career-high 11.6 assists per game while becoming the first person since Magic Johnson in to average 18 points and 11 assists per game during the regular season. Nash received the most votes for first-team All-NBA and was joined by teammate Stoudemire; the two were the first teammates to make the first team since Kobe Bryant and Shaquille O'Neal in . Nash received 129 first-place votes and 645 total points from the panel of 129 media members. He narrowly missed being MVP a third consecutive time, coming in second with 44 first place votes to 83 for Dirk Nowitzki. In the 2007 playoffs, the Suns eliminated the Lakers in five games before losing 4–2 to the Spurs in the Conference Semifinals. 2007–08 season Nash played in 81 regular season games during the ; in this campaign, the Western Conference was especially competitive and he led the Suns to 55 wins and the sixth seed for the 2008 playoffs. Although there was a dip in his regular season output, Nash's shooting remained sharp; the accuracy of his shooting was on par with his 2005–06 MVP campaign (shooting at least 50% from the field, 40% from the three-point arc, and 90% from the free throw line). On 31 January 2008, he collected his All-Star stripes for the sixth time in his career. However, Nash continued to experience agony in the playoffs. Despite a mid-season trade that sent Shawn Marion to the Miami Heat and brought four-time NBA champion Shaquille O'Neal to the team, the Suns were defeated in the first round of the 2008 playoffs by the San Antonio Spurs for the third time in four years. In the deciding Game 5, Nash was perceived to have suffered from "elimination-game jitters", and turned over the ball twice in the final two minutes of what was a tight contest. Nevertheless, Nash was later named to the All-NBA Second Team for the 2007–08 season. 2008–09 season Before the began, coach D'Antoni was replaced by Terry Porter, who preferred a more defensive-oriented style of basketball. The Suns had difficulties adapting to this new system, and even a December trade involving sending stalwarts Raja Bell and Boris Diaw to the Charlotte Bobcats for athletic swingman Jason Richardson saw the team continue to struggle. Porter was then replaced by Alvin Gentry in February after a 28–23 record, but the Suns were unable to secure the final seed for the 2009 playoffs, resulting in Nash missing the playoffs for the first time since he returned to Phoenix for his second stint. 2009–10 season Nash and the Suns opened the with a series of strong performances, going 8–1 in their first nine games (a franchise-best since ), with Nash producing two 20-assists games. On 21 January 2010, Nash was named as the starting point guard for the West for the 2010 NBA All-Star Game. With him operating at the point, the Suns were the highest-scoring team in the league for the fifth season in a row, and were seeded third in the conference for the 2010 playoffs with 54 wins. Behind solid performances by Richardson and veteran Grant Hill, the Suns defeated the Portland Trail Blazers 4–2 in the first round of the playoffs, and swept the Spurs 4–0 in the second round. The Suns met the defending champions, Los Angeles Lakers, in the Conference Finals. After losing the first two games, Phoenix won the next two to tie the series. A Ron Artest buzzer-beater in Game 5 pushed the Lakers one game closer to the Finals, and Kobe Bryant's 37 points in Game 6 completed the defeat of the Suns. 2010–11 season The Suns underwent two major roster changes in the . During the pre-season, Stoudemire left for New York, while longtime teammate Leandro Barbosa was traded for Hedo Türkoğlu. Josh Childress, and Hakim Warrick were also recruited to join the Suns. Not long after the season began, Türkoğlu, Richardson, and Earl Clark were traded to Orlando for Vince Carter, Marcin Gortat, and Mickaël Piétrus, while rising star Goran Dragić was traded to the Houston Rockets for Aaron Brooks. The Suns had difficulty being even a .500 team, and for the second time since Nash returned to Phoenix, the Suns failed to make the 2011 playoffs. 2011–12 season In February 2012, Nash was named to his eighth All-Star Game. At the time, he was leading the NBA in assists per game. On 21 April 2012, Nash passed Oscar Robertson for career assists versus the Denver Nuggets. Despite his stellar play the Suns missed the 2012 playoffs for the second consecutive time. He finished the season averaging 12.5 points and 10.7 assists per game on 53.2% shooting from the field (tying his career high). Near the end of the 2011–12 season, Nash was named the winner of the PBWA's Magic Johnson Award. Los Angeles Lakers (2012–2015) 2012–13 season On 11 July 2012, the Los Angeles Lakers acquired Nash in a sign-and-trade deal with Phoenix. Nash also considered signing with New York or Toronto, but he decided that Los Angeles was the best fit for him and his family. Nash switched his jersey number, as his customary No. 13 was retired by Los Angeles in honour of Wilt Chamberlain. Nash, an avid soccer fan, chose No. 10 to pay homage to Glenn Hoddle, Zinedine Zidane, Lionel Messi and other soccer playmakers who wore the number. Entering his 17th NBA season, Nash came to the Lakers with concerns over his defense and the health of his back. In the second game of the 2012–13 season, Nash suffered a non-displaced fracture in his left leg after a collision with Damian Lillard of the Portland Trail Blazers. He was expected to miss at least one week, but was out of the lineup for close to seven weeks. He was reunited with D'Antoni, who took over as Lakers coach after Mike Brown was fired after a 1–4 start. On 22 December, Nash returned against the Golden State Warriors, helping the Lakers win their first overtime game of the season, 118–115, scoring 12 points with 9 assists in 41 minutes of play. The Lakers won three of the first four games after Nash returned. However, they lost their next four, including a 125–112 loss to Houston on 8 January 2013, when Nash assisted on an Antawn Jamison jumper to become the fifth player in NBA history to reach 10,000 career assists. Kobe Bryant was moved to defend the opponent's primary ball handler, freeing Nash from unfavourable matchups. Nash also struggled with Dwight Howard to run the pick and roll, a play that D'Antoni had expected would be a staple for the Lakers. D'Antoni moved Nash off the ball and made him more of a spot-up shooter, while Bryant became the primary facilitator on offense. Nash missed the last eight games of the season with a right hip injury that had also caused nerve damage in his right hamstring. The team qualified for the playoffs as the seventh seed, but were swept 4–0 by San Antonio in the first round. Nash missed the last two games of the series after recurring issues with his hip and hamstring. In what he called arguably "the most frustrating" season of his career, Nash missed a career-high 32 games in the regular season, and averaged his fewest assists (6.7) since 1999–2000, when he was a part-time starter with Dallas. 2013–14 season During the 2013–14 season, Nash continued to suffer nerve problems stemming from his leg injury the prior season. In November 2013, he was sidelined for an estimated minimum of two weeks due to nerve root irritation. Nash returned on 4 February 2014, shooting 3-for-6 for 7 points. On 7 February 2014, his 40th birthday, he scored a season-high 19 points in a victory over the Philadelphia 76ers. On 13 March, Nash was ruled out for the remainder of the season by D'Antoni. He was suffering from a recurrence of nerve problems stemming from an earlier collision to his left leg with Chicago's Kirk Hinrich, and the Lakers wanted to give Kendall Marshall and Jordan Farmar more playing time. However, Nash returned on 21 March after a groin injury to Farmar that was expected to sideline him a minimum of two weeks. 2014–15 season In July 2014, Nash announced that the 2014–15 season would be his last. During the preseason, he experienced back pain, and further aggravated his back while lifting luggage. On 23 October, less than a week before the start of what would have been the 40-year-old Nash's 19th year in the NBA, he was ruled out for the season due to a recurring back injury. Nash only played in three preseason games before he started to feel more pain in his back. Nash spoke on injuring his back, stating: "Being on the court this season has been my top priority, and it is disappointing to not be able to do that right now. I work very hard to stay healthy, and unfortunately my recent setback makes performing at full capacity difficult. I will continue to support my team during this period of rest and will focus on my long-term health." Retirement and consulting duties Nash announced his retirement from playing on 21 March 2015. Before the announcement, the Cleveland Cavaliers told Nash's agent that they were interested in having him as a backup for Kyrie Irving if Nash asked for a buyout. Nash refused it due to health concerns and his wanting to retire as a Laker in gratitude for the opportunity given by the club. Nash was later approached by another former team of his, the Dallas Mavericks, to have one last season with them instead, but he declined due to his aforementioned health concerns. On 25 September 2015, it was confirmed that Nash would take on part-time consulting duties for the Golden State Warriors. During his first season with the team, the Warriors produced a record-breaking 73–9 season, although the team fell short in the 2016 NBA Finals to the Cleveland Cavaliers. The next season, the Warriors would win the 2017 NBA Finals against the defending champions Cleveland Cavaliers, giving Nash his first NBA championship in any role. On 19 December 2017, the Naismith Basketball Hall of Fame announced that eligibility for induction into the Hall of Fame was decreased to three years after retirement, which allowed for Nash to be eligible to be enshrined in 2018. On 31 March 2018, during the Final Four, it was announced that Nash along with former teammates Jason Kidd and Grant Hill, as well as Ray Allen, Maurice Cheeks, and Charlie Scott would be inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 2018. Nash was formally inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame on 7 September 2018. In October 2021, Nash was honored as one of the league’s greatest players of all time by being named to the NBA 75th Anniversary Team. Coaching career Brooklyn Nets (2020–2022) On 3 September 2020, Nash was announced as head coach of the Brooklyn Nets. On 3 March 2021, Nash was named Eastern Conference Coach of the Month for February, becoming the first Nets head coach to earn the honor since his former teammate Jason Kidd won it twice in 2014. Nash led the Nets to an Eastern Conference-best record of 9–4 during the month, including a conference-best 5–2 road record. Nash led the Nets to a 48–24 record in his first season as head coach. After the 2020–21 regular season Nash finished in sixth place in the NBA Coach of the Year voting. On 27 October 2022, Nash received two technical fouls and was ejected for arguing with and yelling at referees, during a 110–99 loss to the Milwaukee Bucks. On 1 November, Nash and the Nets agreed to part ways amid controversies revolving around the team's players. National team career In the early 1990s, Nash was cut from the Canadian junior national team by head coach Ken Olynyk, the father of future NBA player Kelly Olynyk. At age 17, he was the youngest member of Team Canada at the Summer Universiade, where the team won a silver medal. In 1993, while in college, he played for the senior national team at the Tournament of the Americas and competed in the Canada Games (for the British Columbia team) and Summer Universiade. He won a bronze medal at the Canada Games and won a silver medal at the Summer Universiade, losing to Team USA in a closely contested final, which included players such as Michael Finley and Damon Stoudamire. At the 1999 Tournament of the Americas, Nash led Canada to the silver medal, qualifying the team for the Olympics for the first time in 12 years; he was named tournament MVP. Nash captained Canada at the 2000 Sydney Olympics. He led Canada to win their round robin group with a victory over Spain and a stunning 83–75 win over favoured Yugoslavia when he scored 26 points with eight rebounds and eight assists. Canada was eliminated in the quarterfinals with a five-point loss to France and Nash left the court in tears. Nash expressed disappointment with the result, saying "It hurts a lot. I feel like I let everybody down. We could have been in the championship game. We were good enough." Nevertheless, he did see a possible silver lining, saying "Hopefully kids [in Canada] will be inspired to play... that's what I really hope." A victory in its final game of the tournament, a placement game against Russia, enabled Canada to salvage seventh place. Nash's Olympic performance propelled him to stardom in Canada, and he finished fifth in voting for the 2000 Lionel Conacher Award, which is handed out to the Canadian male athlete of the year. Nash again led Team Canada during qualifying for the 2004 Summer Olympics at the FIBA Americas Olympic Qualifying Tournament in San Juan, Puerto Rico. He led the tournament in assists and was named tournament MVP, but Canada finished fourth, missing out on the three Olympic spots available. That was the last time Nash played for Canada; he was reportedly upset about the firing of head coach Jay Triano in 2004. In December 2007, he said, "In my mind right now, I'm not going to play for Canada any more." On 8 May 2012, Nash became general manager of the Canadian senior national team. Three months later, he rehired Triano as head coach. On 5 March 2019, Nash transitioned to a senior advisor role and was succeeded as general manager by Rowan Barrett, his former national team teammate. Player profile Nash was praised for his playmaking, ball-handling skills and shooting. He led the league in assists for five years, averaging 11.5 assists per game in 2004–05, 10.5 in 2005–06, 11.6 in 2006–07, 11.0 in 2009–10 and 11.4 in 2010–11 and won the NBA Skills Challenge in 2005 and 2010. As of the end of 2012–13 season, he had a 90.4% career free throw shooting average (formerly the best in NBA history, second to Stephen Curry) and a 42.8% career three-point shooting average (eighth-best in league history), and ranked as one of the top 10 players in league history in total assists, assists per game, and three-point field goals made. He is ranked second (starting from 1986–87) in regular season point–assist double doubles. In the 2005–06 season, Nash became the fourth player in NBA history to shoot 50% or better from the field, 40% from three-point range (43.9), and 90% from the line, joining Larry Bird, Reggie Miller, and Mark Price in the 50–40–90 club. Nash would repeat this feat three more times in the 2007–08, 2008–09 and 2009–10 campaigns. Nash (four times), Larry Bird and Kevin Durant (two times each) are the only players to have accomplished this feat more than once. A two-time NBA MVP, Nash is one of three point guards (along with Magic Johnson and Stephen Curry) to win the MVP award multiple times and the one of four guards in NBA history to earn back-to-back MVPs (along with Johnson, Michael Jordan and Curry). Only 12 other NBA players have won back-to-back MVP awards: Johnson, Jordan, Bill Russell, Wilt Chamberlain, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Moses Malone, Larry Bird, Tim Duncan, LeBron James, Stephen Curry, Giannis Antetokounmpo, and Nikola Jokić. On 12 January 2016, ESPN.com rated Nash as the seventh-best point guard of all time, and in a survey by nba.com in 2007, Nash received 85% of the votes by the league's general managers as best point guard in the league. In a similar survey in 2009, Nash was rated as the best passer and the player possessing the best basketball IQ. Commenting on Nash losing out to former teammate Dirk Nowitzki for the 2007 NBA MVP, Boston Celtics centre and Hall of Famer Russell stated: "I think, on the world stage, he's one of our great athletes in all sports... I'm a big fan. The two MVPs he got, he deserved. Part of the reason he's so good and so effective is that the guys like playing with him. He creates an atmosphere where they win games." Nash was particularly effective playing the pick and roll, especially with Nowitzki when he was with the Mavericks and later with the Suns' Amar'e Stoudemire and Shawn Marion under head coach Mike D’Antoni. When Nash returned to Phoenix in 2004, he helped the Suns improve from a 29–53 record in 2003–04 to 62–20 in 2004–05, reaching the Conference Finals for the first time in 11 years, and earning his first MVP award. The next season, he again led the Suns to the Conference Finals, despite the injuries of all three big men (Stoudemire, Kurt Thomas, and Brian Grant). Further, Nash was responsible for seven of his teammates attaining career-highs in season scoring. With Nash operating at the point between the 2005–06 and 2009–10 seasons, the Suns led the league in field goal percentage. In 2021, to commemorate the NBA's 75th Anniversary The Athletic ranked their top 75 players of all time, and named Nash as the 38th greatest player in NBA history. Career statistics NBA Regular season |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 65 || 2 || 10.5 || .423 || .418 || .824 || 1.0 || 2.1 || .3 || .0 || 3.3 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 76 || 9 || 21.9 || .459 || .415 || .860 || 2.1 || 3.4 || .8 || .1 || 9.1 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Dallas | 40 || 40 || 31.7 || .363 || .374 || .826 || 2.9 || 5.5 || .9 || .1 || 7.9 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Dallas | 56 || 27 || 27.4 || .477 || .403 || .882 || 2.2 || 4.9 || .7 || .1 || 8.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Dallas | 70 || 70 || 34.1 || .487 || .406 || .895 || 3.2 || 7.3 || 1.0 || .1 || 15.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Dallas | 82 || 82 || 34.6 || .483 || .455 || .887 || 3.1 || 7.7 || .6 || .0 || 17.9 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Dallas | 82 || style="background:#cfecec;"|82* || 33.1 || .465 || .413 || .909 || 2.9 || 7.3 || 1.0 || .1 || 17.7 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Dallas | 78 || 78 || 33.5 || .470 || .405 || .916 || 3.0 || 8.8 || .9 || .1 || 14.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 75 || 75 || 34.3 || .502 || .431 || .887 || 3.3 || style="background:#cfecec;"|11.5* || 1.0 || .1 || 15.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 79 || 79 || 35.4 || .512 || .439 || style="background:#cfecec;"|.921* || 4.2 || style="background:#cfecec;"|10.5* || .8 || .2 || 18.8 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 76 || 76 || 35.3 || .532 || .455 || .899 || 3.5 || style="background:#cfecec;"|11.6* || .8 || .1 || 18.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 81 || 81 || 34.3 || .504 || .470 || .906 || 3.5 || 11.1 || .7 || .1 || 16.9 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 74 || 74 || 33.6 || .503 || .439 || .933 || 3.0 || 9.7 || .7 || .1 || 15.7 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 81 || 81 || 32.8 || .507 || .426 || style="background:#cfecec;"|.938* || 3.3 || style="background:#cfecec;"|11.0* || .5 || .1 || 16.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 75 || 75 || 33.3 || .492 || .395 || .912 || 3.5 || style="background:#cfecec;"|11.4* || .6 || .1 || 14.7 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 62 || 62 || 31.6 || .532 || .390 || .894 || 3.0 || 10.7 || .6 || .1 || 12.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Lakers | 50 || 50 || 32.5 || .497 || .438 || .922 || 2.8 || 6.7 || .6 || .1 || 12.7 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Lakers | 15 || 10 || 20.9 || .383 || .333 || .917 || 1.9 || 5.7 || .5 || .1 || 6.8 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career | 1,217 || 1,052 || 31.3 || .490 || .428 || .904 || 3.0 || 8.5 || .7 || .1 || 14.3 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|All-Star | 7 || 2 || 15.9 || .429 || .250 || .000 || 2.0 || 6.7 || .4 || .1 || 3.7 Playoffs |- | style="text-align:left;"|1997 | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 4 || 0 || 3.8 || .222 || .250 || .000 || .3 || .3 || .3 || .3 || 1.3 |- | style="text-align:left;"|1998 | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 4 || 1 || 12.8 || .444 || .200 || .625 || 2.5 || 1.8 || .5 || .0 || 5.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2001 | style="text-align:left;"|Dallas | 10 || 10 || 37.0 || .417 || .410 || .882 || 3.2 || 6.4 || .6 || .1 || 13.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2002 | style="text-align:left;"|Dallas | 8 || 8 || 40.4 || .432 || .444 || .971 || 4.0 || 8.8 || .5 || .0 || 19.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2003 | style="text-align:left;"|Dallas | 20 || 20 || 36.5 || .447 || .487 || .873 || 3.5 || 7.3 || .9 || .1 || 16.1 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2004 | style="text-align:left;"|Dallas | 5 || 5 || 39.4 || .386 || .375 || .889 || 5.2 || 9.0 || .8 || .0 || 13.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2005 | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 15 || 15 || 40.7 || .520 || .389 || .919 || 4.8 || 11.3 || .9 || .2 || 23.9 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2006 | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 20 || 20 || 39.9 || .502 || .368 || .912 || 3.7 || 10.2 || .4 || .3 || 20.4 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2007 | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 11 || 11 || 37.5 || .463 || .487 || .891 || 3.2 || 13.3 || .4 || .1 || 18.9 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2008 | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 5 || 5 || 36.6 || .457 || .300 || .917 || 2.8 || 7.8 || .4 || .2 || 16.2 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2010 | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 16 || 16 || 33.7 || .518 || .380 || .893 || 3.3 || 10.1 || .3 || .1 || 17.8 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2013 | style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Lakers | 2 || 2 || 30.5 || .435 || .000 || 1.000 || 2.5 || 4.5 || .0 || .0 || 12.5 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career | 120 || 113 || 35.7 || .473 || .406 || .900 || 3.5 || 8.8 || .6 || .1 || 17.3 College |- | style="text-align:left;"|1992–93 | style="text-align:left;"|Santa Clara | 31 || || 24.0 || .424 || .408 || .825 || 2.5 || 2.2 || .8 || .1 || 8.1 |- | style="text-align:left;"|1993–94 | style="text-align:left;"|Santa Clara | 26 || 23 || 29.9 || .414 || .399 || .831 || 2.5 || 3.7 || 1.3 || .0 || 14.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"|1994–95 | style="text-align:left;"|Santa Clara | 27 || 27 || 33.4 || .444 || .454 || .879 || 3.8 || 6.4 || 1.8 || .1 || 20.9 |- | style="text-align:left;"|1995–96 | style="text-align:left;"|Santa Clara | 29 || || 33.8 || .430 || .344 || .894 || 3.6 || 6.0 || 1.3 || .0 || 17.0 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career | 113 || || 30.1 || .430 || .401 || .867 || 3.1 || 4.5 || 1.3 || .1 || 14.9 Head coaching record |- | style="text-align:left;"|Brooklyn | style="text-align:left;"| | 72||48||24|||| style="text-align:center;"|2nd in Atlantic||12||7||5|| | style="text-align:center;"|Lost in Conference Semifinals |- | style="text-align:left;"|Brooklyn | style="text-align:left;"| | 82||44||38|||| style="text-align:center;"|4th in Atlantic||4||0||4|| | style="text-align:center;"|Lost in First Round |- | style="text-align:left;"|Brooklyn | style="text-align:left;"| | 7||2||5|||| style="text-align:center;"|(fired)||—||—||—||— | style="text-align:center;"|— |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career | 161||94||67|||| ||16||7||9|||| Awards and achievements NBA 2× NBA Most Valuable Player: 2005, 2006 8× NBA All-Star: 2002, 2003, 2005–2008, 2010, 2012 7× All-NBA selection: First team: 2005–2007 Second team: 2008, 2010 Third team: 2002, 2003 2× NBA Skills Challenge winner: 2005, 2010 5× NBA regular season leader for assists per game: 2005 (11.5), 2006 (10.5), 2007 (11.6), 2010 (11.0), 2011 (11.4) 6× NBA regular season leader for total assists: 2005 (861), 2006 (826), 2007 (884), 2010 (892), 2011 (855), 2012 (664) 2× NBA regular season leader for free throw percentage: 2006 (.921), 2010 (.938) 7× NBA regular season leader for assists per 48 minutes: 2004 (12.6), 2005 (16.1), 2006 (14.2), 2007 (15.8), 2008 (15.5), 2010 (16.1), 2011 (16.4) 4× member of 50–40–90 club: 2006, 2008–2010 Has more 50–40–90 seasons than any other player in NBA history One of only ten players to have ever shot 50–40–90 One of only three players (the others being Larry Bird and Kevin Durant) to have shot 50–40–90 more than once J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award: 2007 Second-highest career free throw percentage in NBA history (minimum 1,200 career attempts), 90.42 percent Phoenix Suns Ring of Honor NBA 75th Anniversary Team Other Lou Marsh Trophy: 2005 3× Lionel Conacher Award: 2002, 2005, 2006 Sports ownership Nash had also previously made statements about his intention to bring Major League Soccer to Vancouver as early as 2011, which he has succeeded in doing. He joined the USL-1 Vancouver Whitecaps FC team's ownership group in July 2008, and in March 2009, Vancouver was officially named as a future MLS expansion city, set to join the league in 2011. Nash occasionally attends practice for his co-owned team, called Vancouver Whitecaps FC. Nash, along with former Yahoo! president and fellow Victoria-native Jeff Mallett, were investors in Women's Professional Soccer, a soccer league that was launched in March 2009 and folded in May 2012. Nash cited his twin daughters and wanting to have role models for them to look up to as a reason for supporting the league. On 5 January 2016, it was announced that Nash was part of a group who purchased a $21 million stake in Spanish Segunda División club RCD Mallorca. The group also included Phoenix Suns owner Robert Sarver, Suns vice chairman Andy Kohlberg and former players of the US National Soccer Team Stuart Holden & Kyle Martino. On 21 June 2021 Nash along with Wayne Gretzky, Dustin Johnson, and Brooklyn Nets owner Joe Tsai became owners in the National Lacrosse League's new Las Vegas franchise, the Las Vegas Desert Dogs. Off the court Personal life In 2001, Nash met Alejandra Amarilla in Manhattan. They married in June 2005 and had twin daughters and a son. On the day of his son's birth, Nash made a statement to Life & Style in which he announced the birth but called it a "bittersweet moment," revealing that he and his wife had "lived separately for the past several months" and were "in the process of dissolving" their marriage. In March 2016, Nash became engaged to Lilla Frederick, a former Pepperdine University and junior women's U.S. team volleyball player. They married in September 2016. The couple have a son and a daughter. In 2006, Nash was referenced in Canadian singer Nelly Furtado's song "Promiscuous", leading him to deny rumours that they were romantically involved. They both grew up in British Columbia. Nash's younger brother, Martin, played soccer for the Vancouver Whitecaps FC and made 30 appearances for the Canadian national soccer team. Their younger sister, Joann, was the captain of the University of Victoria Vikes women's soccer team for three years and was named a Canada West Universities Athletic Association All-Star. She is married to former professional ice hockey player Manny Malhotra. Nash is the godfather of New York Knicks star R. J. Barrett. Nash has a medical condition called spondylolisthesis, which causes muscle tightness and back pain. Due to the condition, when he was not playing in basketball games, he would lie on his back rather than sit on the bench to keep his muscles from stiffening. Charity In 2001, Nash founded the Steve Nash Foundation. Through grants to public service and nonprofit entities, the foundation aims to foster health in kids by funding projects that provide services to children affected by poverty, illness, abuse, or neglect, and create opportunities for education, play, and empowerment. It focuses its resources on communities in Phoenix, Arizona and British Columbia, Canada, and was given charitable status in 2004. The foundation was awarded the Steve Patterson Award for Excellence in Sports Philanthropy in 2008. Nash also founded the Jim Jennings Memorial Endowment Fund, established in honour of a volunteer staff member at Santa Clara University who served the basketball team for more than 20 years. Elsewhere, Nash sponsors the Steve Nash Youth Basketball League in British Columbia, which has grown over 10,000 participants. He also became involved with GuluWalk, a Canadian-operated charitable organization that raises awareness and funds for the war-affected children of northern Uganda. In September 2007, Nash and Yao Ming headlined a group of NBA players who travelled to China and played an exhibition game with the Chinese national basketball team. The charity event reportedly raised 2.5 million dollars, earmarked for Chinese children in need. In May 2006, Nash was named by Time as one of the 100 most influential people in the world. In the accompanying write-up by Charles Barkley, Nash was lauded for his unselfishness on the basketball court, and being "just a nice guy" who had paid for a new pediatric cardiology ward in a Paraguayan hospital. On 28 December 2007, it was announced that Nash would receive Canada's highest civilian honour, the Order of Canada, and on 3 June 2008, it was announced that Nash would receive a star on Canada's Walk of Fame. On 18 September 2009, he was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from the University of Victoria for his athletic achievements and philanthropic work on the behalf of young people through the Steve Nash Foundation. Endorsements Nash is selective in his endorsements, preferring companies he deems socially responsible. After winning his first MVP award, he was approached to serve as spokesperson for numerous products, including MDG Computers, Raymond Weil watches, Vitamin Water, and Clearly Canadian bottled water. He also has a longstanding relationship with Nike. Nash is represented by agent Bill Duffy. Soccer Nash grew up playing soccer—he stated in a 2005 interview that he could have played professionally if he had focused on it—and continues to hold an interest in the sport. When Dirk Nowitzki arrived in the NBA from Germany, he and Nash became close friends, in part because they enjoyed watching soccer together. Nash is friends with several professional soccer players, including Alessandro Del Piero, Thierry Henry, Owen Hargreaves, Massimo Ambrosini and Steve McManaman. During his off-season, when he lives in New York City, he has trained with the New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer, and once tried to arrange a pick-up game in the city's Central Park with the Red Bulls and one of his local teams. Nash, whose father was born in the Tottenham district of London, is a lifelong Tottenham Hotspur supporter, and has expressed interest in owning a minority stake in the club. "I'd like to be an owner. It's something I could do for the rest of my life after my little window of popularity dies", he said in an interview with The New York Times. Nash added, "I've been a passionate supporter all my life. My parents are from north London and so it's not like I'm some Yank who wants to make a profit out of football. I don't care about making money. I just want to see Spurs succeed and, if I can help, that's great." However, he said any participation in Spurs would come after his basketball career is over, and he has had only "casual contact" with chairman Daniel Levy and former director of football Damien Comolli. Nash is also a fan of Spain's FC Barcelona, and Brazilian team Sport Club Corinthians Paulista, which his former Suns teammate Leandro Barbosa supports. When Barbosa visited Corinthians in 2007, the club gave him a shirt with Nash's name and jersey number. Nash also co-hosted Showdown in Chinatown in 2008, an 8-on-8 charity soccer game held at Sara D. Roosevelt Park. He scored two goals in his team's 8–5 victory. Participants included Thierry Henry, Jason Kidd, Baron Davis, and Suns teammates Raja Bell and Leandro Barbosa. In July 2013, Nash participated in a training session with the Italian soccer club Inter Milan at the New York Red Bulls' facilities in New Jersey. He also trained with the New York Cosmos B of the American fourth-division National Premier Soccer League in 2015. Other interests Nash and a Montreal-based partner, Leonard Schlemm, opened the first Steve Nash Sports Club in the spring of 2007 in downtown Vancouver, a high-end, $5 million, facility that will mirror Nash's own fitness philosophy. In 2007, Nash wrote and produced an 81-second commercial for Nike titled "Training Day," directed by Julian Schnabel's daughter Lola, which gained popularity as a viral video on YouTube. Nash also started a film production company together with his cousin, filmmaker Ezra Holland, and intends to produce independent films. The first creative effort to come from Meathawk was a 91-second commercial, titled "The Sixty Million Dollar Man", for Nike's eco-friendly Trash Talk shoe, the first high-performance shoe to be made—at the behest of the environmentally conscious Nash—from recycled materials. Nash has worn the shoe since February 2008, but Nike produced only 5,000 pairs for sale. The ad, which broke virally on Earth Day 2008, was written by Nash and the directors of the spot, Danny Vaia and Ezra Holland. It is a spoof remake of the title sequence of the American television series The Six Million Dollar Man and plays on Nash's numerous on-court collisions. Amar'e Stoudemire and Raja Bell have cameo appearances. Nash and Holland also co-directed the documentary Into the Wind, about iconic Canadian athlete and activist Terry Fox, as part of ESPN's 30 for 30 series. In October 2013, Nash appeared in the music video for "City of Angels" by Thirty Seconds to Mars. In 2013, Nash was one of the recipients of the Top 25 Canadian Immigrant Awards presented by Canadian Immigrant magazine. At the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, Nash became the first NBA player in Olympic history to carry the torch and light the Olympic cauldron. Nash is also known for his outspoken political views. He was an early and public opponent of the 2003 Iraq War, wearing a custom-made T-shirt to the 2003 NBA All Star Game that stated: "No war – Shoot for peace." Although Nash did get positive support from teammate Nick Van Exel among others, he also drew criticism from David Robinson, a former Naval officer and fellow NBA player as well as commentators like Skip Bayless who criticized Nash as being uninformed and advised him to "just shut up and play." Nash has also been critical of Arizona's SB1070, legislation which seeks to aggressively address illegal immigration, as he felt "the law obviously can target opportunities for racial profiling." In August 2017, Nash was critical of President Donald Trump in the aftermath of the 2017 Unite the Right rally, saying that "to defend white supremacists and then slang his shitty ass grape juice pretty much sums the man up," referring to a winery Donald Trump has in Charlottesville, Virginia. See also List of Canadians in the National Basketball Association List of foreign NBA players List of National Basketball Association career games played leaders List of National Basketball Association career assists leaders List of National Basketball Association career turnovers leaders List of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association career minutes played leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff assists leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff turnovers leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff 3-point scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association players with most assists in a game List of oldest and youngest National Basketball Association players List of sportspeople with dual nationality References Further reading Jeff Rud, (1996), Long Shot: Steve Nash's Journey to the NBA, Polestar Books Jeff Rud. (2007), Steve Nash: The Making of an MVP, Puffin Ryan Basen, (2007) Steve Nash: Leader on and Off the Court, Enslow Publishers External links Steve Nash, winner of the Lionel Conacher Award and the Bobbie Rosenfeld Award: Virtual Museum of Canada Exhibit Category:1974 births Category:Living people Category:1994 FIBA World Championship players Category:Basketball people from British Columbia Category:Basketball players at the 2000 Summer Olympics Category:Brooklyn Nets head coaches Category:Canadian expatriate basketball people in the United States Category:Canadian humanitarians Category:Canadian men's basketball coaches Category:Canadian men's basketball players Category:Canadian people of English descent Category:Canadian people of Welsh descent Category:Canadian philanthropists Category:Canadian soccer chairmen and investors Category:Dallas Mavericks players Category:FIBA Hall of Fame inductees Category:Los Angeles Lakers players Category:Lou Marsh Trophy winners Category:Major League Soccer owners Category:Members of the Order of British Columbia Category:Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees Category:National Basketball Association All-Stars Category:National Basketball Association Most Valuable Player Award winners Category:National Basketball Association players from Canada Category:Naturalized citizens of Canada Category:Officers of the Order of Canada Category:Olympic basketball players for Canada Category:Olympic cauldron lighters Category:Phoenix Suns draft picks Category:Phoenix Suns players Category:Point guards Category:Santa Clara Broncos men's basketball players Category:Sportspeople from Johannesburg Category:Sportspeople from Victoria, British Columbia
[ { "text": "This is a list of basketball players from Canada who have played in the National Basketball Association (NBA).\n\nActive players\nNickeil Alexander-Walker\nNew Orleans Pelicans (2019–2022)\nUtah Jazz (2022–2023)\nMinnesota Timberwolves (2023–present)\nDalano Banton\nToronto Raptors (2021–present)\nRJ Barrett\nNew York Knicks (2019–present)\nKhem Birch\nOrlando Magic (2017–2021)\nToronto Raptors (2021–2023)\nSan Antonio Spurs (2023–present)\nChris Boucher\nGolden State Warriors (2017–2018)\nToronto Raptors (2018–present)\nOshae Brissett\nToronto Raptors (2019–2020)\nIndiana Pacers (2021–present)\nDillon Brooks\nMemphis Grizzlies (2017–present)\nBrandon Clarke\nMemphis Grizzlies (2019–present)\nLuguentz Dort\nOklahoma City Thunder (2019–present)\nShai Gilgeous-Alexander\nLos Angeles Clippers (2018–2019)\nOklahoma City Thunder (2019–present)\nCaleb Houstan\nOrlando Magic (2022-present)\nCory Joseph\nSan Antonio Spurs (2011–2015)\nToronto Raptors (2015–2017)\nIndiana Pacers (2017–2019)\nSacramento Kings (2019–2021)\nDetroit Pistons (2021–present)\nMfiondu Kabengele\nLos Angeles Clippers (2019–2020)\nCleveland Cavaliers (2021)\nBoston Celtics (2022–present)\nA.J. Lawson\nMinnesota Timberwolves (2022)\nDallas Mavericks (2022-present)\nTrey Lyles\nUtah Jazz (2015–2017)\nDenver Nuggets (2017–2019)\nSan Antonio Spurs (2019–2021)\nDetroit Pistons (2021–2022)\nSacramento Kings (2021–present)\nBennedict Mathurin\nIndiana Pacers (2022-present)\nJamal Murray\nDenver Nuggets (2016–present)\nAndrew Nembhard\nIndiana Pacers (2022-present)\nKelly Olynyk\nBoston Celtics (2013–2017)\nMiami Heat (2017–2021)\nHouston Rockets (2021)\nDetroit Pistons (2021–2022)\nUtah Jazz (2022-present)\nEugene Omoruyi\nDallas Mavericks (2021)\nOklahoma City Thunder (2022-2023)\nDetroit Pistons (2023-present)\nDwight Powell\nBoston Celtics (2014)\nDallas Mavericks (2014–present)\nShaedon Sharpe\nPortland Trail Blazers (2022-present)\nTristan Thompson\nCleveland Cavaliers (2011-2019)\nBoston Celtics (2020–21)\nSacramento Kings (2021–22)\nIndiana Pacers (2022)\nChicago Bulls (2022)\nLos Angeles Lakers (2023-present)\nAndrew Wiggins\nMinnesota Timberwolves (2014–2020)\nGolden State Warriors (2020–present)\n\nAwards and honors\nHall of Famers\n\nBob Houbregs, 1987\nSteve Nash, 2018\n\nMost Valuable Player\n\nSteve Nash, 2 times, 2005–2006\n\nAll-NBA Team\n\nSteve Nash, First Team 3 times (2005–2007), Second Team 2 times (2008, 2010), Third Team 2 times (2002–2003)\nShai Gilgeous-Alexander, First Team, 2023\n\nFirst overall draft pick\n\nAnthony Bennett (Cleveland Cavaliers, UNLV, 2013)\nAndrew Wiggins (Cleveland Cavaliers, Kansas, 2014)\n\nRookie of the Year Award\n\nAndrew Wiggins (Minnesota Timberwolves, 2015)\n\nDefensive Player of the Year\n\nNone\n\nMost Improved Player\n\nNone\n\nSixth Man of the Year\n\nNone\n\nAll-Rookie Team\n\nRick Fox, Second Team, 1992\nTristan Thompson, Second Team, 2012\nKelly Olynyk, Second Team, 2014\nAndrew Wiggins, First Team, 2015\nJamal Murray, Second Team, 2017\nShai Gilgeous-Alexander, Second Team, 2019\nBrandon Clarke, First Team, 2020\nBennedict Mathurin, First Team, 2023\n\nNBA Champions\n\nMike Smrek, 2 times, 1987–1988\nBill Wennington, 3 times, 1996–1998\nRick Fox, 3 times, 2000–2002\nJoel Anthony, 2 times, 2012–2013\nCory Joseph, 1 time, 2014\nTristan Thompson, 1 time, 2016\nChris Boucher, 2 times, 2018–2019\nAndrew Wiggins, 1 time, 2022\n\nNBA Finals MVP\n\nNone\n\nNBA Citizenship Award\n Steve Nash, 2007\n Samuel Dalembert, 2010\n\nNBA Sportsmanship Award\n\nNone\n\nTeammate of the Year\n\nNone\n\nAll-Star selection\nSteve Nash, 8 times, 2002–2003, 2005–2008, 2010, 2012\nShai Gilgeous-Alexander, 2023\nAndrew Wiggins, 2022\nJamaal Magloire, 2004\n\nPlayers\nThis is an alphabetical list of 62 basketball players from Canada who have played in the National Basketball Association since 1946. Players name listed in BOLD are currently active players.\n__NOTOC__\n\nA\nKyle Alexander\nNickeil Alexander-Walker\n Joel Anthony\n\nB\nNorm Baker\nDalano Banton\nRJ Barrett\nAnthony Bennett\nSim Bhullar\nHank Biasatti\nKhem Birch\nChris Boucher\nIgnas Brazdeikis\nOshae Brissett\nDillon Brooks\n\nC\n\nBrandon Clarke\nRon Crevier\n\nD\nSamuel Dalembert\n Nate Darling\nLuguentz Dort\n\nE\nTyler Ennis\n\nF\nRick Fox\n\nG\nShai Gilgeous-Alexander\nStewart Granger\n\nH\nLars Hansen\nBob Houbregs\nCaleb Houstan\n\nJ\nCory Joseph\nKris Joseph\n\nK\nMfiondu Kabengele\n\nL\nA. J. Lawson\nTrey Lyles\n\nM\nTodd MacCulloch\nJamaal Magloire\nKarim Mané\nBennedict Mathurin\nNaz Mitrou-Long\nMychal Mulder\nJamal Murray\n\nN\nSteve Nash\nAndrew Nicholson\nAndrew Nembhard\n\nO\nKelly Olynyk\nEugene Omoruyi\n\nP\nKevin Pangos\nDwight Powell\nJoshua Primo\n\nR\nXavier Rathan-Mayes\nAndy Rautins\nLeo Rautins\n\nS\nRobert Sacre\nMarial Shayok\nMike Smrek\nGino Sovran\nNik Stauskas\nShaedon Sharpe\n\nT\nTristan Thompson\n\nV\nErnie Vandeweghe\n\nW\nBill Wennington\nAndrew Wiggins\nLindell Wigginton\nKyle Wiltjer\n\nZ\nJim Zoet\n\nSee also\n List of foreign NBA players\n List of Canadians in NASCAR\n List of Canadians in the National Football League\n List of Major League Baseball players from Canada\n\nReferences\n\nNBA\n \nCanadian Nba", "title": "List of Canadians in the National Basketball Association" }, { "text": "This is a list of basketball players who are the leaders in career games played in the National Basketball Association (NBA).\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nSee also\n\nList of National Basketball Association career minutes played leaders\nList of National Basketball Association seasons played leaders\nList of NBA players who have spent their entire career with one franchise\nList of oldest and youngest National Basketball Association players\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nNBA & ABA Career Leaders and Records for Games – BasketballReference.com\n\nGames", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career games played leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season assists recorded\nProgressive assist leaders list\n\nAssist leaders\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season assists recorded.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nProgressive list of assists leaders\nThis is a progressive list of assists leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nSee also\nBasketball statistics\nNBA regular season records\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career leaders in assists\nNational Basketball Association official website enumeration of NBA career leaders in assists\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career assists leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season turnovers recorded.\nA progressive list of turnover leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\n\nTurnovers leaders\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season turnovers recorded.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nProgressive list of turnovers leaders\nThis is a progressive list of turnovers leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nSee also\nBasketball statistics\nNBA regular season records\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career leaders in turnovers\nNational Basketball Association official website enumeration of NBA career leaders in turnovers\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career turnovers leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of NBA career regular season three-point field goals made.\nA progressive list of three-point leaders showing how the record has increased through the years.\n\nList of 3-point scoring leaders\n\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nProgressive list of 3-point scoring leaders\nThis is a progressive list of 3-point scoring leaders showing how the record has increased through the years.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nSee also\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career leaders in 3-point field goals made\nNational Basketball Association official website enumeration of NBA career leaders in 3-point field goals made\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season leaders in minutes played.\nA progressive list of leaders, and records for minutes played showing how the record has increased through the years.\n\nMinutes played leaders\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season leaders in minutes played.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nProgressive list of minutes played leaders\nThis is a progressive list of leaders and records for minutes played showing how the record has increased through the years.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nSee also\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career leaders in minutes played\nNational Basketball Association official website enumeration of NBA career leaders in minutes played\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career minutes played leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association (NBA) players by total career playoff assists recorded.\nA progressive list of assist leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\n\nPlayoff assist leaders\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career playoff assists recorded.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 22, 2023.\n\nProgressive list of playoff assist leaders\n\nThis is a progressive list of assist leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 22, 2023.''\n\nSee also\nBasketball statistics\nNBA post-season records\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career playoff leaders in assists\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career playoff assists leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association (NBA) players by total career playoff turnovers recorded.\nA progressive list of turnover leaders showing how the record has increased through the years.\n\nCareer playoff turnover leaders\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career playoff turnovers recorded.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 22, 2023.\n\nProgressive list of playoff turnover leaders\n\nThis is a progressive list of turnover leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 29, 2023.''\n\nSee also\nBasketball statistics\nNBA post-season records\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career playoff leaders in turnovers\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career playoff turnovers leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association players by total career playoff three-point field goals made.\nA progressive list of three-point leaders showing how the record has increased through the years.\n\nPlayoff 3-point field goals made leaders\n\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career playoff three-point field goals made.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 29, 2023.\n\nProgressive list of playoff 3-point field goals made\n\nThis is a progressive list of 3-point scoring leaders showing how the record has increased through the years.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 29, 2023.''\n\nSee also\nBasketball statistics\nNBA post-season records\nList of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career playoff leaders in 3-point field goals made\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career playoff 3-point scoring leaders" }, { "text": "This is a list of oldest and youngest National Basketball Association players. The National Basketball Association (NBA) is a men's professional basketball league in North America. The NBA was founded in 1946 as the Basketball Association of America (BAA). The league adopted its current name at the start of the when it merged with the National Basketball League (NBL). The oldest person ever to play in the NBA was Nat Hickey, a coach who activated himself as a player for a game two days before his 46th birthday. The youngest player ever to play in the NBA was Andrew Bynum, who played his first game only six days after his 18th birthday. The oldest active player is Miami Heat power forward Udonis Haslem, who is currently 42 years old. The youngest active player in the NBA is Detroit Pistons center Jalen Duren, the 13th overall pick in the 2022 NBA draft, who is currently 19 years old and was born on November 18, 2003.\n\nKey\n\nOldest players\n\nThe oldest player ever to play in the NBA was Nat Hickey who played one game in the 1947–48 season when he was 45 years and 363 days old. Hickey, who was coaching the Providence Steamrollers at the time, decided to activate himself and played in a game for the Steamrollers. In his first game as a player for the Steamrollers, he missed all six of his shot attempts and only scored two points from three free throw attempts; he only played in one more game before retiring as a player two days shy of his 46th birthday. The second-oldest player is Kevin Willis, who played 20 seasons (excluding the 1988–89 season he missed due to injury) in the league before he sat out the 2005–06 season and earned a contract with the Dallas Mavericks on April 2, 2007. Willis then played five games for the Mavericks at the age of 44. The third-oldest player is Hall of Famer Robert Parish. Parish, who played with the Boston Celtics in the 1980s, played his last season with the Chicago Bulls at the age of 43. He played in 1,611 regular season games during his 21-year career, more than any other player in NBA history. When the Bulls won the 1997 Finals, Parish became the oldest player ever to win the NBA championship. There are 31 players who played in the NBA after they turned 40. The oldest active player is Udonis Haslem, who is now 42 years old. Haslem played his first game in the 2003–04 NBA season and has played for 20 seasons. He is the only player born before 1984 who is still active and under contract with an NBA team.\n\nAll-time\n\nActive\nThis list includes active players who is/will be 35 or above years old in the current year\n\nYoungest players\n\nNBA players usually come from U.S. college basketball. In the past, a college player had to complete his four-year college eligibility before he could enter the league through the NBA draft or as a free agent. In the 1970s, the league began to allow college underclassmen and high school players to enter the league. However, the trend of drafting high school players only began in the mid 1990s. This has led to more younger players entering the league directly after high school graduation. In 2005, the league and the players' union agreed on a new collective bargaining agreement that includes a minimum age limit which requires that players who wish to enter the league must be at least 19 years old on December 31 of the year of the draft, and at least one year removed from high school. International players who did not play college basketball also have to be at least 19 years old on the same date to be able to play in the NBA. Despite a trend toward drafting younger players, the NBA has a higher average age than it had in the 1980s. However, since the NBA introduced the minimum age limit in 2005, the league's average age has decreased in the past few seasons. The youngest player to ever play in the NBA was Andrew Bynum who played his first game at the age of 18 years and 6 days old. Bynum, who was also the youngest player ever selected in the NBA Draft, went into the NBA straight out of high school. Jermaine O'Neal and Kobe Bryant, both drafted in 1996, were the second- and third-youngest players. Serbian Darko Miličić was the youngest player ever to play in an NBA Finals game. He played for the Detroit Pistons in Game 3 of the 2004 Finals at the age of 18 years and 356 days old. The Pistons won the 2004 Finals and Miličić became the youngest player ever to win the NBA championship, being only five days away from his 19th birthday at the time. There are currently 29 players who played in the NBA before they turned 19. Nineteen of them came to the league straight out of high school, while 7 of them are international players who never played basketball in the U.S. high schools or colleges before they entered the NBA, and three players, Devin Booker, Joshua Primo and Jalen Duren played one year of college before entering the NBA all while remaining 18 years old throughout the process.\n\nAll-time\n\nActive\n\nSee also\nList of National Basketball Association career games played leaders\nList of National Basketball Association seasons played leaders\nList of oldest professional athletes by sport\nList of oldest Major League Baseball players\nList of oldest National Hockey League players\n\nReferences\nGeneral\n\nSpecific\n\nOldest\nNational Basketball Association players\nNational Basketball Association players", "title": "List of oldest and youngest National Basketball Association players" }, { "text": "The following is a list of athletes with dual nationality. It includes both players who can trace their origins to a foreign country and those who have attained foreign nationality during their career, as well as players who hail from semi-autonomous regions within countries.\n\nAthletics\n\nAuto racing\n\nBaseball\n\nBasketball\n\nBoxing\n\nCycling\n\nFencing\n\nField hockey\n\nFootball (Association)\n\nFootball (Gridiron)\n\nIce hockey (Junior)\n\nIce hockey (Senior)\n\nKickboxing\n\nRugby (league & union)\n\nSkating\n\nSwimming\n\nTennis\n\nWeightlifting\n\nSee also\nList of nationality transfers in sport\nOriundo\n\nReferences\n\nDual nationality", "title": "List of sportspeople with dual nationality" } ]
[ "Nash went to college in the 1992-93 season.", "Nash was in college from the 1992-93 season to the 1995-96 season.", "Nash's college team, the Santa Clara Broncos, had varied performance during his time there. In his first year (1992-93), Nash led the Broncos to a WCC Tournament title and an upset win in the NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament. Despite this success, the team was defeated by Temple in the next round. The 1993-94 season was less successful, with the Broncos only managing a 5-7 record in the conference. The team rebounded in the 1994-95 season, topping the WCC. However, they were defeated by Mississippi State in the NCAA tournament. In the 1995-96 season, Santa Clara again captured the WCC title, and earned a first round upset win in the NCAA tournament, before being eliminated by Kansas.", "When Nash's college career ended, he began attracting attention from the national media and professional scouts. He played with the Canadian national team and worked out with established NBA players during the summer. He also finished his career as Santa Clara's all-time leader in several categories. Later, in September 2006, Nash had his jersey (#11) retired, becoming the first Santa Clara student-athlete to receive that honour." ]
[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No" ]
C_76e434aa1ed64b5884f831f59f0300c8_0
Steve Nash
Nash was born in Johannesburg, South Africa, to a Welsh mother, Jean, and English father, John, on February 7, 1974. His family moved to Regina, Saskatchewan when he was 18 months old, before settling in Victoria, British Columbia. He therefore holds British as well as Canadian citizenship. Before the family settled in Canada, his father played professional soccer in various parts of the world.
Retirement and consulting duties
Nash announced his retirement from playing on March 21, 2015. Before the announcement, the Cleveland Cavaliers had said to Nash's agent that they were interested in him as a backup for Kyrie Irving if Nash asked for a buyout. Nash refused it, due to both his health concerns and wanting to retire as a Laker in gratitude for the opportunity given by the club. Nash was later on approached by another former team of his, the Dallas Mavericks, to have one last season with them instead, but he declined due to his aforementioned health concerns. On September 25, 2015, it was confirmed that Nash would take on part-time consulting duties for the Golden State Warriors. During his first season with the team, the Warriors produced a record-breaking 73-9 season, although the team fell short in the 2016 NBA Finals to the Cleveland Cavaliers. The next season, the Warriors would win the 2017 NBA Finals against the defending champions Cleveland Cavaliers, giving Nash his first NBA championship in any role. On December 19, 2017, the Naismith Basketball Hall of Fame announced that eligibility for induction into the Hall of Fame was decreased to three years after retirement, which allows for Nash to be eligible to be enshrined in 2018. On March 31, 2018, during the Final Four, Nash would be joined alongside former teammates Jason Kidd and Grant Hill, as well as Ray Allen, Maurice Cheeks, and Charlie Scott as the former NBA players that would enter the Basketball Hall of Fame for 2018. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "What did Steve Nash do when he retired from basketball?", "When did he retire from the NBA?", "What team did he finish his career with?", "What were his career stats when he retired?" ]
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Stephen John Nash (born 7 February 1974) is a Canadian professional basketball coach and former player who most recently served as head coach of the Brooklyn Nets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played 18 seasons in the NBA, where he was an eight-time All-Star and a seven-time All-NBA selection. Nash was a two-time NBA Most Valuable Player while playing for the Phoenix Suns. After a successful high school basketball career in British Columbia, Nash earned a scholarship to Santa Clara University in California. In his four seasons with the Broncos, the team made three NCAA tournament appearances, and he was twice named the West Coast Conference (WCC) Player of the Year. Nash graduated from Santa Clara as the team's all-time leader in assists and was taken as the 15th pick in the 1996 NBA draft by the Phoenix Suns. He had minimal impact and was traded to the Dallas Mavericks in 1998. By his fourth season with the Mavericks, he was voted to his first NBA All-Star Game and earned his first All-NBA selection. Together with Dirk Nowitzki and Michael Finley, Nash led the Mavericks to the Western Conference Finals the following season. He became a free agent after the and returned to the Phoenix Suns. In the , Nash led the Suns to the Western Conference Finals and was named the league's MVP. He was named MVP again in the and was runner-up for a third consecutive MVP to Nowitzki in 2006–07. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest point guards of all time. Nash led the league in assists and free throw percentage at various points in his career. He is also ranked as one of the top players in NBA league history in three-point shooting, free throw shooting, total assists, and assists per game. Nash has been honoured for his contributions to various philanthropic causes. In 2006, he was named by Time as one of the 100 most influential people in the world. Nash was appointed to the Order of Canada in 2007 and invested to the order in 2016, and was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Laws from the University of Victoria in 2008. Nash has been a co-owner of the Vancouver Whitecaps FC of Major League Soccer (MLS) since the team entered the league in 2011. From 2012 to 2019, he served as general manager of the Canadian men's national basketball team, for whom he played from 1991 to 2003, making one Olympic appearance and being twice named FIBA AmeriCup MVP. In 2021, Nash was named to the NBA 75th Anniversary Team. Early life Nash was born in Johannesburg, South Africa, to a Welsh mother, Jean, and English father, John, on 7 February 1974. His family moved to Regina, Saskatchewan, when he was 18 months old, before settling in Victoria, British Columbia. He, therefore, holds British as well as Canadian citizenship. Before the family settled in Canada, his father played professional soccer in various parts of the world. Nash often played soccer and ice hockey with his younger brother Martin, and he did not start playing basketball until he was 12 or 13 years old. In grade eight, however, he told his mother that one day he would play in the NBA and become a star. He was a neighbour to future NHL stars Russ and Geoff Courtnall, who used to babysit him and played soccer coached by Nash's father. Nash originally attended Mount Douglas Secondary School in Saanich, British Columbia, but after his grades began to drop, his parents decided to enroll him at St. Michaels University School, a private school in Victoria. There, he starred in basketball, soccer, and rugby union. While playing basketball during his senior season, Nash averaged 21.3 points, 11.2 assists, and 9.1 rebounds per game. In the 1991–92 season, he led his team in his final year to the British Columbia AAA provincial championship title, and was named the province's Player of the Year. College career Although Nash's high school coach, Ian Hyde-Lay, sent letters of inquiry and highlight reels to over 30 American universities, Nash was not recruited by any university, until Santa Clara coach Dick Davey requested video footage of the young guard. After watching Nash in person, Davey said he "was nervous as hell just hoping that no one else would see him. It didn't take a Nobel Prize winner to figure out this guy's pretty good. It was just a case of hoping that none of the big names came around." However, Davey also told Nash he was "the worst defensive player" he had ever seen. Nash was awarded a scholarship by Santa Clara for the 1992–93 season. At the time, it had been five years since the Broncos appeared in the NCAA tournament. That changed when Nash led the Broncos to a WCC tournament title and an upset win over the 2 seeded Arizona in the first round of the NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament. In that game, Nash scored six straight free throws in the last 30 seconds of the contest. Although Temple defeated Santa Clara in the next round, the 1992–93 campaign was considered a successful one. However, the Broncos failed to sustain the momentum the following season and only managed a 5–7 record in the conference. The team rebounded in the 1994–95 season, with Nash being named Conference Player of the Year and the Broncos topping the WCC. Featuring the league leader for scoring and assists in Nash, the Broncos returned to the NCAA tournament, but Mississippi State defeated them. After the season, Nash contemplated turning professional and decided against it when he learned that he would probably not be considered as a first-round pick in the 1995 NBA draft. In the 1995–96 season, Nash began attracting the attention of the national media and professional scouts. He had spent the previous summer honing his skills, playing with the Canadian national team and working out with established NBA players Jason Kidd and Gary Payton. Santa Clara again captured the WCC title, and for the second consecutive year, Nash was named Conference Player of the Year, the first Bronco to repeat since Kurt Rambis. He scored 28 points in leading the No. 10 seed Broncos to a first-round upset win over No. 7 seed Maryland, but then the Broncos were eliminated by Kansas. Nash's performances ensured that he earned an honourable mention All-America as a senior by The Associated Press and the USBWA. He also finished his career as Santa Clara's all-time leader in assists (510), free throw percentage (.862), and made and attempted three-pointers (263–656). He remains third on the school's all-time scoring list (1,689) and holds Santa Clara's single-season free throw percentage record (.894). In September 2006, Nash's jersey was retired, becoming the first Santa Clara student-athlete to receive that honour. Professional career Phoenix Suns (1996–1998) After graduating with a degree in sociology, Nash was selected 15th overall by the Phoenix Suns in the first round of the 1996 NBA draft. Upon hearing the draft announcement, Suns fans booed in disapproval of the relatively unknown player. This was because despite his impressive college accomplishments, Nash had not played in one of the major college conferences. A major influence in Phoenix's choice was assistant coach Donnie Nelson, who met Nash back in high school as he was coached by Nelson's friend Ken Shields, and would eventually befriend the player as he played in Santa Clara. During his first two seasons in the NBA, Nash played a supporting role behind NBA star point guards Kevin Johnson, Sam Cassell, and later, Jason Kidd. Both Johnson and Cassell had NBA Finals experience, while Kidd was the second overall pick in the 1994 NBA draft and already an All-Star when he arrived at Phoenix. In his rookie season, Nash only managed 10.5 minutes a game, but in his second season, his playing time increased significantly and he was even ranked 13th in the league for three-point field-goal percentage. Nevertheless, the Canadian's tenure with the Suns did not last. Nelson had just taken a job as assistant general manager of the Dallas Mavericks under his father, Don Nelson, and convinced him to acquire the under-utilised Nash. Following the 1998 NBA draft, Nash was traded from the Suns to the Mavericks in exchange for Martin Müürsepp, Bubba Wells, the draft rights to Pat Garrity and a first-round draft pick (who later turned out to be future Phoenix teammate Shawn Marion). Dallas Mavericks (1998–2004) It was in Dallas that Nash established himself as a formidable point guard, beginning a decade as one of the game's top players. During his first year as a Maverick (the lockout-shortened ) he started in all 40 games he played in, and averaged 7.9 points, 2.9 rebounds and 5.5 assists per game. The 19–31 Mavericks failed to make the 1999 playoffs, but in the 1999–2000 season, the team's prospects improved considerably. Nash missed 25 mid-season games due to an ankle injury, but came back to record six double-doubles in the last month of play. He finished the season with averages of 8.6 points and 4.9 assists per game. More importantly for the team, second-year teammate and friend Dirk Nowitzki was blossoming quickly into a top player, veteran Michael Finley was having an All-Star-calibre year, and the team's new owner, billionaire Mark Cuban, was bringing new energy and excitement to the franchise. Nash now had a supportive environment in which he could thrive. In the , Nash averaged 15.6 points and 7.3 assists per game in a breakout season. With Nash directing the team's offense, Nowitzki and Finley playing at their best, and the acquisition of All-Star Juwan Howard complementing the high-scoring trio, the Mavericks earned a playoff berth for the first time in more than a decade. Dallas lost in the Western Conference Semifinals four games to one to the San Antonio Spurs, but it marked the beginning of a memorable run for Nash and the Mavericks. In the , Nash posted career-highs of 17.9 points and 7.7 assists per game and earned a spot in the NBA All-Star Game and on the All-NBA Third Team. He was now an All-Star, increasingly appearing in television commercials and, with Finley and Nowitzki, a part of the Dallas Mavericks "Big Three". Dallas earned another trip to the playoffs but lost again in the Semifinals to the Sacramento Kings four games to one. Nash closely replicated his previous season's performance in the , averaging 17.7 points and 7.3 assists per game, again earning All-Star and All-NBA Third Team honours. Nowitzki and Nash led the Mavericks from a 14-game winning streak to open the season all the way to the Western Conference Finals, where they lost to the eventual NBA champions, the San Antonio Spurs four games to two. It was only the second Conference Finals appearance in the franchise's history. The saw an offensively boosted Mavericks roster (with the acquisitions of Antoine Walker and Antawn Jamison) but a dip in Nash's scoring contributions. As a result, he was not selected for the All-Star and All-NBA team rosters even though he achieved new career highs in assists per game (8.8) and free throw accuracy (91.6%). In the 2004 playoffs, the fifth-seeded Dallas failed to make progress yet again as the Sacramento Kings saw them off four games to one. After the 2003–04 season, Nash became a free agent. He attempted to negotiate a long-term contract with Cuban, who was paying Walker, Finley, Nowitzki and Jamison nearly $50 million in combined salaries that season. Cuban wanted to build his franchise around the younger Nowitzki and did not want to risk signing the 30-year-old Nash to a long-term deal, and offered Nash a four-year deal worth about $9 million annually, with a fifth year partially guaranteed. The Phoenix Suns on the other hand offered the point guard a six-year, $63 million contract. Nash was reluctant to leave Dallas and returned to Cuban to see if he would match the deal; Cuban did not, and Nash signed with the Suns for the . The Canadian would go on to win two League MVP awards with Phoenix, and on a 14 June 2006 appearance on the Late Show with David Letterman, Cuban wondered out loud, "...you know Steve's a great guy and I love him to death, but why couldn't he play like an MVP for us?" Return to Phoenix (2004–2012) 2004–05 season Nash joined a Suns team which had emerging young players in Shawn Marion, Joe Johnson, and Amar'e Stoudemire. In the season before Nash arrived, the Suns had recorded a 29–53 win–loss record, and they were projected to have another poor season. Head coach Mike D'Antoni favoured an up-tempo style of basketball; this required smaller and more athletic players with the capability to outrun and outshoot their opponents. On 21 November 2004, Nash recorded 22 points, 18 assists and 4 steals in a 122–111 win over the LA Clippers. Nash's familiarity with this style combined with the athleticism of his teammates produced an NBA-best 62–20 record and a points-per-game average of 110.4, the highest in a decade. The catalyst of this turnaround, Nash averaged 11.5 assists per game while making 50.2% of his field goals and 43.1% of his three-pointers in the regular season. He edged Shaquille O'Neal to win the NBA MVP award, becoming the first Canadian to earn the honour, as well as the third point guard ever to be named MVP, along with Magic Johnson and Bob Cousy. In the 2005 playoffs, Phoenix swept the Memphis Grizzlies in four games before meeting the Dallas Mavericks in the second round. Nash led the Suns to a 4–2 series win, and the Suns reached the Western Conference finals for the first time since 1993, but lost to the eventual NBA Champions and arch-rival, the San Antonio Spurs, in five games. 2005–06 season In the next season, Stoudemire suffered a serious knee injury, and Johnson and Quentin Richardson were traded away. The Suns were not expected to repeat their successful 2005 season, but with Nash directing the same high-tempo offence, the team compiled a respectable 54–28 record and won the division title. On 2 January 2006, Nash recorded 28 points, 5 rebounds and 22 assists in a 140–133 triple overtime loss to the New York Knicks. The Suns were again the highest-scoring team in the league with seven players averaging double figures in points per game, and Nash was voted for the first time to start for the 2006 Western All-Star team. In the last game of the season, Nash recorded a triple-double of 16 points, 10 rebounds and 12 assists in a 106–96 road win over the Trail Blazers. Having recorded career highs in points (18.8), rebounds (4.2), field goal percentage (.512) and free throw percentage (a league-leading .921), and leading the league with 10.5 assists per game, Nash was named the league MVP for the second year in a row. In the first round of the 2006 playoffs, Phoenix overcame a 3–1 deficit against the Los Angeles Lakers and won the series 4–3. The Los Angeles Clippers were their Conference Semifinals opponents, and the Suns again needed seven games to clinch the series. For the second year in a row, however, the Suns bowed out in the Conference Finals, this time to Nash's former team, Dallas. 2006–07 season In the , Nash had another stellar campaign, averaging 18.6 points and a career-high 11.6 assists per game while becoming the first person since Magic Johnson in to average 18 points and 11 assists per game during the regular season. Nash received the most votes for first-team All-NBA and was joined by teammate Stoudemire; the two were the first teammates to make the first team since Kobe Bryant and Shaquille O'Neal in . Nash received 129 first-place votes and 645 total points from the panel of 129 media members. He narrowly missed being MVP a third consecutive time, coming in second with 44 first place votes to 83 for Dirk Nowitzki. In the 2007 playoffs, the Suns eliminated the Lakers in five games before losing 4–2 to the Spurs in the Conference Semifinals. 2007–08 season Nash played in 81 regular season games during the ; in this campaign, the Western Conference was especially competitive and he led the Suns to 55 wins and the sixth seed for the 2008 playoffs. Although there was a dip in his regular season output, Nash's shooting remained sharp; the accuracy of his shooting was on par with his 2005–06 MVP campaign (shooting at least 50% from the field, 40% from the three-point arc, and 90% from the free throw line). On 31 January 2008, he collected his All-Star stripes for the sixth time in his career. However, Nash continued to experience agony in the playoffs. Despite a mid-season trade that sent Shawn Marion to the Miami Heat and brought four-time NBA champion Shaquille O'Neal to the team, the Suns were defeated in the first round of the 2008 playoffs by the San Antonio Spurs for the third time in four years. In the deciding Game 5, Nash was perceived to have suffered from "elimination-game jitters", and turned over the ball twice in the final two minutes of what was a tight contest. Nevertheless, Nash was later named to the All-NBA Second Team for the 2007–08 season. 2008–09 season Before the began, coach D'Antoni was replaced by Terry Porter, who preferred a more defensive-oriented style of basketball. The Suns had difficulties adapting to this new system, and even a December trade involving sending stalwarts Raja Bell and Boris Diaw to the Charlotte Bobcats for athletic swingman Jason Richardson saw the team continue to struggle. Porter was then replaced by Alvin Gentry in February after a 28–23 record, but the Suns were unable to secure the final seed for the 2009 playoffs, resulting in Nash missing the playoffs for the first time since he returned to Phoenix for his second stint. 2009–10 season Nash and the Suns opened the with a series of strong performances, going 8–1 in their first nine games (a franchise-best since ), with Nash producing two 20-assists games. On 21 January 2010, Nash was named as the starting point guard for the West for the 2010 NBA All-Star Game. With him operating at the point, the Suns were the highest-scoring team in the league for the fifth season in a row, and were seeded third in the conference for the 2010 playoffs with 54 wins. Behind solid performances by Richardson and veteran Grant Hill, the Suns defeated the Portland Trail Blazers 4–2 in the first round of the playoffs, and swept the Spurs 4–0 in the second round. The Suns met the defending champions, Los Angeles Lakers, in the Conference Finals. After losing the first two games, Phoenix won the next two to tie the series. A Ron Artest buzzer-beater in Game 5 pushed the Lakers one game closer to the Finals, and Kobe Bryant's 37 points in Game 6 completed the defeat of the Suns. 2010–11 season The Suns underwent two major roster changes in the . During the pre-season, Stoudemire left for New York, while longtime teammate Leandro Barbosa was traded for Hedo Türkoğlu. Josh Childress, and Hakim Warrick were also recruited to join the Suns. Not long after the season began, Türkoğlu, Richardson, and Earl Clark were traded to Orlando for Vince Carter, Marcin Gortat, and Mickaël Piétrus, while rising star Goran Dragić was traded to the Houston Rockets for Aaron Brooks. The Suns had difficulty being even a .500 team, and for the second time since Nash returned to Phoenix, the Suns failed to make the 2011 playoffs. 2011–12 season In February 2012, Nash was named to his eighth All-Star Game. At the time, he was leading the NBA in assists per game. On 21 April 2012, Nash passed Oscar Robertson for career assists versus the Denver Nuggets. Despite his stellar play the Suns missed the 2012 playoffs for the second consecutive time. He finished the season averaging 12.5 points and 10.7 assists per game on 53.2% shooting from the field (tying his career high). Near the end of the 2011–12 season, Nash was named the winner of the PBWA's Magic Johnson Award. Los Angeles Lakers (2012–2015) 2012–13 season On 11 July 2012, the Los Angeles Lakers acquired Nash in a sign-and-trade deal with Phoenix. Nash also considered signing with New York or Toronto, but he decided that Los Angeles was the best fit for him and his family. Nash switched his jersey number, as his customary No. 13 was retired by Los Angeles in honour of Wilt Chamberlain. Nash, an avid soccer fan, chose No. 10 to pay homage to Glenn Hoddle, Zinedine Zidane, Lionel Messi and other soccer playmakers who wore the number. Entering his 17th NBA season, Nash came to the Lakers with concerns over his defense and the health of his back. In the second game of the 2012–13 season, Nash suffered a non-displaced fracture in his left leg after a collision with Damian Lillard of the Portland Trail Blazers. He was expected to miss at least one week, but was out of the lineup for close to seven weeks. He was reunited with D'Antoni, who took over as Lakers coach after Mike Brown was fired after a 1–4 start. On 22 December, Nash returned against the Golden State Warriors, helping the Lakers win their first overtime game of the season, 118–115, scoring 12 points with 9 assists in 41 minutes of play. The Lakers won three of the first four games after Nash returned. However, they lost their next four, including a 125–112 loss to Houston on 8 January 2013, when Nash assisted on an Antawn Jamison jumper to become the fifth player in NBA history to reach 10,000 career assists. Kobe Bryant was moved to defend the opponent's primary ball handler, freeing Nash from unfavourable matchups. Nash also struggled with Dwight Howard to run the pick and roll, a play that D'Antoni had expected would be a staple for the Lakers. D'Antoni moved Nash off the ball and made him more of a spot-up shooter, while Bryant became the primary facilitator on offense. Nash missed the last eight games of the season with a right hip injury that had also caused nerve damage in his right hamstring. The team qualified for the playoffs as the seventh seed, but were swept 4–0 by San Antonio in the first round. Nash missed the last two games of the series after recurring issues with his hip and hamstring. In what he called arguably "the most frustrating" season of his career, Nash missed a career-high 32 games in the regular season, and averaged his fewest assists (6.7) since 1999–2000, when he was a part-time starter with Dallas. 2013–14 season During the 2013–14 season, Nash continued to suffer nerve problems stemming from his leg injury the prior season. In November 2013, he was sidelined for an estimated minimum of two weeks due to nerve root irritation. Nash returned on 4 February 2014, shooting 3-for-6 for 7 points. On 7 February 2014, his 40th birthday, he scored a season-high 19 points in a victory over the Philadelphia 76ers. On 13 March, Nash was ruled out for the remainder of the season by D'Antoni. He was suffering from a recurrence of nerve problems stemming from an earlier collision to his left leg with Chicago's Kirk Hinrich, and the Lakers wanted to give Kendall Marshall and Jordan Farmar more playing time. However, Nash returned on 21 March after a groin injury to Farmar that was expected to sideline him a minimum of two weeks. 2014–15 season In July 2014, Nash announced that the 2014–15 season would be his last. During the preseason, he experienced back pain, and further aggravated his back while lifting luggage. On 23 October, less than a week before the start of what would have been the 40-year-old Nash's 19th year in the NBA, he was ruled out for the season due to a recurring back injury. Nash only played in three preseason games before he started to feel more pain in his back. Nash spoke on injuring his back, stating: "Being on the court this season has been my top priority, and it is disappointing to not be able to do that right now. I work very hard to stay healthy, and unfortunately my recent setback makes performing at full capacity difficult. I will continue to support my team during this period of rest and will focus on my long-term health." Retirement and consulting duties Nash announced his retirement from playing on 21 March 2015. Before the announcement, the Cleveland Cavaliers told Nash's agent that they were interested in having him as a backup for Kyrie Irving if Nash asked for a buyout. Nash refused it due to health concerns and his wanting to retire as a Laker in gratitude for the opportunity given by the club. Nash was later approached by another former team of his, the Dallas Mavericks, to have one last season with them instead, but he declined due to his aforementioned health concerns. On 25 September 2015, it was confirmed that Nash would take on part-time consulting duties for the Golden State Warriors. During his first season with the team, the Warriors produced a record-breaking 73–9 season, although the team fell short in the 2016 NBA Finals to the Cleveland Cavaliers. The next season, the Warriors would win the 2017 NBA Finals against the defending champions Cleveland Cavaliers, giving Nash his first NBA championship in any role. On 19 December 2017, the Naismith Basketball Hall of Fame announced that eligibility for induction into the Hall of Fame was decreased to three years after retirement, which allowed for Nash to be eligible to be enshrined in 2018. On 31 March 2018, during the Final Four, it was announced that Nash along with former teammates Jason Kidd and Grant Hill, as well as Ray Allen, Maurice Cheeks, and Charlie Scott would be inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 2018. Nash was formally inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame on 7 September 2018. In October 2021, Nash was honored as one of the league’s greatest players of all time by being named to the NBA 75th Anniversary Team. Coaching career Brooklyn Nets (2020–2022) On 3 September 2020, Nash was announced as head coach of the Brooklyn Nets. On 3 March 2021, Nash was named Eastern Conference Coach of the Month for February, becoming the first Nets head coach to earn the honor since his former teammate Jason Kidd won it twice in 2014. Nash led the Nets to an Eastern Conference-best record of 9–4 during the month, including a conference-best 5–2 road record. Nash led the Nets to a 48–24 record in his first season as head coach. After the 2020–21 regular season Nash finished in sixth place in the NBA Coach of the Year voting. On 27 October 2022, Nash received two technical fouls and was ejected for arguing with and yelling at referees, during a 110–99 loss to the Milwaukee Bucks. On 1 November, Nash and the Nets agreed to part ways amid controversies revolving around the team's players. National team career In the early 1990s, Nash was cut from the Canadian junior national team by head coach Ken Olynyk, the father of future NBA player Kelly Olynyk. At age 17, he was the youngest member of Team Canada at the Summer Universiade, where the team won a silver medal. In 1993, while in college, he played for the senior national team at the Tournament of the Americas and competed in the Canada Games (for the British Columbia team) and Summer Universiade. He won a bronze medal at the Canada Games and won a silver medal at the Summer Universiade, losing to Team USA in a closely contested final, which included players such as Michael Finley and Damon Stoudamire. At the 1999 Tournament of the Americas, Nash led Canada to the silver medal, qualifying the team for the Olympics for the first time in 12 years; he was named tournament MVP. Nash captained Canada at the 2000 Sydney Olympics. He led Canada to win their round robin group with a victory over Spain and a stunning 83–75 win over favoured Yugoslavia when he scored 26 points with eight rebounds and eight assists. Canada was eliminated in the quarterfinals with a five-point loss to France and Nash left the court in tears. Nash expressed disappointment with the result, saying "It hurts a lot. I feel like I let everybody down. We could have been in the championship game. We were good enough." Nevertheless, he did see a possible silver lining, saying "Hopefully kids [in Canada] will be inspired to play... that's what I really hope." A victory in its final game of the tournament, a placement game against Russia, enabled Canada to salvage seventh place. Nash's Olympic performance propelled him to stardom in Canada, and he finished fifth in voting for the 2000 Lionel Conacher Award, which is handed out to the Canadian male athlete of the year. Nash again led Team Canada during qualifying for the 2004 Summer Olympics at the FIBA Americas Olympic Qualifying Tournament in San Juan, Puerto Rico. He led the tournament in assists and was named tournament MVP, but Canada finished fourth, missing out on the three Olympic spots available. That was the last time Nash played for Canada; he was reportedly upset about the firing of head coach Jay Triano in 2004. In December 2007, he said, "In my mind right now, I'm not going to play for Canada any more." On 8 May 2012, Nash became general manager of the Canadian senior national team. Three months later, he rehired Triano as head coach. On 5 March 2019, Nash transitioned to a senior advisor role and was succeeded as general manager by Rowan Barrett, his former national team teammate. Player profile Nash was praised for his playmaking, ball-handling skills and shooting. He led the league in assists for five years, averaging 11.5 assists per game in 2004–05, 10.5 in 2005–06, 11.6 in 2006–07, 11.0 in 2009–10 and 11.4 in 2010–11 and won the NBA Skills Challenge in 2005 and 2010. As of the end of 2012–13 season, he had a 90.4% career free throw shooting average (formerly the best in NBA history, second to Stephen Curry) and a 42.8% career three-point shooting average (eighth-best in league history), and ranked as one of the top 10 players in league history in total assists, assists per game, and three-point field goals made. He is ranked second (starting from 1986–87) in regular season point–assist double doubles. In the 2005–06 season, Nash became the fourth player in NBA history to shoot 50% or better from the field, 40% from three-point range (43.9), and 90% from the line, joining Larry Bird, Reggie Miller, and Mark Price in the 50–40–90 club. Nash would repeat this feat three more times in the 2007–08, 2008–09 and 2009–10 campaigns. Nash (four times), Larry Bird and Kevin Durant (two times each) are the only players to have accomplished this feat more than once. A two-time NBA MVP, Nash is one of three point guards (along with Magic Johnson and Stephen Curry) to win the MVP award multiple times and the one of four guards in NBA history to earn back-to-back MVPs (along with Johnson, Michael Jordan and Curry). Only 12 other NBA players have won back-to-back MVP awards: Johnson, Jordan, Bill Russell, Wilt Chamberlain, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Moses Malone, Larry Bird, Tim Duncan, LeBron James, Stephen Curry, Giannis Antetokounmpo, and Nikola Jokić. On 12 January 2016, ESPN.com rated Nash as the seventh-best point guard of all time, and in a survey by nba.com in 2007, Nash received 85% of the votes by the league's general managers as best point guard in the league. In a similar survey in 2009, Nash was rated as the best passer and the player possessing the best basketball IQ. Commenting on Nash losing out to former teammate Dirk Nowitzki for the 2007 NBA MVP, Boston Celtics centre and Hall of Famer Russell stated: "I think, on the world stage, he's one of our great athletes in all sports... I'm a big fan. The two MVPs he got, he deserved. Part of the reason he's so good and so effective is that the guys like playing with him. He creates an atmosphere where they win games." Nash was particularly effective playing the pick and roll, especially with Nowitzki when he was with the Mavericks and later with the Suns' Amar'e Stoudemire and Shawn Marion under head coach Mike D’Antoni. When Nash returned to Phoenix in 2004, he helped the Suns improve from a 29–53 record in 2003–04 to 62–20 in 2004–05, reaching the Conference Finals for the first time in 11 years, and earning his first MVP award. The next season, he again led the Suns to the Conference Finals, despite the injuries of all three big men (Stoudemire, Kurt Thomas, and Brian Grant). Further, Nash was responsible for seven of his teammates attaining career-highs in season scoring. With Nash operating at the point between the 2005–06 and 2009–10 seasons, the Suns led the league in field goal percentage. In 2021, to commemorate the NBA's 75th Anniversary The Athletic ranked their top 75 players of all time, and named Nash as the 38th greatest player in NBA history. Career statistics NBA Regular season |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 65 || 2 || 10.5 || .423 || .418 || .824 || 1.0 || 2.1 || .3 || .0 || 3.3 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 76 || 9 || 21.9 || .459 || .415 || .860 || 2.1 || 3.4 || .8 || .1 || 9.1 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Dallas | 40 || 40 || 31.7 || .363 || .374 || .826 || 2.9 || 5.5 || .9 || .1 || 7.9 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Dallas | 56 || 27 || 27.4 || .477 || .403 || .882 || 2.2 || 4.9 || .7 || .1 || 8.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Dallas | 70 || 70 || 34.1 || .487 || .406 || .895 || 3.2 || 7.3 || 1.0 || .1 || 15.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Dallas | 82 || 82 || 34.6 || .483 || .455 || .887 || 3.1 || 7.7 || .6 || .0 || 17.9 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Dallas | 82 || style="background:#cfecec;"|82* || 33.1 || .465 || .413 || .909 || 2.9 || 7.3 || 1.0 || .1 || 17.7 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Dallas | 78 || 78 || 33.5 || .470 || .405 || .916 || 3.0 || 8.8 || .9 || .1 || 14.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 75 || 75 || 34.3 || .502 || .431 || .887 || 3.3 || style="background:#cfecec;"|11.5* || 1.0 || .1 || 15.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 79 || 79 || 35.4 || .512 || .439 || style="background:#cfecec;"|.921* || 4.2 || style="background:#cfecec;"|10.5* || .8 || .2 || 18.8 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 76 || 76 || 35.3 || .532 || .455 || .899 || 3.5 || style="background:#cfecec;"|11.6* || .8 || .1 || 18.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 81 || 81 || 34.3 || .504 || .470 || .906 || 3.5 || 11.1 || .7 || .1 || 16.9 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 74 || 74 || 33.6 || .503 || .439 || .933 || 3.0 || 9.7 || .7 || .1 || 15.7 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 81 || 81 || 32.8 || .507 || .426 || style="background:#cfecec;"|.938* || 3.3 || style="background:#cfecec;"|11.0* || .5 || .1 || 16.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 75 || 75 || 33.3 || .492 || .395 || .912 || 3.5 || style="background:#cfecec;"|11.4* || .6 || .1 || 14.7 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 62 || 62 || 31.6 || .532 || .390 || .894 || 3.0 || 10.7 || .6 || .1 || 12.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Lakers | 50 || 50 || 32.5 || .497 || .438 || .922 || 2.8 || 6.7 || .6 || .1 || 12.7 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Lakers | 15 || 10 || 20.9 || .383 || .333 || .917 || 1.9 || 5.7 || .5 || .1 || 6.8 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career | 1,217 || 1,052 || 31.3 || .490 || .428 || .904 || 3.0 || 8.5 || .7 || .1 || 14.3 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|All-Star | 7 || 2 || 15.9 || .429 || .250 || .000 || 2.0 || 6.7 || .4 || .1 || 3.7 Playoffs |- | style="text-align:left;"|1997 | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 4 || 0 || 3.8 || .222 || .250 || .000 || .3 || .3 || .3 || .3 || 1.3 |- | style="text-align:left;"|1998 | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 4 || 1 || 12.8 || .444 || .200 || .625 || 2.5 || 1.8 || .5 || .0 || 5.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2001 | style="text-align:left;"|Dallas | 10 || 10 || 37.0 || .417 || .410 || .882 || 3.2 || 6.4 || .6 || .1 || 13.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2002 | style="text-align:left;"|Dallas | 8 || 8 || 40.4 || .432 || .444 || .971 || 4.0 || 8.8 || .5 || .0 || 19.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2003 | style="text-align:left;"|Dallas | 20 || 20 || 36.5 || .447 || .487 || .873 || 3.5 || 7.3 || .9 || .1 || 16.1 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2004 | style="text-align:left;"|Dallas | 5 || 5 || 39.4 || .386 || .375 || .889 || 5.2 || 9.0 || .8 || .0 || 13.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2005 | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 15 || 15 || 40.7 || .520 || .389 || .919 || 4.8 || 11.3 || .9 || .2 || 23.9 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2006 | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 20 || 20 || 39.9 || .502 || .368 || .912 || 3.7 || 10.2 || .4 || .3 || 20.4 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2007 | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 11 || 11 || 37.5 || .463 || .487 || .891 || 3.2 || 13.3 || .4 || .1 || 18.9 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2008 | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 5 || 5 || 36.6 || .457 || .300 || .917 || 2.8 || 7.8 || .4 || .2 || 16.2 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2010 | style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix | 16 || 16 || 33.7 || .518 || .380 || .893 || 3.3 || 10.1 || .3 || .1 || 17.8 |- | style="text-align:left;"|2013 | style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Lakers | 2 || 2 || 30.5 || .435 || .000 || 1.000 || 2.5 || 4.5 || .0 || .0 || 12.5 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career | 120 || 113 || 35.7 || .473 || .406 || .900 || 3.5 || 8.8 || .6 || .1 || 17.3 College |- | style="text-align:left;"|1992–93 | style="text-align:left;"|Santa Clara | 31 || || 24.0 || .424 || .408 || .825 || 2.5 || 2.2 || .8 || .1 || 8.1 |- | style="text-align:left;"|1993–94 | style="text-align:left;"|Santa Clara | 26 || 23 || 29.9 || .414 || .399 || .831 || 2.5 || 3.7 || 1.3 || .0 || 14.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"|1994–95 | style="text-align:left;"|Santa Clara | 27 || 27 || 33.4 || .444 || .454 || .879 || 3.8 || 6.4 || 1.8 || .1 || 20.9 |- | style="text-align:left;"|1995–96 | style="text-align:left;"|Santa Clara | 29 || || 33.8 || .430 || .344 || .894 || 3.6 || 6.0 || 1.3 || .0 || 17.0 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career | 113 || || 30.1 || .430 || .401 || .867 || 3.1 || 4.5 || 1.3 || .1 || 14.9 Head coaching record |- | style="text-align:left;"|Brooklyn | style="text-align:left;"| | 72||48||24|||| style="text-align:center;"|2nd in Atlantic||12||7||5|| | style="text-align:center;"|Lost in Conference Semifinals |- | style="text-align:left;"|Brooklyn | style="text-align:left;"| | 82||44||38|||| style="text-align:center;"|4th in Atlantic||4||0||4|| | style="text-align:center;"|Lost in First Round |- | style="text-align:left;"|Brooklyn | style="text-align:left;"| | 7||2||5|||| style="text-align:center;"|(fired)||—||—||—||— | style="text-align:center;"|— |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career | 161||94||67|||| ||16||7||9|||| Awards and achievements NBA 2× NBA Most Valuable Player: 2005, 2006 8× NBA All-Star: 2002, 2003, 2005–2008, 2010, 2012 7× All-NBA selection: First team: 2005–2007 Second team: 2008, 2010 Third team: 2002, 2003 2× NBA Skills Challenge winner: 2005, 2010 5× NBA regular season leader for assists per game: 2005 (11.5), 2006 (10.5), 2007 (11.6), 2010 (11.0), 2011 (11.4) 6× NBA regular season leader for total assists: 2005 (861), 2006 (826), 2007 (884), 2010 (892), 2011 (855), 2012 (664) 2× NBA regular season leader for free throw percentage: 2006 (.921), 2010 (.938) 7× NBA regular season leader for assists per 48 minutes: 2004 (12.6), 2005 (16.1), 2006 (14.2), 2007 (15.8), 2008 (15.5), 2010 (16.1), 2011 (16.4) 4× member of 50–40–90 club: 2006, 2008–2010 Has more 50–40–90 seasons than any other player in NBA history One of only ten players to have ever shot 50–40–90 One of only three players (the others being Larry Bird and Kevin Durant) to have shot 50–40–90 more than once J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award: 2007 Second-highest career free throw percentage in NBA history (minimum 1,200 career attempts), 90.42 percent Phoenix Suns Ring of Honor NBA 75th Anniversary Team Other Lou Marsh Trophy: 2005 3× Lionel Conacher Award: 2002, 2005, 2006 Sports ownership Nash had also previously made statements about his intention to bring Major League Soccer to Vancouver as early as 2011, which he has succeeded in doing. He joined the USL-1 Vancouver Whitecaps FC team's ownership group in July 2008, and in March 2009, Vancouver was officially named as a future MLS expansion city, set to join the league in 2011. Nash occasionally attends practice for his co-owned team, called Vancouver Whitecaps FC. Nash, along with former Yahoo! president and fellow Victoria-native Jeff Mallett, were investors in Women's Professional Soccer, a soccer league that was launched in March 2009 and folded in May 2012. Nash cited his twin daughters and wanting to have role models for them to look up to as a reason for supporting the league. On 5 January 2016, it was announced that Nash was part of a group who purchased a $21 million stake in Spanish Segunda División club RCD Mallorca. The group also included Phoenix Suns owner Robert Sarver, Suns vice chairman Andy Kohlberg and former players of the US National Soccer Team Stuart Holden & Kyle Martino. On 21 June 2021 Nash along with Wayne Gretzky, Dustin Johnson, and Brooklyn Nets owner Joe Tsai became owners in the National Lacrosse League's new Las Vegas franchise, the Las Vegas Desert Dogs. Off the court Personal life In 2001, Nash met Alejandra Amarilla in Manhattan. They married in June 2005 and had twin daughters and a son. On the day of his son's birth, Nash made a statement to Life & Style in which he announced the birth but called it a "bittersweet moment," revealing that he and his wife had "lived separately for the past several months" and were "in the process of dissolving" their marriage. In March 2016, Nash became engaged to Lilla Frederick, a former Pepperdine University and junior women's U.S. team volleyball player. They married in September 2016. The couple have a son and a daughter. In 2006, Nash was referenced in Canadian singer Nelly Furtado's song "Promiscuous", leading him to deny rumours that they were romantically involved. They both grew up in British Columbia. Nash's younger brother, Martin, played soccer for the Vancouver Whitecaps FC and made 30 appearances for the Canadian national soccer team. Their younger sister, Joann, was the captain of the University of Victoria Vikes women's soccer team for three years and was named a Canada West Universities Athletic Association All-Star. She is married to former professional ice hockey player Manny Malhotra. Nash is the godfather of New York Knicks star R. J. Barrett. Nash has a medical condition called spondylolisthesis, which causes muscle tightness and back pain. Due to the condition, when he was not playing in basketball games, he would lie on his back rather than sit on the bench to keep his muscles from stiffening. Charity In 2001, Nash founded the Steve Nash Foundation. Through grants to public service and nonprofit entities, the foundation aims to foster health in kids by funding projects that provide services to children affected by poverty, illness, abuse, or neglect, and create opportunities for education, play, and empowerment. It focuses its resources on communities in Phoenix, Arizona and British Columbia, Canada, and was given charitable status in 2004. The foundation was awarded the Steve Patterson Award for Excellence in Sports Philanthropy in 2008. Nash also founded the Jim Jennings Memorial Endowment Fund, established in honour of a volunteer staff member at Santa Clara University who served the basketball team for more than 20 years. Elsewhere, Nash sponsors the Steve Nash Youth Basketball League in British Columbia, which has grown over 10,000 participants. He also became involved with GuluWalk, a Canadian-operated charitable organization that raises awareness and funds for the war-affected children of northern Uganda. In September 2007, Nash and Yao Ming headlined a group of NBA players who travelled to China and played an exhibition game with the Chinese national basketball team. The charity event reportedly raised 2.5 million dollars, earmarked for Chinese children in need. In May 2006, Nash was named by Time as one of the 100 most influential people in the world. In the accompanying write-up by Charles Barkley, Nash was lauded for his unselfishness on the basketball court, and being "just a nice guy" who had paid for a new pediatric cardiology ward in a Paraguayan hospital. On 28 December 2007, it was announced that Nash would receive Canada's highest civilian honour, the Order of Canada, and on 3 June 2008, it was announced that Nash would receive a star on Canada's Walk of Fame. On 18 September 2009, he was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from the University of Victoria for his athletic achievements and philanthropic work on the behalf of young people through the Steve Nash Foundation. Endorsements Nash is selective in his endorsements, preferring companies he deems socially responsible. After winning his first MVP award, he was approached to serve as spokesperson for numerous products, including MDG Computers, Raymond Weil watches, Vitamin Water, and Clearly Canadian bottled water. He also has a longstanding relationship with Nike. Nash is represented by agent Bill Duffy. Soccer Nash grew up playing soccer—he stated in a 2005 interview that he could have played professionally if he had focused on it—and continues to hold an interest in the sport. When Dirk Nowitzki arrived in the NBA from Germany, he and Nash became close friends, in part because they enjoyed watching soccer together. Nash is friends with several professional soccer players, including Alessandro Del Piero, Thierry Henry, Owen Hargreaves, Massimo Ambrosini and Steve McManaman. During his off-season, when he lives in New York City, he has trained with the New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer, and once tried to arrange a pick-up game in the city's Central Park with the Red Bulls and one of his local teams. Nash, whose father was born in the Tottenham district of London, is a lifelong Tottenham Hotspur supporter, and has expressed interest in owning a minority stake in the club. "I'd like to be an owner. It's something I could do for the rest of my life after my little window of popularity dies", he said in an interview with The New York Times. Nash added, "I've been a passionate supporter all my life. My parents are from north London and so it's not like I'm some Yank who wants to make a profit out of football. I don't care about making money. I just want to see Spurs succeed and, if I can help, that's great." However, he said any participation in Spurs would come after his basketball career is over, and he has had only "casual contact" with chairman Daniel Levy and former director of football Damien Comolli. Nash is also a fan of Spain's FC Barcelona, and Brazilian team Sport Club Corinthians Paulista, which his former Suns teammate Leandro Barbosa supports. When Barbosa visited Corinthians in 2007, the club gave him a shirt with Nash's name and jersey number. Nash also co-hosted Showdown in Chinatown in 2008, an 8-on-8 charity soccer game held at Sara D. Roosevelt Park. He scored two goals in his team's 8–5 victory. Participants included Thierry Henry, Jason Kidd, Baron Davis, and Suns teammates Raja Bell and Leandro Barbosa. In July 2013, Nash participated in a training session with the Italian soccer club Inter Milan at the New York Red Bulls' facilities in New Jersey. He also trained with the New York Cosmos B of the American fourth-division National Premier Soccer League in 2015. Other interests Nash and a Montreal-based partner, Leonard Schlemm, opened the first Steve Nash Sports Club in the spring of 2007 in downtown Vancouver, a high-end, $5 million, facility that will mirror Nash's own fitness philosophy. In 2007, Nash wrote and produced an 81-second commercial for Nike titled "Training Day," directed by Julian Schnabel's daughter Lola, which gained popularity as a viral video on YouTube. Nash also started a film production company together with his cousin, filmmaker Ezra Holland, and intends to produce independent films. The first creative effort to come from Meathawk was a 91-second commercial, titled "The Sixty Million Dollar Man", for Nike's eco-friendly Trash Talk shoe, the first high-performance shoe to be made—at the behest of the environmentally conscious Nash—from recycled materials. Nash has worn the shoe since February 2008, but Nike produced only 5,000 pairs for sale. The ad, which broke virally on Earth Day 2008, was written by Nash and the directors of the spot, Danny Vaia and Ezra Holland. It is a spoof remake of the title sequence of the American television series The Six Million Dollar Man and plays on Nash's numerous on-court collisions. Amar'e Stoudemire and Raja Bell have cameo appearances. Nash and Holland also co-directed the documentary Into the Wind, about iconic Canadian athlete and activist Terry Fox, as part of ESPN's 30 for 30 series. In October 2013, Nash appeared in the music video for "City of Angels" by Thirty Seconds to Mars. In 2013, Nash was one of the recipients of the Top 25 Canadian Immigrant Awards presented by Canadian Immigrant magazine. At the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, Nash became the first NBA player in Olympic history to carry the torch and light the Olympic cauldron. Nash is also known for his outspoken political views. He was an early and public opponent of the 2003 Iraq War, wearing a custom-made T-shirt to the 2003 NBA All Star Game that stated: "No war – Shoot for peace." Although Nash did get positive support from teammate Nick Van Exel among others, he also drew criticism from David Robinson, a former Naval officer and fellow NBA player as well as commentators like Skip Bayless who criticized Nash as being uninformed and advised him to "just shut up and play." Nash has also been critical of Arizona's SB1070, legislation which seeks to aggressively address illegal immigration, as he felt "the law obviously can target opportunities for racial profiling." In August 2017, Nash was critical of President Donald Trump in the aftermath of the 2017 Unite the Right rally, saying that "to defend white supremacists and then slang his shitty ass grape juice pretty much sums the man up," referring to a winery Donald Trump has in Charlottesville, Virginia. See also List of Canadians in the National Basketball Association List of foreign NBA players List of National Basketball Association career games played leaders List of National Basketball Association career assists leaders List of National Basketball Association career turnovers leaders List of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association career minutes played leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff assists leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff turnovers leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff 3-point scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association players with most assists in a game List of oldest and youngest National Basketball Association players List of sportspeople with dual nationality References Further reading Jeff Rud, (1996), Long Shot: Steve Nash's Journey to the NBA, Polestar Books Jeff Rud. (2007), Steve Nash: The Making of an MVP, Puffin Ryan Basen, (2007) Steve Nash: Leader on and Off the Court, Enslow Publishers External links Steve Nash, winner of the Lionel Conacher Award and the Bobbie Rosenfeld Award: Virtual Museum of Canada Exhibit Category:1974 births Category:Living people Category:1994 FIBA World Championship players Category:Basketball people from British Columbia Category:Basketball players at the 2000 Summer Olympics Category:Brooklyn Nets head coaches Category:Canadian expatriate basketball people in the United States Category:Canadian humanitarians Category:Canadian men's basketball coaches Category:Canadian men's basketball players Category:Canadian people of English descent Category:Canadian people of Welsh descent Category:Canadian philanthropists Category:Canadian soccer chairmen and investors Category:Dallas Mavericks players Category:FIBA Hall of Fame inductees Category:Los Angeles Lakers players Category:Lou Marsh Trophy winners Category:Major League Soccer owners Category:Members of the Order of British Columbia Category:Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees Category:National Basketball Association All-Stars Category:National Basketball Association Most Valuable Player Award winners Category:National Basketball Association players from Canada Category:Naturalized citizens of Canada Category:Officers of the Order of Canada Category:Olympic basketball players for Canada Category:Olympic cauldron lighters Category:Phoenix Suns draft picks Category:Phoenix Suns players Category:Point guards Category:Santa Clara Broncos men's basketball players Category:Sportspeople from Johannesburg Category:Sportspeople from Victoria, British Columbia
[ { "text": "This is a list of basketball players from Canada who have played in the National Basketball Association (NBA).\n\nActive players\nNickeil Alexander-Walker\nNew Orleans Pelicans (2019–2022)\nUtah Jazz (2022–2023)\nMinnesota Timberwolves (2023–present)\nDalano Banton\nToronto Raptors (2021–present)\nRJ Barrett\nNew York Knicks (2019–present)\nKhem Birch\nOrlando Magic (2017–2021)\nToronto Raptors (2021–2023)\nSan Antonio Spurs (2023–present)\nChris Boucher\nGolden State Warriors (2017–2018)\nToronto Raptors (2018–present)\nOshae Brissett\nToronto Raptors (2019–2020)\nIndiana Pacers (2021–present)\nDillon Brooks\nMemphis Grizzlies (2017–present)\nBrandon Clarke\nMemphis Grizzlies (2019–present)\nLuguentz Dort\nOklahoma City Thunder (2019–present)\nShai Gilgeous-Alexander\nLos Angeles Clippers (2018–2019)\nOklahoma City Thunder (2019–present)\nCaleb Houstan\nOrlando Magic (2022-present)\nCory Joseph\nSan Antonio Spurs (2011–2015)\nToronto Raptors (2015–2017)\nIndiana Pacers (2017–2019)\nSacramento Kings (2019–2021)\nDetroit Pistons (2021–present)\nMfiondu Kabengele\nLos Angeles Clippers (2019–2020)\nCleveland Cavaliers (2021)\nBoston Celtics (2022–present)\nA.J. Lawson\nMinnesota Timberwolves (2022)\nDallas Mavericks (2022-present)\nTrey Lyles\nUtah Jazz (2015–2017)\nDenver Nuggets (2017–2019)\nSan Antonio Spurs (2019–2021)\nDetroit Pistons (2021–2022)\nSacramento Kings (2021–present)\nBennedict Mathurin\nIndiana Pacers (2022-present)\nJamal Murray\nDenver Nuggets (2016–present)\nAndrew Nembhard\nIndiana Pacers (2022-present)\nKelly Olynyk\nBoston Celtics (2013–2017)\nMiami Heat (2017–2021)\nHouston Rockets (2021)\nDetroit Pistons (2021–2022)\nUtah Jazz (2022-present)\nEugene Omoruyi\nDallas Mavericks (2021)\nOklahoma City Thunder (2022-2023)\nDetroit Pistons (2023-present)\nDwight Powell\nBoston Celtics (2014)\nDallas Mavericks (2014–present)\nShaedon Sharpe\nPortland Trail Blazers (2022-present)\nTristan Thompson\nCleveland Cavaliers (2011-2019)\nBoston Celtics (2020–21)\nSacramento Kings (2021–22)\nIndiana Pacers (2022)\nChicago Bulls (2022)\nLos Angeles Lakers (2023-present)\nAndrew Wiggins\nMinnesota Timberwolves (2014–2020)\nGolden State Warriors (2020–present)\n\nAwards and honors\nHall of Famers\n\nBob Houbregs, 1987\nSteve Nash, 2018\n\nMost Valuable Player\n\nSteve Nash, 2 times, 2005–2006\n\nAll-NBA Team\n\nSteve Nash, First Team 3 times (2005–2007), Second Team 2 times (2008, 2010), Third Team 2 times (2002–2003)\nShai Gilgeous-Alexander, First Team, 2023\n\nFirst overall draft pick\n\nAnthony Bennett (Cleveland Cavaliers, UNLV, 2013)\nAndrew Wiggins (Cleveland Cavaliers, Kansas, 2014)\n\nRookie of the Year Award\n\nAndrew Wiggins (Minnesota Timberwolves, 2015)\n\nDefensive Player of the Year\n\nNone\n\nMost Improved Player\n\nNone\n\nSixth Man of the Year\n\nNone\n\nAll-Rookie Team\n\nRick Fox, Second Team, 1992\nTristan Thompson, Second Team, 2012\nKelly Olynyk, Second Team, 2014\nAndrew Wiggins, First Team, 2015\nJamal Murray, Second Team, 2017\nShai Gilgeous-Alexander, Second Team, 2019\nBrandon Clarke, First Team, 2020\nBennedict Mathurin, First Team, 2023\n\nNBA Champions\n\nMike Smrek, 2 times, 1987–1988\nBill Wennington, 3 times, 1996–1998\nRick Fox, 3 times, 2000–2002\nJoel Anthony, 2 times, 2012–2013\nCory Joseph, 1 time, 2014\nTristan Thompson, 1 time, 2016\nChris Boucher, 2 times, 2018–2019\nAndrew Wiggins, 1 time, 2022\n\nNBA Finals MVP\n\nNone\n\nNBA Citizenship Award\n Steve Nash, 2007\n Samuel Dalembert, 2010\n\nNBA Sportsmanship Award\n\nNone\n\nTeammate of the Year\n\nNone\n\nAll-Star selection\nSteve Nash, 8 times, 2002–2003, 2005–2008, 2010, 2012\nShai Gilgeous-Alexander, 2023\nAndrew Wiggins, 2022\nJamaal Magloire, 2004\n\nPlayers\nThis is an alphabetical list of 62 basketball players from Canada who have played in the National Basketball Association since 1946. Players name listed in BOLD are currently active players.\n__NOTOC__\n\nA\nKyle Alexander\nNickeil Alexander-Walker\n Joel Anthony\n\nB\nNorm Baker\nDalano Banton\nRJ Barrett\nAnthony Bennett\nSim Bhullar\nHank Biasatti\nKhem Birch\nChris Boucher\nIgnas Brazdeikis\nOshae Brissett\nDillon Brooks\n\nC\n\nBrandon Clarke\nRon Crevier\n\nD\nSamuel Dalembert\n Nate Darling\nLuguentz Dort\n\nE\nTyler Ennis\n\nF\nRick Fox\n\nG\nShai Gilgeous-Alexander\nStewart Granger\n\nH\nLars Hansen\nBob Houbregs\nCaleb Houstan\n\nJ\nCory Joseph\nKris Joseph\n\nK\nMfiondu Kabengele\n\nL\nA. J. Lawson\nTrey Lyles\n\nM\nTodd MacCulloch\nJamaal Magloire\nKarim Mané\nBennedict Mathurin\nNaz Mitrou-Long\nMychal Mulder\nJamal Murray\n\nN\nSteve Nash\nAndrew Nicholson\nAndrew Nembhard\n\nO\nKelly Olynyk\nEugene Omoruyi\n\nP\nKevin Pangos\nDwight Powell\nJoshua Primo\n\nR\nXavier Rathan-Mayes\nAndy Rautins\nLeo Rautins\n\nS\nRobert Sacre\nMarial Shayok\nMike Smrek\nGino Sovran\nNik Stauskas\nShaedon Sharpe\n\nT\nTristan Thompson\n\nV\nErnie Vandeweghe\n\nW\nBill Wennington\nAndrew Wiggins\nLindell Wigginton\nKyle Wiltjer\n\nZ\nJim Zoet\n\nSee also\n List of foreign NBA players\n List of Canadians in NASCAR\n List of Canadians in the National Football League\n List of Major League Baseball players from Canada\n\nReferences\n\nNBA\n \nCanadian Nba", "title": "List of Canadians in the National Basketball Association" }, { "text": "This is a list of basketball players who are the leaders in career games played in the National Basketball Association (NBA).\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nSee also\n\nList of National Basketball Association career minutes played leaders\nList of National Basketball Association seasons played leaders\nList of NBA players who have spent their entire career with one franchise\nList of oldest and youngest National Basketball Association players\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nNBA & ABA Career Leaders and Records for Games – BasketballReference.com\n\nGames", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career games played leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season assists recorded\nProgressive assist leaders list\n\nAssist leaders\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season assists recorded.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nProgressive list of assists leaders\nThis is a progressive list of assists leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nSee also\nBasketball statistics\nNBA regular season records\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career leaders in assists\nNational Basketball Association official website enumeration of NBA career leaders in assists\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career assists leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season turnovers recorded.\nA progressive list of turnover leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\n\nTurnovers leaders\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season turnovers recorded.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nProgressive list of turnovers leaders\nThis is a progressive list of turnovers leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nSee also\nBasketball statistics\nNBA regular season records\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career leaders in turnovers\nNational Basketball Association official website enumeration of NBA career leaders in turnovers\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career turnovers leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of NBA career regular season three-point field goals made.\nA progressive list of three-point leaders showing how the record has increased through the years.\n\nList of 3-point scoring leaders\n\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nProgressive list of 3-point scoring leaders\nThis is a progressive list of 3-point scoring leaders showing how the record has increased through the years.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nSee also\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career leaders in 3-point field goals made\nNational Basketball Association official website enumeration of NBA career leaders in 3-point field goals made\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season leaders in minutes played.\nA progressive list of leaders, and records for minutes played showing how the record has increased through the years.\n\nMinutes played leaders\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season leaders in minutes played.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nProgressive list of minutes played leaders\nThis is a progressive list of leaders and records for minutes played showing how the record has increased through the years.\nStatistics accurate as of the 2022–23 NBA season.\n\nSee also\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career leaders in minutes played\nNational Basketball Association official website enumeration of NBA career leaders in minutes played\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career minutes played leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association (NBA) players by total career playoff assists recorded.\nA progressive list of assist leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\n\nPlayoff assist leaders\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career playoff assists recorded.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 22, 2023.\n\nProgressive list of playoff assist leaders\n\nThis is a progressive list of assist leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 22, 2023.''\n\nSee also\nBasketball statistics\nNBA post-season records\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career playoff leaders in assists\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career playoff assists leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association (NBA) players by total career playoff turnovers recorded.\nA progressive list of turnover leaders showing how the record has increased through the years.\n\nCareer playoff turnover leaders\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career playoff turnovers recorded.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 22, 2023.\n\nProgressive list of playoff turnover leaders\n\nThis is a progressive list of turnover leaders showing how the record increased through the years.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 29, 2023.''\n\nSee also\nBasketball statistics\nNBA post-season records\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career playoff leaders in turnovers\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career playoff turnovers leaders" }, { "text": "This article provides two lists:\nA list of National Basketball Association players by total career playoff three-point field goals made.\nA progressive list of three-point leaders showing how the record has increased through the years.\n\nPlayoff 3-point field goals made leaders\n\nThis is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career playoff three-point field goals made.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 29, 2023.\n\nProgressive list of playoff 3-point field goals made\n\nThis is a progressive list of 3-point scoring leaders showing how the record has increased through the years.\n\nStatistics accurate as of May 29, 2023.''\n\nSee also\nBasketball statistics\nNBA post-season records\nList of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \nBasketball-Reference.com enumeration of NBA career playoff leaders in 3-point field goals made\n\nCategory:National Basketball Association lists\nCategory:National Basketball Association statistical leaders", "title": "List of National Basketball Association career playoff 3-point scoring leaders" }, { "text": "This is a list of oldest and youngest National Basketball Association players. The National Basketball Association (NBA) is a men's professional basketball league in North America. The NBA was founded in 1946 as the Basketball Association of America (BAA). The league adopted its current name at the start of the when it merged with the National Basketball League (NBL). The oldest person ever to play in the NBA was Nat Hickey, a coach who activated himself as a player for a game two days before his 46th birthday. The youngest player ever to play in the NBA was Andrew Bynum, who played his first game only six days after his 18th birthday. The oldest active player is Miami Heat power forward Udonis Haslem, who is currently 42 years old. The youngest active player in the NBA is Detroit Pistons center Jalen Duren, the 13th overall pick in the 2022 NBA draft, who is currently 19 years old and was born on November 18, 2003.\n\nKey\n\nOldest players\n\nThe oldest player ever to play in the NBA was Nat Hickey who played one game in the 1947–48 season when he was 45 years and 363 days old. Hickey, who was coaching the Providence Steamrollers at the time, decided to activate himself and played in a game for the Steamrollers. In his first game as a player for the Steamrollers, he missed all six of his shot attempts and only scored two points from three free throw attempts; he only played in one more game before retiring as a player two days shy of his 46th birthday. The second-oldest player is Kevin Willis, who played 20 seasons (excluding the 1988–89 season he missed due to injury) in the league before he sat out the 2005–06 season and earned a contract with the Dallas Mavericks on April 2, 2007. Willis then played five games for the Mavericks at the age of 44. The third-oldest player is Hall of Famer Robert Parish. Parish, who played with the Boston Celtics in the 1980s, played his last season with the Chicago Bulls at the age of 43. He played in 1,611 regular season games during his 21-year career, more than any other player in NBA history. When the Bulls won the 1997 Finals, Parish became the oldest player ever to win the NBA championship. There are 31 players who played in the NBA after they turned 40. The oldest active player is Udonis Haslem, who is now 42 years old. Haslem played his first game in the 2003–04 NBA season and has played for 20 seasons. He is the only player born before 1984 who is still active and under contract with an NBA team.\n\nAll-time\n\nActive\nThis list includes active players who is/will be 35 or above years old in the current year\n\nYoungest players\n\nNBA players usually come from U.S. college basketball. In the past, a college player had to complete his four-year college eligibility before he could enter the league through the NBA draft or as a free agent. In the 1970s, the league began to allow college underclassmen and high school players to enter the league. However, the trend of drafting high school players only began in the mid 1990s. This has led to more younger players entering the league directly after high school graduation. In 2005, the league and the players' union agreed on a new collective bargaining agreement that includes a minimum age limit which requires that players who wish to enter the league must be at least 19 years old on December 31 of the year of the draft, and at least one year removed from high school. International players who did not play college basketball also have to be at least 19 years old on the same date to be able to play in the NBA. Despite a trend toward drafting younger players, the NBA has a higher average age than it had in the 1980s. However, since the NBA introduced the minimum age limit in 2005, the league's average age has decreased in the past few seasons. The youngest player to ever play in the NBA was Andrew Bynum who played his first game at the age of 18 years and 6 days old. Bynum, who was also the youngest player ever selected in the NBA Draft, went into the NBA straight out of high school. Jermaine O'Neal and Kobe Bryant, both drafted in 1996, were the second- and third-youngest players. Serbian Darko Miličić was the youngest player ever to play in an NBA Finals game. He played for the Detroit Pistons in Game 3 of the 2004 Finals at the age of 18 years and 356 days old. The Pistons won the 2004 Finals and Miličić became the youngest player ever to win the NBA championship, being only five days away from his 19th birthday at the time. There are currently 29 players who played in the NBA before they turned 19. Nineteen of them came to the league straight out of high school, while 7 of them are international players who never played basketball in the U.S. high schools or colleges before they entered the NBA, and three players, Devin Booker, Joshua Primo and Jalen Duren played one year of college before entering the NBA all while remaining 18 years old throughout the process.\n\nAll-time\n\nActive\n\nSee also\nList of National Basketball Association career games played leaders\nList of National Basketball Association seasons played leaders\nList of oldest professional athletes by sport\nList of oldest Major League Baseball players\nList of oldest National Hockey League players\n\nReferences\nGeneral\n\nSpecific\n\nOldest\nNational Basketball Association players\nNational Basketball Association players", "title": "List of oldest and youngest National Basketball Association players" }, { "text": "The following is a list of athletes with dual nationality. It includes both players who can trace their origins to a foreign country and those who have attained foreign nationality during their career, as well as players who hail from semi-autonomous regions within countries.\n\nAthletics\n\nAuto racing\n\nBaseball\n\nBasketball\n\nBoxing\n\nCycling\n\nFencing\n\nField hockey\n\nFootball (Association)\n\nFootball (Gridiron)\n\nIce hockey (Junior)\n\nIce hockey (Senior)\n\nKickboxing\n\nRugby (league & union)\n\nSkating\n\nSwimming\n\nTennis\n\nWeightlifting\n\nSee also\nList of nationality transfers in sport\nOriundo\n\nReferences\n\nDual nationality", "title": "List of sportspeople with dual nationality" } ]
[ "After retiring from basketball, Steve Nash took on part-time consulting duties for the Golden State Warriors.", "Steve Nash retired from the NBA on March 21, 2015.", "Steve Nash finished his career with the Los Angeles Lakers.", "The context does not provide information on Steve Nash's career stats when he retired." ]
[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]
C_ee4738cf0f754bdb929dec96f2753394_0
Kid Cudi
Cudi was born Scott Ramon Seguro Mescudi on January 30, 1984, in Cleveland, Ohio, and grew up in Shaker Heights and Solon. He is the youngest of four children, with two brothers, Domingo and Dean, and a sister, Maisha. His mother, Elsie Harriet (Banks), is a middle-school choir teacher at Roxboro Middle School in Cleveland Heights, Ohio. His father, Lindberg Styles Mescudi, was a house painter, substitute teacher and World War II Air Force veteran.
Personal life
In a January 2013 interview, Cudi revealed that he had stopped smoking marijuana two years earlier, both for the sake of his child and due to frustration with constantly being associated with the drug and stoner culture. In that same interview, Cudi said that while he believes in God, he considers himself spiritual but not religious. In a March 2013 interview, Kid Cudi talked about how his initial sudden and unexpected fame drove him to alcohol and drugs: "For me, I just got to this point, and especially up until recently, I gave up liquor, I don't drink anymore, it's been five and a half months I've been sober. The booze was a new thing for me, I didn't realize I was an alcoholic all these years. I had a problem, I think with any addiction you have to be ready to make the choice, whether it's cigarettes or anything. You have to just commit and you just have to stick with it. I stopped everything cold turkey. When I had my cocaine problem I stopped cold turkey, I didn't go to rehab. I don't believe in these things. Some people need the extra help, not me. I wasn't a drug addict before this crap, I wasn't doing cocaine, I wasn't getting wasted every night because I didn't want to be alone. I wasn't this dark person before the madness, I was a whole other dude. I don't even think I smoked weed as much 'cause we couldn't afford it... You just have to make the choice and decide the person you wanna be and stick with it. You get to a certain age where the people around you are not gonna be on that rollercoaster all day long ready for you to go up, ready for you to go down, and stick with you through all the madness. People want you to be one person and stick with it and I chose to be clean and be sober and get my life together. For myself, for my health, for my daughter, for my family." In a 2013 interview, Cudi revealed he had suffered an addiction to anti-depressant medication, which had been prescribed to help him deal with an "emotional breakdown" following a failed relationship. In a 2014 interview, Cudi spoke on his struggles with depression and suicide throughout the years: "I've dealt with suicide for the past five years. There wasn't a week or a day that didn't go by where I was just like, 'You know, I wanna check out.' I know what that feels like, I know it comes from loneliness, I know it comes from not having self-worth, not loving yourself." In October 2016, Cudi revealed on his Facebook page that he had checked himself into rehabilitation for depression and suicidal urges. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "Where is he from?", "Is he single?", "What are his hobbies?", "What is interesting in this section?", "How did he overcome?", "What is he doing currently?" ]
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Scott Ramon Seguro Mescudi (born January 30, 1984), also known by his stage name Kid Cudi ( ), is an American rapper, singer, songwriter, record producer, actor, and fashion designer. Born and raised in Cleveland, Ohio, Cudi would move to New York City in pursuit of a musical career, where he first gained major recognition following the release of his debut single "Day 'n' Nite", which he initially self-published on his MySpace page. The song went on to become a worldwide hit and served as the catalyst for Cudi to team with American record producers Plain Pat and Emile Haynie, to record his first official full-length project, a mixtape titled A Kid Named Cudi (2008). The mixtape helped Cudi rise to prominence and establish a fan base, and it caught the attention of high-profile musician Kanye West, who subsequently signed Cudi to his GOOD Music label imprint by late 2008. Cudi's commercial debut single was later remastered and featured on his debut album, Man on the Moon: The End of Day (2009), which was certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The album also included the singles "Make Her Say" (featuring Kanye West and Common) and "Pursuit of Happiness" (featuring MGMT and Ratatat), the latter of which achieved diamond status (10x platinum) by the RIAA. In 2010, Cudi released his second album, Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager, which also attained platinum status and features the singles "Erase Me" (featuring Kanye West) and "Mr. Rager". Later that year he formed WZRD, a rock band, with his long-time collaborator Dot da Genius. Their eponymous debut album (2012) debuted at number one on the Billboard Top Rock Albums chart. Cudi would go on to release the self-produced solo album Indicud (2013), which was certified gold by the RIAA and spawned the platinum-selling single "Just What I Am" (featuring King Chip). He would continue to produce the bulk of his own records, including the avant-garde music albums Satellite Flight: The Journey to Mother Moon (2014) and Speedin' Bullet 2 Heaven (2015), the latter of which was led by the grunge-inspired single "Confused!". In 2016, the release of his sixth solo album Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin', was supported by the lead single "Surfin'" (featuring Pharrell Williams). Cudi's joint album with Kanye West, under the eponymous name Kids See Ghosts (2018), was met with widespread critical acclaim. In April 2020, Cudi earned his first number-one song on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart with "The Scotts", alongside fellow American rapper Travis Scott. His seventh album, Man on the Moon III: The Chosen (2020), was highly acclaimed and a commercial success, having been certified gold by the RIAA. Cudi issued his eighth album Entergalactic (2022), coinciding with the release of a adult animated special of the same name inspired by the album, which was critically praised. After signing to GOOD Music, Cudi has since gone on to launch his own vanity labels, the now-dissolved Dream On and current label imprint Wicked Awesome Records. Cudi also ventured into acting in 2010, when he was cast in the HBO series How to Make It in America. He has since appeared in several feature films, including Goodbye World (2013), Need for Speed (2014), Entourage (2015), Bill & Ted Face the Music (2020), Don't Look Up (2021), and X (2022). In addition, he has made appearances on television shows such as One Tree Hill, The Cleveland Show, Brooklyn Nine-Nine, and Westworld. In 2015, he was the bandleader on the IFC series Comedy Bang! Bang! and in 2020 was added as a cast member for the HBO mini-series We Are Who We Are. In 2020, he launched Mad Solar, a production company for film and television, which produced a documentary titled A Man Named Scott (2021), storying Cudi's music career. Cudi is also founder, creator, and director of the clothing line "MOTR", which he launched in 2022. Kid Cudi has been widely recognized as an influence on several contemporary hip hop and alternative acts. His lyrics are often autobiographical and describe his childhood hardships of depression, loneliness and alienation, his struggle with alcohol and drugs into adulthood, and themes of spirituality, heartbreak, dissipation and celebration. The majority of his impact stems from his ability to display vulnerability and address bouts with mental health. He is also noted for his experimental nature, combining elements of psychedelia, R&B, electronica, synthpop, dance, house, punk and indie rock, in his music. Cudi has sold over 22 million certified records in the United States and has won two Grammy Awards from five nominations. He has worked with numerous prominent artists spanning several different genres in the music industry, namely Jay-Z, Eminem, Kendrick Lamar, David Guetta, Steve Aoki, MGMT, Mary J. Blige, Shakira, Ariana Grande and Michael Bolton, among others. Early life Kid Cudi was born Scott Ramon Seguro Mescudi in Cleveland, Ohio, on January 30, 1984. He grew up in Shaker Heights and Solon. He has two older brothers, Domingo and Dean, and an older sister, Maisha. His mother, Elsie Harriet (née Banks), is an African-American school choir teacher at Roxboro Middle School in Cleveland Heights, Ohio. His father, Lindberg Styles Mescudi, was a house painter, substitute teacher, and World War II Air Force veteran of African-American and Mexican descent. When Cudi was 11 years old, his father died of cancer; his passing had a significant effect on Cudi's personality and music. Cudi attended Shaker Heights High School for two years before transferring to Solon High School. He was expelled from the school for threatening to punch the principal, and would later earn his GED. He studied film at the University of Toledo, but dropped out after a year. His subsequent plan to join the Navy did not pan out because of his juvenile police record. Musical career 2003–08: Beginnings in New York City and A Kid Named Cudi Cudi first began rapping in 2003, towards the end of his time in high school, and was inspired by alternative hip hop groups such as the Pharcyde and A Tribe Called Quest. He later moved to New York City to pursue a music career. After leaving Cleveland in 2005 with $500 and a demo tape, he moved in with his uncle, accomplished jazz drummer Kalil Madi, in the South Bronx. He worked at a couple of Manhattan clothing stores, before eventually sharing an apartment with friend and collaborator Dot da Genius in Brooklyn. In 2006, Cudi would run into his future mentor, rapper and producer Kanye West, in a Virgin Megastore. He recounted in a 2009 SPIN interview, "I was looking at CDs, saw the gleam of a Jesus piece in the right side of my eye, looked up, and it was Kanye West." He introduced himself and offered West some of his music. Cudi would later run into West again while working at the BAPE store in New York, and recalled: "I remember Kanye coming in one time and I was helping him get a couple things. I forgot to take a sensor off of one of the jackets he bought and I had to run out the store to catch him before he left. Pretty funny me chasing after him in SoHo." In 2007, Kid Cudi's song "Day 'n' Nite", began being featured on several music blogs, after having initially uploaded the song to his MySpace page. This early work would go on to catch the attention of West via his then-manager Plain Pat, subsequently leading West to sign Cudi to his GOOD Music imprint later that year. In July 2008, Kid Cudi released his first mixtape, A Kid Named Cudi (executive produced by Plain Pat and Emile Haynie), in collaboration with New York street-wear brand 10.Deep as a free download. Kanye West first called upon Cudi to reference hooks for American rapper and mogul Jay-Z, and while in the studio Cudi and West went from working on The Blueprint 3 (2009) to West's R&B-esque 808s & Heartbreak (2008). Cudi's assistance on the latter includes co-writing credits and/or vocals on "Heartless," "Welcome to Heartbreak," "Paranoid" and "RoboCop." Kid Cudi was a prominent songwriter and featured artist on 808s & Heartbreak, with "Paranoid" and "Heartless" being released as singles, while "Welcome to Heartbreak" charted as an album cut and peaked at number 87 on the Pop 100. Kid Cudi's first television appearance was at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards, alongside Travis Barker and DJ AM. Cudi was promoted as an artist to watch for in media such as Rolling Stone, Vibe, The Source, XXL and BBC News's 2009 Sound of poll. MTV News reported on Cudi on a series of reports titled "MCs To Watch In 2009". 2009–10: Man on the Moon and Man on the Moon II In late 2008, Cudi was revealed to be included in XXLs 2009 annual Freshman Class. He was featured on the cover alongside fellow up-and-coming rappers Asher Roth, Wale, B.o.B, Charles Hamilton, Cory Gunz, Blu, Mickey Factz, Ace Hood and Curren$y. On February 17, 2009, he appeared on Snoop Dogg's MTV talk show Dogg After Dark, performing "Day 'n' Nite" at the end of the show. Two days later on February 19, 2009, Cudi appeared on BET's 106 & Park, alongside Kanye West to debut the music video of "Day 'n' Nite". On February 25, 2009, Cudi self-leaked a teaser trailer for the upcoming Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen film, using his song "Sky Might Fall" in the background; later he posted that he made the trailer himself and was in talks to possibly making it official. In February 2009, Kid Cudi also made a cameo appearance next to Solange in the video for her song "T.O.N.Y.". On March 16, 2009, Kid Cudi performed on mtvU's Spring Break special, and the following day he performed three songs on NBC's Last Call with Carson Daly. Cudi teamed up with partner and record producer Emile Haynie, to produce an exclusive single titled "Switchin Lanes", for the video game Midnight Club: Los Angeles, part of its "South Central Premium Upgrade" downloadable content (DLC), which came out March 19, 2009, for the PlayStation 3 and March 27, 2009, for the Xbox 360. He has also appeared as a musical guest on the Late Show with David Letterman and Jimmy Kimmel Live! In June 2009, he made a cameo in Black Eyed Peas' video for "I Gotta Feeling", alongside David Guetta, where the two met for the first time and subsequently recorded their international hit "Memories". In 2009, he had also been on two magazine covers, Complex (August/September 2009) and URB (August 2009). He revealed information about his future plans via his blog, saying that a possible collaborative album with Chip tha Ripper could be followed with a collaborative project with electronic rock duo Ratatat. On May 5, 2009 Iranian-American progressive house DJ Sharam, released "She Came Along", the lead single from his debut studio album, Get Wild (2009). The song, featuring Cudi, charted for 15 weeks on the Bulgarian Singles Top 40. It entered the chart on position 40 on week 30/2009, and its last appearance was on week 44/2009. It peaked at number 11, where it stayed for one week. During the summer of 2009, Cudi joined fellow up-and-coming rappers Asher Roth and B.o.B, for 'The Great Hangover' concert tour. In late 2009, Kid Cudi was featured on the highly anticipated Jay-Z album The Blueprint 3, on the song "Already Home". On September 14, 2009, BET premiered their Rising Icons profile of Kid Cudi. During the 30 minute show Cudi performed "CuDi Zone", "Mr. Solo Dolo", "Day 'n' Nite" and "Make Her Say". Cudi also discussed his childhood, his move to New York to begin his career as an artist and more. Cudi's debut album Man on the Moon: The End of Day, was released on Universal Motown Records on September 15, 2009 and sold 104,419 copies in the first week and charted at #4. The album's lead single "Day 'n' Nite", Kid Cudi's greatest commercial success thus far, charted well in both the U.S. and in Europe. The second single released was "Make Her Say" (originally titled "I Poke Her Face"), which features a sample from Lady Gaga's hit single "Poker Face" and performances by Kanye West and Common. Common was also featured throughout the album, as the narrator. In September 2009, Cudi co-headlined 50 Cent's "50 Fest" concert, along with fellow American rapper Wale. In a late 2009 interview, Cudi announced that the follow-up to his debut album would be a compilation album entitled Cudder and the Revolution of Evolution, which would have many collaborations. He stated he had already recorded songs with Snoop Dogg, Travis Barker, Clipse, Cage and Pharrell, and would also like to work with Drake, Green Day, Kings of Leon, Robin Thicke, the Killers and the Postal Service on the album. It was also rumored that Man on the Moon: The End of Day would be followed up by a sequel titled Man on the Moon: The Ghost in the Machine and that the Man on the Moon series would be a trilogy. Kid Cudi was nominated for three 2010 Grammy Awards, for his singles "Day 'n' Nite" and "Make Her Say". In January 2010, Cudi released Man on the Moon: The End of Days third and final single "Pursuit of Happiness", which was eventually certified platinum by the RIAA. In 2010, Cudi was featured on Snoop Dogg's re-release of Malice n Wonderland, titled More Malice, on the lead single "That Tree". Cudi later teamed up with independent artist Johnny Polygon, to remix Polygon's "The Riot Song", which appears on his mixtape Rebel Without Applause (2010). He was also invited to be a vocalist for the remake of the charity single "We Are the World" for its 25th anniversary to benefit Haiti after the earthquake. On April 20, 2010, Kid Cudi announced that the name of his second album would not be Cudder and the Revolution of Evolution, but a direct sequel to his first, titled Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager. On June 11, 2010, Kid Cudi was arrested in the Chelsea neighborhood of the Manhattan borough in New York City and charged with felony criminal mischief and possession of a controlled substance. Despite his arrest, he was released and made it to Manchester, Tennessee in time to play at Bonnaroo. In May 2010, American shoe company Converse, launched "You're It", a campaign which highlighted 23 artists from around the world in a series of web shorts. The campaign featured artists from 13 countries including Kid Cudi. In this short, Converse takes a trip back to Cudi's roots as an artist in his hometown of Cleveland, Ohio. The campaign's goal was to tap into the grassroots of Converse's global market and introduce the artists of tomorrow. In June 2010, Converse was promoting being a catalyst for creativity by bringing together three musicians from different genres to form a unique collaboration known as "Three Artists. One Song." Converse teamed up Cudi, alongside Vampire Weekend's Rostam Batmanglij and Best Coast's Bethany Cosentino, to produce the song titled "All Summer". In addition to collaborating on the track, each of the artists also participated in the creation of the music video, which was released later that summer. The lead single from Cudi's second studio album, titled "Erase Me", features Kanye West and was produced by Jim Jonsin. The song debuted on a Cleveland radio station June 30, 2010, and was officially released to Rhythm/Crossover radio on August 17, 2010. The title-track "Mr. Rager", was released as the album's second single, shortly before the album's release. The album, released November 9, 2010, debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 chart, with first-week sales of 169,000 copies. In its second week it crossed the 200,000 sales mark. In 2010, Kid Cudi appeared on several songs for his mentor Kanye West's weekly free music giveaway GOOD Fridays; namely "Good Friday", "Christian Dior Denim Flow" and "The Joy", the latter of which later became a bonus track on the Jay-Z and Kanye West collaborative album Watch the Throne (2011). 2011–12: New direction with WZRD and Wicked Awesome In October 2010, Cudi had announced that he would be forming a rock band with frequent collaborator Dot da Genius, tentatively called Wizard. In early 2011, he announced that he would be releasing a mixtape titled A Man Named Scott, reminiscent of his A Kid Named Cudi title, prior to the rock album. On February 26, 2011, Cudi took to his Twitter account to announce that Dream On, the record label he launched back in 2009 with partners Patrick "Plain Pat" Reynolds and producer Emile Haynie, has been dissolved. However, in an interview with Complex Magazine Cudi explained they were all still on good terms: "I wanted to try something new, and I wanted to take control of things myself. Those are still my guys, Pat and Emile, and I'm still going to work with them in the future. When we start working on Man on the Moon III I'll be calling them up to see if they want to be a part of it. I know Emile is definitely down. We had an issue, but we're men and we were able to figure it out and move forward. There's no hard feelings." In March 2011, Cudi announced that a music video for "Marijuana" would be released in the spring, followed by a music video for "Mr. Rager" in the summer, then he would release a short film, directed by Shia LaBeouf, inspired by his song "Maniac", with Cage, in October 2011. In April 2011, while performing at New York City's Roseland Ballroom Kid Cudi announced he was launching his own record label. The new label, which he will be releasing his third studio album on is called Wicked Awesome Records. He also renamed his band on the same occasion to 2 Be Continuum, renaming it from the original Wizard. Kid Cudi explained his reasoning saying: "I needed something more original, something different, but it's still wizardry at its finest." In 2011, Cudi landed a songwriting placement on English singer Natalia Kills' debut album Perfectionist, for the song "Free". On August 12, 2011, Kid Cudi released the music video for "No One Believes Me", directed by Fright Night director Craig Gillespie. The song, produced by Dot da Genius, features Cudi singing and contains elements of rock music. On August 21, Cudi announced that he would no longer be releasing the A Man Named Scott mixtape, so that he can focus on his rock project and his third solo album Man on the Moon III. Kid Cudi released the music video for his second album's title-track "Mr. Rager", on September 8, 2011. The video received all-positive reviews from critics and fans alike. Despite saying he will not do many more features for other artists in Complex magazine's October/November 2011 cover story, Cudi appeared on Bryan Greenberg's second album We Don't Have Forever (2011), Travis Barker's solo debut Give the Drummer Some (2011), the Knux's Eraser (2011), and Wale's Ambition (2011), respectively. On October 30, 2011, Cudi released Maniac, a short horror film co-starring fellow American rapper Cage and directed by American actor Shia LaBeouf, through his blog. On November 13, 2011, a previously unreleased demo tape Cudi had recorded from 2002 to 2003, under the pseudonym Kid Mesc, titled Rap Hard, leaked online. On Twitter, Cudi wrote "I actually never wanted anyone to hear those songs ever, but its cool. Ha" On November 18, 2011 Cudi renamed his band for the second time to WZRD (pronounced: w-z-r-d). He also announced that the upcoming rock project would be released on his 28th birthday, January 30, 2012. In late 2011, Cudi was mentioned in a viral video by vlogger Ben Breedlove, about his near death experiences. After Breedlove's death on December 26, 2011, Cudi commented on his thoughts about inspiring the young kid. "I am so sad about Ben Breedlove," Kid Cudi wrote on his Tumblr blog. "I watched the video he left for the world to see, and him seeing me in detail, in his vision really warmed my heart. I broke down, I am to tears because I hate how life is so unfair. This has really touched my heart in a way I cant describe, this is why I do what I do. Why I write my life, and why I love you all so much. Life is really fucked up sometimes, but I know Ben is at Peace, and I hope he gets a chance to sit and talk with my Dad. We love you Ben. Forever. Thank you for loving me. To Ben's family, you raised a real hero, he's definitely mine. You have my love." In January 2012, Cudi appeared on two songs from Chip tha Ripper's mixtape Tell Ya Friends, "Ride 4 You" which also featured Far East Movement and "GloryUs", which credited the duo as they are collectively known, The Almighty GloryUs. This led to speculation that a long-awaited project from the two was underway. On January 31, Cudi announced through his Twitter feed that he had completed WZRD and that his next album was the collaborative effort with Chip tha Ripper. In 2012, Cudi was featured on the soundtrack to the film The Hunger Games, crafting an original song for the film titled "The Ruler and the Killer". Referring to "The Ruler and the Killer", Cudi wrote on his Twitter feed: "I could not have done it without my producing partners on the project for the film, The legendary and Godly T Bone Burnett and Greg Wells!" While working on the band's self-titled debut, Cudi claimed he had writer's block for almost five months because of his new sobriety; something that had never happened to him for such an extended period of time. According to Cudi, bands that inspired the album include Electric Light Orchestra, Jimi Hendrix, Nirvana and Pink Floyd. The album includes a song titled "Where Did You Sleep Last Night?", a cover of the same titled song by Nirvana, who in turn were inspired by blues guitar legend Lead Belly's rendition of the traditional folk song. Following WZRDs release on February 28, 2012, the album debuted at #3 on the US Billboard 200 chart, with first-week sales of 66,000 physical and digital copies in the United States. The album also debuted on the Top Rock Albums and Top Alternative Albums at number one, and at #9 on the Canadian Albums Chart respectively. 2012–13: Indicud and departure from GOOD Music In April 2012, in Geneseo, New York, Cudi performed before a sold-out crowd and premiered a hip hop song, his first since 2010. During his set, he performed a new record, tentatively titled "The Leader of the Delinquents", which he did a cappella. On April 25, 2012 Cudi was officially back to rapping with the release of "Dennis, Hook Me Up with Some More of That Whiskey!". The song, the first ever solely produced by Cudi himself, samples his 2010 song "Ghost!". In June 2012, Cudi was seen in the music video for "Mercy," the lead single from GOOD Music's compilation album Cruel Summer, in which he, along with other GOOD Music recording artists were featured on. Cudi was ultimately featured on two songs from the compilation, "The Morning" and a solo track originally meant for Man on the Moon II (2010), titled "Creepers", produced by Dan Black. In the summer of 2012, Cudi announced the title of his third studio album to be, Indicud when he tweeted: "My new album is entitled indicud, it will be my version of The Chronic 2001, some songs i'll produce, others i'll feat &/or play songwriter". On June 8, 2012, Cudi announced Indicud, will be a double-disc album. On August 12, Kid Cudi released the lead single from Indicud, a song titled "Just What I Am", featuring his friend and longtime collaborator King Chip (formerly Chip tha Ripper). The album was announced to be released in early 2013 with Cudi focusing on scoring movies, followed by the third installment of the Man on the Moon series. Cudi then added that Indicud "will feature more uptempos and that it will consist of at most 17 new songs." The music video for "Just What I Am", which marked Cudi's directorial debut, premiered November 6, 2012 on VEVO and was shot in Los Angeles with fans invited to participate in the video's shoot. On November 7, he revealed the album's second official single's title to be "Immortal", and that it again was produced by himself like the two previous releases, "Just What I Am" and "King Wizard". He claimed the song "will make you feel amazing in the heart and soul." The song was officially released via iTunes on March 14, 2013. On March 14, 2013 Kid Cudi performed at MySpace's South by Southwest (SXSW) secret show in Austin, Texas and after performing his many hits, he previewed a new verse from Indicud. He also revealed that the album would feature 18 tracks, while officially confirming ASAP Rocky and Michael Bolton as featured guests. On March 16, Cudi announced that he would release the album's tracklist and cover art on April 2. Three days later, Kid Cudi announced via Twitter that the album had officially been completed and turned in to his label, Universal Republic. On March 26, the album's cover art and tracklist was unveiled by Walmart and later Complex. Later that day, Cudi appeared on Jimmy Kimmel Live! and performed the album's lead singles; "Just What I Am" and "Immortal", as well as premiering "Mad Solar", which he performed a cappella. On April 2, 2013, Kid Cudi announced on Power 106, that he was no longer under Kanye West's GOOD Music imprint. Cudi revealed he left the label on good terms, with him saying West respected his decision and will always be "big brother". Cudi's decision to move forward without West, was his desire to focus on his own imprint, Wicked Awesome Records and his friend, fellow rapper King Chip. After Indicud leaked online in its entirety on April 9, 2013, Kid Cudi decided to push the album's release date up to April 16. The album went on to debut at #2 on the charts by moving 140,000 copies. In late 2013, Kid Cudi went on tour in support of Indicud on The Cud Life Tour 2013. The tour was announced on July 15 with tickets going on sale the following day. Supporting acts on the tour included fellow American rappers Big Sean, Tyler, The Creator and Logic. 2013–14: Satellite Flight: The Journey to Mother Moon While on tour, on October 16, 2013 Kid Cudi announced he would be releasing an extended play (EP), sometime in the next three months. Cudi also revealed he would be producing it alongside Dot da Genius and that frequent collaborator King Chip, would appear on the EP. He then called the EP a prelude to his fourth album Man on the Moon III, which he announced would be released in 2015. On October 19, 2013, Cudi revealed "Going to the Ceremony", a song he had released via online audio distribution platform SoundCloud, earlier in July, would be included in the EP. Cudi would also go on to reveal a remix of his hit single "Day 'n' Nite, which was briefly previewed on the intro of his 2008 breakout mixtape A Kid Named Cudi, would also appear on the EP. On November 25, 2013, via his Twitter, Cudi revealed the title of the EP to be Satellite Flight: The Journey to Mother Moon. On December 16, 2013, Kid Cudi once again utilized SoundCloud to release "Satellite Flight", the EP's title-track. On January 27, 2014, Kid Cudi revealed on Twitter that Satellite Flight: Journey to Mother Moon would no longer be an EP, but a full-length album instead. In a February 2014 interview with MTV News, Cudi discussed the EP's transition to a full-fledged album and called the project his best work yet: "I'm really excited because it's my best work, and it's a surprise. People weren't really expecting it. I've never done two albums within a year of each other." On February 25, 2014, with only few hours' notice from Cudi, Satellite Flight: The Journey to Mother Moon was released exclusively to digital retailers. The album debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 chart, with first-week sales of 87,000 digital copies in the United States. On March 4, 2014 Cudi appeared on Chelsea Lately, where he was interviewed by Oscar-nominated actress Gabourey Sidibe, to promote Satellite Flight and the 2014 film Need for Speed. On March 12, 2014, Cudi released a song titled "Hero", a collaboration with American singer-songwriter Skylar Grey, recorded for the soundtrack to Need for Speed. On March 15, 2014, Cudi appeared on The Arsenio Hall Show, where he promoted the album, discussed the state of hip-hop, suicidal thoughts, Need for Speed, and performed the song "Internal Bleeding", from the album. In April 2014, Cudi appeared on the cover of the inaugural issue of Fat Man magazine. On April 24, 2014, while being honored as a mental health advocate by Didi Hirsch Mental Health Services, at the Beverly Hilton in Los Angeles, Cudi offered a special performance during their annual Erasing the Stigma Leadership Awards. On May 2, 2014, it was announced Cudi would headline Chicago's North Coast Music Festival, along with West Coast rapper Snoop Dogg. On May 11, 2014 Cudi revealed he would be writing and directing a short film for the Satellite Flight album cut "Balmain Jeans": "Developing a short film for "Balmain Jeans", a story about a spontaneous electric connection between two strangers." 2015–16: Speedin' Bullet 2 Heaven In a January 2015 interview, at the Sundance Film Festival, Kid Cudi expressed the possibility of releasing another album before the release of Man on the Moon III: "I'm always making music. The beauty in that is that I have a lot of material. And I'm actually thinking that it would be good to release something in the meantime, before Man on the Moon III comes out. Another Kid Cudi album, it's just kind of along the lines of what I did with Indicud or Satellite Flight, which is just its own standalone thing but still a Kid Cudi album. The Man on the Moon III album is something that's gonna take some time but I know the fans are gonna be patient and I really appreciate that guys, thank you for your patience. But Man on the Moon III is coming, there may be an album before that just to tide you over." On March 3, 2015, Cudi officially released his first song since his album Satellite Flight, was put on the market. The song, which is titled "Love," was originally recorded for Satellite Flight, and samples Ratatat's "Sunblocks" and has been received with positive reviews. On April 4, 2015, Cudi announced via Twitter that he would be releasing a new album titled Speedin' Bullet 2 Heaven. On August 1, 2015, Cudi released "Confused!," the lead single from his fifth album. On October 27, 2015, Cudi announced the new album will be released on December 4, 2015. He also leaked two songs off the project, "Wedding Tux" and "Judgemental Cunt". In November 2015 Cudi announced an Especial Tour, that will bring the rapper to various theaters all across the United States. On December 1, 2015, Cudi announced the cancellation of his Especial Tour, due to various reasons, such as production and personal issues. To make up for postponing the concert tour, Cudi released the album's title-track as the second single. 2016–18: Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin and Kids See Ghosts In March 2016, Kid Cudi performed at McDowell Mountain Music Festival in Phoenix, Arizona. In an early April 2016 interview with Billboard, when asked about Man on the Moon III, Cudi responded with: "I came up with Man on the Moon when I was a young man. People change their vibe! We can follow the same template and do the five-act split. Sonically, I'm still going to be where I'm at. Honestly, I was ready to live up to the obligation and do Man on the Moon III. I haven't been dicking around. I was planning on doing it after Speedin' Bullet. But the Speedin' Bullet response tore me up. It made me realize what's most important. I'm getting back on the bike again and doing what I do best: me." On April 22, 2016, Kid Cudi announced he would be releasing a new studio album, slated for a summer unveiling. On May 11, 2016, amidst rumors that he was set to release Man on the Moon III, Cudi revealed the title of his sixth solo album would be Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin', through online mobile video-sharing and social networking service Instagram. On June 1, 2016, Cudi announced that he had two upcoming albums. One set to be released in the summer, while the other would be released in the fall. He added that one of them was complete. On September 26, 2016, Kid Cudi unveiled the track-list for Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin via Twitter, which revealed guest spots from Travis Scott, André 3000, Pharrell Williams and Willow Smith. Although there was a discrepancy between him and Kanye West, West later made an offer of peace and a song featuring him and Cudi subsequently surfaced online. Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin was announced to be issued first via digital distribution on December 16, 2016, with the physical release on December 23. Cudi has also shared the song "Baptized in Fire," which features Travis Scott (with whom Cudi collaborated extensively with on 2016's Birds in the Trap Sing McKnight). On March 1, 2017, Kid Cudi performed the song "Kitchen", with a string orchestra, live on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon. On August 15, 2017, Cudi announced a national concert tour by the name of Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin' Tour; with the first date on September 30 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In 2018 Cudi and Kanye West formed a duo known as Kids See Ghosts, and produced an album with the same name, Kids See Ghosts, which was released on June 8, 2018. On October 23, 2018, in response to a fan on Twitter, Cudi revealed he had begun working on his seventh solo album. Although he said he would be taking his time to create his forthcoming LP, Cudi projected a 2019 release. 2019–2022: Man on the Moon III and Entergalactic In July 2019, Kid Cudi announced his next album would be titled Entergalactic, which he revealed would soundtrack an upcoming Netflix "adult-focused animated music series" co-created by himself and Kenya Barris. On April 14, 2020, Kid Cudi released "Leader of the Delinquents" as a single via Republic Records. The song, which Cudi had first performed back in 2012, was later released in a limited edition pressing of the track on 7" vinyl, 12" picture disc, and cassette. On April 24, 2020, Cudi collaborated with Travis Scott under the collective name The Scotts, to release a song under the same name, "The Scotts". It was hinted that the duo would be releasing more music in the future. The song debuted atop the Billboard Hot 100 chart, becoming Cudi's first number-one hit single in the US. Later on April 24, Cudi also revealed that he was still working on new music for a future WZRD release, joking that "we take a decade off between albums." On July 9, 2020, Cudi's daughter Vada, announced via social media that he would be releasing a song with multiple Grammy Award-winning artist Eminem, called "The Adventures of Moon Man & Slim Shady" the coming Friday. The song was released on July 10, 2020 and also saw success as a hit, as it debuted in the Top 40 of the Billboard Hot 100. On October 26, Cudi released a teaser video on his official Twitter account for Man on the Moon III, the final installment in his Man on the Moon series, after a decade between releases. The album title and release date were not shared with the video, however on December 7, Cudi announced the album would be titled Man on the Moon III: The Chosen, with a release date of December 11, 2020. The concept album's theme follows Cudi overcoming his darkness, but fighting to win his soul back from his alter-ego "Mr. Rager". Man on the Moon III: The Chosen, received mostly positive reviews from music critics, who praised Cudi's songwriting and generally favored the latter two acts, though some found it derivative of Cudi's earlier albums. It debuted at number two on the Billboard 200, earning 144,000 album-equivalent units of which 15,000 were pure sales, marking Cudi's fifth top 10 album in the US. Although Entergalactic was originally set for a 2020 release, it was pushed back due to Cudi releasing his long-awaited Man on the Moon III album instead. In January 2021, when asked by a fan on Twitter why Entergalatics new release date says 2022 on Netflix, Cudi responded, "[Because] that's when it drops. I just gave y'all an album y'all gotta chill and be patient fr man I'm not doin an album every year." Cudi was the sole musical guest on Saturday Night Live in April 2021, having previously featured alongside Kanye West and 070 Shake in "Ghost Town" in 2018. He played "Tequila Shots" and "Sad People" with both performances in tribute to Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain. "Sad People" showcased Cudi in a floral dress designed by Virgil Abloh in a nod to Cobain. In June 2021, Amazon enlisted Kid Cudi for Prime Day Show; a three-part musical event also featuring Billie Eilish and H.E.R. Cudi's performance included a mission to establish a new community on the moon, while performing with the International Space Orchestra, a new group composed of space scientists from NASA Ames Research Center, the SETI Institute and the International Space University. A Man Named Scott, a documentary film directed by Robert Alexander, was announced in October 2021 via Prime Video. The film was produced by Mad Solar, Complex Networks and Film 45, set for release in November 2021, and billed as a look at Cudi's journey "over a decade of creative choices, struggles, and breakthroughs." During his headlining performance at the Rolling Loud music festival, Cudi revealed intentions on releasing two full-length projects in 2022, with plans of releasing an album prior to Entergalactic "I have Entergalactic coming in the summer, and I wanna drop another album before that. I got some tasty surprises and I'm really excited about all this new shit, this new music, to give to you guys," he said before playing a recording of a song that has since been dubbed "Freshie." "That's why I'm teasing this shit now because it's coming out soon." On December 3, 2021, a collaboration between Cudi and American pop singer Ariana Grande, titled "Just Look Up" was released in promotion for the black comedy film Don't Look Up, in which they both star in. That month, Man on the Moon III: The Chosen broke the record for biggest vinyl sales week for both a male artist and a rap album in Nielsen history. On April 9, 2022, Cudi performed a medley of "Stars in the Sky" (the lead single for the soundtrack to the film Sonic the Hedgehog 2) and "Pursuit of Happiness" at the Kids' Choice Awards for the first time. On June 24, 2022, a collaboration between Dot da Genius, JID, Denzel Curry, and Cudi, titled "Talk About Me", was released, along with a music video directed by Cole Bennett. In June, Cudi announced his first arena tour with To the Moon World Tour, set to begin in Vancouver on August 16, 2022 and conclude in Milan on November 22, 2022. On July 4, 2022, Cudi announced a compilation album, The Boy Who Flew to the Moon, Vol. 1, to be released on July 8, along with the re-release of his debut mixtape A Kid Named Cudi on July 15. The compilation features "Love", a bonus track which was previously unofficially released due to sample clearance issues. On July 6, American fast food chain McDonald's, announced the line-up for their 2022 Camp McDonald's virtual experience, led by headliner Kid Cudi. The virtual camp would take place over four weeks only available through the McDonald's app. Upon Entergalactics release on September 30, the album debuted at number 13 on the US Billboard 200 chart, earning 22,480 album-equivalent units (including 1,791 copies in pure album sales) in its first week. It's visual component of the same name received an average rating of 8.20/10 on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, with 96% of 28 critics' reviews being positive. In October 2022, on an episode of Hot Ones, Cudi revealed that he didn't know how much longer he would continue making music and that he had an alternative career path in mind. The rapper said he was "kinda nearing the end on all things Kid Cudi." He quoted other rappers including Snoop Dogg, Jay-Z, Eminem and more, saying he didn't think he would have the same longevity at these artists. On November 6, Cudi announced on Twitter he only has one more album left on his recording contract with Republic. He revealed it would not be released in 2023 and that he does not know what he will continue to do following the release. Kid Cudi's 2010 single "Pursuit of Happiness" was certified diamond (10 million units) by the RIAA in December 2022. 2023–present: Ninth solo album On February 27, 2023, Cudi announced his last contractual album with Republic Records would be released in autumn; adding that the rollout for the album will begin in the summer, with singles to be released. Acting career 2010–19: Early venture and minor roles In 2010, Kid Cudi made a guest appearance on American television drama One Tree Hill, starring as himself and performing his Man on the Moon II single "Erase Me", during the episode. In 2010, Kid Cudi also began starring in the HBO comedy series How to Make It in America, as part of the main cast, being credited by his birth name Scott Mescudi, until its cancellation after two seasons. On October 31, 2010, Kid Cudi released a short film, directed by Shia LaBeouf, in which he and fellow American rapper Cage, star as French-speaking serial killers. The short film, titled Maniac, was inspired by Cudi's song of the same name, from his 2010 album Man on the Moon II and is an homage to the 1992 Belgian black comedy crime mockumentary, Man Bites Dog. In May 2012, Kanye West premiered a short film he directed, titled Cruel Summer, at the Cannes Film Festival. According to MTV, Kid Cudi is the lead character, playing a "car thief who falls for a blind Arabian princess." The film was shown on seven different screens that turned on and off, giving various angles of each shot. In October 2012, it was announced Cudi would star in an indie romantic comedy titled Two Night Stand, alongside Analeigh Tipton and Miles Teller. Also in 2012, it was revealed Cudi would star in an indie thriller film titled Tacoma, alongside Patricia Clarkson. In 2013, Cudi guest starred in the animated TV series The Cleveland Show, voicing a character named Devon, in the Season 4 episode "Brownsized". In 2013, he also guest starred on the FOX comedy series Brooklyn Nine-Nine, where he played a criminal named Dustin Whitman. In 2013, it was revealed Cudi would then star in Goodbye World, alongside Adrian Grenier. In January 2013, Cudi was cast in the film adaptation of Need for Speed. Need for Speed, which is Cudi's feature film debut, was released by Touchstone Pictures on March 14, 2014. In June 2013, it was revealed Cudi would appear in Mark Webber's film The Ever After, alongside Teresa Palmer and Melissa Leo. On November 10, 2014, Cudi guest starred on the CBS American television series Scorpion, as Peyton Temple, a musical prodigy who created a controversial algorithm that generates the perfect hit pop song, who later helps Scorpion investigate the murder of his friend who was a music industry blogger. In February 2014, it was announced Cudi would appear in Entourage (2015), the film adaptation of the popular HBO TV series of the same name. On April 11, 2014, it was announced Cudi would star in a film titled James White, alongside Christopher Abbott and Cynthia Nixon. In addition to starring in the film, it was revealed Cudi would also be curating the film's score as well. In January 2015, Cudi revealed he played a homosexual character in James White: "This was way different than anything else I've ever done. It was dope to do that. I felt like I had a responsibility to present a different walk in life from that world." Although his character's sexuality is not outwardly discussed during the film, the original script included a coming-out scene and a kiss between Cudi and a male friend, played by David Call: "I didn't flinch. I'm secure with mine," Cudi told an audience after the film's premiere. "I'm an artist—it's all about playing characters that are intriguing and stimulating." Also in January 2015, Cudi revealed he had just finished filming a movie titled Vincent-N-Roxxy, alongside Zoe Kravitz and Emile Hirsch. When speaking on Vincent-N-Roxxy, Cudi said: "this movie that I have coming out soon that's my first villain role. It's very violent and very disturbing [...] I play kind of like a drug lord." Cudi took over the mic duties for Reggie Watts, on IFC's television series, Comedy Bang! Bang! on July 10, 2015. As the in-house disc jockey, Cudi crafted original music for the show and appeared in several skits throughout season four. The December 10 Christmas edition of Comedy Bang! Bang!, marked the season finale and Cudi's final episode as bandleader. In July 2016, it was announced Cudi would join the cast of FOX's Empire, debuting in the third season of the series as "an independent musician who is a rival to Hakeem (Bryshere "Yazz" Gray) both in the studio and in life." Cudi later left the project due to creative differences. In 2017, Cudi appeared in the comedy film Killing Hasselhoff. In 2019, Cudi had small roles in Drunk Parents, directed by Fred Wolf, and Jexi directed by Jon Lucas and Scott Moore, the latter of which he played himself. That year he also had a recurring role in sci-fi western and dystopian series Westworld. 2020–present: Recognition and directorial debut In 2020, he co-starred in Bill & Ted Face the Music, directed by Dean Parisot, opposite Keanu Reeves and Alex Winter. In 2020, Cudi also starred in We Are Who We Are, an eight-episode miniseries for HBO directed by Luca Guadagnino, alongside Chloë Sevigny. In January 2021, Cudi revealed he would potentially be partnering with TV producer and fellow American rapper 50 Cent, for an upcoming series. In 2021, Cudi served as a executive producer on the award winning drama film Malcolm & Marie. In early 2021, Kid Cudi appeared in Crisis, directed by Nicholas Jarecki. In late 2021, Cudi appeared in the ensemble cast of Don't Look Up, where he also performed an original song for the film alongside fellow American singer Ariana Grande. Cudi starred in Ti West's slasher film X, released in March 2022 to critical acclaim. Soon after, it was announced that Cudi was cast in his X co-star Brittany Snow's directorial debut, September 17. Cudi is also set to star in Disney's upcoming sci-fi film Crater, which will be released exclusively on the streaming service, Disney+. Later in March, Cudi revealed he would be making his feature directorial debut with the Netflix film, Teddy, a project he's also written and in which he'll star. Cudi announced the news in a social media post, noting that he'd been working on the project since 2013. Musicians Jay-Z and Jeymes Samuel will serve as executive producers, while being co-produced by Bron Studios and Cudi's Mad Solar banner. In April 2022, Cudi was cast in the John Woo-directed action-thriller Silent Night, starring alongside Joel Kinnaman. Moreover, as announced in 2019, Cudi starred in his own animated TV special, Entergalactic, at Netflix, a companion piece to his eighth solo album of the same name, release on September 30, 2022, in which he co-produced with Kenya Barris, and wrote alongside Ian Edelman and Maurice Williams. In June 2022, the voice cast was announced; Cudi stars alongside Timothée Chalamet, Macaulay Culkin, Laura Harrier, Jessica Williams, and more. Artistry Musical style Cudi's musical style has been described as "an atmospheric take on melodic rap, with a dollop of charming, off-key singing". He has also been called "introspective, with the ability to lay his insecurities on record and expose his fallibility." In 2015, Kris Ex of Billboard, wrote "he's always been an emotional artist, dealing with expansive and nebulous feelings in acute and often destructive ways." Kid Cudi's sound is what inspired and led Kanye West to create his cathartic 808s & Heartbreak (2008), with West later stating that he and Cudi were "the originators of the style, kinda like what Alexander McQueen is to fashion.... Everything else is just Zara and H&M." West also complimented Cudi by saying, "His writing is just so pure and natural and important." In March 2014, Cudi talked about wanting to provide guidance for young listeners with his music: "my mission statement since day one [...] all I wanted to do was help kids not feel alone, and stop committing suicide."In a 2013 article for The BoomBox, the author wrote: "On [A Kid Named Cudi], Cudi raps and croons over samples and interpolations of Gnarls Barkley, Paul Simon, Band of Horses, J Dilla, Nosaj Thing, N.E.R.D. and Outkast. He melded indie rock, electronica and dubstep seamlessly with hip-hop without pandering or reaching. Before Drake broke through with 2009's So Far Gone, rapping and singing over Swedish indie poppers Lykke Li and Peter Bjorn and John, Cudi tweaked with multi-genre covers and seamless transitions between singing and rapping." In a 2009 interview with HipHopDX, when speaking on his debut album Cudi stated: "Well one thing I wanted to do was combine sounds that really bring out intense moods." His music has also been described as trip hop. Furthermore, he is known for harmonizing and humming in his music, which helps formulate his signature sound. On 2012's WZRD and 2015's Speedin' Bullet 2 Heaven, Cudi incorporated the use of screamed vocals, and can be heard yodeling on his 2016 album Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin'. Throughout the years he has also incorporated elements of psychedelia, R&B, electronica, synthpop, punk and grunge, in his music. Cudi was gifted a guitar by his manager in 2011, encouraging Cudi to learn. Cudi taught himself how to play the guitar and went on to utilize the instrument in his rock music throughout his career. Cudi is also a self-taught music producer. In 2021, Cudi appeared on American TV talk show The Shop, where he spoke on his writing and recording process. Cudi mentioned for his early albums he would sit down and write entire verses. However, while working on Kids See Ghosts and Man on the Moon III, he adopted Kanye West's writing process. Instead of writing to a beat, he records a reference track for himself, where he freestyles and hums his way through the beat to get a melody, and fills in the lyrics as they come to him.The Shop: Uninterrupted, Episode 4-02, first aired 25 June 2021. In 2021, during Songwriter's Roundtable for The Hollywood Reporter, Cudi called his music "space punk rock". Stage presence During his 2013 Cud Life concert tour, Cudi donned a custom made astronaut-esque suit that was designed by noted Hollywood costume designer Jose Hernandez. Officially dubbed the "Satellite Academy Space Suit", Joe La Puma of Complex explained, "It's more than just an interesting clothing choice; the suit represents a transition in his mind-state back to the highly anticipated Man on the Moon III." Influences Cudi's earliest influences include alternative hip hop groups such as the Pharcyde, A Tribe Called Quest and Bone Thugs-n-Harmony. Cudi also cites rappers such as the Notorious B.I.G., Tupac, Jay-Z, Snoop Dogg, Run-DMC, Kurtis Blow, LL Cool J, Salt-N-Pepa, Queen Latifah, Kid 'n Play, N.W.A., Naughty By Nature, Onyx and Public Enemy, as his hip hop influences while growing up. Speaking to Complex in 2012, Cudi named named Doggystyle (1993) as one of his favorite albums of all time, revealing, "Snoop Dogg is my favorite rapper ever […] It was the first time I was introduced to the man and I thought he was the coolest motherfucker alive. His whole cadence, his delivery, his swag—it was real. It was something that I never heard before." Kid Cudi has also credited fellow Ohio native Camu Tao, as an influence. He has also been inspired by the sounds of the O'Jays, Ratatat, MGMT and The Postal Service. In 2010, he began experimenting with rock music; rock acts that inspired Cudi include the Electric Light Orchestra, Jimi Hendrix, Nirvana, the Pixies and Pink Floyd. Kid Cudi also credits English singer-songwriter David Bowie as a "huge inspiration." Production wise, Cudi has named Dr. Dre, Swizz Beatz, Timbaland and Kanye West, as his top four favorite producers; also naming Emile Haynie and Plain Pat, calling them "geniuses" for seeing his potential before he was even completely aware of it. Other ventures Fashion In September 2009, Japanese clothing company BAPE printed Cudi's likeness on T-shirts. In 2021, Cudi and BAPE collaborated on a series 20 pieces logos and other things. In February 2011, Kid Cudi announced a collaboration with Parisian brand Surface to Air. In the fall of 2011, he released a leather jacket collection in collaboration with the fashion label. In August 2014, Giuseppe Zanotti designed an exclusive sneaker inspired by Kid Cudi's style. In February 2019, Kid Cudi partnered with French fashion brand A.P.C. The capsule collection included denim, sneakers, and t-shirts. Kid Cudi announced a partnership with Adidas in March 2019. On December 10, 2020, Cudi unveiled his Adidas sneakers. They are the self-named VADAWAM 326's which would be released on December 17, 2020. On May 20, 2020, Kid Cudi announced he was partnering with American designer Virgil Abloh, to release an exclusive "Leader of the Delinquents" t-shirt. The design on the black and white "PULLING STRINGS" t-shirt features Kid Cudi puppeteering a smaller version of himself, hence the name of the t-shirt release. The art is meant to reference Cudi's infamous TMZ moment from 2012, in which he posed like the puppet on the shirt. "Leader of the Delinquents" is written across the back of the t-shirt in text reminiscent of Jean-Michel Basquiat's handwriting. Just hours before releasing his long-awaited Man on the Moon III album, Cudi rolled out a small batch of merchandise in support of the album. The range was made in collaboration with Cactus Plant Flea Market, and consists of short- and long-sleeve T-shirts, pullover hoodies, and sweatpants—all of which feature graphics that reference MOTM3 tracks. In April 2021, Kid Cudi performed on Saturday Night Live wearing a floral-print sundress, created by Virgil Abloh. On April 11, Cudi confirmed that he would have an upcoming collection with Italian luxury fashion label Off-White, with the floral dress serving as one of the pieces. In late April 2021, it was revealed Kid Cudi had teamed up with the NFL to release a limited-edition Starter jacket commemorating the 2021 NFL Draft, which took place in Cudi's hometown of Cleveland. MOTR On January 26, 2021, Kid Cudi announced on Twitter that he would be starting his own clothing line and the first pieces would be available sometime in 2021. In February 2022, Cudi launched his very own clothing line called MOTR; pronounced "motor", it is an acronym for "Members of the RAGE." The clothing line is described as a fusion of "90s grunge with the soul of hip hop and elements from a distant future." Its UFO logo was co-designed by Cudi and Japanese fashion designer Nigo, while the retro-inspired website was designed by Cudi himself. The first piece that was issued was a t-shirt created in collaboration with Nigo's Human Made. Created for NBA All-Star Weekend, the shirt comes in white and features the MOTR logo in Cleveland Cavaliers colors and the Earth replaced with a basketball. On September 21, 2022, Cudi announced that his MOTR fashion line, will debut at Paris Fashion Week 2023. He also revealed the line is all-unisex pieces, produced "in Italy and parts of Europe"; additionally the line will also feature sneakers. After launching the line in Paris, Vogue wrote "hip-hop culture, retro-inflected futurism, Japanese street fashion and a general embrace of grunge are all brewing in his extroverted, Gen Z-leaning lineup." Modeling In 2010, Cudi modeled for a campaign run by American fashion house Calvin Klein. In January 2015, Coach, Inc. announced Kid Cudi as the new face of their brand, along with actress Chloë Grace Moretz, to front its Spring campaign. In September 2021, Cudi partnered with Cadillac, for the campaign for their 2023 Lyriq. In January 2022, Cudi modeled for the Levi Strauss & Co. campaign titled "The Number That Changed Everything." In March 2022, Cudi was featured in a jewelry-focused campaign from French fashion house Louis Vuitton. The LV Volt campaign sees Cudi, Alicia Vikander and Jin Chen, modeling a range of pieces from the unisex collection. Dream On Dream On was an American record label founded in 2009, by Cudi alongside his managers at the time, Patrick Reynolds and Emile Haynie. In February 2011, Cudi announced the label had been dissolved. The label went on to release the first two installments of Cudi's Man on the Moon series. Wicked Awesome Records Wicked Awesome Records is an American record label founded by Cudi in 2011. It is distributed by Republic Records. In a 2013 interview Cudi said "Wicked Awesome was there officially when I did WZRD. That was the first project that I did on Wicked Awesome and it was an outlet for me to just branch out on my own, and creatively and business-wise take things to a different space for me. Wicked Awesome..where do I see it going? Right now it's just the music but who knows? Wicked Awesome is maybe gunna be beyond music it could be movies, it could be a lot of things, producing T.V. shows. Just the name I think is really dope it has a ring to it." Cudi continued, explaining the motivation behind his label. "The whole motivation is just bringing authenticity back to the forefront. Bringing real content, bringing real emotion [...] Wicked Awesome is about being a real human being, making real music, talking about real things that people deal with on a day-to-day basis." In January 2021, Cudi tweeted that he is prepared to sign artists and producers. Mad Solar On November 17, 2020, it was revealed Cudi teamed with Dennis Cummings and Karina Manashil to found production and music management company Mad Solar, with the backing of Bron Studios, which provides corporate back office and production support, including financing, marketing, and sales. In a statement Cudi said, "Beyond excited to be launching my production company Mad Solar and partnering with Bron, whose creative vision and storytelling has transformed the industry." Mad Solar has produced the Netflix animated special Entergalactic, which Cudi co-created alongside Kenya Barris. Additionally, Mad Solar teamed with A24 and Bron Studios on the horror film X. Written and directed by Ti West, X stars Mia Goth, Cudi and Jenna Ortega. Cudi served as an executive producer on the film, which began production in early 2021. Encore Music Technologies In October 2020, it was announced Cudi teamed with screenwriter Ian Edelman and startup veteran Jonathan Gray to launch Encore Music Technologies, a mobile-based platform to help artists monetize their connections with fans. "The current streaming model puts artists in competition with one another and only rewards the top 1% of artists who collect 90% of the money," a press release announcing the app explains. "Encore offers an all-new format that encourages collaboration amongst artists and makes it easy for up-and-coming and established artists to manage and grow a direct relationship with their fans. Artists can drop new music, chat with fans and host live shows from anywhere in the world." Encore enables live music experiences through smart phones, fan interaction, community centered content and merchandise offerings to give fans new ways to reward the artists they love. "The energy from a concert is undeniable, both for the fans and artists. I am excited to launch Encore to help bring the live music experience back to our fans. Encore is committed to empowering both established and new artists and delivering the best mobile music experience out there," Cudi says. Earlier in 2020, Encore closed a $2 million seed round led by global investment firm Battery Ventures. In 2022, it was revealed Encore Studio was backed by $9 million funding led by Battery Ventures along with investments from 468 Capital, Parade Ventures, Nomad Ventures, Moving Capital, Kayak Ventures, and Gaingels, with Cudi issuing a statement "My number one priority has always been inspiring others and providing them the space to tell their own stories in an authentic and meaningful way," Cudi said in a press release. "We created Encore as a space for artists to share their art, build community, while also being able to pay their rent." Memoir In September 2022, Cudi revealed that he had begun working on his memoir, when he announced he's started writing the first chapter of his first book. "Started writing the first chapter of my book. Its comin together really well," Cudi wrote on Twitter. "Tellin my story in my own words is scary, but I feel like it needs to be told. I feel like everything will make a lil more sense as to why you all met such a troubled boy in the beginning." Public image Kid Cudi has been described by the media as a visionary, and a fashion icon. In his early career, Kid Cudi received criticism in the hip hop community for wearing skinny jeans, before they became trendy after being worn by mainstream rappers, such as Lil Wayne and Kanye West. Cudi made headlines when he wore a kilt to a 2010 New Year's Eve party in Miami. In April 2012, he made headlines again in a now-infamous moment when he gave TMZ paparazzi the finger, claiming they have never "posted anything to make him look good". In 2014, Cudi made headlines when he performed in a crop top at the annual Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival. In April 2021, he appeared as the sole musical guest on Saturday Night Live, where he performed "Tequila Shots" and "Sad People". Both performances were in tribute to Nirvana's late frontman Kurt Cobain, however it was his performance of "Sad People" that made headlines because Cudi wore a dress as a statement against social norms much like his idol Cobain had done. In September 2021, Cudi made headlines twice; first arriving at New York Fashion Week with electric blue hair, a Nirvana long-sleeve tee and a floor-length black skirt. A few days later, Cudi showed up to the Met Gala wearing fluorescent green hair and dark eye makeup. At the Gala, Cudi was in head-to-toe Louis Vuitton (LV), with a blue sweater, another floor-length skirt and blue-and-green LV sneakers. On November 10, 2021, Kid Cudi posed for photos at the CFDA Fashion Awards in a custom bridal gown, standing hand-in-hand with its designer, ERL's Eli Russell Linnetz, lace-gloved fingers interlocked, both wearing American Gothic expressions. On the red carpet, Linnetz lifted Cudi's veil. "Be yourself, be free, baby, yeah," Cudi said into a microphone, with a grin; he'd paired the dress with a white tux jacket, crystal-covered sneakers, grungy eyeliner, an icy Black Jesus pendant, and Manic Panic-pink hair. The dress was another homage to Kurt Cobain. Personal life Drug use In a January 2013 interview, Cudi revealed that he had stopped smoking marijuana in 2011, both for the sake of his child and due to frustration with constantly being associated with the drug and stoner culture. In a March 2013 interview, Cudi talked about how his initial sudden and unexpected fame drove him to alcohol and drugs: However, in 2022, Cudi tweeted about going to rehab for cocaine addiction in 2016: Mental health In a 2013 interview, Cudi revealed he had suffered an addiction to anti-depressant medication, which had been prescribed to help him deal with an "emotional breakdown" after a failed relationship. Cudi has been open about his addiction to pharmaceuticals in his music, namely the songs "Dr. Pill" and "The Nothing". In a 2014 interview, Cudi spoke on his struggles with depression and suicidal ideation: "I've dealt with suicide for the past five years. There wasn't a week or a day that didn't go by where I was just like, 'You know, I wanna check out.' I know what that feels like, I know it comes from loneliness, I know it comes from not having self-worth, not loving yourself." In a July 2016 interview, Kid Cudi revealed he suffered from survivor guilt: "I didn't like that I had money and success and I had made it. Everybody I had ever met in my life, good people, weren't able to experience the same, and I wasn't able to truly enjoy my success. Even though I worked hard for it, it bothered me that I had just had so much and my friends didn't." In October 2016, Cudi revealed on his Facebook page that he had checked himself into rehabilitation for depression and suicidal urges. In a August 2022 interview with Esquire, Cudi spoke on how two weeks after being admitted to rehab in 2016, he had suffered a stroke, revealing the incident forced him to spend the next few months in physical rehabilitation. Family On March 26, 2010, Cudi's daughter, Vada Wamwene Mescudi, was born. Throughout 2012, Cudi was in a custody battle over his daughter. Reports surfaced that Cudi gave up custody after his child's mother accused him of being an absentee father, as well as having violent tendencies and a "long history of consistent drug and alcohol abuse." These claims were disputed by Cudi and his attorney in a statement, which noted: "Cudi did not give up custody but reached an amicable agreement with the mother; that 'both parents are fit and proper persons to have custody of their child,' as stated in the final custody judgment; results came back negative for drugs in a drug test voluntarily taken by Cudi; and that the court acknowledged Cudi attempted to establish a relationship and visit his child since her birth and "voluntarily provided financial support, including child support, rent and other monthly payments, for his daughter since her birth until the time that a child support order was entered as part of the normal course of the case." Details of the official custody agreement remain private. Cudi has since purchased a property in Chicago to be close to his daughter. Relationships In 2009, Cudi began dating entertainment attorney Jamie Baratta. They were in an on-again, off-again relationship, and were a prominent couple in the music industry. They ultimately broke up in 2012, but not before Cudi dedicated a song to her titled "Teleport 2 Me, Jamie", which he recorded as a member of the alternative rock duo, WZRD. In 2020, Cudi wrote "Sept. 16", a song titled after the birthdate of his girlfriend at the time, costume designer and actress Raquel Deriane, to whom the song is dedicated. Faith In a January 2013 interview, Cudi said that he believes in God, although considers himself spiritual but not religious. Philanthropy On April 8, 2014, Didi Hirsch Mental Health Services announced that it would recognize mental health advocates Kid Cudi, Ronda Rousey and Natasha Tracy, during its annual Erasing the Stigma Leadership Awards on April 24, at the Beverly Hilton in Los Angeles. Committed to helping depressed and suicidal youth through the power of music, Cudi joined Didi Hirsch's Erasing the Stigma Efforts as a Mental Health Ambassador. On February 7, 2015, Kid Cudi partnered with TED to give a TED Talk at his former school, Shaker Heights High School, to help inspire the students with his story, for the school's independently organized "TEDxSHHS" conference. Kid Cudi has also been a volunteer for Musicians on Call (MOC), a charity with the mission of bringing live and recorded music to the bedsides of patients in healthcare facilities. In December 2015, Cudi arranged a dance party for the teenage participants of the Children's Hospital At Montefiore's (CHAM) B-N-Fit program, in the Bronx. Kid Cudi also hosted a group of young patients and their families from CHAM, at his sold-out Roseland Ballroom shows in April 2016. In June 2016, 49 celebrities, including Kid Cudi, honored the 49 victims killed in the Orlando nightclub shooting in a video tribute. In 2019, Kid Cudi teamed up with delivery service Postmates to deliver $10,000 worth of Popeyes takeout to the Coachella Valley Rescue Mission. Hundreds in need at the Indio shelter were presented with Popeyes' chicken, biscuits, mashed potatoes, and fries the evening before Cudi's second set at Coachella. In June 2022, at an event organized by Tory Burch, Brent Saunders, and Anna Wintour, supporting the New York-Presbyterian Hospital's Youth Anxiety Center, Cudi led the conversation on youth anxiety, depression, and the importance of self-care and treatment. Impact and legacy A number of publications have noted Kid Cudi's impact on contemporary hip hop music since his mainstream debut in 2009. IBTimes writer Alex Garofaro states "Since the beginning of Cudi's career, his music has been extremely influential. His unique blend of dark, introspective lyrics, melancholy melody, psychedelic instrumentation and stoner cool made him a crossover sensation with rap, R&B and indie music fans alike." Luke Hinz of HotNewHipHop said "Cudi has inspired a generation of young artists to be unafraid to explore a wide array of emotions, and many have sought to adapt elements of Cudi's music into their own. Never caring to fit into the conventional boundaries of music, Cudi became a voice for those who felt unrepresented and alone." In a 2015 article titled "KiD CuDi – A Forgotten Influence on Psychedelic Introspection in Hip-Hop", the author wrote "Cudi helped bring about a new era of electronic, psychedelic driven production. And his dark, drug-riddled approach to introspection has already taken hold in the up-and-comers in the hip-hop world." Revolt writer Preezy Brown noted "His knack for displaying vulnerability and addressing bouts with mental health has made him an inspiration for a long list of artists including Juice WRLD, Logic, Lil Yachty, and other leaders of the new school." Eric Diep of Complex said "Cudi is an omnipresent figure in pop culture who has inspired many. He's a voice for young creatives who don't fit in. He's a therapeutic light for people who need a helping hand. He's a fashion icon. He's more than a cool cameo in television and movies, but a full-fledged actor." Uproxx stated "Compared to modern icons like Drake, West, and Wayne, Cudi doesn't have a boatload of sales, or a room full of accolades, but his weighty impact is reflected in adulation from the people, which is the intangible, everlasting achievement that most artists live for. He's one of the first artists to be unabashed about his depressive ruminations and did so in a melodically intriguing manner that progressed alternative rock aesthetics into the hip-hop world one cadence at a time." Paul Thompson of Rolling Stone wrote Cudi has "dozens of stylistic children". Several artists have gone on to credit Kid Cudi as influence or inspiration, such as rappers Kanye West, Travis Scott, Kendrick Lamar, Schoolboy Q, Chance the Rapper, Childish Gambino, Logic, ASAP Rocky, ASAP Nast, Allan Kingdom, Kyle, Isaiah Rashad, Raury, Key!, Denzel Curry, Kevin Abstract, Saba and Jaden Smith, as well as singers Willow Smith, Jhene Aiko, Lissie and Tinashe, among others. In 2009, Canadian recording artist Drake shared his admiration for Cudi on Twitter with a picture of him holding both his and Cudi's respective projects, stating "We are rarely proud when we are alone. But to have another artist who pushes me and inspires me is a blessing." In a 2010 interview with Billboard, Kanye West called Cudi his "personal favorite artist in the world right now. His whole take on the game is just unfiltered, uncensored artistry." In 2016, Kanye West went on to call Cudi "the most influential artist of the past 10 years". West Coast hip hop duo Audio Push have also praised Cudi, in 2016, saying "The thing I love about Cudi is he's unapologetically real. He birthed so much of, not even the new generation of artists, but a lot of [your] favorite artists wouldn't be [your] favorite artists if it wasn't for Cudi." In November 2016, Atlanta-based rapper OG Maco, who has cited Cudi as a major influence on several occasions, released an EP titled For Scott, as a tribute to Kid Cudi. In October 2018, American musician and high-profile producer Pharrell Williams, spoke on his collaborations with Cudi in an interview with Complex, saying: "He's so inspiring, and I'm only as good as my collaborations anyway. I love the stuff that we did. Love, love [...] So to me, Cudi is a GOAT. His melodies and his concepts—he's a timeless alien." In another interview with Complex, Williams also stated "When they say Cudi is the [greatest of all time], they're talking about the consistency of his convictions and how that's played out into the choices that he makes, the taste that he has, and the tone that he takes with everything that he does. That's my idea of Cudi." American comedian and actor Pete Davidson, who called Cudi "the best musician that's ever lived" in a 2019 interview on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, has also shared his own struggles with his mental health and claims Cudi's music has saved his life. Travis Scott, whose stage name is derived from Cudi's first name, has also claimed Cudi's music saved his life and has a tattoo of the word "rager" in honor of Cudi. American musician 070 Shake shared with Pigeons & Planes, "All my life I grew up listening to […] Kid Cudi. I've cried to their music. They've definitely changed my life, and saved me from a lot of stuff." Brockhampton's Kevin Abstract has said "I love how he incorporated melody into his raps," Kevin explained. "A kid like me would say, like, Kid Cudi saved my life." American rapper Logic, who has interpolated Kid Cudi's records in his own songs, has also spoke about how Cudi's music inspired him to open up about mental health in his own music. "He was the dude that was like, 'It's okay to be sad. It's okay to talk about these things, and go through these things.'" In a 2019 interview, then-up-and-coming rapper Baby Keem, cited Cudi as a major influence: "I was inspired by Cudi's cadences and shit like that. Kid Cudi's one of my favorite artists." In an interview with New York City radio station Hot 97, Jaden Smith spoke on Cudi's influence on him: "Cudi would always say things that just would, like, change my life [...] I thought it was just me and my brother for a while. Then I got older and started going to festivals and then I realized, oh man, everybody has felt that from Cudi. Everybody says that Cudi saved their life. ... Everybody had that same experience listening to Cudi. If someone listened to Cudi, you knew something about them. You could tell certain things about them." Discography Studio albums Man on the Moon: The End of Day (2009) Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager (2010) Indicud (2013) Satellite Flight: The Journey to Mother Moon (2014) Speedin' Bullet 2 Heaven (2015) Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin' (2016) Man on the Moon III: The Chosen (2020) Entergalactic (2022)Collaborative albums WZRD (2012) Kids See Ghosts (2018) Awards and nominations Filmography Kid Cudi has appeared in several feature films and television shows. He is often credited by his birth name Scott Mescudi. Concert tours HeadliningThe Great Hangover Tour (2009) The Cud Life Tour (2011, 2013) The Especial Tour (2016) Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin' Tour (2017) To the Moon World Tour (2022)Supporting' Glow in the Dark Tour (2008) The Monster Ball Tour (2009) See also Kids See Ghosts WZRD List of artists who reached number one in the United States List of American Grammy Award winners and nominees List of neo-psychedelia artists List of alternative hip hop artists References External links Kid Cudi on Spotify Category:1984 births Category:Living people Category:21st-century African-American male singers Category:21st-century African-American writers Category:21st-century American male actors Category:21st-century American poets Category:21st-century American rappers Category:Actors from Shaker Heights, Ohio Category:African-American fashion designers Category:African-American male models Category:African-American male rappers Category:African-American male singer-songwriters Category:African-American record producers Category:Alternative hip hop musicians Category:American alternative rock musicians Category:American fashion businesspeople Category:American hip hop record producers Category:American hip hop singers Category:American male actors of Mexican descent Category:American male film actors Category:American male television actors Category:American male voice actors Category:American music industry executives Category:American music video directors Category:American punk rock musicians Category:American rappers of Mexican descent Category:Grammy Award winners for rap music Category:Grunge musicians Category:Male actors from Cleveland Category:Mental health activists Category:Midwest hip hop musicians Category:Motown artists Category:Musicians from Shaker Heights, Ohio Category:People from Solon, Ohio Category:People with mood disorders Category:Poets from Ohio Category:Rappers from Cleveland Category:Record producers from Ohio Category:Republic Records artists Category:Singer-songwriters from Ohio Category:Trip hop musicians Category:Universal Motown Records artists Category:University of Toledo alumni Category:WZRD (band) members
[]
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Kid Cudi
Cudi was born Scott Ramon Seguro Mescudi on January 30, 1984, in Cleveland, Ohio, and grew up in Shaker Heights and Solon. He is the youngest of four children, with two brothers, Domingo and Dean, and a sister, Maisha. His mother, Elsie Harriet (Banks), is a middle-school choir teacher at Roxboro Middle School in Cleveland Heights, Ohio. His father, Lindberg Styles Mescudi, was a house painter, substitute teacher and World War II Air Force veteran.
Musical style
Kid Cudi's musical style has been described as "an atmospheric take on melodic rap, with a dollop of charming, off-key singing". He has also been called "introspective, with the ability to lay his insecurities on record and expose his fallibility." In 2015, Kris Ex of Billboard, wrote "he's always been an emotional artist, dealing with expansive and nebulous feelings in acute and often destructive ways." Kid Cudi's sound is what inspired and led Kanye West to create his cathartic 808s & Heartbreak (2008), with West later stating that he and Cudi were "the originators of the style, kinda like what Alexander McQueen is to fashion.... Everything else is just Zara and H&M." West also complimented Cudi by saying, "His writing is just so pure and natural and important." In March 2014, Cudi talked about wanting to provide guidance for young listeners with his music: "my mission statement since day one [...] all I wanted to do was help kids not feel alone, and stop committing suicide." In a 2013 article for The BoomBox, the author wrote: "On [A Kid Named Cudi], Cudi raps and croons over samples and interpolations of Gnarls Barkley, Paul Simon, Band of Horses, J Dilla, Nosaj Thing, N.E.R.D. and Outkast. He melded indie rock, electronica and dubstep seamlessly with hip-hop without pandering or reaching. Before Drake broke through with 2009's So Far Gone, rapping and singing over Swedish indie poppers Lykke Li and Peter Bjorn and John, Cudi tweaked with multi-genre covers and seamless transitions between singing and rapping." In a 2009 interview with HipHopDX, when speaking on his debut album Cudi stated: "Well one thing I wanted to do was combine sounds that really bring out intense moods." Kid Cudi's music has also been described as trip hop. Furthermore, he is known for harmonizing and humming in his music, which helps formulate his signature sound. On 2011's WZRD and 2015's Speedin' Bullet 2 Heaven, Cudi incorporated the use of screamed vocals, and can be heard yodeling on his 2016 album Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin'. Throughout the years he has also incorporated elements of psychedelia, R&B, electronica, synthpop and grunge, in his music. CANNOTANSWER
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Scott Ramon Seguro Mescudi (born January 30, 1984), also known by his stage name Kid Cudi ( ), is an American rapper, singer, songwriter, record producer, actor, and fashion designer. Born and raised in Cleveland, Ohio, Cudi would move to New York City in pursuit of a musical career, where he first gained major recognition following the release of his debut single "Day 'n' Nite", which he initially self-published on his MySpace page. The song went on to become a worldwide hit and served as the catalyst for Cudi to team with American record producers Plain Pat and Emile Haynie, to record his first official full-length project, a mixtape titled A Kid Named Cudi (2008). The mixtape helped Cudi rise to prominence and establish a fan base, and it caught the attention of high-profile musician Kanye West, who subsequently signed Cudi to his GOOD Music label imprint by late 2008. Cudi's commercial debut single was later remastered and featured on his debut album, Man on the Moon: The End of Day (2009), which was certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The album also included the singles "Make Her Say" (featuring Kanye West and Common) and "Pursuit of Happiness" (featuring MGMT and Ratatat), the latter of which achieved diamond status (10x platinum) by the RIAA. In 2010, Cudi released his second album, Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager, which also attained platinum status and features the singles "Erase Me" (featuring Kanye West) and "Mr. Rager". Later that year he formed WZRD, a rock band, with his long-time collaborator Dot da Genius. Their eponymous debut album (2012) debuted at number one on the Billboard Top Rock Albums chart. Cudi would go on to release the self-produced solo album Indicud (2013), which was certified gold by the RIAA and spawned the platinum-selling single "Just What I Am" (featuring King Chip). He would continue to produce the bulk of his own records, including the avant-garde music albums Satellite Flight: The Journey to Mother Moon (2014) and Speedin' Bullet 2 Heaven (2015), the latter of which was led by the grunge-inspired single "Confused!". In 2016, the release of his sixth solo album Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin', was supported by the lead single "Surfin'" (featuring Pharrell Williams). Cudi's joint album with Kanye West, under the eponymous name Kids See Ghosts (2018), was met with widespread critical acclaim. In April 2020, Cudi earned his first number-one song on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart with "The Scotts", alongside fellow American rapper Travis Scott. His seventh album, Man on the Moon III: The Chosen (2020), was highly acclaimed and a commercial success, having been certified gold by the RIAA. Cudi issued his eighth album Entergalactic (2022), coinciding with the release of a adult animated special of the same name inspired by the album, which was critically praised. After signing to GOOD Music, Cudi has since gone on to launch his own vanity labels, the now-dissolved Dream On and current label imprint Wicked Awesome Records. Cudi also ventured into acting in 2010, when he was cast in the HBO series How to Make It in America. He has since appeared in several feature films, including Goodbye World (2013), Need for Speed (2014), Entourage (2015), Bill & Ted Face the Music (2020), Don't Look Up (2021), and X (2022). In addition, he has made appearances on television shows such as One Tree Hill, The Cleveland Show, Brooklyn Nine-Nine, and Westworld. In 2015, he was the bandleader on the IFC series Comedy Bang! Bang! and in 2020 was added as a cast member for the HBO mini-series We Are Who We Are. In 2020, he launched Mad Solar, a production company for film and television, which produced a documentary titled A Man Named Scott (2021), storying Cudi's music career. Cudi is also founder, creator, and director of the clothing line "MOTR", which he launched in 2022. Kid Cudi has been widely recognized as an influence on several contemporary hip hop and alternative acts. His lyrics are often autobiographical and describe his childhood hardships of depression, loneliness and alienation, his struggle with alcohol and drugs into adulthood, and themes of spirituality, heartbreak, dissipation and celebration. The majority of his impact stems from his ability to display vulnerability and address bouts with mental health. He is also noted for his experimental nature, combining elements of psychedelia, R&B, electronica, synthpop, dance, house, punk and indie rock, in his music. Cudi has sold over 22 million certified records in the United States and has won two Grammy Awards from five nominations. He has worked with numerous prominent artists spanning several different genres in the music industry, namely Jay-Z, Eminem, Kendrick Lamar, David Guetta, Steve Aoki, MGMT, Mary J. Blige, Shakira, Ariana Grande and Michael Bolton, among others. Early life Kid Cudi was born Scott Ramon Seguro Mescudi in Cleveland, Ohio, on January 30, 1984. He grew up in Shaker Heights and Solon. He has two older brothers, Domingo and Dean, and an older sister, Maisha. His mother, Elsie Harriet (née Banks), is an African-American school choir teacher at Roxboro Middle School in Cleveland Heights, Ohio. His father, Lindberg Styles Mescudi, was a house painter, substitute teacher, and World War II Air Force veteran of African-American and Mexican descent. When Cudi was 11 years old, his father died of cancer; his passing had a significant effect on Cudi's personality and music. Cudi attended Shaker Heights High School for two years before transferring to Solon High School. He was expelled from the school for threatening to punch the principal, and would later earn his GED. He studied film at the University of Toledo, but dropped out after a year. His subsequent plan to join the Navy did not pan out because of his juvenile police record. Musical career 2003–08: Beginnings in New York City and A Kid Named Cudi Cudi first began rapping in 2003, towards the end of his time in high school, and was inspired by alternative hip hop groups such as the Pharcyde and A Tribe Called Quest. He later moved to New York City to pursue a music career. After leaving Cleveland in 2005 with $500 and a demo tape, he moved in with his uncle, accomplished jazz drummer Kalil Madi, in the South Bronx. He worked at a couple of Manhattan clothing stores, before eventually sharing an apartment with friend and collaborator Dot da Genius in Brooklyn. In 2006, Cudi would run into his future mentor, rapper and producer Kanye West, in a Virgin Megastore. He recounted in a 2009 SPIN interview, "I was looking at CDs, saw the gleam of a Jesus piece in the right side of my eye, looked up, and it was Kanye West." He introduced himself and offered West some of his music. Cudi would later run into West again while working at the BAPE store in New York, and recalled: "I remember Kanye coming in one time and I was helping him get a couple things. I forgot to take a sensor off of one of the jackets he bought and I had to run out the store to catch him before he left. Pretty funny me chasing after him in SoHo." In 2007, Kid Cudi's song "Day 'n' Nite", began being featured on several music blogs, after having initially uploaded the song to his MySpace page. This early work would go on to catch the attention of West via his then-manager Plain Pat, subsequently leading West to sign Cudi to his GOOD Music imprint later that year. In July 2008, Kid Cudi released his first mixtape, A Kid Named Cudi (executive produced by Plain Pat and Emile Haynie), in collaboration with New York street-wear brand 10.Deep as a free download. Kanye West first called upon Cudi to reference hooks for American rapper and mogul Jay-Z, and while in the studio Cudi and West went from working on The Blueprint 3 (2009) to West's R&B-esque 808s & Heartbreak (2008). Cudi's assistance on the latter includes co-writing credits and/or vocals on "Heartless," "Welcome to Heartbreak," "Paranoid" and "RoboCop." Kid Cudi was a prominent songwriter and featured artist on 808s & Heartbreak, with "Paranoid" and "Heartless" being released as singles, while "Welcome to Heartbreak" charted as an album cut and peaked at number 87 on the Pop 100. Kid Cudi's first television appearance was at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards, alongside Travis Barker and DJ AM. Cudi was promoted as an artist to watch for in media such as Rolling Stone, Vibe, The Source, XXL and BBC News's 2009 Sound of poll. MTV News reported on Cudi on a series of reports titled "MCs To Watch In 2009". 2009–10: Man on the Moon and Man on the Moon II In late 2008, Cudi was revealed to be included in XXLs 2009 annual Freshman Class. He was featured on the cover alongside fellow up-and-coming rappers Asher Roth, Wale, B.o.B, Charles Hamilton, Cory Gunz, Blu, Mickey Factz, Ace Hood and Curren$y. On February 17, 2009, he appeared on Snoop Dogg's MTV talk show Dogg After Dark, performing "Day 'n' Nite" at the end of the show. Two days later on February 19, 2009, Cudi appeared on BET's 106 & Park, alongside Kanye West to debut the music video of "Day 'n' Nite". On February 25, 2009, Cudi self-leaked a teaser trailer for the upcoming Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen film, using his song "Sky Might Fall" in the background; later he posted that he made the trailer himself and was in talks to possibly making it official. In February 2009, Kid Cudi also made a cameo appearance next to Solange in the video for her song "T.O.N.Y.". On March 16, 2009, Kid Cudi performed on mtvU's Spring Break special, and the following day he performed three songs on NBC's Last Call with Carson Daly. Cudi teamed up with partner and record producer Emile Haynie, to produce an exclusive single titled "Switchin Lanes", for the video game Midnight Club: Los Angeles, part of its "South Central Premium Upgrade" downloadable content (DLC), which came out March 19, 2009, for the PlayStation 3 and March 27, 2009, for the Xbox 360. He has also appeared as a musical guest on the Late Show with David Letterman and Jimmy Kimmel Live! In June 2009, he made a cameo in Black Eyed Peas' video for "I Gotta Feeling", alongside David Guetta, where the two met for the first time and subsequently recorded their international hit "Memories". In 2009, he had also been on two magazine covers, Complex (August/September 2009) and URB (August 2009). He revealed information about his future plans via his blog, saying that a possible collaborative album with Chip tha Ripper could be followed with a collaborative project with electronic rock duo Ratatat. On May 5, 2009 Iranian-American progressive house DJ Sharam, released "She Came Along", the lead single from his debut studio album, Get Wild (2009). The song, featuring Cudi, charted for 15 weeks on the Bulgarian Singles Top 40. It entered the chart on position 40 on week 30/2009, and its last appearance was on week 44/2009. It peaked at number 11, where it stayed for one week. During the summer of 2009, Cudi joined fellow up-and-coming rappers Asher Roth and B.o.B, for 'The Great Hangover' concert tour. In late 2009, Kid Cudi was featured on the highly anticipated Jay-Z album The Blueprint 3, on the song "Already Home". On September 14, 2009, BET premiered their Rising Icons profile of Kid Cudi. During the 30 minute show Cudi performed "CuDi Zone", "Mr. Solo Dolo", "Day 'n' Nite" and "Make Her Say". Cudi also discussed his childhood, his move to New York to begin his career as an artist and more. Cudi's debut album Man on the Moon: The End of Day, was released on Universal Motown Records on September 15, 2009 and sold 104,419 copies in the first week and charted at #4. The album's lead single "Day 'n' Nite", Kid Cudi's greatest commercial success thus far, charted well in both the U.S. and in Europe. The second single released was "Make Her Say" (originally titled "I Poke Her Face"), which features a sample from Lady Gaga's hit single "Poker Face" and performances by Kanye West and Common. Common was also featured throughout the album, as the narrator. In September 2009, Cudi co-headlined 50 Cent's "50 Fest" concert, along with fellow American rapper Wale. In a late 2009 interview, Cudi announced that the follow-up to his debut album would be a compilation album entitled Cudder and the Revolution of Evolution, which would have many collaborations. He stated he had already recorded songs with Snoop Dogg, Travis Barker, Clipse, Cage and Pharrell, and would also like to work with Drake, Green Day, Kings of Leon, Robin Thicke, the Killers and the Postal Service on the album. It was also rumored that Man on the Moon: The End of Day would be followed up by a sequel titled Man on the Moon: The Ghost in the Machine and that the Man on the Moon series would be a trilogy. Kid Cudi was nominated for three 2010 Grammy Awards, for his singles "Day 'n' Nite" and "Make Her Say". In January 2010, Cudi released Man on the Moon: The End of Days third and final single "Pursuit of Happiness", which was eventually certified platinum by the RIAA. In 2010, Cudi was featured on Snoop Dogg's re-release of Malice n Wonderland, titled More Malice, on the lead single "That Tree". Cudi later teamed up with independent artist Johnny Polygon, to remix Polygon's "The Riot Song", which appears on his mixtape Rebel Without Applause (2010). He was also invited to be a vocalist for the remake of the charity single "We Are the World" for its 25th anniversary to benefit Haiti after the earthquake. On April 20, 2010, Kid Cudi announced that the name of his second album would not be Cudder and the Revolution of Evolution, but a direct sequel to his first, titled Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager. On June 11, 2010, Kid Cudi was arrested in the Chelsea neighborhood of the Manhattan borough in New York City and charged with felony criminal mischief and possession of a controlled substance. Despite his arrest, he was released and made it to Manchester, Tennessee in time to play at Bonnaroo. In May 2010, American shoe company Converse, launched "You're It", a campaign which highlighted 23 artists from around the world in a series of web shorts. The campaign featured artists from 13 countries including Kid Cudi. In this short, Converse takes a trip back to Cudi's roots as an artist in his hometown of Cleveland, Ohio. The campaign's goal was to tap into the grassroots of Converse's global market and introduce the artists of tomorrow. In June 2010, Converse was promoting being a catalyst for creativity by bringing together three musicians from different genres to form a unique collaboration known as "Three Artists. One Song." Converse teamed up Cudi, alongside Vampire Weekend's Rostam Batmanglij and Best Coast's Bethany Cosentino, to produce the song titled "All Summer". In addition to collaborating on the track, each of the artists also participated in the creation of the music video, which was released later that summer. The lead single from Cudi's second studio album, titled "Erase Me", features Kanye West and was produced by Jim Jonsin. The song debuted on a Cleveland radio station June 30, 2010, and was officially released to Rhythm/Crossover radio on August 17, 2010. The title-track "Mr. Rager", was released as the album's second single, shortly before the album's release. The album, released November 9, 2010, debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 chart, with first-week sales of 169,000 copies. In its second week it crossed the 200,000 sales mark. In 2010, Kid Cudi appeared on several songs for his mentor Kanye West's weekly free music giveaway GOOD Fridays; namely "Good Friday", "Christian Dior Denim Flow" and "The Joy", the latter of which later became a bonus track on the Jay-Z and Kanye West collaborative album Watch the Throne (2011). 2011–12: New direction with WZRD and Wicked Awesome In October 2010, Cudi had announced that he would be forming a rock band with frequent collaborator Dot da Genius, tentatively called Wizard. In early 2011, he announced that he would be releasing a mixtape titled A Man Named Scott, reminiscent of his A Kid Named Cudi title, prior to the rock album. On February 26, 2011, Cudi took to his Twitter account to announce that Dream On, the record label he launched back in 2009 with partners Patrick "Plain Pat" Reynolds and producer Emile Haynie, has been dissolved. However, in an interview with Complex Magazine Cudi explained they were all still on good terms: "I wanted to try something new, and I wanted to take control of things myself. Those are still my guys, Pat and Emile, and I'm still going to work with them in the future. When we start working on Man on the Moon III I'll be calling them up to see if they want to be a part of it. I know Emile is definitely down. We had an issue, but we're men and we were able to figure it out and move forward. There's no hard feelings." In March 2011, Cudi announced that a music video for "Marijuana" would be released in the spring, followed by a music video for "Mr. Rager" in the summer, then he would release a short film, directed by Shia LaBeouf, inspired by his song "Maniac", with Cage, in October 2011. In April 2011, while performing at New York City's Roseland Ballroom Kid Cudi announced he was launching his own record label. The new label, which he will be releasing his third studio album on is called Wicked Awesome Records. He also renamed his band on the same occasion to 2 Be Continuum, renaming it from the original Wizard. Kid Cudi explained his reasoning saying: "I needed something more original, something different, but it's still wizardry at its finest." In 2011, Cudi landed a songwriting placement on English singer Natalia Kills' debut album Perfectionist, for the song "Free". On August 12, 2011, Kid Cudi released the music video for "No One Believes Me", directed by Fright Night director Craig Gillespie. The song, produced by Dot da Genius, features Cudi singing and contains elements of rock music. On August 21, Cudi announced that he would no longer be releasing the A Man Named Scott mixtape, so that he can focus on his rock project and his third solo album Man on the Moon III. Kid Cudi released the music video for his second album's title-track "Mr. Rager", on September 8, 2011. The video received all-positive reviews from critics and fans alike. Despite saying he will not do many more features for other artists in Complex magazine's October/November 2011 cover story, Cudi appeared on Bryan Greenberg's second album We Don't Have Forever (2011), Travis Barker's solo debut Give the Drummer Some (2011), the Knux's Eraser (2011), and Wale's Ambition (2011), respectively. On October 30, 2011, Cudi released Maniac, a short horror film co-starring fellow American rapper Cage and directed by American actor Shia LaBeouf, through his blog. On November 13, 2011, a previously unreleased demo tape Cudi had recorded from 2002 to 2003, under the pseudonym Kid Mesc, titled Rap Hard, leaked online. On Twitter, Cudi wrote "I actually never wanted anyone to hear those songs ever, but its cool. Ha" On November 18, 2011 Cudi renamed his band for the second time to WZRD (pronounced: w-z-r-d). He also announced that the upcoming rock project would be released on his 28th birthday, January 30, 2012. In late 2011, Cudi was mentioned in a viral video by vlogger Ben Breedlove, about his near death experiences. After Breedlove's death on December 26, 2011, Cudi commented on his thoughts about inspiring the young kid. "I am so sad about Ben Breedlove," Kid Cudi wrote on his Tumblr blog. "I watched the video he left for the world to see, and him seeing me in detail, in his vision really warmed my heart. I broke down, I am to tears because I hate how life is so unfair. This has really touched my heart in a way I cant describe, this is why I do what I do. Why I write my life, and why I love you all so much. Life is really fucked up sometimes, but I know Ben is at Peace, and I hope he gets a chance to sit and talk with my Dad. We love you Ben. Forever. Thank you for loving me. To Ben's family, you raised a real hero, he's definitely mine. You have my love." In January 2012, Cudi appeared on two songs from Chip tha Ripper's mixtape Tell Ya Friends, "Ride 4 You" which also featured Far East Movement and "GloryUs", which credited the duo as they are collectively known, The Almighty GloryUs. This led to speculation that a long-awaited project from the two was underway. On January 31, Cudi announced through his Twitter feed that he had completed WZRD and that his next album was the collaborative effort with Chip tha Ripper. In 2012, Cudi was featured on the soundtrack to the film The Hunger Games, crafting an original song for the film titled "The Ruler and the Killer". Referring to "The Ruler and the Killer", Cudi wrote on his Twitter feed: "I could not have done it without my producing partners on the project for the film, The legendary and Godly T Bone Burnett and Greg Wells!" While working on the band's self-titled debut, Cudi claimed he had writer's block for almost five months because of his new sobriety; something that had never happened to him for such an extended period of time. According to Cudi, bands that inspired the album include Electric Light Orchestra, Jimi Hendrix, Nirvana and Pink Floyd. The album includes a song titled "Where Did You Sleep Last Night?", a cover of the same titled song by Nirvana, who in turn were inspired by blues guitar legend Lead Belly's rendition of the traditional folk song. Following WZRDs release on February 28, 2012, the album debuted at #3 on the US Billboard 200 chart, with first-week sales of 66,000 physical and digital copies in the United States. The album also debuted on the Top Rock Albums and Top Alternative Albums at number one, and at #9 on the Canadian Albums Chart respectively. 2012–13: Indicud and departure from GOOD Music In April 2012, in Geneseo, New York, Cudi performed before a sold-out crowd and premiered a hip hop song, his first since 2010. During his set, he performed a new record, tentatively titled "The Leader of the Delinquents", which he did a cappella. On April 25, 2012 Cudi was officially back to rapping with the release of "Dennis, Hook Me Up with Some More of That Whiskey!". The song, the first ever solely produced by Cudi himself, samples his 2010 song "Ghost!". In June 2012, Cudi was seen in the music video for "Mercy," the lead single from GOOD Music's compilation album Cruel Summer, in which he, along with other GOOD Music recording artists were featured on. Cudi was ultimately featured on two songs from the compilation, "The Morning" and a solo track originally meant for Man on the Moon II (2010), titled "Creepers", produced by Dan Black. In the summer of 2012, Cudi announced the title of his third studio album to be, Indicud when he tweeted: "My new album is entitled indicud, it will be my version of The Chronic 2001, some songs i'll produce, others i'll feat &/or play songwriter". On June 8, 2012, Cudi announced Indicud, will be a double-disc album. On August 12, Kid Cudi released the lead single from Indicud, a song titled "Just What I Am", featuring his friend and longtime collaborator King Chip (formerly Chip tha Ripper). The album was announced to be released in early 2013 with Cudi focusing on scoring movies, followed by the third installment of the Man on the Moon series. Cudi then added that Indicud "will feature more uptempos and that it will consist of at most 17 new songs." The music video for "Just What I Am", which marked Cudi's directorial debut, premiered November 6, 2012 on VEVO and was shot in Los Angeles with fans invited to participate in the video's shoot. On November 7, he revealed the album's second official single's title to be "Immortal", and that it again was produced by himself like the two previous releases, "Just What I Am" and "King Wizard". He claimed the song "will make you feel amazing in the heart and soul." The song was officially released via iTunes on March 14, 2013. On March 14, 2013 Kid Cudi performed at MySpace's South by Southwest (SXSW) secret show in Austin, Texas and after performing his many hits, he previewed a new verse from Indicud. He also revealed that the album would feature 18 tracks, while officially confirming ASAP Rocky and Michael Bolton as featured guests. On March 16, Cudi announced that he would release the album's tracklist and cover art on April 2. Three days later, Kid Cudi announced via Twitter that the album had officially been completed and turned in to his label, Universal Republic. On March 26, the album's cover art and tracklist was unveiled by Walmart and later Complex. Later that day, Cudi appeared on Jimmy Kimmel Live! and performed the album's lead singles; "Just What I Am" and "Immortal", as well as premiering "Mad Solar", which he performed a cappella. On April 2, 2013, Kid Cudi announced on Power 106, that he was no longer under Kanye West's GOOD Music imprint. Cudi revealed he left the label on good terms, with him saying West respected his decision and will always be "big brother". Cudi's decision to move forward without West, was his desire to focus on his own imprint, Wicked Awesome Records and his friend, fellow rapper King Chip. After Indicud leaked online in its entirety on April 9, 2013, Kid Cudi decided to push the album's release date up to April 16. The album went on to debut at #2 on the charts by moving 140,000 copies. In late 2013, Kid Cudi went on tour in support of Indicud on The Cud Life Tour 2013. The tour was announced on July 15 with tickets going on sale the following day. Supporting acts on the tour included fellow American rappers Big Sean, Tyler, The Creator and Logic. 2013–14: Satellite Flight: The Journey to Mother Moon While on tour, on October 16, 2013 Kid Cudi announced he would be releasing an extended play (EP), sometime in the next three months. Cudi also revealed he would be producing it alongside Dot da Genius and that frequent collaborator King Chip, would appear on the EP. He then called the EP a prelude to his fourth album Man on the Moon III, which he announced would be released in 2015. On October 19, 2013, Cudi revealed "Going to the Ceremony", a song he had released via online audio distribution platform SoundCloud, earlier in July, would be included in the EP. Cudi would also go on to reveal a remix of his hit single "Day 'n' Nite, which was briefly previewed on the intro of his 2008 breakout mixtape A Kid Named Cudi, would also appear on the EP. On November 25, 2013, via his Twitter, Cudi revealed the title of the EP to be Satellite Flight: The Journey to Mother Moon. On December 16, 2013, Kid Cudi once again utilized SoundCloud to release "Satellite Flight", the EP's title-track. On January 27, 2014, Kid Cudi revealed on Twitter that Satellite Flight: Journey to Mother Moon would no longer be an EP, but a full-length album instead. In a February 2014 interview with MTV News, Cudi discussed the EP's transition to a full-fledged album and called the project his best work yet: "I'm really excited because it's my best work, and it's a surprise. People weren't really expecting it. I've never done two albums within a year of each other." On February 25, 2014, with only few hours' notice from Cudi, Satellite Flight: The Journey to Mother Moon was released exclusively to digital retailers. The album debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 chart, with first-week sales of 87,000 digital copies in the United States. On March 4, 2014 Cudi appeared on Chelsea Lately, where he was interviewed by Oscar-nominated actress Gabourey Sidibe, to promote Satellite Flight and the 2014 film Need for Speed. On March 12, 2014, Cudi released a song titled "Hero", a collaboration with American singer-songwriter Skylar Grey, recorded for the soundtrack to Need for Speed. On March 15, 2014, Cudi appeared on The Arsenio Hall Show, where he promoted the album, discussed the state of hip-hop, suicidal thoughts, Need for Speed, and performed the song "Internal Bleeding", from the album. In April 2014, Cudi appeared on the cover of the inaugural issue of Fat Man magazine. On April 24, 2014, while being honored as a mental health advocate by Didi Hirsch Mental Health Services, at the Beverly Hilton in Los Angeles, Cudi offered a special performance during their annual Erasing the Stigma Leadership Awards. On May 2, 2014, it was announced Cudi would headline Chicago's North Coast Music Festival, along with West Coast rapper Snoop Dogg. On May 11, 2014 Cudi revealed he would be writing and directing a short film for the Satellite Flight album cut "Balmain Jeans": "Developing a short film for "Balmain Jeans", a story about a spontaneous electric connection between two strangers." 2015–16: Speedin' Bullet 2 Heaven In a January 2015 interview, at the Sundance Film Festival, Kid Cudi expressed the possibility of releasing another album before the release of Man on the Moon III: "I'm always making music. The beauty in that is that I have a lot of material. And I'm actually thinking that it would be good to release something in the meantime, before Man on the Moon III comes out. Another Kid Cudi album, it's just kind of along the lines of what I did with Indicud or Satellite Flight, which is just its own standalone thing but still a Kid Cudi album. The Man on the Moon III album is something that's gonna take some time but I know the fans are gonna be patient and I really appreciate that guys, thank you for your patience. But Man on the Moon III is coming, there may be an album before that just to tide you over." On March 3, 2015, Cudi officially released his first song since his album Satellite Flight, was put on the market. The song, which is titled "Love," was originally recorded for Satellite Flight, and samples Ratatat's "Sunblocks" and has been received with positive reviews. On April 4, 2015, Cudi announced via Twitter that he would be releasing a new album titled Speedin' Bullet 2 Heaven. On August 1, 2015, Cudi released "Confused!," the lead single from his fifth album. On October 27, 2015, Cudi announced the new album will be released on December 4, 2015. He also leaked two songs off the project, "Wedding Tux" and "Judgemental Cunt". In November 2015 Cudi announced an Especial Tour, that will bring the rapper to various theaters all across the United States. On December 1, 2015, Cudi announced the cancellation of his Especial Tour, due to various reasons, such as production and personal issues. To make up for postponing the concert tour, Cudi released the album's title-track as the second single. 2016–18: Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin and Kids See Ghosts In March 2016, Kid Cudi performed at McDowell Mountain Music Festival in Phoenix, Arizona. In an early April 2016 interview with Billboard, when asked about Man on the Moon III, Cudi responded with: "I came up with Man on the Moon when I was a young man. People change their vibe! We can follow the same template and do the five-act split. Sonically, I'm still going to be where I'm at. Honestly, I was ready to live up to the obligation and do Man on the Moon III. I haven't been dicking around. I was planning on doing it after Speedin' Bullet. But the Speedin' Bullet response tore me up. It made me realize what's most important. I'm getting back on the bike again and doing what I do best: me." On April 22, 2016, Kid Cudi announced he would be releasing a new studio album, slated for a summer unveiling. On May 11, 2016, amidst rumors that he was set to release Man on the Moon III, Cudi revealed the title of his sixth solo album would be Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin', through online mobile video-sharing and social networking service Instagram. On June 1, 2016, Cudi announced that he had two upcoming albums. One set to be released in the summer, while the other would be released in the fall. He added that one of them was complete. On September 26, 2016, Kid Cudi unveiled the track-list for Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin via Twitter, which revealed guest spots from Travis Scott, André 3000, Pharrell Williams and Willow Smith. Although there was a discrepancy between him and Kanye West, West later made an offer of peace and a song featuring him and Cudi subsequently surfaced online. Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin was announced to be issued first via digital distribution on December 16, 2016, with the physical release on December 23. Cudi has also shared the song "Baptized in Fire," which features Travis Scott (with whom Cudi collaborated extensively with on 2016's Birds in the Trap Sing McKnight). On March 1, 2017, Kid Cudi performed the song "Kitchen", with a string orchestra, live on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon. On August 15, 2017, Cudi announced a national concert tour by the name of Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin' Tour; with the first date on September 30 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In 2018 Cudi and Kanye West formed a duo known as Kids See Ghosts, and produced an album with the same name, Kids See Ghosts, which was released on June 8, 2018. On October 23, 2018, in response to a fan on Twitter, Cudi revealed he had begun working on his seventh solo album. Although he said he would be taking his time to create his forthcoming LP, Cudi projected a 2019 release. 2019–2022: Man on the Moon III and Entergalactic In July 2019, Kid Cudi announced his next album would be titled Entergalactic, which he revealed would soundtrack an upcoming Netflix "adult-focused animated music series" co-created by himself and Kenya Barris. On April 14, 2020, Kid Cudi released "Leader of the Delinquents" as a single via Republic Records. The song, which Cudi had first performed back in 2012, was later released in a limited edition pressing of the track on 7" vinyl, 12" picture disc, and cassette. On April 24, 2020, Cudi collaborated with Travis Scott under the collective name The Scotts, to release a song under the same name, "The Scotts". It was hinted that the duo would be releasing more music in the future. The song debuted atop the Billboard Hot 100 chart, becoming Cudi's first number-one hit single in the US. Later on April 24, Cudi also revealed that he was still working on new music for a future WZRD release, joking that "we take a decade off between albums." On July 9, 2020, Cudi's daughter Vada, announced via social media that he would be releasing a song with multiple Grammy Award-winning artist Eminem, called "The Adventures of Moon Man & Slim Shady" the coming Friday. The song was released on July 10, 2020 and also saw success as a hit, as it debuted in the Top 40 of the Billboard Hot 100. On October 26, Cudi released a teaser video on his official Twitter account for Man on the Moon III, the final installment in his Man on the Moon series, after a decade between releases. The album title and release date were not shared with the video, however on December 7, Cudi announced the album would be titled Man on the Moon III: The Chosen, with a release date of December 11, 2020. The concept album's theme follows Cudi overcoming his darkness, but fighting to win his soul back from his alter-ego "Mr. Rager". Man on the Moon III: The Chosen, received mostly positive reviews from music critics, who praised Cudi's songwriting and generally favored the latter two acts, though some found it derivative of Cudi's earlier albums. It debuted at number two on the Billboard 200, earning 144,000 album-equivalent units of which 15,000 were pure sales, marking Cudi's fifth top 10 album in the US. Although Entergalactic was originally set for a 2020 release, it was pushed back due to Cudi releasing his long-awaited Man on the Moon III album instead. In January 2021, when asked by a fan on Twitter why Entergalatics new release date says 2022 on Netflix, Cudi responded, "[Because] that's when it drops. I just gave y'all an album y'all gotta chill and be patient fr man I'm not doin an album every year." Cudi was the sole musical guest on Saturday Night Live in April 2021, having previously featured alongside Kanye West and 070 Shake in "Ghost Town" in 2018. He played "Tequila Shots" and "Sad People" with both performances in tribute to Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain. "Sad People" showcased Cudi in a floral dress designed by Virgil Abloh in a nod to Cobain. In June 2021, Amazon enlisted Kid Cudi for Prime Day Show; a three-part musical event also featuring Billie Eilish and H.E.R. Cudi's performance included a mission to establish a new community on the moon, while performing with the International Space Orchestra, a new group composed of space scientists from NASA Ames Research Center, the SETI Institute and the International Space University. A Man Named Scott, a documentary film directed by Robert Alexander, was announced in October 2021 via Prime Video. The film was produced by Mad Solar, Complex Networks and Film 45, set for release in November 2021, and billed as a look at Cudi's journey "over a decade of creative choices, struggles, and breakthroughs." During his headlining performance at the Rolling Loud music festival, Cudi revealed intentions on releasing two full-length projects in 2022, with plans of releasing an album prior to Entergalactic "I have Entergalactic coming in the summer, and I wanna drop another album before that. I got some tasty surprises and I'm really excited about all this new shit, this new music, to give to you guys," he said before playing a recording of a song that has since been dubbed "Freshie." "That's why I'm teasing this shit now because it's coming out soon." On December 3, 2021, a collaboration between Cudi and American pop singer Ariana Grande, titled "Just Look Up" was released in promotion for the black comedy film Don't Look Up, in which they both star in. That month, Man on the Moon III: The Chosen broke the record for biggest vinyl sales week for both a male artist and a rap album in Nielsen history. On April 9, 2022, Cudi performed a medley of "Stars in the Sky" (the lead single for the soundtrack to the film Sonic the Hedgehog 2) and "Pursuit of Happiness" at the Kids' Choice Awards for the first time. On June 24, 2022, a collaboration between Dot da Genius, JID, Denzel Curry, and Cudi, titled "Talk About Me", was released, along with a music video directed by Cole Bennett. In June, Cudi announced his first arena tour with To the Moon World Tour, set to begin in Vancouver on August 16, 2022 and conclude in Milan on November 22, 2022. On July 4, 2022, Cudi announced a compilation album, The Boy Who Flew to the Moon, Vol. 1, to be released on July 8, along with the re-release of his debut mixtape A Kid Named Cudi on July 15. The compilation features "Love", a bonus track which was previously unofficially released due to sample clearance issues. On July 6, American fast food chain McDonald's, announced the line-up for their 2022 Camp McDonald's virtual experience, led by headliner Kid Cudi. The virtual camp would take place over four weeks only available through the McDonald's app. Upon Entergalactics release on September 30, the album debuted at number 13 on the US Billboard 200 chart, earning 22,480 album-equivalent units (including 1,791 copies in pure album sales) in its first week. It's visual component of the same name received an average rating of 8.20/10 on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, with 96% of 28 critics' reviews being positive. In October 2022, on an episode of Hot Ones, Cudi revealed that he didn't know how much longer he would continue making music and that he had an alternative career path in mind. The rapper said he was "kinda nearing the end on all things Kid Cudi." He quoted other rappers including Snoop Dogg, Jay-Z, Eminem and more, saying he didn't think he would have the same longevity at these artists. On November 6, Cudi announced on Twitter he only has one more album left on his recording contract with Republic. He revealed it would not be released in 2023 and that he does not know what he will continue to do following the release. Kid Cudi's 2010 single "Pursuit of Happiness" was certified diamond (10 million units) by the RIAA in December 2022. 2023–present: Ninth solo album On February 27, 2023, Cudi announced his last contractual album with Republic Records would be released in autumn; adding that the rollout for the album will begin in the summer, with singles to be released. Acting career 2010–19: Early venture and minor roles In 2010, Kid Cudi made a guest appearance on American television drama One Tree Hill, starring as himself and performing his Man on the Moon II single "Erase Me", during the episode. In 2010, Kid Cudi also began starring in the HBO comedy series How to Make It in America, as part of the main cast, being credited by his birth name Scott Mescudi, until its cancellation after two seasons. On October 31, 2010, Kid Cudi released a short film, directed by Shia LaBeouf, in which he and fellow American rapper Cage, star as French-speaking serial killers. The short film, titled Maniac, was inspired by Cudi's song of the same name, from his 2010 album Man on the Moon II and is an homage to the 1992 Belgian black comedy crime mockumentary, Man Bites Dog. In May 2012, Kanye West premiered a short film he directed, titled Cruel Summer, at the Cannes Film Festival. According to MTV, Kid Cudi is the lead character, playing a "car thief who falls for a blind Arabian princess." The film was shown on seven different screens that turned on and off, giving various angles of each shot. In October 2012, it was announced Cudi would star in an indie romantic comedy titled Two Night Stand, alongside Analeigh Tipton and Miles Teller. Also in 2012, it was revealed Cudi would star in an indie thriller film titled Tacoma, alongside Patricia Clarkson. In 2013, Cudi guest starred in the animated TV series The Cleveland Show, voicing a character named Devon, in the Season 4 episode "Brownsized". In 2013, he also guest starred on the FOX comedy series Brooklyn Nine-Nine, where he played a criminal named Dustin Whitman. In 2013, it was revealed Cudi would then star in Goodbye World, alongside Adrian Grenier. In January 2013, Cudi was cast in the film adaptation of Need for Speed. Need for Speed, which is Cudi's feature film debut, was released by Touchstone Pictures on March 14, 2014. In June 2013, it was revealed Cudi would appear in Mark Webber's film The Ever After, alongside Teresa Palmer and Melissa Leo. On November 10, 2014, Cudi guest starred on the CBS American television series Scorpion, as Peyton Temple, a musical prodigy who created a controversial algorithm that generates the perfect hit pop song, who later helps Scorpion investigate the murder of his friend who was a music industry blogger. In February 2014, it was announced Cudi would appear in Entourage (2015), the film adaptation of the popular HBO TV series of the same name. On April 11, 2014, it was announced Cudi would star in a film titled James White, alongside Christopher Abbott and Cynthia Nixon. In addition to starring in the film, it was revealed Cudi would also be curating the film's score as well. In January 2015, Cudi revealed he played a homosexual character in James White: "This was way different than anything else I've ever done. It was dope to do that. I felt like I had a responsibility to present a different walk in life from that world." Although his character's sexuality is not outwardly discussed during the film, the original script included a coming-out scene and a kiss between Cudi and a male friend, played by David Call: "I didn't flinch. I'm secure with mine," Cudi told an audience after the film's premiere. "I'm an artist—it's all about playing characters that are intriguing and stimulating." Also in January 2015, Cudi revealed he had just finished filming a movie titled Vincent-N-Roxxy, alongside Zoe Kravitz and Emile Hirsch. When speaking on Vincent-N-Roxxy, Cudi said: "this movie that I have coming out soon that's my first villain role. It's very violent and very disturbing [...] I play kind of like a drug lord." Cudi took over the mic duties for Reggie Watts, on IFC's television series, Comedy Bang! Bang! on July 10, 2015. As the in-house disc jockey, Cudi crafted original music for the show and appeared in several skits throughout season four. The December 10 Christmas edition of Comedy Bang! Bang!, marked the season finale and Cudi's final episode as bandleader. In July 2016, it was announced Cudi would join the cast of FOX's Empire, debuting in the third season of the series as "an independent musician who is a rival to Hakeem (Bryshere "Yazz" Gray) both in the studio and in life." Cudi later left the project due to creative differences. In 2017, Cudi appeared in the comedy film Killing Hasselhoff. In 2019, Cudi had small roles in Drunk Parents, directed by Fred Wolf, and Jexi directed by Jon Lucas and Scott Moore, the latter of which he played himself. That year he also had a recurring role in sci-fi western and dystopian series Westworld. 2020–present: Recognition and directorial debut In 2020, he co-starred in Bill & Ted Face the Music, directed by Dean Parisot, opposite Keanu Reeves and Alex Winter. In 2020, Cudi also starred in We Are Who We Are, an eight-episode miniseries for HBO directed by Luca Guadagnino, alongside Chloë Sevigny. In January 2021, Cudi revealed he would potentially be partnering with TV producer and fellow American rapper 50 Cent, for an upcoming series. In 2021, Cudi served as a executive producer on the award winning drama film Malcolm & Marie. In early 2021, Kid Cudi appeared in Crisis, directed by Nicholas Jarecki. In late 2021, Cudi appeared in the ensemble cast of Don't Look Up, where he also performed an original song for the film alongside fellow American singer Ariana Grande. Cudi starred in Ti West's slasher film X, released in March 2022 to critical acclaim. Soon after, it was announced that Cudi was cast in his X co-star Brittany Snow's directorial debut, September 17. Cudi is also set to star in Disney's upcoming sci-fi film Crater, which will be released exclusively on the streaming service, Disney+. Later in March, Cudi revealed he would be making his feature directorial debut with the Netflix film, Teddy, a project he's also written and in which he'll star. Cudi announced the news in a social media post, noting that he'd been working on the project since 2013. Musicians Jay-Z and Jeymes Samuel will serve as executive producers, while being co-produced by Bron Studios and Cudi's Mad Solar banner. In April 2022, Cudi was cast in the John Woo-directed action-thriller Silent Night, starring alongside Joel Kinnaman. Moreover, as announced in 2019, Cudi starred in his own animated TV special, Entergalactic, at Netflix, a companion piece to his eighth solo album of the same name, release on September 30, 2022, in which he co-produced with Kenya Barris, and wrote alongside Ian Edelman and Maurice Williams. In June 2022, the voice cast was announced; Cudi stars alongside Timothée Chalamet, Macaulay Culkin, Laura Harrier, Jessica Williams, and more. Artistry Musical style Cudi's musical style has been described as "an atmospheric take on melodic rap, with a dollop of charming, off-key singing". He has also been called "introspective, with the ability to lay his insecurities on record and expose his fallibility." In 2015, Kris Ex of Billboard, wrote "he's always been an emotional artist, dealing with expansive and nebulous feelings in acute and often destructive ways." Kid Cudi's sound is what inspired and led Kanye West to create his cathartic 808s & Heartbreak (2008), with West later stating that he and Cudi were "the originators of the style, kinda like what Alexander McQueen is to fashion.... Everything else is just Zara and H&M." West also complimented Cudi by saying, "His writing is just so pure and natural and important." In March 2014, Cudi talked about wanting to provide guidance for young listeners with his music: "my mission statement since day one [...] all I wanted to do was help kids not feel alone, and stop committing suicide."In a 2013 article for The BoomBox, the author wrote: "On [A Kid Named Cudi], Cudi raps and croons over samples and interpolations of Gnarls Barkley, Paul Simon, Band of Horses, J Dilla, Nosaj Thing, N.E.R.D. and Outkast. He melded indie rock, electronica and dubstep seamlessly with hip-hop without pandering or reaching. Before Drake broke through with 2009's So Far Gone, rapping and singing over Swedish indie poppers Lykke Li and Peter Bjorn and John, Cudi tweaked with multi-genre covers and seamless transitions between singing and rapping." In a 2009 interview with HipHopDX, when speaking on his debut album Cudi stated: "Well one thing I wanted to do was combine sounds that really bring out intense moods." His music has also been described as trip hop. Furthermore, he is known for harmonizing and humming in his music, which helps formulate his signature sound. On 2012's WZRD and 2015's Speedin' Bullet 2 Heaven, Cudi incorporated the use of screamed vocals, and can be heard yodeling on his 2016 album Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin'. Throughout the years he has also incorporated elements of psychedelia, R&B, electronica, synthpop, punk and grunge, in his music. Cudi was gifted a guitar by his manager in 2011, encouraging Cudi to learn. Cudi taught himself how to play the guitar and went on to utilize the instrument in his rock music throughout his career. Cudi is also a self-taught music producer. In 2021, Cudi appeared on American TV talk show The Shop, where he spoke on his writing and recording process. Cudi mentioned for his early albums he would sit down and write entire verses. However, while working on Kids See Ghosts and Man on the Moon III, he adopted Kanye West's writing process. Instead of writing to a beat, he records a reference track for himself, where he freestyles and hums his way through the beat to get a melody, and fills in the lyrics as they come to him.The Shop: Uninterrupted, Episode 4-02, first aired 25 June 2021. In 2021, during Songwriter's Roundtable for The Hollywood Reporter, Cudi called his music "space punk rock". Stage presence During his 2013 Cud Life concert tour, Cudi donned a custom made astronaut-esque suit that was designed by noted Hollywood costume designer Jose Hernandez. Officially dubbed the "Satellite Academy Space Suit", Joe La Puma of Complex explained, "It's more than just an interesting clothing choice; the suit represents a transition in his mind-state back to the highly anticipated Man on the Moon III." Influences Cudi's earliest influences include alternative hip hop groups such as the Pharcyde, A Tribe Called Quest and Bone Thugs-n-Harmony. Cudi also cites rappers such as the Notorious B.I.G., Tupac, Jay-Z, Snoop Dogg, Run-DMC, Kurtis Blow, LL Cool J, Salt-N-Pepa, Queen Latifah, Kid 'n Play, N.W.A., Naughty By Nature, Onyx and Public Enemy, as his hip hop influences while growing up. Speaking to Complex in 2012, Cudi named named Doggystyle (1993) as one of his favorite albums of all time, revealing, "Snoop Dogg is my favorite rapper ever […] It was the first time I was introduced to the man and I thought he was the coolest motherfucker alive. His whole cadence, his delivery, his swag—it was real. It was something that I never heard before." Kid Cudi has also credited fellow Ohio native Camu Tao, as an influence. He has also been inspired by the sounds of the O'Jays, Ratatat, MGMT and The Postal Service. In 2010, he began experimenting with rock music; rock acts that inspired Cudi include the Electric Light Orchestra, Jimi Hendrix, Nirvana, the Pixies and Pink Floyd. Kid Cudi also credits English singer-songwriter David Bowie as a "huge inspiration." Production wise, Cudi has named Dr. Dre, Swizz Beatz, Timbaland and Kanye West, as his top four favorite producers; also naming Emile Haynie and Plain Pat, calling them "geniuses" for seeing his potential before he was even completely aware of it. Other ventures Fashion In September 2009, Japanese clothing company BAPE printed Cudi's likeness on T-shirts. In 2021, Cudi and BAPE collaborated on a series 20 pieces logos and other things. In February 2011, Kid Cudi announced a collaboration with Parisian brand Surface to Air. In the fall of 2011, he released a leather jacket collection in collaboration with the fashion label. In August 2014, Giuseppe Zanotti designed an exclusive sneaker inspired by Kid Cudi's style. In February 2019, Kid Cudi partnered with French fashion brand A.P.C. The capsule collection included denim, sneakers, and t-shirts. Kid Cudi announced a partnership with Adidas in March 2019. On December 10, 2020, Cudi unveiled his Adidas sneakers. They are the self-named VADAWAM 326's which would be released on December 17, 2020. On May 20, 2020, Kid Cudi announced he was partnering with American designer Virgil Abloh, to release an exclusive "Leader of the Delinquents" t-shirt. The design on the black and white "PULLING STRINGS" t-shirt features Kid Cudi puppeteering a smaller version of himself, hence the name of the t-shirt release. The art is meant to reference Cudi's infamous TMZ moment from 2012, in which he posed like the puppet on the shirt. "Leader of the Delinquents" is written across the back of the t-shirt in text reminiscent of Jean-Michel Basquiat's handwriting. Just hours before releasing his long-awaited Man on the Moon III album, Cudi rolled out a small batch of merchandise in support of the album. The range was made in collaboration with Cactus Plant Flea Market, and consists of short- and long-sleeve T-shirts, pullover hoodies, and sweatpants—all of which feature graphics that reference MOTM3 tracks. In April 2021, Kid Cudi performed on Saturday Night Live wearing a floral-print sundress, created by Virgil Abloh. On April 11, Cudi confirmed that he would have an upcoming collection with Italian luxury fashion label Off-White, with the floral dress serving as one of the pieces. In late April 2021, it was revealed Kid Cudi had teamed up with the NFL to release a limited-edition Starter jacket commemorating the 2021 NFL Draft, which took place in Cudi's hometown of Cleveland. MOTR On January 26, 2021, Kid Cudi announced on Twitter that he would be starting his own clothing line and the first pieces would be available sometime in 2021. In February 2022, Cudi launched his very own clothing line called MOTR; pronounced "motor", it is an acronym for "Members of the RAGE." The clothing line is described as a fusion of "90s grunge with the soul of hip hop and elements from a distant future." Its UFO logo was co-designed by Cudi and Japanese fashion designer Nigo, while the retro-inspired website was designed by Cudi himself. The first piece that was issued was a t-shirt created in collaboration with Nigo's Human Made. Created for NBA All-Star Weekend, the shirt comes in white and features the MOTR logo in Cleveland Cavaliers colors and the Earth replaced with a basketball. On September 21, 2022, Cudi announced that his MOTR fashion line, will debut at Paris Fashion Week 2023. He also revealed the line is all-unisex pieces, produced "in Italy and parts of Europe"; additionally the line will also feature sneakers. After launching the line in Paris, Vogue wrote "hip-hop culture, retro-inflected futurism, Japanese street fashion and a general embrace of grunge are all brewing in his extroverted, Gen Z-leaning lineup." Modeling In 2010, Cudi modeled for a campaign run by American fashion house Calvin Klein. In January 2015, Coach, Inc. announced Kid Cudi as the new face of their brand, along with actress Chloë Grace Moretz, to front its Spring campaign. In September 2021, Cudi partnered with Cadillac, for the campaign for their 2023 Lyriq. In January 2022, Cudi modeled for the Levi Strauss & Co. campaign titled "The Number That Changed Everything." In March 2022, Cudi was featured in a jewelry-focused campaign from French fashion house Louis Vuitton. The LV Volt campaign sees Cudi, Alicia Vikander and Jin Chen, modeling a range of pieces from the unisex collection. Dream On Dream On was an American record label founded in 2009, by Cudi alongside his managers at the time, Patrick Reynolds and Emile Haynie. In February 2011, Cudi announced the label had been dissolved. The label went on to release the first two installments of Cudi's Man on the Moon series. Wicked Awesome Records Wicked Awesome Records is an American record label founded by Cudi in 2011. It is distributed by Republic Records. In a 2013 interview Cudi said "Wicked Awesome was there officially when I did WZRD. That was the first project that I did on Wicked Awesome and it was an outlet for me to just branch out on my own, and creatively and business-wise take things to a different space for me. Wicked Awesome..where do I see it going? Right now it's just the music but who knows? Wicked Awesome is maybe gunna be beyond music it could be movies, it could be a lot of things, producing T.V. shows. Just the name I think is really dope it has a ring to it." Cudi continued, explaining the motivation behind his label. "The whole motivation is just bringing authenticity back to the forefront. Bringing real content, bringing real emotion [...] Wicked Awesome is about being a real human being, making real music, talking about real things that people deal with on a day-to-day basis." In January 2021, Cudi tweeted that he is prepared to sign artists and producers. Mad Solar On November 17, 2020, it was revealed Cudi teamed with Dennis Cummings and Karina Manashil to found production and music management company Mad Solar, with the backing of Bron Studios, which provides corporate back office and production support, including financing, marketing, and sales. In a statement Cudi said, "Beyond excited to be launching my production company Mad Solar and partnering with Bron, whose creative vision and storytelling has transformed the industry." Mad Solar has produced the Netflix animated special Entergalactic, which Cudi co-created alongside Kenya Barris. Additionally, Mad Solar teamed with A24 and Bron Studios on the horror film X. Written and directed by Ti West, X stars Mia Goth, Cudi and Jenna Ortega. Cudi served as an executive producer on the film, which began production in early 2021. Encore Music Technologies In October 2020, it was announced Cudi teamed with screenwriter Ian Edelman and startup veteran Jonathan Gray to launch Encore Music Technologies, a mobile-based platform to help artists monetize their connections with fans. "The current streaming model puts artists in competition with one another and only rewards the top 1% of artists who collect 90% of the money," a press release announcing the app explains. "Encore offers an all-new format that encourages collaboration amongst artists and makes it easy for up-and-coming and established artists to manage and grow a direct relationship with their fans. Artists can drop new music, chat with fans and host live shows from anywhere in the world." Encore enables live music experiences through smart phones, fan interaction, community centered content and merchandise offerings to give fans new ways to reward the artists they love. "The energy from a concert is undeniable, both for the fans and artists. I am excited to launch Encore to help bring the live music experience back to our fans. Encore is committed to empowering both established and new artists and delivering the best mobile music experience out there," Cudi says. Earlier in 2020, Encore closed a $2 million seed round led by global investment firm Battery Ventures. In 2022, it was revealed Encore Studio was backed by $9 million funding led by Battery Ventures along with investments from 468 Capital, Parade Ventures, Nomad Ventures, Moving Capital, Kayak Ventures, and Gaingels, with Cudi issuing a statement "My number one priority has always been inspiring others and providing them the space to tell their own stories in an authentic and meaningful way," Cudi said in a press release. "We created Encore as a space for artists to share their art, build community, while also being able to pay their rent." Memoir In September 2022, Cudi revealed that he had begun working on his memoir, when he announced he's started writing the first chapter of his first book. "Started writing the first chapter of my book. Its comin together really well," Cudi wrote on Twitter. "Tellin my story in my own words is scary, but I feel like it needs to be told. I feel like everything will make a lil more sense as to why you all met such a troubled boy in the beginning." Public image Kid Cudi has been described by the media as a visionary, and a fashion icon. In his early career, Kid Cudi received criticism in the hip hop community for wearing skinny jeans, before they became trendy after being worn by mainstream rappers, such as Lil Wayne and Kanye West. Cudi made headlines when he wore a kilt to a 2010 New Year's Eve party in Miami. In April 2012, he made headlines again in a now-infamous moment when he gave TMZ paparazzi the finger, claiming they have never "posted anything to make him look good". In 2014, Cudi made headlines when he performed in a crop top at the annual Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival. In April 2021, he appeared as the sole musical guest on Saturday Night Live, where he performed "Tequila Shots" and "Sad People". Both performances were in tribute to Nirvana's late frontman Kurt Cobain, however it was his performance of "Sad People" that made headlines because Cudi wore a dress as a statement against social norms much like his idol Cobain had done. In September 2021, Cudi made headlines twice; first arriving at New York Fashion Week with electric blue hair, a Nirvana long-sleeve tee and a floor-length black skirt. A few days later, Cudi showed up to the Met Gala wearing fluorescent green hair and dark eye makeup. At the Gala, Cudi was in head-to-toe Louis Vuitton (LV), with a blue sweater, another floor-length skirt and blue-and-green LV sneakers. On November 10, 2021, Kid Cudi posed for photos at the CFDA Fashion Awards in a custom bridal gown, standing hand-in-hand with its designer, ERL's Eli Russell Linnetz, lace-gloved fingers interlocked, both wearing American Gothic expressions. On the red carpet, Linnetz lifted Cudi's veil. "Be yourself, be free, baby, yeah," Cudi said into a microphone, with a grin; he'd paired the dress with a white tux jacket, crystal-covered sneakers, grungy eyeliner, an icy Black Jesus pendant, and Manic Panic-pink hair. The dress was another homage to Kurt Cobain. Personal life Drug use In a January 2013 interview, Cudi revealed that he had stopped smoking marijuana in 2011, both for the sake of his child and due to frustration with constantly being associated with the drug and stoner culture. In a March 2013 interview, Cudi talked about how his initial sudden and unexpected fame drove him to alcohol and drugs: However, in 2022, Cudi tweeted about going to rehab for cocaine addiction in 2016: Mental health In a 2013 interview, Cudi revealed he had suffered an addiction to anti-depressant medication, which had been prescribed to help him deal with an "emotional breakdown" after a failed relationship. Cudi has been open about his addiction to pharmaceuticals in his music, namely the songs "Dr. Pill" and "The Nothing". In a 2014 interview, Cudi spoke on his struggles with depression and suicidal ideation: "I've dealt with suicide for the past five years. There wasn't a week or a day that didn't go by where I was just like, 'You know, I wanna check out.' I know what that feels like, I know it comes from loneliness, I know it comes from not having self-worth, not loving yourself." In a July 2016 interview, Kid Cudi revealed he suffered from survivor guilt: "I didn't like that I had money and success and I had made it. Everybody I had ever met in my life, good people, weren't able to experience the same, and I wasn't able to truly enjoy my success. Even though I worked hard for it, it bothered me that I had just had so much and my friends didn't." In October 2016, Cudi revealed on his Facebook page that he had checked himself into rehabilitation for depression and suicidal urges. In a August 2022 interview with Esquire, Cudi spoke on how two weeks after being admitted to rehab in 2016, he had suffered a stroke, revealing the incident forced him to spend the next few months in physical rehabilitation. Family On March 26, 2010, Cudi's daughter, Vada Wamwene Mescudi, was born. Throughout 2012, Cudi was in a custody battle over his daughter. Reports surfaced that Cudi gave up custody after his child's mother accused him of being an absentee father, as well as having violent tendencies and a "long history of consistent drug and alcohol abuse." These claims were disputed by Cudi and his attorney in a statement, which noted: "Cudi did not give up custody but reached an amicable agreement with the mother; that 'both parents are fit and proper persons to have custody of their child,' as stated in the final custody judgment; results came back negative for drugs in a drug test voluntarily taken by Cudi; and that the court acknowledged Cudi attempted to establish a relationship and visit his child since her birth and "voluntarily provided financial support, including child support, rent and other monthly payments, for his daughter since her birth until the time that a child support order was entered as part of the normal course of the case." Details of the official custody agreement remain private. Cudi has since purchased a property in Chicago to be close to his daughter. Relationships In 2009, Cudi began dating entertainment attorney Jamie Baratta. They were in an on-again, off-again relationship, and were a prominent couple in the music industry. They ultimately broke up in 2012, but not before Cudi dedicated a song to her titled "Teleport 2 Me, Jamie", which he recorded as a member of the alternative rock duo, WZRD. In 2020, Cudi wrote "Sept. 16", a song titled after the birthdate of his girlfriend at the time, costume designer and actress Raquel Deriane, to whom the song is dedicated. Faith In a January 2013 interview, Cudi said that he believes in God, although considers himself spiritual but not religious. Philanthropy On April 8, 2014, Didi Hirsch Mental Health Services announced that it would recognize mental health advocates Kid Cudi, Ronda Rousey and Natasha Tracy, during its annual Erasing the Stigma Leadership Awards on April 24, at the Beverly Hilton in Los Angeles. Committed to helping depressed and suicidal youth through the power of music, Cudi joined Didi Hirsch's Erasing the Stigma Efforts as a Mental Health Ambassador. On February 7, 2015, Kid Cudi partnered with TED to give a TED Talk at his former school, Shaker Heights High School, to help inspire the students with his story, for the school's independently organized "TEDxSHHS" conference. Kid Cudi has also been a volunteer for Musicians on Call (MOC), a charity with the mission of bringing live and recorded music to the bedsides of patients in healthcare facilities. In December 2015, Cudi arranged a dance party for the teenage participants of the Children's Hospital At Montefiore's (CHAM) B-N-Fit program, in the Bronx. Kid Cudi also hosted a group of young patients and their families from CHAM, at his sold-out Roseland Ballroom shows in April 2016. In June 2016, 49 celebrities, including Kid Cudi, honored the 49 victims killed in the Orlando nightclub shooting in a video tribute. In 2019, Kid Cudi teamed up with delivery service Postmates to deliver $10,000 worth of Popeyes takeout to the Coachella Valley Rescue Mission. Hundreds in need at the Indio shelter were presented with Popeyes' chicken, biscuits, mashed potatoes, and fries the evening before Cudi's second set at Coachella. In June 2022, at an event organized by Tory Burch, Brent Saunders, and Anna Wintour, supporting the New York-Presbyterian Hospital's Youth Anxiety Center, Cudi led the conversation on youth anxiety, depression, and the importance of self-care and treatment. Impact and legacy A number of publications have noted Kid Cudi's impact on contemporary hip hop music since his mainstream debut in 2009. IBTimes writer Alex Garofaro states "Since the beginning of Cudi's career, his music has been extremely influential. His unique blend of dark, introspective lyrics, melancholy melody, psychedelic instrumentation and stoner cool made him a crossover sensation with rap, R&B and indie music fans alike." Luke Hinz of HotNewHipHop said "Cudi has inspired a generation of young artists to be unafraid to explore a wide array of emotions, and many have sought to adapt elements of Cudi's music into their own. Never caring to fit into the conventional boundaries of music, Cudi became a voice for those who felt unrepresented and alone." In a 2015 article titled "KiD CuDi – A Forgotten Influence on Psychedelic Introspection in Hip-Hop", the author wrote "Cudi helped bring about a new era of electronic, psychedelic driven production. And his dark, drug-riddled approach to introspection has already taken hold in the up-and-comers in the hip-hop world." Revolt writer Preezy Brown noted "His knack for displaying vulnerability and addressing bouts with mental health has made him an inspiration for a long list of artists including Juice WRLD, Logic, Lil Yachty, and other leaders of the new school." Eric Diep of Complex said "Cudi is an omnipresent figure in pop culture who has inspired many. He's a voice for young creatives who don't fit in. He's a therapeutic light for people who need a helping hand. He's a fashion icon. He's more than a cool cameo in television and movies, but a full-fledged actor." Uproxx stated "Compared to modern icons like Drake, West, and Wayne, Cudi doesn't have a boatload of sales, or a room full of accolades, but his weighty impact is reflected in adulation from the people, which is the intangible, everlasting achievement that most artists live for. He's one of the first artists to be unabashed about his depressive ruminations and did so in a melodically intriguing manner that progressed alternative rock aesthetics into the hip-hop world one cadence at a time." Paul Thompson of Rolling Stone wrote Cudi has "dozens of stylistic children". Several artists have gone on to credit Kid Cudi as influence or inspiration, such as rappers Kanye West, Travis Scott, Kendrick Lamar, Schoolboy Q, Chance the Rapper, Childish Gambino, Logic, ASAP Rocky, ASAP Nast, Allan Kingdom, Kyle, Isaiah Rashad, Raury, Key!, Denzel Curry, Kevin Abstract, Saba and Jaden Smith, as well as singers Willow Smith, Jhene Aiko, Lissie and Tinashe, among others. In 2009, Canadian recording artist Drake shared his admiration for Cudi on Twitter with a picture of him holding both his and Cudi's respective projects, stating "We are rarely proud when we are alone. But to have another artist who pushes me and inspires me is a blessing." In a 2010 interview with Billboard, Kanye West called Cudi his "personal favorite artist in the world right now. His whole take on the game is just unfiltered, uncensored artistry." In 2016, Kanye West went on to call Cudi "the most influential artist of the past 10 years". West Coast hip hop duo Audio Push have also praised Cudi, in 2016, saying "The thing I love about Cudi is he's unapologetically real. He birthed so much of, not even the new generation of artists, but a lot of [your] favorite artists wouldn't be [your] favorite artists if it wasn't for Cudi." In November 2016, Atlanta-based rapper OG Maco, who has cited Cudi as a major influence on several occasions, released an EP titled For Scott, as a tribute to Kid Cudi. In October 2018, American musician and high-profile producer Pharrell Williams, spoke on his collaborations with Cudi in an interview with Complex, saying: "He's so inspiring, and I'm only as good as my collaborations anyway. I love the stuff that we did. Love, love [...] So to me, Cudi is a GOAT. His melodies and his concepts—he's a timeless alien." In another interview with Complex, Williams also stated "When they say Cudi is the [greatest of all time], they're talking about the consistency of his convictions and how that's played out into the choices that he makes, the taste that he has, and the tone that he takes with everything that he does. That's my idea of Cudi." American comedian and actor Pete Davidson, who called Cudi "the best musician that's ever lived" in a 2019 interview on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, has also shared his own struggles with his mental health and claims Cudi's music has saved his life. Travis Scott, whose stage name is derived from Cudi's first name, has also claimed Cudi's music saved his life and has a tattoo of the word "rager" in honor of Cudi. American musician 070 Shake shared with Pigeons & Planes, "All my life I grew up listening to […] Kid Cudi. I've cried to their music. They've definitely changed my life, and saved me from a lot of stuff." Brockhampton's Kevin Abstract has said "I love how he incorporated melody into his raps," Kevin explained. "A kid like me would say, like, Kid Cudi saved my life." American rapper Logic, who has interpolated Kid Cudi's records in his own songs, has also spoke about how Cudi's music inspired him to open up about mental health in his own music. "He was the dude that was like, 'It's okay to be sad. It's okay to talk about these things, and go through these things.'" In a 2019 interview, then-up-and-coming rapper Baby Keem, cited Cudi as a major influence: "I was inspired by Cudi's cadences and shit like that. Kid Cudi's one of my favorite artists." In an interview with New York City radio station Hot 97, Jaden Smith spoke on Cudi's influence on him: "Cudi would always say things that just would, like, change my life [...] I thought it was just me and my brother for a while. Then I got older and started going to festivals and then I realized, oh man, everybody has felt that from Cudi. Everybody says that Cudi saved their life. ... Everybody had that same experience listening to Cudi. If someone listened to Cudi, you knew something about them. You could tell certain things about them." Discography Studio albums Man on the Moon: The End of Day (2009) Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager (2010) Indicud (2013) Satellite Flight: The Journey to Mother Moon (2014) Speedin' Bullet 2 Heaven (2015) Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin' (2016) Man on the Moon III: The Chosen (2020) Entergalactic (2022)Collaborative albums WZRD (2012) Kids See Ghosts (2018) Awards and nominations Filmography Kid Cudi has appeared in several feature films and television shows. He is often credited by his birth name Scott Mescudi. Concert tours HeadliningThe Great Hangover Tour (2009) The Cud Life Tour (2011, 2013) The Especial Tour (2016) Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin' Tour (2017) To the Moon World Tour (2022)Supporting' Glow in the Dark Tour (2008) The Monster Ball Tour (2009) See also Kids See Ghosts WZRD List of artists who reached number one in the United States List of American Grammy Award winners and nominees List of neo-psychedelia artists List of alternative hip hop artists References External links Kid Cudi on Spotify Category:1984 births Category:Living people Category:21st-century African-American male singers Category:21st-century African-American writers Category:21st-century American male actors Category:21st-century American poets Category:21st-century American rappers Category:Actors from Shaker Heights, Ohio Category:African-American fashion designers Category:African-American male models Category:African-American male rappers Category:African-American male singer-songwriters Category:African-American record producers Category:Alternative hip hop musicians Category:American alternative rock musicians Category:American fashion businesspeople Category:American hip hop record producers Category:American hip hop singers Category:American male actors of Mexican descent Category:American male film actors Category:American male television actors Category:American male voice actors Category:American music industry executives Category:American music video directors Category:American punk rock musicians Category:American rappers of Mexican descent Category:Grammy Award winners for rap music Category:Grunge musicians Category:Male actors from Cleveland Category:Mental health activists Category:Midwest hip hop musicians Category:Motown artists Category:Musicians from Shaker Heights, Ohio Category:People from Solon, Ohio Category:People with mood disorders Category:Poets from Ohio Category:Rappers from Cleveland Category:Record producers from Ohio Category:Republic Records artists Category:Singer-songwriters from Ohio Category:Trip hop musicians Category:Universal Motown Records artists Category:University of Toledo alumni Category:WZRD (band) members
[]
[ "Kid Cudi's music is an atmospheric take on melodic rap, with elements of indie rock, electronica, dubstep, trip hop, psychedelia, R&B, synthpop and grunge. He is known for his introspective lyrics and his unique sound that incorporates harmonizing, humming, and sometimes screamed vocals and yodeling.", "The text does not provide information on when Kid Cudi started his music career.", "The text does not provide information on any awards that Kid Cudi may have won.", "Yes, Kid Cudi has worked with rapper Kanye West. His sound inspired Kanye West to create his album 808s & Heartbreak (2008). Further, West complimented Cudi's writing. However, the text does not provide specific information on any collaborations between the two.", "Kid Cudi is most known for his atmospheric take on melodic rap with unique elements such as off-key singing, harmonizing, and humming. His introspective lyrics and ability to express his insecurities and fallibilities in his songs are also notable. He has greatly influenced the music industry, even inspiring Kanye West's 808s & Heartbreak. Moreover, Cudi is known for his mission to use his music to provide guidance for young listeners and help them deal with feelings of loneliness and suicidal thoughts." ]
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C_b400105adb4a4291ad1b2764254f25d8_0
Oprah Winfrey
Winfrey's first name was spelled "Orpah" on her birth certificate after the biblical figure in the Book of Ruth, but people mispronounced it regularly and "Oprah" stuck. She was born in Kosciusko, Mississippi, to an unmarried teenage mother. She later said that her conception was due to a single sexual encounter and the couple broke up not long after. Her mother, Vernita Lee (born c. 1935), was a housemaid.
Film
In 1985, Winfrey co-starred in Steven Spielberg's The Color Purple as distraught housewife Sofia. She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance. The Alice Walker novel went on to become a Broadway musical which opened in late 2005, with Winfrey credited as a producer. In October 1998, Winfrey produced and starred in the film Beloved, based on Toni Morrison's Pulitzer Prize-winning novel of the same name. To prepare for her role as Sethe, the protagonist and former slave, Winfrey experienced a 24-hour simulation of the experience of slavery, which included being tied up and blindfolded and left alone in the woods. Despite major advertising, including two episodes of her talk show dedicated solely to the film, and moderate to good critical reviews, Beloved opened to poor box-office results, losing approximately $30 million. While promoting the movie, co-star Thandie Newton described Winfrey as "a very strong technical actress and it's because she's so smart. She's acute. She's got a mind like a razor blade." In 2005, Harpo Productions released a film adaptation of Zora Neale Hurston's 1937 novel Their Eyes Were Watching God. The made-for-television film was based upon a teleplay by Suzan-Lori Parks and starred Halle Berry in the lead female role. In late 2008, Winfrey's company Harpo Films signed an exclusive output pact to develop and produce scripted series, documentaries, and movies for HBO. Oprah voiced Gussie the goose in Charlotte's Web (2006) and voiced Judge Bumbleton in Bee Movie (2007), co-starring the voices of Jerry Seinfeld and Renee Zellweger. In 2009, Winfrey provided the voice for the character of Eudora, the mother of Princess Tiana, in Disney's The Princess and the Frog and in 2010, narrated the US version of the BBC nature program Life for Discovery. In 2018, Winfrey starred as Mrs. Which in the film adaptation of Madeleine L'Engle's novel A Wrinkle in Time. CANNOTANSWER
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Oprah Gail Winfrey (; born Orpah Gail Winfrey; January 29, 1954) is an American talk show host, television producer, actress, author, and media proprietor. She is best known for her talk show, The Oprah Winfrey Show, broadcast from Chicago, which ran in national syndication for 25 years, from 1986 to 2011. Dubbed the "Queen of All Media", she was the richest African-American of the 20th century and was once the world's only black billionaire. By 2007, she was often ranked as the most influential woman in the world. Winfrey was born into poverty in rural Mississippi to a single teenage mother and later raised in inner-city Milwaukee. She has stated that she was molested during her childhood and early teenage years and became pregnant at 14; her son was born prematurely and died in infancy. Winfrey was then sent to live with the man she calls her father, Vernon Winfrey, a barber in Nashville, Tennessee, and landed a job in radio while still in high school. By 19, she was a co-anchor for the local evening news. Winfrey's often emotional, extemporaneous delivery eventually led to her transfer to the daytime talk show arena, and after boosting a third-rated local Chicago talk show to first place, she launched her own production company. By the mid-1990s, Winfrey had reinvented her show with a focus on literature, self-improvement, mindfulness, and spirituality. Though she has been criticized for unleashing a confession culture, promoting controversial self-help ideas, and having an emotion-centered approach, she has also been praised for overcoming adversity to become a benefactor to others. Winfrey also emerged as a political force in the 2008 presidential race, with her endorsement of Barack Obama estimated to have been worth about one million votes during the 2008 Democratic primaries. In 2013, Winfrey was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama, and received honorary doctorate degrees from Duke and Harvard. In 2008, she formed her own network, the Oprah Winfrey Network (OWN). Credited with creating a more intimate, confessional form of media communication, Winfrey popularized and revolutionized the tabloid talk show genre pioneered by Phil Donahue. In 1994, she was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. Winfrey has won many accolades throughout her career which includes 18 Daytime Emmy Awards (including the Lifetime Achievement Award and the Chairman's Award), two Primetime Emmy Awards (including the Bob Hope Humanitarian Award), a Tony Award, a Peabody Award, and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award awarded by the Academy Awards, in addition to two competitive Academy Award nominations. Winfrey was elected as a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2021. Early life Orpah Gail Winfrey was born on January 29, 1954; her first name was spelled Orpah on her birth certificate after the biblical figure in the Book of Ruth, but people mispronounced it regularly and "Oprah" stuck. She was born in Kosciusko, Mississippi, to an unmarried teenage mother. Her mother, Vernita Lee (1935–2018), was a housemaid. Winfrey's biological father is usually noted as Vernon Winfrey (c. 1933–2022), a coal miner turned barber turned city councilman who was in the Armed Forces when she was born. However, Mississippi farmer and World War II Veteran Noah Robinson Sr. (born c. 1925) has claimed to be her biological father. A genetic test in 2006 determined that her matrilineal line originated among the Kpelle ethnic group, in the area that today is Liberia. Her genetic makeup was determined to be 89% Sub-Saharan African, 8% Native American, and 3% East Asian. However, given the imprecision of genetic testing, the East Asian markers may actually be Native American. After Winfrey's birth, her mother traveled north, and Winfrey spent her first six years living in rural poverty with her maternal grandmother, Hattie Mae (Presley) Lee (April 15, 1900 – February 27, 1963). Her grandmother was so poor that Winfrey often wore dresses made of potato sacks, for which other children made fun of her. Her grandmother taught her to read before the age of three and took her to the local church, where she was nicknamed "The Preacher" for her ability to recite Bible verses. When Winfrey was a child, her grandmother was reportedly abusive. At age six, Winfrey moved to an inner-city neighborhood in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, with her mother, who was less supportive and encouraging than her grandmother had been, largely as a result of the long hours she worked as a maid. Around this time, Lee had given birth to another daughter, Winfrey's younger half-sister, Patricia who died of causes related to cocaine addiction in February 2003 at age 43. By 1962, Lee was having difficulty raising both daughters, so Winfrey was temporarily sent to live with Vernon in Nashville, Tennessee. While Winfrey was in Nashville, Lee gave birth to a third daughter, who was put up for adoption in the hopes of easing the financial straits that had led to Lee's being on welfare, and was later also named Patricia. Winfrey did not know that she had a second half-sister until 2010. By the time Winfrey moved back with her mother, Lee had also given birth to Winfrey's half-brother Jeffrey, who died of AIDS-related causes in 1989. At the age of eight, she was baptized in a Baptist church. Winfrey has stated she was molested by her cousin, uncle, and a family friend, starting when she was nine years old, something she first announced on a 1986 episode of her TV show regarding sexual abuse. A biographer alleged that when Winfrey discussed the alleged abuse with family members at age 24, they reportedly refused to believe her account. Winfrey once commented that she had chosen not to be a mother because she had not been mothered well. At 13, after suffering what she described as years of abuse, Winfrey ran away from home. When she was 14, she became pregnant, but her son was born prematurely and died shortly after birth. Winfrey later stated she felt betrayed by the family member who had sold the story of her son to the National Enquirer in 1990. Winfrey attended Lincoln High School in Milwaukee, but after early success in the Upward Bound program, was transferred to the affluent suburban Nicolet High School. Upon transferring, she said she was continually reminded of her poverty as she rode the bus to school with fellow African-Americans, some of whom were servants of her classmates' families. She began to rebel and steal money from her mother in an effort to keep up with her free-spending peers. As a result, her mother once again sent her to live with Vernon in Nashville, although this time she did not take her back. Vernon was strict but encouraging, and made her education a priority. Winfrey became an honors student, was voted Most Popular Girl, and joined her high school speech team at East Nashville High School, placing second in the nation in dramatic interpretation. Winfrey's first job as a teenager was working at a local grocery store. At the age of 17, Winfrey won the Miss Black Tennessee beauty pageant. She also attracted the attention of the local black radio station, WVOL, which hired her to do the news part-time. She worked there during her senior year of high school and in her first two years of college. She had won an oratory contest, which secured her a full scholarship to Tennessee State University, a historically black institution, where she studied communication. However, she did not deliver her final paper and receive her degree until 1987, by which time she was a successful television personality. Winfrey's career in media would not have surprised her grandmother, who once said that ever since Winfrey could talk, she was on stage. As a child, she played games interviewing her corncob doll and the crows on the fence of her family's property. Winfrey later acknowledged her grandmother's influence, saying it was Hattie Mae who had encouraged her to speak in public and "gave me a positive sense of myself". Television Working in local media, Winfrey was both the youngest news anchor and the first black female news anchor at Nashville's WLAC-TV (now WTVF-TV), where she often covered the same stories as John Tesh, who worked at a competing Nashville station. In 1976, she moved to Baltimore's WJZ-TV to co-anchor the six o'clock news. In 1977, she was removed as co-anchor and worked in lower profile positions at the station. She was then recruited to join Richard Sher as co-host of WJZ's local talk show People Are Talking, which premiered on August 14, 1978. She also hosted the local version of Dialing for Dollars. In 1984, Winfrey relocated to Chicago to host WLS-TV's low-rated half-hour morning talk show, AM Chicago, after being hired by that station's general manager, Dennis Swanson. The first episode aired on January 2, 1984. Within months after Winfrey took over, the show went from last place in the ratings to overtaking Donahue as the highest-rated talk show in Chicago. The movie critic Roger Ebert persuaded her to sign a syndication deal with King World. Ebert predicted that she would generate 40 times as much revenue as his television show, At the Movies. It was then renamed The Oprah Winfrey Show and expanded to a full hour. The first episode was broadcast nationwide on September 8, 1986. Winfrey's syndicated show brought in double Donahue's national audience, displacing Donahue as the number-one daytime talk show in America. Their much-publicized contest was the subject of enormous scrutiny. According to Time magazine in August 1988: TV columnist Howard Rosenberg said: "She's a roundhouse, a full course meal, big, brassy, loud, aggressive, hyper, laughable, lovable, soulful, tender, low-down, earthy, and hungry. And she may know the way to Phil Donahue's jugular." Newsdays Les Payne observed, "Oprah Winfrey is sharper than Donahue, wittier, more genuine, and far better attuned to her audience, if not the world" and Martha Bayles of The Wall Street Journal wrote, "It's a relief to see a gab-monger with a fond but realistic assessment of her own cultural and religious roots." In the early years of The Oprah Winfrey Show, the program was classified as a tabloid talk show. In the mid-1990s, Winfrey began to host shows on broader topics such as heart disease, geopolitics, spirituality, and meditation. She interviewed celebrities on social issues they were directly involved with, such as cancer, charity work, or substance abuse, and hosted televised giveaways. The later years of the show faced accusations that Winfrey was promoting junk science. This has manifested as criticisms of Winfrey for promoting particular guests whose medical commentaries (both on her show and in the wider media) frequently lack supporting science. Common targets of this criticism include Dr. Oz's promotion of various "miracle pills" (especially those aimed at weight loss), Dr. Phil, Jenny McCarthy's unfounded assertions about vaccines, and Suzanne Somers's promotion of bioidenticals. Multiple publications have called on Oprah to denounce medical statements made by her former proteges long after her show ended. For example, there were calls for her to denounce Dr. Oz in 2020 reaction to his comments about coronavirus and his promotion of a poorly vetted drug as a cure. In addition to her talk show, Winfrey also produced and co-starred in the drama miniseries The Women of Brewster Place (1989) and its short-lived spin-off, Brewster Place. As well as hosting and appearing on television shows, Winfrey co-founded the women's cable television network Oxygen which was the initial network for her Oprah After the Show program from 2002 to 2006 before moving to Oprah.com when Winfrey sold her stake in the network. She is also the president of Harpo Productions (Oprah spelled backwards), a film and TV production company behind The Oprah Winfrey Show, Dr. Phil, Rachael Ray, The Dr. Oz Show and many others. She also moderated three ABC Afterschool Specials from 1992 to 1994. On January 15, 2008, Winfrey and Discovery Communications announced plans to change Discovery Health Channel into a new channel called OWN: Oprah Winfrey Network. It was scheduled to launch in 2009 but was delayed, and actually launched on January 1, 2011. The series finale of The Oprah Winfrey Show aired on May 25, 2011. In January 2017, CBS announced that Winfrey would join 60 Minutes as a special contributor on the Sunday evening news magazine program starting in September 2017. The National Museum of African American History and Culture in 2018 opened a special exhibit on Winfrey's cultural influence through television. Winfrey left 60 Minutes by the end of 2018. In June 2018, Apple announced a multi-year content partnership with Winfrey, in which it was agreed that Winfrey would create new original programs exclusively for Apple's streaming service, Apple TV+. The first show under the deal, Oprah's Book Club, premiered on November 1, 2019. Oprah's Book Club is based on the segment of the same name from The Oprah Winfrey Show. The second show under the deal, Oprah Talks COVID-19, debuted on March 21, 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic. A third show, The Oprah Conversation debuted on July 30, 2020, with Winfrey "[continuing] to explore impactful and relevant topics with fascinating thought leaders from all over the world". Celebrity interviews In 1993, Winfrey hosted a rare prime-time interview with Michael Jackson, which became the fourth most-watched event in American television history as well as the most watched interview ever, with an audience of 36.5 million. On December 1, 2005, Winfrey appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman for the first time in 16 years, to promote the new Broadway musical, The Color Purple,<ref name=oprlet> Time (magazine)]</ref> which she produced. The episode was hailed by some as the "television event of the decade" and helped Letterman attract his largest audience in more than 11 years: 13.45 million viewers. Although a much-rumored feud was said to have been the cause of the rift, both Winfrey and Letterman balked at such talk. "I want you to know, it's really over, whatever you thought was happening," said Winfrey. On September 10, 2007, Letterman made his first appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show, as its season premiere was filmed in New York City. In 2006, rappers Ludacris, 50 Cent, and Ice Cube criticized Winfrey for what they perceived as an anti-hip hop bias. In an interview with GQ magazine, Ludacris said that Winfrey gave him a "hard time" about his lyrics, and edited comments he made during an appearance on her show with the cast of the film Crash. He also said that he wasn't initially invited on the show with the rest of the cast. Winfrey responded by saying that she is opposed to rap lyrics that "marginalize women," but enjoys some artists, including Kanye West, who appeared on her show. She said she spoke with Ludacris backstage after his appearance to explain her position and said she understood that his music was for entertainment purposes, but that some of his listeners might take it literally. In September 2008, Winfrey received criticism after Matt Drudge of the Drudge Report reported that Winfrey refused to have Sarah Palin on her show, allegedly because of Winfrey's support for Barack Obama. Winfrey denied the report, maintaining that there never was a discussion regarding Palin's appearing on her show. She said that after she made public her support for Obama, she decided that she would not let her show be used as a platform for any of the candidates. Although Obama appeared twice on her show, those appearances were prior to his declaration as a presidential candidate. Winfrey added that Palin would make a fantastic guest and that she would love to have her on the show after the election, which she did on November 18, 2009. In 2009, Winfrey was criticized for allowing actress Suzanne Somers to appear on her show to discuss hormone treatments that are not accepted by mainstream medicine. Critics have also suggested that Winfrey is not tough enough when questioning celebrity guests or politicians whom she appears to like. Lisa de Moraes, a media columnist for The Washington Post, stated: "Oprah doesn't do follow-up questions unless you're an author who's embarrassed her by fabricating portions of a supposed memoir she's plugged for her book club." In 2021, she conducted an interview with Meghan, Duchess of Sussex, and her husband Prince Harry, which was broadcast globally and received international media attention. Other media Film Winfrey co-starred in Steven Spielberg's The Color Purple (1985), as distraught housewife Sofia. She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance. The Alice Walker novel later became a Broadway musical which opened in late 2005, with Winfrey credited as a producer. In October 1998, Winfrey produced and starred in the film Beloved, based on Toni Morrison's Pulitzer Prize–winning novel of the same name. To prepare for her role as Sethe, the protagonist and former slave, Winfrey experienced a 24-hour simulation of the experience of slavery, which included being tied up and blindfolded and left alone in the woods. Despite major advertising, including two episodes of her talk show dedicated solely to the film, and moderate to good critical reviews, Beloved opened to poor box-office results, losing approximately $30 million. While promoting the movie, co-star Thandie Newton described Winfrey as "a very strong technical actress and it's because she's so smart. She's acute. She's got a mind like a razor blade." Harpo Productions released a film adaptation of Zora Neale Hurston's 1937 novel Their Eyes Were Watching God in 2005. The made-for-television film was based upon a teleplay by Suzan-Lori Parks and starred Halle Berry in the lead female role. In late 2008, Winfrey's company Harpo Films signed an exclusive output pact to develop and produce scripted series, documentaries, and movies exclusively for HBO. Oprah voiced Gussie the goose in Charlotte's Web (2006) and voiced Judge Bumbleton in Bee Movie (2007), co-starring the voices of Jerry Seinfeld and Renée Zellweger. In 2009, Winfrey provided the voice for the character of Eudora, the mother of Princess Tiana, in Disney's The Princess and the Frog and in 2010, narrated the US version of the BBC nature program Life for Discovery. In 2018, Winfrey starred as Mrs. Which in the film adaptation of Madeleine L'Engle's novel A Wrinkle in Time. She also lent her voice to an animated virtual-reality short film written and directed by Eric Darnell, starring John Legend, titled Crow: The Legend, telling a native American origin tale. Publishing and writing Winfrey has co-authored five books. At the announcement of a weight-loss book in 2005, co-authored with her personal trainer Bob Greene, it was said that her undisclosed advance fee had broken the record for the world's highest book advance fee, previously held by the autobiography of former U.S. President Bill Clinton. In 2015, her memoir, The Life You Want, was announced following on her tour of the same name, and scheduled for publication in 2017, but was "indefinitely postponed" in 2016. Winfrey publishes the magazine: O, The Oprah Magazine and from 2004 to 2008 also published a magazine called O At Home. In 2002, Fortune called O, the Oprah Magazine the most successful start-up ever in the industry. Although its circulation had declined by more than 10 percent 2.4 million from 2005 to 2008, the January 2009 issue was the best selling issue since 2006. The January 2009 issue was the best selling issue since 2006. The audience for her magazine is considerably more upscale than for her TV show; the average reader earns well above the median for U.S. women. In July 2020, it was announced that O Magazine would end its regular print publications after the December 2020 issue. In the December 2020 issue, Winfrey thanked readers and acknowledged it was the magazine's "final monthly print edition". Online Winfrey's company created the Oprah.com website to provide resources and interactive content related to her shows, magazines, book club, and public charity. Oprah.com averages more than 70 million page views and more than six million users per month, and receives approximately 20,000 e-mails each week. Winfrey initiated "Oprah's Child Predator Watch List", through her show and website, to help track down accused child molesters. Within the first 48 hours, two of the featured men were captured. Radio On February 9, 2006, it was announced that Winfrey had signed a three-year, $55-million contract with XM Satellite Radio to establish a new radio channel. The channel, Oprah Radio, features popular contributors to The Oprah Winfrey Show and O, The Oprah Magazine including Nate Berkus, Dr. Mehmet Oz, Bob Greene, Dr. Robin Smith, and Marianne Williamson. Oprah & Friends began broadcasting at 11:00 am ET, September 25, 2006, from a new studio at Winfrey's Chicago headquarters. The channel broadcasts 24 hours a day, seven days a week on XM Radio Channel 156. Winfrey's contract requires her to be on the air 30 minutes a week, 39 weeks a year. Personal life Homes Oprah's extensive and continuously evolving real-estate portfolio has garnered heightened attention throughout her life and career, with many prominent industry outlets branding her a "tycoon" regarding her investments which as of 2022, are estimated to total approximately $127 million. As her talk-show was beginning, Oprah first purchased a condominium in Chicago's Water Tower Place in 1985, before purchasing the condos adjoining and directly below it in 1992, 1993, and 1994, respectively. In 1988, she purchased an 164-acre property including main and guest residences, orchard, and stables in Rolling Prairie, Indiana as her weekend refuge. In 1992, she purchased an 80-acre compound in Telluride, Colorado, which she would go on to sell in approximately late 2000. In 1994, she also purchased an apartment at the Four Seasons Hotel Chicago. Between 1996 and 2000 she purchased a total of five condos in different development areas of Fisher Island, Florida. In 2000, through her Chicago-based LLC Overground Railroad, Oprah purchased her friend Gayle King an estate in Greenwich, Connecticut. In 2001, Oprah sold all five of her Fisher Island condos and purchased what would become her "main home base" she has also called "The Promised Land" (where she currently lives as of 2022), a (then) 42-acre (17-ha) estate with ocean and mountain views in Montecito, California. Additionally that year, she also purchased homes in both Elmwood Park, Illinois and Merrillville, Indiana for other family members and friends. Similarly, in 2002, she purchased her father's home in Franklin, Tennessee and a lakefront condo in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. In 2003 she listed her compound in Rolling Prairie, Indiana, and sold it in 2004. From 2003 to 2005, Oprah acquired several properties totaling 163 acres in Kula and Hana, Hawaii as well as a penthouse apartment in Atlanta, Georgia. In 2005, she purchased a home in Douglasville, Georgia which was gifted in 2011 to a family member. In 2006, Oprah purchased a co-op apartment along Lake Shore Drive in downtown Chicago, reportedly with plans to permanently move there from her prior adjoined-condo unit in Water Tower Place for the duration of her show but for reasons unknown, the property sat entirely unused until she sold it in 2012. In 2008, she sold her penthouse apartment in Atlanta. That year, she also listed Gayle King's estate and purchased her (through her second LLC Sophie's Penthouse) a penthouse apartment in midtown Manhattan, New York City which would later be sold in 2012. In early 2014, she listed her combined-unit Chicago duplex on the market. Later that year, Oprah came back to Telluride, Colorado to purchase a 60-acre lot with plans to build on the property. A lawsuit filed against her that year by a retired nuclear physicist living in the area regarding trail access rights was dismissed later that year with the judge citing little case law to support his case, among other issues. The extent of the agreement between all the parties and jurisdictions regarding her subsequent development on the property remains undisclosed. In 2015, Oprah purchased another property in Telluride, and later that year, expanded her Montecito compound with another 23-acre estate and yet another 44-acre dedicated crop and equestrian preserve. That year she also sold both of her downtown Chicago homes. In 2018, Oprah obtained two adjoining parcels of land totaling 23 acres including the Madroneagle compound on Orcas Island, Washington and sold her last home property in the Chicago area from Elmwood Park. In late 2019, Oprah yet again expanded her Montecito home-base compound, this time to 70 contiguous acres, with the purchase of a four-acre complex from actor Jeff Bridges. In 2021, she sold her Orcas Island compound as she said she was too busy to use it and purchased another compound in Montecito further away from her home-base compound, flipping the latter in 2022 with split properties, one of which was sold to her property manager and longtime personal trainer Bob Greene, and the other to actress Jennifer Aniston. Romantic history Winfrey's high school sweetheart Anthony Otey recalled an innocent courtship that began in Winfrey's senior year of high school, from which he saved hundreds of love notes; Winfrey conducted herself with dignity and was a model student. The two spoke of getting married, but Otey claimed to have always secretly known that Winfrey was destined for a far greater life than he could ever provide. She broke up with him on Valentine's Day of her senior year.Mair (1999), p. 31. In 1971, several months after breaking up with Otey, Winfrey met William "Bubba" Taylor at Tennessee State University. According to CBS journalist George Mair, Taylor was Winfrey's "first intense, to die for love affair". Winfrey helped get Taylor a job at WVOL, and according to Mair, "did everything to keep him, including literally begging him on her knees to stay with her". Taylor, however, was unwilling to leave Nashville with Winfrey when she moved to Baltimore to work at WJZ-TV in June 1976. "We really did care for each other," Winfrey would later recall. "We shared a deep love. A love I will never forget." In the 1970s, Winfrey had a romantic relationship with John Tesh. Biographer Kitty Kelley claims that Tesh split with Winfrey over the pressures of an interracial relationship. When WJZ-TV management criticized Winfrey for crying on air while reporting tragedies and were unhappy with her physical appearance (especially when her hair fell out as a result of a bad perm), Winfrey turned to reporter Lloyd Kramer for comfort. "Lloyd was just the best," Winfrey would later recall. "That man loved me even when I was bald! He was wonderful. He stuck with me through the whole demoralizing experience. That man was the most fun romance I ever had." According to Mair, when Kramer moved to NBC in New York, Winfrey had a love affair with a married man who had no intention of leaving his wife. Winfrey would later recall: "I'd had a relationship with a man for four years. I wasn't living with him. I'd never lived with anyone—and I thought I was worthless without him. The more he rejected me, the more I wanted him. I felt depleted, powerless. At the end, I was down on the floor on my knees groveling and pleading with him". Winfrey became so depressed that on September 8, 1981, she wrote a suicide note to best friend Gayle King instructing King to water her plants. "That suicide note had been much overplayed" Winfrey told Ms. magazine. "I couldn't kill myself. I would be afraid the minute I did it, something really good would happen and I'd miss it." According to Winfrey, her emotional turmoil gradually led to a weight problem: "The reason I gained so much weight in the first place and the reason I had such a sorry history of abusive relationships with men was I just needed approval so much. I needed everyone to like me, because I didn't like myself much. So I'd end up with these cruel self-absorbed guys who'd tell me how selfish I was, and I'd say 'Oh thank you, you're so right' and be grateful to them. Because I had no sense that I deserved anything else. Which is also why I gained so much weight later on. It was the perfect way of cushioning myself against the world's disapproval." Winfrey later confessed to smoking crack cocaine with a man she was romantically involved with during the same era. She explained on her show: "I always felt that the drug itself is not the problem but that I was addicted to the man." She added: "I can't think of anything I wouldn't have done for that man." Winfrey was allegedly involved in a second drug-related love affair. Self-proclaimed former boyfriend Randolph Cook said they lived together for several months in 1985 and did drugs. In 1997, Cook tried to sue Winfrey for $20 million for allegedly blocking a tell-all book about their alleged relationship. In the mid-1980s, Winfrey briefly dated movie critic Roger Ebert, whom she credits with advising her to take her show into syndication. In 1985, before Winfrey's Chicago talk show had gone national, Haitian filmmaker Reginald Chevalier claims he appeared as a guest on a look-alike segment and began a relationship with Winfrey involving romantic evenings at home, candlelit baths, and dinners with Michael Jordan and Danny Glover. Chevalier says Winfrey ended the relationship when she met Stedman Graham. Winfrey and her partner Stedman Graham have been together since 1986. They were engaged to be married in November 1992, but the ceremony never took place. Close friends Winfrey's best friend since their early twenties is Gayle King. King was formerly the host of The Gayle King Show and is currently an editor of O, the Oprah Magazine. Since 1997, when Winfrey played the therapist on an episode of the sitcom Ellen in which Ellen DeGeneres came out of the closet, Winfrey and King have been the target of persistent rumors that they were gay. "I understand why people think we're gay," Winfrey says in the August 2006 issue of O magazine. "There isn't a definition in our culture for this kind of bond between women. So I get why people have to label it—how can you be this close without it being sexual?" "I've told nearly everything there is to tell. All my stuff is out there. People think I'd be so ashamed of being gay that I wouldn't admit it? Oh, please." Winfrey has also had a long friendship with Maria Shriver, after they met in Baltimore. Winfrey considered Maya Angelou, author of I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, her mentor and close friend; she called Angelou her "mother-sister-friend". Winfrey hosted a week-long Caribbean cruise for Angelou and 150 guests for Angelou's 70th birthday in 1998, and in 2008, threw her "an extravagant 80th birthday celebration" at Donald Trump's Mar-a-Lago club in Palm Beach, Florida. Personal wealth Born in rural poverty, and raised by a mother dependent on government welfare payments in a poor urban neighborhood, Winfrey became a millionaire at the age of 32 when her talk show received national syndication. Winfrey negotiated ownership rights to the television program and started her own production company. At the age of 41, Winfrey had a net worth of $340 million and replaced Bill Cosby as the only African American on the Forbes 400. By 2000, with a net worth of $800 million, Winfrey is believed to have been the richest African American of the 20th century. There has been a course taught at the University of Illinois focusing on Winfrey's business acumen, namely: "History 298: Oprah Winfrey, the Tycoon". Winfrey was the highest-paid television entertainer in the United States in 2006, earning an estimated $260 million during the year, five times the sum earned by second-place music executive Simon Cowell. By 2008, her yearly income had increased to $275 million.Forbes list of The World's Billionaires has listed Winfrey as the world's only black billionaire from 2004 to 2006 and as the first black woman billionaire in the world that was achieved in 2003. As of 2014, Winfrey had a net worth in excess of 2.9 billion dollars and had overtaken former eBay CEO Meg Whitman as the richest self-made woman in America. Religious views Oprah was raised a Baptist. In her early life, she would speak at local, mostly African American congregations of the Southern Baptist Convention that were often deeply religious and familiar with such themes as evangelical Protestantism, the Black church, and being born-again.Oprah Winfrey: Global Media Leader by Katherine E. Krohn, pg. 14 She was quoted as saying: "I have church with myself: I have church walking down the street. I believe in the God force that lives inside all of us, and once you tap into that, you can do anything." She also stated, "Doubt means don't. When you don't know what to do, do nothing until you do know what to do. Because the doubt is your inner voice or the voice of God or whatever you choose to call it. It is your instinct trying to tell you something is off. That's how I have found myself to be led spiritually, because that's your spiritual voice saying to you, 'let's think about it.' So when you don't know what to do, do nothing." Oprah has stated that she is a Christian and her favorite Bible verse is Acts 17:28. Oprah attends The Potter's House Church, Dallas service, an Evangelical church. Influence Rankings Winfrey was called "arguably the world's most powerful woman" by CNN and TIME, "arguably the most influential woman in the world" by The American Spectator, "one of the 100 people who most influenced the 20th Century" and "one of the most influential people" from 2004 to 2011 by TIME. Winfrey is the only person to have appeared in the latter list on ten occasions. At the end of the 20th century, Life listed Winfrey as both the most influential woman and the most influential black person of her generation, and in a cover story profile the magazine called her "America's most powerful woman". In 2007, USA Today ranked Winfrey as the most influential woman and most influential black person of the previous quarter-century. Ladies' Home Journal also ranked Winfrey number one in their list of the most powerful women in America and then Senator Barack Obama in 2007 said she "may be the most influential woman in the country". In 1998, Winfrey became the first woman and first African American to top Entertainment Weekly's list of the 101 most powerful people in the entertainment industry. Forbes named her the world's most powerful celebrity in 2005, 2007, 2008, 2010, and 2013. As chairman of Harpo Inc., she was named the most powerful woman in entertainment by The Hollywood Reporter in 2008. She has been listed as one of the most powerful 100 women in the world by Forbes, ranking 14th in 2014. In 2010, Life magazine named Winfrey one of the 100 people who changed the world, alongside Jesus Christ, Elvis Presley, and Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. Winfrey was the only living woman to make the list. Columnist Maureen Dowd seems to agree with such assessments. Interviewed by The Guardian in 2006, Dowd said: "She is the top alpha female in this country. She has more credibility than the president. Other successful women, such as Hillary Clinton and Martha Stewart, had to be publicly slapped down before they could move forward. Even Condi has had to play the protégé with Bush. None of this happened to Oprah – she is a straight ahead success story." Vanity Fair wrote: "Oprah Winfrey arguably has more influence on the culture than any university president, politician, or religious leader, except perhaps the Pope. Bill O'Reilly said: "this is a woman that came from nothing to rise up to be the most powerful woman, I think, in the world. I think Oprah Winfrey is the most powerful woman in the world, not just in America. That's – anybody who goes on her program immediately benefits through the roof. I mean, she has a loyal following; she has credibility; she has talent; and she's done it on her own to become fabulously wealthy and fabulously powerful." In 2005, Winfrey was named the greatest woman in American history as part of a public poll as part of The Greatest American. She was ranked No. 9 overall on the list of greatest Americans. However, polls estimating Winfrey's personal popularity have been inconsistent. A November 2003 Gallup poll estimated that 73% of American adults had a favorable view of Winfrey. Another Gallup poll in January 2007 estimated the figure at 74%, although it dropped to 66% when Gallup conducted the same poll in October 2007. A December 2007 Fox News poll put the figure at 55%. According to Gallup's annual most admired poll, Americans consistently rank Winfrey as one of the most admired women in the world. Her highest rating came in 2007 when she was statistically tied with Hillary Clinton for first place. In a list compiled by the British magazine New Statesman in September 2010, she was voted 38th in the list of "The World's 50 Most Influential Figures 2010". In 1989, she was accepted into the NAACP Image Award Hall of Fame. "Oprahfication"The Wall Street Journal coined the term "Oprahfication", meaning public confession as a form of therapy. By confessing intimate details about her weight problems, tumultuous love life, and sexual abuse, and crying alongside her guests, Winfrey has been credited by Time magazine with creating a new form of media communication known as "rapport talk" as distinguished from the "report talk" of Phil Donahue: "Winfrey saw television's power to blend public and private; while it links strangers and conveys information over public airwaves, TV is most often viewed in the privacy of our homes. Like a family member, it sits down to meals with us and talks to us in the lonely afternoons. Grasping this paradox, ... She makes people care because she cares. That is Winfrey's genius, and will be her legacy, as the changes she has wrought in the talk show continue to permeate our culture and shape our lives." Observers have also noted the "Oprahfication" of politics such as "Oprah-style debates" and Bill Clinton being described as "the man who brought Oprah-style psychobabble and misty confessions to politics". Newsweek stated: "Every time a politician lets his lip quiver or a cable anchor 'emotes' on TV, they nod to the cult of confession that Oprah helped create." The November 1988 Ms. observed that "in a society where fat is taboo, she made it in a medium that worships thin and celebrates a bland, white-bread prettiness of body and personality [...] But Winfrey made fat sexy, elegant – damned near gorgeous – with her drop-dead wardrobe, easy body language, and cheerful sensuality." Daytime talk show's impact on LGBT people While Phil Donahue has been credited with pioneering the tabloid talk show genre, Winfrey's warmth, intimacy, and personal confession popularized and changed it. Her success at popularizing the tabloid talk show genre opened up a thriving industry that has included Ricki Lake, The Jenny Jones Show, and The Jerry Springer Show. In the book Freaks Talk Back, Yale sociology professor Joshua Gamson credits the tabloid talk show genre with providing much needed high-impact media visibility for gay, bisexual, transsexual, and transgender (LGBT) people and doing more to make them mainstream and socially acceptable than any other development of the 20th century. In the book's editorial review, Michael Bronski wrote, "In the recent past, lesbians, gay men, bisexuals, and transgendered people had almost no presence on television. With the invention and propagation of tabloid talk shows such as Jerry Springer, Jenny Jones, Oprah, and Geraldo, people outside the sexual mainstream now appear in living rooms across America almost every day of the week." Gamson credits the tabloid talk show with making alternative sexual orientations and identities more acceptable in mainstream society. Examples include a Time magazine article on early 21st-century gays coming out of the closet at an increasingly younger age and on plummeting gay suicide rates. Gamson also believes that tabloid talk shows caused gays to be accepted on more traditional forms of media. In April 1997, Winfrey played the therapist in "The Puppy Episode" on the sitcom Ellen to whom the character (and the real-life Ellen DeGeneres) came out as a lesbian. "The Oprah Effect" The power of Winfrey's opinions and endorsement to influence public opinion, especially consumer purchasing choices, has been dubbed "the Oprah Effect". The effect has been documented or alleged in domains as diverse as book sales, beef markets, and election voting. Late in 1996, Winfrey introduced the Oprah's Book Club segment to her television show. The segment focused on new books and classics and often brought obscure novels to popular attention. The book club became such a powerful force that whenever Winfrey introduced a new book as her book-club selection, it instantly became a best-seller; for example, when she selected the classic John Steinbeck novel East of Eden, it soared to the top of the book charts. Being recognized by Winfrey often means a million additional book sales for an author. In Reading with Oprah: The Book Club that Changed America (2005), Kathleen Rooney describes Winfrey as "a serious American intellectual who pioneered the use of electronic media, specifically television and the Internet, to take reading – a decidedly non-technological and highly individual act – and highlight its social elements and uses in such a way to motivate millions of erstwhile non-readers to pick up books." When author Jonathan Franzen's book was selected for the Book Club, he reportedly "cringed" and said selected books tend to be "schmaltzy". After James Frey's A Million Little Pieces was found to contain fabrications in 2006, Winfrey confronted him on her show over the breach of trust. In 2009, Winfrey apologized to Frey for the public confrontation. During a show about mad cow disease with Howard Lyman (aired on April 16, 1996), Winfrey said she was stopped cold from eating another burger. Texas cattlemen sued her and Lyman in early 1998 for "false defamation of perishable food" and "business disparagement," claiming that Winfrey's remarks sent cattle prices tumbling, costing beef producers $11 million. Winfrey was represented by attorney Chip Babcock and, on February 26, after a two-month trial in an Amarillo, Texas, court, a jury found Winfrey and Lyman were not liable for damages. During the lawsuit, Winfrey hired Phil McGraw's company Courtroom Sciences, Inc. to help her analyze and read the jury. Winfrey's ability to launch other successful talk shows such as Dr. Phil, The Dr. Oz Show, and Rachael Ray has also been cited as examples of "The Oprah Effect". Politics Matthew Baum and Angela Jamison performed an experiment testing their hypothesis, "Politically unaware individuals who consume soft news will be more likely to vote consistently than their counterparts who do not consume soft news". In their studies, they found that low-awareness individuals who watch soft news shows, such as The Oprah Winfrey Show are 14% more likely to vote consistently than low-awareness individuals who only watch hard news. Winfrey states she is a political independent who has "earned the right to think for myself and to vote for myself". She endorsed presidential candidate Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential election. On September 25, 2006, Winfrey made her first endorsement of Obama for president on Larry King Live, the first time she endorsed a political candidate running for office. Two economists estimate that Winfrey's endorsement was worth over a million votes in the Democratic primary race and that without it, Obama would have lost the nomination. Winfrey held a fundraiser for Obama on September 8, 2007, at her Santa Barbara estate. In December 2007, Winfrey joined Obama for a series of rallies in the early primary states of Iowa, New Hampshire, and South Carolina. The Columbia, South Carolina, event on December 9, 2007, drew a crowd of nearly 30,000, the largest for any political event of 2007. An analysis by two economists at the University of Maryland, College Park estimated that Winfrey's endorsement was responsible for between 420,000 and 1,600,000 votes for Obama in the Democratic primary alone, based on a sample of states that did not include Texas, Michigan, North Dakota, Kansas, or Alaska. The results suggest that in the sampled states, Winfrey's endorsement was responsible for the difference in the popular vote between Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton. The governor of Illinois, Rod Blagojevich, reported being so impressed by Winfrey's endorsement that he considered offering Winfrey Obama's vacant senate seat, describing Winfrey as "the most instrumental person in electing Barack Obama president," with "a voice larger than all 100 senators combined". Winfrey responded by stating that although she was absolutely not interested, she did feel she could be a senator. The Topps trading card company memorialized Oprah's involvement in the campaign by featuring her on a card in a set commemorating Obama's road to the White House. In April 2014, Winfrey spoke for more than 20 minutes at a fundraiser in Arlington, Virginia, for Lavern Chatman, a candidate in a primary to nominate a Democratic Party candidate for election to the U.S. House of Representatives. Winfrey participated in the event even after reports had revealed that Chatman had been found liable in 2001 for her role in a scheme to defraud hundreds of District of Columbia nursing-home employees of at least $1.4 million in owed wages. Winfrey endorsed Hillary Clinton in the 2016 election, and referred to Republican candidate Donald Trump as a "demagogue". In 2018, Winfrey canvassed door-to-door for Georgia gubernatorial Democratic nominee Stacey Abrams and donated $500,000 to the March for Our Lives student demonstration in favor of gun control in the United States. Winfrey has at times been the subject of media speculation that she may run for president herself, most notably in the lead-up to the 2020 election in which some reports claimed that she was actively considering launching a campaign for the Democratic nomination. Winfrey ultimately denied any plans to run for president, saying in 2018 that while it was "a humbling thing to have people think you can run the country", she "would not be able to do it. It's not a clean business. It would kill me." Winfrey suggested that she would publicly endorse a candidate in the 2020 Democratic primaries, however she ultimately did not do so. She later campaigned for Joe Biden during the general election. In early 2018, Winfrey met with Mohammad bin Salman, the crown prince and de facto ruler of Saudi Arabia, when he visited the United States. In the 2022 Pennsylvania Senate election, Winfrey endorsed Democrat John Fetterman over Republican Mehmet Oz, whose show she promoted. In the 2022 Maryland gubernatorial election, she endorsed Baltimore author Wes Moore in the Democratic primary, co-hosting a virtual fundraiser for him in June. Winfrey later attended and spoke at Moore's gubernatorial inauguration on January 18, 2023. In 2022, Winfrey set up OWN Your Vote, a nonpartisan group dedicated to voter registration and a get-out-the-vote campaign focused on providing Black women with tools and resources to vote in the November election. Their partners include Advancement Project, African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME), Color Of Change, Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, The King Center, The Lawyers' Committee, NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, National Action Network, National Bar Association, National Council of Negro Women, Sigma Gamma Rho, Southern Poverty Law Center, VoteRunLead, Vote.org. Spiritual leadership In 2000, she was awarded the Spingarn Medal from the NAACP. In 2002, Christianity Today published an article called "The Church of O" in which they concluded that Winfrey had emerged as an influential spiritual leader. "Since 1994, when she abandoned traditional talk-show fare for more edifying content, and 1998, when she began 'Change Your Life TV', Oprah's most significant role has become that of a spiritual leader. To her audience of more than 22 million mostly female viewers, she has become a postmodern priestess—an icon of church-free spirituality." The sentiment was echoed by Marcia Z. Nelson in her book The Gospel According to Oprah. Since the mid-1990s, Winfrey's show has emphasized uplifting and inspirational topics and themes and some viewers say the show has motivated them to perform acts of altruism such as helping Congolese women and building an orphanage. A scientific study by psychological scientists at the University of Cambridge, University of Plymouth, and University of California used an uplifting clip from The Oprah Winfrey Show in an experiment that discovered that watching the 'uplifting' clip caused subjects to become twice as helpful as subjects assigned to watch a British comedy or nature documentary. In 1998, Winfrey began an ongoing conversation with Gary Zukav, an American spiritual teacher, who appeared on her television show 35 times. Winfrey has said she keeps a copy of Zukav's The Seat of the Soul at her bedside, a book that she says is one of her all-time favorites. On the season premiere of Winfrey's 13th season, Roseanne Barr told Winfrey "you're the African Mother Goddess of us all" inspiring much enthusiasm from the studio audience. The animated series Futurama alluded to her spiritual influence by suggesting that "Oprahism" is a mainstream religion in 3000 AD. Twelve days after the September 11 attacks, New York mayor Rudy Giuliani asked Winfrey to serve as host of a Prayer for America service at New York City's Yankee Stadium, which was attended by former president Bill Clinton and New York senator Hillary Clinton. Leading up to the U.S.-led 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, less than a month after the September 11 attacks, Winfrey aired a controversial show called "Islam 101" in which she portrayed Islam as a religion of peace, calling it "the most misunderstood of the three major religions". In 2002, George W. Bush invited Winfrey to join a US delegation that included adviser Karen Hughes and Condoleezza Rice, planning to go to Afghanistan to celebrate the return of Afghan girls to school. The "Oprah strategy" was designed to portray the War on Terror in a positive light; however, when Winfrey refused to participate, the trip was postponed. Leading up to the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq, Winfrey's show received criticism for allegedly having an anti-war bias. Ben Shapiro of Townhall.com wrote: "Oprah Winfrey is the most powerful woman in America. She decides what makes The New York Times Best Seller lists. Her touchy-feely style sucks in audiences at the rate of 14 million viewers per day. But Oprah is far more than a cultural force, she's a dangerous political force as well, a woman with unpredictable and mercurial attitudes toward the major issues of the day." In 2006, Winfrey recalled such controversies: "I once did a show titled Is War the Only Answer? In the history of my career, I've never received more hate mail – like 'Go back to Africa' hate mail. I was accused of being un-American for even raising the question." Filmmaker Michael Moore came to Winfrey's defense, praising her for showing antiwar footage no other media would show and begging her to run for president. A February 2003 series, in which Winfrey showed clips from people all over the world asking America not to go to war, was interrupted in several East Coast markets by network broadcasts of a press conference in which President George W. Bush and Colin Powell summarized the case for war. In 2007, Winfrey began to endorse the self-help program The Secret. The Secret claims that people can change their lives through positive thoughts or 'vibrations', which will then cause them to attract more positive vibrations that result in good things happening to them. Peter Birkenhead of Salon magazine argued that this idea is pseudoscience and psychologically damaging, as it trivializes important decisions and promotes a quick-fix material culture, and suggests Winfrey's promotion of it is irresponsible given her influence. In 2007, skeptic and magician James Randi accused Winfrey of being deliberately deceptive and uncritical in how she handles paranormal claims on her show. In 2008, Winfrey endorsed author and spiritual teacher Eckhart Tolle and his book, A New Earth: Awakening to Your Life's Purpose, which sold several million extra copies after being selected for her book club. During a Webinar class, in which she promoted the book, Winfrey stated "God is a feeling experience and not a believing experience. If your religion is a believing experience [...] then that's not truly God." Frank Pastore, a Christian radio talk show host on KKLA, was among the many Christian leaders who criticized Winfrey's views, saying "if she's a Christian, she's an ignorant one because Christianity is incompatible with New Age thought". Winfrey was named as the 2008 Person of the Year by animal-rights group People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) for using her fame and listening audience to help the less fortunate, including animals. PETA praised Winfrey for using her talk show to uncover horrific cases of cruelty to animals in puppy mills and on factory farms, and Winfrey even used the show to highlight the cruelty-free vegan diet that she tried. In 2009, Winfrey filmed a series of interviews in Denmark highlighting its citizens as the happiest people in the world. In 2010, Bill O'Reilly of Fox News criticized these shows for promoting a left-wing society. Following the launch of the Super Soul Sunday and SuperSoul Sessions programs on Harpo Productions' SuperSoul TV, in 2016 Winfrey selected 100 people for the SuperSoul 100 list of "innovators and visionaries who are aligned on a mission to move humanity forward". On using the N-word, Winfrey said, "You cannot be my friend and use that word around me. ... I always think of the...people who heard that as their last word as they were hanging from a tree." Fan base The viewership for The Oprah Winfrey Show was highest during the 1991–92 season, when about 13.1 million U.S. viewers were watching each day. By 2003, ratings declined to 7.4 million daily viewers. Ratings briefly rebounded to approximately 9 million in 2005 and then declined again to around 7.3 million viewers in 2008, though it remained the highest rated talk show. In 2008, Winfrey's show was airing in 140 countries internationally and seen by an estimated 46 million people in the US weekly. According to the Harris poll, Winfrey was America's favorite television personality in 1998, 2000, 2002–06, and 2009. Winfrey was especially popular among women, Democrats, political moderates, Baby Boomers, Generation X, Southern Americans, and East Coast Americans. Outside the U.S., Winfrey has become increasingly popular in the Arab world. The Wall Street Journal reported in 2007 that MBC 4, an Arab satellite channel, centered its entire programming around reruns of her show because it was drawing record numbers of female viewers in Saudi Arabia. In 2008, The New York Times reported that The Oprah Winfrey Show, with Arabic subtitles, was broadcast twice each weekday on MBC 4. Winfrey's modest dress, combined with her attitude of triumph over adversity and abuse has caused some women in Saudi Arabia to idealize her. Philanthropy In 2004, Winfrey became the first black person to rank among the 50 most generous Americans and she remained among the top 50 until 2010. By 2012, she had given away about $400 million to educational causes. As of 2012, Winfrey had also given over 400 scholarships to Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia. Winfrey was the recipient of the first Bob Hope Humanitarian Award at the 2002 Emmy Awards for services to television and film. To celebrate two decades on national TV, and to thank her employees for their hard work, Winfrey took her staff and their families (1,065 people in total) on vacation to Hawaii in the summer of 2006. In 2013, Winfrey donated $12 million to the Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture. President Barack Obama awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom later that same year. Oprah's Angel Network In 1998, Winfrey created the Oprah's Angel Network, a charity that supported charitable projects and provided grants to nonprofit organizations around the world. Oprah's Angel Network raised more than $80 million ($1 million of which was donated by Jon Bon Jovi). Winfrey personally covered all administrative costs associated with the charity, so 100% of all funds raised went to charity programs. In May 2010, with Oprah's show ending, the charity stopped accepting donations and was shut down. In the wake of Hurricane Katrina, Oprah created the Oprah Angel Network Katrina registry which raised more than $11 million for relief efforts. Winfrey personally gave $10 million to the cause. Homes were built in Texas, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Alabama before the one-year anniversary of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. South Africa In 2004, Winfrey and her team filmed an episode of her show, "Oprah's Christmas Kindness", in which Winfrey travelled to South Africa to bring attention to the plight of young children affected by poverty and AIDS. During the 21-day trip, Winfrey and her crew visited schools and orphanages in poverty-stricken areas, and distributed Christmas presents to 50,000 children, with dolls for the girls and soccer balls for the boys, and school supplies. Throughout the show, Winfrey appealed to viewers to donate money to Oprah's Angel Network for poor and AIDS-affected children in Africa. From that show alone, viewers around the world donated over $7 million. Winfrey invested $40 million and some of her time establishing the Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls in Henley on Klip south of Johannesburg, South Africa. The school set over 22 acres, opened in January 2007 with an enrollment of 150 pupils (increasing to 450) and features state-of-the-art classrooms, computer and science laboratories, a library, a theatre, and a beauty salon. Nelson Mandela praised Winfrey for overcoming her own disadvantaged youth to become a benefactor for others. Critics considered the school elitist and unnecessarily luxurious. Winfrey rejected the claims, saying: "If you are surrounded by beautiful things and wonderful teachers who inspire you, that beauty brings out the beauty in you." Winfrey, who has no surviving biological children, described maternal feelings towards the girls at Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls. Winfrey teaches a class at the school via satellite. Filmography As actress As herself As producer only 1989 – The Oprah Winfrey Show (supervising producer – 8 episodes, 1989–2011) 1989 – The Women of Brewster Place (TV miniseries) (executive producer) 1992 – Nine (TV documentary) (executive producer) 1992 – Overexposed (TV movie) (executive producer) 1993 – ABC Afterschool Special (TV series) (producer – 1 episode "Shades of a Single Protein") (producer) 1993 – Michael Jackson Talks to... Oprah Live (TV special) (executive producer) 1997 – Before Women Had Wings (TV movie) (producer) 1998 – The Wedding (TV miniseries) (executive producer) 1998 – Beloved (producer) 1998 – David and Lisa (TV movie) (executive producer) 1999 – Tuesdays with Morrie (TV movie) (executive producer) 2001 – Amy & Isabelle (TV movie) (executive producer, producer) 2002 – Oprah After the Show (TV series) (executive producer) 2005 – Their Eyes Were Watching God (TV movie) (executive producer) 2006 – Legends Ball (TV documentary) (executive producer) 2007 – Oprah's Big Give (TV series) (executive producer) 2007 – The Oprah Winfrey Oscar Special (TV movie) (executive producer) 2007 – Building a Dream: The Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy (TV documentary) (executive producer) 2007 – Oprah Winfrey Presents: Mitch Albom's For One More Day (TV movie) (executive producer) 2007 – The Great Debaters (producer) 2009 – The Dr. Oz Show (TV series) (executive producer) 2009 – Precious (executive producer) 2009 – Christmas at the White House: An Oprah Primetime Special (TV special) (executive producer) 2010 – The Oprah Winfrey Oscar Special (TV movie) (executive producer) 2011 – Your OWN Show (TV series) (executive producer) 2011 – Extraordinary Mom (TV documentary) (executive producer) 2011 – Serving Life (TV documentary) (executive producer) 2014 – The Hundred-Foot Journey (producer) 2014 – Selma (producer) 2016–present – Queen Sugar (co-creator and executive producer) 2016–2020 – Greenleaf (executive producer) 2017 – The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks (TV movie) (executive producer) 2018 – Love Is (executive producer) 2019 – When They See Us (executive producer) 2019 – Oprah Winfrey Presents: After Neverland (executive producer) 2019 – David Makes Man (executive producer) 2020 – The Water Man (executive producer) 2023 – The Color Purple (producer) Bibliography By Oprah Winfrey Winfrey, Oprah (1996). The Uncommon Wisdom of Oprah Winfrey: A Portrait in Her Own WordsWinfrey, Oprah (1998). Journey to Beloved (Photography by Ken Regan) Winfrey, Oprah (1998). Make the Connection: Ten Steps to a Better Body and a Better Life (co-authored with Bob Greene) Winfrey, Oprah (2000). Oprah Winfrey: The Soul and Spirit of a SuperstarWinfrey, Oprah (2014). What I Know for SureWinfrey, Oprah (2016). Mr. or Ms. Just Right (co-authored with B. Grace) Winfrey, Oprah (2017). Food, Health and HappinessWinfrey, Oprah (2017). The Wisdom of Sundays: Life-Changing Insights from Super Soul ConversationsWinfrey, Oprah (2017). The Wisdom Journal: The Companion to The Wisdom of SundaysWinfrey, Oprah (2019). The Path Made Clear: Discovering Your Life's Direction and PurposeWinfrey, Oprah (2021). What Happened to You?: Conversations on Trauma, Resilience, and Healing (co-authored with B. Perry) About Oprah Winfrey Mair, George (2001). Oprah Winfrey: The Real Story. Citadel Press. . Cooper, Irene (2007). Oprah Winfrey. Viking. . Awards and honors See also African Americans in Mississippi References Notes External links NPR "Oprah: The Billionaire Everywoman". Audio file, video and biography. Retrieved September 17, 2010 Oprah Winfrey Video produced by Makers: Women Who Make America [https://nmaahc.si.edu/explore/exhibitions/watchingoprah Watching Oprah – Smithsonian exhibition on the Oprah Show'' and Winfrey Category:1954 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century African-American women Category:20th-century American actresses Category:20th-century American businesspeople Category:20th-century American businesswomen Category:20th-century American journalists Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers Category:20th-century American women writers Category:21st-century African-American women Category:21st-century American actresses Category:21st-century American businesspeople Category:21st-century American businesswomen Category:21st-century American journalists Category:21st-century American non-fiction writers Category:21st-century American women writers Category:Actresses from Chicago Category:Actresses from Mississippi Category:African-American actresses Category:African-American billionaires Category:African-American business executives Category:African-American film producers Category:African-American television personalities Category:African-American television producers Category:African-American television talk show hosts Category:African-American women in business Category:African-American women writers Category:American billionaires Category:American business executives Category:American chief executives in the media industry Category:American film producers Category:American magazine publishers (people) Category:American mass media owners Category:American motivational speakers Category:American motivational writers Category:American people of Kpelle descent Category:American people of Native American descent Category:21st-century American philanthropists Category:American radio producers Category:American self-help writers Category:American television actresses Category:American television talk show hosts Category:American voice actresses Category:American web producers Category:American women chief executives Category:American women film producers Category:American women journalists Category:American women non-fiction writers Category:American women philanthropists Category:American women television presenters Category:American women television producers Category:Businesspeople from Chicago Category:Businesspeople from Mississippi Category:Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners Category:Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Talk Show Host winners Category:Female billionaires Category:Founders of academic institutions Category:Illinois Independents Category:International Emmy Founders Award winners Category:Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award winners Category:Journalists from Illinois Category:Journalists from Mississippi Category:Kennedy Center honorees Category:Miss Black America delegates Category:Peabody Award winners Category:People from Kosciusko, Mississippi Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients Category:Spingarn Medal winners Category:Television anchors from Baltimore Category:Television anchors from Chicago Category:Television producers from Illinois Category:Tennessee State University alumni Category:Women motivational speakers Category:Women motivational writers Category:Writers from Chicago Category:Writers from Mississippi Category:Women radio producers Category:21st-century women philanthropists Category:20th-century African-American businesspeople Category:21st-century African-American businesspeople
[ { "text": "African Americans in Mississippi or Black Mississippians are residents of the state of Mississippi who are of African American ancestry. As of the 2019 U.S. Census estimates, African Americans were 37.8% of the state's population which is the highest in the nation.\n\nAfrican Americans were brought to Mississippi for cotton production during the slave trade.\n\nHistory \n\nIn 1718, French officials established rules to allow the importation of African slaves into the Biloxi area. By 1719, the first African slaves arrived. Most of those early enslaved people in Mississippi were Caribbean Creoles.\n\nAs the demographer William H. Frey noted, \"In Mississippi, I think it's [identifying as mixed race] changed from within.\" Historically in Mississippi, after Indian removal in the 1830s, the major groups were designated as black (African American), who were then mostly enslaved, and white (primarily European American). Matthew Snipp, also a demographer, commented on the increase in the 21st century in the number of people identifying as being of more than one race: \"In a sense, they're rendering a more accurate portrait of their racial heritage that in the past would have been suppressed.\"\n\nAfter having accounted for a majority of the state's population since well before the Civil War and through the 1930s, today African Americans constitute approximately 37 percent of the state's population. Some of these slaves were mixed race, with European ancestors, as there were many children born into slavery with white fathers. Some also have Native American ancestry. During the first half of the 20th century, a total of nearly 400,000 African Americans left the state during the Great Migration, for opportunities in the North, Midwest and West. They became a minority in the state for the first time since early in its development.\n\nLynching\n\nThe late 1800s and early 1900s in the Mississippi Delta showed both frontier influence and actions directed at repressing African Americans. After the Civil War, 90% of the Delta was still undeveloped. Both whites and African Americans migrated there for a chance to buy land in the backcountry. It was frontier wilderness, heavily forested and without roads for years. Before the start of the 20th century, lynchings often took the form of frontier justice directed at transient workers as well as residents.\n\nWhites accounted for just over 12 percent of the Delta region's population, but made up nearly 17 percent of lynching victims. So, in this region, they were lynched at a rate that was over 35 percent higher than their proportion in the population, primarily due to being accused of crimes against property (chiefly theft). Conversely, blacks were lynched at a rate, in the Delta, lesser than their proportion of the population. However, this was unlike the rest of the South, where blacks comprised the majority of lynching victims. In the Delta, they were most often accused of murder or attempted murder, in half the cases, and 15 percent of the time, they were accused of rape, meaning that another 15 percent of the time they were accused of a combination of rape and murder, or rape and attempted murder.\n\nA clear seasonal pattern to lynchings existed with colder months being the deadliest. As noted, cotton prices fell during the 1880s and 1890s, increasing economic pressures. \"From September through December, the cotton was picked, debts were revealed, and profits (or losses) realized... Whether concluding old contracts or discussing new arrangements, [landlords and tenants] frequently came into conflict in these months and sometimes fell to blows.\" During the winter, murder was most cited as a cause for lynching. After 1901, as economics shifted and more blacks became renters and sharecroppers in the Delta, with few exceptions, only African Americans were lynched. The frequency increased from 1901 to 1908 after African Americans were disfranchised. \"In the twentieth century Delta vigilantism finally became predictably joined to white supremacy.\"\n\nConclusions of numerous studies since the mid-20th century have found the following variables affecting the rate of lynchings in the South: \"lynchings were more numerous where the African American population was relatively large, the agricultural economy was based predominantly on cotton, the white population was economically stressed, the Democratic Party was stronger, and multiple religious organizations competed for congregants.\"\n\nBy the 1950s, the civil rights movement was gaining momentum. A 1955 lynching that sparked public outrage about injustice was that of Emmett Till, a 14-year-old boy from Chicago. Spending the summer with relatives in Money, Mississippi, Till was killed for allegedly having wolf-whistled at a white woman. Till had been badly beaten, one of his eyes was gouged out, and he was shot in the head. The visceral response to his mother's decision to have an open-casket funeral mobilized the black community throughout the U.S. Vann R. Newkirk| wrote \"the trial of his killers became a pageant illuminating the tyranny of white supremacy\". The state of Mississippi tried two defendants, but they were speedily acquitted by an all-white jury.\n\nNotable people\n\n Mae Bertha Carter - Figure of the Civil Rights Movement\n Aunjanue Ellis - Actress\n Fannie Lou Hamer - Figure of the Civil Rights Movement\n John M. Perkins - Figure of the Civil Rights Movement\n B.B. King - Musician\n Morgan Freeman - Actor\n Oprah Winfrey - Television personality, actress, producer\n Jerry Rice - NFL Football Player with the San Francisco 49ers\n Walter Payton NFL Football Player with the Chicago Bears\n Brandy Norwood Singer, actress\n Jerome Barkum - NFL Football Player with the New York Jets\n Lester Young - Musician, Tenor Saxophone\n Muddy Waters - Musician\n Howlin Wolf - Musician\n Elmore James - Musician\n Swae Lee - Musician\n Karlous Miller - Comedian\n James Earl Jones - Actor\n Ray J - Singer, TV Personality, singer\n Sam Cooke - Singer\n Robert Johnson - Musician\n Ruby Bridges - Activist\n Medgar Evers - Activist\n Ida B. Wells - Activist\n Big K.R.I.T - Rapper\n Cassi Davis - Actress\n Shelby McEwen - Athlete\n Frederick O'Neal - Actor\n Beah Richards - Actress\n David Banner - Musician\n Rick Ross - Musician\n Soulja Boy - Musician\n\nSee also\n\n Education segregation in the Mississippi Delta\n History of slavery in Mississippi\nMississippi-in-Africa\n Mississippi Masala\nBlack Southerners\nDemographics of Mississippi\nList of plantations in Mississippi\nList of African-American historic places in Mississippi\nList of African-American newspapers in Mississippi\nVietnamese in Mississippi\nHistory of Italians in Mississippi\nAfrican Americans in Alabama\nAfrican Americans in Tennessee\nAfrican Americans in Louisiana\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\nExternal links\nBlack Life on the Mississippi: Slaves, Free Blacks, and the Western Steamboat World\n Black History in Mississippi\n African American\n Slave Trade\n African-Americans in the Mississippi River Valley, 1851-1900\n A Contested Presence: Free Black People in Antebellum Mississippi, 1820–1860\n African Presence in Mississippi", "title": "African Americans in Mississippi" } ]
[ "Yes, Oprah has starred in several films such as \"The Color Purple\", \"Beloved\", and \"A Wrinkle in Time\".", "The text does not provide information on whether the films Oprah starred in won any awards.", "Yes, aside from \"The Color Purple\", \"Beloved\", and \"A Wrinkle in Time\", Oprah also lent her voice to several animated films. These include \"Charlotte's Web\", \"Bee Movie\", and \"The Princess and the Frog\".", "Yes, Oprah did voice roles in several films. She voiced Gussie the goose in \"Charlotte's Web\", Judge Bumbleton in \"Bee Movie\", and Eudora in \"The Princess and The Frog\".", "The text does not provide information on whether Oprah received any awards for the movies she voiced in.", "The context mentions that Oprah Winfrey starred in \"The Color Purple\", \"Beloved\", \"A Wrinkle in Time\" and provided voice roles in \"Charlotte's Web\", \"Bee Movie\", and \"The Princess and The Frog\". No other films are mentioned in the context.", "The context does not provide specific information on the length of Oprah Winfrey's career in film.", "Oprah Winfrey co-starred in \"The Color Purple\" in 1985.", "The context does not indicate that Oprah Winfrey performed in any musicals during her film career. However, it is mentioned that she was a producer for the Broadway musical adaptation of \"The Color Purple\", a novel which had also been adapted into a film in which she co-starred.", "The context does not provide information on whether Oprah Winfrey donated any money she made from filming." ]
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C_b400105adb4a4291ad1b2764254f25d8_1
Oprah Winfrey
Winfrey's first name was spelled "Orpah" on her birth certificate after the biblical figure in the Book of Ruth, but people mispronounced it regularly and "Oprah" stuck. She was born in Kosciusko, Mississippi, to an unmarried teenage mother. She later said that her conception was due to a single sexual encounter and the couple broke up not long after. Her mother, Vernita Lee (born c. 1935), was a housemaid.
Celebrity interviews
In 1993, Winfrey hosted a rare prime-time interview with Michael Jackson, which became the fourth most-watched event in American television history as well as the most watched interview ever, with an audience of 36.5 million. On December 1, 2005, Winfrey appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman to promote the new Broadway musical The Color Purple, of which she was a producer, joining the host for the first time in 16 years. The episode was hailed by some as the "television event of the decade" and helped Letterman attract his largest audience in more than 11 years: 13.45 million viewers. Although a much-rumored feud was said to have been the cause of the rift, both Winfrey and Letterman balked at such talk. "I want you to know, it's really over, whatever you thought was happening", said Winfrey. On September 10, 2007, Letterman made his first appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show, as its season premiere was filmed in New York City. In 2006, rappers Ludacris, 50 Cent and Ice Cube criticized Winfrey for what they perceived as an anti-hip hop bias. In an interview with GQ magazine, Ludacris said that Winfrey gave him a "hard time" about his lyrics, and edited comments he made during an appearance on her show with the cast of the film Crash. He also said that he wasn't initially invited on the show with the rest of the cast. Winfrey responded by saying that she is opposed to rap lyrics that "marginalize women", but enjoys some artists, including Kanye West, who appeared on her show. She said she spoke with Ludacris backstage after his appearance to explain her position and said she understood that his music was for entertainment purposes, but that some of his listeners might take it literally. In September 2008, Winfrey received criticism after Matt Drudge of the Drudge Report reported that Winfrey refused to have Sarah Palin on her show, allegedly because of Winfrey's support for Barack Obama. Winfrey denied the report, maintaining that there never was a discussion regarding Palin's appearing on her show. She said that after she made public her support for Obama, she decided that she would not let her show be used as a platform for any of the candidates. Although Obama appeared twice on her show, those appearances were prior to his declaring himself a candidate. Winfrey added that Palin would make a fantastic guest and that she would love to have her on the show after the election, which she did on November 18, 2009. In 2009, Winfrey was criticized for allowing actress Suzanne Somers to appear on her show to discuss hormone treatments that are not accepted by mainstream medicine. Critics have also suggested that Winfrey is not tough enough when questioning celebrity guests or politicians whom she appears to like. Lisa de Moraes, a media columnist for The Washington Post, stated: "Oprah doesn't do follow-up questions unless you're an author who's embarrassed her by fabricating portions of a supposed memoir she's plugged for her book club." CANNOTANSWER
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[ "What celebrities has she interviewed?", "Who else has she interviewed?", "When did she appear on the late show?", "Did she appear on his show more then once?", "Did she do any other high profile interviews?", "Did she ever interview a president after they were elected?", "Has she ever said what her favorite celebrity interview was?", "Does she still do celebrity interviews?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "How did this effect her career?" ]
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Oprah Gail Winfrey (; born Orpah Gail Winfrey; January 29, 1954) is an American talk show host, television producer, actress, author, and media proprietor. She is best known for her talk show, The Oprah Winfrey Show, broadcast from Chicago, which ran in national syndication for 25 years, from 1986 to 2011. Dubbed the "Queen of All Media", she was the richest African-American of the 20th century and was once the world's only black billionaire. By 2007, she was often ranked as the most influential woman in the world. Winfrey was born into poverty in rural Mississippi to a single teenage mother and later raised in inner-city Milwaukee. She has stated that she was molested during her childhood and early teenage years and became pregnant at 14; her son was born prematurely and died in infancy. Winfrey was then sent to live with the man she calls her father, Vernon Winfrey, a barber in Nashville, Tennessee, and landed a job in radio while still in high school. By 19, she was a co-anchor for the local evening news. Winfrey's often emotional, extemporaneous delivery eventually led to her transfer to the daytime talk show arena, and after boosting a third-rated local Chicago talk show to first place, she launched her own production company. By the mid-1990s, Winfrey had reinvented her show with a focus on literature, self-improvement, mindfulness, and spirituality. Though she has been criticized for unleashing a confession culture, promoting controversial self-help ideas, and having an emotion-centered approach, she has also been praised for overcoming adversity to become a benefactor to others. Winfrey also emerged as a political force in the 2008 presidential race, with her endorsement of Barack Obama estimated to have been worth about one million votes during the 2008 Democratic primaries. In 2013, Winfrey was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama, and received honorary doctorate degrees from Duke and Harvard. In 2008, she formed her own network, the Oprah Winfrey Network (OWN). Credited with creating a more intimate, confessional form of media communication, Winfrey popularized and revolutionized the tabloid talk show genre pioneered by Phil Donahue. In 1994, she was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. Winfrey has won many accolades throughout her career which includes 18 Daytime Emmy Awards (including the Lifetime Achievement Award and the Chairman's Award), two Primetime Emmy Awards (including the Bob Hope Humanitarian Award), a Tony Award, a Peabody Award, and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award awarded by the Academy Awards, in addition to two competitive Academy Award nominations. Winfrey was elected as a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2021. Early life Orpah Gail Winfrey was born on January 29, 1954; her first name was spelled Orpah on her birth certificate after the biblical figure in the Book of Ruth, but people mispronounced it regularly and "Oprah" stuck. She was born in Kosciusko, Mississippi, to an unmarried teenage mother. Her mother, Vernita Lee (1935–2018), was a housemaid. Winfrey's biological father is usually noted as Vernon Winfrey (c. 1933–2022), a coal miner turned barber turned city councilman who was in the Armed Forces when she was born. However, Mississippi farmer and World War II Veteran Noah Robinson Sr. (born c. 1925) has claimed to be her biological father. A genetic test in 2006 determined that her matrilineal line originated among the Kpelle ethnic group, in the area that today is Liberia. Her genetic makeup was determined to be 89% Sub-Saharan African, 8% Native American, and 3% East Asian. However, given the imprecision of genetic testing, the East Asian markers may actually be Native American. After Winfrey's birth, her mother traveled north, and Winfrey spent her first six years living in rural poverty with her maternal grandmother, Hattie Mae (Presley) Lee (April 15, 1900 – February 27, 1963). Her grandmother was so poor that Winfrey often wore dresses made of potato sacks, for which other children made fun of her. Her grandmother taught her to read before the age of three and took her to the local church, where she was nicknamed "The Preacher" for her ability to recite Bible verses. When Winfrey was a child, her grandmother was reportedly abusive. At age six, Winfrey moved to an inner-city neighborhood in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, with her mother, who was less supportive and encouraging than her grandmother had been, largely as a result of the long hours she worked as a maid. Around this time, Lee had given birth to another daughter, Winfrey's younger half-sister, Patricia who died of causes related to cocaine addiction in February 2003 at age 43. By 1962, Lee was having difficulty raising both daughters, so Winfrey was temporarily sent to live with Vernon in Nashville, Tennessee. While Winfrey was in Nashville, Lee gave birth to a third daughter, who was put up for adoption in the hopes of easing the financial straits that had led to Lee's being on welfare, and was later also named Patricia. Winfrey did not know that she had a second half-sister until 2010. By the time Winfrey moved back with her mother, Lee had also given birth to Winfrey's half-brother Jeffrey, who died of AIDS-related causes in 1989. At the age of eight, she was baptized in a Baptist church. Winfrey has stated she was molested by her cousin, uncle, and a family friend, starting when she was nine years old, something she first announced on a 1986 episode of her TV show regarding sexual abuse. A biographer alleged that when Winfrey discussed the alleged abuse with family members at age 24, they reportedly refused to believe her account. Winfrey once commented that she had chosen not to be a mother because she had not been mothered well. At 13, after suffering what she described as years of abuse, Winfrey ran away from home. When she was 14, she became pregnant, but her son was born prematurely and died shortly after birth. Winfrey later stated she felt betrayed by the family member who had sold the story of her son to the National Enquirer in 1990. Winfrey attended Lincoln High School in Milwaukee, but after early success in the Upward Bound program, was transferred to the affluent suburban Nicolet High School. Upon transferring, she said she was continually reminded of her poverty as she rode the bus to school with fellow African-Americans, some of whom were servants of her classmates' families. She began to rebel and steal money from her mother in an effort to keep up with her free-spending peers. As a result, her mother once again sent her to live with Vernon in Nashville, although this time she did not take her back. Vernon was strict but encouraging, and made her education a priority. Winfrey became an honors student, was voted Most Popular Girl, and joined her high school speech team at East Nashville High School, placing second in the nation in dramatic interpretation. Winfrey's first job as a teenager was working at a local grocery store. At the age of 17, Winfrey won the Miss Black Tennessee beauty pageant. She also attracted the attention of the local black radio station, WVOL, which hired her to do the news part-time. She worked there during her senior year of high school and in her first two years of college. She had won an oratory contest, which secured her a full scholarship to Tennessee State University, a historically black institution, where she studied communication. However, she did not deliver her final paper and receive her degree until 1987, by which time she was a successful television personality. Winfrey's career in media would not have surprised her grandmother, who once said that ever since Winfrey could talk, she was on stage. As a child, she played games interviewing her corncob doll and the crows on the fence of her family's property. Winfrey later acknowledged her grandmother's influence, saying it was Hattie Mae who had encouraged her to speak in public and "gave me a positive sense of myself". Television Working in local media, Winfrey was both the youngest news anchor and the first black female news anchor at Nashville's WLAC-TV (now WTVF-TV), where she often covered the same stories as John Tesh, who worked at a competing Nashville station. In 1976, she moved to Baltimore's WJZ-TV to co-anchor the six o'clock news. In 1977, she was removed as co-anchor and worked in lower profile positions at the station. She was then recruited to join Richard Sher as co-host of WJZ's local talk show People Are Talking, which premiered on August 14, 1978. She also hosted the local version of Dialing for Dollars. In 1984, Winfrey relocated to Chicago to host WLS-TV's low-rated half-hour morning talk show, AM Chicago, after being hired by that station's general manager, Dennis Swanson. The first episode aired on January 2, 1984. Within months after Winfrey took over, the show went from last place in the ratings to overtaking Donahue as the highest-rated talk show in Chicago. The movie critic Roger Ebert persuaded her to sign a syndication deal with King World. Ebert predicted that she would generate 40 times as much revenue as his television show, At the Movies. It was then renamed The Oprah Winfrey Show and expanded to a full hour. The first episode was broadcast nationwide on September 8, 1986. Winfrey's syndicated show brought in double Donahue's national audience, displacing Donahue as the number-one daytime talk show in America. Their much-publicized contest was the subject of enormous scrutiny. According to Time magazine in August 1988: TV columnist Howard Rosenberg said: "She's a roundhouse, a full course meal, big, brassy, loud, aggressive, hyper, laughable, lovable, soulful, tender, low-down, earthy, and hungry. And she may know the way to Phil Donahue's jugular." Newsdays Les Payne observed, "Oprah Winfrey is sharper than Donahue, wittier, more genuine, and far better attuned to her audience, if not the world" and Martha Bayles of The Wall Street Journal wrote, "It's a relief to see a gab-monger with a fond but realistic assessment of her own cultural and religious roots." In the early years of The Oprah Winfrey Show, the program was classified as a tabloid talk show. In the mid-1990s, Winfrey began to host shows on broader topics such as heart disease, geopolitics, spirituality, and meditation. She interviewed celebrities on social issues they were directly involved with, such as cancer, charity work, or substance abuse, and hosted televised giveaways. The later years of the show faced accusations that Winfrey was promoting junk science. This has manifested as criticisms of Winfrey for promoting particular guests whose medical commentaries (both on her show and in the wider media) frequently lack supporting science. Common targets of this criticism include Dr. Oz's promotion of various "miracle pills" (especially those aimed at weight loss), Dr. Phil, Jenny McCarthy's unfounded assertions about vaccines, and Suzanne Somers's promotion of bioidenticals. Multiple publications have called on Oprah to denounce medical statements made by her former proteges long after her show ended. For example, there were calls for her to denounce Dr. Oz in 2020 reaction to his comments about coronavirus and his promotion of a poorly vetted drug as a cure. In addition to her talk show, Winfrey also produced and co-starred in the drama miniseries The Women of Brewster Place (1989) and its short-lived spin-off, Brewster Place. As well as hosting and appearing on television shows, Winfrey co-founded the women's cable television network Oxygen which was the initial network for her Oprah After the Show program from 2002 to 2006 before moving to Oprah.com when Winfrey sold her stake in the network. She is also the president of Harpo Productions (Oprah spelled backwards), a film and TV production company behind The Oprah Winfrey Show, Dr. Phil, Rachael Ray, The Dr. Oz Show and many others. She also moderated three ABC Afterschool Specials from 1992 to 1994. On January 15, 2008, Winfrey and Discovery Communications announced plans to change Discovery Health Channel into a new channel called OWN: Oprah Winfrey Network. It was scheduled to launch in 2009 but was delayed, and actually launched on January 1, 2011. The series finale of The Oprah Winfrey Show aired on May 25, 2011. In January 2017, CBS announced that Winfrey would join 60 Minutes as a special contributor on the Sunday evening news magazine program starting in September 2017. The National Museum of African American History and Culture in 2018 opened a special exhibit on Winfrey's cultural influence through television. Winfrey left 60 Minutes by the end of 2018. In June 2018, Apple announced a multi-year content partnership with Winfrey, in which it was agreed that Winfrey would create new original programs exclusively for Apple's streaming service, Apple TV+. The first show under the deal, Oprah's Book Club, premiered on November 1, 2019. Oprah's Book Club is based on the segment of the same name from The Oprah Winfrey Show. The second show under the deal, Oprah Talks COVID-19, debuted on March 21, 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic. A third show, The Oprah Conversation debuted on July 30, 2020, with Winfrey "[continuing] to explore impactful and relevant topics with fascinating thought leaders from all over the world". Celebrity interviews In 1993, Winfrey hosted a rare prime-time interview with Michael Jackson, which became the fourth most-watched event in American television history as well as the most watched interview ever, with an audience of 36.5 million. On December 1, 2005, Winfrey appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman for the first time in 16 years, to promote the new Broadway musical, The Color Purple,<ref name=oprlet> Time (magazine)]</ref> which she produced. The episode was hailed by some as the "television event of the decade" and helped Letterman attract his largest audience in more than 11 years: 13.45 million viewers. Although a much-rumored feud was said to have been the cause of the rift, both Winfrey and Letterman balked at such talk. "I want you to know, it's really over, whatever you thought was happening," said Winfrey. On September 10, 2007, Letterman made his first appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show, as its season premiere was filmed in New York City. In 2006, rappers Ludacris, 50 Cent, and Ice Cube criticized Winfrey for what they perceived as an anti-hip hop bias. In an interview with GQ magazine, Ludacris said that Winfrey gave him a "hard time" about his lyrics, and edited comments he made during an appearance on her show with the cast of the film Crash. He also said that he wasn't initially invited on the show with the rest of the cast. Winfrey responded by saying that she is opposed to rap lyrics that "marginalize women," but enjoys some artists, including Kanye West, who appeared on her show. She said she spoke with Ludacris backstage after his appearance to explain her position and said she understood that his music was for entertainment purposes, but that some of his listeners might take it literally. In September 2008, Winfrey received criticism after Matt Drudge of the Drudge Report reported that Winfrey refused to have Sarah Palin on her show, allegedly because of Winfrey's support for Barack Obama. Winfrey denied the report, maintaining that there never was a discussion regarding Palin's appearing on her show. She said that after she made public her support for Obama, she decided that she would not let her show be used as a platform for any of the candidates. Although Obama appeared twice on her show, those appearances were prior to his declaration as a presidential candidate. Winfrey added that Palin would make a fantastic guest and that she would love to have her on the show after the election, which she did on November 18, 2009. In 2009, Winfrey was criticized for allowing actress Suzanne Somers to appear on her show to discuss hormone treatments that are not accepted by mainstream medicine. Critics have also suggested that Winfrey is not tough enough when questioning celebrity guests or politicians whom she appears to like. Lisa de Moraes, a media columnist for The Washington Post, stated: "Oprah doesn't do follow-up questions unless you're an author who's embarrassed her by fabricating portions of a supposed memoir she's plugged for her book club." In 2021, she conducted an interview with Meghan, Duchess of Sussex, and her husband Prince Harry, which was broadcast globally and received international media attention. Other media Film Winfrey co-starred in Steven Spielberg's The Color Purple (1985), as distraught housewife Sofia. She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance. The Alice Walker novel later became a Broadway musical which opened in late 2005, with Winfrey credited as a producer. In October 1998, Winfrey produced and starred in the film Beloved, based on Toni Morrison's Pulitzer Prize–winning novel of the same name. To prepare for her role as Sethe, the protagonist and former slave, Winfrey experienced a 24-hour simulation of the experience of slavery, which included being tied up and blindfolded and left alone in the woods. Despite major advertising, including two episodes of her talk show dedicated solely to the film, and moderate to good critical reviews, Beloved opened to poor box-office results, losing approximately $30 million. While promoting the movie, co-star Thandie Newton described Winfrey as "a very strong technical actress and it's because she's so smart. She's acute. She's got a mind like a razor blade." Harpo Productions released a film adaptation of Zora Neale Hurston's 1937 novel Their Eyes Were Watching God in 2005. The made-for-television film was based upon a teleplay by Suzan-Lori Parks and starred Halle Berry in the lead female role. In late 2008, Winfrey's company Harpo Films signed an exclusive output pact to develop and produce scripted series, documentaries, and movies exclusively for HBO. Oprah voiced Gussie the goose in Charlotte's Web (2006) and voiced Judge Bumbleton in Bee Movie (2007), co-starring the voices of Jerry Seinfeld and Renée Zellweger. In 2009, Winfrey provided the voice for the character of Eudora, the mother of Princess Tiana, in Disney's The Princess and the Frog and in 2010, narrated the US version of the BBC nature program Life for Discovery. In 2018, Winfrey starred as Mrs. Which in the film adaptation of Madeleine L'Engle's novel A Wrinkle in Time. She also lent her voice to an animated virtual-reality short film written and directed by Eric Darnell, starring John Legend, titled Crow: The Legend, telling a native American origin tale. Publishing and writing Winfrey has co-authored five books. At the announcement of a weight-loss book in 2005, co-authored with her personal trainer Bob Greene, it was said that her undisclosed advance fee had broken the record for the world's highest book advance fee, previously held by the autobiography of former U.S. President Bill Clinton. In 2015, her memoir, The Life You Want, was announced following on her tour of the same name, and scheduled for publication in 2017, but was "indefinitely postponed" in 2016. Winfrey publishes the magazine: O, The Oprah Magazine and from 2004 to 2008 also published a magazine called O At Home. In 2002, Fortune called O, the Oprah Magazine the most successful start-up ever in the industry. Although its circulation had declined by more than 10 percent 2.4 million from 2005 to 2008, the January 2009 issue was the best selling issue since 2006. The January 2009 issue was the best selling issue since 2006. The audience for her magazine is considerably more upscale than for her TV show; the average reader earns well above the median for U.S. women. In July 2020, it was announced that O Magazine would end its regular print publications after the December 2020 issue. In the December 2020 issue, Winfrey thanked readers and acknowledged it was the magazine's "final monthly print edition". Online Winfrey's company created the Oprah.com website to provide resources and interactive content related to her shows, magazines, book club, and public charity. Oprah.com averages more than 70 million page views and more than six million users per month, and receives approximately 20,000 e-mails each week. Winfrey initiated "Oprah's Child Predator Watch List", through her show and website, to help track down accused child molesters. Within the first 48 hours, two of the featured men were captured. Radio On February 9, 2006, it was announced that Winfrey had signed a three-year, $55-million contract with XM Satellite Radio to establish a new radio channel. The channel, Oprah Radio, features popular contributors to The Oprah Winfrey Show and O, The Oprah Magazine including Nate Berkus, Dr. Mehmet Oz, Bob Greene, Dr. Robin Smith, and Marianne Williamson. Oprah & Friends began broadcasting at 11:00 am ET, September 25, 2006, from a new studio at Winfrey's Chicago headquarters. The channel broadcasts 24 hours a day, seven days a week on XM Radio Channel 156. Winfrey's contract requires her to be on the air 30 minutes a week, 39 weeks a year. Personal life Homes Oprah's extensive and continuously evolving real-estate portfolio has garnered heightened attention throughout her life and career, with many prominent industry outlets branding her a "tycoon" regarding her investments which as of 2022, are estimated to total approximately $127 million. As her talk-show was beginning, Oprah first purchased a condominium in Chicago's Water Tower Place in 1985, before purchasing the condos adjoining and directly below it in 1992, 1993, and 1994, respectively. In 1988, she purchased an 164-acre property including main and guest residences, orchard, and stables in Rolling Prairie, Indiana as her weekend refuge. In 1992, she purchased an 80-acre compound in Telluride, Colorado, which she would go on to sell in approximately late 2000. In 1994, she also purchased an apartment at the Four Seasons Hotel Chicago. Between 1996 and 2000 she purchased a total of five condos in different development areas of Fisher Island, Florida. In 2000, through her Chicago-based LLC Overground Railroad, Oprah purchased her friend Gayle King an estate in Greenwich, Connecticut. In 2001, Oprah sold all five of her Fisher Island condos and purchased what would become her "main home base" she has also called "The Promised Land" (where she currently lives as of 2022), a (then) 42-acre (17-ha) estate with ocean and mountain views in Montecito, California. Additionally that year, she also purchased homes in both Elmwood Park, Illinois and Merrillville, Indiana for other family members and friends. Similarly, in 2002, she purchased her father's home in Franklin, Tennessee and a lakefront condo in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. In 2003 she listed her compound in Rolling Prairie, Indiana, and sold it in 2004. From 2003 to 2005, Oprah acquired several properties totaling 163 acres in Kula and Hana, Hawaii as well as a penthouse apartment in Atlanta, Georgia. In 2005, she purchased a home in Douglasville, Georgia which was gifted in 2011 to a family member. In 2006, Oprah purchased a co-op apartment along Lake Shore Drive in downtown Chicago, reportedly with plans to permanently move there from her prior adjoined-condo unit in Water Tower Place for the duration of her show but for reasons unknown, the property sat entirely unused until she sold it in 2012. In 2008, she sold her penthouse apartment in Atlanta. That year, she also listed Gayle King's estate and purchased her (through her second LLC Sophie's Penthouse) a penthouse apartment in midtown Manhattan, New York City which would later be sold in 2012. In early 2014, she listed her combined-unit Chicago duplex on the market. Later that year, Oprah came back to Telluride, Colorado to purchase a 60-acre lot with plans to build on the property. A lawsuit filed against her that year by a retired nuclear physicist living in the area regarding trail access rights was dismissed later that year with the judge citing little case law to support his case, among other issues. The extent of the agreement between all the parties and jurisdictions regarding her subsequent development on the property remains undisclosed. In 2015, Oprah purchased another property in Telluride, and later that year, expanded her Montecito compound with another 23-acre estate and yet another 44-acre dedicated crop and equestrian preserve. That year she also sold both of her downtown Chicago homes. In 2018, Oprah obtained two adjoining parcels of land totaling 23 acres including the Madroneagle compound on Orcas Island, Washington and sold her last home property in the Chicago area from Elmwood Park. In late 2019, Oprah yet again expanded her Montecito home-base compound, this time to 70 contiguous acres, with the purchase of a four-acre complex from actor Jeff Bridges. In 2021, she sold her Orcas Island compound as she said she was too busy to use it and purchased another compound in Montecito further away from her home-base compound, flipping the latter in 2022 with split properties, one of which was sold to her property manager and longtime personal trainer Bob Greene, and the other to actress Jennifer Aniston. Romantic history Winfrey's high school sweetheart Anthony Otey recalled an innocent courtship that began in Winfrey's senior year of high school, from which he saved hundreds of love notes; Winfrey conducted herself with dignity and was a model student. The two spoke of getting married, but Otey claimed to have always secretly known that Winfrey was destined for a far greater life than he could ever provide. She broke up with him on Valentine's Day of her senior year.Mair (1999), p. 31. In 1971, several months after breaking up with Otey, Winfrey met William "Bubba" Taylor at Tennessee State University. According to CBS journalist George Mair, Taylor was Winfrey's "first intense, to die for love affair". Winfrey helped get Taylor a job at WVOL, and according to Mair, "did everything to keep him, including literally begging him on her knees to stay with her". Taylor, however, was unwilling to leave Nashville with Winfrey when she moved to Baltimore to work at WJZ-TV in June 1976. "We really did care for each other," Winfrey would later recall. "We shared a deep love. A love I will never forget." In the 1970s, Winfrey had a romantic relationship with John Tesh. Biographer Kitty Kelley claims that Tesh split with Winfrey over the pressures of an interracial relationship. When WJZ-TV management criticized Winfrey for crying on air while reporting tragedies and were unhappy with her physical appearance (especially when her hair fell out as a result of a bad perm), Winfrey turned to reporter Lloyd Kramer for comfort. "Lloyd was just the best," Winfrey would later recall. "That man loved me even when I was bald! He was wonderful. He stuck with me through the whole demoralizing experience. That man was the most fun romance I ever had." According to Mair, when Kramer moved to NBC in New York, Winfrey had a love affair with a married man who had no intention of leaving his wife. Winfrey would later recall: "I'd had a relationship with a man for four years. I wasn't living with him. I'd never lived with anyone—and I thought I was worthless without him. The more he rejected me, the more I wanted him. I felt depleted, powerless. At the end, I was down on the floor on my knees groveling and pleading with him". Winfrey became so depressed that on September 8, 1981, she wrote a suicide note to best friend Gayle King instructing King to water her plants. "That suicide note had been much overplayed" Winfrey told Ms. magazine. "I couldn't kill myself. I would be afraid the minute I did it, something really good would happen and I'd miss it." According to Winfrey, her emotional turmoil gradually led to a weight problem: "The reason I gained so much weight in the first place and the reason I had such a sorry history of abusive relationships with men was I just needed approval so much. I needed everyone to like me, because I didn't like myself much. So I'd end up with these cruel self-absorbed guys who'd tell me how selfish I was, and I'd say 'Oh thank you, you're so right' and be grateful to them. Because I had no sense that I deserved anything else. Which is also why I gained so much weight later on. It was the perfect way of cushioning myself against the world's disapproval." Winfrey later confessed to smoking crack cocaine with a man she was romantically involved with during the same era. She explained on her show: "I always felt that the drug itself is not the problem but that I was addicted to the man." She added: "I can't think of anything I wouldn't have done for that man." Winfrey was allegedly involved in a second drug-related love affair. Self-proclaimed former boyfriend Randolph Cook said they lived together for several months in 1985 and did drugs. In 1997, Cook tried to sue Winfrey for $20 million for allegedly blocking a tell-all book about their alleged relationship. In the mid-1980s, Winfrey briefly dated movie critic Roger Ebert, whom she credits with advising her to take her show into syndication. In 1985, before Winfrey's Chicago talk show had gone national, Haitian filmmaker Reginald Chevalier claims he appeared as a guest on a look-alike segment and began a relationship with Winfrey involving romantic evenings at home, candlelit baths, and dinners with Michael Jordan and Danny Glover. Chevalier says Winfrey ended the relationship when she met Stedman Graham. Winfrey and her partner Stedman Graham have been together since 1986. They were engaged to be married in November 1992, but the ceremony never took place. Close friends Winfrey's best friend since their early twenties is Gayle King. King was formerly the host of The Gayle King Show and is currently an editor of O, the Oprah Magazine. Since 1997, when Winfrey played the therapist on an episode of the sitcom Ellen in which Ellen DeGeneres came out of the closet, Winfrey and King have been the target of persistent rumors that they were gay. "I understand why people think we're gay," Winfrey says in the August 2006 issue of O magazine. "There isn't a definition in our culture for this kind of bond between women. So I get why people have to label it—how can you be this close without it being sexual?" "I've told nearly everything there is to tell. All my stuff is out there. People think I'd be so ashamed of being gay that I wouldn't admit it? Oh, please." Winfrey has also had a long friendship with Maria Shriver, after they met in Baltimore. Winfrey considered Maya Angelou, author of I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, her mentor and close friend; she called Angelou her "mother-sister-friend". Winfrey hosted a week-long Caribbean cruise for Angelou and 150 guests for Angelou's 70th birthday in 1998, and in 2008, threw her "an extravagant 80th birthday celebration" at Donald Trump's Mar-a-Lago club in Palm Beach, Florida. Personal wealth Born in rural poverty, and raised by a mother dependent on government welfare payments in a poor urban neighborhood, Winfrey became a millionaire at the age of 32 when her talk show received national syndication. Winfrey negotiated ownership rights to the television program and started her own production company. At the age of 41, Winfrey had a net worth of $340 million and replaced Bill Cosby as the only African American on the Forbes 400. By 2000, with a net worth of $800 million, Winfrey is believed to have been the richest African American of the 20th century. There has been a course taught at the University of Illinois focusing on Winfrey's business acumen, namely: "History 298: Oprah Winfrey, the Tycoon". Winfrey was the highest-paid television entertainer in the United States in 2006, earning an estimated $260 million during the year, five times the sum earned by second-place music executive Simon Cowell. By 2008, her yearly income had increased to $275 million.Forbes list of The World's Billionaires has listed Winfrey as the world's only black billionaire from 2004 to 2006 and as the first black woman billionaire in the world that was achieved in 2003. As of 2014, Winfrey had a net worth in excess of 2.9 billion dollars and had overtaken former eBay CEO Meg Whitman as the richest self-made woman in America. Religious views Oprah was raised a Baptist. In her early life, she would speak at local, mostly African American congregations of the Southern Baptist Convention that were often deeply religious and familiar with such themes as evangelical Protestantism, the Black church, and being born-again.Oprah Winfrey: Global Media Leader by Katherine E. Krohn, pg. 14 She was quoted as saying: "I have church with myself: I have church walking down the street. I believe in the God force that lives inside all of us, and once you tap into that, you can do anything." She also stated, "Doubt means don't. When you don't know what to do, do nothing until you do know what to do. Because the doubt is your inner voice or the voice of God or whatever you choose to call it. It is your instinct trying to tell you something is off. That's how I have found myself to be led spiritually, because that's your spiritual voice saying to you, 'let's think about it.' So when you don't know what to do, do nothing." Oprah has stated that she is a Christian and her favorite Bible verse is Acts 17:28. Oprah attends The Potter's House Church, Dallas service, an Evangelical church. Influence Rankings Winfrey was called "arguably the world's most powerful woman" by CNN and TIME, "arguably the most influential woman in the world" by The American Spectator, "one of the 100 people who most influenced the 20th Century" and "one of the most influential people" from 2004 to 2011 by TIME. Winfrey is the only person to have appeared in the latter list on ten occasions. At the end of the 20th century, Life listed Winfrey as both the most influential woman and the most influential black person of her generation, and in a cover story profile the magazine called her "America's most powerful woman". In 2007, USA Today ranked Winfrey as the most influential woman and most influential black person of the previous quarter-century. Ladies' Home Journal also ranked Winfrey number one in their list of the most powerful women in America and then Senator Barack Obama in 2007 said she "may be the most influential woman in the country". In 1998, Winfrey became the first woman and first African American to top Entertainment Weekly's list of the 101 most powerful people in the entertainment industry. Forbes named her the world's most powerful celebrity in 2005, 2007, 2008, 2010, and 2013. As chairman of Harpo Inc., she was named the most powerful woman in entertainment by The Hollywood Reporter in 2008. She has been listed as one of the most powerful 100 women in the world by Forbes, ranking 14th in 2014. In 2010, Life magazine named Winfrey one of the 100 people who changed the world, alongside Jesus Christ, Elvis Presley, and Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. Winfrey was the only living woman to make the list. Columnist Maureen Dowd seems to agree with such assessments. Interviewed by The Guardian in 2006, Dowd said: "She is the top alpha female in this country. She has more credibility than the president. Other successful women, such as Hillary Clinton and Martha Stewart, had to be publicly slapped down before they could move forward. Even Condi has had to play the protégé with Bush. None of this happened to Oprah – she is a straight ahead success story." Vanity Fair wrote: "Oprah Winfrey arguably has more influence on the culture than any university president, politician, or religious leader, except perhaps the Pope. Bill O'Reilly said: "this is a woman that came from nothing to rise up to be the most powerful woman, I think, in the world. I think Oprah Winfrey is the most powerful woman in the world, not just in America. That's – anybody who goes on her program immediately benefits through the roof. I mean, she has a loyal following; she has credibility; she has talent; and she's done it on her own to become fabulously wealthy and fabulously powerful." In 2005, Winfrey was named the greatest woman in American history as part of a public poll as part of The Greatest American. She was ranked No. 9 overall on the list of greatest Americans. However, polls estimating Winfrey's personal popularity have been inconsistent. A November 2003 Gallup poll estimated that 73% of American adults had a favorable view of Winfrey. Another Gallup poll in January 2007 estimated the figure at 74%, although it dropped to 66% when Gallup conducted the same poll in October 2007. A December 2007 Fox News poll put the figure at 55%. According to Gallup's annual most admired poll, Americans consistently rank Winfrey as one of the most admired women in the world. Her highest rating came in 2007 when she was statistically tied with Hillary Clinton for first place. In a list compiled by the British magazine New Statesman in September 2010, she was voted 38th in the list of "The World's 50 Most Influential Figures 2010". In 1989, she was accepted into the NAACP Image Award Hall of Fame. "Oprahfication"The Wall Street Journal coined the term "Oprahfication", meaning public confession as a form of therapy. By confessing intimate details about her weight problems, tumultuous love life, and sexual abuse, and crying alongside her guests, Winfrey has been credited by Time magazine with creating a new form of media communication known as "rapport talk" as distinguished from the "report talk" of Phil Donahue: "Winfrey saw television's power to blend public and private; while it links strangers and conveys information over public airwaves, TV is most often viewed in the privacy of our homes. Like a family member, it sits down to meals with us and talks to us in the lonely afternoons. Grasping this paradox, ... She makes people care because she cares. That is Winfrey's genius, and will be her legacy, as the changes she has wrought in the talk show continue to permeate our culture and shape our lives." Observers have also noted the "Oprahfication" of politics such as "Oprah-style debates" and Bill Clinton being described as "the man who brought Oprah-style psychobabble and misty confessions to politics". Newsweek stated: "Every time a politician lets his lip quiver or a cable anchor 'emotes' on TV, they nod to the cult of confession that Oprah helped create." The November 1988 Ms. observed that "in a society where fat is taboo, she made it in a medium that worships thin and celebrates a bland, white-bread prettiness of body and personality [...] But Winfrey made fat sexy, elegant – damned near gorgeous – with her drop-dead wardrobe, easy body language, and cheerful sensuality." Daytime talk show's impact on LGBT people While Phil Donahue has been credited with pioneering the tabloid talk show genre, Winfrey's warmth, intimacy, and personal confession popularized and changed it. Her success at popularizing the tabloid talk show genre opened up a thriving industry that has included Ricki Lake, The Jenny Jones Show, and The Jerry Springer Show. In the book Freaks Talk Back, Yale sociology professor Joshua Gamson credits the tabloid talk show genre with providing much needed high-impact media visibility for gay, bisexual, transsexual, and transgender (LGBT) people and doing more to make them mainstream and socially acceptable than any other development of the 20th century. In the book's editorial review, Michael Bronski wrote, "In the recent past, lesbians, gay men, bisexuals, and transgendered people had almost no presence on television. With the invention and propagation of tabloid talk shows such as Jerry Springer, Jenny Jones, Oprah, and Geraldo, people outside the sexual mainstream now appear in living rooms across America almost every day of the week." Gamson credits the tabloid talk show with making alternative sexual orientations and identities more acceptable in mainstream society. Examples include a Time magazine article on early 21st-century gays coming out of the closet at an increasingly younger age and on plummeting gay suicide rates. Gamson also believes that tabloid talk shows caused gays to be accepted on more traditional forms of media. In April 1997, Winfrey played the therapist in "The Puppy Episode" on the sitcom Ellen to whom the character (and the real-life Ellen DeGeneres) came out as a lesbian. "The Oprah Effect" The power of Winfrey's opinions and endorsement to influence public opinion, especially consumer purchasing choices, has been dubbed "the Oprah Effect". The effect has been documented or alleged in domains as diverse as book sales, beef markets, and election voting. Late in 1996, Winfrey introduced the Oprah's Book Club segment to her television show. The segment focused on new books and classics and often brought obscure novels to popular attention. The book club became such a powerful force that whenever Winfrey introduced a new book as her book-club selection, it instantly became a best-seller; for example, when she selected the classic John Steinbeck novel East of Eden, it soared to the top of the book charts. Being recognized by Winfrey often means a million additional book sales for an author. In Reading with Oprah: The Book Club that Changed America (2005), Kathleen Rooney describes Winfrey as "a serious American intellectual who pioneered the use of electronic media, specifically television and the Internet, to take reading – a decidedly non-technological and highly individual act – and highlight its social elements and uses in such a way to motivate millions of erstwhile non-readers to pick up books." When author Jonathan Franzen's book was selected for the Book Club, he reportedly "cringed" and said selected books tend to be "schmaltzy". After James Frey's A Million Little Pieces was found to contain fabrications in 2006, Winfrey confronted him on her show over the breach of trust. In 2009, Winfrey apologized to Frey for the public confrontation. During a show about mad cow disease with Howard Lyman (aired on April 16, 1996), Winfrey said she was stopped cold from eating another burger. Texas cattlemen sued her and Lyman in early 1998 for "false defamation of perishable food" and "business disparagement," claiming that Winfrey's remarks sent cattle prices tumbling, costing beef producers $11 million. Winfrey was represented by attorney Chip Babcock and, on February 26, after a two-month trial in an Amarillo, Texas, court, a jury found Winfrey and Lyman were not liable for damages. During the lawsuit, Winfrey hired Phil McGraw's company Courtroom Sciences, Inc. to help her analyze and read the jury. Winfrey's ability to launch other successful talk shows such as Dr. Phil, The Dr. Oz Show, and Rachael Ray has also been cited as examples of "The Oprah Effect". Politics Matthew Baum and Angela Jamison performed an experiment testing their hypothesis, "Politically unaware individuals who consume soft news will be more likely to vote consistently than their counterparts who do not consume soft news". In their studies, they found that low-awareness individuals who watch soft news shows, such as The Oprah Winfrey Show are 14% more likely to vote consistently than low-awareness individuals who only watch hard news. Winfrey states she is a political independent who has "earned the right to think for myself and to vote for myself". She endorsed presidential candidate Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential election. On September 25, 2006, Winfrey made her first endorsement of Obama for president on Larry King Live, the first time she endorsed a political candidate running for office. Two economists estimate that Winfrey's endorsement was worth over a million votes in the Democratic primary race and that without it, Obama would have lost the nomination. Winfrey held a fundraiser for Obama on September 8, 2007, at her Santa Barbara estate. In December 2007, Winfrey joined Obama for a series of rallies in the early primary states of Iowa, New Hampshire, and South Carolina. The Columbia, South Carolina, event on December 9, 2007, drew a crowd of nearly 30,000, the largest for any political event of 2007. An analysis by two economists at the University of Maryland, College Park estimated that Winfrey's endorsement was responsible for between 420,000 and 1,600,000 votes for Obama in the Democratic primary alone, based on a sample of states that did not include Texas, Michigan, North Dakota, Kansas, or Alaska. The results suggest that in the sampled states, Winfrey's endorsement was responsible for the difference in the popular vote between Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton. The governor of Illinois, Rod Blagojevich, reported being so impressed by Winfrey's endorsement that he considered offering Winfrey Obama's vacant senate seat, describing Winfrey as "the most instrumental person in electing Barack Obama president," with "a voice larger than all 100 senators combined". Winfrey responded by stating that although she was absolutely not interested, she did feel she could be a senator. The Topps trading card company memorialized Oprah's involvement in the campaign by featuring her on a card in a set commemorating Obama's road to the White House. In April 2014, Winfrey spoke for more than 20 minutes at a fundraiser in Arlington, Virginia, for Lavern Chatman, a candidate in a primary to nominate a Democratic Party candidate for election to the U.S. House of Representatives. Winfrey participated in the event even after reports had revealed that Chatman had been found liable in 2001 for her role in a scheme to defraud hundreds of District of Columbia nursing-home employees of at least $1.4 million in owed wages. Winfrey endorsed Hillary Clinton in the 2016 election, and referred to Republican candidate Donald Trump as a "demagogue". In 2018, Winfrey canvassed door-to-door for Georgia gubernatorial Democratic nominee Stacey Abrams and donated $500,000 to the March for Our Lives student demonstration in favor of gun control in the United States. Winfrey has at times been the subject of media speculation that she may run for president herself, most notably in the lead-up to the 2020 election in which some reports claimed that she was actively considering launching a campaign for the Democratic nomination. Winfrey ultimately denied any plans to run for president, saying in 2018 that while it was "a humbling thing to have people think you can run the country", she "would not be able to do it. It's not a clean business. It would kill me." Winfrey suggested that she would publicly endorse a candidate in the 2020 Democratic primaries, however she ultimately did not do so. She later campaigned for Joe Biden during the general election. In early 2018, Winfrey met with Mohammad bin Salman, the crown prince and de facto ruler of Saudi Arabia, when he visited the United States. In the 2022 Pennsylvania Senate election, Winfrey endorsed Democrat John Fetterman over Republican Mehmet Oz, whose show she promoted. In the 2022 Maryland gubernatorial election, she endorsed Baltimore author Wes Moore in the Democratic primary, co-hosting a virtual fundraiser for him in June. Winfrey later attended and spoke at Moore's gubernatorial inauguration on January 18, 2023. In 2022, Winfrey set up OWN Your Vote, a nonpartisan group dedicated to voter registration and a get-out-the-vote campaign focused on providing Black women with tools and resources to vote in the November election. Their partners include Advancement Project, African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME), Color Of Change, Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, The King Center, The Lawyers' Committee, NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, National Action Network, National Bar Association, National Council of Negro Women, Sigma Gamma Rho, Southern Poverty Law Center, VoteRunLead, Vote.org. Spiritual leadership In 2000, she was awarded the Spingarn Medal from the NAACP. In 2002, Christianity Today published an article called "The Church of O" in which they concluded that Winfrey had emerged as an influential spiritual leader. "Since 1994, when she abandoned traditional talk-show fare for more edifying content, and 1998, when she began 'Change Your Life TV', Oprah's most significant role has become that of a spiritual leader. To her audience of more than 22 million mostly female viewers, she has become a postmodern priestess—an icon of church-free spirituality." The sentiment was echoed by Marcia Z. Nelson in her book The Gospel According to Oprah. Since the mid-1990s, Winfrey's show has emphasized uplifting and inspirational topics and themes and some viewers say the show has motivated them to perform acts of altruism such as helping Congolese women and building an orphanage. A scientific study by psychological scientists at the University of Cambridge, University of Plymouth, and University of California used an uplifting clip from The Oprah Winfrey Show in an experiment that discovered that watching the 'uplifting' clip caused subjects to become twice as helpful as subjects assigned to watch a British comedy or nature documentary. In 1998, Winfrey began an ongoing conversation with Gary Zukav, an American spiritual teacher, who appeared on her television show 35 times. Winfrey has said she keeps a copy of Zukav's The Seat of the Soul at her bedside, a book that she says is one of her all-time favorites. On the season premiere of Winfrey's 13th season, Roseanne Barr told Winfrey "you're the African Mother Goddess of us all" inspiring much enthusiasm from the studio audience. The animated series Futurama alluded to her spiritual influence by suggesting that "Oprahism" is a mainstream religion in 3000 AD. Twelve days after the September 11 attacks, New York mayor Rudy Giuliani asked Winfrey to serve as host of a Prayer for America service at New York City's Yankee Stadium, which was attended by former president Bill Clinton and New York senator Hillary Clinton. Leading up to the U.S.-led 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, less than a month after the September 11 attacks, Winfrey aired a controversial show called "Islam 101" in which she portrayed Islam as a religion of peace, calling it "the most misunderstood of the three major religions". In 2002, George W. Bush invited Winfrey to join a US delegation that included adviser Karen Hughes and Condoleezza Rice, planning to go to Afghanistan to celebrate the return of Afghan girls to school. The "Oprah strategy" was designed to portray the War on Terror in a positive light; however, when Winfrey refused to participate, the trip was postponed. Leading up to the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq, Winfrey's show received criticism for allegedly having an anti-war bias. Ben Shapiro of Townhall.com wrote: "Oprah Winfrey is the most powerful woman in America. She decides what makes The New York Times Best Seller lists. Her touchy-feely style sucks in audiences at the rate of 14 million viewers per day. But Oprah is far more than a cultural force, she's a dangerous political force as well, a woman with unpredictable and mercurial attitudes toward the major issues of the day." In 2006, Winfrey recalled such controversies: "I once did a show titled Is War the Only Answer? In the history of my career, I've never received more hate mail – like 'Go back to Africa' hate mail. I was accused of being un-American for even raising the question." Filmmaker Michael Moore came to Winfrey's defense, praising her for showing antiwar footage no other media would show and begging her to run for president. A February 2003 series, in which Winfrey showed clips from people all over the world asking America not to go to war, was interrupted in several East Coast markets by network broadcasts of a press conference in which President George W. Bush and Colin Powell summarized the case for war. In 2007, Winfrey began to endorse the self-help program The Secret. The Secret claims that people can change their lives through positive thoughts or 'vibrations', which will then cause them to attract more positive vibrations that result in good things happening to them. Peter Birkenhead of Salon magazine argued that this idea is pseudoscience and psychologically damaging, as it trivializes important decisions and promotes a quick-fix material culture, and suggests Winfrey's promotion of it is irresponsible given her influence. In 2007, skeptic and magician James Randi accused Winfrey of being deliberately deceptive and uncritical in how she handles paranormal claims on her show. In 2008, Winfrey endorsed author and spiritual teacher Eckhart Tolle and his book, A New Earth: Awakening to Your Life's Purpose, which sold several million extra copies after being selected for her book club. During a Webinar class, in which she promoted the book, Winfrey stated "God is a feeling experience and not a believing experience. If your religion is a believing experience [...] then that's not truly God." Frank Pastore, a Christian radio talk show host on KKLA, was among the many Christian leaders who criticized Winfrey's views, saying "if she's a Christian, she's an ignorant one because Christianity is incompatible with New Age thought". Winfrey was named as the 2008 Person of the Year by animal-rights group People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) for using her fame and listening audience to help the less fortunate, including animals. PETA praised Winfrey for using her talk show to uncover horrific cases of cruelty to animals in puppy mills and on factory farms, and Winfrey even used the show to highlight the cruelty-free vegan diet that she tried. In 2009, Winfrey filmed a series of interviews in Denmark highlighting its citizens as the happiest people in the world. In 2010, Bill O'Reilly of Fox News criticized these shows for promoting a left-wing society. Following the launch of the Super Soul Sunday and SuperSoul Sessions programs on Harpo Productions' SuperSoul TV, in 2016 Winfrey selected 100 people for the SuperSoul 100 list of "innovators and visionaries who are aligned on a mission to move humanity forward". On using the N-word, Winfrey said, "You cannot be my friend and use that word around me. ... I always think of the...people who heard that as their last word as they were hanging from a tree." Fan base The viewership for The Oprah Winfrey Show was highest during the 1991–92 season, when about 13.1 million U.S. viewers were watching each day. By 2003, ratings declined to 7.4 million daily viewers. Ratings briefly rebounded to approximately 9 million in 2005 and then declined again to around 7.3 million viewers in 2008, though it remained the highest rated talk show. In 2008, Winfrey's show was airing in 140 countries internationally and seen by an estimated 46 million people in the US weekly. According to the Harris poll, Winfrey was America's favorite television personality in 1998, 2000, 2002–06, and 2009. Winfrey was especially popular among women, Democrats, political moderates, Baby Boomers, Generation X, Southern Americans, and East Coast Americans. Outside the U.S., Winfrey has become increasingly popular in the Arab world. The Wall Street Journal reported in 2007 that MBC 4, an Arab satellite channel, centered its entire programming around reruns of her show because it was drawing record numbers of female viewers in Saudi Arabia. In 2008, The New York Times reported that The Oprah Winfrey Show, with Arabic subtitles, was broadcast twice each weekday on MBC 4. Winfrey's modest dress, combined with her attitude of triumph over adversity and abuse has caused some women in Saudi Arabia to idealize her. Philanthropy In 2004, Winfrey became the first black person to rank among the 50 most generous Americans and she remained among the top 50 until 2010. By 2012, she had given away about $400 million to educational causes. As of 2012, Winfrey had also given over 400 scholarships to Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia. Winfrey was the recipient of the first Bob Hope Humanitarian Award at the 2002 Emmy Awards for services to television and film. To celebrate two decades on national TV, and to thank her employees for their hard work, Winfrey took her staff and their families (1,065 people in total) on vacation to Hawaii in the summer of 2006. In 2013, Winfrey donated $12 million to the Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture. President Barack Obama awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom later that same year. Oprah's Angel Network In 1998, Winfrey created the Oprah's Angel Network, a charity that supported charitable projects and provided grants to nonprofit organizations around the world. Oprah's Angel Network raised more than $80 million ($1 million of which was donated by Jon Bon Jovi). Winfrey personally covered all administrative costs associated with the charity, so 100% of all funds raised went to charity programs. In May 2010, with Oprah's show ending, the charity stopped accepting donations and was shut down. In the wake of Hurricane Katrina, Oprah created the Oprah Angel Network Katrina registry which raised more than $11 million for relief efforts. Winfrey personally gave $10 million to the cause. Homes were built in Texas, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Alabama before the one-year anniversary of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. South Africa In 2004, Winfrey and her team filmed an episode of her show, "Oprah's Christmas Kindness", in which Winfrey travelled to South Africa to bring attention to the plight of young children affected by poverty and AIDS. During the 21-day trip, Winfrey and her crew visited schools and orphanages in poverty-stricken areas, and distributed Christmas presents to 50,000 children, with dolls for the girls and soccer balls for the boys, and school supplies. Throughout the show, Winfrey appealed to viewers to donate money to Oprah's Angel Network for poor and AIDS-affected children in Africa. From that show alone, viewers around the world donated over $7 million. Winfrey invested $40 million and some of her time establishing the Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls in Henley on Klip south of Johannesburg, South Africa. The school set over 22 acres, opened in January 2007 with an enrollment of 150 pupils (increasing to 450) and features state-of-the-art classrooms, computer and science laboratories, a library, a theatre, and a beauty salon. Nelson Mandela praised Winfrey for overcoming her own disadvantaged youth to become a benefactor for others. Critics considered the school elitist and unnecessarily luxurious. Winfrey rejected the claims, saying: "If you are surrounded by beautiful things and wonderful teachers who inspire you, that beauty brings out the beauty in you." Winfrey, who has no surviving biological children, described maternal feelings towards the girls at Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls. Winfrey teaches a class at the school via satellite. Filmography As actress As herself As producer only 1989 – The Oprah Winfrey Show (supervising producer – 8 episodes, 1989–2011) 1989 – The Women of Brewster Place (TV miniseries) (executive producer) 1992 – Nine (TV documentary) (executive producer) 1992 – Overexposed (TV movie) (executive producer) 1993 – ABC Afterschool Special (TV series) (producer – 1 episode "Shades of a Single Protein") (producer) 1993 – Michael Jackson Talks to... Oprah Live (TV special) (executive producer) 1997 – Before Women Had Wings (TV movie) (producer) 1998 – The Wedding (TV miniseries) (executive producer) 1998 – Beloved (producer) 1998 – David and Lisa (TV movie) (executive producer) 1999 – Tuesdays with Morrie (TV movie) (executive producer) 2001 – Amy & Isabelle (TV movie) (executive producer, producer) 2002 – Oprah After the Show (TV series) (executive producer) 2005 – Their Eyes Were Watching God (TV movie) (executive producer) 2006 – Legends Ball (TV documentary) (executive producer) 2007 – Oprah's Big Give (TV series) (executive producer) 2007 – The Oprah Winfrey Oscar Special (TV movie) (executive producer) 2007 – Building a Dream: The Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy (TV documentary) (executive producer) 2007 – Oprah Winfrey Presents: Mitch Albom's For One More Day (TV movie) (executive producer) 2007 – The Great Debaters (producer) 2009 – The Dr. Oz Show (TV series) (executive producer) 2009 – Precious (executive producer) 2009 – Christmas at the White House: An Oprah Primetime Special (TV special) (executive producer) 2010 – The Oprah Winfrey Oscar Special (TV movie) (executive producer) 2011 – Your OWN Show (TV series) (executive producer) 2011 – Extraordinary Mom (TV documentary) (executive producer) 2011 – Serving Life (TV documentary) (executive producer) 2014 – The Hundred-Foot Journey (producer) 2014 – Selma (producer) 2016–present – Queen Sugar (co-creator and executive producer) 2016–2020 – Greenleaf (executive producer) 2017 – The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks (TV movie) (executive producer) 2018 – Love Is (executive producer) 2019 – When They See Us (executive producer) 2019 – Oprah Winfrey Presents: After Neverland (executive producer) 2019 – David Makes Man (executive producer) 2020 – The Water Man (executive producer) 2023 – The Color Purple (producer) Bibliography By Oprah Winfrey Winfrey, Oprah (1996). The Uncommon Wisdom of Oprah Winfrey: A Portrait in Her Own WordsWinfrey, Oprah (1998). Journey to Beloved (Photography by Ken Regan) Winfrey, Oprah (1998). Make the Connection: Ten Steps to a Better Body and a Better Life (co-authored with Bob Greene) Winfrey, Oprah (2000). Oprah Winfrey: The Soul and Spirit of a SuperstarWinfrey, Oprah (2014). What I Know for SureWinfrey, Oprah (2016). Mr. or Ms. Just Right (co-authored with B. Grace) Winfrey, Oprah (2017). Food, Health and HappinessWinfrey, Oprah (2017). The Wisdom of Sundays: Life-Changing Insights from Super Soul ConversationsWinfrey, Oprah (2017). The Wisdom Journal: The Companion to The Wisdom of SundaysWinfrey, Oprah (2019). The Path Made Clear: Discovering Your Life's Direction and PurposeWinfrey, Oprah (2021). What Happened to You?: Conversations on Trauma, Resilience, and Healing (co-authored with B. Perry) About Oprah Winfrey Mair, George (2001). Oprah Winfrey: The Real Story. Citadel Press. . Cooper, Irene (2007). Oprah Winfrey. Viking. . Awards and honors See also African Americans in Mississippi References Notes External links NPR "Oprah: The Billionaire Everywoman". Audio file, video and biography. Retrieved September 17, 2010 Oprah Winfrey Video produced by Makers: Women Who Make America [https://nmaahc.si.edu/explore/exhibitions/watchingoprah Watching Oprah – Smithsonian exhibition on the Oprah Show'' and Winfrey Category:1954 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century African-American women Category:20th-century American actresses Category:20th-century American businesspeople Category:20th-century American businesswomen Category:20th-century American journalists Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers Category:20th-century American women writers Category:21st-century African-American women Category:21st-century American actresses Category:21st-century American businesspeople Category:21st-century American businesswomen Category:21st-century American journalists Category:21st-century American non-fiction writers Category:21st-century American women writers Category:Actresses from Chicago Category:Actresses from Mississippi Category:African-American actresses Category:African-American billionaires Category:African-American business executives Category:African-American film producers Category:African-American television personalities Category:African-American television producers Category:African-American television talk show hosts Category:African-American women in business Category:African-American women writers Category:American billionaires Category:American business executives Category:American chief executives in the media industry Category:American film producers Category:American magazine publishers (people) Category:American mass media owners Category:American motivational speakers Category:American motivational writers Category:American people of Kpelle descent Category:American people of Native American descent Category:21st-century American philanthropists Category:American radio producers Category:American self-help writers Category:American television actresses Category:American television talk show hosts Category:American voice actresses Category:American web producers Category:American women chief executives Category:American women film producers Category:American women journalists Category:American women non-fiction writers Category:American women philanthropists Category:American women television presenters Category:American women television producers Category:Businesspeople from Chicago Category:Businesspeople from Mississippi Category:Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners Category:Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Talk Show Host winners Category:Female billionaires Category:Founders of academic institutions Category:Illinois Independents Category:International Emmy Founders Award winners Category:Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award winners Category:Journalists from Illinois Category:Journalists from Mississippi Category:Kennedy Center honorees Category:Miss Black America delegates Category:Peabody Award winners Category:People from Kosciusko, Mississippi Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients Category:Spingarn Medal winners Category:Television anchors from Baltimore Category:Television anchors from Chicago Category:Television producers from Illinois Category:Tennessee State University alumni Category:Women motivational speakers Category:Women motivational writers Category:Writers from Chicago Category:Writers from Mississippi Category:Women radio producers Category:21st-century women philanthropists Category:20th-century African-American businesspeople Category:21st-century African-American businesspeople
[ { "text": "African Americans in Mississippi or Black Mississippians are residents of the state of Mississippi who are of African American ancestry. As of the 2019 U.S. Census estimates, African Americans were 37.8% of the state's population which is the highest in the nation.\n\nAfrican Americans were brought to Mississippi for cotton production during the slave trade.\n\nHistory \n\nIn 1718, French officials established rules to allow the importation of African slaves into the Biloxi area. By 1719, the first African slaves arrived. Most of those early enslaved people in Mississippi were Caribbean Creoles.\n\nAs the demographer William H. Frey noted, \"In Mississippi, I think it's [identifying as mixed race] changed from within.\" Historically in Mississippi, after Indian removal in the 1830s, the major groups were designated as black (African American), who were then mostly enslaved, and white (primarily European American). Matthew Snipp, also a demographer, commented on the increase in the 21st century in the number of people identifying as being of more than one race: \"In a sense, they're rendering a more accurate portrait of their racial heritage that in the past would have been suppressed.\"\n\nAfter having accounted for a majority of the state's population since well before the Civil War and through the 1930s, today African Americans constitute approximately 37 percent of the state's population. Some of these slaves were mixed race, with European ancestors, as there were many children born into slavery with white fathers. Some also have Native American ancestry. During the first half of the 20th century, a total of nearly 400,000 African Americans left the state during the Great Migration, for opportunities in the North, Midwest and West. They became a minority in the state for the first time since early in its development.\n\nLynching\n\nThe late 1800s and early 1900s in the Mississippi Delta showed both frontier influence and actions directed at repressing African Americans. After the Civil War, 90% of the Delta was still undeveloped. Both whites and African Americans migrated there for a chance to buy land in the backcountry. It was frontier wilderness, heavily forested and without roads for years. Before the start of the 20th century, lynchings often took the form of frontier justice directed at transient workers as well as residents.\n\nWhites accounted for just over 12 percent of the Delta region's population, but made up nearly 17 percent of lynching victims. So, in this region, they were lynched at a rate that was over 35 percent higher than their proportion in the population, primarily due to being accused of crimes against property (chiefly theft). Conversely, blacks were lynched at a rate, in the Delta, lesser than their proportion of the population. However, this was unlike the rest of the South, where blacks comprised the majority of lynching victims. In the Delta, they were most often accused of murder or attempted murder, in half the cases, and 15 percent of the time, they were accused of rape, meaning that another 15 percent of the time they were accused of a combination of rape and murder, or rape and attempted murder.\n\nA clear seasonal pattern to lynchings existed with colder months being the deadliest. As noted, cotton prices fell during the 1880s and 1890s, increasing economic pressures. \"From September through December, the cotton was picked, debts were revealed, and profits (or losses) realized... Whether concluding old contracts or discussing new arrangements, [landlords and tenants] frequently came into conflict in these months and sometimes fell to blows.\" During the winter, murder was most cited as a cause for lynching. After 1901, as economics shifted and more blacks became renters and sharecroppers in the Delta, with few exceptions, only African Americans were lynched. The frequency increased from 1901 to 1908 after African Americans were disfranchised. \"In the twentieth century Delta vigilantism finally became predictably joined to white supremacy.\"\n\nConclusions of numerous studies since the mid-20th century have found the following variables affecting the rate of lynchings in the South: \"lynchings were more numerous where the African American population was relatively large, the agricultural economy was based predominantly on cotton, the white population was economically stressed, the Democratic Party was stronger, and multiple religious organizations competed for congregants.\"\n\nBy the 1950s, the civil rights movement was gaining momentum. A 1955 lynching that sparked public outrage about injustice was that of Emmett Till, a 14-year-old boy from Chicago. Spending the summer with relatives in Money, Mississippi, Till was killed for allegedly having wolf-whistled at a white woman. Till had been badly beaten, one of his eyes was gouged out, and he was shot in the head. The visceral response to his mother's decision to have an open-casket funeral mobilized the black community throughout the U.S. Vann R. Newkirk| wrote \"the trial of his killers became a pageant illuminating the tyranny of white supremacy\". The state of Mississippi tried two defendants, but they were speedily acquitted by an all-white jury.\n\nNotable people\n\n Mae Bertha Carter - Figure of the Civil Rights Movement\n Aunjanue Ellis - Actress\n Fannie Lou Hamer - Figure of the Civil Rights Movement\n John M. Perkins - Figure of the Civil Rights Movement\n B.B. King - Musician\n Morgan Freeman - Actor\n Oprah Winfrey - Television personality, actress, producer\n Jerry Rice - NFL Football Player with the San Francisco 49ers\n Walter Payton NFL Football Player with the Chicago Bears\n Brandy Norwood Singer, actress\n Jerome Barkum - NFL Football Player with the New York Jets\n Lester Young - Musician, Tenor Saxophone\n Muddy Waters - Musician\n Howlin Wolf - Musician\n Elmore James - Musician\n Swae Lee - Musician\n Karlous Miller - Comedian\n James Earl Jones - Actor\n Ray J - Singer, TV Personality, singer\n Sam Cooke - Singer\n Robert Johnson - Musician\n Ruby Bridges - Activist\n Medgar Evers - Activist\n Ida B. Wells - Activist\n Big K.R.I.T - Rapper\n Cassi Davis - Actress\n Shelby McEwen - Athlete\n Frederick O'Neal - Actor\n Beah Richards - Actress\n David Banner - Musician\n Rick Ross - Musician\n Soulja Boy - Musician\n\nSee also\n\n Education segregation in the Mississippi Delta\n History of slavery in Mississippi\nMississippi-in-Africa\n Mississippi Masala\nBlack Southerners\nDemographics of Mississippi\nList of plantations in Mississippi\nList of African-American historic places in Mississippi\nList of African-American newspapers in Mississippi\nVietnamese in Mississippi\nHistory of Italians in Mississippi\nAfrican Americans in Alabama\nAfrican Americans in Tennessee\nAfrican Americans in Louisiana\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\nExternal links\nBlack Life on the Mississippi: Slaves, Free Blacks, and the Western Steamboat World\n Black History in Mississippi\n African American\n Slave Trade\n African-Americans in the Mississippi River Valley, 1851-1900\n A Contested Presence: Free Black People in Antebellum Mississippi, 1820–1860\n African Presence in Mississippi", "title": "African Americans in Mississippi" } ]
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C_61f3eeb444504f81b0dd049cbc01fcb6_0
Ant & Dec
Anthony McPartlin, OBE (born 18 November 1975) and Declan Donnelly, OBE (born 25 September 1975), known collectively as Ant & Dec, are an English comedy TV presenting, television producing, acting and former music duo from Newcastle upon Tyne, England. The duo met as actors on the children's television show Byker Grove, during which and in their subsequent pop career they were respectively known as PJ & Duncan - the names of the characters they played on the show. They have had a successful career as television presenters, presenting shows such as SMTV Live, CD:UK, Friends
Other activities
In 2006, a celebration of the show Spitting Image saw Ant and Dec having their own puppets made. They have also been made into cartoon characters on the comedy show 2DTV, and face masks in Avid Merrion's Bo Selecta. Waxworks of the duo could once be found in London's Madame Tussauds. In April 2008, it was reported that Ant & Dec's production company, Gallowgate Productions, had purchased the rights to Byker Grove and SMTV Live, after the production companies that made them, Zenith Entertainment and Blaze Television, had both gone bankrupt in 2007. According to reports, the duo decided to purchase the rights to stop digital channels showing repeats of the programmes. On 28 September 2008, it was reported that the pair were attacked by the Taliban whilst in Afghanistan to present a Pride of Britain Award. In December 2008, the duo starred in a seasonal advert, their first in seven years, for the supermarket chain Sainsbury's. The duo appeared alongside chef Jamie Oliver. In March 2009, the duo filmed a short film for inclusion on Comic Relief, which highlighted their story upon visiting a community centre for young carers in the North East. In September 2009, the duo released their official autobiography, entitled "Ooh! What a Lovely Pair. Our Story". In October 2010, the duo appeared in several Nintendo adverts playing both the Wii and Nintendo DS. In 2011 and 2014, they both appeared on the ITV2 comedy panel show Celebrity Juice. From February 2013 to March 2015 they appeared in adverts for supermarket Morrisons. Between February 2016 and March 2018, they had appeared in adverts for car company Suzuki. In 2015, the pair made a cameo appearance on the U.S. adaptation of Saturday Night Takeaway, NBC's Best Time Ever with Neil Patrick Harris. The duo are also executive producers on the show. CANNOTANSWER
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Ant & Dec are a British television presenting duo consisting of Anthony McPartlin (born 18 November 1975) and Declan Donnelly (born 25 September 1975) from Newcastle upon Tyne. Formed after their meeting as child actors on CBBC's drama Byker Grove, they performed together as pop musicians PJ & Duncan, the names of their characters from the series. The duo have since pursued careers as television presenters, and currently host Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway, I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!, Britain's Got Talent, and Limitless Win. Previous hosting credits include SMTV Live, CD:UK, Friends Like These, Pop Idol, PokerFace, Push the Button, Red or Black?, and Text Santa. They presented the annual Brit Awards in 2001, 2015 and 2016. In addition to presenting, the pair are actors and both had leading roles in the 2006 film Alien Autopsy. They also have their own production company, Mitre Television. In a 2004 poll for the BBC, Ant & Dec were named the eighteenth most influential people in British culture. Background McPartlin and Donnelly met while working on the BBC children's drama Byker Grove in 1989. After a shaky start, they soon became best friends. They have achieved such popularity as a duo that they are hardly seen apart on screen. It is reported that they are each insured against the other's death, with the amount reportedly being around £1 million. They are both avid supporters of their local football club, Newcastle United. Career Acting Although McPartlin had gained some television experience with a brief stint on the children's television series Why Don't You?, which was broadcast on the BBC, Donnelly was the first of the two to acquire his place on the BBC children's drama Byker Grove. He joined in 1989, playing Duncan. A year later, McPartlin joined the cast to play PJ (series 2, episode 5). Their friendship began when their storylines collided, creating a friendship both on and off-screen. Byker Grove producer Matthew Robinson told them to "Stay together through any row you have, whatever it is, be together and you could be the future Morecambe and Wise. I think they have proved that in many ways." Donnelly also played a stable boy in the film adaptation of the novel The Cinder Path in his teenage years. They also went on to co-star in the 2006 sci-fi comedy film Alien Autopsy. Music After leaving television, the duo turned their hand to pop music. Their first single was a song they performed as part of the group Grove Matrix, performed as part of the storyline in TV show Byker Grove, titled "Tonight I'm Free". The single had some success, and the duo recorded two albums under their character names of PJ & Duncan. Their most famous hit during this period was the BRIT Award nominated "Let's Get Ready To Rhumble", for which the video and moves were choreographed by Mark Short, who had previously worked with Tina Turner and Peter Andre. For their third album, the duo reinvented themselves under their real names of Ant & Dec. The album featured their signature single, "Shout". During their time as primarily music artists, the pair released sixteen singles and three studio albums; however, none of their releases managed to reach number one, with their highest UK chart position being number three. The duo did, however, reach the top ten in Germany and Japan and even had a number-one single in Germany, with their cover of the Everly Brothers' "All I Have to Do Is Dream". Success also struck in other European countries. The duo had a short-lived revival in the music industry, releasing a song for the 2002 FIFA World Cup, titled "We're on the Ball". The track peaked at No. 3, being beaten by Will Young and Gareth Gates. On 23 March 2013, Ant and Dec performed "Let's Get Ready To Rhumble" as part of their show Ant and Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway, which powered the song to number one in the UK iTunes chart and on Sunday 31 March 2013 the track was revealed as the Official UK Number 1 single on The Official Chart on BBC Radio 1. The two donated all money made from the re-release to charity. In February 2022 the pair released the charity single "We Werk Together", written by Ian Masterson, with RuPaul's Drag Race UK winners The Vivienne, Lawrence Chaney and Krystal Versace with the proceeds from the single going to the Trussell Trust. The song was performed on the first episode of the eighteenth series of Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway as the "End of the Show" Show, introduced by RuPaul. Presenting Children's television Ant & Dec got their first presenting job in 1994 while still releasing music under the alias of PJ & Duncan. They co-presented a Saturday-morning children's show entitled Gimme 5, which was broadcast on CITV. In 1995, the duo were once again offered a job on CBBC, this time presenting their own series, entitled The Ant & Dec Show. The series was broadcast from 1995 to 1996, and in 1996, Ant & Dec won two BAFTA Awards, one for 'Best Children's Show' and one for 'Best Sketch Comedy Show'. In 1997, a VHS release, entitled The Ant & Dec Show – Confidential, was made available in shops, and featured an hour of the best bits from two years of the programme, as well as specially recorded sketches and music videos. In 1997, the duo switched to Channel 4, presenting an early-evening children's show entitled Ant & Dec Unzipped. This show also won a BAFTA but was dropped after just one series. ITV soon signed the duo in August 1998, and within weeks, were assigned to present ITV1's Saturday morning programmes SMTV Live and CD:UK, alongside Cat Deeley. The duo presented the shows alongside Deeley for three years, becoming the most popular ITV Saturday morning show. The programme's success was the mix of games such as Eat My Goal, Wonkey Donkey and Challenge Ant, sketches such as "Dec Says" and the "Secret of My Success", and the chemistry between Ant, Dec, and Cat. Two SMTV VHS releases, compiling the best bits from both shows, were released in 2000 and 2001, respectively. Ant & Dec also starred in the children's TV series Engie Benjy during their time on SMTV. Ant & Dec made their permanent departure from children's television in 2001 after trying out formats like Friends Like These for BBC One in 2000 and Slap Bang with Ant & Dec for ITV in 2001 (which was basically SMTV in the evening even playing Challenge Ant against adults). They have since said that they left SMTV because the Pop Idol live finals were due to begin on Saturday nights on ITV in December 2001. Primetime Ant & Dec's first primetime presenting job came in the form of BBC Saturday-night game show Friends Like These, which was first broadcast in 1999 and made them known as presenters - a shift change from their acting days. The duo presented two series of the programme between 1999 and 2001. In 2001, the duo's contract with ITV was renewed for a further three years, following their appearances on SMTV Live and CD:UK, and received their first primetime presenting job on the station, presenting brand new Saturday night reality series Pop Idol and down to this success they had to leave SMTV behind. Pop Idol was broadcast for only two series before being replaced in 2004 by The X Factor, to which former Smash Hits editor Kate Thornton was assigned presenting duties. In 2005, as part of the ITV's 50th birthday celebrations, they were back on television fronting Ant & Dec's Gameshow Marathon, a celebration of some of ITV's most enduring gameshows from the past 50 years. They hosted The Price Is Right, Family Fortunes, Play Your Cards Right, Bullseye, Take Your Pick!, The Golden Shot and Sale of the Century. In 2002, Ant & Dec created and presented their own show, entitled Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway. The first series was not an overall success, but with the introduction of "Ant & Dec Undercover", "What's Next?", "Ant v Dec" and "Little Ant and Dec", the show became a hit. During the fourth series, Dec broke his arm, thumb and suffered a concussion whilst completing a challenge for the 'Ant vs. Dec' segment of the show. The incident involved learning how to ride a motorbike and jump through a fire ring. Dec failed to pull hard enough on the bike's throttle during the challenge, causing it to topple over and sending him flying through the air. The accident caused the pair to miss the Comic Relief charity telethon of 2005. In 2006, the first episode of series five saw the duo abseil down the side of the 22-story high London Studios, where the show was filmed. Two DVDs, a best-bits book, and a board game of the series were released during 2004. The show was rested after 2009 as Ant & Dec said they were running out of ideas, and it became stale, as many of the popular features such as "Little Ant & Dec" and "Undercover" were dropped. Saturday Night Takeaway returned in 2013 and was a massive success; Ant & Dec resurrected previous hit features such as "Undercover", "Little Ant and Dec" (albeit with a new Little Ant and Dec) Win the Ads, and Ant v Dec, with new host Ashley Roberts. They also brought in new features such as the Supercomputer, Vegas or Bust, the End of the show 'show' where Ant and Dec perform with an act such as Riverdance or an Orchestra, and "I'm a Celebrity, get out of my ear!" where they have an earpiece in a celebs ear, and they tell them what to do while being filmed by secret cameras. The series was such a success that ITV recommissioned it for 2014 even before the 2013 series ended. A board game of the format was released. The final episodes of the 2020 series were filmed at home due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and the 2021 series was filmed with a virtual audience and precautions. In August 2002, Ant & Dec fronted I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!. They drew their highest viewing figures to date in February 2004: nearly 15 million tuned in to watch the third series. In May 2006, they were assigned to present coverage of the charity football match Soccer Aid. They were then invited back to present coverage of the second match in September 2008 but have been replaced by Dermot O'Leary from 2010 as the match clashed with Britain's Got Talent. In June 2006, they announced they had created a new game-show format for ITV, entitled PokerFace. The show featured members of the public gambling high stakes of money to win the ultimate prize. The first series began airing on 10 July 2006 and was aired for seven consecutive nights. The second series was broadcast in early 2007 and saw a move to a prime-time Saturday slot. Ratings for the series fell to below 3.5 million, and the series was subsequently axed in March 2007. In April 2007, the duo signed a two-year golden handcuffs deal with ITV, reportedly worth £40 million, securing their career at the station until the end of 2009. In June 2007, they were offered the job of presenters on new ITV reality platform Britain's Got Talent by Simon Cowell. The series features contestants aiming to win £100,000 and spot on the bill at the Royal Variety Performance while performing and being judged by Cowell, actress Amanda Holden and former Daily Mirror editor Piers Morgan. The series was highly successful, drawing in nearly 12 million viewers, and led to the pair continuing to operate as hosts for future series, along with continual appearances in a regular feature on the ITV2 spin-off show Britain's Got More Talent. But, similarly to Saturday Night Takeaway, the twelfth series saw Dec present the live shows on his own (despite them both presenting the auditions shows). The pair filmed six episodes for a new American game show, Wanna Bet?, in November 2007. The episodes were broadcast in 2008 but failed to attract enough interest for a second series to be commissioned. What You Wrote, another format created by the duo, was due to air in Autumn 2008 but was reportedly axed by ITV. In 2010, the duo debuted a replacement for Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway, entitled Ant & Dec's Push the Button. The series was a success, albeit not in the same way as Saturday Night Takeaway, and a second run of the programme was broadcast in 2011, but Ant and Dec later dropped the show in favour of reviving Saturday Night Takeaway. Ant & Dec have also presented the game show Red or Black?, a creation of Cowell's, airing live on ITV in 2011 with a second series in 2012, but this was not a ratings success and was cancelled after the second series. On 24 December 2011, they presented ITV's charity initiative Text Santa with Holly Willoughby. Text Santa returned in 2012, 2013 and 2014 with Ant & Dec co-hosting alongside Christine Bleakley, Phillip Schofield, Holly Willoughby, Alesha Dixon and Paddy McGuinness. In January 2016, Ant and Dec presented When Ant and Dec Met The Prince: 40 Years of The Prince's Trust, a one-off documentary for ITV. In 2016, they also presented The Queen's 90th Birthday Celebration, broadcast live on ITV. In November 2016 the pair signed a new three-year deal with ITV estimated to be worth £30 million. In November 2019, Ant and Dec's DNA Journey aired, which followed the pair as they retraced their family roots through DNA samples. In the show, they both found out that they have the same DNA marker, which means Ant and Dec are related as distant cousins. The DNA Journey format has since been done with other celebrities. Starting from 2022, ITV aired Limitless Win, a game show with an endless jackpot. The show got renewed for a second season that started in January 2023. Other activities In 2006, a celebration of the show Spitting Image saw Ant and Dec having their own puppets made. They have also been made into cartoon characters on the comedy show 2DTV, and face masks in Avid Merrions Bo Selecta. On 28 September 2008, news outlets reported that the pair were attacked by the Taliban whilst in Afghanistan to present a Pride of Britain Award. In December 2008, the duo starred in their first seasonal advert in seven years, for the supermarket chain Sainsbury's. The duo appeared alongside chef Jamie Oliver. In March 2009, the duo filmed a short film for inclusion on Comic Relief, which documents a visit to a community centre for young carers in the North East. In September 2009, the duo released their official autobiography, entitled Ooh! What a Lovely Pair. Our Story. In October 2010, the duo appeared in several Nintendo adverts playing both the Wii and Nintendo DS. In 2011 and 2014, they both appeared on the ITV2 comedy panel show Celebrity Juice. From February 2013 to March 2015 they appeared in adverts for supermarket Morrisons. Between February 2016 and March 2018, they had appeared in adverts for car company Suzuki. In 2014, Ant & Dec designed a black and white striped Paddington Bear statue, one of fifty statues of the bear located around London prior to the release of the film Paddington, which was auctioned to raise funds for the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC). In 2015, the pair made a cameo appearance on the U.S. adaptation of Saturday Night Takeaway, NBC's Best Time Ever with Neil Patrick Harris. They are also executive producers on the show. In 2020, they celebrated 30 years of working together, releasing a book titled Once Upon A Tyne. It featured stories from their time as a duo and from behind the scenes of their shows. OBEs On 10 June 2016, it was announced that the duo would be awarded OBE status by Queen Elizabeth II at an investiture later that year. The pair said they were both "shocked, but incredibly honoured". McPartlin and Donnelly collected their awards for services to broadcasting and entertainment at Buckingham Palace from Prince Charles on 27 January 2017. Guinness World Record On 28 January 2020, the duo were awarded the Guinness World Record for "the most National Television Awards won consecutively for Best Presenter" which was at 18 as of 22 January 2019. The record has since been broken 3 times by Ant and Dec themselves after they won the same award 3 years consecutively as of 13 October 2022, bringing the new record to 21. Controversies Law firm Olswang was commissioned to investigate the 2005 British Comedy Awards when the producers overturned the voting public's first choice, The Catherine Tate Show in favour of Ant and Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway for the People's Choice Award. The incident was also the subject of an investigation by media regulator Ofcom. Following allegations of fraud in 2007, an investigation by auditors Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu discovered that two shows, Ant & Dec's Gameshow Marathon and Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway, had defrauded viewers participating in phone-ins. The programmes were subject to a further investigation by Ofcom which found that between January 2003 and October 2006 Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway had: selected competition finalists before the telephone lines were announced as closed staggered the selection of competition finalists, which meant that viewers entering the competition did not have a fair and equal chance of winning selected finalists based on their suitability to be on television and where they lived selected an individual already known to the production team to be placed on the shortlist of potential winners and who went on to win the competition. Between September and October 2005, Ant & Dec's Gameshow Marathon had: on six occasions in the Prize Mountain competition, selected winners based on their suitability to be on screen failed to account for almost half of the competition entries The pair were ridiculed for their alleged participation in the fraud on the front cover of the satirical magazine Private Eye. On 30 September 2008, Ant & Dec were sued for $US30 million by Greek American stand-up comedian and actor Ant for using the name 'Ant' in the United States. The lawsuit, among other things, alleged trademark infringement and fraud. The suit was dismissed in May 2010. The pair have had the UK registered trademark for 'Ant & Dec' in the category of 'Entertainment services' since 2003. Acting The pair have, albeit infrequently, returned to acting, both on stage and screen. They played themselves in the film Love Actually (in which Bill Nighy's character addressed Dec as "Ant or Dec"). They have returned to their Geordie roots in a one-off tribute to The Likely Lads and also by returning to Byker Grove for Geoff's funeral.PJ & Duncan Return. Youtube.com (29 February 2008). Retrieved 5 May 2012. In 1998, the pair starred in the pantomime Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs at Sunderland's Empire Theatre alongside Donnelly's partner at the time Clare Buckfield. The show was financially unsuccessful, making £20,000 less than it cost to stage, with the duo footing a large share of the shortfall. Ant & Dec's most recent acting appearance was in the film Alien Autopsy released in April 2006. The film gained positive reviews with critics praising the pair's acting performance but lost more than half of its budget at the box office. In 2013, they reprised their roles as P.J. and Duncan on Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway. Awards National Television AwardsWinsNTAs by number won NTAs by show number wonNominations/Awards that they didn't win''' Filmography Films Television advertisements Television idents ITV "Celebrities" idents (3 idents, 2002) ITV "Abstract celebrities" idents (5 idents, 2003) Apps An official Saturday Night Takeaway app known as Studio Rush'' launched on 30 January 2013. References External links Speaker's Corner article Category:English hip hop groups Category:British children's television presenters Category:English comedy duos Category:English game show hosts Category:English pop music duos Category:Musical groups established in 1988 Category:Musical groups from Newcastle upon Tyne Category:Male musical duos Category:Hip hop duos Category:Pop-rap groups Category:Telstar Records artists Category:ITV people Category:Entertainer duos
[]
[ "Ant and Dec have been involved in several activities. They had their own puppets made for a celebration of the show Spitting Image. They’ve also been made into cartoon characters on the comedy show 2DTV and face masks in Avid Merrion's Bo Selecta. In 2008, their production company, Gallowgate Productions, purchased the rights to Byker Grove and SMTV Live. They were also once attacked by the Taliban in Afghanistan while presenting a Pride of Britain Award. The duo made commercials for Sainsbury's and Nintendo, and appeared on the ITV2 comedy panel show Celebrity Juice. They had cameo roles on the U.S. adaptation of Saturday Night Takeaway, and were executive producers on the show. They appeared in commercials for Morrisons and car company Suzuki, and they released an autobiography in 2009.", "Ant and Dec have been involved in several comedy-related activities, including having cartoons of themselves on the comedy show 2DTV, and appearing on the ITV2 comedy panel show Celebrity Juice. They also had face masks of themselves in the comedy show Avid Merrion's Bo Selecta.", "Yes, besides the Sainsbury's advertisement, Ant and Dec have appeared in several other commercials. They were in advertisements for Nintendo, popular supermarket chain Morrisons, and car company Suzuki.", "The text does not provide information on how well Ant and Dec's commercials or other activities were received by the public or the critics.", "Some other interesting facts mentioned in the text include the pair being attacked by the Taliban while they were in Afghanistan to present a Pride of Britain Award and having a cameo appearance on the U.S. adaptation of their own show, Saturday Night Takeaway. Additionally, they had their own waxworks at Madame Tussauds in London, and they're also executive producers on the U.S. adaptation of Saturday Night Takeaway.", "Yes, Ant and Dec appeared on several shows. In addition to their appearance on the ITV2 comedy panel show Celebrity Juice, they also made a cameo appearance on the U.S. adaptation of Saturday Night Takeaway, NBC's Best Time Ever with Neil Patrick Harris. They were made into cartoon characters on the comedy show 2DTV, and had face masks in Avid Merrion's Bo Selecta. They also visited Afghanistan to present a Pride of Britain Award.", "The text does not provide information on whether Ant and Dec won any awards for their activities.", "Some of the interesting things mentioned in the text include the fact that Ant and Dec's production company, Gallowgate Productions, purchased the rights to the shows Byker Grove and SMTV Live to prevent digital channels from showing repeats of the programmes. Also, they once starred in a seasonal advert for Sainsbury's, their first advert in seven years. In September 2009, they released their official autobiography, \"Ooh! What a Lovely Pair. Our Story\". Furthermore, in March 2009 they filmed a short film for Comic Relief that highlighted their visit to a community centre for young carers in the North East.", "The text does not provide information on whether Ant and Dec sold the rights to Byker Grove and SMTV Live after purchasing them.", "The text does not specify the exact dates when Ant and Dec were involved in the various activities and appearances. However, it does mention that they purchased the rights to Byker Grove and SMTV Live in 2008, presented a Pride of Britain Award in Afghanistan in 2008, and appeared in a Sainsbury's advert in December 2008. Moreover, they filmed a short film for Comic Relief in March 2009, released their autobiography in September 2009, and appeared in Nintendo adverts in October 2010. They also appeared on the ITV2 show Celebrity Juice in 2011 and 2014 and in commercials for supermarket Morrisons from February 2013 to March 2015. They then appeared in adverts for car company Suzuki between February 2016 and March 2018." ]
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C_61f3eeb444504f81b0dd049cbc01fcb6_1
Ant & Dec
Anthony McPartlin, OBE (born 18 November 1975) and Declan Donnelly, OBE (born 25 September 1975), known collectively as Ant & Dec, are an English comedy TV presenting, television producing, acting and former music duo from Newcastle upon Tyne, England. The duo met as actors on the children's television show Byker Grove, during which and in their subsequent pop career they were respectively known as PJ & Duncan - the names of the characters they played on the show. They have had a successful career as television presenters, presenting shows such as SMTV Live, CD:UK, Friends
Children's television
Ant & Dec got their first presenting job in 1994, while they were still releasing music under the alias of PJ & Duncan. They co-presented a Saturday-morning children's show entitled Gimme 5, which was broadcast on CITV. The show only lasted two series before being dropped from the airwaves. In 1995, the duo were once again offered a job on CBBC, this time presenting their own series, entitled The Ant & Dec Show. The series was broadcast from 1995 to 1997, and in 1996, Ant & Dec won two BAFTA Awards, one for 'Best Children's Show' and one for 'Best Sketch Comedy Show'. In 1997, a VHS release, entitled The Ant & Dec Show - Confidential, was made available in shops, and featured an hour of the best bits from three years of the programme, as well as specially recorded sketches and music videos. In 1998, the duo switched to Channel 4, presenting an early-evening children's show entitled Ant & Dec Unzipped. This show also won a BAFTA, but was dropped from the airwaves after just one series. ITV soon signed the duo in August 1998, and within weeks, were assigned to present ITV1's Saturday morning programmes SMTV Live and CD:UK, alongside old friend Cat Deeley. The duo presented the shows alongside Deeley for three years, becoming the most popular ITV Saturday morning show. The programme's success was the mix of games such as Eat My Goal, Wonkey Donkey and Challenge Ant, sketches such as "Dec Says" and the "Secret of My Success", and the chemistry between Ant, Dec and Cat. Two SMTV VHS releases, compiling the best bits from both shows, were released in 2000 and 2001 respectively. Ant & Dec also starred in the children's TV series Engie Benjy during their time on SMTV. Ant & Dec made their permanent departure from children's television in 2001 after trying out formats like Friends Like These for BBC One in 2000 and Slap Bang with Ant & Dec for ITV in 2001 (which was basically SMTV in the evening even playing Challenge Ant against adults). They have since said that the main reason they left SMTV was because the Pop Idol live finals were due to begin on Saturday nights on ITV in December 2001. CANNOTANSWER
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Ant & Dec are a British television presenting duo consisting of Anthony McPartlin (born 18 November 1975) and Declan Donnelly (born 25 September 1975) from Newcastle upon Tyne. Formed after their meeting as child actors on CBBC's drama Byker Grove, they performed together as pop musicians PJ & Duncan, the names of their characters from the series. The duo have since pursued careers as television presenters, and currently host Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway, I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!, Britain's Got Talent, and Limitless Win. Previous hosting credits include SMTV Live, CD:UK, Friends Like These, Pop Idol, PokerFace, Push the Button, Red or Black?, and Text Santa. They presented the annual Brit Awards in 2001, 2015 and 2016. In addition to presenting, the pair are actors and both had leading roles in the 2006 film Alien Autopsy. They also have their own production company, Mitre Television. In a 2004 poll for the BBC, Ant & Dec were named the eighteenth most influential people in British culture. Background McPartlin and Donnelly met while working on the BBC children's drama Byker Grove in 1989. After a shaky start, they soon became best friends. They have achieved such popularity as a duo that they are hardly seen apart on screen. It is reported that they are each insured against the other's death, with the amount reportedly being around £1 million. They are both avid supporters of their local football club, Newcastle United. Career Acting Although McPartlin had gained some television experience with a brief stint on the children's television series Why Don't You?, which was broadcast on the BBC, Donnelly was the first of the two to acquire his place on the BBC children's drama Byker Grove. He joined in 1989, playing Duncan. A year later, McPartlin joined the cast to play PJ (series 2, episode 5). Their friendship began when their storylines collided, creating a friendship both on and off-screen. Byker Grove producer Matthew Robinson told them to "Stay together through any row you have, whatever it is, be together and you could be the future Morecambe and Wise. I think they have proved that in many ways." Donnelly also played a stable boy in the film adaptation of the novel The Cinder Path in his teenage years. They also went on to co-star in the 2006 sci-fi comedy film Alien Autopsy. Music After leaving television, the duo turned their hand to pop music. Their first single was a song they performed as part of the group Grove Matrix, performed as part of the storyline in TV show Byker Grove, titled "Tonight I'm Free". The single had some success, and the duo recorded two albums under their character names of PJ & Duncan. Their most famous hit during this period was the BRIT Award nominated "Let's Get Ready To Rhumble", for which the video and moves were choreographed by Mark Short, who had previously worked with Tina Turner and Peter Andre. For their third album, the duo reinvented themselves under their real names of Ant & Dec. The album featured their signature single, "Shout". During their time as primarily music artists, the pair released sixteen singles and three studio albums; however, none of their releases managed to reach number one, with their highest UK chart position being number three. The duo did, however, reach the top ten in Germany and Japan and even had a number-one single in Germany, with their cover of the Everly Brothers' "All I Have to Do Is Dream". Success also struck in other European countries. The duo had a short-lived revival in the music industry, releasing a song for the 2002 FIFA World Cup, titled "We're on the Ball". The track peaked at No. 3, being beaten by Will Young and Gareth Gates. On 23 March 2013, Ant and Dec performed "Let's Get Ready To Rhumble" as part of their show Ant and Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway, which powered the song to number one in the UK iTunes chart and on Sunday 31 March 2013 the track was revealed as the Official UK Number 1 single on The Official Chart on BBC Radio 1. The two donated all money made from the re-release to charity. In February 2022 the pair released the charity single "We Werk Together", written by Ian Masterson, with RuPaul's Drag Race UK winners The Vivienne, Lawrence Chaney and Krystal Versace with the proceeds from the single going to the Trussell Trust. The song was performed on the first episode of the eighteenth series of Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway as the "End of the Show" Show, introduced by RuPaul. Presenting Children's television Ant & Dec got their first presenting job in 1994 while still releasing music under the alias of PJ & Duncan. They co-presented a Saturday-morning children's show entitled Gimme 5, which was broadcast on CITV. In 1995, the duo were once again offered a job on CBBC, this time presenting their own series, entitled The Ant & Dec Show. The series was broadcast from 1995 to 1996, and in 1996, Ant & Dec won two BAFTA Awards, one for 'Best Children's Show' and one for 'Best Sketch Comedy Show'. In 1997, a VHS release, entitled The Ant & Dec Show – Confidential, was made available in shops, and featured an hour of the best bits from two years of the programme, as well as specially recorded sketches and music videos. In 1997, the duo switched to Channel 4, presenting an early-evening children's show entitled Ant & Dec Unzipped. This show also won a BAFTA but was dropped after just one series. ITV soon signed the duo in August 1998, and within weeks, were assigned to present ITV1's Saturday morning programmes SMTV Live and CD:UK, alongside Cat Deeley. The duo presented the shows alongside Deeley for three years, becoming the most popular ITV Saturday morning show. The programme's success was the mix of games such as Eat My Goal, Wonkey Donkey and Challenge Ant, sketches such as "Dec Says" and the "Secret of My Success", and the chemistry between Ant, Dec, and Cat. Two SMTV VHS releases, compiling the best bits from both shows, were released in 2000 and 2001, respectively. Ant & Dec also starred in the children's TV series Engie Benjy during their time on SMTV. Ant & Dec made their permanent departure from children's television in 2001 after trying out formats like Friends Like These for BBC One in 2000 and Slap Bang with Ant & Dec for ITV in 2001 (which was basically SMTV in the evening even playing Challenge Ant against adults). They have since said that they left SMTV because the Pop Idol live finals were due to begin on Saturday nights on ITV in December 2001. Primetime Ant & Dec's first primetime presenting job came in the form of BBC Saturday-night game show Friends Like These, which was first broadcast in 1999 and made them known as presenters - a shift change from their acting days. The duo presented two series of the programme between 1999 and 2001. In 2001, the duo's contract with ITV was renewed for a further three years, following their appearances on SMTV Live and CD:UK, and received their first primetime presenting job on the station, presenting brand new Saturday night reality series Pop Idol and down to this success they had to leave SMTV behind. Pop Idol was broadcast for only two series before being replaced in 2004 by The X Factor, to which former Smash Hits editor Kate Thornton was assigned presenting duties. In 2005, as part of the ITV's 50th birthday celebrations, they were back on television fronting Ant & Dec's Gameshow Marathon, a celebration of some of ITV's most enduring gameshows from the past 50 years. They hosted The Price Is Right, Family Fortunes, Play Your Cards Right, Bullseye, Take Your Pick!, The Golden Shot and Sale of the Century. In 2002, Ant & Dec created and presented their own show, entitled Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway. The first series was not an overall success, but with the introduction of "Ant & Dec Undercover", "What's Next?", "Ant v Dec" and "Little Ant and Dec", the show became a hit. During the fourth series, Dec broke his arm, thumb and suffered a concussion whilst completing a challenge for the 'Ant vs. Dec' segment of the show. The incident involved learning how to ride a motorbike and jump through a fire ring. Dec failed to pull hard enough on the bike's throttle during the challenge, causing it to topple over and sending him flying through the air. The accident caused the pair to miss the Comic Relief charity telethon of 2005. In 2006, the first episode of series five saw the duo abseil down the side of the 22-story high London Studios, where the show was filmed. Two DVDs, a best-bits book, and a board game of the series were released during 2004. The show was rested after 2009 as Ant & Dec said they were running out of ideas, and it became stale, as many of the popular features such as "Little Ant & Dec" and "Undercover" were dropped. Saturday Night Takeaway returned in 2013 and was a massive success; Ant & Dec resurrected previous hit features such as "Undercover", "Little Ant and Dec" (albeit with a new Little Ant and Dec) Win the Ads, and Ant v Dec, with new host Ashley Roberts. They also brought in new features such as the Supercomputer, Vegas or Bust, the End of the show 'show' where Ant and Dec perform with an act such as Riverdance or an Orchestra, and "I'm a Celebrity, get out of my ear!" where they have an earpiece in a celebs ear, and they tell them what to do while being filmed by secret cameras. The series was such a success that ITV recommissioned it for 2014 even before the 2013 series ended. A board game of the format was released. The final episodes of the 2020 series were filmed at home due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and the 2021 series was filmed with a virtual audience and precautions. In August 2002, Ant & Dec fronted I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!. They drew their highest viewing figures to date in February 2004: nearly 15 million tuned in to watch the third series. In May 2006, they were assigned to present coverage of the charity football match Soccer Aid. They were then invited back to present coverage of the second match in September 2008 but have been replaced by Dermot O'Leary from 2010 as the match clashed with Britain's Got Talent. In June 2006, they announced they had created a new game-show format for ITV, entitled PokerFace. The show featured members of the public gambling high stakes of money to win the ultimate prize. The first series began airing on 10 July 2006 and was aired for seven consecutive nights. The second series was broadcast in early 2007 and saw a move to a prime-time Saturday slot. Ratings for the series fell to below 3.5 million, and the series was subsequently axed in March 2007. In April 2007, the duo signed a two-year golden handcuffs deal with ITV, reportedly worth £40 million, securing their career at the station until the end of 2009. In June 2007, they were offered the job of presenters on new ITV reality platform Britain's Got Talent by Simon Cowell. The series features contestants aiming to win £100,000 and spot on the bill at the Royal Variety Performance while performing and being judged by Cowell, actress Amanda Holden and former Daily Mirror editor Piers Morgan. The series was highly successful, drawing in nearly 12 million viewers, and led to the pair continuing to operate as hosts for future series, along with continual appearances in a regular feature on the ITV2 spin-off show Britain's Got More Talent. But, similarly to Saturday Night Takeaway, the twelfth series saw Dec present the live shows on his own (despite them both presenting the auditions shows). The pair filmed six episodes for a new American game show, Wanna Bet?, in November 2007. The episodes were broadcast in 2008 but failed to attract enough interest for a second series to be commissioned. What You Wrote, another format created by the duo, was due to air in Autumn 2008 but was reportedly axed by ITV. In 2010, the duo debuted a replacement for Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway, entitled Ant & Dec's Push the Button. The series was a success, albeit not in the same way as Saturday Night Takeaway, and a second run of the programme was broadcast in 2011, but Ant and Dec later dropped the show in favour of reviving Saturday Night Takeaway. Ant & Dec have also presented the game show Red or Black?, a creation of Cowell's, airing live on ITV in 2011 with a second series in 2012, but this was not a ratings success and was cancelled after the second series. On 24 December 2011, they presented ITV's charity initiative Text Santa with Holly Willoughby. Text Santa returned in 2012, 2013 and 2014 with Ant & Dec co-hosting alongside Christine Bleakley, Phillip Schofield, Holly Willoughby, Alesha Dixon and Paddy McGuinness. In January 2016, Ant and Dec presented When Ant and Dec Met The Prince: 40 Years of The Prince's Trust, a one-off documentary for ITV. In 2016, they also presented The Queen's 90th Birthday Celebration, broadcast live on ITV. In November 2016 the pair signed a new three-year deal with ITV estimated to be worth £30 million. In November 2019, Ant and Dec's DNA Journey aired, which followed the pair as they retraced their family roots through DNA samples. In the show, they both found out that they have the same DNA marker, which means Ant and Dec are related as distant cousins. The DNA Journey format has since been done with other celebrities. Starting from 2022, ITV aired Limitless Win, a game show with an endless jackpot. The show got renewed for a second season that started in January 2023. Other activities In 2006, a celebration of the show Spitting Image saw Ant and Dec having their own puppets made. They have also been made into cartoon characters on the comedy show 2DTV, and face masks in Avid Merrions Bo Selecta. On 28 September 2008, news outlets reported that the pair were attacked by the Taliban whilst in Afghanistan to present a Pride of Britain Award. In December 2008, the duo starred in their first seasonal advert in seven years, for the supermarket chain Sainsbury's. The duo appeared alongside chef Jamie Oliver. In March 2009, the duo filmed a short film for inclusion on Comic Relief, which documents a visit to a community centre for young carers in the North East. In September 2009, the duo released their official autobiography, entitled Ooh! What a Lovely Pair. Our Story. In October 2010, the duo appeared in several Nintendo adverts playing both the Wii and Nintendo DS. In 2011 and 2014, they both appeared on the ITV2 comedy panel show Celebrity Juice. From February 2013 to March 2015 they appeared in adverts for supermarket Morrisons. Between February 2016 and March 2018, they had appeared in adverts for car company Suzuki. In 2014, Ant & Dec designed a black and white striped Paddington Bear statue, one of fifty statues of the bear located around London prior to the release of the film Paddington, which was auctioned to raise funds for the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC). In 2015, the pair made a cameo appearance on the U.S. adaptation of Saturday Night Takeaway, NBC's Best Time Ever with Neil Patrick Harris. They are also executive producers on the show. In 2020, they celebrated 30 years of working together, releasing a book titled Once Upon A Tyne. It featured stories from their time as a duo and from behind the scenes of their shows. OBEs On 10 June 2016, it was announced that the duo would be awarded OBE status by Queen Elizabeth II at an investiture later that year. The pair said they were both "shocked, but incredibly honoured". McPartlin and Donnelly collected their awards for services to broadcasting and entertainment at Buckingham Palace from Prince Charles on 27 January 2017. Guinness World Record On 28 January 2020, the duo were awarded the Guinness World Record for "the most National Television Awards won consecutively for Best Presenter" which was at 18 as of 22 January 2019. The record has since been broken 3 times by Ant and Dec themselves after they won the same award 3 years consecutively as of 13 October 2022, bringing the new record to 21. Controversies Law firm Olswang was commissioned to investigate the 2005 British Comedy Awards when the producers overturned the voting public's first choice, The Catherine Tate Show in favour of Ant and Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway for the People's Choice Award. The incident was also the subject of an investigation by media regulator Ofcom. Following allegations of fraud in 2007, an investigation by auditors Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu discovered that two shows, Ant & Dec's Gameshow Marathon and Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway, had defrauded viewers participating in phone-ins. The programmes were subject to a further investigation by Ofcom which found that between January 2003 and October 2006 Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway had: selected competition finalists before the telephone lines were announced as closed staggered the selection of competition finalists, which meant that viewers entering the competition did not have a fair and equal chance of winning selected finalists based on their suitability to be on television and where they lived selected an individual already known to the production team to be placed on the shortlist of potential winners and who went on to win the competition. Between September and October 2005, Ant & Dec's Gameshow Marathon had: on six occasions in the Prize Mountain competition, selected winners based on their suitability to be on screen failed to account for almost half of the competition entries The pair were ridiculed for their alleged participation in the fraud on the front cover of the satirical magazine Private Eye. On 30 September 2008, Ant & Dec were sued for $US30 million by Greek American stand-up comedian and actor Ant for using the name 'Ant' in the United States. The lawsuit, among other things, alleged trademark infringement and fraud. The suit was dismissed in May 2010. The pair have had the UK registered trademark for 'Ant & Dec' in the category of 'Entertainment services' since 2003. Acting The pair have, albeit infrequently, returned to acting, both on stage and screen. They played themselves in the film Love Actually (in which Bill Nighy's character addressed Dec as "Ant or Dec"). They have returned to their Geordie roots in a one-off tribute to The Likely Lads and also by returning to Byker Grove for Geoff's funeral.PJ & Duncan Return. Youtube.com (29 February 2008). Retrieved 5 May 2012. In 1998, the pair starred in the pantomime Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs at Sunderland's Empire Theatre alongside Donnelly's partner at the time Clare Buckfield. The show was financially unsuccessful, making £20,000 less than it cost to stage, with the duo footing a large share of the shortfall. Ant & Dec's most recent acting appearance was in the film Alien Autopsy released in April 2006. The film gained positive reviews with critics praising the pair's acting performance but lost more than half of its budget at the box office. In 2013, they reprised their roles as P.J. and Duncan on Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway. Awards National Television AwardsWinsNTAs by number won NTAs by show number wonNominations/Awards that they didn't win''' Filmography Films Television advertisements Television idents ITV "Celebrities" idents (3 idents, 2002) ITV "Abstract celebrities" idents (5 idents, 2003) Apps An official Saturday Night Takeaway app known as Studio Rush'' launched on 30 January 2013. References External links Speaker's Corner article Category:English hip hop groups Category:British children's television presenters Category:English comedy duos Category:English game show hosts Category:English pop music duos Category:Musical groups established in 1988 Category:Musical groups from Newcastle upon Tyne Category:Male musical duos Category:Hip hop duos Category:Pop-rap groups Category:Telstar Records artists Category:ITV people Category:Entertainer duos
[]
[ "Ant & Dec's first experience with children's television was co-presenting a Saturday-morning children's show entitled Gimme 5, broadcast on CITV in 1994.", "Ant & Dec began co-presenting the children's show Gimme 5 in 1994.", "Yes, after Gimme 5, they presented their own series, The Ant & Dec Show on CBBC, from 1995 to 1997. In 1998, they presented Ant & Dec Unzipped on Channel 4. They then signed with ITV in August 1998 and presented Saturday morning programmes SMTV Live and CD:UK. They also starred in the children's TV series Engie Benjy. Other shows they tried out include Friends Like These on BBC One in 2000 and Slap Bang with Ant & Dec for ITV in 2001.", "After 1997, Ant & Dec switched to Channel 4 in 1998 and presented a children's show named Ant & Dec Unzipped which won a BAFTA but was taken off air after just one series. Then in August 1998, ITV signed the duo and within weeks, assigned them to present ITV1's Saturday morning programmes SMTV Live and CD:UK, alongside Cat Deeley. They also tried out other formats like Friends Like These for BBC One in 2000 and Slap Bang with Ant & Dec for ITV in 2001. They left children's television for good in 2001.", "Their show SMTV Live, which they presented alongside Cat Deeley for three years, became the most popular ITV Saturday morning show. However, the duo's show on Channel 4, Ant & Dec Unzipped, was dropped after just one series despite winning a BAFTA. Their other shows, such as Friends Like These and Slap Bang with Ant & Dec, are not mentioned as being particularly successful in the provided text.", "Yes, after Ant & Dec Unzipped was dropped, they were signed by ITV in August 1998. They presented ITV1's Saturday morning programmes SMTV Live and CD:UK, alongside Cat Deeley. They also starred in the children's TV series Engie Benjy and tried presenting formats like Friends Like These for BBC One in 2000 and Slap Bang with Ant & Dec for ITV in 2001.", "Ant & Dec presented the ITV1's Saturday morning programmes SMTV Live and CD:UK for three years, from 1998 until their departure from children's television in 2001.", "One interesting note is that during their stint on SMTV Live, it's mentioned that the success of the programme was due to a mix of games and sketches, as well as the chemistry between Ant, Dec, and their co-presenter, Cat Deeley. Furthermore, they won two BAFTA Awards in 1996 for 'Best Children's Show' and 'Best Sketch Comedy Show' when they were presenting their own series on CBBC, The Ant & Dec Show. They have also said that the main reason they left SMTV was because the Pop Idol live finals were due to begin on Saturday nights on ITV in December 2001.", "The text does not provide specific information about what \"Friends Like These\" is, other than it was a show format that Ant & Dec tried out for BBC One in 2000.", "The text does not provide information on how \"Friends Like These\" performed when Ant & Dec presented the show in 2000." ]
[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]
C_90ccec020ab4409ba2bbbe150a75810a_1
Jahlil Okafor
Jahlil Okafor (pronounced ; born December 15, 1995) is an American professional basketball player for the Brooklyn Nets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played his freshman season of college for the 2014-15 Duke national championship team. Okafor was heavily recruited since before high school and had been at the top of the recruiting rankings for several years. He played high school basketball in Chicago, Illinois for Whitney M. Young Magnet High School, where he earned high school national player of the year awards from McDonald's, USA Today and Parade.
Junior season
In June 2012, Sports Illustrated named him one of their "Future Game Changers", a group of fourteen young athletes who are considered to be the brightest talents of their respective sport (such as Sarah Hendrickson, Jabrill Peppers, and Taylor Townsend). On September 19 John Calipari made Okafor an offer to play for Kentucky, joining Ohio State, Michigan State, Louisville, Illinois, Duke, North Carolina, Florida and Arizona as programs that have offered Okafor. Okafor was one of 10 USA Today preseason All-USA selections (along with Aaron Gordon, Andrew Harrison, Aaron Harrison, Kasey Hill, Jones, Parker, Julius Randle, Noah Vonleh, Andrew Wiggins). Okafor was named as one of the top 5 Illinois Mr. Basketball contenders (along with Parker, Kendrick Nunn, Sterling Brown and Malcolm Hill) prior to the season by the Chicago Tribune's Mike Helfgot. Whitney Young was the number eight ranked team in the MaxPreps.com national preseason poll. Young entered the season ranked fourteenth in the nation according to ESPN. On December 20 Okafor and Young lost in overtime to Dakari Johnson's ESPN #1-ranked Montverde Academy. Young was ranked #9 at the time. On January 19, Okafor led Young to an 85-52 victory over Long Beach Polytechnic High School at the Hoophall Classic with 26 points, 7 rebounds and 3 blocks. The victory gave Young a 7-1 record against nationally ranked teams for the year, moving Young to #2 in the USA Today rankings as they prepared for the January 26 crosstown showdown against Simeon and Parker. In the Chicago Public High School League playoffs February 15 finals contest against Morgan Park High School Okafor tallied 19 points, 14 rebounds and 7 blocked shots, including a game-saving block against Billy Garrett, Jr., in a 60-56 overtime Public League Championship game victory over Morgan Park. Okafor was recognized as a 2013 All-Public League first team selection by the Chicago Sun-Times along with Nunn, Parker, Alexander and Billy Garrett, Jr. On February 28, he was named the Chicago Sun-Times Player of the Year. On March 25, Okafor finished as runner-up in the Illinois Mr. Basketball voting to Parker by a 315-277-point margin, including a 43-40 first place vote margin. On April 17, he was a first team All-USA selection by USA Today along with Wiggins, Aaron Harrison, Randle and Parker. Following the demise of ESPN HS, HighSchoolHardwood.com undertook several honoraria selections. Although MaxPreps.com did not select him as a first team All-American, they did select him as a Junior All-American along with Stanley Johnson, Joel Berry, Jones, and Emmanuel Mudiay. CANNOTANSWER
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Jahlil Obika Okafor (; born December 15, 1995) is a Nigerian-American professional basketball player who last played for the Capitanes de Ciudad de México of the NBA G League. He played his freshman season of college basketball for the 2014–15 Duke national championship team. He was selected with the third overall pick in the 2015 NBA draft by the Philadelphia 76ers. Okafor had been heavily recruited before high school and was at the top of the recruiting rankings for several years. He played high school basketball in Chicago, Illinois for Whitney M. Young Magnet High School, where he earned high school national player of the year awards from McDonald's, USA Today and Parade. Okafor signed with Duke as a package with Tyus Jones, with widespread recognition as the preseason Collegiate National Player of the Year. At Duke, he earned the USBWA National Freshman of the Year and ACC Player of the Year, and a unanimous 2015 NCAA Men's Basketball All-American first-team selection. Early life and career Okafor was born in Fort Smith, Arkansas. His father, Chukwudi, known as Chuck, is a second-generation Nigerian American of Igbo descent, and his mother, Dacresha Lanett Benton, was African-American and European-American. As a youth, Okafor split time between his mother's home in the town of Moffett, Oklahoma and his father's home in Chicago. When he was 9 years old, his mother contracted bronchitis and died two weeks later from a collapsed lung. Okafor permanently moved in with his father to the South Side of Chicago and then to Rosemont. Okafor attended Rosemont Elementary. The adjustment was difficult because he was shy and so tall that other students thought he was put in the class for having failed. In November 2008, during seventh grade he matched his father's height of . Later the family moved to Chicago's North Side so that Okafor could attend Whitney Young High School. As a eighth-grader, Okafor was recruited by DePaul Blue Demons men's basketball in violation of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) recruiting rules when DePaul Athletic Director Jean Lenti Ponsetto made public comments about an offer. Initially, interim coach Tracy Webster, made an oral offer on January 30 outside the DePaul locker room at Allstate Arena. The offer was noted online by ESPNChicago.com and picked up by the press, leading to the problematic statements by Ponsetto. In February 2010, Ponsetto confirmed in a statement: High school career Freshman and sophomore seasons Okafor and Whitney Young teammate Paul White were regarded as the best incoming freshmen in the Chicago metropolitan area, according to the Chicago Sun-Times Joe Henricksen. They joined a team with six returning seniors that had finished as state runners up the prior year. Along with sophomore Thomas Hamilton Jr. and White, Okafor was part of a trio of Whitney Young players ranked in the top 10 of their respective national classes by ESPNU. Entering the season, Whitney Young was considered to resemble a college team due to its size and athleticism. That year, Okafor feels he was not one of the "key players" on the team, but attending tournaments with elite players such as Austin Rivers and Michael Kidd-Gilchrist inspired him to be one. Following his freshman season, Okafor was regarded as the second best college basketball prospect in the Chicago area behind Jabari Parker. The scouting report on him was that he possessed an improved midrange jump shot, nimble feet, soft hands and physical skills at that made him a mismatch against almost any high school competitor. Prior to his sophomore season Dave Spahn of SLAM Magazine described Okafor as a player with the footwork and ambidexterity to dominate his opponents, placing him in the conversation for the role of best player in the national class of 2014. In August 2011, ESPN ranked him as the third best player in the class of 2014. Okafor and White were featured in Ball So Hard, the first documentary short by Life + Times. On December 22, in front of an audience that included John Calipari, Rick Pitino, Derrick Rose and Anthony Davis at the UIC Pavilion, Okafor had 20 points (10 in the fourth quarter), 9 rebounds and 3 blocked shots against cross-town rival Simeon and its star Parker in a 62–55 loss. Following the season, the Chicago Sun-Times named him to the Class 4A All-State first team along with Parker, Keith Carter, Darius Paul and Fred VanVleet. The Chicago Tribune named him to its second team All-State team. The Associated Press named him to its Class 4A second team. He was also selected by the Chicago Public League Basketball Coaches Association to its 25-man boy's All-City team. The Chicago Sun-Times named him to its All-Public League second team as well as its All-area 20-man team. By the end of his sophomore season, he started appearing on ballots from ESPN HS 10-person panel for the Mr. Basketball USA award as the best high school basketball player in the country. He was one of twenty sophomores chosen as Underclass All-Americans by ESPN HS. Junior season In June 2012, Sports Illustrated named him one of their "Future Game Changers", a group of fourteen young athletes who are considered to be the brightest talents of their respective sport (such as Sarah Hendrickson, Jabrill Peppers, and Taylor Townsend). On September 19, Calipari offered Okafor a scholarship to play for Kentucky, joining Ohio State, Michigan State, Louisville, Illinois, Duke, North Carolina, Florida and Arizona as programs that have offered Okafor. Okafor was one of 10 USA Today preseason All-USA selections (along with Aaron Gordon, Andrew Harrison, Aaron Harrison, Kasey Hill, Jones, Parker, Julius Randle, Noah Vonleh, Andrew Wiggins). Okafor was named as one of the top 5 Illinois Mr. Basketball contenders (along with Parker, Kendrick Nunn, Sterling Brown and Malcolm Hill) prior to the season by the Chicago Tribunes Mike Helfgot. Whitney Young was the number eight ranked team in the MaxPreps.com national preseason poll. Young entered the season ranked fourteenth in the nation according to ESPN. On December 20 Okafor and Young lost in overtime to Dakari Johnson's ESPN #1-ranked Montverde Academy. Young was ranked #9 at the time. On January 19, Okafor led Young to an 85–52 victory over Long Beach Polytechnic High School at the Hoophall Classic with 26 points, 7 rebounds and 3 blocks. The victory gave Young a 7–1 record against nationally ranked teams for the year, moving Young to #2 in the USA Today rankings as they prepared for the January 26 crosstown showdown against Simeon and Parker. In the Chicago Public High School League playoffs February 15 finals contest against Morgan Park High School Okafor tallied 19 points, 14 rebounds and 7 blocked shots, including a game-saving block against Billy Garrett, Jr., in a 60–56 overtime Public League Championship game victory over Morgan Park. Okafor was recognized as a 2013 All-Public League first team selection by the Chicago Sun-Times along with Nunn, Parker, Alexander and Billy Garrett, Jr. On February 28, he was named the Chicago Sun-Times Player of the Year. On March 25, Okafor finished as runner-up in the Illinois Mr. Basketball voting to Parker by a 315–277-point margin, including a 43–40 first place vote margin. On April 17, he was a first team All-USA selection by USA Today along with Wiggins, Aaron Harrison, Randle and Parker. Following the demise of ESPN HS, HighSchoolHardwood.com undertook several honoraria selections. Although MaxPreps.com did not select him as a first team All-American, they did select him as a Junior All-American along with Stanley Johnson, Joel Berry, Jones, and Emmanuel Mudiay. Senior season Following his time with Team USA, Okafor participated in the Nike Pro-Am Chi-League, the All-Peach Jam, and the Adidas Nations event. He made his verbal commitment on ESPNU to Duke basketball on November 15, jointly with Tyus Jones. Prior to his senior season, USA Today named him to its 10-man preseason All-USA team along with Alexander, Stanley Johnson, Jones, Trey Lyles, Mudiay, Malik Newman, Kelly Oubre, D'Angelo Russell, and Myles Turner. On November 21, Winslow committed to Duke, giving them the number one recruiting class in the nation with Jones, Okafor, Winslow and Grayson Allen all committed. Okafor was joined on the Chicago Tribune preseason Illinois Mr. Basketball top 5 by Alexander, Jalen Brunson, Tyler Ulis and Keita Bates-Diop. Okafor dominated the December 27–30, Les Schwab Invitational hosted by Liberty High School by leading the tournament in scoring (31) and rebounding (12.5) and finished 2013 atop the three major recruiting databases (ESPN, Rivals and Scout). Young went 2–2 in the tournament, losing to Rainier Beach High School as well as losing to Oregon's defending Class 6A state champions West Linn High School. On January 4 at the Cancer Research Classic in Wheeling, West Virginia, Okafor earned the tournament MVP based on a 24-point 9-rebound performance against Mudiay's Prime Prep Academy. Okafor and Young reached an anticipated city championship matchup with Curie and Alexander at the Jones Convocation Center. Okafor had 16 points, 14 rebounds and 3 blocks. Curie won the city championship 69–66 in quadruple overtime as Okafor had 16 points before fouling out with 2:13 remaining in regulation. The CPL Championship game was attended by Mayor of Chicago Rahm Emanuel and was the lead story on the late edition of SportsCenter. On March 14, Okafor posted 35 points and 13 rebounds in a 75–66 victory over St. Rita of Cascia High School (who featured Kentucky-bound Charles Matthews), earning Young its first sectional title since 2009 and leaving them one victory away from the final four. On March 18, Okafor led Young to a 58–32 victory over Loyola Academy with 12 points, 12 rebounds, 7 assists and 3 blocks. On March 21 Okafor's 33 points and 14 rebounds enabled Young to overcome a record setting 56-point performance by Brunson with a 75–68 victory over Stevenson High School. On March 22, Okafor and Young won the IHSA Class 4A state championship by defeating Benet Academy 46–44. Okafor only produced 8 points, 6 rebounds and 3 assists as he battled Xavier-bound Sean O'Mara. Okafor earned co-MVP (with Justin Jackson) of the April 2, 2014, McDonald's All-American Game after posting 17 points and 7 rebounds, including the go ahead dunk with fewer than 40 seconds remaining, for the winning west team in a 105–102 victory. On April 12, he posted a 14-point 10-rebound double-double in an 84–73 Team USA Nike Hoops Summit victory over the world team. On April 18 in the Jordan Brand Classic, he earned co-MVP with (Alexander) by posting 29 points and 9 rebounds. Okafor was selected to the 10-man Team USA for the 17th annual Nike Hoop Summit on April 12, 2014, at the Moda Center. He was also selected to the 24-player 37th annual April 2, 2014 McDonald's All-American Boys Game at the United Center. He was recognized as first team All-City along with teammate White, Alexander, Louis Adams, Jr. of Orr, and Luwane Pipkins of Bogan High School by the Chicago Sun-Times. On February 18, he became one of three finalists for the Naismith Prep Player of the Year Award along with Alexander and Stanley Johnson. He was selected as the 2014 National Player of the Year from among the 20 Parade All-Americans. He was also recognized by the McDonald's All-American Game organization as its 2014 Morgan Wootten National Player of the Year. USA Today recognized Okafor as its national player of the year when naming its All-USA Boys Basketball Team along with Alexander, Oubre, Mudiay, and Stanley Johnson. Okafor beat Alexander in the Illinois Mr. Basketball voting by a 492–402 vote. He earned first team All-American recognition from MaxPreps on April 13. Okafor was named the 2013–14 Chicago Tribune/WGN Ch. 9 Athlete of the Year. Rankings In 2011, center Dakari Johnson was named National Freshman of the Year by ESPN HS. In the following months, Okafor beat out Johnson for a spot on the 2011 FIBA Americas Under-16 Championship Team USA. Okafor spent his sophomore season ranked as the number one center and second best player in the national class of 2014 by SLAM Magazine behind Andrew Wiggins, according to SLAM's Franklyn Calle. In January 2012 during his sophomore season, he was ranked third in the class by ESPNU. By April, he was ranked second. By the end of his second year, there was talk that with Jabari Parker Chicago might produce the number one high school player in the country in back to back years, something that they had come close to with Mark Aguirre and Isiah Thomas in the late 1970s. Also in the 1981 NBA draft Aguirre and Thomas were selected first and second, respectively. On October 25, 2012, Andrew Wiggins announced that he was reclassifying into the class of 2013, which cleared the way for Okafor to assume the number one ranking in the Rivals.com ranking for the class of 2014. As of November 2012, he was listed number one in the national class of 2014 by Rivals.com and number two by ESPN. He remained number one according to Rivals with its March 14, 2013 rankings update, following his junior season. College career Okafor played one season of college basketball for Duke. He was selected as Preseason Player of the Year by CBSSports.com, NBCSports.com, SB Nation, and ESPN analyst Fran Fraschilla. Okafor was a Preseason All-American first team selection by USA Today, CBSSports.com, NBCSports.com, Athlon Sports, Bleacher Report, Sporting News, SB Nation, Sports Illustrated, and the Associated Press. In its preseason top 100 player ranking, Okafor was listed at number 3 by ESPN. For the 2014–15 Atlantic Coast Conference men's basketball season, the conference media selected him as the ACC Preseason Rookie of the Year and as a Preseason All-ACC Team selection. He finished second in the conference Preseason Player of the Year voting to Marcus Paige. He was also listed as a John R. Wooden Award Preseason Top 50 candidate. He was also named to the Oscar Robertson Trophy and Wayman Tisdale Award Watch Lists. Okafor opened the season as ACC Freshman of the Week on November 17. In his first three games he shot 25-for-30 on his field goal attempts. He was again named ACC Freshman of the Week on November 24 and December 1. He had his first two 20-point performances in the Coaches vs. Cancer Classic with 24 points against Furman on November 26 and 21 against Army on November 30. On December 15 with a 25-point and 20-rebound performance against Elon, Okafor became the first Duke freshman to record 20 rebounds in a game and the second ACC freshman to record 20 points and 20 rebounds in a game, joining Joe Smith. The performance earned Okafor his fourth ACC Rookie of the Week Award and first Wayman Tisdale National Freshman of the Week recognitions. He then scored a season-high 28 points against Boston College on January 3, earning his fifth ACC Rookie of the Week, first ACC Player of the Week, and second Wayman Tisdale National Freshman of the Week recognition the following day. He was again ACC Rookie of the Week on January 12 and 19. He was named to the John R. Wooden Award Midseason Top 25 list on January 14. After sitting out a game due to an ankle injury, Okafor posted a career-high 30 points in an overtime win against Virginia Tech on February 25. Following the season, Okafor was named Atlantic Coast Conference Men's Basketball Player of the Year by both the ACC coaches and media and ACC Freshman of the year. He was the first freshman to win ACC Player of the Year. He was also a first team All-ACC selection and among the first trio to be selected to the All-ACC Freshman first team (along with Jones and Winslow). He was named USBWA National Freshman of the Year and the 2015 USBWA Freshman All-America Team by the United States Basketball Writers Association (USBWA). Okafor was a unanimous 2015 NCAA Men's Basketball All-American first-team selection by The Sporting News, USBWA, National Association of Basketball Coaches, and Associated Press. He contributed to a national championship with 10 points, including 2 key baskets in the final minutes, in the championship game of the 2015 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament, despite spending much of the game in foul trouble while defending Frank Kaminsky of Wisconsin. Okafor finished as runner-up to Kaminsky in the John R. Wooden Award voting (3385–3060). On April 9, Okafor declared for the 2015 NBA draft. Professional career Philadelphia 76ers (2015–2017) 2015–16 season On June 25, 2015, Okafor was selected with the third overall pick in the 2015 NBA draft by the Philadelphia 76ers. After debuting with a 20-point NBA Summer League performance on July 6, Okafor signed a two-year contract with the 76ers on July 7, with team options for two additional seasons. He debuted for the 76ers, logging 26 points, 7 rebounds and two blocks, against the Boston Celtics on October 28. On November 9, he posted his first career double-double with 21 points and 15 rebounds against his hometown Chicago Bulls. After the 76ers got off to an 0–16 start to the season, Okafor was involved in a street fight with taunting individuals on November 25 in Boston. On November 30, with additional reports surfacing that Okafor had been involved in various controversial and dangerous off-the-court situations, the 76ers agreed to a request to assign a security guard to accompany Okafor in public. On December 1, Okafor and the 76ers defeated the Los Angeles Lakers 103–91. The win ended the longest losing streak in the history of major professional sports in the United States (28 games going back to the prior season) and the worst start in NBA history (tied with the 2009–10 New Jersey Nets at 0–18). The next day, video surfaced on TMZ of a second fight in Boston from November. Okafor was subsequently suspended by the 76ers for two games. He returned from suspension against the San Antonio Spurs on December 7, recording 10 points and 4 rebounds off the bench in a 119–68 defeat. On January 27, 2016, he was named to the 2016 NBA All-Star Game weekend Rising Stars Challenge lineup. In February, the 76ers had Okafor and Nerlens Noel swap positions as Okafor moved from center to power forward. On February 6, he recorded 22 points and a season-high 17 rebounds in a 103–98 win over the Brooklyn Nets. On February 21 against the Dallas Mavericks, Okafor posted a career-high 31 points in a 129–103 loss. On February 28, Okafor posted 26 points against the Orlando Magic, but he endured a shin contusion in a collision with teammate Isaiah Canaan that was only expected to sideline him for a game. As he missed his fifth consecutive game, 76ers head coach Brett Brown noted that Okafor had a CT scan on his knee. On March 11, Okafor was ruled out for the rest of the season after tests revealed that he had sustained a small tear of the meniscus in his right knee. Okafor finished fifth in the 2016 NBA Rookie of the Year Award voting and earned NBA All-Rookie First Team honors. 2016–17 season After the first week of the 2016–17 NBA season, the 76ers exercised the third-year team option on Okafor's rookie scale contract. Okafor began the season on a 16-minute cap to be played over "smaller segments" and restriction from back-to-back game participation following the re-aggravation of his meniscus injury. His cap was soon raised to 24 minutes. He was cleared to play unrestricted prior to the November 21 contest against the Miami Heat. On January 14, 2017, Okafor, who had not played in the 76ers' previous three games, scored a then season-high 26 points in a 109–93 loss to the Washington Wizards. He was selected to participate in the Rising Stars Challenge event during All-Star weekend. On February 25, 2017, he had a season-high 28 points and grabbed 10 rebounds in a 110–109 loss to the New York Knicks. On March 31, 2017, after missing the previous four games, he was ruled out for the rest of the season with right knee soreness. 2017–18 season On November 1, 2017, Okafor revealed that he would welcome a trade or buyout from the 76ers, after the team decided to not pick up the fourth-year, $6.3 million option on Okafor's rookie deal, after having tried to trade him for some time. Once the 76ers decided not to pick up Okafor's option, it gave him the right to be a free agent following the season. He saw time in only two games in the first 5 weeks of the season. After the 76ers could not reach a trade, the team opted to not reach a contract buyout agreement. It was later revealed that Okafor, along with several others associated with the 76ers, had been the subject of a disinformation campaign by the wife of then-General Manager Bryan Colangelo, using confidential information from the GM to denigrate Okafor and excuse the team's unwillingness to trade him. Brooklyn Nets (2017–2018) On December 7, 2017, Okafor was traded, along with Nik Stauskas and a 2019 second round draft pick, to the Brooklyn Nets in exchange for Trevor Booker. In his debut for the Nets on December 15, 2017 (his 22nd birthday), Okafor had 10 points and four rebounds in 23 minutes in a 120–87 loss to the Toronto Raptors. He had played just 25 minutes all season for the 76ers. Following his debut, the Nets decided to get him back into playing shape before putting him in games again. His next game came on January 3 against the Minnesota Timberwolves, where he scored two points in 11 minutes. Three days later, he had 12 points in 13 minutes in an 87–85 loss to the Boston Celtics. On January 27, he scored a team-high 21 points in a 111–97 loss to the Timberwolves. Following the season, he became an unrestricted free agent. New Orleans Pelicans (2018–2020) On August 9, 2018, Okafor signed with the New Orleans Pelicans. On December 19, he posted a season-high 17 points in 13 minutes against the Milwaukee Bucks. On January 19, the Pelicans announced that Anthony Davis endured an index finger sprain that would sideline him 1–2 weeks. With the increased playing time Okafor set sequential season-high totals in a January 21 105–85 win over the Memphis Grizzlies (season-high 20 points and season-high-tying 10 rebounds), a January 26 126–114 loss to the San Antonio Spurs (24 points and 15 rebounds), and a January 29 121–116 win over the Houston Rockets (27 points) with 12 rebounds. On January 23, he posted a career-high 6 blocks against the Detroit Pistons. In the last game of the Pelicans' season, Okafor scored 30 points against the Golden State Warriors. On June 20, 2019, Okafor's team option was picked up by the Pelicans. On October 31, he scored 26 points in a 122–107 win against the Denver Nuggets. On January 13, 2020, he had 25 points and 14 rebounds in a 117–110 overtime win against the Pistons. On January 28, Okafor announced that he would change his number from 8 to honor Kobe Bryant. He would wear the number 9 for the rest of the season. Detroit Pistons (2020–2021) On December 1, 2020, Okafor signed with the Detroit Pistons. On September 4, 2021, he and Sekou Doumbouya were traded to the Brooklyn Nets in exchange for DeAndre Jordan. Five days later, the Nets waived Okafor. On September 22, 2021, Okafor signed with the Atlanta Hawks. However, he was waived on October 11. Zhejiang Lions (2022) On February 23, 2022, Okafor signed with the Zhejiang Lions. His G League rights were acquired by the Mexico City Capitanes in September 2022. Capitanes de Ciudad de México (2022–2023) On November 4, 2022, Okafor was named to the opening night roster for the Capitanes de Ciudad de México. On February 4, 2023, Okafor's rights were traded, along with Shabazz Napier, Bruno Caboclo, and Matt Mooney to the Delaware Blue Coats in exchange for Skylar Mays, Justin Robinson, and Raphiael Putney. However, he never played for Delaware. Career statistics NBA Regular season |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia | 53 || 48 || 30.0 || .508 || .167 || .686 || 7.0 || 1.2 || .4 || 1.2 || 17.5|- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia | 50 || 33 || 22.7 || .514 || || .671 || 4.8 || 1.2 || .4 || 1.0 || 11.8 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia | 2 || 0 || 12.5 || .444 || || .500 || 4.5 || .5 || .0 || 1.0 || 5.0 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Brooklyn | 26 || 0 || 12.6 || .566 || .250 || .760 || 2.9 || .4 || .1 || .6 || 6.4 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|New Orleans | 59 || 24 || 15.8 || .586 || .200 || .663 || 4.7 || .7 || .3 || .7 || 8.2 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|New Orleans | 30 || 9 || 15.6 || .623 || .333 || .645 || 4.2 || 1.2''' || .2 || .7 || 8.1 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Detroit | 27 || 2 || 12.9 || .618 || .222 || .708 || 2.4 || .5 || .2 || .2 || 5.4 |- class="sortbottom" | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|Career | 247 || 116 || 19.5 || .542 || .222 || .676 || 4.7 || .9 || .3 || .8 || 10.4 College |- | style="text-align:left;"|2014–15 | style="text-align:left;"|Duke | 32 || 32 || 30.1 || .664 || || .510 || 8.5 || 1.3 || .8 || 1.4 || 17.3 National team career US national team In October 2010, he successfully tried out for USA Basketball's 2011–12 USA Developmental National Team. In June 2011, he qualified for the 12-man United States team at the 2011 FIBA Americas Under-16 Championship along with Simeon rivals Parker and Nunn. In the gold medal game, Okafor made all of his field goal attempts posting 18 points and 14 rebounds. For the tournament, his 46 rebounds over 5 games ranked him second on the United States team (to Aaron Gordon) and third at the Championships in rebounding. He was a member of USA Basketball's 12-man Team USA at the 2012 FIBA Under-17 World Cup with Parker and Nunn again. His listed height was . At a two-game four-team preliminary exhibition tournament in Las Palmas, Canary Islands the week before the championship began, he was named tournament MVP. He was also named the MVP of the 2012 FIBA Under-17 World Cup, for the gold medal-winning United States team. Okafor posted 17 points and 8 rebounds in the gold medal game. Over the course of the tournament, he was the second-leading scorer, with 13.6 points per game, and second-leading rebounder for the United States, with 8.2 rebounds per game. On May 21, 2013, USA Basketball announced the roster of 24 players, including Okafor, who had accepted invitations to the June 14–19, 2013, USA Basketball Men's U19 World Cup team training camp. The camp was used to select the 12-man team for the June 27 – July 7, 2013 FIBA Under-19 World Championship in Czech Republic. Okafor made the final roster that was announced on June 18. The team won the gold medal, and Okafor made the All-Tournament team, along with teammate and tournament MVP Gordon. He led the tournament with 77% field goal percentage, and he was the only player on the All-Tournament Team who would return to high school. However, coaches Billy Donovan and Shaka Smart told him his weak link was his conditioning. Nigerian national team On 23 February 2020, Jahlil Okafor told ESPN's Marc J. Spears that he would represent the Nigeria national team at the 2020 Summer Olympics. He averaged 9 points over three games in the group stage. Personal life His mother, Dacresha Lanett Benton, died when he was 9 years old, leaving him to be raised by his father Chukwudi and aunt Chinyere Okafor-Conley, whom he refers to as his "auntie mom." His father's full name is Chukwudi Obika Okafor. His parents met in Fort Smith, Arkansas when Chuck played basketball for a local junior college. "My deepest fear is losing someone else close to me," Jahlil told Chicago'' magazine. "That's something I think about way more than I should." He has an older sister, Jalen, and two younger brothers named Jamonte and Ashondre. His father has five Chicago-area siblings. His uncle works for the police department in Rosemont, Illinois. His father, who is known as Chuck Okafor, is and played power forward for Westark Community College, West Texas A&M University and Carl Albert State College. His parents had basketball scholarships at Carl Albert State College at the same time. Chuck had been an All-City High School basketball player for Bowen High School. His mother also played college basketball. Okafor plays chess and the saxophone as well as the tuba. In junior high, he participated in the stage crew for a musical. He is a distant cousin of fellow NBA player Emeka Okafor. He is of Nigerian descent through his paternal grandfather who moved to the U.S. from Nigeria at the age of 20. Okafor traveled to Nigeria when he was in seventh grade. Okafor has been practicing hot yoga since the 2016–17 season. He used to be a vegan so that he could prevent his knees from swelling, but he changed his diet when he realized that there was a deficiency in his iron. Okafor has his own chef to make sure that he gets a sufficient amount of protein in his diet. After going to a sleep lab during the 2019 offseason, Okafor was diagnosed with sleep apnea and now uses a CPAP machine, which has improved his quality of sleep. References External links Duke Blue Devils bio USA Basketball bio Category:1995 births Category:Living people Category:21st-century African-American sportspeople Category:African-American basketball players Category:All-American college men's basketball players Category:American expatriate basketball people in China Category:American expatriate basketball people in Mexico Category:American men's basketball players Category:American people of Igbo descent Category:American sportspeople of Nigerian descent Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Basketball players at the 2020 Summer Olympics Category:Basketball players from Chicago Category:Brooklyn Nets players Category:Capitanes de Ciudad de México players Category:Centers (basketball) Category:Detroit Pistons players Category:Duke Blue Devils men's basketball players Category:Igbo sportspeople Category:McDonald's High School All-Americans Category:National Basketball Association players from Nigeria Category:Nigerian men's basketball players Category:New Orleans Pelicans players Category:Olympic basketball players for Nigeria Category:Parade High School All-Americans (boys' basketball) Category:People from Sequoyah County, Oklahoma Category:Philadelphia 76ers draft picks Category:Philadelphia 76ers players Category:Whitney M. Young Magnet High School alumni Category:Zhejiang Lions players
[]
[ "The text does not provide information on what position Okafor played as a junior.", "He attended Whitney Young.", "The text does not provide specific information on which years Okafor attended Whitney Young.", "Yes, Okafor was awarded several honors during his junior year. He was named as one of the top 5 Illinois Mr. Basketball contenders, the Chicago Sun-Times named him a 2013 All-Public League first team selection and the Player of the Year. He also finished as runner-up in the Illinois Mr. Basketball voting, and was a first team All-USA selection by USA Today.", "The context does not provide information on any other awards Okafor won in his junior year apart from those mentioned in the previous response.", "Yes, Okafor was recognized as a 2013 All-Public League first team selection and he was named as the Chicago Sun-Times Player of the Year. These awards were from his home city of Chicago.", "The text does not provide information about Okafor talking about NBA prospects during his junior year.", "The text does not provide information on whether there are any other interesting aspects about the article.", "The context does not provide specific reasons as to why Okafor was given these honors. However, his performances and statistics like scoring 26 points, 7 rebounds and 3 blocks in a game against Long Beach Polytechnic High School, and 19 points, 14 rebounds and 7 blocked shots against Morgan Park High School, suggest his high level of play could have contributed to his recognition.", "The text does not provide information on whether Okafor traveled a lot during his junior year." ]
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C_90ccec020ab4409ba2bbbe150a75810a_0
Jahlil Okafor
Jahlil Okafor (pronounced ; born December 15, 1995) is an American professional basketball player for the Brooklyn Nets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played his freshman season of college for the 2014-15 Duke national championship team. Okafor was heavily recruited since before high school and had been at the top of the recruiting rankings for several years. He played high school basketball in Chicago, Illinois for Whitney M. Young Magnet High School, where he earned high school national player of the year awards from McDonald's, USA Today and Parade.
International career
In October 2010, he successfully tried out for USA Basketball's 2011-12 USA Developmental National Team. In June 2011, he qualified for the 12-man United States team at the 2011 FIBA Americas Under-16 Championship along with Simeon rivals Parker and Nunn. In the gold medal game, Okafor made all of his field goal attempts posting 18 points and 14 rebounds. For the tournament, his 46 rebounds over 5 games ranked him second on the United States team (to Aaron Gordon) and third at the Championships in rebounding. He was a member of USA Basketball's 12-man Team USA at the 2012 FIBA Under-17 World Championship with Parker and Nunn again. His listed height was 6 feet 11 inches (2.11 m). At a two-game four-team preliminary exhibition tournament in Las Palmas, Canary Islands the week before the championship began, he was named tournament MVP. He was also named MVP of the 2012 FIBA Under-17 World Championship for the gold medal-winning United States team. Okafor posted 17 points and 8 rebounds in the gold medal game. Over the course of the tournament, he was the second-leading scorer with 13.6 points per game and second-leading rebounder for the United States with 8.2 rebounds per game. On May 21, 2013, USA Basketball announced the roster of 24 players, including Okafor, who had accepted invitations to the June 14-19, 2013, USA Basketball Men's U19 World Championship team training camp. The camp was used to select the 12-man team for the June 27 - July 7, 2013 FIBA Under-19 World Championship in Czech Republic. Okafor made the final roster that was announced on June 18. The team won the gold medal and Okafor made the All-Tournament team along with teammate and tournament MVP Gordon. He led the tournament with 77% field goal percentage, and he was the only player on the all tournament team who would return to high school. However, coaches Billy Donovan and Shaka Smart told him his weak link was his conditioning. CANNOTANSWER
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Jahlil Obika Okafor (; born December 15, 1995) is a Nigerian-American professional basketball player who last played for the Capitanes de Ciudad de México of the NBA G League. He played his freshman season of college basketball for the 2014–15 Duke national championship team. He was selected with the third overall pick in the 2015 NBA draft by the Philadelphia 76ers. Okafor had been heavily recruited before high school and was at the top of the recruiting rankings for several years. He played high school basketball in Chicago, Illinois for Whitney M. Young Magnet High School, where he earned high school national player of the year awards from McDonald's, USA Today and Parade. Okafor signed with Duke as a package with Tyus Jones, with widespread recognition as the preseason Collegiate National Player of the Year. At Duke, he earned the USBWA National Freshman of the Year and ACC Player of the Year, and a unanimous 2015 NCAA Men's Basketball All-American first-team selection. Early life and career Okafor was born in Fort Smith, Arkansas. His father, Chukwudi, known as Chuck, is a second-generation Nigerian American of Igbo descent, and his mother, Dacresha Lanett Benton, was African-American and European-American. As a youth, Okafor split time between his mother's home in the town of Moffett, Oklahoma and his father's home in Chicago. When he was 9 years old, his mother contracted bronchitis and died two weeks later from a collapsed lung. Okafor permanently moved in with his father to the South Side of Chicago and then to Rosemont. Okafor attended Rosemont Elementary. The adjustment was difficult because he was shy and so tall that other students thought he was put in the class for having failed. In November 2008, during seventh grade he matched his father's height of . Later the family moved to Chicago's North Side so that Okafor could attend Whitney Young High School. As a eighth-grader, Okafor was recruited by DePaul Blue Demons men's basketball in violation of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) recruiting rules when DePaul Athletic Director Jean Lenti Ponsetto made public comments about an offer. Initially, interim coach Tracy Webster, made an oral offer on January 30 outside the DePaul locker room at Allstate Arena. The offer was noted online by ESPNChicago.com and picked up by the press, leading to the problematic statements by Ponsetto. In February 2010, Ponsetto confirmed in a statement: High school career Freshman and sophomore seasons Okafor and Whitney Young teammate Paul White were regarded as the best incoming freshmen in the Chicago metropolitan area, according to the Chicago Sun-Times Joe Henricksen. They joined a team with six returning seniors that had finished as state runners up the prior year. Along with sophomore Thomas Hamilton Jr. and White, Okafor was part of a trio of Whitney Young players ranked in the top 10 of their respective national classes by ESPNU. Entering the season, Whitney Young was considered to resemble a college team due to its size and athleticism. That year, Okafor feels he was not one of the "key players" on the team, but attending tournaments with elite players such as Austin Rivers and Michael Kidd-Gilchrist inspired him to be one. Following his freshman season, Okafor was regarded as the second best college basketball prospect in the Chicago area behind Jabari Parker. The scouting report on him was that he possessed an improved midrange jump shot, nimble feet, soft hands and physical skills at that made him a mismatch against almost any high school competitor. Prior to his sophomore season Dave Spahn of SLAM Magazine described Okafor as a player with the footwork and ambidexterity to dominate his opponents, placing him in the conversation for the role of best player in the national class of 2014. In August 2011, ESPN ranked him as the third best player in the class of 2014. Okafor and White were featured in Ball So Hard, the first documentary short by Life + Times. On December 22, in front of an audience that included John Calipari, Rick Pitino, Derrick Rose and Anthony Davis at the UIC Pavilion, Okafor had 20 points (10 in the fourth quarter), 9 rebounds and 3 blocked shots against cross-town rival Simeon and its star Parker in a 62–55 loss. Following the season, the Chicago Sun-Times named him to the Class 4A All-State first team along with Parker, Keith Carter, Darius Paul and Fred VanVleet. The Chicago Tribune named him to its second team All-State team. The Associated Press named him to its Class 4A second team. He was also selected by the Chicago Public League Basketball Coaches Association to its 25-man boy's All-City team. The Chicago Sun-Times named him to its All-Public League second team as well as its All-area 20-man team. By the end of his sophomore season, he started appearing on ballots from ESPN HS 10-person panel for the Mr. Basketball USA award as the best high school basketball player in the country. He was one of twenty sophomores chosen as Underclass All-Americans by ESPN HS. Junior season In June 2012, Sports Illustrated named him one of their "Future Game Changers", a group of fourteen young athletes who are considered to be the brightest talents of their respective sport (such as Sarah Hendrickson, Jabrill Peppers, and Taylor Townsend). On September 19, Calipari offered Okafor a scholarship to play for Kentucky, joining Ohio State, Michigan State, Louisville, Illinois, Duke, North Carolina, Florida and Arizona as programs that have offered Okafor. Okafor was one of 10 USA Today preseason All-USA selections (along with Aaron Gordon, Andrew Harrison, Aaron Harrison, Kasey Hill, Jones, Parker, Julius Randle, Noah Vonleh, Andrew Wiggins). Okafor was named as one of the top 5 Illinois Mr. Basketball contenders (along with Parker, Kendrick Nunn, Sterling Brown and Malcolm Hill) prior to the season by the Chicago Tribunes Mike Helfgot. Whitney Young was the number eight ranked team in the MaxPreps.com national preseason poll. Young entered the season ranked fourteenth in the nation according to ESPN. On December 20 Okafor and Young lost in overtime to Dakari Johnson's ESPN #1-ranked Montverde Academy. Young was ranked #9 at the time. On January 19, Okafor led Young to an 85–52 victory over Long Beach Polytechnic High School at the Hoophall Classic with 26 points, 7 rebounds and 3 blocks. The victory gave Young a 7–1 record against nationally ranked teams for the year, moving Young to #2 in the USA Today rankings as they prepared for the January 26 crosstown showdown against Simeon and Parker. In the Chicago Public High School League playoffs February 15 finals contest against Morgan Park High School Okafor tallied 19 points, 14 rebounds and 7 blocked shots, including a game-saving block against Billy Garrett, Jr., in a 60–56 overtime Public League Championship game victory over Morgan Park. Okafor was recognized as a 2013 All-Public League first team selection by the Chicago Sun-Times along with Nunn, Parker, Alexander and Billy Garrett, Jr. On February 28, he was named the Chicago Sun-Times Player of the Year. On March 25, Okafor finished as runner-up in the Illinois Mr. Basketball voting to Parker by a 315–277-point margin, including a 43–40 first place vote margin. On April 17, he was a first team All-USA selection by USA Today along with Wiggins, Aaron Harrison, Randle and Parker. Following the demise of ESPN HS, HighSchoolHardwood.com undertook several honoraria selections. Although MaxPreps.com did not select him as a first team All-American, they did select him as a Junior All-American along with Stanley Johnson, Joel Berry, Jones, and Emmanuel Mudiay. Senior season Following his time with Team USA, Okafor participated in the Nike Pro-Am Chi-League, the All-Peach Jam, and the Adidas Nations event. He made his verbal commitment on ESPNU to Duke basketball on November 15, jointly with Tyus Jones. Prior to his senior season, USA Today named him to its 10-man preseason All-USA team along with Alexander, Stanley Johnson, Jones, Trey Lyles, Mudiay, Malik Newman, Kelly Oubre, D'Angelo Russell, and Myles Turner. On November 21, Winslow committed to Duke, giving them the number one recruiting class in the nation with Jones, Okafor, Winslow and Grayson Allen all committed. Okafor was joined on the Chicago Tribune preseason Illinois Mr. Basketball top 5 by Alexander, Jalen Brunson, Tyler Ulis and Keita Bates-Diop. Okafor dominated the December 27–30, Les Schwab Invitational hosted by Liberty High School by leading the tournament in scoring (31) and rebounding (12.5) and finished 2013 atop the three major recruiting databases (ESPN, Rivals and Scout). Young went 2–2 in the tournament, losing to Rainier Beach High School as well as losing to Oregon's defending Class 6A state champions West Linn High School. On January 4 at the Cancer Research Classic in Wheeling, West Virginia, Okafor earned the tournament MVP based on a 24-point 9-rebound performance against Mudiay's Prime Prep Academy. Okafor and Young reached an anticipated city championship matchup with Curie and Alexander at the Jones Convocation Center. Okafor had 16 points, 14 rebounds and 3 blocks. Curie won the city championship 69–66 in quadruple overtime as Okafor had 16 points before fouling out with 2:13 remaining in regulation. The CPL Championship game was attended by Mayor of Chicago Rahm Emanuel and was the lead story on the late edition of SportsCenter. On March 14, Okafor posted 35 points and 13 rebounds in a 75–66 victory over St. Rita of Cascia High School (who featured Kentucky-bound Charles Matthews), earning Young its first sectional title since 2009 and leaving them one victory away from the final four. On March 18, Okafor led Young to a 58–32 victory over Loyola Academy with 12 points, 12 rebounds, 7 assists and 3 blocks. On March 21 Okafor's 33 points and 14 rebounds enabled Young to overcome a record setting 56-point performance by Brunson with a 75–68 victory over Stevenson High School. On March 22, Okafor and Young won the IHSA Class 4A state championship by defeating Benet Academy 46–44. Okafor only produced 8 points, 6 rebounds and 3 assists as he battled Xavier-bound Sean O'Mara. Okafor earned co-MVP (with Justin Jackson) of the April 2, 2014, McDonald's All-American Game after posting 17 points and 7 rebounds, including the go ahead dunk with fewer than 40 seconds remaining, for the winning west team in a 105–102 victory. On April 12, he posted a 14-point 10-rebound double-double in an 84–73 Team USA Nike Hoops Summit victory over the world team. On April 18 in the Jordan Brand Classic, he earned co-MVP with (Alexander) by posting 29 points and 9 rebounds. Okafor was selected to the 10-man Team USA for the 17th annual Nike Hoop Summit on April 12, 2014, at the Moda Center. He was also selected to the 24-player 37th annual April 2, 2014 McDonald's All-American Boys Game at the United Center. He was recognized as first team All-City along with teammate White, Alexander, Louis Adams, Jr. of Orr, and Luwane Pipkins of Bogan High School by the Chicago Sun-Times. On February 18, he became one of three finalists for the Naismith Prep Player of the Year Award along with Alexander and Stanley Johnson. He was selected as the 2014 National Player of the Year from among the 20 Parade All-Americans. He was also recognized by the McDonald's All-American Game organization as its 2014 Morgan Wootten National Player of the Year. USA Today recognized Okafor as its national player of the year when naming its All-USA Boys Basketball Team along with Alexander, Oubre, Mudiay, and Stanley Johnson. Okafor beat Alexander in the Illinois Mr. Basketball voting by a 492–402 vote. He earned first team All-American recognition from MaxPreps on April 13. Okafor was named the 2013–14 Chicago Tribune/WGN Ch. 9 Athlete of the Year. Rankings In 2011, center Dakari Johnson was named National Freshman of the Year by ESPN HS. In the following months, Okafor beat out Johnson for a spot on the 2011 FIBA Americas Under-16 Championship Team USA. Okafor spent his sophomore season ranked as the number one center and second best player in the national class of 2014 by SLAM Magazine behind Andrew Wiggins, according to SLAM's Franklyn Calle. In January 2012 during his sophomore season, he was ranked third in the class by ESPNU. By April, he was ranked second. By the end of his second year, there was talk that with Jabari Parker Chicago might produce the number one high school player in the country in back to back years, something that they had come close to with Mark Aguirre and Isiah Thomas in the late 1970s. Also in the 1981 NBA draft Aguirre and Thomas were selected first and second, respectively. On October 25, 2012, Andrew Wiggins announced that he was reclassifying into the class of 2013, which cleared the way for Okafor to assume the number one ranking in the Rivals.com ranking for the class of 2014. As of November 2012, he was listed number one in the national class of 2014 by Rivals.com and number two by ESPN. He remained number one according to Rivals with its March 14, 2013 rankings update, following his junior season. College career Okafor played one season of college basketball for Duke. He was selected as Preseason Player of the Year by CBSSports.com, NBCSports.com, SB Nation, and ESPN analyst Fran Fraschilla. Okafor was a Preseason All-American first team selection by USA Today, CBSSports.com, NBCSports.com, Athlon Sports, Bleacher Report, Sporting News, SB Nation, Sports Illustrated, and the Associated Press. In its preseason top 100 player ranking, Okafor was listed at number 3 by ESPN. For the 2014–15 Atlantic Coast Conference men's basketball season, the conference media selected him as the ACC Preseason Rookie of the Year and as a Preseason All-ACC Team selection. He finished second in the conference Preseason Player of the Year voting to Marcus Paige. He was also listed as a John R. Wooden Award Preseason Top 50 candidate. He was also named to the Oscar Robertson Trophy and Wayman Tisdale Award Watch Lists. Okafor opened the season as ACC Freshman of the Week on November 17. In his first three games he shot 25-for-30 on his field goal attempts. He was again named ACC Freshman of the Week on November 24 and December 1. He had his first two 20-point performances in the Coaches vs. Cancer Classic with 24 points against Furman on November 26 and 21 against Army on November 30. On December 15 with a 25-point and 20-rebound performance against Elon, Okafor became the first Duke freshman to record 20 rebounds in a game and the second ACC freshman to record 20 points and 20 rebounds in a game, joining Joe Smith. The performance earned Okafor his fourth ACC Rookie of the Week Award and first Wayman Tisdale National Freshman of the Week recognitions. He then scored a season-high 28 points against Boston College on January 3, earning his fifth ACC Rookie of the Week, first ACC Player of the Week, and second Wayman Tisdale National Freshman of the Week recognition the following day. He was again ACC Rookie of the Week on January 12 and 19. He was named to the John R. Wooden Award Midseason Top 25 list on January 14. After sitting out a game due to an ankle injury, Okafor posted a career-high 30 points in an overtime win against Virginia Tech on February 25. Following the season, Okafor was named Atlantic Coast Conference Men's Basketball Player of the Year by both the ACC coaches and media and ACC Freshman of the year. He was the first freshman to win ACC Player of the Year. He was also a first team All-ACC selection and among the first trio to be selected to the All-ACC Freshman first team (along with Jones and Winslow). He was named USBWA National Freshman of the Year and the 2015 USBWA Freshman All-America Team by the United States Basketball Writers Association (USBWA). Okafor was a unanimous 2015 NCAA Men's Basketball All-American first-team selection by The Sporting News, USBWA, National Association of Basketball Coaches, and Associated Press. He contributed to a national championship with 10 points, including 2 key baskets in the final minutes, in the championship game of the 2015 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament, despite spending much of the game in foul trouble while defending Frank Kaminsky of Wisconsin. Okafor finished as runner-up to Kaminsky in the John R. Wooden Award voting (3385–3060). On April 9, Okafor declared for the 2015 NBA draft. Professional career Philadelphia 76ers (2015–2017) 2015–16 season On June 25, 2015, Okafor was selected with the third overall pick in the 2015 NBA draft by the Philadelphia 76ers. After debuting with a 20-point NBA Summer League performance on July 6, Okafor signed a two-year contract with the 76ers on July 7, with team options for two additional seasons. He debuted for the 76ers, logging 26 points, 7 rebounds and two blocks, against the Boston Celtics on October 28. On November 9, he posted his first career double-double with 21 points and 15 rebounds against his hometown Chicago Bulls. After the 76ers got off to an 0–16 start to the season, Okafor was involved in a street fight with taunting individuals on November 25 in Boston. On November 30, with additional reports surfacing that Okafor had been involved in various controversial and dangerous off-the-court situations, the 76ers agreed to a request to assign a security guard to accompany Okafor in public. On December 1, Okafor and the 76ers defeated the Los Angeles Lakers 103–91. The win ended the longest losing streak in the history of major professional sports in the United States (28 games going back to the prior season) and the worst start in NBA history (tied with the 2009–10 New Jersey Nets at 0–18). The next day, video surfaced on TMZ of a second fight in Boston from November. Okafor was subsequently suspended by the 76ers for two games. He returned from suspension against the San Antonio Spurs on December 7, recording 10 points and 4 rebounds off the bench in a 119–68 defeat. On January 27, 2016, he was named to the 2016 NBA All-Star Game weekend Rising Stars Challenge lineup. In February, the 76ers had Okafor and Nerlens Noel swap positions as Okafor moved from center to power forward. On February 6, he recorded 22 points and a season-high 17 rebounds in a 103–98 win over the Brooklyn Nets. On February 21 against the Dallas Mavericks, Okafor posted a career-high 31 points in a 129–103 loss. On February 28, Okafor posted 26 points against the Orlando Magic, but he endured a shin contusion in a collision with teammate Isaiah Canaan that was only expected to sideline him for a game. As he missed his fifth consecutive game, 76ers head coach Brett Brown noted that Okafor had a CT scan on his knee. On March 11, Okafor was ruled out for the rest of the season after tests revealed that he had sustained a small tear of the meniscus in his right knee. Okafor finished fifth in the 2016 NBA Rookie of the Year Award voting and earned NBA All-Rookie First Team honors. 2016–17 season After the first week of the 2016–17 NBA season, the 76ers exercised the third-year team option on Okafor's rookie scale contract. Okafor began the season on a 16-minute cap to be played over "smaller segments" and restriction from back-to-back game participation following the re-aggravation of his meniscus injury. His cap was soon raised to 24 minutes. He was cleared to play unrestricted prior to the November 21 contest against the Miami Heat. On January 14, 2017, Okafor, who had not played in the 76ers' previous three games, scored a then season-high 26 points in a 109–93 loss to the Washington Wizards. He was selected to participate in the Rising Stars Challenge event during All-Star weekend. On February 25, 2017, he had a season-high 28 points and grabbed 10 rebounds in a 110–109 loss to the New York Knicks. On March 31, 2017, after missing the previous four games, he was ruled out for the rest of the season with right knee soreness. 2017–18 season On November 1, 2017, Okafor revealed that he would welcome a trade or buyout from the 76ers, after the team decided to not pick up the fourth-year, $6.3 million option on Okafor's rookie deal, after having tried to trade him for some time. Once the 76ers decided not to pick up Okafor's option, it gave him the right to be a free agent following the season. He saw time in only two games in the first 5 weeks of the season. After the 76ers could not reach a trade, the team opted to not reach a contract buyout agreement. It was later revealed that Okafor, along with several others associated with the 76ers, had been the subject of a disinformation campaign by the wife of then-General Manager Bryan Colangelo, using confidential information from the GM to denigrate Okafor and excuse the team's unwillingness to trade him. Brooklyn Nets (2017–2018) On December 7, 2017, Okafor was traded, along with Nik Stauskas and a 2019 second round draft pick, to the Brooklyn Nets in exchange for Trevor Booker. In his debut for the Nets on December 15, 2017 (his 22nd birthday), Okafor had 10 points and four rebounds in 23 minutes in a 120–87 loss to the Toronto Raptors. He had played just 25 minutes all season for the 76ers. Following his debut, the Nets decided to get him back into playing shape before putting him in games again. His next game came on January 3 against the Minnesota Timberwolves, where he scored two points in 11 minutes. Three days later, he had 12 points in 13 minutes in an 87–85 loss to the Boston Celtics. On January 27, he scored a team-high 21 points in a 111–97 loss to the Timberwolves. Following the season, he became an unrestricted free agent. New Orleans Pelicans (2018–2020) On August 9, 2018, Okafor signed with the New Orleans Pelicans. On December 19, he posted a season-high 17 points in 13 minutes against the Milwaukee Bucks. On January 19, the Pelicans announced that Anthony Davis endured an index finger sprain that would sideline him 1–2 weeks. With the increased playing time Okafor set sequential season-high totals in a January 21 105–85 win over the Memphis Grizzlies (season-high 20 points and season-high-tying 10 rebounds), a January 26 126–114 loss to the San Antonio Spurs (24 points and 15 rebounds), and a January 29 121–116 win over the Houston Rockets (27 points) with 12 rebounds. On January 23, he posted a career-high 6 blocks against the Detroit Pistons. In the last game of the Pelicans' season, Okafor scored 30 points against the Golden State Warriors. On June 20, 2019, Okafor's team option was picked up by the Pelicans. On October 31, he scored 26 points in a 122–107 win against the Denver Nuggets. On January 13, 2020, he had 25 points and 14 rebounds in a 117–110 overtime win against the Pistons. On January 28, Okafor announced that he would change his number from 8 to honor Kobe Bryant. He would wear the number 9 for the rest of the season. Detroit Pistons (2020–2021) On December 1, 2020, Okafor signed with the Detroit Pistons. On September 4, 2021, he and Sekou Doumbouya were traded to the Brooklyn Nets in exchange for DeAndre Jordan. Five days later, the Nets waived Okafor. On September 22, 2021, Okafor signed with the Atlanta Hawks. However, he was waived on October 11. Zhejiang Lions (2022) On February 23, 2022, Okafor signed with the Zhejiang Lions. His G League rights were acquired by the Mexico City Capitanes in September 2022. Capitanes de Ciudad de México (2022–2023) On November 4, 2022, Okafor was named to the opening night roster for the Capitanes de Ciudad de México. On February 4, 2023, Okafor's rights were traded, along with Shabazz Napier, Bruno Caboclo, and Matt Mooney to the Delaware Blue Coats in exchange for Skylar Mays, Justin Robinson, and Raphiael Putney. However, he never played for Delaware. Career statistics NBA Regular season |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia | 53 || 48 || 30.0 || .508 || .167 || .686 || 7.0 || 1.2 || .4 || 1.2 || 17.5|- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia | 50 || 33 || 22.7 || .514 || || .671 || 4.8 || 1.2 || .4 || 1.0 || 11.8 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia | 2 || 0 || 12.5 || .444 || || .500 || 4.5 || .5 || .0 || 1.0 || 5.0 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|Brooklyn | 26 || 0 || 12.6 || .566 || .250 || .760 || 2.9 || .4 || .1 || .6 || 6.4 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|New Orleans | 59 || 24 || 15.8 || .586 || .200 || .663 || 4.7 || .7 || .3 || .7 || 8.2 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"|New Orleans | 30 || 9 || 15.6 || .623 || .333 || .645 || 4.2 || 1.2''' || .2 || .7 || 8.1 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Detroit | 27 || 2 || 12.9 || .618 || .222 || .708 || 2.4 || .5 || .2 || .2 || 5.4 |- class="sortbottom" | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|Career | 247 || 116 || 19.5 || .542 || .222 || .676 || 4.7 || .9 || .3 || .8 || 10.4 College |- | style="text-align:left;"|2014–15 | style="text-align:left;"|Duke | 32 || 32 || 30.1 || .664 || || .510 || 8.5 || 1.3 || .8 || 1.4 || 17.3 National team career US national team In October 2010, he successfully tried out for USA Basketball's 2011–12 USA Developmental National Team. In June 2011, he qualified for the 12-man United States team at the 2011 FIBA Americas Under-16 Championship along with Simeon rivals Parker and Nunn. In the gold medal game, Okafor made all of his field goal attempts posting 18 points and 14 rebounds. For the tournament, his 46 rebounds over 5 games ranked him second on the United States team (to Aaron Gordon) and third at the Championships in rebounding. He was a member of USA Basketball's 12-man Team USA at the 2012 FIBA Under-17 World Cup with Parker and Nunn again. His listed height was . At a two-game four-team preliminary exhibition tournament in Las Palmas, Canary Islands the week before the championship began, he was named tournament MVP. He was also named the MVP of the 2012 FIBA Under-17 World Cup, for the gold medal-winning United States team. Okafor posted 17 points and 8 rebounds in the gold medal game. Over the course of the tournament, he was the second-leading scorer, with 13.6 points per game, and second-leading rebounder for the United States, with 8.2 rebounds per game. On May 21, 2013, USA Basketball announced the roster of 24 players, including Okafor, who had accepted invitations to the June 14–19, 2013, USA Basketball Men's U19 World Cup team training camp. The camp was used to select the 12-man team for the June 27 – July 7, 2013 FIBA Under-19 World Championship in Czech Republic. Okafor made the final roster that was announced on June 18. The team won the gold medal, and Okafor made the All-Tournament team, along with teammate and tournament MVP Gordon. He led the tournament with 77% field goal percentage, and he was the only player on the All-Tournament Team who would return to high school. However, coaches Billy Donovan and Shaka Smart told him his weak link was his conditioning. Nigerian national team On 23 February 2020, Jahlil Okafor told ESPN's Marc J. Spears that he would represent the Nigeria national team at the 2020 Summer Olympics. He averaged 9 points over three games in the group stage. Personal life His mother, Dacresha Lanett Benton, died when he was 9 years old, leaving him to be raised by his father Chukwudi and aunt Chinyere Okafor-Conley, whom he refers to as his "auntie mom." His father's full name is Chukwudi Obika Okafor. His parents met in Fort Smith, Arkansas when Chuck played basketball for a local junior college. "My deepest fear is losing someone else close to me," Jahlil told Chicago'' magazine. "That's something I think about way more than I should." He has an older sister, Jalen, and two younger brothers named Jamonte and Ashondre. His father has five Chicago-area siblings. His uncle works for the police department in Rosemont, Illinois. His father, who is known as Chuck Okafor, is and played power forward for Westark Community College, West Texas A&M University and Carl Albert State College. His parents had basketball scholarships at Carl Albert State College at the same time. Chuck had been an All-City High School basketball player for Bowen High School. His mother also played college basketball. Okafor plays chess and the saxophone as well as the tuba. In junior high, he participated in the stage crew for a musical. He is a distant cousin of fellow NBA player Emeka Okafor. He is of Nigerian descent through his paternal grandfather who moved to the U.S. from Nigeria at the age of 20. Okafor traveled to Nigeria when he was in seventh grade. Okafor has been practicing hot yoga since the 2016–17 season. He used to be a vegan so that he could prevent his knees from swelling, but he changed his diet when he realized that there was a deficiency in his iron. Okafor has his own chef to make sure that he gets a sufficient amount of protein in his diet. After going to a sleep lab during the 2019 offseason, Okafor was diagnosed with sleep apnea and now uses a CPAP machine, which has improved his quality of sleep. References External links Duke Blue Devils bio USA Basketball bio Category:1995 births Category:Living people Category:21st-century African-American sportspeople Category:African-American basketball players Category:All-American college men's basketball players Category:American expatriate basketball people in China Category:American expatriate basketball people in Mexico Category:American men's basketball players Category:American people of Igbo descent Category:American sportspeople of Nigerian descent Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Basketball players at the 2020 Summer Olympics Category:Basketball players from Chicago Category:Brooklyn Nets players Category:Capitanes de Ciudad de México players Category:Centers (basketball) Category:Detroit Pistons players Category:Duke Blue Devils men's basketball players Category:Igbo sportspeople Category:McDonald's High School All-Americans Category:National Basketball Association players from Nigeria Category:Nigerian men's basketball players Category:New Orleans Pelicans players Category:Olympic basketball players for Nigeria Category:Parade High School All-Americans (boys' basketball) Category:People from Sequoyah County, Oklahoma Category:Philadelphia 76ers draft picks Category:Philadelphia 76ers players Category:Whitney M. Young Magnet High School alumni Category:Zhejiang Lions players
[]
[ "The text does not provide specific information on what countries Okafor's career was in.", "The text does not provide specific information on what countries Okafor's career was in.", "The text does not provide specific information on what countries Okafor's career was in.", "The text suggests that Okafor had a successful career in basketball, having made several teams for USA Basketball, winning a number of tournaments and earned personal accolades such as tournament MVPs and making the All-Tournament team.", "Apart from winning tournaments with his team, Okafor was recognized as an important player consistently throughout his career. He was named the MVP of the preliminary exhibition tournament in Las Palmas, Canary Islands. He went on to be named the MVP of the 2012 FIBA Under-17 World Championship. The icing on the cake came when he made the All-Tournament team at the FIBA Under-19 World Championship.", "The text mentions that Okafor was named tournament MVP at a preliminary exhibition tournament in Las Palmas, Canary Islands and at the 2012 FIBA Under-17 World Championship. He also made the All-Tournament team at the FIBA Under-19 World Championship.", "Based on the context provided, Jahlil Okafor was named tournament MVP at a preliminary exhibition tournament in Las Palmas, the Canary Islands, and at the 2012 FIBA Under-17 World Championship. He also made the All-Tournament team at the FIBA Under-19 World Championship. No other honors are mentioned in the context provided.", "The context does not provide information on any other awards Jahlil Okafor received during his career.", "Throughout his career, Okafor consistently excelled and achieved numerous milestones. In addition to his MVP recognitions and being selected for All-Tournament teams, he also led tournaments in certain statistics. For instance, he had the highest field goal percentage, 77%, in the FIBA Under-19 World Championship. Furthermore, Okafor was repeatedly selected for USA Basketball's teams for multiple international championships. However, his coaches Billy Donovan and Shaka Smart highlighted that he needed to improve his conditioning.", "Okafor accepted an invitation to the June 14-19, 2013, USA Basketball Men's U19 World Championship team training camp." ]
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C_70466913d5ff4f1badc0020514fd90cf_1
Ronald Shannon Jackson
Ronald Shannon Jackson (January 12, 1940 - October 19, 2013) was an American jazz drummer and composer from Fort Worth, Texas. A pioneer of avant-garde jazz, free funk, and jazz fusion, he appeared on over 50 albums as a bandleader, sideman, arranger, and producer. Jackson and bassist Sirone are the only musicians to have performed and recorded with the three prime shapers of free jazz: pianist Cecil Taylor, and saxophonists Ornette Coleman and Albert Ayler.
New York and the Avant-Garde (1966-1978)
Once in New York, Jackson performed with many jazz musicians, including Charles Mingus, Betty Carter, Jackie McLean, Joe Henderson, Kenny Dorham, McCoy Tyner, Stanley Turrentine, and others. Whenever he would ask Charles Mingus to consider him for his group, Mingus used to push him "rudely out of his way". After Jackson sat in with pianist Toshiko Akiyoshi, he heard loud clapping behind him. It was Mingus, who asked him to play with his band. In 1966 Jackson recorded drums for saxophonist Charles Tyler's release, Charles Tyler Ensemble. Between 1966 and 1967, he played with saxophonist Albert Ayler and is featured on At Slug's Saloon, Vol. 1 & 2. He is also on disks 3 and 4 of Ayler's Holy Ghost: Rare & Unissued Records (1962-70). Jackson said Ayler was "the first (leader) that really opened me up. He let me play the drums the way I did in Fort Worth when I wasn't playing for other people." John Coltrane's death in July 1967 devastated Jackson. He spent the next few years addicted to heroin. He said, "I couldn't play drums then, spiritually.... I just didn't feel right." From 1970-74, he did not perform, but continued to practice. In 1974, pianist Onaje Allan Gumbs introduced Jackson to Nichiren Buddhism and chanting. Although initially reluctant, Jackson decided to try it for three weeks. "Then three months had passed. It pulled me together and pulled me out and I was able to focus. I was a Buddhist and a vegetarian for 17 years." By 1975 he joined saxophonist Ornette Coleman's electric free funk band, Prime Time. During his stint in Prime Time, Coleman taught Jackson composition and harmolodics. Jackson says that Coleman told him he was hearing music "in that piccolo range," and encouraged him to compose on the flute. Jackson went to Paris with Prime Time in 1976 to perform concerts and record Dancing in Your Head and Body Meta. In 1978, Jackson played on four albums with pianist Cecil Taylor: Cecil Taylor Unit, 3 Phasis, Live in the Black Forest, and One Too Many Salty Swift and Not Goodbye. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "What was his career?", "What was one of his song title?", "Did his album hit the charts?", "How did he die?", "Did he perform with anybody?", "Anything else interesting in this article?", "What else did he do that was important" ]
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Ronald Shannon Jackson (January 12, 1940 – October 19, 2013) was an American jazz drummer from Fort Worth, Texas. A pioneer of avant-garde jazz, free funk, and jazz fusion, he appeared on over 50 albums as a bandleader, sideman, arranger, and producer. Jackson and bassist Sirone are the only musicians to have performed and recorded with the three prime shapers of free jazz: pianist Cecil Taylor, and saxophonists Ornette Coleman and Albert Ayler. Musician, Player and Listener magazine writers David Breskin and Rafi Zabor called him "the most stately free-jazz drummer in the history of the idiom, a regal and thundering presence." Gary Giddins wrote "Jackson is an astounding drummer, as everyone agrees…he has emerged as a kind of all-purpose new-music connoisseur who brings a profound and unshakably individual approach to every playing situation." In 1979, he founded his own group, the Decoding Society, playing what has been dubbed free funk: a blend of funk rhythm and free jazz improvisation. Early life and career Jackson was born in Fort Worth, Texas. As a child, he was immersed in music. His father monopolized the local jukebox business and established the only African American-owned record store in the Fort Worth area. His mother played piano and organ at their local church. Between the ages of five and nine he took piano lessons. In the third grade, he studied music with John Carter. Jackson graduated from I.M. Terrell High School, where he played with the marching band and learned about symphonic percussion. During lunch breaks, students would conduct jam sessions in the band room. Around the same time, Jackson's mother bought him his first drum set to encourage him to graduate from high school. By the age of 15, he was playing professionally. His first paid gig was with tenor saxophonist James Clay, who went on to join Ray Charles as a sideman. Jackson recalled that "we were playing four nights a week, with two gigs each on Saturday and Sunday, anything from Ray Charles to bebop. People were dancing, and when it was time to listen, they'd listen. But I was brainwashed into thinking you couldn't make a living playing music." After graduation, Jackson attended Lincoln University in Jefferson City, Missouri. He chose Lincoln because of its proximity to St. Louis and accessibility to great musicians touring the Midwest. His roommate was pianist John Hicks. As undergraduates, they "spent as much time performing together as studying." The Lincoln University band included Jackson, Hicks, trumpeter Lester Bowie, and Julius Hemphill on saxophone. Jackson then transferred to Texas Southern University, and from there went to Prairie View A & M. He decided to study history and sociology at the University of Bridgeport in Connecticut. Jackson intended not to play music at all, but after exposure to various artists and styles, he concluded that "the beat is in your body" and "the music you play comes from your life." By 1966, Jackson received a full music scholarship to New York University through trumpeter Kenny Dorham. New York and the Avant-Garde (1966–1978) Once in New York, Jackson performed with many jazz musicians, including Charles Mingus, Betty Carter, Jackie McLean, Joe Henderson, Kenny Dorham, McCoy Tyner, Stanley Turrentine, and others. Whenever he would ask Charles Mingus to consider him for his group, Mingus used to push him "rudely out of his way". After Jackson sat in with pianist Toshiko Akiyoshi, he heard loud clapping behind him. It was Mingus, who asked him to play with his band. In 1966 Jackson recorded drums for saxophonist Charles Tyler's release, Charles Tyler Ensemble. Between 1966 and 1967, he played with saxophonist Albert Ayler and is featured on At Slug's Saloon, Vol. 1 & 2. He is also on disks 3 and 4 of Ayler's Holy Ghost: Rare & Unissued Recordings (1962–70). Jackson said Ayler was "the first (leader) that really opened me up. He let me play the drums the way I did in Fort Worth when I wasn't playing for other people." John Coltrane's death in July 1967 devastated Jackson. He spent the next few years addicted to heroin. He said, "I couldn't play drums then, spiritually.... I just didn't feel right." From 1970–74, he did not perform, but continued to practice. In 1974, pianist Onaje Allan Gumbs introduced Jackson to Nichiren Buddhism and chanting. Although initially reluctant, Jackson decided to try it for three weeks. "Then three months had passed. It pulled me together and pulled me out and I was able to focus. I was a Buddhist and a vegetarian for 17 years." By 1975 he joined saxophonist Ornette Coleman's electric free funk band, Prime Time. During his stint in Prime Time, Coleman taught Jackson composition and harmolodics. Jackson says that Coleman told him he was hearing music "in that piccolo range," and encouraged him to compose on the flute. Jackson went to Paris with Prime Time in 1976 to perform concerts and record Dancing in Your Head and Body Meta. In 1978, Jackson played on four albums with pianist Cecil Taylor: Cecil Taylor Unit, 3 Phasis, Live in the Black Forest, and One Too Many Salty Swift and Not Goodbye. The Decoding Society and Other Projects (1979–1999) Jackson formed his band, The Decoding Society, in 1979, as a showcase for his blend of avant-garde jazz, rock, funk, and ethnic music. The instrumentation and arrangements, along with Jackson's compositions and drum style, brought The Decoding Society critical acclaim. Although considered to be part of the "new fusion" movement that emerged from Ornette Coleman's harmolodic concepts, Jackson was able to implement a voice of his own. The Decoding Society's music can be hot, savage, and danceable, or cool, gentle, and contemplative. American, Eastern, and African sounds are distilled under Jackson's guidance. Meters, feels, tempos, and stylistic references are heard throughout different compositions; many times within a single piece of music. Unlike many of Jackson's contemporaries, The Decoding Society incorporates pop music elements into its avant-garde approach. Guitarist Vernon Reid has said of Shannon that he "wasn't an ideological avant-gardist. He made the music he made from an outsider's view, but not to the exclusion of rock and pop – he wasn't mad at pop music for being popular the way some of his generation are. He synthesized blues shuffles with African syncopations through the lens of someone who gave vent to all manner of emotions…the collision of values in his music really represents American culture." Common characteristics among the incarnations of The Decoding Society include doubled instrumentation (basses, saxophones, or guitars). Polyphony often predominates harmony; compositions are not focused on one key. Polyphonic textures equalize harmony, rhythm, and melody, dispensing with traditional ideas of key and pitch. Each instrument can play a rhythmic, harmonic, or melodic role, or any combination of the three. The lines between solos, lead instruments, and accompaniment are blurred. Looseness in pitch and rhythm create heterophony within unison-based parts, which also adds to the tonal ambiguity. Melodies can alternate from busy, frenetic, multiple themes to simple, lazy, lyrical phrases. They often function as both heads and melodic material to accompany one or more soloist. Sometimes the melodies are diatonic, other times they are bluesy; occasionally they sound "Eastern". Although The Decoding Society is more of a composer's band rather than a vehicle for soloing or drumming, free-blowing solos abound, and Jackson's thunderous playing is heavily featured. Throughout the years, the Decoding Society has featured the performances of Akbar Ali, Bern Nix, Billy Bang, Byrad Lancaster, Cary Denigris, Charles Brackeen, David Fiuczynski, David Gordon, Tomchess, Dominic Richards, Eric Person, Henry Scott, Jef Lee Johnson, John Moody, Khan Jamal, Lee Rozie, Masujaa, Melvin Gibbs, Onaje Allan Gumbs, Reggie Washington, Reverend Bruce Johnson, Robin Eubanks, Vernon Reid, and Zane Massey. In addition to leading Decoding Society lineups, Jackson was involved in other projects. Guitarist and fellow Coleman alumnus James Blood Ulmer recruited Jackson for another group that intended to push harmolodics to a new level In 1986 Jackson, Sonny Sharrock, Peter Brötzmann, and Bill Laswell formed the free jazz supergroup, Last Exit, which performed and released five live albums and one studio album, before Sharrock's death in 1994 saw the end of the band. In the late 1980s, Jackson teamed up with Laswell on two other projects: SXL, with violinist L. Shankar, Senegalese drummer Aiyb Dieng, and Korean percussion group SamulNori, and the free jazz trio, Mooko, with Japanese saxophonist Akira Sakata. With the help of some grants, Jackson took a three-month trip to West Africa and visited nine countries. The trip, both a personal and artistic milestone, inspired music for the Decoding Society's When Colors Play, recorded live at the Caravan of Dreams in September 1986. Author Norman C. Weinstein detailed the excursion in a chapter of his book, A Night in Tunisia: Imaginings of Africa in Jazz, titled "Ronald Shannon Jackson: Journey to Africa Without End." In 1987, Jackson formed an avant-garde power trio with bassist Melvin Gibbs and guitarist Bill Frisell called Power Tools. They released and toured behind an album titled Strange Meeting. Writer Greg Tate referred to the project as "that awesome and under-sung Power Tools album…in my humble opinion, the most paradigm-shifting power trio record since Band of Gypsys." Later career (2000–2013) His output slowed in the early 2000s due to nerve damage in his left arm. After consulting with a neurologist, Jackson declined surgery and was able to regain his strength through years of physical therapy. Physical limitations did not diminish his output as a composer, and he unveiled new material on YouTube in 2012. Jackson joined trumpeter Wadada Leo Smith's Golden Quartet with pianist Vijay Iyer and double-bassist John Lindberg in 2005. Their collaboration is documented on the Tabligh CD and the Eclipse DVD. He played with the Punk Funk All Stars in 2006, which included Melvin Gibbs, Joseph Bowie, Vernon Reid, and James Blood Ulmer. In 2008 Jackson and Jamaaladeen Tacuma toured Europe with The Last Poets; this collaboration was documented in the film "The Last Poets / Made in Amerikkka" directed by Claude Santiago. In 2011 Jackson, Vernon Reid and Melvin Gibbs formed a power trio called Encryption. During their trip to the Moers Festival in Germany, Jackson suffered a heart attack and underwent an angioplasty. The next day, he checked himself out of the hospital to play with Reid and Gibbs at the festival. Afterwards, Jackson checked himself back in for medical observation. On July 7, 2012, Jackson performed at the Kessler Theater in Dallas with the latest version of the Decoding Society, which includes violinist Leonard Hayward, trumpeter John Weir, guitarist Gregg Prickett, and bassist Melvin Gibbs. The new compositions were described as being as strong as the best of his recorded work. The performance was voted as one of the Ten Best Concerts of 2012 in the Dallas Observer. Death Jackson died of leukemia on October 19, 2013, aged 73. Discography As leader Eye on You (About Time, 1980) Nasty (Moers Music, 1981) Street Priest (Moers, 1981) Mandance (Antilles, 1982) Barbeque Dog (Antilles, 1983) Montreux Jazz Festival (Knit Classics, 1983) Pulse (Celluloid, 1984) Decode Yourself (Island, 1985) Taboo (Venture/Virgin, 1981–83) Earned Dream (Knit Classics, 1984) Live at Greenwich House (Knit Classics, 1986) Live at the Caravan of Dreams (Caravan of Dreams, 1986) AKA Beast in the Spider Bush When Colors Play (Caravan of Dreams, 1986) Texas (Caravan of Dreams, 1987) Red Warrior (Axiom, 1990) Raven Roc (DIW, 1992) Live in Warsaw (Knit Classics, 1994) What Spirit Say (DIW, 1994) Shannon's House (Koch, 1996) (dates are recording, not release) With Last Exit Last Exit (Enemy, 1986) The Noise of Trouble (Enemy, 1986) with guests Akira Sakata and Herbie Hancock Cassette Recordings '87 (Celluloid, 1987) Iron Path (Virgin, 1988) Köln (ITM, 1990) Headfirst into the Flames (Muworks, 1993) As sideman With Albert Ayler At Slug's Saloon, vols. 1&2 (ESP, 1982) – rec. 1966 Holy Ghost: Rare & Unissued Recordings (1962–70) (Revenant, 2004) – rec. 1962–70 La Cave Live, Cleveland 1966 Revisited (ezz-thetics, 2022) – rec. 1966 With Ornette Coleman Dancing in Your Head (A&M, 1975) – rec. 1973–75 Body Meta (Artists House, 1975) With Music Revelation Ensemble No Wave (Moers Music, 1980) Music Revelation Ensemble (DIW, 1988) With SXL Live in Japan (Terrapin/Sony Japan, 1987) Into the Outlands (Celluloid, 1987) With Cecil Taylor Cecil Taylor Unit (New World, 1978) 3 Phasis (New World, 1978) One Too Many Salty Swift and Not Goodbye (hat Hut, 1978) Live in the Black Forest (MPS, 1978) With James Blood Ulmer Are You Glad to Be in America? (Rough Trade, 1980) America – Do You Remember the Love? (Blue Note, 1986) with others Bertrand Gallaz, Talk To You In A Minute (Plainisphare, 1993) Bill Laswell, Baselines (Elektra Musician, 1982) Mooko, Japan Concerts (Celluloid, 1988) Power Tools, Strange Meeting (Antilles, 1987) Wadada Leo Smith, Tabligh (Cuneiform, 2008) Charles Tyler, Charles Tyler Ensemble (ESP, 1966) John Zorn, Spillane (Nonesuch, 1987) – rec. 1986–87 References External links Category:Avant-garde jazz musicians Category:1940 births Category:2013 deaths Category:American jazz drummers Category:Jazz fusion drummers Category:People from Fort Worth, Texas Category:Antilles Records artists Category:Last Exit (free jazz band) members Category:DIW Records artists Category:Moers Music artists Category:Deaths from leukemia Category:Deaths from cancer in Texas Category:Jazz musicians from Texas Category:SXL (band) members Category:Knitting Factory Records artists Category:Prime Time (band) members
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C_70466913d5ff4f1badc0020514fd90cf_0
Ronald Shannon Jackson
Ronald Shannon Jackson (January 12, 1940 - October 19, 2013) was an American jazz drummer and composer from Fort Worth, Texas. A pioneer of avant-garde jazz, free funk, and jazz fusion, he appeared on over 50 albums as a bandleader, sideman, arranger, and producer. Jackson and bassist Sirone are the only musicians to have performed and recorded with the three prime shapers of free jazz: pianist Cecil Taylor, and saxophonists Ornette Coleman and Albert Ayler.
Later career (2000-2013)
His output slowed in the early 2000s due to nerve damage in his left arm. After consulting with a neurologist, Jackson declined surgery and was able to regain his strength through years of physical therapy. Physical limitations did not diminish his output as a composer, and he unveiled new material on YouTube in 2012. Jackson joined trumpeter Wadada Leo Smith's Golden Quartet with pianist Vijay Iyer and double-bassist John Lindberg in 2005. Their collaboration is documented on the Tabligh CD and the Eclipse DVD. He played with the Punk Funk All Stars in 2006, which included Melvin Gibbs, Joseph Bowie, Vernon Reid, and James Blood Ulmer. In 2008 Jackson and Jamaaladeen Tacuma toured Europe with The Last Poets; this collaboration was documented in the film "The Last Poets / Made in Amerikkka" directed by Claude Santiago. In 2011 Jackson, Vernon Reid and Melvin Gibbs formed a power trio called Encryption. During their trip to the Moers Festival in Germany, Jackson suffered a heart attack and underwent an angioplasty. The next day, he checked himself out of the hospital to play with Reid and Gibbs at the festival. Afterwards, Jackson checked himself back in for medical observation. On July 7, 2012, Jackson performed at the Kessler Theater in Dallas with the latest version of the Decoding Society, which includes violinist Leonard Hayward, trumpeter John Weir, guitarist Gregg Prickett, and bassist Melvin Gibbs. The new compositions were described as being as strong as the best of his recorded work. The performance was voted as one of the Ten Best Concerts of 2012 in the Dallas Observer. CANNOTANSWER
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Ronald Shannon Jackson (January 12, 1940 – October 19, 2013) was an American jazz drummer from Fort Worth, Texas. A pioneer of avant-garde jazz, free funk, and jazz fusion, he appeared on over 50 albums as a bandleader, sideman, arranger, and producer. Jackson and bassist Sirone are the only musicians to have performed and recorded with the three prime shapers of free jazz: pianist Cecil Taylor, and saxophonists Ornette Coleman and Albert Ayler. Musician, Player and Listener magazine writers David Breskin and Rafi Zabor called him "the most stately free-jazz drummer in the history of the idiom, a regal and thundering presence." Gary Giddins wrote "Jackson is an astounding drummer, as everyone agrees…he has emerged as a kind of all-purpose new-music connoisseur who brings a profound and unshakably individual approach to every playing situation." In 1979, he founded his own group, the Decoding Society, playing what has been dubbed free funk: a blend of funk rhythm and free jazz improvisation. Early life and career Jackson was born in Fort Worth, Texas. As a child, he was immersed in music. His father monopolized the local jukebox business and established the only African American-owned record store in the Fort Worth area. His mother played piano and organ at their local church. Between the ages of five and nine he took piano lessons. In the third grade, he studied music with John Carter. Jackson graduated from I.M. Terrell High School, where he played with the marching band and learned about symphonic percussion. During lunch breaks, students would conduct jam sessions in the band room. Around the same time, Jackson's mother bought him his first drum set to encourage him to graduate from high school. By the age of 15, he was playing professionally. His first paid gig was with tenor saxophonist James Clay, who went on to join Ray Charles as a sideman. Jackson recalled that "we were playing four nights a week, with two gigs each on Saturday and Sunday, anything from Ray Charles to bebop. People were dancing, and when it was time to listen, they'd listen. But I was brainwashed into thinking you couldn't make a living playing music." After graduation, Jackson attended Lincoln University in Jefferson City, Missouri. He chose Lincoln because of its proximity to St. Louis and accessibility to great musicians touring the Midwest. His roommate was pianist John Hicks. As undergraduates, they "spent as much time performing together as studying." The Lincoln University band included Jackson, Hicks, trumpeter Lester Bowie, and Julius Hemphill on saxophone. Jackson then transferred to Texas Southern University, and from there went to Prairie View A & M. He decided to study history and sociology at the University of Bridgeport in Connecticut. Jackson intended not to play music at all, but after exposure to various artists and styles, he concluded that "the beat is in your body" and "the music you play comes from your life." By 1966, Jackson received a full music scholarship to New York University through trumpeter Kenny Dorham. New York and the Avant-Garde (1966–1978) Once in New York, Jackson performed with many jazz musicians, including Charles Mingus, Betty Carter, Jackie McLean, Joe Henderson, Kenny Dorham, McCoy Tyner, Stanley Turrentine, and others. Whenever he would ask Charles Mingus to consider him for his group, Mingus used to push him "rudely out of his way". After Jackson sat in with pianist Toshiko Akiyoshi, he heard loud clapping behind him. It was Mingus, who asked him to play with his band. In 1966 Jackson recorded drums for saxophonist Charles Tyler's release, Charles Tyler Ensemble. Between 1966 and 1967, he played with saxophonist Albert Ayler and is featured on At Slug's Saloon, Vol. 1 & 2. He is also on disks 3 and 4 of Ayler's Holy Ghost: Rare & Unissued Recordings (1962–70). Jackson said Ayler was "the first (leader) that really opened me up. He let me play the drums the way I did in Fort Worth when I wasn't playing for other people." John Coltrane's death in July 1967 devastated Jackson. He spent the next few years addicted to heroin. He said, "I couldn't play drums then, spiritually.... I just didn't feel right." From 1970–74, he did not perform, but continued to practice. In 1974, pianist Onaje Allan Gumbs introduced Jackson to Nichiren Buddhism and chanting. Although initially reluctant, Jackson decided to try it for three weeks. "Then three months had passed. It pulled me together and pulled me out and I was able to focus. I was a Buddhist and a vegetarian for 17 years." By 1975 he joined saxophonist Ornette Coleman's electric free funk band, Prime Time. During his stint in Prime Time, Coleman taught Jackson composition and harmolodics. Jackson says that Coleman told him he was hearing music "in that piccolo range," and encouraged him to compose on the flute. Jackson went to Paris with Prime Time in 1976 to perform concerts and record Dancing in Your Head and Body Meta. In 1978, Jackson played on four albums with pianist Cecil Taylor: Cecil Taylor Unit, 3 Phasis, Live in the Black Forest, and One Too Many Salty Swift and Not Goodbye. The Decoding Society and Other Projects (1979–1999) Jackson formed his band, The Decoding Society, in 1979, as a showcase for his blend of avant-garde jazz, rock, funk, and ethnic music. The instrumentation and arrangements, along with Jackson's compositions and drum style, brought The Decoding Society critical acclaim. Although considered to be part of the "new fusion" movement that emerged from Ornette Coleman's harmolodic concepts, Jackson was able to implement a voice of his own. The Decoding Society's music can be hot, savage, and danceable, or cool, gentle, and contemplative. American, Eastern, and African sounds are distilled under Jackson's guidance. Meters, feels, tempos, and stylistic references are heard throughout different compositions; many times within a single piece of music. Unlike many of Jackson's contemporaries, The Decoding Society incorporates pop music elements into its avant-garde approach. Guitarist Vernon Reid has said of Shannon that he "wasn't an ideological avant-gardist. He made the music he made from an outsider's view, but not to the exclusion of rock and pop – he wasn't mad at pop music for being popular the way some of his generation are. He synthesized blues shuffles with African syncopations through the lens of someone who gave vent to all manner of emotions…the collision of values in his music really represents American culture." Common characteristics among the incarnations of The Decoding Society include doubled instrumentation (basses, saxophones, or guitars). Polyphony often predominates harmony; compositions are not focused on one key. Polyphonic textures equalize harmony, rhythm, and melody, dispensing with traditional ideas of key and pitch. Each instrument can play a rhythmic, harmonic, or melodic role, or any combination of the three. The lines between solos, lead instruments, and accompaniment are blurred. Looseness in pitch and rhythm create heterophony within unison-based parts, which also adds to the tonal ambiguity. Melodies can alternate from busy, frenetic, multiple themes to simple, lazy, lyrical phrases. They often function as both heads and melodic material to accompany one or more soloist. Sometimes the melodies are diatonic, other times they are bluesy; occasionally they sound "Eastern". Although The Decoding Society is more of a composer's band rather than a vehicle for soloing or drumming, free-blowing solos abound, and Jackson's thunderous playing is heavily featured. Throughout the years, the Decoding Society has featured the performances of Akbar Ali, Bern Nix, Billy Bang, Byrad Lancaster, Cary Denigris, Charles Brackeen, David Fiuczynski, David Gordon, Tomchess, Dominic Richards, Eric Person, Henry Scott, Jef Lee Johnson, John Moody, Khan Jamal, Lee Rozie, Masujaa, Melvin Gibbs, Onaje Allan Gumbs, Reggie Washington, Reverend Bruce Johnson, Robin Eubanks, Vernon Reid, and Zane Massey. In addition to leading Decoding Society lineups, Jackson was involved in other projects. Guitarist and fellow Coleman alumnus James Blood Ulmer recruited Jackson for another group that intended to push harmolodics to a new level In 1986 Jackson, Sonny Sharrock, Peter Brötzmann, and Bill Laswell formed the free jazz supergroup, Last Exit, which performed and released five live albums and one studio album, before Sharrock's death in 1994 saw the end of the band. In the late 1980s, Jackson teamed up with Laswell on two other projects: SXL, with violinist L. Shankar, Senegalese drummer Aiyb Dieng, and Korean percussion group SamulNori, and the free jazz trio, Mooko, with Japanese saxophonist Akira Sakata. With the help of some grants, Jackson took a three-month trip to West Africa and visited nine countries. The trip, both a personal and artistic milestone, inspired music for the Decoding Society's When Colors Play, recorded live at the Caravan of Dreams in September 1986. Author Norman C. Weinstein detailed the excursion in a chapter of his book, A Night in Tunisia: Imaginings of Africa in Jazz, titled "Ronald Shannon Jackson: Journey to Africa Without End." In 1987, Jackson formed an avant-garde power trio with bassist Melvin Gibbs and guitarist Bill Frisell called Power Tools. They released and toured behind an album titled Strange Meeting. Writer Greg Tate referred to the project as "that awesome and under-sung Power Tools album…in my humble opinion, the most paradigm-shifting power trio record since Band of Gypsys." Later career (2000–2013) His output slowed in the early 2000s due to nerve damage in his left arm. After consulting with a neurologist, Jackson declined surgery and was able to regain his strength through years of physical therapy. Physical limitations did not diminish his output as a composer, and he unveiled new material on YouTube in 2012. Jackson joined trumpeter Wadada Leo Smith's Golden Quartet with pianist Vijay Iyer and double-bassist John Lindberg in 2005. Their collaboration is documented on the Tabligh CD and the Eclipse DVD. He played with the Punk Funk All Stars in 2006, which included Melvin Gibbs, Joseph Bowie, Vernon Reid, and James Blood Ulmer. In 2008 Jackson and Jamaaladeen Tacuma toured Europe with The Last Poets; this collaboration was documented in the film "The Last Poets / Made in Amerikkka" directed by Claude Santiago. In 2011 Jackson, Vernon Reid and Melvin Gibbs formed a power trio called Encryption. During their trip to the Moers Festival in Germany, Jackson suffered a heart attack and underwent an angioplasty. The next day, he checked himself out of the hospital to play with Reid and Gibbs at the festival. Afterwards, Jackson checked himself back in for medical observation. On July 7, 2012, Jackson performed at the Kessler Theater in Dallas with the latest version of the Decoding Society, which includes violinist Leonard Hayward, trumpeter John Weir, guitarist Gregg Prickett, and bassist Melvin Gibbs. The new compositions were described as being as strong as the best of his recorded work. The performance was voted as one of the Ten Best Concerts of 2012 in the Dallas Observer. Death Jackson died of leukemia on October 19, 2013, aged 73. Discography As leader Eye on You (About Time, 1980) Nasty (Moers Music, 1981) Street Priest (Moers, 1981) Mandance (Antilles, 1982) Barbeque Dog (Antilles, 1983) Montreux Jazz Festival (Knit Classics, 1983) Pulse (Celluloid, 1984) Decode Yourself (Island, 1985) Taboo (Venture/Virgin, 1981–83) Earned Dream (Knit Classics, 1984) Live at Greenwich House (Knit Classics, 1986) Live at the Caravan of Dreams (Caravan of Dreams, 1986) AKA Beast in the Spider Bush When Colors Play (Caravan of Dreams, 1986) Texas (Caravan of Dreams, 1987) Red Warrior (Axiom, 1990) Raven Roc (DIW, 1992) Live in Warsaw (Knit Classics, 1994) What Spirit Say (DIW, 1994) Shannon's House (Koch, 1996) (dates are recording, not release) With Last Exit Last Exit (Enemy, 1986) The Noise of Trouble (Enemy, 1986) with guests Akira Sakata and Herbie Hancock Cassette Recordings '87 (Celluloid, 1987) Iron Path (Virgin, 1988) Köln (ITM, 1990) Headfirst into the Flames (Muworks, 1993) As sideman With Albert Ayler At Slug's Saloon, vols. 1&2 (ESP, 1982) – rec. 1966 Holy Ghost: Rare & Unissued Recordings (1962–70) (Revenant, 2004) – rec. 1962–70 La Cave Live, Cleveland 1966 Revisited (ezz-thetics, 2022) – rec. 1966 With Ornette Coleman Dancing in Your Head (A&M, 1975) – rec. 1973–75 Body Meta (Artists House, 1975) With Music Revelation Ensemble No Wave (Moers Music, 1980) Music Revelation Ensemble (DIW, 1988) With SXL Live in Japan (Terrapin/Sony Japan, 1987) Into the Outlands (Celluloid, 1987) With Cecil Taylor Cecil Taylor Unit (New World, 1978) 3 Phasis (New World, 1978) One Too Many Salty Swift and Not Goodbye (hat Hut, 1978) Live in the Black Forest (MPS, 1978) With James Blood Ulmer Are You Glad to Be in America? (Rough Trade, 1980) America – Do You Remember the Love? (Blue Note, 1986) with others Bertrand Gallaz, Talk To You In A Minute (Plainisphare, 1993) Bill Laswell, Baselines (Elektra Musician, 1982) Mooko, Japan Concerts (Celluloid, 1988) Power Tools, Strange Meeting (Antilles, 1987) Wadada Leo Smith, Tabligh (Cuneiform, 2008) Charles Tyler, Charles Tyler Ensemble (ESP, 1966) John Zorn, Spillane (Nonesuch, 1987) – rec. 1986–87 References External links Category:Avant-garde jazz musicians Category:1940 births Category:2013 deaths Category:American jazz drummers Category:Jazz fusion drummers Category:People from Fort Worth, Texas Category:Antilles Records artists Category:Last Exit (free jazz band) members Category:DIW Records artists Category:Moers Music artists Category:Deaths from leukemia Category:Deaths from cancer in Texas Category:Jazz musicians from Texas Category:SXL (band) members Category:Knitting Factory Records artists Category:Prime Time (band) members
[]
[ "In his late career, Jackson played with trumpeter Wadada Leo Smith's Golden Quartet which included pianist Vijay Iyer and double-bassist John Lindberg. He also played with the Punk Funk All Stars in 2006, which included Melvin Gibbs, Joseph Bowie, Vernon Reid, and James Blood Ulmer. Furthermore, he performed with Jamaaladeen Tacuma and The Last Poets in 2008. Additionally, Jackson formed a power trio called Encryption with Vernon Reid and Melvin Gibbs in 2011. In 2012, he performed at the Kessler Theater in Dallas with the latest version of the Decoding Society, which included violinist Leonard Hayward, trumpeter John Weir, guitarist Gregg Prickett, and bassist Melvin Gibbs.", "The context does not provide information on whether or not Jackson won any awards for his playing.", "The context does not provide information on how Jackson died.", "The context does not provide information on any tributes made to Jackson.", "In his later career, Jackson composed new material which he unveiled on YouTube in 2012. He also toured Europe with Jamaaladeen Tacuma and The Last Poets in 2008, a collaboration documented in the film \"The Last Poets / Made in Amerikkka.\" Jackson formed the power trio Encryption in 2011 and performed at the Moers Festival in Germany that same year. He also performed at the Kessler Theater in Dallas in 2012 with the Decoding Society. The performance was quite acclaimed and was even voted as one of the Ten Best Concerts of 2012 in the Dallas Observer.", "The context does not provide information on which instruments Jackson played during his later career.", "The article highlights Jackson's resilience and dedication to his music, despite facing physical challenges due to nerve damage in his left arm. Instead of undergoing surgery, he chose physical therapy and was able to regain his strength and continue his career. Even after experiencing a heart attack in 2011, he still managed to check himself out of the hospital to perform at a festival in Germany before returning for medical observation. The new material that he composed and unveiled on YouTube in 2012, and his performance with the Decoding Society at the Kessler Theater in Dallas that same year, were very well-received. The latter was even included among the Ten Best Concerts of 2012 in the Dallas Observer. Jackson's collaborations with various artists across his later career are also notable.", "The context does not provide specific information on how many compositions Jackson made." ]
[ "Yes", "no", "No", "No", "Yes", "no", "Yes", "No" ]
C_038e07a342214f3782efcc73cdfcf376_0
Ted Gärdestad
Ted Arnbjorn Gardestad (Swedish pronunciation: [ted 2jae:de,sta:d]) (18 February 1956 - 22 June 1997) was a Swedish singer, songwriter, musician and actor known internationally as Ted. Gardestad began his acting career in 1966 and began playing music in 1971, signing with Polar Music. Assigned with in-house producers Benny Andersson and Bjorn Ulvaeus, Gardestad released his first single, "Hela varlden runt," in late 1971 and worked closely with the four members of ABBA to create his debut album Undringar (1972). As Polar Music's best-selling solo artist (aside from ABBA), he continued to work with the group members throughout the 1970s, releasing three more albums Ted (1973), Upptag (1974) and Franska Kort (1976), which were moderately successful.
Palme assassination rumours
Shortly after Gardestad's return to Sweden in 1986, the Prime Minister of Sweden, Olof Palme, was murdered. Gardestad was wrongly mentioned in the Swedish media as "the 33-year-old", a suspect in the investigation of the assassination, which severely affected him although Gardestad was on vacation in Greece at the time of the murder, and although he was never questioned by the Swedish police nor was under suspicion by the authorities, the speculations and rumours followed him and his family for the rest of the 1980s. A few years later, he was again the subject of rumours accusing him of being Lasermannen, a bank robber and serial killer. The rumours affected the sensitive and already unstable former star, and Gardestad withdrew and fell into a deep depression. In the early 1990s, Gardestad was briefly coaxed out of retirement by his friend and fellow Swedish pop singer Harpo. He joined Harpo on a concert tour and made guest appearances. In 1992, they released the duet "Lycka" ("Happiness") as a single; it garnered little attention but marked Gardestad's return to music. Early that year he embarked on his first tour since 1978 and played a series of dates with Plura Jonsson, Tove Naess, Totta Naslund and Dan Hylander, and received overall positive reviews from the press. In 1993, a compilation album titled Kalendarium 1972-93 was promoted by a tour in the Swedish folkparks; the album and tour were successful, as was his first composition in twelve years, "For karlekens skull" ("For Love's Sake"), which topped the Svensktoppen chart. The Kalendarium collection included a Swedish-language re-recording of the title track from Blue Virgin Isles, "Himlen ar oskyldigt bla" ("The Sky is Innocently Blue"), which fifteen years after its original release became another Svensktoppen hit, and became one of his best-known songs. In early 1994, Kalendarium 1972-93 was awarded a platinum disc. All of Gardestad's albums from the 1970s and early 1980s, with the exception of Blue Virgin Isles, were re-released on CD by Polar, and a generation of Swedes who grew up listening to his music now re-discovered and re-evaluated his back catalogue as adults. His body of work has since come to be regarded as a national treasure as important as those of Evert Taube, Carl Michael Bellman and Cornelis Vreeswijk both by fans and Swedish music critics. CANNOTANSWER
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Ted Arnbjörn Gärdestad (; 18 February 195622 June 1997) was a Swedish singer, songwriter, musician and actor known internationally as Ted. Gärdestad began his acting career in 1966 and began playing music in 1971, signing with Polar Music. Assigned with in-house producers Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus, Gärdestad released his first single, "Hela världen runt," in late 1971 and worked closely with the four members of ABBA to create his debut album Undringar (1972). As Polar Music's best-selling solo artist (aside from ABBA), he continued to work with the group members throughout the 1970s, releasing three more albums Ted (1973), Upptåg (1974) and Franska Kort (1976), which were moderately successful. In 1978, Gärdestad released his first English-language album, Blue Virgin Isles, which did not have success internationally, as his predecessor albums had in his home country. In 1979, Ted and his brother Kenneth Gärdestad played at Melodifestivalen, the competition to select Sweden's entry for the Eurovision Song Contest, with the song "Satellit." They won the competition which allowed them to represent Sweden at Eurovision held in Jerusalem. Gärdestad attempted once more to enter a song at Melodifestivalen but was unsuccessful. He left the music industry shortly thereafter, to try acting. By the 1990s, he played with other musicians such as Harpo. Gärdestad toured extensively starting in 1994 until he committed suicide in 1997. A biographical film about Gärdestad was released in 2018, called Ted: För kärlekens skull. Early life Ted Arnbjörn Gärdestad was born to Arne (1923–2016) and Margit Gärdestad (née Sjöholm; 1921–2008) on 18 February 1956 in Sollentuna, Stockholm County. He was the youngest of three siblings and had two older brothers; Kjell (1944–2000) and Kenneth (1948–2018). The family lived in Sollentuna during Ted's childhood. Career 1962–1974 Ted Gärdestad began his career as a musician in 1962, playing accordion on Swedish television at the age of six years. His debuted as an actor in 1966 when he landed a part in the television advent calendar series En småstad vid seklets början (A Small Town at the Turn of the Century). In 1970, Gärdestad had a minor role in the American film Story of a Woman alongside Bibi Andersson, Robert Stack and James Farentino. Gärdestad was also a promising tennis player. At 14 he ranked second in his age group in Sweden after Björn Borg, and once considered a career as a professional tennis player but instead chose a career in music. In 1971, 15-year-old Ted and his eight-year-older brother Kenneth Gärdestad contacted the record company Polar Music and showed an audition tape to Stig "Stikkan" Anderson, who would later manage the pop group ABBA. Ted was composer and singer, while Kenneth wrote lyrics to Ted's melodies, a collaboration that continued throughout Ted's career. Anderson subsequently signed Ted to the label and assigned him to in-house producers Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus. Debut single In late 1971, Gärdestad released his first single, the gospel-influenced "Hela världen runt" ("All Over the World"). The follow-up single, an acoustic ballad "Jag vill ha en egen måne" ("I Want a Moon of My Own"), a song he wrote at age 12, brought him to the attention of the Swedish public. He quickly became the country's first teen idol, touring at folkparks. Andersson and Ulvaeus produced Ted's debut album Undringar ("Wonderings"), which was released on Polar Music in early 1972, with Agnetha Fältskog and Anni-Frid Lyngstad providing backing vocals. All four members of ABBA continued to work with Gärdestad in throughout the 1970s. His albums Undringar (1972), Ted (1973), Upptåg (1974) and Franska Kort (1976) were produced with the same recording and production techniques, engineers (including Michael B. Tretow) and musicians, as contemporaneous ABBA recordings. In February 1973, Gärdestad entered Melodifestivalen 1973, the competition to select Sweden's entry for the Eurovision Song Contest. The song "Oh, vilken härlig dag" ("Oh What a Lovely Day") came joint fourth. A quartet known as Björn & Benny, Agnetha & Anni-Frid finished third with a song called "Ring Ring (Bara du slog en signal)." Gärdestad had another attempt in Melodifestivalen 1975 with the song "Rockin' 'n' Reelin'"; Svenne and Lotta placed third with "Bang-A-Boomerang" and Gärdestad finished seventh but the song became a hit single on radio charts Svensktoppen, Heta Högen and Kvällstoppen. Gärdestad and his brother Kenneth returned to Melodifestivalen in 1977 and performed the song "Det bästa som finns" ("The Best of All") with Polar Music labelmate Lena Andersson. They finished eighth out of ten entries, and Gärdestad did not record the track. 1975–1979 By 1975, Ted had become a noted star in Sweden. He was prominently featured in teen magazines Starlet, Mitt Livs Novell and Poster, his love life was covered by the national newspapers, he had a fan club, and all of his albums were certificated gold and sold well in the rest of Scandinavia. Aside from Bjorn, Benny, Agnetha & Anni-Frid/ABBA and Anni-Frid Lyngstad he was Polar Music's best-selling artist. Stikkan had plans to launch him internationally and Ted recorded both Swedish and English versions of "Rockin' 'n' Reelin'" as well as an English version of an earlier hit, "Jag ska fånga en ängel" ("I'm Going to Catch An Angel"), with the title "Gonna Make You My Angel," the latter with lyrics by Gary Osborne; neither were a significant hit. Australian pop singer Mark Holden did, however, have a major success in Australia with "Jag ska fånga en ängel" under the title "I Wanna Make You My Lady" in 1976. By 1977, Gärdestad was faced with a dilemma common to many child stars and teen idols; as he grew up so did his audiences. The time of teen mania and screaming crowds in the folkparks was declining and Polar in-house producers Björn and Benny, who had played an important part in his early success were now busy writing, producing and promoting ABBA and could no longer give Gärdestad or other Polar artists their full attention. 1975 resulted in the release of one single, the Melodifestivalen entry "Rockin' 'n' Reelin'." In 1976, the label released the album Franska Kort ("French Cards" – an expression for a fairly innocent type of late 19th-century pornography), only partly recorded with Björn and Benny and co-produced by Tretow and Janne Schaffer. The album produced hit singles "Angela," "Chapeau-Claque" (French for top hat), "När showen är slut" ("When the Show is Over") and "Klöversnoa," a novelty folk dance parody with Benny and Gärdestad playing accordion. The album peaked at No. 3, making it his first album not to top the Swedish charts, and it left the chart after 22 weeks, a moderate success compared to his previous releases. In 1977, ABBA and most of the Polar Music crew including musicians and sound engineers went on their first world tour, making ABBA: The Movie and recording ABBA: The Album – as an indirect result, Gärdestad did not release an album that year. International career Stig Anderson still thought Gärdestad had some international potential, and he and his brother Kenneth travelled to Hollywood in late 1977 to record Gärdestad's first English-language album Blue Virgin Isles. The west coast rock orientated album featured contributions from American and English musicians including Jeff Porcaro, Steve Porcaro, Jim Keltner, David Hungate, Jay Graydon, Dr. John and John Mayall, many of whom were Gärdestad's personal idols. Blue Virgin Isles was released worldwide in late 1978 on Epic Records, and produced the singles "Take Me Back To Hollywood," an English version of "Chapeau-Clacque," and "Love, You're Making All The Fools". Despite the expensive production and the big push to launch Gärdestad—including promotional appearances alongside ABBA—his Swedish success did not translate internationally. In Sweden, the album peaked at No. 29 and spent one week on the chart. Thirty years after its original release, Blue Virgin Isles remains Gärdestad 's only studio album that has not been re-released on CD by Polar Music/PolyGram/Universal Music Group. 1980s In early 1979, Ted and Kenneth Gärdestad had a fourth attempt at Melodifestivalen and won with the song "Satellit," a mid-tempo rock track whose arrangement bore resemblances to Toto's 1978 hit "Hold the Line". The similarities caused speculation of plagiarism in the Swedish media and disqualification from the contest. The connection between the two songs was that the song's producer Janne Schaffer had heard four of the future Toto members, Steve Porcaro, Jeff Porcaro, David Hungate and Steve Lukather, experimenting with a guitar and bass riff during the Blue Virgin Isles sessions in Los Angeles, which eventually evolved into "Hold the Line." Schaffer was inspired by what he had heard when he wrote the arrangement for "Satellit," but at that point neither "Hold the Line" nor Toto's debut eponymous album had been released. Jeff Porcaro told Swedish newspaper Aftonbladet in February 1979: "No, it's not a rip-off, Ted did not steal our song. Those piano triplets and that bass and guitar line go back to the 1950s and the fact that we both have happened to use variations on the same theme in our songs right now is purely coincidental." Consequently, Ted represented Sweden at the Eurovision Song Contest held in Jerusalem in March 1979. After having competed four times in the pre-selection before winning and with his personal connection to ABBA, hopes and expectations were high. The song scored eight points and finished seventeenth out of nineteen participating entries, making it Sweden's then-second-lowest placing in the contest. The Swedish-language single became a Top 10 hit back home in Sweden and "Satellit" is regarded as one of Ted's signature tunes. The English-language version of the track never charted and neither did the re-issue of Blue Virgin Isles, which included both versions, making it clear that Ted's Scandinavian audiences favoured his Swedish-language material. After an unsuccessful return to Melodifestivalen in 1980, with "Låt solen värma dig" ("Let the Sun Warm You") with then girlfriend Annica Boller and disappointing sales of his 1981 album Stormvarning (#31, 2 weeks)—which was internationally released as I'd Rather Write a Symphony on the Polydor label in a few countries and equally overlooked—Gärdestad left the music scene at the age of 25. Later work Having left the music business, Gärdestad made a brief and unsuccessful attempt at acting and shortly thereafter began exploring meditation and Eastern religions. He became involved with the Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh (also known as Osho) movement and publicly renounced his earlier life. In an interview with Swedish newspaper Aftonbladet in mid-1983, he said he no longer wanted to be addressed as "Ted Gärdestad," his name was now Swami Sangit Upasani. Like all Bhagwan disciples, he wore clothes in a specific shade of orange. Gärdestad distanced himself from his friends in the music business and his family as his involvement in the movement gradually took over his life, affecting his personality. In June 1983, one month before his second child with actress Ann Zacharias was born, he unexpectedly left his family and friends and moved to the movement's headquarters in Oregon, United States. Three years later, after Rajneesh was convicted for immigration fraud, tax evasion, embezzlement of his disciples' funds and bioterror attacks on the citizens of The Dalles and subsequently deported from the US, Gärdestad's family persuaded him to move back to Sweden. His severe mental health problems became increasingly apparent. Palme assassination rumours Shortly after Gärdestad's return to Sweden in 1986, the Prime Minister of Sweden, Olof Palme, was murdered. Gärdestad was wrongly mentioned in the Swedish media as "the 33-year-old," a suspect in the investigation of the assassination, which severely affected him although Gärdestad was on vacation in Greece at the time of the murder, and although he was never questioned by the Swedish police nor was under suspicion by the authorities, the speculations and rumours followed him and his family for the rest of the 1980s. A few years later, he was again the subject of rumours accusing him of being Lasermannen, a bank robber and serial killer. The rumours affected the sensitive and already unstable former star, and Gärdestad withdrew and fell into a deep depression. 1990s In the early 1990s, Gärdestad was briefly coaxed out of retirement by his friend and fellow Swedish pop singer Harpo. He joined Harpo on a concert tour and made guest appearances. In 1992, they released the duet "Lycka" ("Happiness") as a single; it garnered little attention but marked Gärdestad's return to music. Early that year he embarked on his first tour since 1978 and played a series of dates with Plura Jonsson, Tove Naess, Totta Näslund and Dan Hylander, and received overall positive reviews from the press. In 1993, a compilation album titled Kalendarium 1972–93 was promoted by a tour in the Swedish folkparks; the album and tour were successful, as was his first composition in twelve years, "För kärlekens skull" ("For Love's Sake"), which topped the Svensktoppen chart. The Kalendarium collection included a Swedish-language re-recording of the title track from Blue Virgin Isles, "Himlen är oskyldigt blå" ("The Sky is Innocently Blue"), which fifteen years after its original release became another Svensktoppen hit, and became one of his best-known songs. In early 1994, Kalendarium 1972–93 was awarded a platinum disc. All of Gärdestad's albums from the 1970s and early 1980s, with the exception of Blue Virgin Isles, were re-released on CD by Polar, and a generation of Swedes who grew up listening to his music now re-discovered and re-evaluated his back catalogue as adults. His body of work has since come to be regarded as a national treasure as important as those of Evert Taube, Carl Michael Bellman and Cornelis Vreeswijk both by fans and Swedish music critics. Last years and death The following year, Gärdestad released a full-length album of new material titled Äntligen på väg (Finally on the Road) on Polar, which was produced by the longtime friend Janne Schaffer. The album included contributions from ABBA drummer Per Lindvall, Björn J:son Lindh, Gladys del Pilar and Marie Bergman, and other renowned Swedish musicians. It spawned a series of singles including "Ge en sol" ("Give a Sun"), "Om du ville ha mig" ("If You Wanted Me"), "I min radio" ("On My Radio") and "Hon är kvinnan" ("She's the Woman"), all of which entered the Svensktoppen chart. The lyrics were light, harmonious and hopeful, and Gärdestad's future seemed more positive; his name was finally cleared, he remarried and he was back to making music. He made several television appearances promoting Äntligen på väg album and performed an acoustic concert on ZTV. He toured extensively all through 1994, 1995 and 1996. On 22 June 1997, at the age of 41, Gärdestad committed suicide by jumping in front of a train. The only colleagues from his musical career to attend his funeral were Schaffer, J:son Lindh, Tretow, Barbro 'Lill-Babs' Svensson and Agnetha Fältskog. Health problems After Gärdestad's death, his brother Kenneth spoke to the press and in a book about Gärdestad's mental health problems during the last decade of his life. In the biography Jag vill ha en egen måne, published eight years after his brother's death, Kenneth said Gärdestad had had anxiety since his late teens, and that Kenneth had become convinced that as an adult Gärdestad had paranoid schizophrenia, which he thought had been aggravated by his time with the Bhagwan movement, the press coverage and the subsequent public persecution following the murder of Olof Palme and the Lasermannen case. In the 2005 biography on Gärdestad, Schaffer said he attended a dinner party in the late 1990s with a large number of Swedish dignitaries, including leading politicians, statesmen, representatives of the diplomatic corps, and the chief editor of Sweden's largest daily newspaper Dagens Nyheter, who said in front of all the prominent guests: "You know that it's your pal Ted Gärdestad who murdered Olof Palme, don't you?" Schaffer immediately left the dinner party. In the biography, Kenneth Gärdestad also said Ted's condition was never properly diagnosed during his lifetime and he did not receive the medical or psychotherapeutic treatment that could have saved his life. Musicianship Songwriting Musically Ted's songs combined the heritage of the Scandinavian acoustic and narrative visa tradition with influences from the British-American singer-songwriter wave of the late 1960s and early 1970s, but his repertoire also included a wide variety of genre exercises including pastiches of swing, jazz, ragtime, boogie-woogie, reggae, country and western, French chanson, Swedish folk music as well as contemporary English and American pop, rock, soul and R&B. Following musicians and songwriters of their generation, both brothers were fans of the Beatles and influenced by the fact that John Lennon and Paul McCartney wrote their own material and played it themselves, which was revolutionary at that time. The early Swedish albums with Ted all also contain one or two English-language tracks, usually slightly rougher and rockier than the rest of the material and many of them featuring Schaffer on electric guitars. Lyrically the songs reflected the world of an average young teenager, no longer a child but not yet an adult, and his personal development; the dreams, hopes and desires as well as the fears and frustrations, infatuation and rejection ("När du kommer," "Räcker jag till"), existential ponderings ("Universum," "Snurra du min värld," "Gitarren och jag") alongside typical adolescent fantasies and daydreams of historical figures such as the Vikings ("Viking"), "Buffalo Bill," Goliath ("Goliat från Gat") or becoming a super hero like "The Phantom" ("Fantomen"), and naturally, as with most teenagers, also playful hints at an increased interest in the opposite sex. His Melodifestivalen entry "Oh vilken härlig dag" for instance includes phrases such as "I snuck down to the lake, to spy on you when you went skinnydipping" and "I ran naked in the blazing sun", and "And I could see what you're hiding under your skirt"; a line that was considered risqué when sung by a seventeen-year-old boy in the pre-selection for the Eurovision Song Contest in 1973. Despite the fact that all lyrics were the work of Ted's eight-year-older brother Kenneth and not Ted himself, they were specifically written to reflect Ted's personality and his world, and the feelings of a teenager, not those of his older brother. Similar to Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus during the ABBA era, Ted wrote faux-English demo lyrics when he composed his songs and it was subsequently Kenneth's task to write proper Swedish lyrics while staying true to Ted's original idea for a particular song. Kenneth spent a considerable amount of time getting the words exactly as Ted wanted them, with the right number of syllables to the bar, rhymes and alliterations emphasizing the rhythm of the music and choosing words suitable for a boy in his teens, occasionally including slang expressions. Like sound engineer Michael B. Tretow, Ted was also known for his prankish sense of humour; he was a big fan of Monty Python's Flying Circus and loved practical jokes, which also is reflected in the lyrics in the form of puns, word play, and double entendres. Kenneth's skills as a lyricist paradoxically resulted in the fact that some of Ted's audiences, in the 1970s and even to the present day, were under the impression that he wrote both the music and all lyrics, which Kenneth has since revealed that he only took as recognition that he had done Ted's music justice and it was the best compliment that he could get. Legacy A scholarship was set up in Gärdestad's name in 1997 to promote unsigned singer-songwriters and is awarded annually along with a tribute concert. In 2005, a musical based around Gärdestad's songs called Sol, vind och vatten opened in Stockholm. Also in 2005, Gärdestad's brother Kenneth wrote a biography about Ted's life called Jag vill ha en egen måne, named after his breakthrough single. It includes extensive interviews with Gärdestad's family and close friends, including tennis player Björn Borg, actor Per Ragnar, guitarist Staffan Astner, pianist Robert Wells, sound engineer Lennart Östlund, photographer Barry B. Levine, hockey player Mats Ulander, and his former girlfriend actress Ann Zacharias. In 2006, British bassist Andy Bell, noted founding member of Ride and former Oasis member, at the time living in Sweden and a great admirer of Ted's work, took part in the annual tribute concert held in Stockholm. On 16 October 2006, Kenneth received a special award from SKAP, The Swedish Society of Popular Music Composers, for his "outstanding contributions to Swedish performing arts as a lyricist," in memory of his brother Ted. In popular culture On 11 September 2012, Sweden's central bank, the Riksbank, announced a new series of coins to replace the 1 and 5 kronor coins which came into circulation in October 2016. The design of the coins follow the theme of Gärdestad's song, "Sol, vind och vatten" (English: "Sun, wind and water"), with the designs depicting the elements on the reverse side of the coins. This included the reintroduction of the 2 kronor coin. The coins also have a new portrait of King Carl XVI Gustaf. On 3 January 2018, the feature film Ted – För kärlekens skull, a biopic about Gärdestad, premiered. Covering parts of his life from the breakthrough in the 1970s to his comeback in the 1990s, the film stars actor Adam Pålsson (a former singer who sings all the song parts himself) in the role as Ted, and was directed by Academy Award nominee Hannes Holm. Re-releases, compilations and covers Fifteen years after his death, Gärdestad's music became increasingly popular in Sweden. Many of his songs were included on compilations and were covered by other artists and are now considered modern Swedish pop classics. His original studio albums and compilations still sold well; 2001s Droppar av solregn reached No. 2 and spent 47 weeks on the Swedish albums chart, and the 2004 2-CD set Sol vind och vatten – Det bästa peaked at No. 3 and charted for 60 consecutive weeks. In 2000, "Jag vill ha en egen måne," "Så mycket bättre" and "Come Give Me Love" were featured in Swedish film director Lukas Moodysson's comedy drama Tillsammans (international title: Together). In 2001, Tretow and Kenneth Gärdestad took part in the production of a 4-CD box set titled Solregn (Sunshowers), a compilation of 71 tracks that includes two previously unreleased recordings. In 2004, a line-up of Swedish artists headed by Schaffer and including Mats Ronander, J:son Lindh, Jennifer Brown and rapper Dogge Doggelito performed a ten-minute medley of Gärdestad's best-known songs as the interval act of that year's Melodifestivalen, to commemorate the 25th anniversary of Ted winning the contest with "Satellit." Also in 2004, an album of covers of some of Gärdestad's songs called Fånga En Ängel – En hyllning till Ted Gärdestad (Catch An Angel – A tribute to Ted Gärdestad) was released, featuring contemporary Swedish artists including Håkan Hellström, Helen Sjöholm, Patrik Isaksson, Fredrik Kempe, Fame, Lisa Miskovsky, and Josefin Nilsson of Ainbusk. The album was released on the Anderson Records label run by Stig Anderson's daughter Marie Ledin. Country singer and fellow Eurovision contestant Jill Johnson's acoustic version of Gärdestad's 1973 Melodifestivalen entry "Oh vilken härlig dag" and Helen Sjöholm's recording of "Come Give Me Love" became radio hits and were also issued as singles. In June 2009, Universal Music Group, the company that owns the rights to the Polar Music back catalogue, released an 8-CD, 91-track box set titled Helt Nära Dig – Samlade Album (Quite Close to You – Collected Albums). The set includes all six of Gärdestad's Swedish-language albums and Blue Virgin Isles, and features selected tracks from his second English-language album I'd Rather Write a Symphony and some non-album singles. The box set reached No. 34 on the Swedish albums chart in July 2009 and re-entered the chart a year later in July 2010, reaching No. 12. In 2010, the track "Så mycket bättre" from Gärdestad's debut album Undringar was covered by the Swedish stars Lasse Berghagen, Thomas Di Leva, Plura Jonsson of Eldkvarn, Barbro "Lill-Babs" Svensson, Petter, Christer Sandelin and Petra Marklund, and was used as the theme tune to a television reality show of the same name. This resulted in renewed interest in Gärdestad's back catalogue and his original recording of the song entering the digital singles chart in Sweden in October 2010 – almost four decades after its first release. Caramba In 1981, Gärdestad and ABBA's sound engineer Michael B. Tretow had a surprise hit single with the novelty track "Hubba Hubba Zoot Zoot" in Sweden, released under the anonymous group moniker Caramba on the record label Trash Records (#1 June 1981, 26 weeks on the singles chart). The liner notes to Tretow's 1999 CD compilation Greatest Hits carry the following dedication: "This album is dedicated to Ted Gärdestad, who should be here now, rolling on the floor in paroxysms of laughter as usual." Discography Singles "Hela världen runt" / "Sommarlängtan," Polar Music POS 1146, 1971 "Jag vill ha en egen måne" / "När du kommer," Polar Music POS 1155, 1972 "Oh, vilken härlig da'" / "Sol vind och vatten," Polar Music POS 1170, 1973 "Kaliforniens guld" / "Ramanagaram," Polar Music POS 1174, 1973 "Come Give Me Love" / "Skolsång," Polar Music POS 1177, 1973 "Gonna Make You My Angel" ("Jag ska fånga en ängel") / "Can't Stop the Train," Epic Records EPC S 3126 (West Germany & UK), 1974 "Rockin' 'n' Reelin'" (Swedish version) / "Gonna Make You My Angel" Polar Music POS 1201, 1975 "Rockin' 'n' Reelin'" (English version) / "Gonna Make You My Angel," Polar Music POS 1202, 1975 "Take Me Back to Hollywood" / "Back in the Business," Epic Records SEPC 6976 (UK), Polydor Records 2001 843 (West Germany & The Netherlands), RCA Records 103 271 (Australia), 1978 "Love, You're Makin' All the Fools" / "Puddle of Pain," Polar Music POS 1243, Polydor Records 2001 891 (West Germany, The Netherlands, Switzerland, Austria), Discomate DSP-130 (Japan), 1978 "Love, You're Makin' All the Fools" / "Love Lies Free," Epic Records SEPC 7477 (UK), 1978 "Love, You're Makin' All the Fools" / "505 to Casablanca" RCA Records 103 395 (Australia), 1978 "Satellit" (Swedish version) / "Blue Virgin Isles," Polar Music POS 1247, 1979 "Satellite" (English version) / "Blue Virgin Isles," Polar Music POS 1248, Epic Records SEPC 7243 (UK), Polydor Records 2001 865 (The Netherlands), Carnaby (Spain), Polydor Records 2001 868 (Portugal), Carrere Records/Bagad 49476 (France), Durium DE 361 (Italy), Pan-Vox POS 1248 (Greece), Discomate DSP-128 (Japan), 1979 "Satellite" / "Back in the Business," Polydor Records 2001 868 (West Germany, Switzerland, Austria), 1979 "Låt solen värma dig" (duet with Annica Boller) / "Back in the Business," Polar Music POS 1261, 1980 "Don't Treat Me This Way" / "Mindblower" ("Stormvarning"), Polydor Records 2002 003 (The Netherlands), 1980 "How Do You Wanna Make Love" / "It's You," Polydor Records 2002 063 (Portugal), 1980 "Låt kärleken slå rot" / "Mindblower," Polar Music POS 1275, 1981 "Hubba Hubba Zoot Zoot" / "Donna Maya" (as Caramba), Trash Records TRAS 1, Epic EPC A1644 (UK), Toledo/Intercord Records 112 532 (West Germany), 1981 "Hubba Hubba Zoot Zoot" / "Donna Maya" (as Caramba), RKM/Disques Vogue 310923, 12" single (France), Durium Records DEX 13018, 12" single, white vinyl (Italy), 1981 "Hare Christmes" / "Ali Baba" (as Caramba), Trash Records TRAS 2, 1981 "Lycka" (duet with Harpo) / "Trubaduren" (Harpo) / "Himmel" (Harpo), Warner Music CD 9031-77723-2, 1992 "För kärlekens skull" / "Låt kärleken slå rot," Polar Music/PolyGram CD 865 552 – 2, 1993 "För kärlekens skull" / "Låt kärleken slå rot," Polar Music/PolyGram 7" 865 552-7, 1993 "Himlen är oskyldigt blå" / "Satellit" / "Låt kärleken slå rot," Polar Music/Polygram CD, 1993 "Ge en sol" / "Lyckliga dagar," Polar Music/PolyGram CD 855 382-2, 1994 "Om du ville ha mig" / "Jag bygger ett torn," Polar Music/PolyGram CD 851 314-2, 1994 "Hon är kvinnan" / "Ruva min själ," Polar Music/PolyGram CD 853 818-2, 1995 "Himlen är oskyldigt blå," Polar Music/Universal Music CD Polar Music/PolyGram 571 971-2, 1997 "I'd Rather Write a Symphony" (Radio Edit) / "Lyckliga dagar," CD Polar Music/Universal Music CD 855 383-2, 2001 Studio albums Undringar, Polar Music POLS 234, 1972 Ted, Polar Music POLS 241, 1973 Upptåg, Polar Music POLS 253, 1974 Franska Kort, Polar Music POLS 259, 1976 Blue Virgin Isles, Polar Music POLS 284, Epic Records 383 653 (UK), 1978 Blue Virgin Isles (re-release with "Satellite" & "Satellit" included), Polar Music POLS 300 Blue Virgin Isles (re-release with "Satellite" included), Epic Records (UK), Polydor Records (West Germany, The Netherlands & Portugal), Carnaby (Spain), RCA Records (Australia), Discomate (Japan), 1979 I'd Rather Write a Symphony, Polydor Records 2344 164, (West Germany & The Netherlands), 1980 Stormvarning, Polar Music POLS 310, 1981 Caramba, Trash Records TRASLP 1, 1981 Äntligen på väg, Polar Music/PolyGram 523 835-2, 1994 Compilation albums Spotlight, Sonet SPCD-32, 1989 Ted Gärdestad Collection, Polar Music/PolyGram 511 969-2, 1992 Kalendarium 1972–93, Polar Music/PolyGram 519 052-2, 1993 Svenska Popfavoriter, Karussell/PolyGram 552 270-2, 1996 Solregn (4-CD box set), Polar Music/Universal Music 543 985-2, 2001 Droppar Av Solregn (selected tracks from Solregn), Polar Music/Universal Music 549 881-2, 2001 15 Klassiker 1972–1981, Polar Music/Universal Music 018 405-2, 2002 Sol, Vind Och Vatten – Det Bästa (2-CD set), Polar Music/Universal Music 986 647-5, 2004 18 Ballader, Polar Music/Universal Music 987105-0, 2005 För Kärlekens Skull (3-CD box set), Polar Music/Universal Music, 060251734772-0 2007 Helt Nära Dig – Samlade Album (8-CD box set), Polar Music/Universal Music 06025270733-0, 2009 4 CD Original Album (Undringar, Ted, Upptåg & Franska Kort), Universal Music 06025276545-0, 2011 Filmography 1966 – En småstad vid seklets början (Translated: A Small Town at the Turn of the Century. TV advent calendar.) 1970 – Story of a Woman (Italian title: Storia di una donna. Director: Leonardo Bercovici.) 1973 – Stenansiktet (English title: The Stone Face. Director: Jan Halldoff.) Citations Bibliography Further reading Ted Gärdestad och musiken, Kenneth Gärdestad, Ehrlingförlagen Sweden 2005. Topplistan: The Official Swedish Single & Album Charts, Wille Wendt, Premium Publishing 1993, Liner notes Greatest Hits, Michael B. Tretow, Anderson Records 1999 Category:Swedish pop singers Category:1956 births Category:1997 deaths Category:1997 suicides Category:People from Sollentuna Municipality Category:Eurovision Song Contest entrants for Sweden Category:Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 1979 Category:Melodifestivalen contestants Category:Melodifestivalen winners Category:Suicides by train Category:Suicides in Sweden Category:20th-century Swedish male singers Category:People with schizophrenia Category:Rajneesh movement
[]
[ "The Palme assassination rumors were about Gardestad being a suspect in the investigation of the murder.", "He was accused of the assassination of the Prime Minister of Sweden, Olof Palme.", "The consequence of this action was damaging for Gardestad. He was severely affected by the speculations and rumours which followed him and his family for the rest of the 1980s even though he was never under suspicion by the authorities. A few years later, he was the subject of rumours of being a bank robber and serial killer. This caused him to withdraw and fall into a deep depression.", "The accusations and rumors severely affected Gardestad. He was under psychological distress over the rumors that persisted despite him never being under official suspicion. This led him to withdraw from public life and fall into a deep depression.", "The context does not provide specific information on how the depression harmed Gardestad.", "The context only mentions that the accusations led to Gardestad withdrawing from public life and falling into a deep depression. No other ways in which the accusations affected him are provided in the context.", "Yes, Gardestad was able to go back to music. In the early 1990s, he was coaxed out of retirement by his friend and fellow Swedish pop singer Harpo to join him on a concert tour and make guest appearances. In 1992, they even released a duet titled \"Lycka\" or \"Happiness\". This marked Gardestad's return to music. A year later, he had a successful album and tour and his composition \"For karlekens skull\" or \"For Love's Sake\" topped the Svensktoppen chart.", "Yes, with Harpo, Gardestad released the duet \"Lycka\" (\"Happiness\") as a single in 1992, marking his return to music.", "Yes, in the early 1990s, Gardestad made a successful comeback in music, releasing successful works such as \"For karlekens skull\" (\"For Love's Sake\") and an album titled Kalendarium 1972-93. All of his albums from the 1970s and early 1980s were re-released, and his body of work has since come to be regarded as a national treasure in Sweden. The Kalendarium collection included a Swedish-language version of \"Himlen ar oskyldigt bla\" (\"The Sky is Innocently Blue\"), which became a hit, and is among his best-known work." ]
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C_038e07a342214f3782efcc73cdfcf376_1
Ted Gärdestad
Ted Arnbjorn Gardestad (Swedish pronunciation: [ted 2jae:de,sta:d]) (18 February 1956 - 22 June 1997) was a Swedish singer, songwriter, musician and actor known internationally as Ted. Gardestad began his acting career in 1966 and began playing music in 1971, signing with Polar Music. Assigned with in-house producers Benny Andersson and Bjorn Ulvaeus, Gardestad released his first single, "Hela varlden runt," in late 1971 and worked closely with the four members of ABBA to create his debut album Undringar (1972). As Polar Music's best-selling solo artist (aside from ABBA), he continued to work with the group members throughout the 1970s, releasing three more albums Ted (1973), Upptag (1974) and Franska Kort (1976), which were moderately successful.
International career
Stig Anderson still thought Gardestad had some international potential, and he and his brother Kenneth travelled to Hollywood in late 1977 to record Gardestad's first English-language album Blue Virgin Isles. The west coast rock orientated album featured contributions from American and English musicians including Jeff Porcaro, Steve Porcaro, Jim Keltner, David Hungate, Jay Graydon, Dr. John and John Mayall, many of whom were Gardestad's personal idols. Blue Virgin Isles was released worldwide in late 1978 on Epic Records, and produced the singles "Take Me Back To Hollywood", an English version of "Chapeau-Clacque", and "Love, You're Making All The Fools". Despite the expensive production and the big push to launch Gardestad--including promotional appearances alongside ABBA--his Swedish success did not translate internationally. In Sweden, the album peaked at No. 29 and spent one week on the chart. Thirty years after its original release, Blue Virgin Isles remains Gardestad 's only studio album that has not been re-released on CD by Polar Music/PolyGram/Universal Music Group. In early 1979, Ted and Kenneth Gardestad had a fourth attempt at Melodifestivalen and won with the song "Satellit", a mid-tempo rock track whose arrangement bore resemblances to Toto's 1978 hit "Hold the Line". The similarities caused speculation of plagiarism in the Swedish media and disqualification from the contest. The connection between the two songs was that the song's producer Janne Schaffer had heard four of the future Toto members, Steve Porcaro, Jeff Porcaro, David Hungate and Steve Lukather, experimenting with a guitar and bass riff during the Blue Virgin Isles sessions in Los Angeles, which eventually evolved into "Hold the Line". Schaffer was inspired by what he had heard when he wrote the arrangement for "Satellit", but at that point neither "Hold the Line" nor Toto's debut eponymous album had been released. Jeff Porcaro told Swedish newspaper Aftonbladet in February 1979: "No, it's not a rip-off, Ted did not steal our song. Those piano triplets and that bass and guitar line go back to the 1950s and the fact that we both have happened to use variations on the same theme in our songs right now is purely coincidental." Consequently, Ted represented Sweden at the Eurovision Song Contest held in Jerusalem in March 1979. After having competed four times in the pre-selection before winning and with his personal connection to ABBA, hopes and expectations were high. The song scored eight points and finished seventeenth out of nineteen participating entries, making it Sweden's then-second-lowest placing in the contest. The Swedish-language single became a Top 10 hit back home in Sweden and "Satellit" is regarded as one of Ted's signature tunes. The English-language version of the track never charted and neither did the re-issue of Blue Virgin Isles, which included both versions, making it clear that Ted's Scandinavian audiences favoured his Swedish-language material. After an unsuccessful return to Melodifestivalen in 1980, with "Lat solen varma dig" ("Let the Sun Warm You") with then girlfriend Annica Boller and disappointing sales of his 1981 album Stormvarning (#31, 2 weeks)--which was internationally released as I'd Rather Write a Symphony on the Polydor label in a few countries and equally overlooked--Gardestad left the music scene at the age of 25. CANNOTANSWER
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Ted Arnbjörn Gärdestad (; 18 February 195622 June 1997) was a Swedish singer, songwriter, musician and actor known internationally as Ted. Gärdestad began his acting career in 1966 and began playing music in 1971, signing with Polar Music. Assigned with in-house producers Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus, Gärdestad released his first single, "Hela världen runt," in late 1971 and worked closely with the four members of ABBA to create his debut album Undringar (1972). As Polar Music's best-selling solo artist (aside from ABBA), he continued to work with the group members throughout the 1970s, releasing three more albums Ted (1973), Upptåg (1974) and Franska Kort (1976), which were moderately successful. In 1978, Gärdestad released his first English-language album, Blue Virgin Isles, which did not have success internationally, as his predecessor albums had in his home country. In 1979, Ted and his brother Kenneth Gärdestad played at Melodifestivalen, the competition to select Sweden's entry for the Eurovision Song Contest, with the song "Satellit." They won the competition which allowed them to represent Sweden at Eurovision held in Jerusalem. Gärdestad attempted once more to enter a song at Melodifestivalen but was unsuccessful. He left the music industry shortly thereafter, to try acting. By the 1990s, he played with other musicians such as Harpo. Gärdestad toured extensively starting in 1994 until he committed suicide in 1997. A biographical film about Gärdestad was released in 2018, called Ted: För kärlekens skull. Early life Ted Arnbjörn Gärdestad was born to Arne (1923–2016) and Margit Gärdestad (née Sjöholm; 1921–2008) on 18 February 1956 in Sollentuna, Stockholm County. He was the youngest of three siblings and had two older brothers; Kjell (1944–2000) and Kenneth (1948–2018). The family lived in Sollentuna during Ted's childhood. Career 1962–1974 Ted Gärdestad began his career as a musician in 1962, playing accordion on Swedish television at the age of six years. His debuted as an actor in 1966 when he landed a part in the television advent calendar series En småstad vid seklets början (A Small Town at the Turn of the Century). In 1970, Gärdestad had a minor role in the American film Story of a Woman alongside Bibi Andersson, Robert Stack and James Farentino. Gärdestad was also a promising tennis player. At 14 he ranked second in his age group in Sweden after Björn Borg, and once considered a career as a professional tennis player but instead chose a career in music. In 1971, 15-year-old Ted and his eight-year-older brother Kenneth Gärdestad contacted the record company Polar Music and showed an audition tape to Stig "Stikkan" Anderson, who would later manage the pop group ABBA. Ted was composer and singer, while Kenneth wrote lyrics to Ted's melodies, a collaboration that continued throughout Ted's career. Anderson subsequently signed Ted to the label and assigned him to in-house producers Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus. Debut single In late 1971, Gärdestad released his first single, the gospel-influenced "Hela världen runt" ("All Over the World"). The follow-up single, an acoustic ballad "Jag vill ha en egen måne" ("I Want a Moon of My Own"), a song he wrote at age 12, brought him to the attention of the Swedish public. He quickly became the country's first teen idol, touring at folkparks. Andersson and Ulvaeus produced Ted's debut album Undringar ("Wonderings"), which was released on Polar Music in early 1972, with Agnetha Fältskog and Anni-Frid Lyngstad providing backing vocals. All four members of ABBA continued to work with Gärdestad in throughout the 1970s. His albums Undringar (1972), Ted (1973), Upptåg (1974) and Franska Kort (1976) were produced with the same recording and production techniques, engineers (including Michael B. Tretow) and musicians, as contemporaneous ABBA recordings. In February 1973, Gärdestad entered Melodifestivalen 1973, the competition to select Sweden's entry for the Eurovision Song Contest. The song "Oh, vilken härlig dag" ("Oh What a Lovely Day") came joint fourth. A quartet known as Björn & Benny, Agnetha & Anni-Frid finished third with a song called "Ring Ring (Bara du slog en signal)." Gärdestad had another attempt in Melodifestivalen 1975 with the song "Rockin' 'n' Reelin'"; Svenne and Lotta placed third with "Bang-A-Boomerang" and Gärdestad finished seventh but the song became a hit single on radio charts Svensktoppen, Heta Högen and Kvällstoppen. Gärdestad and his brother Kenneth returned to Melodifestivalen in 1977 and performed the song "Det bästa som finns" ("The Best of All") with Polar Music labelmate Lena Andersson. They finished eighth out of ten entries, and Gärdestad did not record the track. 1975–1979 By 1975, Ted had become a noted star in Sweden. He was prominently featured in teen magazines Starlet, Mitt Livs Novell and Poster, his love life was covered by the national newspapers, he had a fan club, and all of his albums were certificated gold and sold well in the rest of Scandinavia. Aside from Bjorn, Benny, Agnetha & Anni-Frid/ABBA and Anni-Frid Lyngstad he was Polar Music's best-selling artist. Stikkan had plans to launch him internationally and Ted recorded both Swedish and English versions of "Rockin' 'n' Reelin'" as well as an English version of an earlier hit, "Jag ska fånga en ängel" ("I'm Going to Catch An Angel"), with the title "Gonna Make You My Angel," the latter with lyrics by Gary Osborne; neither were a significant hit. Australian pop singer Mark Holden did, however, have a major success in Australia with "Jag ska fånga en ängel" under the title "I Wanna Make You My Lady" in 1976. By 1977, Gärdestad was faced with a dilemma common to many child stars and teen idols; as he grew up so did his audiences. The time of teen mania and screaming crowds in the folkparks was declining and Polar in-house producers Björn and Benny, who had played an important part in his early success were now busy writing, producing and promoting ABBA and could no longer give Gärdestad or other Polar artists their full attention. 1975 resulted in the release of one single, the Melodifestivalen entry "Rockin' 'n' Reelin'." In 1976, the label released the album Franska Kort ("French Cards" – an expression for a fairly innocent type of late 19th-century pornography), only partly recorded with Björn and Benny and co-produced by Tretow and Janne Schaffer. The album produced hit singles "Angela," "Chapeau-Claque" (French for top hat), "När showen är slut" ("When the Show is Over") and "Klöversnoa," a novelty folk dance parody with Benny and Gärdestad playing accordion. The album peaked at No. 3, making it his first album not to top the Swedish charts, and it left the chart after 22 weeks, a moderate success compared to his previous releases. In 1977, ABBA and most of the Polar Music crew including musicians and sound engineers went on their first world tour, making ABBA: The Movie and recording ABBA: The Album – as an indirect result, Gärdestad did not release an album that year. International career Stig Anderson still thought Gärdestad had some international potential, and he and his brother Kenneth travelled to Hollywood in late 1977 to record Gärdestad's first English-language album Blue Virgin Isles. The west coast rock orientated album featured contributions from American and English musicians including Jeff Porcaro, Steve Porcaro, Jim Keltner, David Hungate, Jay Graydon, Dr. John and John Mayall, many of whom were Gärdestad's personal idols. Blue Virgin Isles was released worldwide in late 1978 on Epic Records, and produced the singles "Take Me Back To Hollywood," an English version of "Chapeau-Clacque," and "Love, You're Making All The Fools". Despite the expensive production and the big push to launch Gärdestad—including promotional appearances alongside ABBA—his Swedish success did not translate internationally. In Sweden, the album peaked at No. 29 and spent one week on the chart. Thirty years after its original release, Blue Virgin Isles remains Gärdestad 's only studio album that has not been re-released on CD by Polar Music/PolyGram/Universal Music Group. 1980s In early 1979, Ted and Kenneth Gärdestad had a fourth attempt at Melodifestivalen and won with the song "Satellit," a mid-tempo rock track whose arrangement bore resemblances to Toto's 1978 hit "Hold the Line". The similarities caused speculation of plagiarism in the Swedish media and disqualification from the contest. The connection between the two songs was that the song's producer Janne Schaffer had heard four of the future Toto members, Steve Porcaro, Jeff Porcaro, David Hungate and Steve Lukather, experimenting with a guitar and bass riff during the Blue Virgin Isles sessions in Los Angeles, which eventually evolved into "Hold the Line." Schaffer was inspired by what he had heard when he wrote the arrangement for "Satellit," but at that point neither "Hold the Line" nor Toto's debut eponymous album had been released. Jeff Porcaro told Swedish newspaper Aftonbladet in February 1979: "No, it's not a rip-off, Ted did not steal our song. Those piano triplets and that bass and guitar line go back to the 1950s and the fact that we both have happened to use variations on the same theme in our songs right now is purely coincidental." Consequently, Ted represented Sweden at the Eurovision Song Contest held in Jerusalem in March 1979. After having competed four times in the pre-selection before winning and with his personal connection to ABBA, hopes and expectations were high. The song scored eight points and finished seventeenth out of nineteen participating entries, making it Sweden's then-second-lowest placing in the contest. The Swedish-language single became a Top 10 hit back home in Sweden and "Satellit" is regarded as one of Ted's signature tunes. The English-language version of the track never charted and neither did the re-issue of Blue Virgin Isles, which included both versions, making it clear that Ted's Scandinavian audiences favoured his Swedish-language material. After an unsuccessful return to Melodifestivalen in 1980, with "Låt solen värma dig" ("Let the Sun Warm You") with then girlfriend Annica Boller and disappointing sales of his 1981 album Stormvarning (#31, 2 weeks)—which was internationally released as I'd Rather Write a Symphony on the Polydor label in a few countries and equally overlooked—Gärdestad left the music scene at the age of 25. Later work Having left the music business, Gärdestad made a brief and unsuccessful attempt at acting and shortly thereafter began exploring meditation and Eastern religions. He became involved with the Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh (also known as Osho) movement and publicly renounced his earlier life. In an interview with Swedish newspaper Aftonbladet in mid-1983, he said he no longer wanted to be addressed as "Ted Gärdestad," his name was now Swami Sangit Upasani. Like all Bhagwan disciples, he wore clothes in a specific shade of orange. Gärdestad distanced himself from his friends in the music business and his family as his involvement in the movement gradually took over his life, affecting his personality. In June 1983, one month before his second child with actress Ann Zacharias was born, he unexpectedly left his family and friends and moved to the movement's headquarters in Oregon, United States. Three years later, after Rajneesh was convicted for immigration fraud, tax evasion, embezzlement of his disciples' funds and bioterror attacks on the citizens of The Dalles and subsequently deported from the US, Gärdestad's family persuaded him to move back to Sweden. His severe mental health problems became increasingly apparent. Palme assassination rumours Shortly after Gärdestad's return to Sweden in 1986, the Prime Minister of Sweden, Olof Palme, was murdered. Gärdestad was wrongly mentioned in the Swedish media as "the 33-year-old," a suspect in the investigation of the assassination, which severely affected him although Gärdestad was on vacation in Greece at the time of the murder, and although he was never questioned by the Swedish police nor was under suspicion by the authorities, the speculations and rumours followed him and his family for the rest of the 1980s. A few years later, he was again the subject of rumours accusing him of being Lasermannen, a bank robber and serial killer. The rumours affected the sensitive and already unstable former star, and Gärdestad withdrew and fell into a deep depression. 1990s In the early 1990s, Gärdestad was briefly coaxed out of retirement by his friend and fellow Swedish pop singer Harpo. He joined Harpo on a concert tour and made guest appearances. In 1992, they released the duet "Lycka" ("Happiness") as a single; it garnered little attention but marked Gärdestad's return to music. Early that year he embarked on his first tour since 1978 and played a series of dates with Plura Jonsson, Tove Naess, Totta Näslund and Dan Hylander, and received overall positive reviews from the press. In 1993, a compilation album titled Kalendarium 1972–93 was promoted by a tour in the Swedish folkparks; the album and tour were successful, as was his first composition in twelve years, "För kärlekens skull" ("For Love's Sake"), which topped the Svensktoppen chart. The Kalendarium collection included a Swedish-language re-recording of the title track from Blue Virgin Isles, "Himlen är oskyldigt blå" ("The Sky is Innocently Blue"), which fifteen years after its original release became another Svensktoppen hit, and became one of his best-known songs. In early 1994, Kalendarium 1972–93 was awarded a platinum disc. All of Gärdestad's albums from the 1970s and early 1980s, with the exception of Blue Virgin Isles, were re-released on CD by Polar, and a generation of Swedes who grew up listening to his music now re-discovered and re-evaluated his back catalogue as adults. His body of work has since come to be regarded as a national treasure as important as those of Evert Taube, Carl Michael Bellman and Cornelis Vreeswijk both by fans and Swedish music critics. Last years and death The following year, Gärdestad released a full-length album of new material titled Äntligen på väg (Finally on the Road) on Polar, which was produced by the longtime friend Janne Schaffer. The album included contributions from ABBA drummer Per Lindvall, Björn J:son Lindh, Gladys del Pilar and Marie Bergman, and other renowned Swedish musicians. It spawned a series of singles including "Ge en sol" ("Give a Sun"), "Om du ville ha mig" ("If You Wanted Me"), "I min radio" ("On My Radio") and "Hon är kvinnan" ("She's the Woman"), all of which entered the Svensktoppen chart. The lyrics were light, harmonious and hopeful, and Gärdestad's future seemed more positive; his name was finally cleared, he remarried and he was back to making music. He made several television appearances promoting Äntligen på väg album and performed an acoustic concert on ZTV. He toured extensively all through 1994, 1995 and 1996. On 22 June 1997, at the age of 41, Gärdestad committed suicide by jumping in front of a train. The only colleagues from his musical career to attend his funeral were Schaffer, J:son Lindh, Tretow, Barbro 'Lill-Babs' Svensson and Agnetha Fältskog. Health problems After Gärdestad's death, his brother Kenneth spoke to the press and in a book about Gärdestad's mental health problems during the last decade of his life. In the biography Jag vill ha en egen måne, published eight years after his brother's death, Kenneth said Gärdestad had had anxiety since his late teens, and that Kenneth had become convinced that as an adult Gärdestad had paranoid schizophrenia, which he thought had been aggravated by his time with the Bhagwan movement, the press coverage and the subsequent public persecution following the murder of Olof Palme and the Lasermannen case. In the 2005 biography on Gärdestad, Schaffer said he attended a dinner party in the late 1990s with a large number of Swedish dignitaries, including leading politicians, statesmen, representatives of the diplomatic corps, and the chief editor of Sweden's largest daily newspaper Dagens Nyheter, who said in front of all the prominent guests: "You know that it's your pal Ted Gärdestad who murdered Olof Palme, don't you?" Schaffer immediately left the dinner party. In the biography, Kenneth Gärdestad also said Ted's condition was never properly diagnosed during his lifetime and he did not receive the medical or psychotherapeutic treatment that could have saved his life. Musicianship Songwriting Musically Ted's songs combined the heritage of the Scandinavian acoustic and narrative visa tradition with influences from the British-American singer-songwriter wave of the late 1960s and early 1970s, but his repertoire also included a wide variety of genre exercises including pastiches of swing, jazz, ragtime, boogie-woogie, reggae, country and western, French chanson, Swedish folk music as well as contemporary English and American pop, rock, soul and R&B. Following musicians and songwriters of their generation, both brothers were fans of the Beatles and influenced by the fact that John Lennon and Paul McCartney wrote their own material and played it themselves, which was revolutionary at that time. The early Swedish albums with Ted all also contain one or two English-language tracks, usually slightly rougher and rockier than the rest of the material and many of them featuring Schaffer on electric guitars. Lyrically the songs reflected the world of an average young teenager, no longer a child but not yet an adult, and his personal development; the dreams, hopes and desires as well as the fears and frustrations, infatuation and rejection ("När du kommer," "Räcker jag till"), existential ponderings ("Universum," "Snurra du min värld," "Gitarren och jag") alongside typical adolescent fantasies and daydreams of historical figures such as the Vikings ("Viking"), "Buffalo Bill," Goliath ("Goliat från Gat") or becoming a super hero like "The Phantom" ("Fantomen"), and naturally, as with most teenagers, also playful hints at an increased interest in the opposite sex. His Melodifestivalen entry "Oh vilken härlig dag" for instance includes phrases such as "I snuck down to the lake, to spy on you when you went skinnydipping" and "I ran naked in the blazing sun", and "And I could see what you're hiding under your skirt"; a line that was considered risqué when sung by a seventeen-year-old boy in the pre-selection for the Eurovision Song Contest in 1973. Despite the fact that all lyrics were the work of Ted's eight-year-older brother Kenneth and not Ted himself, they were specifically written to reflect Ted's personality and his world, and the feelings of a teenager, not those of his older brother. Similar to Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus during the ABBA era, Ted wrote faux-English demo lyrics when he composed his songs and it was subsequently Kenneth's task to write proper Swedish lyrics while staying true to Ted's original idea for a particular song. Kenneth spent a considerable amount of time getting the words exactly as Ted wanted them, with the right number of syllables to the bar, rhymes and alliterations emphasizing the rhythm of the music and choosing words suitable for a boy in his teens, occasionally including slang expressions. Like sound engineer Michael B. Tretow, Ted was also known for his prankish sense of humour; he was a big fan of Monty Python's Flying Circus and loved practical jokes, which also is reflected in the lyrics in the form of puns, word play, and double entendres. Kenneth's skills as a lyricist paradoxically resulted in the fact that some of Ted's audiences, in the 1970s and even to the present day, were under the impression that he wrote both the music and all lyrics, which Kenneth has since revealed that he only took as recognition that he had done Ted's music justice and it was the best compliment that he could get. Legacy A scholarship was set up in Gärdestad's name in 1997 to promote unsigned singer-songwriters and is awarded annually along with a tribute concert. In 2005, a musical based around Gärdestad's songs called Sol, vind och vatten opened in Stockholm. Also in 2005, Gärdestad's brother Kenneth wrote a biography about Ted's life called Jag vill ha en egen måne, named after his breakthrough single. It includes extensive interviews with Gärdestad's family and close friends, including tennis player Björn Borg, actor Per Ragnar, guitarist Staffan Astner, pianist Robert Wells, sound engineer Lennart Östlund, photographer Barry B. Levine, hockey player Mats Ulander, and his former girlfriend actress Ann Zacharias. In 2006, British bassist Andy Bell, noted founding member of Ride and former Oasis member, at the time living in Sweden and a great admirer of Ted's work, took part in the annual tribute concert held in Stockholm. On 16 October 2006, Kenneth received a special award from SKAP, The Swedish Society of Popular Music Composers, for his "outstanding contributions to Swedish performing arts as a lyricist," in memory of his brother Ted. In popular culture On 11 September 2012, Sweden's central bank, the Riksbank, announced a new series of coins to replace the 1 and 5 kronor coins which came into circulation in October 2016. The design of the coins follow the theme of Gärdestad's song, "Sol, vind och vatten" (English: "Sun, wind and water"), with the designs depicting the elements on the reverse side of the coins. This included the reintroduction of the 2 kronor coin. The coins also have a new portrait of King Carl XVI Gustaf. On 3 January 2018, the feature film Ted – För kärlekens skull, a biopic about Gärdestad, premiered. Covering parts of his life from the breakthrough in the 1970s to his comeback in the 1990s, the film stars actor Adam Pålsson (a former singer who sings all the song parts himself) in the role as Ted, and was directed by Academy Award nominee Hannes Holm. Re-releases, compilations and covers Fifteen years after his death, Gärdestad's music became increasingly popular in Sweden. Many of his songs were included on compilations and were covered by other artists and are now considered modern Swedish pop classics. His original studio albums and compilations still sold well; 2001s Droppar av solregn reached No. 2 and spent 47 weeks on the Swedish albums chart, and the 2004 2-CD set Sol vind och vatten – Det bästa peaked at No. 3 and charted for 60 consecutive weeks. In 2000, "Jag vill ha en egen måne," "Så mycket bättre" and "Come Give Me Love" were featured in Swedish film director Lukas Moodysson's comedy drama Tillsammans (international title: Together). In 2001, Tretow and Kenneth Gärdestad took part in the production of a 4-CD box set titled Solregn (Sunshowers), a compilation of 71 tracks that includes two previously unreleased recordings. In 2004, a line-up of Swedish artists headed by Schaffer and including Mats Ronander, J:son Lindh, Jennifer Brown and rapper Dogge Doggelito performed a ten-minute medley of Gärdestad's best-known songs as the interval act of that year's Melodifestivalen, to commemorate the 25th anniversary of Ted winning the contest with "Satellit." Also in 2004, an album of covers of some of Gärdestad's songs called Fånga En Ängel – En hyllning till Ted Gärdestad (Catch An Angel – A tribute to Ted Gärdestad) was released, featuring contemporary Swedish artists including Håkan Hellström, Helen Sjöholm, Patrik Isaksson, Fredrik Kempe, Fame, Lisa Miskovsky, and Josefin Nilsson of Ainbusk. The album was released on the Anderson Records label run by Stig Anderson's daughter Marie Ledin. Country singer and fellow Eurovision contestant Jill Johnson's acoustic version of Gärdestad's 1973 Melodifestivalen entry "Oh vilken härlig dag" and Helen Sjöholm's recording of "Come Give Me Love" became radio hits and were also issued as singles. In June 2009, Universal Music Group, the company that owns the rights to the Polar Music back catalogue, released an 8-CD, 91-track box set titled Helt Nära Dig – Samlade Album (Quite Close to You – Collected Albums). The set includes all six of Gärdestad's Swedish-language albums and Blue Virgin Isles, and features selected tracks from his second English-language album I'd Rather Write a Symphony and some non-album singles. The box set reached No. 34 on the Swedish albums chart in July 2009 and re-entered the chart a year later in July 2010, reaching No. 12. In 2010, the track "Så mycket bättre" from Gärdestad's debut album Undringar was covered by the Swedish stars Lasse Berghagen, Thomas Di Leva, Plura Jonsson of Eldkvarn, Barbro "Lill-Babs" Svensson, Petter, Christer Sandelin and Petra Marklund, and was used as the theme tune to a television reality show of the same name. This resulted in renewed interest in Gärdestad's back catalogue and his original recording of the song entering the digital singles chart in Sweden in October 2010 – almost four decades after its first release. Caramba In 1981, Gärdestad and ABBA's sound engineer Michael B. Tretow had a surprise hit single with the novelty track "Hubba Hubba Zoot Zoot" in Sweden, released under the anonymous group moniker Caramba on the record label Trash Records (#1 June 1981, 26 weeks on the singles chart). The liner notes to Tretow's 1999 CD compilation Greatest Hits carry the following dedication: "This album is dedicated to Ted Gärdestad, who should be here now, rolling on the floor in paroxysms of laughter as usual." Discography Singles "Hela världen runt" / "Sommarlängtan," Polar Music POS 1146, 1971 "Jag vill ha en egen måne" / "När du kommer," Polar Music POS 1155, 1972 "Oh, vilken härlig da'" / "Sol vind och vatten," Polar Music POS 1170, 1973 "Kaliforniens guld" / "Ramanagaram," Polar Music POS 1174, 1973 "Come Give Me Love" / "Skolsång," Polar Music POS 1177, 1973 "Gonna Make You My Angel" ("Jag ska fånga en ängel") / "Can't Stop the Train," Epic Records EPC S 3126 (West Germany & UK), 1974 "Rockin' 'n' Reelin'" (Swedish version) / "Gonna Make You My Angel" Polar Music POS 1201, 1975 "Rockin' 'n' Reelin'" (English version) / "Gonna Make You My Angel," Polar Music POS 1202, 1975 "Take Me Back to Hollywood" / "Back in the Business," Epic Records SEPC 6976 (UK), Polydor Records 2001 843 (West Germany & The Netherlands), RCA Records 103 271 (Australia), 1978 "Love, You're Makin' All the Fools" / "Puddle of Pain," Polar Music POS 1243, Polydor Records 2001 891 (West Germany, The Netherlands, Switzerland, Austria), Discomate DSP-130 (Japan), 1978 "Love, You're Makin' All the Fools" / "Love Lies Free," Epic Records SEPC 7477 (UK), 1978 "Love, You're Makin' All the Fools" / "505 to Casablanca" RCA Records 103 395 (Australia), 1978 "Satellit" (Swedish version) / "Blue Virgin Isles," Polar Music POS 1247, 1979 "Satellite" (English version) / "Blue Virgin Isles," Polar Music POS 1248, Epic Records SEPC 7243 (UK), Polydor Records 2001 865 (The Netherlands), Carnaby (Spain), Polydor Records 2001 868 (Portugal), Carrere Records/Bagad 49476 (France), Durium DE 361 (Italy), Pan-Vox POS 1248 (Greece), Discomate DSP-128 (Japan), 1979 "Satellite" / "Back in the Business," Polydor Records 2001 868 (West Germany, Switzerland, Austria), 1979 "Låt solen värma dig" (duet with Annica Boller) / "Back in the Business," Polar Music POS 1261, 1980 "Don't Treat Me This Way" / "Mindblower" ("Stormvarning"), Polydor Records 2002 003 (The Netherlands), 1980 "How Do You Wanna Make Love" / "It's You," Polydor Records 2002 063 (Portugal), 1980 "Låt kärleken slå rot" / "Mindblower," Polar Music POS 1275, 1981 "Hubba Hubba Zoot Zoot" / "Donna Maya" (as Caramba), Trash Records TRAS 1, Epic EPC A1644 (UK), Toledo/Intercord Records 112 532 (West Germany), 1981 "Hubba Hubba Zoot Zoot" / "Donna Maya" (as Caramba), RKM/Disques Vogue 310923, 12" single (France), Durium Records DEX 13018, 12" single, white vinyl (Italy), 1981 "Hare Christmes" / "Ali Baba" (as Caramba), Trash Records TRAS 2, 1981 "Lycka" (duet with Harpo) / "Trubaduren" (Harpo) / "Himmel" (Harpo), Warner Music CD 9031-77723-2, 1992 "För kärlekens skull" / "Låt kärleken slå rot," Polar Music/PolyGram CD 865 552 – 2, 1993 "För kärlekens skull" / "Låt kärleken slå rot," Polar Music/PolyGram 7" 865 552-7, 1993 "Himlen är oskyldigt blå" / "Satellit" / "Låt kärleken slå rot," Polar Music/Polygram CD, 1993 "Ge en sol" / "Lyckliga dagar," Polar Music/PolyGram CD 855 382-2, 1994 "Om du ville ha mig" / "Jag bygger ett torn," Polar Music/PolyGram CD 851 314-2, 1994 "Hon är kvinnan" / "Ruva min själ," Polar Music/PolyGram CD 853 818-2, 1995 "Himlen är oskyldigt blå," Polar Music/Universal Music CD Polar Music/PolyGram 571 971-2, 1997 "I'd Rather Write a Symphony" (Radio Edit) / "Lyckliga dagar," CD Polar Music/Universal Music CD 855 383-2, 2001 Studio albums Undringar, Polar Music POLS 234, 1972 Ted, Polar Music POLS 241, 1973 Upptåg, Polar Music POLS 253, 1974 Franska Kort, Polar Music POLS 259, 1976 Blue Virgin Isles, Polar Music POLS 284, Epic Records 383 653 (UK), 1978 Blue Virgin Isles (re-release with "Satellite" & "Satellit" included), Polar Music POLS 300 Blue Virgin Isles (re-release with "Satellite" included), Epic Records (UK), Polydor Records (West Germany, The Netherlands & Portugal), Carnaby (Spain), RCA Records (Australia), Discomate (Japan), 1979 I'd Rather Write a Symphony, Polydor Records 2344 164, (West Germany & The Netherlands), 1980 Stormvarning, Polar Music POLS 310, 1981 Caramba, Trash Records TRASLP 1, 1981 Äntligen på väg, Polar Music/PolyGram 523 835-2, 1994 Compilation albums Spotlight, Sonet SPCD-32, 1989 Ted Gärdestad Collection, Polar Music/PolyGram 511 969-2, 1992 Kalendarium 1972–93, Polar Music/PolyGram 519 052-2, 1993 Svenska Popfavoriter, Karussell/PolyGram 552 270-2, 1996 Solregn (4-CD box set), Polar Music/Universal Music 543 985-2, 2001 Droppar Av Solregn (selected tracks from Solregn), Polar Music/Universal Music 549 881-2, 2001 15 Klassiker 1972–1981, Polar Music/Universal Music 018 405-2, 2002 Sol, Vind Och Vatten – Det Bästa (2-CD set), Polar Music/Universal Music 986 647-5, 2004 18 Ballader, Polar Music/Universal Music 987105-0, 2005 För Kärlekens Skull (3-CD box set), Polar Music/Universal Music, 060251734772-0 2007 Helt Nära Dig – Samlade Album (8-CD box set), Polar Music/Universal Music 06025270733-0, 2009 4 CD Original Album (Undringar, Ted, Upptåg & Franska Kort), Universal Music 06025276545-0, 2011 Filmography 1966 – En småstad vid seklets början (Translated: A Small Town at the Turn of the Century. TV advent calendar.) 1970 – Story of a Woman (Italian title: Storia di una donna. Director: Leonardo Bercovici.) 1973 – Stenansiktet (English title: The Stone Face. Director: Jan Halldoff.) Citations Bibliography Further reading Ted Gärdestad och musiken, Kenneth Gärdestad, Ehrlingförlagen Sweden 2005. Topplistan: The Official Swedish Single & Album Charts, Wille Wendt, Premium Publishing 1993, Liner notes Greatest Hits, Michael B. Tretow, Anderson Records 1999 Category:Swedish pop singers Category:1956 births Category:1997 deaths Category:1997 suicides Category:People from Sollentuna Municipality Category:Eurovision Song Contest entrants for Sweden Category:Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 1979 Category:Melodifestivalen contestants Category:Melodifestivalen winners Category:Suicides by train Category:Suicides in Sweden Category:20th-century Swedish male singers Category:People with schizophrenia Category:Rajneesh movement
[]
[ "CANNOTANSWER", "The album, \"Blue Virgin Isles,\" was not successful internationally. Despite promotional appearances and an expensive production, Ted Gardestad's Swedish success did not translate to an international level. The album peaked at No. 29 in Sweden and spent one week on the chart.", "The text does not provide specific information on whether Ted Gardestad returned to Sweden directly after the lack of success of his album \"Blue Virgin Isles.\" However, the text does mention that he continued making music, including participating in the Melodifestivalen contest in Sweden, suggesting that he likely returned at some point.", "The text mentions that Ted Gardestad represented Sweden at the Eurovision Song Contest in Jerusalem in March 1979, after his song \"Satellit\" won at the Melodifestivalen. This suggests that his international career took him to Jerusalem. Beyond this, the text does not provide further information on other places his international career took him.", "The text mentions that the song \"Satellit\", with which Ted Gardestad represented Sweden at the Eurovision Song Contest, became a Top 10 hit back home in Sweden and is regarded as one of his signature tunes. No other hit songs are mentioned in the text provided." ]
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C_eea056c49cca401a93366614591e197d_1
Uncle Tupelo
Uncle Tupelo was an alternative country music group from Belleville, Illinois, active between 1987 and 1994. Jay Farrar, Jeff Tweedy, and Mike Heidorn formed the band after the lead singer of their previous band, The Primitives, left to attend college. The trio recorded three albums for Rockville Records, before signing with Sire Records and expanding to a five-piece. Shortly after the release of the band's major label debut album Anodyne, Farrar announced his decision to leave the band due to a soured relationship with his co-songwriter Tweedy.
Breakup
With the addition of Stirratt, Coomer, and Johnston just prior to the recording of Anodyne, Farrar and Tweedy's relationship became more tumultuous, leading to verbal altercations after concerts. In one account, Tweedy recalled: Around this time, I would say something into a microphone onstage, and afterward [Farrar would] pull me aside and say, "Don't you ever fucking talk into that microphone again." He would misconstrue me talking into the microphone as more evidence of my out-of-control, rampant ego, more evidence of me feeling like I didn't have to be so fucking afraid anymore. Tweedy felt the new members gave him a new opportunity to contribute to the band, but Farrar felt disdain for Tweedy's new carefree attitude. Years later, Farrar would claim that he had been tempted to quit the band after seeing Tweedy stroking the hair of Farrar's girlfriend, an act which he believed to have been a proposition. In January 1994, Farrar called manager Tony Margherita to inform him of his decision to leave the band. Farrar told Margherita that he was no longer having fun, and didn't want to work with Tweedy anymore. Soon after the breakup, Farrar explained his departure: "It just seemed like it reached a point where Jeff and I really weren't compatible. It had ceased to be a symbiotic songwriting relationship, probably after the first record." Tweedy was enraged that he heard the news secondhand from Margherita, since Farrar decided not to tell him in person. The following day, the two singers engaged in a verbal confrontation. As a favor to Margherita--who had spent a substantial amount of money to keep the band running--Farrar agreed to a final tour with Uncle Tupelo in North America. Tweedy and Farrar again engaged in a shouting match two weeks into the tour, due to Farrar's refusal to sing harmony on any of Tweedy's songs. The band made its first appearance on national television during the tour when they were featured on Late Night with Conan O'Brien. Sire had requested that the band perform "The Long Cut" on the show, which further irked Farrar since the song was written and sung by Tweedy. Uncle Tupelo's last concert was May 1, 1994, at Mississippi Nights in St. Louis, Missouri. Tweedy and Farrar each performed nine songs during the concert, and Mike Heidorn performed as drummer during the encore. CANNOTANSWER
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Uncle Tupelo was an alternative country music group from Belleville, Illinois, active between 1987 and 1994. Jay Farrar, Jeff Tweedy, and Mike Heidorn formed the band after the lead singer of their previous band, The Primitives, left to attend college. The trio recorded three albums for Rockville Records, before signing with Sire Records and expanding to a five-piece. Shortly after the release of the band's major label debut album Anodyne, Farrar announced his decision to leave the band due to a soured relationship with his co-songwriter Tweedy. Uncle Tupelo split on May 1, 1994, after completing a farewell tour. Following the breakup, Farrar formed Son Volt with Heidorn, while the remaining members continued as Wilco. Although Uncle Tupelo broke up before it achieved commercial success, the band is renowned for its impact on the alternative country music scene. The group's first album, No Depression, became a byword for the genre and was widely influential. Uncle Tupelo's sound was unlike popular country music of the time, drawing inspiration from styles as diverse as the hardcore punk of The Minutemen and the country instrumentation and harmony of the Carter Family and Hank Williams. Farrar and Tweedy's lyrics frequently referred to Middle America and the working class of Belleville. History The Plebes and The Primitives Jay Farrar, along with his brothers Wade and Dade, played in an early 1980s garage band named The Plebes. Hailing from Belleville, Illinois, The Plebes sought to enter a battle-of-the-bands competition but needed another high school student as a member to perform. They invited Jeff Tweedy, a high school friend of Jay Farrar, to join the band and play with them for the show. Despite a lack of skill with his instrument, Tweedy played an important role in the band by booking early gigs. While The Plebes had been playing music in a rockabilly style, Tweedy wanted to play punk rock like the music that he originally heard the group perform. This caused tensions between Tweedy and Dade Farrar, who left the band two months after Tweedy joined. Before leaving the band in 1984, Dade Farrar introduced its members to Mike Heidorn, the younger brother of his girlfriend; Heidorn then joined the group as their drummer. The Plebes then decided to change its name to The Primitives, a reference to a 1965 song by psychedelic rock group The Groupies. Due to the unpopularity of punk rock in the St. Louis area, The Primitives began to play blues-oriented garage rock at fast tempos. They performed regularly at a wedding hall in Millstadt, Illinois, where Tweedy's mother Jo Ann would collect the cover fee. They also performed regularly at B St Bar in Belleville with bands such as The Newsboys (later Sammy and the Snowmonkeys), Charlie Langrehr, and The Symptoms. Wade Farrar was the lead singer of the band, but his commitment to Southern Illinois University and an attempted enlistment in the United States Army meant he was only able to dedicate a small amount of time to the group. Additionally, Heidorn broke his collarbone during a concert in 1986, which caused the band to go on hiatus. Jay Farrar and Tweedy continued to write songs and perform at Heidorn's house while he recovered, and by 1987 they had restarted the group. The Primitives temporarily added Tony Mayr as a bassist so that Tweedy could play guitar, but a month later the band decided to keep Tweedy on bass and remain a three-piece. To avoid confusion with a successful British band also named The Primitives, they decided to change their name once again, to Uncle Tupelo. Although they performed only 1960s cover songs as The Primitives, the trio decided to take a new approach and write their own music under their new name. Early career The Primitives renamed itself Uncle Tupelo after a character in a cartoon drawn by Chuck Wagner, a friend of the band's members. The name was created by combining two randomly chosen words from the dictionary; inspired by the name, Wagner drew a picture of an old, fat Elvis. The trio recorded a four-song demo tape, which won them supporting roles at the concerts of artists such as Johnny Thunders and Warren Zevon. Tweedy met Tony Margherita while moonlighting as a record clerk in St. Louis. After attending a pair of the band's concerts, Margherita offered to become its manager. Uncle Tupelo began to play regular shows at Cicero's Basement—a bar close to the campus of Washington University in St. Louis. Bands playing in a similar style, including Brian Henneman's Chicken Truck, often played at the venue, which by late 1988 was considered to have been the origin of a new music scene. The band temporarily expanded to a four-piece with the addition of the guitarist Alex Mutrux, but soon reverted to a trio. Uncle Tupelo recorded its first tracks in the attic studio of future Chicago punk producer Matt Allison in Champaign, Illinois. The demo Not Forever, Just for Now includes the songs "I Got Drunk" and "Screen Door", as well as early versions of several songs that would appear on their first studio album. The CMJ New Music Report gave the tape a rave review, and called Uncle Tupelo the best unsigned band of the year. The accolade attracted the attention of independent labels, and the band decided to sign with Jay Fialkov and Debbie Southwood-Smith of Giant Records (who offered to book them at CBGB in New York City). Explaining the decision, the band said that "[our] original goals don't get distorted with an independent label." Recordings on Rockville Records Shortly after Uncle Tupelo's signing, Giant Records changed its name to Rockville Records. The band's first album for Rockville, No Depression, was recorded over ten days in January 1990, at Fort Apache South recording studio in Boston, Massachusetts. The album's thematic structure revolved around their lives as adolescents in Belleville; examples are songs about wanting to avoid factory work and songs about fearing a potential Persian Gulf War military draft. Impressed by their previous work on Dinosaur Jr.'s Bug, the band wanted Paul Kolderie and Sean Slade to produce the album. Slade let Farrar play on the same 1961 Gibson Les Paul SG Junior that J. Mascis originally played on Bug. The album was released on June 21, 1990, and the band celebrated by playing at Cicero's for two nights. In between tours, Farrar, Tweedy and Heidorn formed a country cover band named Coffee Creek, along with Brian Henneman (later a member of The Bottle Rockets). Henneman impressed Uncle Tupelo, and he was invited to be a guitar technician and occasional multi-instrumentalist for the band. While Farrar and Heidorn would avoid drinking too much after shows, Tweedy would continue drinking throughout the night. Although Tweedy stopped after he began dating Sue Miller in 1991, a significant communication gap had already been opened between Tweedy and Farrar. By March 1991, No Depression had sold an estimated 15,000 copies, and was featured in a Rolling Stone article about rising stars. However, Rockville Records refused to pay the band any royalties for the album, a theme that would continue for the remainder of the band's contract. Over seventeen days the band recorded a second album at Long View Farm in rural North Brookfield, Massachusetts. Still Feel Gone, with a more layered sound, was also produced by Kolderie and Slade, with contributions by Slade, Henneman, Rich Gilbert, Chris Bess of Enormous Richard, and Gary Louris of The Jayhawks. The band was disappointed with the production of the album and decided to discontinue working with Kolderie and Slade. Soon afterward, Uncle Tupelo recorded "Shaking Hands (Soldier's Joy)" on Michelle Shocked's album Arkansas Traveler and joined her on the accompanying tour with Taj Mahal and The Band. However, the tour only lasted for a few shows because of managerial problems between Shocked and The Band. Alternative rock had broken into the mainstream by 1992, and an album released in that style was expected to earn the group a major-label record deal. However, Uncle Tupelo did not want to follow in the footsteps of groups such as Nirvana, and decided to play country and folk songs "as a big 'fuck you' to the rock scene". Peter Buck, guitarist for R.E.M., saw the trio perform at the 40 Watt Club in Athens, Georgia and sought them out after the show. Buck was impressed with a version of "Atomic Power" that the band played, and offered his services for their next album. Over a span of five days, Buck produced the group's next album, March 16–20, 1992. Buck allowed them to stay in his house during the sessions, and charged no money for his services. Henneman's role was increased for this album, and he taught himself how to play mandolin and bouzouki. Despite turning away from the style of popular alternative rock, major labels began to show significant interest in Uncle Tupelo after March 16–20, 1992 was released. The album sold more than their two previous recordings combined, although Rockville was displeased that it did not conform to the style of popular alternative rock. Major label contract In 1992, Joe McEwen of Sire Records began to pursue the band. McEwen, who brought notable acts such as Dinosaur Jr. and Shawn Colvin to Sire, had been interested in them since hearing the Not Forever, Just for Now demo tape. At the urging of Gary Louris, McEwen offered Uncle Tupelo a contract. Band manager Tony Margherita invoked the $50,000 escape clause he had put in their Rockville contract, freeing the band to sign a seven-year deal with Sire. The deal required two albums and specified a budget of $150,000 for the first. Around the time of the recording of March 16–20, 1992, Mike Heidorn had secured a steady job at a Belleville newspaper company and was dating a woman who had two children from a previous marriage. Uncle Tupelo had planned a tour of Europe, but Heidorn wanted to stay in Belleville with his girlfriend, whom he married in August 1992. The band held auditions prior to the promotional tour for March 16–20, 1992, and two candidates stood out: Bill Belzer and Ken Coomer. Although Farrar and Tweedy agreed that Coomer was the better drummer, they were intimidated by his six-foot-four stature and long dreadlocks. The band instead selected Belzer as Heidorn's replacement, but he only stayed with the band for six months. Tweedy explained Belzer's departure: I want to believe it was purely musical, and I honestly believe that it wasn't working musically. I also believe that we weren't emotionally mature enough to be close friends with a gay person at that point in our lives ... And Bill was and is a very proud and righteous gay person, very open about his homosexuality. After touring Europe opening for Sugar, the band replaced Belzer with Coomer. The band also experimented with new members: John Stirratt replaced Brian Henneman (who left to form The Bottle Rockets) while Max Johnston, the brother of Michelle Shocked, joined as a live mandolin and violin performer. Stirratt became the full-time bassist, allowing Tweedy to perform more songs with the guitar. Now a five-piece, Uncle Tupelo recorded their major label debut at Cedar Creek studio in Austin, Texas in early 1993. Anodyne consisted of live-in-the-studio recordings and included a duet with Farrar and Doug Sahm of the Sir Douglas Quintet. The album sold 150,000 copies, and was their only entry on the Billboard Heatseekers chart. The group toured until the end of the year, finishing with a sold-out concert at Tramps in New York City. Because of their concert draw, major executives at Sire began to see the band as a potential hit. In 1993, the band contributed a cover of Creedence Clearwater Revival's track "Effigy" to the AIDS-Benefit album No Alternative produced by the Red Hot Organization. Breakup With the addition of Stirratt, Coomer, and Johnston just prior to the recording of Anodyne, Farrar and Tweedy's relationship became more tumultuous, leading to verbal altercations after concerts. In one account, Tweedy recalled: Around this time, I would say something into a microphone onstage, and afterward [Farrar would] pull me aside and say, "Don't you ever fucking talk into that microphone again." He would misconstrue me talking into the microphone as more evidence of my out-of-control, rampant ego, more evidence of me feeling like I didn't have to be so fucking afraid anymore. Tweedy felt the new members gave him a new opportunity to contribute to the band, but Farrar felt disdain for Tweedy's new carefree attitude. Years later, Farrar would claim that he had been tempted to quit the band after seeing Tweedy stroking the hair of Farrar's girlfriend, an act which he believed to have been a proposition. In January 1994, Farrar called manager Tony Margherita to inform him of his decision to leave the band. Farrar told Margherita that he was no longer having fun, and did not want to work with Tweedy anymore. Soon after the breakup, Farrar explained his departure: "It just seemed like it reached a point where Jeff and I really weren't compatible. It had ceased to be a symbiotic songwriting relationship, probably after the first record." Tweedy was enraged that he heard the news secondhand from Margherita, rather than directly from Farrar. The following day, the two engaged in a verbal confrontation. As a favor to Margherita, who had spent a substantial amount of money to keep the band running, Farrar agreed to a final tour with Uncle Tupelo in North America. Tweedy and Farrar again engaged in a shouting match two weeks into the tour, due to Farrar's refusal to sing harmony on any of Tweedy's songs. The band made its first appearance on national television during the tour when they were featured on Late Night with Conan O'Brien. Sire had requested that the band perform "The Long Cut" on the show, which further irked Farrar since the song was written and sung by Tweedy. Uncle Tupelo's last concerts, two shows at The Blue Note in Columbia, Missouri and two shows at Mississippi Nights in St. Louis, took place from April 28 to May 1, 1994. A special "last leg" poster was created for the occasion which facetiously promoted the band as "St. Louis's 4th best country band", based on a readers' poll in the Riverfront Times. On the last night, Tweedy and Farrar each performed nine songs during the concert, and Mike Heidorn performed as drummer during the encore. Post-breakup Following Uncle Tupelo's final tour, Tweedy encouraged his bandmates to join him in a new group, while Farrar searched for members for a band of his own. Tweedy was able to retain the rest of the Uncle Tupelo lineup, and created Wilco. They began rehearsing a few days after the final Uncle Tupelo concert, and by August 1994 they were in the recording studio for their first album, A.M.. Farrar asked Jim Boquist to join his new band, Son Volt; Boquist was a multi-instrumentalist who had performed with Joe Henry as the opening act on Uncle Tupelo's last tour. Boquist also recruited his brother Dave, and Farrar convinced Mike Heidorn to leave Belleville to join the group. Farrar's new four-piece began recording their debut album Trace in November 1994. Wilco signed to Reprise Records while Son Volt signed with Warner Bros. Records. Son Volt had an early college rock hit with "Drown" from the album Trace, but Wilco maintained a more commercially successful career in the years to follow. Regarding the possibility of a reunion, Mike Heidorn reported in a PopMatters interview that "nothing's ever for sure, but I would have to say, 'No such thing'." Farrar said that he does not want the band to get back together, while Tweedy said that he believes that a reunion would not be productive musically. Farrar and Tweedy sued Rockville Records and Dutch East India Trading CEO Barry Tenenbaum in 2000 over royalties that the label allegedly owed them, winning restitution from Tenenbaum and the joint rights to Uncle Tupelo's first three albums. After securing the rights, the band released a compilation entitled 89/93: An Anthology. In 2003, Uncle Tupelo re-issued their first three albums, which before the lawsuit had cumulatively sold over 200,000 copies. Influences As The Primitives, Tweedy and Farrar were highly influenced by punk bands such as The Ramones and The Sex Pistols. However, they began to listen to country music because punk rock was not well received in the Belleville and St. Louis music scenes. While they originally were introduced to country by their parents, it was not until this time that they began to listen to it for leisure. Farrar typically wrote songs about Middle America, while Tweedy wrote about more mainstream topics such as relationships. Farrar took influence from authors such as Kurt Vonnegut and Jack Kerouac, whom he read while working at his mother's bookstore. As a singer, Farrar's lyrics would be front-and-center during performances, but the band's musical style was mostly driven by Tweedy and Heidorn. Jeff Tweedy said in an interview with the St. Louis Post-Dispatch: We probably have more influences than we know what to do with. We have two main styles that have been influences. For instance, we like Black Flag as much as early Bob Dylan and Dinosaur Jr. as much as Hank Williams... To us, hard-core punk is also folk music. We draw a close parallel between the two. We'll play both in the same set if we get a chance. We don't have any biases as far as music is concerned. Tweedy in particular was inspired by the Minutemen, and wrote a song about D. Boon following Boon's death in a van accident. The band has released songs originally performed by Creedence Clearwater Revival, The Carter Family, Lead Belly, Gram Parsons, The Soft Boys, The Louvin Brothers, Texas Tornados, and The Stooges. Releasing March 16–20, 1992 when alternative music was breaking through was a move inspired by Neil Young's decision to release the challenging albums On the Beach and Tonight's the Night immediately after the commercially successful Harvest. Critic Michael Corcoran likened the band's musical style to "Bob Mould fronting Soul Asylum on a speeded-up version of a Gram Parsons song." Legacy Uncle Tupelo is credited as one of the founders of the alternative country genre, a blend of alternative rock and traditional country music. While the genre eventually became associated with solo artists such as Gram Parsons and Lyle Lovett, Uncle Tupelo is considered the first alternative country band. Some media outlets like the BBC have even suggested that they were the genre's sole creator. However, Tweedy and Heidorn dispute this claim, and Farrar says that there is no difference between alternative country and other genres such as roots rock. Heidorn commented in a Country Standard Time interview: It's strange to hear Uncle Tupelo mentioned because what we were doing was in such a long line of musical history. People are wrong in starting with us and saying we started anything because we were just picking up the ball, starting with Woody Guthrie and on to the early '60s and the Flying Burrito Brothers that we were influenced by. We didn't start a genre. We contributed to a long line of fairly good music. That's the way we looked at it at the time—doing what was right for the song. The band's first three albums influenced contemporary roots rock artists such as Richmond Fontaine and Whiskeytown. Uncle Tupelo's usage of distorted guitars to play a style of music that was known for its earnestness became a lasting trend in 1990s modern rock. Jason Ankeny wrote in AllMusic that: With the release of their 1990 debut LP, No Depression, the Belleville, IL, trio Uncle Tupelo launched more than simply their own career—by fusing the simplicity and honesty of country music with the bracing fury of punk, they kick-started a revolution which reverberated throughout the American underground. Their 1990 album No Depression lent its name to an influential alternative country periodical. Due to the influence of the album and periodical, the term "No Depression" became a byword for alternative country—particularly for bands with punk rock influence. The alternative country movement played an important role in the success of future traditionalist country acts such as Robbie Fulks and Shelby Lynne. Members Jay Farrar – vocals, guitar (1987–1994) Mike Heidorn – drums (1987–1992) Jeff Tweedy – vocals, bass, guitar (1987–1994) Bill Belzer – drums (1992) Ken Coomer – drums (1992–1994) Max Johnston – violin, mandolin (1992–1994) John Stirratt – bass, guitar (1992–1994) Timeline Discography Studio albums Compilations Demo tapes All demo tapes are self-released on cassette. Singles Contributions Uncle Tupelo also recorded a one-hour radio special that was released by Legacy Records in 2003. Legacy only distributed the CD, entitled The Long Cut: A One Hour Radio Special, to non-commercial radio stations as a way to promote the re-issues of the band's studio albums. The special is hosted by Lauren Frey and features interviews by Farrar, Tweedy, and Heidorn. Notes References External links Factory Belt: The Unofficial Uncle Tupelo Archives Postcard From Hell Mailing List Category:American alternative country groups Category:American country rock groups Category:Musical groups from St. Louis Category:Musical groups disestablished in 1994 Category:Musical groups established in 1987 Category:Musical groups from Illinois Category:Wilco Category:1987 establishments in Illinois Category:Sire Records artists Category:Dutch East India Trading artists Category:Giant Records (independent) artists
[]
[ "Jay Farrar decided to break up the band due to his tumultuous relationship with Jeff Tweedy, differences over songwriting, and what he perceived as Tweedy's out-of-control ego and carefree attitude. He felt that their compatibility was no longer there, he was no longer having fun, and he didn't want to work with Tweedy.", "The band, Uncle Tupelo, broke up in January 1994.", "The context does not provide information on what the band members did after the breakup of Uncle Tupelo.", "One interesting thing that happened after the breakup of the band was that Farrar agreed to a final tour with Uncle Tupelo in North America out of respect for their manager, Tony Margherita, who had invested a lot of money in the band. During this tour, the band made its first appearance on national television on the show Late Night with Conan O'Brien and they ended with a concert at Mississippi Nights in St. Louis, Missouri, where both Tweedy and Farrar each performed nine songs." ]
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C_eea056c49cca401a93366614591e197d_0
Uncle Tupelo
Uncle Tupelo was an alternative country music group from Belleville, Illinois, active between 1987 and 1994. Jay Farrar, Jeff Tweedy, and Mike Heidorn formed the band after the lead singer of their previous band, The Primitives, left to attend college. The trio recorded three albums for Rockville Records, before signing with Sire Records and expanding to a five-piece. Shortly after the release of the band's major label debut album Anodyne, Farrar announced his decision to leave the band due to a soured relationship with his co-songwriter Tweedy.
Post-breakup
Following Uncle Tupelo's final tour, Tweedy encouraged his bandmates to join him in a new group, while Farrar searched for members for a band of his own. Tweedy was able to retain the rest of the Uncle Tupelo lineup, and created Wilco. Wilco began rehearsing a few days after the final Uncle Tupelo concert, and by August 1994 they were in the recording studio for their first album, A.M.. Farrar asked Jim Boquist to join his new band, Son Volt; Boquist was a multi-instrumentalist who had performed with Joe Henry as the opening act on Uncle Tupelo's last tour. Boquist also recruited his brother Dave, and Farrar convinced Mike Heidorn to leave Belleville to join the group. Farrar's new four-piece began recording their debut album Trace in November 1994. Wilco signed to Reprise Records while Son Volt signed with Warner Bros. Records. Son Volt had an early college rock hit with "Drown" from the album Trace, but Wilco maintained a more commercially successful career in the years to follow. Regarding the possibility of a reunion, Mike Heidorn reported in a PopMatters interview that "nothing's ever for sure, but I would have to say, 'No such thing' ". Farrar said that he does not want the band to get back together, while Tweedy said that he believes that a reunion would not be productive musically. Farrar and Tweedy sued Rockville Records and Dutch East India Trading CEO Barry Tenenbaum in 2000 over royalties that the label allegedly owed them, winning reparations from Tenenbaum and the joint rights to Uncle Tupelo's first three albums. After securing the rights, the band released a compilation entitled 89/93: An Anthology. In 2003, Uncle Tupelo re-issued their first three albums, which before the lawsuit had cumulatively sold over 200,000 copies. CANNOTANSWER
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Uncle Tupelo was an alternative country music group from Belleville, Illinois, active between 1987 and 1994. Jay Farrar, Jeff Tweedy, and Mike Heidorn formed the band after the lead singer of their previous band, The Primitives, left to attend college. The trio recorded three albums for Rockville Records, before signing with Sire Records and expanding to a five-piece. Shortly after the release of the band's major label debut album Anodyne, Farrar announced his decision to leave the band due to a soured relationship with his co-songwriter Tweedy. Uncle Tupelo split on May 1, 1994, after completing a farewell tour. Following the breakup, Farrar formed Son Volt with Heidorn, while the remaining members continued as Wilco. Although Uncle Tupelo broke up before it achieved commercial success, the band is renowned for its impact on the alternative country music scene. The group's first album, No Depression, became a byword for the genre and was widely influential. Uncle Tupelo's sound was unlike popular country music of the time, drawing inspiration from styles as diverse as the hardcore punk of The Minutemen and the country instrumentation and harmony of the Carter Family and Hank Williams. Farrar and Tweedy's lyrics frequently referred to Middle America and the working class of Belleville. History The Plebes and The Primitives Jay Farrar, along with his brothers Wade and Dade, played in an early 1980s garage band named The Plebes. Hailing from Belleville, Illinois, The Plebes sought to enter a battle-of-the-bands competition but needed another high school student as a member to perform. They invited Jeff Tweedy, a high school friend of Jay Farrar, to join the band and play with them for the show. Despite a lack of skill with his instrument, Tweedy played an important role in the band by booking early gigs. While The Plebes had been playing music in a rockabilly style, Tweedy wanted to play punk rock like the music that he originally heard the group perform. This caused tensions between Tweedy and Dade Farrar, who left the band two months after Tweedy joined. Before leaving the band in 1984, Dade Farrar introduced its members to Mike Heidorn, the younger brother of his girlfriend; Heidorn then joined the group as their drummer. The Plebes then decided to change its name to The Primitives, a reference to a 1965 song by psychedelic rock group The Groupies. Due to the unpopularity of punk rock in the St. Louis area, The Primitives began to play blues-oriented garage rock at fast tempos. They performed regularly at a wedding hall in Millstadt, Illinois, where Tweedy's mother Jo Ann would collect the cover fee. They also performed regularly at B St Bar in Belleville with bands such as The Newsboys (later Sammy and the Snowmonkeys), Charlie Langrehr, and The Symptoms. Wade Farrar was the lead singer of the band, but his commitment to Southern Illinois University and an attempted enlistment in the United States Army meant he was only able to dedicate a small amount of time to the group. Additionally, Heidorn broke his collarbone during a concert in 1986, which caused the band to go on hiatus. Jay Farrar and Tweedy continued to write songs and perform at Heidorn's house while he recovered, and by 1987 they had restarted the group. The Primitives temporarily added Tony Mayr as a bassist so that Tweedy could play guitar, but a month later the band decided to keep Tweedy on bass and remain a three-piece. To avoid confusion with a successful British band also named The Primitives, they decided to change their name once again, to Uncle Tupelo. Although they performed only 1960s cover songs as The Primitives, the trio decided to take a new approach and write their own music under their new name. Early career The Primitives renamed itself Uncle Tupelo after a character in a cartoon drawn by Chuck Wagner, a friend of the band's members. The name was created by combining two randomly chosen words from the dictionary; inspired by the name, Wagner drew a picture of an old, fat Elvis. The trio recorded a four-song demo tape, which won them supporting roles at the concerts of artists such as Johnny Thunders and Warren Zevon. Tweedy met Tony Margherita while moonlighting as a record clerk in St. Louis. After attending a pair of the band's concerts, Margherita offered to become its manager. Uncle Tupelo began to play regular shows at Cicero's Basement—a bar close to the campus of Washington University in St. Louis. Bands playing in a similar style, including Brian Henneman's Chicken Truck, often played at the venue, which by late 1988 was considered to have been the origin of a new music scene. The band temporarily expanded to a four-piece with the addition of the guitarist Alex Mutrux, but soon reverted to a trio. Uncle Tupelo recorded its first tracks in the attic studio of future Chicago punk producer Matt Allison in Champaign, Illinois. The demo Not Forever, Just for Now includes the songs "I Got Drunk" and "Screen Door", as well as early versions of several songs that would appear on their first studio album. The CMJ New Music Report gave the tape a rave review, and called Uncle Tupelo the best unsigned band of the year. The accolade attracted the attention of independent labels, and the band decided to sign with Jay Fialkov and Debbie Southwood-Smith of Giant Records (who offered to book them at CBGB in New York City). Explaining the decision, the band said that "[our] original goals don't get distorted with an independent label." Recordings on Rockville Records Shortly after Uncle Tupelo's signing, Giant Records changed its name to Rockville Records. The band's first album for Rockville, No Depression, was recorded over ten days in January 1990, at Fort Apache South recording studio in Boston, Massachusetts. The album's thematic structure revolved around their lives as adolescents in Belleville; examples are songs about wanting to avoid factory work and songs about fearing a potential Persian Gulf War military draft. Impressed by their previous work on Dinosaur Jr.'s Bug, the band wanted Paul Kolderie and Sean Slade to produce the album. Slade let Farrar play on the same 1961 Gibson Les Paul SG Junior that J. Mascis originally played on Bug. The album was released on June 21, 1990, and the band celebrated by playing at Cicero's for two nights. In between tours, Farrar, Tweedy and Heidorn formed a country cover band named Coffee Creek, along with Brian Henneman (later a member of The Bottle Rockets). Henneman impressed Uncle Tupelo, and he was invited to be a guitar technician and occasional multi-instrumentalist for the band. While Farrar and Heidorn would avoid drinking too much after shows, Tweedy would continue drinking throughout the night. Although Tweedy stopped after he began dating Sue Miller in 1991, a significant communication gap had already been opened between Tweedy and Farrar. By March 1991, No Depression had sold an estimated 15,000 copies, and was featured in a Rolling Stone article about rising stars. However, Rockville Records refused to pay the band any royalties for the album, a theme that would continue for the remainder of the band's contract. Over seventeen days the band recorded a second album at Long View Farm in rural North Brookfield, Massachusetts. Still Feel Gone, with a more layered sound, was also produced by Kolderie and Slade, with contributions by Slade, Henneman, Rich Gilbert, Chris Bess of Enormous Richard, and Gary Louris of The Jayhawks. The band was disappointed with the production of the album and decided to discontinue working with Kolderie and Slade. Soon afterward, Uncle Tupelo recorded "Shaking Hands (Soldier's Joy)" on Michelle Shocked's album Arkansas Traveler and joined her on the accompanying tour with Taj Mahal and The Band. However, the tour only lasted for a few shows because of managerial problems between Shocked and The Band. Alternative rock had broken into the mainstream by 1992, and an album released in that style was expected to earn the group a major-label record deal. However, Uncle Tupelo did not want to follow in the footsteps of groups such as Nirvana, and decided to play country and folk songs "as a big 'fuck you' to the rock scene". Peter Buck, guitarist for R.E.M., saw the trio perform at the 40 Watt Club in Athens, Georgia and sought them out after the show. Buck was impressed with a version of "Atomic Power" that the band played, and offered his services for their next album. Over a span of five days, Buck produced the group's next album, March 16–20, 1992. Buck allowed them to stay in his house during the sessions, and charged no money for his services. Henneman's role was increased for this album, and he taught himself how to play mandolin and bouzouki. Despite turning away from the style of popular alternative rock, major labels began to show significant interest in Uncle Tupelo after March 16–20, 1992 was released. The album sold more than their two previous recordings combined, although Rockville was displeased that it did not conform to the style of popular alternative rock. Major label contract In 1992, Joe McEwen of Sire Records began to pursue the band. McEwen, who brought notable acts such as Dinosaur Jr. and Shawn Colvin to Sire, had been interested in them since hearing the Not Forever, Just for Now demo tape. At the urging of Gary Louris, McEwen offered Uncle Tupelo a contract. Band manager Tony Margherita invoked the $50,000 escape clause he had put in their Rockville contract, freeing the band to sign a seven-year deal with Sire. The deal required two albums and specified a budget of $150,000 for the first. Around the time of the recording of March 16–20, 1992, Mike Heidorn had secured a steady job at a Belleville newspaper company and was dating a woman who had two children from a previous marriage. Uncle Tupelo had planned a tour of Europe, but Heidorn wanted to stay in Belleville with his girlfriend, whom he married in August 1992. The band held auditions prior to the promotional tour for March 16–20, 1992, and two candidates stood out: Bill Belzer and Ken Coomer. Although Farrar and Tweedy agreed that Coomer was the better drummer, they were intimidated by his six-foot-four stature and long dreadlocks. The band instead selected Belzer as Heidorn's replacement, but he only stayed with the band for six months. Tweedy explained Belzer's departure: I want to believe it was purely musical, and I honestly believe that it wasn't working musically. I also believe that we weren't emotionally mature enough to be close friends with a gay person at that point in our lives ... And Bill was and is a very proud and righteous gay person, very open about his homosexuality. After touring Europe opening for Sugar, the band replaced Belzer with Coomer. The band also experimented with new members: John Stirratt replaced Brian Henneman (who left to form The Bottle Rockets) while Max Johnston, the brother of Michelle Shocked, joined as a live mandolin and violin performer. Stirratt became the full-time bassist, allowing Tweedy to perform more songs with the guitar. Now a five-piece, Uncle Tupelo recorded their major label debut at Cedar Creek studio in Austin, Texas in early 1993. Anodyne consisted of live-in-the-studio recordings and included a duet with Farrar and Doug Sahm of the Sir Douglas Quintet. The album sold 150,000 copies, and was their only entry on the Billboard Heatseekers chart. The group toured until the end of the year, finishing with a sold-out concert at Tramps in New York City. Because of their concert draw, major executives at Sire began to see the band as a potential hit. In 1993, the band contributed a cover of Creedence Clearwater Revival's track "Effigy" to the AIDS-Benefit album No Alternative produced by the Red Hot Organization. Breakup With the addition of Stirratt, Coomer, and Johnston just prior to the recording of Anodyne, Farrar and Tweedy's relationship became more tumultuous, leading to verbal altercations after concerts. In one account, Tweedy recalled: Around this time, I would say something into a microphone onstage, and afterward [Farrar would] pull me aside and say, "Don't you ever fucking talk into that microphone again." He would misconstrue me talking into the microphone as more evidence of my out-of-control, rampant ego, more evidence of me feeling like I didn't have to be so fucking afraid anymore. Tweedy felt the new members gave him a new opportunity to contribute to the band, but Farrar felt disdain for Tweedy's new carefree attitude. Years later, Farrar would claim that he had been tempted to quit the band after seeing Tweedy stroking the hair of Farrar's girlfriend, an act which he believed to have been a proposition. In January 1994, Farrar called manager Tony Margherita to inform him of his decision to leave the band. Farrar told Margherita that he was no longer having fun, and did not want to work with Tweedy anymore. Soon after the breakup, Farrar explained his departure: "It just seemed like it reached a point where Jeff and I really weren't compatible. It had ceased to be a symbiotic songwriting relationship, probably after the first record." Tweedy was enraged that he heard the news secondhand from Margherita, rather than directly from Farrar. The following day, the two engaged in a verbal confrontation. As a favor to Margherita, who had spent a substantial amount of money to keep the band running, Farrar agreed to a final tour with Uncle Tupelo in North America. Tweedy and Farrar again engaged in a shouting match two weeks into the tour, due to Farrar's refusal to sing harmony on any of Tweedy's songs. The band made its first appearance on national television during the tour when they were featured on Late Night with Conan O'Brien. Sire had requested that the band perform "The Long Cut" on the show, which further irked Farrar since the song was written and sung by Tweedy. Uncle Tupelo's last concerts, two shows at The Blue Note in Columbia, Missouri and two shows at Mississippi Nights in St. Louis, took place from April 28 to May 1, 1994. A special "last leg" poster was created for the occasion which facetiously promoted the band as "St. Louis's 4th best country band", based on a readers' poll in the Riverfront Times. On the last night, Tweedy and Farrar each performed nine songs during the concert, and Mike Heidorn performed as drummer during the encore. Post-breakup Following Uncle Tupelo's final tour, Tweedy encouraged his bandmates to join him in a new group, while Farrar searched for members for a band of his own. Tweedy was able to retain the rest of the Uncle Tupelo lineup, and created Wilco. They began rehearsing a few days after the final Uncle Tupelo concert, and by August 1994 they were in the recording studio for their first album, A.M.. Farrar asked Jim Boquist to join his new band, Son Volt; Boquist was a multi-instrumentalist who had performed with Joe Henry as the opening act on Uncle Tupelo's last tour. Boquist also recruited his brother Dave, and Farrar convinced Mike Heidorn to leave Belleville to join the group. Farrar's new four-piece began recording their debut album Trace in November 1994. Wilco signed to Reprise Records while Son Volt signed with Warner Bros. Records. Son Volt had an early college rock hit with "Drown" from the album Trace, but Wilco maintained a more commercially successful career in the years to follow. Regarding the possibility of a reunion, Mike Heidorn reported in a PopMatters interview that "nothing's ever for sure, but I would have to say, 'No such thing'." Farrar said that he does not want the band to get back together, while Tweedy said that he believes that a reunion would not be productive musically. Farrar and Tweedy sued Rockville Records and Dutch East India Trading CEO Barry Tenenbaum in 2000 over royalties that the label allegedly owed them, winning restitution from Tenenbaum and the joint rights to Uncle Tupelo's first three albums. After securing the rights, the band released a compilation entitled 89/93: An Anthology. In 2003, Uncle Tupelo re-issued their first three albums, which before the lawsuit had cumulatively sold over 200,000 copies. Influences As The Primitives, Tweedy and Farrar were highly influenced by punk bands such as The Ramones and The Sex Pistols. However, they began to listen to country music because punk rock was not well received in the Belleville and St. Louis music scenes. While they originally were introduced to country by their parents, it was not until this time that they began to listen to it for leisure. Farrar typically wrote songs about Middle America, while Tweedy wrote about more mainstream topics such as relationships. Farrar took influence from authors such as Kurt Vonnegut and Jack Kerouac, whom he read while working at his mother's bookstore. As a singer, Farrar's lyrics would be front-and-center during performances, but the band's musical style was mostly driven by Tweedy and Heidorn. Jeff Tweedy said in an interview with the St. Louis Post-Dispatch: We probably have more influences than we know what to do with. We have two main styles that have been influences. For instance, we like Black Flag as much as early Bob Dylan and Dinosaur Jr. as much as Hank Williams... To us, hard-core punk is also folk music. We draw a close parallel between the two. We'll play both in the same set if we get a chance. We don't have any biases as far as music is concerned. Tweedy in particular was inspired by the Minutemen, and wrote a song about D. Boon following Boon's death in a van accident. The band has released songs originally performed by Creedence Clearwater Revival, The Carter Family, Lead Belly, Gram Parsons, The Soft Boys, The Louvin Brothers, Texas Tornados, and The Stooges. Releasing March 16–20, 1992 when alternative music was breaking through was a move inspired by Neil Young's decision to release the challenging albums On the Beach and Tonight's the Night immediately after the commercially successful Harvest. Critic Michael Corcoran likened the band's musical style to "Bob Mould fronting Soul Asylum on a speeded-up version of a Gram Parsons song." Legacy Uncle Tupelo is credited as one of the founders of the alternative country genre, a blend of alternative rock and traditional country music. While the genre eventually became associated with solo artists such as Gram Parsons and Lyle Lovett, Uncle Tupelo is considered the first alternative country band. Some media outlets like the BBC have even suggested that they were the genre's sole creator. However, Tweedy and Heidorn dispute this claim, and Farrar says that there is no difference between alternative country and other genres such as roots rock. Heidorn commented in a Country Standard Time interview: It's strange to hear Uncle Tupelo mentioned because what we were doing was in such a long line of musical history. People are wrong in starting with us and saying we started anything because we were just picking up the ball, starting with Woody Guthrie and on to the early '60s and the Flying Burrito Brothers that we were influenced by. We didn't start a genre. We contributed to a long line of fairly good music. That's the way we looked at it at the time—doing what was right for the song. The band's first three albums influenced contemporary roots rock artists such as Richmond Fontaine and Whiskeytown. Uncle Tupelo's usage of distorted guitars to play a style of music that was known for its earnestness became a lasting trend in 1990s modern rock. Jason Ankeny wrote in AllMusic that: With the release of their 1990 debut LP, No Depression, the Belleville, IL, trio Uncle Tupelo launched more than simply their own career—by fusing the simplicity and honesty of country music with the bracing fury of punk, they kick-started a revolution which reverberated throughout the American underground. Their 1990 album No Depression lent its name to an influential alternative country periodical. Due to the influence of the album and periodical, the term "No Depression" became a byword for alternative country—particularly for bands with punk rock influence. The alternative country movement played an important role in the success of future traditionalist country acts such as Robbie Fulks and Shelby Lynne. Members Jay Farrar – vocals, guitar (1987–1994) Mike Heidorn – drums (1987–1992) Jeff Tweedy – vocals, bass, guitar (1987–1994) Bill Belzer – drums (1992) Ken Coomer – drums (1992–1994) Max Johnston – violin, mandolin (1992–1994) John Stirratt – bass, guitar (1992–1994) Timeline Discography Studio albums Compilations Demo tapes All demo tapes are self-released on cassette. Singles Contributions Uncle Tupelo also recorded a one-hour radio special that was released by Legacy Records in 2003. Legacy only distributed the CD, entitled The Long Cut: A One Hour Radio Special, to non-commercial radio stations as a way to promote the re-issues of the band's studio albums. The special is hosted by Lauren Frey and features interviews by Farrar, Tweedy, and Heidorn. Notes References External links Factory Belt: The Unofficial Uncle Tupelo Archives Postcard From Hell Mailing List Category:American alternative country groups Category:American country rock groups Category:Musical groups from St. Louis Category:Musical groups disestablished in 1994 Category:Musical groups established in 1987 Category:Musical groups from Illinois Category:Wilco Category:1987 establishments in Illinois Category:Sire Records artists Category:Dutch East India Trading artists Category:Giant Records (independent) artists
[]
[ "After Uncle Tupelo's breakup, Tweedy formed a new group called Wilco, which retained the rest of the Uncle Tupelo lineup. They began rehearsing a few days after the final Uncle Tupelo concert and were in the recording studio for their first album, A.M., by August 1994. On the other hand, Farrar started his new band, Son Volt, joined by Jim Boquist, Dave Boquist, and Mike Heidorn. They began recording their debut album, Trace, in November 1994. Wilco signed to Reprise Records and Son Volt signed with Warner Bros. Records. Wilco had a more commercially successful career while Son Volt had an early college rock hit with \"Drown.\" There were talks of a reunion, but it was generally discouraged by the band members. Additionally, Farrar and Tweedy sued Rockville Records and Dutch East India Trading CEO Barry Tenenbaum over owed royalties, and won reparations and the joint rights to Uncle Tupelo's first three albums. After securing the rights, the band released a compilation entitled 89/93: An Anthology.", "Wilco began recording their first album, A.M., in August 1994. Son Volt began recording their debut album, Trace, in November 1994.", "Interesting aspects include the post-breakup developments as Tweedy and Farrar each ventured to form their own successful bands. Wilco evolved with the previous Uncle Tupelo lineup, crafting a commercially successful career, while Son Volt, headed by Farrar, had an early college rock hit with \"Drown.\" Another noteworthy aspect was the lawsuit filed by Farrar and Tweedy against Rockville Records and Dutch East India Trading CEO Barry Tenenbaum over unpaid royalties. They managed to win the joint rights to Uncle Tupelo's first three albums and released a compilation titled 89/93: An Anthology. However, despite these subsequent successes, both musicians did not foresee a productive reunion of Uncle Tupelo.", "As per the context provided, there was no reunion of the band Uncle Tupelo. Both Farrar and Tweedy expressed that they didn't believe a reunion would be productive." ]
[ "Yes", "Yes", "Neutral", "No" ]
C_26677e2fa47144b29917990de1c8ae8c_1
Earl Long
Earl Kemp Long (August 26, 1895 - September 5, 1960) was an American politician and the 45th Governor of Louisiana, serving three non-consecutive terms. Long, known as "Uncle Earl", connected with voters through his folksy demeanor and colorful oratory. He departed from other southern politicians of his time by promoting a progressive agenda, including expanding school lunch programs, teacher pay, public works projects, and minority voting rights. His sometimes erratic behavior - including a liaison with New Orleans stripper Blaze Starr - did not affect his electoral success.
1948-1952
Long first ran unsuccessfully for lieutenant governor in 1932 without the support of his brother, Governor and U.S. Senator-elect Huey Long, who was pre-committed in that election to the successful candidates, Oscar K. Allen of Winnfield for governor and John B. Fournet of St. Martinville for lieutenant governor. In his autobiography, Every Man a King, Huey Long said that Earl Long's first candidacy for lieutenant governor brought forth charges of a family dynasty in the making. I sought to discourage [Earl], stating that it would be disastrous for a brother to undertake to have a brother succeed him [as governor] or to have him elected as lieutenant governor. It was already being charged that I was a dictator and that I had allowed many relatives to be placed on the state payrolls (nepotism). To have added a family name to the head of the ticket either for governor or lieutenant governor would have been disastrous to the whole ticket. My brothers and sisters, however, could not see the matter in that light. I gave everyone to understand that I was irrevocably committed to Allen for Governor and Fournet for Lieutenant Governor. ... I finally declared openly and publicly that I would not be [Earl]'s supporter for either office; that I was under lasting obligations to others; that I had done the best I could for my brother, but that I could not and would not undertake to persuade any of the candidates to whom I had given my promise to step aside. ... Not long after Huey Long's assassination, however, Earl Long handily defeated fellow Democrat Clement Murphy Mos much later a judge in Lake Charles, in the primary held for lieutenant governor in January 1936. Richard W. Leche of New Orleans was elected governor in 1936, but he resigned in scandal in 1939, and Long succeeded for eleven months to the governorship. In 1944, Long did not run for governor as many had expected but instead for his earlier position as lieutenant governor on an intra-party ticket with former U.S. Representative Lewis L. Morgan of Covington in St. Tammany Parish across Lake Ponchartrain from New Orleans. Long led the party balloting for the second position in state government, but he lost the runoff to J. Emile Verret of New Iberia, the choice of incoming Governor Jimmie Davis. His previous elected position was as a member and president of the Iberia Parish School Board. Had Lewis Morgan not entered the second primary against Jimmie Davis, Long would have become lieutenant governor without a runoff. At the time, Louisiana law provided that there would be no statewide constitutional runoff elections unless there was also a second contest for governor. That rule did not apply to state legislative races, however. In the same campaign, the Long-endorsed candidate for attorney general, state Senator Joe T. Cawthorn of Mansfield, lost to the Davis-backed Fred S. LeBlanc. Long blamed his failure to become lieutenant governor in 1944 on Louisiana Secretary of State Wade O. Martin, Jr., a former ally with whom he quarreled for many years thereafter. Years later he repaid Martin politically. In 1957, Long pushed through a new law, taking jurisdiction of insurance and voting machines from the secretary of state's office and setting up two new patronage positions. Long appointed Rufus D. Hayes of Baton Rouge as the first insurance commissioner and Drayton Boucher of Webster Parish as the commissioner of voting machines. After Boucher decided not to run for office in the 1959-1960 election cycle, Long appointed Douglas Fowler of Red River Parish, who held the job for more than twenty years. In 1948, Long was elected governor to succeed Jimmie Davis. At the time the salary was $12,000 annually. Long defeated his old rival Sam Jones by a wide margin. Eliminated in the first primary was U.S. Representative James Hobson "Jimmy" Morrison of Hammond, who made his third and final gubernatorial bid. Long appointed A.A. Fredericks as his executive secretary. Harvey Locke Carey of Shreveport was the campaign manager for northwest Louisiana and later the short-term U. S. Attorney for the United States District Court for the Western District of Louisiana. The Memphis Commercial Appeal criticized Long's election as governor in 1948. Long "promised everything but the moon"--old-age pensions, veterans bonuses, a new highway system: "[A]pparently the voters took him at his word, for they elected him by the largest majority ever given a Louisiana candidate [in a gubernatorial runoff contest]. That may be something in the nature of poetic justice, for the majority of voters will be getting exactly what was promised them, and for which they asked, whether they knew it or not." During the second half of his four-year term, Governor Long became close to Margaret Dixon, the first woman managing editor of the Baton Rouge Morning Advocate. She often advised him on political strategy. In 1951 he appointed her to the LSU Board of Supervisors. Long suffered a major heart attack in 1950, but recovered. In 1950, Long struck a deal with his intra-party rival, Mayor deLesseps Story Morrison, to return home rule to the Crescent City, which at the time was being virtually governed out of Baton Rouge. Morrison agreed not to work against Long's nephew, Russell B. Long, who was successfully seeking a full term in the United States Senate. Instead, Morrison formally endorsed one of Long's rivals, Malcolm Lafargue, the former U. S. attorney for the United States District Court for the Western District of Louisiana, based in Shreveport. Though Morrison "endorsed" Lafargue, he privately urged his followers to support Russell Long, whom he fully expected to win the race anyway. CANNOTANSWER
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Earl Kemp Long (August 26, 1895 – September 5, 1960) was an American politician and the 45th governor of Louisiana, serving three nonconsecutive terms. Long, known as "Uncle Earl", connected with voters through his folksy demeanor and colorful oratory. He departed from other Southern politicians of his time by promoting a progressive agenda, expanding school-lunch programs, teacher pay, public-works projects, and minority voting rights. His sometimes erratic behavior – including a liaison with New Orleans stripper Blaze Starr – did not affect his electoral success. Long served as governor from 1939 to 1940, 1948 to 1952, and 1956 to 1960. He was nominated in the summer of 1960 to the United States House of Representatives for Louisiana's 8th congressional district, and was running unopposed in the general election, but he died before he could take office. He was elected as lieutenant governor and served from 1936–1939. Trying to keep a close hand in state government, Long failed in three other bids to be elected lieutenant governor, in 1932, 1944, and 1959. First races for governor Long first ran unsuccessfully for governor in 1932 without the support of his brother, Governor and U.S. Senator-elect Huey Long, who was committed in that election to the successful candidates, Oscar K. Allen of Winnfield for governor and John B. Fournet of St. Martinville for lieutenant governor. In his autobiography, Every Man a King, Huey Long said that Earl Long's first candidacy for lieutenant governor brought forth charges of a family dynasty in the making. "I sought to discourage [Earl], stating that it would be disastrous for a brother to undertake to have a brother succeed him [as governor] or to have him elected as lieutenant governor. It was already being charged that I was a dictator and that I had allowed many relatives to be placed on the state payrolls (nepotism). To have added a family name to the head of the ticket either for governor or lieutenant governor would have been disastrous to the whole ticket. My brothers and sisters, however, could not see the matter in that light. I gave everyone to understand that I was irrevocably committed to Allen for Governor and Fournet for Lieutenant Governor. ... I finally declared openly and publicly that I would not be [Earl]'s supporter for either office; that I was under lasting obligations to others; that I had done the best I could for my brother, but that I could not and would not undertake to persuade any of the candidates to whom I had given my promise to step aside. ..." Not long after Huey Long's assassination, however, Earl Long handily defeated fellow Democrat Clement Murphy Mos (much later a judge in Lake Charles) in the primary held for lieutenant governor in January 1936. Richard W. Leche of New Orleans was elected governor in 1936, but he resigned in scandal in 1939, and Long succeeded for 11 months to the governorship. Governorships 1939–1940 Long failed to win a gubernatorial term of his own in the election of 1940. During his abbreviated term, Long appointed a cousin, Floyd Harrison Long Sr., as the custodian of the Central State (Mental) Hospital in Pineville. Earl Long's brief first tenure corresponded with the "Louisiana Hayride" scandals that engulfed both Governor Leche and the president of Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge, James Monroe Smith. Long was defeated in the Democratic primary by the conservative lawyer Sam H. Jones of Lake Charles. After the abbreviated governorship, with Coleman Lindsey of Minden as lieutenant governor, Long was indicted in New Orleans on charges of embezzlement and extortion. The charges involved placing a "deadhead" (an unneeded state worker who performs few or no duties) on the payroll of a special state board. The 1944 election In 1944, Long did not run for governor as many had expected, but instead for his earlier position as lieutenant governor on an intraparty ticket with former U.S. Representative Lewis L. Morgan of Covington in St. Tammany Parish across Lake Pontchartrain from New Orleans. Long led the party balloting for the second position in state government, but he lost the runoff to J. Emile Verret of New Iberia, the choice of incoming Governor Jimmie Davis. His previous elected position was as a member and president of the Iberia Parish School Board. Had Lewis Morgan not entered the second primary against Jimmie Davis, Long would have become lieutenant governor without a runoff. At the time, Louisiana law provided that there would be no statewide constitutional runoff elections unless there was also a second contest for governor. That rule did not apply to state legislative races, however. In the same campaign, the Long-endorsed candidate for attorney general, state Senator Joe T. Cawthorn of Mansfield, lost to the Davis-backed Fred S. LeBlanc. Long blamed his failure to become lieutenant governor in 1944 on Louisiana Secretary of State Wade O. Martin Jr., a former ally with whom he quarreled for many years thereafter. Years later, he repaid Martin politically. In 1957, Long pushed through a new law, taking jurisdiction of insurance and voting machines from the secretary of state's office and setting up two new patronage positions. Long appointed Rufus D. Hayes of Baton Rouge as the first insurance commissioner and Drayton Boucher of Webster Parish as the commissioner of voting machines. After Boucher decided not to run for office in the 1959–1960 election cycle, Long appointed Douglas Fowler of Red River Parish, who held the job for more than 20 years. 1948–1957 In 1948, Long was elected governor to succeed Jimmie Davis. At the time, the salary was $12,000 annually. Long defeated his old rival Sam Jones by a wide margin. Eliminated in the first primary was U.S. Representative James Hobson "Jimmy" Morrison of Hammond, who made his third and final gubernatorial bid. Long appointed A.A. Fredericks as his executive secretary. Harvey Locke Carey of Shreveport was the campaign manager for northwest Louisiana and later the short-term U. S. Attorney for the United States District Court for the Western District of Louisiana. The Memphis Commercial Appeal criticized Long's election as governor in 1948. Long "promised everything but the moon"—old-age pensions, veterans bonuses, and a new highway system. "The voters took him at his word, for they elected him by the largest majority ever given a Louisiana candidate [in a gubernatorial runoff contest]. That may be something in the nature of poetic justice, for the majority of voters will be getting exactly what was promised them, and for which they asked, whether they knew it or not." During the second half of his four-year term, Governor Long became close to Margaret Dixon, the first woman managing editor of the Baton Rouge Morning Advocate. She often advised him on political strategy. In 1951, he appointed her to the LSU Board of Supervisors. Long suffered a major heart attack in 1950, but recovered. In 1950, Long struck a deal with his intraparty rival, Mayor deLesseps Story Morrison, to return home rule to the Crescent City, which at the time was being virtually governed out of Baton Rouge. Morrison agreed not to work against Long's nephew, Russell B. Long, who was successfully seeking a full term in the United States Senate. Instead, Morrison formally endorsed one of Long's rivals, Malcolm Lafargue, the former U. S. attorney for the United States District Court for the Western District of Louisiana, based in Shreveport. Though Morrison "endorsed" Lafargue, he privately urged his followers to support Russell Long, whom he fully expected to win the race, anyway. 1952–1956 interim period Term-limited and unable to run in the 1951–1952 elections, Long essentially sat out the statewide elections. According to Garry Boulard's book, The Big Lie (2001), Long proved instrumental during the 1951–1952 campaign in charges of communism made against gubernatorial candidate Hale Boggs of New Orleans. Rival candidate Lucille May Grace attacked him publicly, but Boulard believes this was rigged by Plaquemines Parish boss Leander Perez. At a stormy session of the state Democratic committee, Long attacked Perez and Grace for attacking Boggs, but prevented Boggs from publicly defending himself. Some analysts thought this strategy greatly contributed to Boggs' defeat in the primary. Judge Robert F. Kennon of Minden won as governor, although most loyal Longites had lined up with Judge Carlos Spaht of Baton Rouge. 1956–1960 Long surfaced at the top of the state again in 1955–1956, when he scored an easy victory for governor over a field that included Mayor of New Orleans deLesseps Story "Chep" Morrison Sr., a law partner of Hale Boggs; state highway director Fred Preaus of Farmerville, the choice of outgoing Governor Robert Kennon; former state police superintendent Francis Grevemberg; and businessman James M. McLemore of Alexandria. As Louisiana governors rarely won in the first primary, Long's first response on his victory was, "Huey never done that, did he?" In his second race for the office, McLemore ran on a primarily racial segregationist platform, following the ruling by the US Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of Education (1954) that segregated public schools were unconstitutional. In 1956, Long vetoed funding for the work undertaken by the LSU historian Edwin Adams Davis to establish the state archives. Davis appealed to the State Board of Liquidation for temporary relief until funding could be restored in the next legislative session. The archives became a permanent institution in Baton Rouge. Long eased the governmental indignities placed on African Americans and allowed a considerable number to vote. He convinced the legislature to equalize teacher pay between the races. In 1959, in response to legislative attempts to restrict the suffrage, he called for full participation by blacks in Louisiana elections. He knew that he would attract most of the limited black vote, as most were still restricted by barriers to voter registration. In the 1950s, he quarreled with the state's leading segregationist, then state Senator William M. Rainach of Claiborne Parish. Long reappointed A.A. Fredericks as his executive secretary from 1959–60, his last two years of his last term as governor. He appointed another confidante, former legislator Drayton Boucher of Springhill and later Baton Rouge, as interim "Custodian of voting machines" from 1958–59, as he took the responsibility from the Secretary of State. Long supported another ally, Douglas Fowler of Coushatta, who won the position in 1960 after it was established as an elective office. On three occasions, Long tapped Lorris M. Wimberly of Bienville Parish as Speaker of the Louisiana House of Representatives. In Louisiana, the powerful governor (although limited at the time by nonconsecutive terms) chooses the House Speaker despite the separation of powers. In his last term, Long named Wimberly as director of the state department of public works. In his last gubernatorial term from 1959–60, Long relied heavily on his legislative floor leader, state Representative W.L. Rambo of Georgetown in Grant Parish, in getting bills through the legislature. Rambo was a Long "by marriage", having wed the former Mary Alice Long. In 1959, Long considered resigning as governor. His loyal lieutenant governor, Lether Frazar of Lake Charles, would have succeeded him as the Louisiana chief executive for some seven months. Under this scenario, Long planned to run again for governor in the December 1959 Democratic primary, but by leaving office early could avoid Louisiana's ban (at the time) on governors' succeeding themselves. He never proceeded with this. Instead, the term-limited Long unsuccessfully sought the lieutenant governorship on a ticket headed by fellow Democrat and wealthy former Governor James A. Noe. Instead, Jimmie Davis was elected to a second non-consecutive term as governor in 1960, having first served from 1944–48. It was said that in 1948 Long followed Davis and in 1960 Davis followed Long. Long was defeated for lieutenant governor in the 1959 primary by the conservative C. C. "Taddy" Aycock of Franklin in St. Mary Parish in south Louisiana. Aycock also won the January 1960 runoff election over Alexandria Mayor W. George Bowdon Jr. In the 1959 primary, Long lost a race to Sheridan Garrett, 2,563 to 2,068, for a Winn Parish seat on the Louisiana Democratic State Central Committee. "Uncle Earl" and anecdotes The colorful "Uncle Earl" (so-named because of his relatives, including nephew and U.S. Senator Russell Long) once joked that one day the people of Louisiana would elect "good government, and they won't like it!" But, beneath his public persona as a simple, plain-spoken rural Louisianan of little education, he had an astute political mind of considerable intelligence. Earl Long was a master campaigner, who attracted large crowds when his caravan crisscrossed the state. He would not allow a local person to introduce him or his ticket mates at a rally. Only out-of-parish people could do the honor. Long reasoned that nearly any local person would have made some political enemies who might reject Earl Long just because that person's "enemy" was pro-Long. Long was determined to get every vote possible, so tried to remain independent of local rivalries. Both Earl Long and his brother Huey had grown close to Earl Williamson, a local politician in Caddo Parish. Williamson's son, Don W. Williamson, later recalled Earl Long coming into their town of Vivian and picking up his father to join the Long entourage for a trip to Hot Springs, Arkansas, where they enjoyed drinking buttermilk and horse racing, as well as illicit attractions in the resort city. Long demanded absolute loyalty among his inner circle, often saying that he did not need them to back him when he was right, but when he was wrong. Long's erratic political behavior led the aspiring singer Jay Chevalier to compose in 1959 the song, "The Ballad of Earl K. Long". Long's feud with Dave Pearce In the 1948 Democratic primary, W.E. Anderson of Tangipahoa Parish defeated Dave L. Pearce, a legislator from West Carroll Parish in northeastern Louisiana, for the position of Louisiana Commissioner of Agriculture and Forestry. For the 1952 primary, the Democratic Party renominated Anderson without opposition to a second term. After Anderson died that year, outgoing Governor Long appointed Pearce to finish the term. Pearce won a special election and also served as commissioner during the administration of the anti-Long Governor Robert F. Kennon of Minden. Long's first lieutenant governor, William J. "Bill" Dodd, in his memoir entitled Peapatch Politics: The Earl Long Era in Louisiana Politics (named for Earl Long's "Peapatch Farm" in Winn Parish), writes that Earl Long developed a "hatred" for Pearce. The governor encouraged state entomologist Sidney McCrory of Ascension Parish to run against Pearce in the 1956 primary election. Dodd did not explain why the relationship between Long and Pearce had declined. McCrory defeated Pearce, but beginning with the 1959 primary, Pearce was nominated by the Democrats for the first of what became four consecutive terms as agriculture commissioner. That year, Earl Long ran for lieutenant governor, but lost to Taddy Aycock. Dodd noted with humor that Long had become irritated with McCrory after inviting him on Long's intraparty ticket in 1956:"... to harass, and we hoped, defeat Uncle Earl's old political enemy, Dave Pearce. All McCrory could talk about was pesticides and how to get rid of different kinds of crop-killing bugs. His main topic and claim to fame, which dominated all of his speeches, whether he was in cotton country, forestry areas, or the city of New Orleans, was his eradicating the pink boll worms from Louisiana cotton fields. Uncle Earl almost went crazy when he had to listen to ... McCrory killed enough pink boll worms to fill the Atlantic Ocean." Eccentricity and hospitalization Long was well known for eccentric behavior, leading some to suspect that he had bipolar disorder. In his last term in office, his wife, Blanche Revere Long (1902–1998), and others attempted to remove him on the grounds of mental instability. For a time, Long was confined to the Southeast Louisiana Hospital in Mandeville, but his legal adviser, Joseph A. Sims, was said to have rescued Long from the institution. Long was never formally diagnosed with any mental disorder. Commentators have speculated that political opposition may have led the effort to prove him mentally incompetent, including his wife, who resented his connection with Starr. He had a severe heart attack in 1951. Additionally, in his later years, he was alleged to have suffered from strokes, resulting in further mental impairment. Some have speculated that he may have suffered from dementia in his last days. Presumptive congressman-elect Only a few months after his term as governor expired in 1960, Earl Long ran for the United States House of Representatives from Louisiana's 8th congressional district. An entourage of Long backers from over the years flocked to support him in the race, including Bill Dodd, former Senate floor leader C. H. "Sammy" Downs, state Senator Sixty Rayburn, the Long attorney Joseph A. Sims, and A.A. Fredericks, Long's former executive assistant. Due to a third candidate, former State Representative Ben F. Holt of Rapides Parish, Long finished in second place in the primary election and was compelled into a runoff contest for the Democratic nomination with the short-term incumbent, Alexandria attorney Harold B. McSween, which Long won. Because no Republican filed for the seat, Long was poised to run unopposed in the general election set for November 8, 1960. However, in September he suffered a fatal heart attack while in the Baptist Hospital (later Rapides General Hospital) in Alexandria. After Earl Long's death, the Democratic State Central Committee gave the nomination to McSween, who had earlier succeeded Earl Long's late brother George Long in the 8th district seat. McSween was thus unopposed in the 1960 general election and won a second consecutive term in the U.S. House. In 1962, McSween was defeated in the primary election by his fellow liberal Democrat, Gillis William Long, who claimed to be the rightful heir to the Long dynasty. His funeral in Baton Rouge attracted numerous attendees. Long was interred at the Earl K. Long Memorial Park in Winnfield. His nephew, U.S. Senator Russell Long, was among the pallbearers. References Further reading A.J. Liebling, The Earl of Louisiana (1961), collected articles first published in The New Yorker, Louisiana State University Press. . External links EARL KEMP LONG NOTES Earl K. Long Library, University of New Orleans State of Louisiana – Biography Cemetery Memorial, Louisiana Cemeteries |- |- |- |- |- Category:1895 births Category:1960 deaths Category:Baptists from Louisiana Category:Burials in Louisiana Category:Democratic Party governors of Louisiana Category:Huey Long Category:Lieutenant Governors of Louisiana Earl Category:People from Winnfield, Louisiana Category:People with bipolar disorder Category:Politicians from Baton Rouge, Louisiana Category:Left-wing populism in the United States
[ { "text": "Earl () is a rank of the nobility in the United Kingdom. The title originates in the Old English word eorl, meaning \"a man of noble birth or rank\". The word is cognate with the Scandinavian form jarl, and meant \"chieftain\", particularly a chieftain set to rule a territory in a king's stead. After the Norman Conquest, it became the equivalent of the continental count (in England in the earlier period, it was more akin to a duke; in Scotland, it assimilated the concept of mormaer). Alternative names for the rank equivalent to \"earl\" or \"count\" in the nobility structure are used in other countries, such as the hakushaku (伯爵) of the post-restoration Japanese Imperial era.\n\nIn modern Britain, an earl is a member of the peerage, ranking below a marquess and above a viscount. A feminine form of earl never developed; instead, countess is used.\n\nEtymology \n\nThe term earl has been compared to the name of the Heruli, and to runic erilaz.\nProto-Norse eril, or the later Old Norse , came to signify the rank of a leader.\n\nIn Anglo-Saxon Britain, the term Ealdorman was used for men who held the highest political rank below King. Over time the Danish eorl became substituted for Ealdorman, which evolved into the modern form of the name.\n\nThe Norman-derived equivalent count (from Latin ) was not introduced following the Norman Conquest of England though countess was and is used for the female title. Geoffrey Hughes writes, \"It is a likely speculation that the Norman French title 'Count' was abandoned in England in favour of the Germanic 'Earl' […] precisely because of the uncomfortable phonetic proximity to cunt\".\n\nIn the other languages of Great Britain and Ireland, the term is translated as: Welsh , Irish and Scottish Gaelic , Scots , or , Cornish .\n\nHistory\n\nEngland\n\nAnglo-Saxon period \n\nIn Anglo-Saxon England, the ealdorman was appointed by the English king to be the chief officer in a shire. He commanded the local fyrd and presided with the bishop of the shire court. As compensation, he received the third penny—one-third of the profits of royal justice and one-third of the revenues from boroughs under his jurisdiction. By the late 900s, ealdormen often controlled multiple shires at once. During Cnut's reign (1016–1035), they became known as earls (from Old English meaning \"noble\"). He divided the kingdom into four earldoms: Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria. Earls were governors or viceroys, ruling in the king's name, keeping the peace, dispensing justice, and raising armies. Like the earlier ealdormen, they received the third penny from their jurisdictions. There were, however, limitations on their authority. They could not mint coins or hold their own courts, and in theory, they could be removed by the king. In rank, earls were below the king and above thegns, they were therefore the king's chief counselors in the Witan. Earls were an \"élite within an élite\", numbering at most 25 men at any one time between 1000 and 1300.\n\nWhen Edward the Confessor () came to the throne, he inherited the royal estates of Harthacnut but lacked family lands of his own. As a result, the earls collectively possessed more land than the king, especially Earl Godwin of Wessex. In 1066, according to the Domesday Book, the Godwin family estates were valued at £7,000, Earl Leofric of Mercia at £2,400, and Earl Siward of Northumbria at £350. In comparison, the king's lands were valued at £5,000. This concentration of land and wealth in the hands of the earls, and one earl in particular, weakened the Crown's authority. The situation was reversed when Godwin's son Harold became king, and he was able to restore the Crown's authority.\n\nPost-Conquest \n\nThe Norman Conquest of 1066 introduced a new Anglo-Norman aristocracy that gradually replaced the old Anglo-Saxon elite. In Normandy, the equivalent of an earl was a count. In 1066, there were three counts in the Duchy of Normandy: Richard of Évreux, Robert of Eu, and Robert of Mortain. In Normandy, counts were junior members of the Norman dynasty with responsibility for guarding border regions. Elsewhere in France, the definition and powers of counts varied widely. Some counts were nearly independent rulers who gave only nominal loyalty to the King of France.\n\nWilliam I () reduced the size of earldoms; those created after 1071 had responsibility for one shire. Like Norman counts, earls became military governors assigned to vulnerable border or coastal areas. To protect the Welsh Marches, the king made Roger de Montgomery the Earl of Shrewsbury and Hugh d'Avranches the Earl of Chester (see Marcher Lord). Likewise, the king's half-brother Odo of Bayeux was made Earl of Kent to guard the English Channel. After the Revolt of the Earls in 1075, only four earldoms remained, all held by Anglo-Normans: Kent, Shrewsbury, Chester, and Northumbria. This number was reduced to three after 1082 when Odo of Bayeux was arrested and deprived of Kent. At the death of William Rufus in 1100, there were five earldoms: Chester, Shrewsbury, Surrey (or Warrenne), Warwick, and Huntingdon–Northampton. In 1122, Henry I made his illegitimate son Robert the Earl of Gloucester.\n\nAfter the Conquest, new earldoms tended to be named for the city and castle in which they were based. However, some titles became attached to the family name rather than location. For example, the holder of the earldom of Surrey was more commonly called \"Earl Warenne\". The same was true of the earldom of Buckingham, whose holder was called \"Earl Gifford\". These earls may have preferred to be known by family names that were older and more prestigious than their newer territorial designations.\n\nStephen and Matilda \nThe number of earls rose from seven in 1135 to twenty in 1141 as King Stephen () created twelve new earls to reward supporters during the Anarchy, the civil war fought with his cousin Empress Matilda for the English throne. In 1138, Stephen created eight new earldoms. Waleran de Beaumont, who was already Count of Meulan in Normandy and the twin brother of the 2nd Earl of Leicester, was made Earl of Worcester. Their younger brother Hugh de Beaumont was made Earl of Bedford. Gilbert de Clare was made Earl of Pembroke, and his nephew, also named Gilbert de Clare, was made Earl of Hertford. William de Aumale was made Earl of York and Robert de Ferrers was made Earl of Derby as rewards for their service during the Battle of the Standard. William d'Aubigny was made Earl of Lincoln, and William de Roumare was made Earl of Cambridge. In 1140, William de Roumare was given the earldom of Lincoln in exchange for Cambridge, and William d'Aubigny received the Earldom of Sussex (commonly known as Arundel). The same year, Geoffrey de Mandeville was made Earl of Essex, and his is the oldest surviving charter of creation. Around the same time, Hugh Bigod was made Earl of Norfolk.\n\nIn February 1141, Stephen was captured at the Battle of Lincoln, and Empress Matilda elected \"Lady of the English\" in April. At this time, she created three earldoms for her own supporters. Her illegitimate brother Reginald de Dunstanville was made Earl of Cornwall. Baldwin de Redvers was made Earl of Devon, and William de Mohun, lord of Dunster, was made Earl of Somerset. Aubrey de Vere was made Earl of Oxford in 1142. Sometime around 1143, Matilda's constable Patrick of Salisbury was made Earl of Salisbury.\n\nDuring the Anarchy, earls took advantage of the power vacuum to assume Crown rights. Robert of Gloucester, Patrick of Salisbury, Robert of Leicester, and Henry of Northumbria all minted their own coinage. Earls and barons had also built adulterine castles (castles built without royal permission).\n\nPlantagenets \n\nIt fell to Stephen's successor Henry II () to again curtail the power of earls. He confiscated or demolished illegal castles. He reduced the number of earldoms by allowing them to die with their holders and did not create new ones. During his reign, \"the title became a mark of rank, rather than a substantive office: the real power lay with the king's sheriffs and justices.\"\n\nThe real power possessed by any individual earl in this period depended on the amount of land and wealth he possessed that could be translated into patronage and influence. The more land and resources concentrated in a region, the more influence an earl had. The most powerful were the earls of Chester, who by the middle of the 13th century were described as earls palatine. Their power derived from owning most of the land in Cheshire. As a result, the shire court and the earl's honour court were identical, and the sheriff answered to the earl. The Earl of Oxford, however, possessed less than an acre of land in Oxfordshire (most of his land was in Essex), and therefore possessed no power in the county.\n\nAn earldom along with its land was inherited generally according to primogeniture. If the only heirs were female, then the land would be partitioned equally between co-heirs with the eldest co-heir receiving the title. In 1204, Robert de Beaumont, 4th Earl of Leicester, died without children. His heirs were his sisters, Amice and Margaret. Amice's son, Simon de Montfort, succeeded as Earl of Leicester, and Margaret's husband, Saer de Quincy, was created the Earl of Winchester in 1207. This was the first new hereditary earldom created since the reign of Stephen.\n\nIn 1227, Henry III () granted his justiciar and chief minister, Hubert de Burgh, the earldom of Kent. The terms of inheritance, however, were unprecedented: the earldom was to pass to Hubert's son by his third wife Margaret of Scotland, thereby passing over his eldest son by his first wife. It may have been thought that Margaret's royal blood made her children more worthy of inheritance.\n\nBy the 13th century earls had a social rank just below the king and princes, but were not necessarily more powerful or wealthier than other noblemen. The only way to become an earl was to inherit the title or to marry into one—and the king reserved a right to prevent the transfer of the title. By the 14th century, creating an earl included a special public ceremony where the king personally tied a sword belt around the waist of the new earl, emphasizing the fact that the earl's rights came from him.\n\nEarls still held influence and, as \"companions of the king\", generally acted in support of the king's power. They showed their own power prominently in 1327 when they deposed King Edward II. They would later do the same with other kings of whom they disapproved. In 1337 Edward III declared that he intended to create six new earldoms.\n\nAn earldom became, with a few exceptions, the default rank of the peerage to which a former prime minister was elevated. However, the last prime minister to accept an earldom was Harold Macmillan, who became Earl of Stockton in 1984.\n\nIreland\nThe first Irish earldom was the Earl of Ulster, granted to the Norman knight Hugh de Lacy in 1205 by John, King of England and Lord of Ireland. Other early earldoms were Earl of Carrick (1315), Earl of Kildare (1316), Earl of Desmond (1329) and Earl of Waterford (1446, extant).\n\nAfter the Tudor reconquest of Ireland (1530s–1603), native Irish kings and clan chiefs were encouraged to submit to the English king (now also King of Ireland) and were, in return, granted noble titles in the Peerage of Ireland. Notable among those who agreed to this policy of \"surrender and regrant\" were Ulick na gCeann Burke, 1st Earl of Clanricarde, Murrough O'Brien, 1st Earl of Thomond, Donald McCarthy, 1st Earl of Clancare, Rory O'Donnell, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell, Randal MacDonnell, 1st Earl of Antrim and Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone. The earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnell later rebelled against the crown and were forced to flee Ireland in 1607; their departure, along with about ninety followers, is famed in Irish history as the Flight of the Earls, seen as the ultimate demise of native Irish monarchy.\n\nIreland became part of the United Kingdom in 1801, and the last Irish earldom was created in 1824. The Republic of Ireland does not recognise titles of nobility.\n\nNotable later Irish earls include Jacobite leader Patrick Sarsfield, 1st Earl of Lucan; Postmaster General Richard Trench, 2nd Earl of Clancarty; Prime Minister William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelburne (later made a marquess) and the (alleged) murderer John Bingham, 7th Earl of Lucan.\n\nScotland\n\nThe oldest earldoms in Scotland (with the exception of the Earldom of Dunbar and March) originated from the office of mormaer, such as the Mormaer of Fife, of Strathearn, etc.; subsequent earldoms developed by analogy. The principal distinction between earldom and mormaer is that earldoms were granted as fiefs of the King, while mormaers were virtually independent. The earl is thought to have been introduced by the anglophile king David I. While the power attached to the office of earl was swept away in England by the Norman Conquest, in Scotland earldoms retained substantial powers, such as regality throughout the Middle Ages.\n\nIt is important to distinguish between the land controlled directly by the earl, in a landlord-like sense, and the region over which he could exercise his office. Scottish use of Latin terms provincia and comitatus makes the difference clear. Initially these terms were synonymous, as in England, but by the 12th century they were seen as distinct concepts, with comitatus referring to the land under direct control of the earl, and provincia referring to the province; hence, the comitatus might now only be a small region of the provincia. Thus, unlike England, the term county, which ultimately evolved from the Latin comitatus, was not historically used for Scotland's main political subdivisions.\n\nSheriffs were introduced at a similar time to earls, but unlike England, where sheriffs were officers who implemented the decisions of the shire court, in Scotland they were specifically charged with upholding the king's interests in the region, thus being more like a coroner. As such, a parallel system of justice arose, between that provided by magnates (represented by the earls), and that by the king (represented by sheriffs), in a similar way to England having both Courts Baron and Magistrates, respectively. Inevitably, this led to a degree of forum shopping, with the king's offering – the Sheriff – gradually winning.\n\nAs in England, as the centuries wore on, the term earl came to be disassociated from the office, and later kings started granting the title of earl without it, and gradually without even an associated comitatus. By the 16th century there started to be earls of towns, of villages, and even of isolated houses; it had simply become a label for marking status, rather than an office of intrinsic power. In 1746, in the aftermath of the Jacobite rising, the Heritable Jurisdictions Act brought the powers of the remaining ancient earldoms under the control of the sheriffs; earl is now simply a noble rank.\n\nWales\nSome of the most significant Earls (Welsh: ieirll, singular iarll) in Welsh history were those from the West of England. As Wales remained independent of any Norman jurisdiction, the more powerful Earls in England were encouraged to invade and establish effective \"buffer states\" to be run as autonomous lordships. These Marcher Lords included the earls of Chester, Gloucester, Hereford, Pembroke and Shrewsbury (see also English Earls of March).\n\nThe first Earldoms created within Wales were the Lordship of Glamorgan (a comital title) and the Earldom of Pembroke.\n\nTir Iarll (English: Earl's land) is an area of Glamorgan, which has traditionally had a particular resonance in Welsh culture.\n\nCoronet\n\nA British earl is entitled to a coronet bearing eight strawberry leaves (four visible) and eight silver balls (or pearls) around the rim (five visible). The actual coronet is rarely, if ever, worn except at the coronation of a new monarch, but in heraldry an earl may bear his coronet of rank on his coat of arms above the shield.\n\nForms of address\nAn earl has the title Earl of [X] when the title originates from a placename, or Earl [X] when the title comes from a surname. In either case, he is referred to as Lord [X], and his wife as Lady [X]. A countess who holds an earldom in her own right also uses Lady [X], but her husband does not have a title (unless he has one in his own right).\n\nThe eldest son of an earl, though not himself a peer, is entitled to use a courtesy title, usually the highest of his father's lesser titles (if any). For instance, prior to his elevation to the Dukedom of Edinburgh, the eldest son of the Earl of Wessex was styled as James, Viscount Severn. The eldest son of the eldest son of an earl is entitled to use one of his grandfather's lesser titles, normally the second-highest of the lesser titles. Younger sons are styled The Honourable [Forename] [Surname], and daughters, The Lady [Forename] [Surname] (Lady Diana Spencer being a well-known example).\n\nThere is no difference between the courtesy titles given to the children of earls and the children of countesses in their own right, provided the husband of the countess has a lower rank than she does. If her husband has a higher rank, their children will be given titles according to his rank.\n\nIn the peerage of Scotland, when there are no courtesy titles involved, the heir to an earldom, and indeed any level of peerage, is styled Master of [X], and successive sons as The Honourable [Firstname Surname].\n\nList of earldoms \n\nThere are many earldoms, extant, extinct, dormant, abeyant, or forfeit, in the peerages of England, Scotland, Great Britain, Ireland and the United Kingdom.\n\nIn fiction\n\nEarls have appeared in various works of fiction.\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nWorks cited\n\nExternal links \n \n Morris, Marc (December 2005). \"The King's Companions\". History Today.\n\n \n \n \nCategory:Men's social titles\nCategory:Noble titles\nCategory:Peerage", "title": "Earl" } ]
[ "Some of the notable events that took place within this time frame include Earl Long's unsuccessful attempt to run for lieutenant governor without the support of his brother, Huey Long, in 1932. His subsequent win in the primary held for lieutenant governor in 1936 after his brother's assassination. Richard W. Leche of New Orleans was elected governor in 1936 but resigned in scandal in 1939, and Long served as governor for eleven months. Earl Long did not run for governor in 1944, instead running for lieutenant governor again, but he lost the runoff to J. Emile Verret. Long blamed his failure to become lieutenant governor in 1944 on Louisiana Secretary of State Wade O. Martin, Jr. Long was elected governor in 1948, succeeding Jimmie Davis. In 1950, Governor Long suffered a major heart attack. In the same year, he struck a deal with Mayor deLesseps Story Morrison to return home rule to the Crescent City.", "The context does not provide information on whether Earl Long continued to run for office after his term as governor in 1948 and his major heart attack in 1950.", "Earl Long served as governor for eleven months in 1939 after Richard W. Leche resigned due to a scandal. He was also elected governor in 1948, but the text does not specify how long he served in this term.", "Other interesting aspects from the article include: \n\n1. Huey Long's concern about potential charges of nepotism and a family dynasty when his brother, Earl, first ran for office.\n2. Earl Long's subsequent defeat, then victory in later elections.\n3. The various political rivalries and alliances that shaped Louisiana's political landscape during Earl Long's political career.\n4. Earl Long's relationship with Margaret Dixon, the first woman managing editor of the Baton Rouge Morning Advocate, who often advised him on political strategy and whom he appointed to the LSU Board of Supervisors.\n5. The various political deals made by Earl Long, such as arrangements with Mayor deLesseps Story Morrison.\n6. The changes Earl Long pushed for in the state's administration, like the creation of new positions for insurance commissioner and commissioner of voting machines.", "The context indicates that there were critics of Earl Long. The Memphis Commercial Appeal criticized Long's election as governor in 1948, stating that he had promised too much to the voters. Huey Long had also expressed concern that Earl's candidacy would attract charges of a family dynasty and dictatorship. This implies that there was criticism and scrutiny from both within his political circle and from the press. However, the text does not provide a specific number or list of critics.", "Earl Long blamed Louisiana Secretary of State Wade O. Martin, Jr. for his failure to become lieutenant governor in 1944. The text does not provide explicit details or reasons as to why Martin, a former ally, was specifically blamed for this outcome. It does, however, indicate that this event led to many years of quarreling between Long and Martin.", "The text mentions that Earl Long pushed through a new law in 1957, which removed jurisdiction of insurance and voting machines from the secretary of state's office and established two new patronage positions. Moreover, in 1950, he made a deal with Mayor deLesseps Story Morrison to return home rule to the Crescent City, which had been primarily governed from Baton Rouge. However, the text does not provide further details about any other specific legislation that Earl Long may have passed during his time in office." ]
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C_26677e2fa47144b29917990de1c8ae8c_0
Earl Long
Earl Kemp Long (August 26, 1895 - September 5, 1960) was an American politician and the 45th Governor of Louisiana, serving three non-consecutive terms. Long, known as "Uncle Earl", connected with voters through his folksy demeanor and colorful oratory. He departed from other southern politicians of his time by promoting a progressive agenda, including expanding school lunch programs, teacher pay, public works projects, and minority voting rights. His sometimes erratic behavior - including a liaison with New Orleans stripper Blaze Starr - did not affect his electoral success.
"Uncle Earl" and anecdotes
The colorful "Uncle Earl" (so-named because of his relatives, including nephew and U.S. Senator Russell Long) once joked that one day the people of Louisiana would elect "good government, and they won't like it!" But, beneath his public persona as a simple, plain-spoken rural Louisianan of little education, he had an astute political mind of considerable intelligence. Earl Long was a master campaigner, who attracted large crowds when his caravan crisscrossed the state. He would not allow a local person to introduce him or his ticket mates at a rally. Only out-of-parish people could do the honor. Long reasoned that nearly any local person would have made some political enemies who might reject Earl Long just because that person's "enemy" was pro-Long. Long was determined to get every vote possible and so tried to remain independent of local rivalries. Both Earl Long and his brother Huey had grown close to Earl Williamson, a local politician in Caddo Parish. Williamson's son, Don W. Williamson, later recalled Earl Long coming into their town of Vivian and picking up his father to join the Long entourage for a trip to Hot Springs, Arkansas, where they enjoyed buttermilk drinking and horse racing as well as illicit attractions in the resort city. Long demanded absolute loyalty among his inner circle, often saying that he did not need them to back him when he was right but when he was wrong. Long's erratic political behavior led the aspiring singer Jay Chevalier to compose in 1959 the song, "The Ballad of Earl K. Long". CANNOTANSWER
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[ "Was Uncle Earl a nickname?", "How did he feel about the nickname?", "What is a popular anecdote?", "Did he make any public statements regarding this song?", "Are there any anecdotes about him that relate to his family?", "Any other information relating tot he nickname?", "Were there any anecdotes regarding his affairs?", "Did the anecdotes embarass him or his family?" ]
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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 13 ], [ 110 ], [ 1412 ], [ 1543 ], [ 218 ], [ 1264 ], [ 1543 ], [ 1543 ] ], "texts": [ [ "\"Uncle Earl\" (so-named because of his relatives, including nephew and U.S. Senator Russell Long)" ], [ "once joked that one day the people of Louisiana would elect \"good government, and they won't like it!\"" ], [ "Long's erratic political behavior led the aspiring singer Jay Chevalier to compose in 1959 the song, \"The Ballad of Earl K. Long\"." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "beneath his public persona as a simple, plain-spoken rural Louisianan of little education, he had an astute political mind of considerable intelligence." ], [ "Long demanded absolute loyalty among his inner circle, often saying that he did not need them to back him when he was right but when he was wrong." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }
{ "answer_starts": [ 13, 110, 1412, 1543, 218, 1264, 1543, 1543 ], "texts": [ "\"Uncle Earl\" (so-named because of his relatives, including nephew and U.S. Senator Russell Long)", "once joked that one day the people of Louisiana would elect \"good government, and they won't like it!\"", "Long's erratic political behavior led the aspiring singer Jay Chevalier to compose in 1959 the song, \"The Ballad of Earl K. Long\".", "CANNOTANSWER", "beneath his public persona as a simple, plain-spoken rural Louisianan of little education, he had an astute political mind of considerable intelligence.", "Long demanded absolute loyalty among his inner circle, often saying that he did not need them to back him when he was right but when he was wrong.", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }
Earl Kemp Long (August 26, 1895 – September 5, 1960) was an American politician and the 45th governor of Louisiana, serving three nonconsecutive terms. Long, known as "Uncle Earl", connected with voters through his folksy demeanor and colorful oratory. He departed from other Southern politicians of his time by promoting a progressive agenda, expanding school-lunch programs, teacher pay, public-works projects, and minority voting rights. His sometimes erratic behavior – including a liaison with New Orleans stripper Blaze Starr – did not affect his electoral success. Long served as governor from 1939 to 1940, 1948 to 1952, and 1956 to 1960. He was nominated in the summer of 1960 to the United States House of Representatives for Louisiana's 8th congressional district, and was running unopposed in the general election, but he died before he could take office. He was elected as lieutenant governor and served from 1936–1939. Trying to keep a close hand in state government, Long failed in three other bids to be elected lieutenant governor, in 1932, 1944, and 1959. First races for governor Long first ran unsuccessfully for governor in 1932 without the support of his brother, Governor and U.S. Senator-elect Huey Long, who was committed in that election to the successful candidates, Oscar K. Allen of Winnfield for governor and John B. Fournet of St. Martinville for lieutenant governor. In his autobiography, Every Man a King, Huey Long said that Earl Long's first candidacy for lieutenant governor brought forth charges of a family dynasty in the making. "I sought to discourage [Earl], stating that it would be disastrous for a brother to undertake to have a brother succeed him [as governor] or to have him elected as lieutenant governor. It was already being charged that I was a dictator and that I had allowed many relatives to be placed on the state payrolls (nepotism). To have added a family name to the head of the ticket either for governor or lieutenant governor would have been disastrous to the whole ticket. My brothers and sisters, however, could not see the matter in that light. I gave everyone to understand that I was irrevocably committed to Allen for Governor and Fournet for Lieutenant Governor. ... I finally declared openly and publicly that I would not be [Earl]'s supporter for either office; that I was under lasting obligations to others; that I had done the best I could for my brother, but that I could not and would not undertake to persuade any of the candidates to whom I had given my promise to step aside. ..." Not long after Huey Long's assassination, however, Earl Long handily defeated fellow Democrat Clement Murphy Mos (much later a judge in Lake Charles) in the primary held for lieutenant governor in January 1936. Richard W. Leche of New Orleans was elected governor in 1936, but he resigned in scandal in 1939, and Long succeeded for 11 months to the governorship. Governorships 1939–1940 Long failed to win a gubernatorial term of his own in the election of 1940. During his abbreviated term, Long appointed a cousin, Floyd Harrison Long Sr., as the custodian of the Central State (Mental) Hospital in Pineville. Earl Long's brief first tenure corresponded with the "Louisiana Hayride" scandals that engulfed both Governor Leche and the president of Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge, James Monroe Smith. Long was defeated in the Democratic primary by the conservative lawyer Sam H. Jones of Lake Charles. After the abbreviated governorship, with Coleman Lindsey of Minden as lieutenant governor, Long was indicted in New Orleans on charges of embezzlement and extortion. The charges involved placing a "deadhead" (an unneeded state worker who performs few or no duties) on the payroll of a special state board. The 1944 election In 1944, Long did not run for governor as many had expected, but instead for his earlier position as lieutenant governor on an intraparty ticket with former U.S. Representative Lewis L. Morgan of Covington in St. Tammany Parish across Lake Pontchartrain from New Orleans. Long led the party balloting for the second position in state government, but he lost the runoff to J. Emile Verret of New Iberia, the choice of incoming Governor Jimmie Davis. His previous elected position was as a member and president of the Iberia Parish School Board. Had Lewis Morgan not entered the second primary against Jimmie Davis, Long would have become lieutenant governor without a runoff. At the time, Louisiana law provided that there would be no statewide constitutional runoff elections unless there was also a second contest for governor. That rule did not apply to state legislative races, however. In the same campaign, the Long-endorsed candidate for attorney general, state Senator Joe T. Cawthorn of Mansfield, lost to the Davis-backed Fred S. LeBlanc. Long blamed his failure to become lieutenant governor in 1944 on Louisiana Secretary of State Wade O. Martin Jr., a former ally with whom he quarreled for many years thereafter. Years later, he repaid Martin politically. In 1957, Long pushed through a new law, taking jurisdiction of insurance and voting machines from the secretary of state's office and setting up two new patronage positions. Long appointed Rufus D. Hayes of Baton Rouge as the first insurance commissioner and Drayton Boucher of Webster Parish as the commissioner of voting machines. After Boucher decided not to run for office in the 1959–1960 election cycle, Long appointed Douglas Fowler of Red River Parish, who held the job for more than 20 years. 1948–1957 In 1948, Long was elected governor to succeed Jimmie Davis. At the time, the salary was $12,000 annually. Long defeated his old rival Sam Jones by a wide margin. Eliminated in the first primary was U.S. Representative James Hobson "Jimmy" Morrison of Hammond, who made his third and final gubernatorial bid. Long appointed A.A. Fredericks as his executive secretary. Harvey Locke Carey of Shreveport was the campaign manager for northwest Louisiana and later the short-term U. S. Attorney for the United States District Court for the Western District of Louisiana. The Memphis Commercial Appeal criticized Long's election as governor in 1948. Long "promised everything but the moon"—old-age pensions, veterans bonuses, and a new highway system. "The voters took him at his word, for they elected him by the largest majority ever given a Louisiana candidate [in a gubernatorial runoff contest]. That may be something in the nature of poetic justice, for the majority of voters will be getting exactly what was promised them, and for which they asked, whether they knew it or not." During the second half of his four-year term, Governor Long became close to Margaret Dixon, the first woman managing editor of the Baton Rouge Morning Advocate. She often advised him on political strategy. In 1951, he appointed her to the LSU Board of Supervisors. Long suffered a major heart attack in 1950, but recovered. In 1950, Long struck a deal with his intraparty rival, Mayor deLesseps Story Morrison, to return home rule to the Crescent City, which at the time was being virtually governed out of Baton Rouge. Morrison agreed not to work against Long's nephew, Russell B. Long, who was successfully seeking a full term in the United States Senate. Instead, Morrison formally endorsed one of Long's rivals, Malcolm Lafargue, the former U. S. attorney for the United States District Court for the Western District of Louisiana, based in Shreveport. Though Morrison "endorsed" Lafargue, he privately urged his followers to support Russell Long, whom he fully expected to win the race, anyway. 1952–1956 interim period Term-limited and unable to run in the 1951–1952 elections, Long essentially sat out the statewide elections. According to Garry Boulard's book, The Big Lie (2001), Long proved instrumental during the 1951–1952 campaign in charges of communism made against gubernatorial candidate Hale Boggs of New Orleans. Rival candidate Lucille May Grace attacked him publicly, but Boulard believes this was rigged by Plaquemines Parish boss Leander Perez. At a stormy session of the state Democratic committee, Long attacked Perez and Grace for attacking Boggs, but prevented Boggs from publicly defending himself. Some analysts thought this strategy greatly contributed to Boggs' defeat in the primary. Judge Robert F. Kennon of Minden won as governor, although most loyal Longites had lined up with Judge Carlos Spaht of Baton Rouge. 1956–1960 Long surfaced at the top of the state again in 1955–1956, when he scored an easy victory for governor over a field that included Mayor of New Orleans deLesseps Story "Chep" Morrison Sr., a law partner of Hale Boggs; state highway director Fred Preaus of Farmerville, the choice of outgoing Governor Robert Kennon; former state police superintendent Francis Grevemberg; and businessman James M. McLemore of Alexandria. As Louisiana governors rarely won in the first primary, Long's first response on his victory was, "Huey never done that, did he?" In his second race for the office, McLemore ran on a primarily racial segregationist platform, following the ruling by the US Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of Education (1954) that segregated public schools were unconstitutional. In 1956, Long vetoed funding for the work undertaken by the LSU historian Edwin Adams Davis to establish the state archives. Davis appealed to the State Board of Liquidation for temporary relief until funding could be restored in the next legislative session. The archives became a permanent institution in Baton Rouge. Long eased the governmental indignities placed on African Americans and allowed a considerable number to vote. He convinced the legislature to equalize teacher pay between the races. In 1959, in response to legislative attempts to restrict the suffrage, he called for full participation by blacks in Louisiana elections. He knew that he would attract most of the limited black vote, as most were still restricted by barriers to voter registration. In the 1950s, he quarreled with the state's leading segregationist, then state Senator William M. Rainach of Claiborne Parish. Long reappointed A.A. Fredericks as his executive secretary from 1959–60, his last two years of his last term as governor. He appointed another confidante, former legislator Drayton Boucher of Springhill and later Baton Rouge, as interim "Custodian of voting machines" from 1958–59, as he took the responsibility from the Secretary of State. Long supported another ally, Douglas Fowler of Coushatta, who won the position in 1960 after it was established as an elective office. On three occasions, Long tapped Lorris M. Wimberly of Bienville Parish as Speaker of the Louisiana House of Representatives. In Louisiana, the powerful governor (although limited at the time by nonconsecutive terms) chooses the House Speaker despite the separation of powers. In his last term, Long named Wimberly as director of the state department of public works. In his last gubernatorial term from 1959–60, Long relied heavily on his legislative floor leader, state Representative W.L. Rambo of Georgetown in Grant Parish, in getting bills through the legislature. Rambo was a Long "by marriage", having wed the former Mary Alice Long. In 1959, Long considered resigning as governor. His loyal lieutenant governor, Lether Frazar of Lake Charles, would have succeeded him as the Louisiana chief executive for some seven months. Under this scenario, Long planned to run again for governor in the December 1959 Democratic primary, but by leaving office early could avoid Louisiana's ban (at the time) on governors' succeeding themselves. He never proceeded with this. Instead, the term-limited Long unsuccessfully sought the lieutenant governorship on a ticket headed by fellow Democrat and wealthy former Governor James A. Noe. Instead, Jimmie Davis was elected to a second non-consecutive term as governor in 1960, having first served from 1944–48. It was said that in 1948 Long followed Davis and in 1960 Davis followed Long. Long was defeated for lieutenant governor in the 1959 primary by the conservative C. C. "Taddy" Aycock of Franklin in St. Mary Parish in south Louisiana. Aycock also won the January 1960 runoff election over Alexandria Mayor W. George Bowdon Jr. In the 1959 primary, Long lost a race to Sheridan Garrett, 2,563 to 2,068, for a Winn Parish seat on the Louisiana Democratic State Central Committee. "Uncle Earl" and anecdotes The colorful "Uncle Earl" (so-named because of his relatives, including nephew and U.S. Senator Russell Long) once joked that one day the people of Louisiana would elect "good government, and they won't like it!" But, beneath his public persona as a simple, plain-spoken rural Louisianan of little education, he had an astute political mind of considerable intelligence. Earl Long was a master campaigner, who attracted large crowds when his caravan crisscrossed the state. He would not allow a local person to introduce him or his ticket mates at a rally. Only out-of-parish people could do the honor. Long reasoned that nearly any local person would have made some political enemies who might reject Earl Long just because that person's "enemy" was pro-Long. Long was determined to get every vote possible, so tried to remain independent of local rivalries. Both Earl Long and his brother Huey had grown close to Earl Williamson, a local politician in Caddo Parish. Williamson's son, Don W. Williamson, later recalled Earl Long coming into their town of Vivian and picking up his father to join the Long entourage for a trip to Hot Springs, Arkansas, where they enjoyed drinking buttermilk and horse racing, as well as illicit attractions in the resort city. Long demanded absolute loyalty among his inner circle, often saying that he did not need them to back him when he was right, but when he was wrong. Long's erratic political behavior led the aspiring singer Jay Chevalier to compose in 1959 the song, "The Ballad of Earl K. Long". Long's feud with Dave Pearce In the 1948 Democratic primary, W.E. Anderson of Tangipahoa Parish defeated Dave L. Pearce, a legislator from West Carroll Parish in northeastern Louisiana, for the position of Louisiana Commissioner of Agriculture and Forestry. For the 1952 primary, the Democratic Party renominated Anderson without opposition to a second term. After Anderson died that year, outgoing Governor Long appointed Pearce to finish the term. Pearce won a special election and also served as commissioner during the administration of the anti-Long Governor Robert F. Kennon of Minden. Long's first lieutenant governor, William J. "Bill" Dodd, in his memoir entitled Peapatch Politics: The Earl Long Era in Louisiana Politics (named for Earl Long's "Peapatch Farm" in Winn Parish), writes that Earl Long developed a "hatred" for Pearce. The governor encouraged state entomologist Sidney McCrory of Ascension Parish to run against Pearce in the 1956 primary election. Dodd did not explain why the relationship between Long and Pearce had declined. McCrory defeated Pearce, but beginning with the 1959 primary, Pearce was nominated by the Democrats for the first of what became four consecutive terms as agriculture commissioner. That year, Earl Long ran for lieutenant governor, but lost to Taddy Aycock. Dodd noted with humor that Long had become irritated with McCrory after inviting him on Long's intraparty ticket in 1956:"... to harass, and we hoped, defeat Uncle Earl's old political enemy, Dave Pearce. All McCrory could talk about was pesticides and how to get rid of different kinds of crop-killing bugs. His main topic and claim to fame, which dominated all of his speeches, whether he was in cotton country, forestry areas, or the city of New Orleans, was his eradicating the pink boll worms from Louisiana cotton fields. Uncle Earl almost went crazy when he had to listen to ... McCrory killed enough pink boll worms to fill the Atlantic Ocean." Eccentricity and hospitalization Long was well known for eccentric behavior, leading some to suspect that he had bipolar disorder. In his last term in office, his wife, Blanche Revere Long (1902–1998), and others attempted to remove him on the grounds of mental instability. For a time, Long was confined to the Southeast Louisiana Hospital in Mandeville, but his legal adviser, Joseph A. Sims, was said to have rescued Long from the institution. Long was never formally diagnosed with any mental disorder. Commentators have speculated that political opposition may have led the effort to prove him mentally incompetent, including his wife, who resented his connection with Starr. He had a severe heart attack in 1951. Additionally, in his later years, he was alleged to have suffered from strokes, resulting in further mental impairment. Some have speculated that he may have suffered from dementia in his last days. Presumptive congressman-elect Only a few months after his term as governor expired in 1960, Earl Long ran for the United States House of Representatives from Louisiana's 8th congressional district. An entourage of Long backers from over the years flocked to support him in the race, including Bill Dodd, former Senate floor leader C. H. "Sammy" Downs, state Senator Sixty Rayburn, the Long attorney Joseph A. Sims, and A.A. Fredericks, Long's former executive assistant. Due to a third candidate, former State Representative Ben F. Holt of Rapides Parish, Long finished in second place in the primary election and was compelled into a runoff contest for the Democratic nomination with the short-term incumbent, Alexandria attorney Harold B. McSween, which Long won. Because no Republican filed for the seat, Long was poised to run unopposed in the general election set for November 8, 1960. However, in September he suffered a fatal heart attack while in the Baptist Hospital (later Rapides General Hospital) in Alexandria. After Earl Long's death, the Democratic State Central Committee gave the nomination to McSween, who had earlier succeeded Earl Long's late brother George Long in the 8th district seat. McSween was thus unopposed in the 1960 general election and won a second consecutive term in the U.S. House. In 1962, McSween was defeated in the primary election by his fellow liberal Democrat, Gillis William Long, who claimed to be the rightful heir to the Long dynasty. His funeral in Baton Rouge attracted numerous attendees. Long was interred at the Earl K. Long Memorial Park in Winnfield. His nephew, U.S. Senator Russell Long, was among the pallbearers. References Further reading A.J. Liebling, The Earl of Louisiana (1961), collected articles first published in The New Yorker, Louisiana State University Press. . External links EARL KEMP LONG NOTES Earl K. Long Library, University of New Orleans State of Louisiana – Biography Cemetery Memorial, Louisiana Cemeteries |- |- |- |- |- Category:1895 births Category:1960 deaths Category:Baptists from Louisiana Category:Burials in Louisiana Category:Democratic Party governors of Louisiana Category:Huey Long Category:Lieutenant Governors of Louisiana Earl Category:People from Winnfield, Louisiana Category:People with bipolar disorder Category:Politicians from Baton Rouge, Louisiana Category:Left-wing populism in the United States
[ { "text": "Earl () is a rank of the nobility in the United Kingdom. The title originates in the Old English word eorl, meaning \"a man of noble birth or rank\". The word is cognate with the Scandinavian form jarl, and meant \"chieftain\", particularly a chieftain set to rule a territory in a king's stead. After the Norman Conquest, it became the equivalent of the continental count (in England in the earlier period, it was more akin to a duke; in Scotland, it assimilated the concept of mormaer). Alternative names for the rank equivalent to \"earl\" or \"count\" in the nobility structure are used in other countries, such as the hakushaku (伯爵) of the post-restoration Japanese Imperial era.\n\nIn modern Britain, an earl is a member of the peerage, ranking below a marquess and above a viscount. A feminine form of earl never developed; instead, countess is used.\n\nEtymology \n\nThe term earl has been compared to the name of the Heruli, and to runic erilaz.\nProto-Norse eril, or the later Old Norse , came to signify the rank of a leader.\n\nIn Anglo-Saxon Britain, the term Ealdorman was used for men who held the highest political rank below King. Over time the Danish eorl became substituted for Ealdorman, which evolved into the modern form of the name.\n\nThe Norman-derived equivalent count (from Latin ) was not introduced following the Norman Conquest of England though countess was and is used for the female title. Geoffrey Hughes writes, \"It is a likely speculation that the Norman French title 'Count' was abandoned in England in favour of the Germanic 'Earl' […] precisely because of the uncomfortable phonetic proximity to cunt\".\n\nIn the other languages of Great Britain and Ireland, the term is translated as: Welsh , Irish and Scottish Gaelic , Scots , or , Cornish .\n\nHistory\n\nEngland\n\nAnglo-Saxon period \n\nIn Anglo-Saxon England, the ealdorman was appointed by the English king to be the chief officer in a shire. He commanded the local fyrd and presided with the bishop of the shire court. As compensation, he received the third penny—one-third of the profits of royal justice and one-third of the revenues from boroughs under his jurisdiction. By the late 900s, ealdormen often controlled multiple shires at once. During Cnut's reign (1016–1035), they became known as earls (from Old English meaning \"noble\"). He divided the kingdom into four earldoms: Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria. Earls were governors or viceroys, ruling in the king's name, keeping the peace, dispensing justice, and raising armies. Like the earlier ealdormen, they received the third penny from their jurisdictions. There were, however, limitations on their authority. They could not mint coins or hold their own courts, and in theory, they could be removed by the king. In rank, earls were below the king and above thegns, they were therefore the king's chief counselors in the Witan. Earls were an \"élite within an élite\", numbering at most 25 men at any one time between 1000 and 1300.\n\nWhen Edward the Confessor () came to the throne, he inherited the royal estates of Harthacnut but lacked family lands of his own. As a result, the earls collectively possessed more land than the king, especially Earl Godwin of Wessex. In 1066, according to the Domesday Book, the Godwin family estates were valued at £7,000, Earl Leofric of Mercia at £2,400, and Earl Siward of Northumbria at £350. In comparison, the king's lands were valued at £5,000. This concentration of land and wealth in the hands of the earls, and one earl in particular, weakened the Crown's authority. The situation was reversed when Godwin's son Harold became king, and he was able to restore the Crown's authority.\n\nPost-Conquest \n\nThe Norman Conquest of 1066 introduced a new Anglo-Norman aristocracy that gradually replaced the old Anglo-Saxon elite. In Normandy, the equivalent of an earl was a count. In 1066, there were three counts in the Duchy of Normandy: Richard of Évreux, Robert of Eu, and Robert of Mortain. In Normandy, counts were junior members of the Norman dynasty with responsibility for guarding border regions. Elsewhere in France, the definition and powers of counts varied widely. Some counts were nearly independent rulers who gave only nominal loyalty to the King of France.\n\nWilliam I () reduced the size of earldoms; those created after 1071 had responsibility for one shire. Like Norman counts, earls became military governors assigned to vulnerable border or coastal areas. To protect the Welsh Marches, the king made Roger de Montgomery the Earl of Shrewsbury and Hugh d'Avranches the Earl of Chester (see Marcher Lord). Likewise, the king's half-brother Odo of Bayeux was made Earl of Kent to guard the English Channel. After the Revolt of the Earls in 1075, only four earldoms remained, all held by Anglo-Normans: Kent, Shrewsbury, Chester, and Northumbria. This number was reduced to three after 1082 when Odo of Bayeux was arrested and deprived of Kent. At the death of William Rufus in 1100, there were five earldoms: Chester, Shrewsbury, Surrey (or Warrenne), Warwick, and Huntingdon–Northampton. In 1122, Henry I made his illegitimate son Robert the Earl of Gloucester.\n\nAfter the Conquest, new earldoms tended to be named for the city and castle in which they were based. However, some titles became attached to the family name rather than location. For example, the holder of the earldom of Surrey was more commonly called \"Earl Warenne\". The same was true of the earldom of Buckingham, whose holder was called \"Earl Gifford\". These earls may have preferred to be known by family names that were older and more prestigious than their newer territorial designations.\n\nStephen and Matilda \nThe number of earls rose from seven in 1135 to twenty in 1141 as King Stephen () created twelve new earls to reward supporters during the Anarchy, the civil war fought with his cousin Empress Matilda for the English throne. In 1138, Stephen created eight new earldoms. Waleran de Beaumont, who was already Count of Meulan in Normandy and the twin brother of the 2nd Earl of Leicester, was made Earl of Worcester. Their younger brother Hugh de Beaumont was made Earl of Bedford. Gilbert de Clare was made Earl of Pembroke, and his nephew, also named Gilbert de Clare, was made Earl of Hertford. William de Aumale was made Earl of York and Robert de Ferrers was made Earl of Derby as rewards for their service during the Battle of the Standard. William d'Aubigny was made Earl of Lincoln, and William de Roumare was made Earl of Cambridge. In 1140, William de Roumare was given the earldom of Lincoln in exchange for Cambridge, and William d'Aubigny received the Earldom of Sussex (commonly known as Arundel). The same year, Geoffrey de Mandeville was made Earl of Essex, and his is the oldest surviving charter of creation. Around the same time, Hugh Bigod was made Earl of Norfolk.\n\nIn February 1141, Stephen was captured at the Battle of Lincoln, and Empress Matilda elected \"Lady of the English\" in April. At this time, she created three earldoms for her own supporters. Her illegitimate brother Reginald de Dunstanville was made Earl of Cornwall. Baldwin de Redvers was made Earl of Devon, and William de Mohun, lord of Dunster, was made Earl of Somerset. Aubrey de Vere was made Earl of Oxford in 1142. Sometime around 1143, Matilda's constable Patrick of Salisbury was made Earl of Salisbury.\n\nDuring the Anarchy, earls took advantage of the power vacuum to assume Crown rights. Robert of Gloucester, Patrick of Salisbury, Robert of Leicester, and Henry of Northumbria all minted their own coinage. Earls and barons had also built adulterine castles (castles built without royal permission).\n\nPlantagenets \n\nIt fell to Stephen's successor Henry II () to again curtail the power of earls. He confiscated or demolished illegal castles. He reduced the number of earldoms by allowing them to die with their holders and did not create new ones. During his reign, \"the title became a mark of rank, rather than a substantive office: the real power lay with the king's sheriffs and justices.\"\n\nThe real power possessed by any individual earl in this period depended on the amount of land and wealth he possessed that could be translated into patronage and influence. The more land and resources concentrated in a region, the more influence an earl had. The most powerful were the earls of Chester, who by the middle of the 13th century were described as earls palatine. Their power derived from owning most of the land in Cheshire. As a result, the shire court and the earl's honour court were identical, and the sheriff answered to the earl. The Earl of Oxford, however, possessed less than an acre of land in Oxfordshire (most of his land was in Essex), and therefore possessed no power in the county.\n\nAn earldom along with its land was inherited generally according to primogeniture. If the only heirs were female, then the land would be partitioned equally between co-heirs with the eldest co-heir receiving the title. In 1204, Robert de Beaumont, 4th Earl of Leicester, died without children. His heirs were his sisters, Amice and Margaret. Amice's son, Simon de Montfort, succeeded as Earl of Leicester, and Margaret's husband, Saer de Quincy, was created the Earl of Winchester in 1207. This was the first new hereditary earldom created since the reign of Stephen.\n\nIn 1227, Henry III () granted his justiciar and chief minister, Hubert de Burgh, the earldom of Kent. The terms of inheritance, however, were unprecedented: the earldom was to pass to Hubert's son by his third wife Margaret of Scotland, thereby passing over his eldest son by his first wife. It may have been thought that Margaret's royal blood made her children more worthy of inheritance.\n\nBy the 13th century earls had a social rank just below the king and princes, but were not necessarily more powerful or wealthier than other noblemen. The only way to become an earl was to inherit the title or to marry into one—and the king reserved a right to prevent the transfer of the title. By the 14th century, creating an earl included a special public ceremony where the king personally tied a sword belt around the waist of the new earl, emphasizing the fact that the earl's rights came from him.\n\nEarls still held influence and, as \"companions of the king\", generally acted in support of the king's power. They showed their own power prominently in 1327 when they deposed King Edward II. They would later do the same with other kings of whom they disapproved. In 1337 Edward III declared that he intended to create six new earldoms.\n\nAn earldom became, with a few exceptions, the default rank of the peerage to which a former prime minister was elevated. However, the last prime minister to accept an earldom was Harold Macmillan, who became Earl of Stockton in 1984.\n\nIreland\nThe first Irish earldom was the Earl of Ulster, granted to the Norman knight Hugh de Lacy in 1205 by John, King of England and Lord of Ireland. Other early earldoms were Earl of Carrick (1315), Earl of Kildare (1316), Earl of Desmond (1329) and Earl of Waterford (1446, extant).\n\nAfter the Tudor reconquest of Ireland (1530s–1603), native Irish kings and clan chiefs were encouraged to submit to the English king (now also King of Ireland) and were, in return, granted noble titles in the Peerage of Ireland. Notable among those who agreed to this policy of \"surrender and regrant\" were Ulick na gCeann Burke, 1st Earl of Clanricarde, Murrough O'Brien, 1st Earl of Thomond, Donald McCarthy, 1st Earl of Clancare, Rory O'Donnell, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell, Randal MacDonnell, 1st Earl of Antrim and Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone. The earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnell later rebelled against the crown and were forced to flee Ireland in 1607; their departure, along with about ninety followers, is famed in Irish history as the Flight of the Earls, seen as the ultimate demise of native Irish monarchy.\n\nIreland became part of the United Kingdom in 1801, and the last Irish earldom was created in 1824. The Republic of Ireland does not recognise titles of nobility.\n\nNotable later Irish earls include Jacobite leader Patrick Sarsfield, 1st Earl of Lucan; Postmaster General Richard Trench, 2nd Earl of Clancarty; Prime Minister William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelburne (later made a marquess) and the (alleged) murderer John Bingham, 7th Earl of Lucan.\n\nScotland\n\nThe oldest earldoms in Scotland (with the exception of the Earldom of Dunbar and March) originated from the office of mormaer, such as the Mormaer of Fife, of Strathearn, etc.; subsequent earldoms developed by analogy. The principal distinction between earldom and mormaer is that earldoms were granted as fiefs of the King, while mormaers were virtually independent. The earl is thought to have been introduced by the anglophile king David I. While the power attached to the office of earl was swept away in England by the Norman Conquest, in Scotland earldoms retained substantial powers, such as regality throughout the Middle Ages.\n\nIt is important to distinguish between the land controlled directly by the earl, in a landlord-like sense, and the region over which he could exercise his office. Scottish use of Latin terms provincia and comitatus makes the difference clear. Initially these terms were synonymous, as in England, but by the 12th century they were seen as distinct concepts, with comitatus referring to the land under direct control of the earl, and provincia referring to the province; hence, the comitatus might now only be a small region of the provincia. Thus, unlike England, the term county, which ultimately evolved from the Latin comitatus, was not historically used for Scotland's main political subdivisions.\n\nSheriffs were introduced at a similar time to earls, but unlike England, where sheriffs were officers who implemented the decisions of the shire court, in Scotland they were specifically charged with upholding the king's interests in the region, thus being more like a coroner. As such, a parallel system of justice arose, between that provided by magnates (represented by the earls), and that by the king (represented by sheriffs), in a similar way to England having both Courts Baron and Magistrates, respectively. Inevitably, this led to a degree of forum shopping, with the king's offering – the Sheriff – gradually winning.\n\nAs in England, as the centuries wore on, the term earl came to be disassociated from the office, and later kings started granting the title of earl without it, and gradually without even an associated comitatus. By the 16th century there started to be earls of towns, of villages, and even of isolated houses; it had simply become a label for marking status, rather than an office of intrinsic power. In 1746, in the aftermath of the Jacobite rising, the Heritable Jurisdictions Act brought the powers of the remaining ancient earldoms under the control of the sheriffs; earl is now simply a noble rank.\n\nWales\nSome of the most significant Earls (Welsh: ieirll, singular iarll) in Welsh history were those from the West of England. As Wales remained independent of any Norman jurisdiction, the more powerful Earls in England were encouraged to invade and establish effective \"buffer states\" to be run as autonomous lordships. These Marcher Lords included the earls of Chester, Gloucester, Hereford, Pembroke and Shrewsbury (see also English Earls of March).\n\nThe first Earldoms created within Wales were the Lordship of Glamorgan (a comital title) and the Earldom of Pembroke.\n\nTir Iarll (English: Earl's land) is an area of Glamorgan, which has traditionally had a particular resonance in Welsh culture.\n\nCoronet\n\nA British earl is entitled to a coronet bearing eight strawberry leaves (four visible) and eight silver balls (or pearls) around the rim (five visible). The actual coronet is rarely, if ever, worn except at the coronation of a new monarch, but in heraldry an earl may bear his coronet of rank on his coat of arms above the shield.\n\nForms of address\nAn earl has the title Earl of [X] when the title originates from a placename, or Earl [X] when the title comes from a surname. In either case, he is referred to as Lord [X], and his wife as Lady [X]. A countess who holds an earldom in her own right also uses Lady [X], but her husband does not have a title (unless he has one in his own right).\n\nThe eldest son of an earl, though not himself a peer, is entitled to use a courtesy title, usually the highest of his father's lesser titles (if any). For instance, prior to his elevation to the Dukedom of Edinburgh, the eldest son of the Earl of Wessex was styled as James, Viscount Severn. The eldest son of the eldest son of an earl is entitled to use one of his grandfather's lesser titles, normally the second-highest of the lesser titles. Younger sons are styled The Honourable [Forename] [Surname], and daughters, The Lady [Forename] [Surname] (Lady Diana Spencer being a well-known example).\n\nThere is no difference between the courtesy titles given to the children of earls and the children of countesses in their own right, provided the husband of the countess has a lower rank than she does. If her husband has a higher rank, their children will be given titles according to his rank.\n\nIn the peerage of Scotland, when there are no courtesy titles involved, the heir to an earldom, and indeed any level of peerage, is styled Master of [X], and successive sons as The Honourable [Firstname Surname].\n\nList of earldoms \n\nThere are many earldoms, extant, extinct, dormant, abeyant, or forfeit, in the peerages of England, Scotland, Great Britain, Ireland and the United Kingdom.\n\nIn fiction\n\nEarls have appeared in various works of fiction.\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nWorks cited\n\nExternal links \n \n Morris, Marc (December 2005). \"The King's Companions\". History Today.\n\n \n \n \nCategory:Men's social titles\nCategory:Noble titles\nCategory:Peerage", "title": "Earl" } ]
[ "Yes, \"Uncle Earl\" was a nickname for Earl Long.", "The text does not provide information on how Earl Long felt about his nickname \"Uncle Earl\".", "A popular anecdote mentioned in the text is that Earl Long once joked that one day the people of Louisiana would elect \"good government, and they won't like it!\"", "The text does not provide information on whether Earl Long made any public statements regarding the song \"The Ballad of Earl K. Long\".", "In the text, it's mentioned that both Earl Long and his brother, Huey, had grown close with Earl Williamson, a local politician. There's an anecdote about Earl coming to the town of Vivian to pick up Williamson for a trip involving buttermilk drinking and horse racing in Hot Springs, Arkansas, although it's not explicitly referring to Long's direct family members.", "The text does not provide any additional information relating to the nickname \"Uncle Earl\".", "The text does not provide any anecdotes regarding Earl Long's affairs.", "The text does not provide information on whether the anecdotes about Earl Long caused embarrassment for him or his family." ]
[ "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes" ]
C_2cf092e67cc94730b09d048f641ecb86_0
Pearl Jam
Pearl Jam is an American rock band formed in Seattle, Washington, in 1990. Since its inception, the band's line-up has consisted of Eddie Vedder (lead vocals), Mike McCready (lead guitar), Stone Gossard (rhythm guitar) and Jeff Ament (bass). The band's fifth member is drummer Matt Cameron (also of Soundgarden), who has been with the band since 1998. Boom Gaspar (piano) has also been a session/touring member with the band since 2002.
Musical style and influences
Compared with the other grunge bands of the early 1990s, Pearl Jam's style is noticeably less heavy and harkens back to the classic rock music of the 1970s. Pearl Jam has cited many punk rock and classic rock bands as influences, including The Who, Led Zeppelin, Neil Young, Kiss and the Ramones. Pearl Jam's success has been attributed to its sound, which fuses "the riff-heavy stadium rock of the '70s with the grit and anger of '80s post-punk, without ever neglecting hooks and choruses." Gossard's rhythm guitar style is known for its sense of beat and groove, while McCready's lead guitar style, influenced by artists such as Jimi Hendrix, has been described as "feel-oriented" and "rootsy." Pearl Jam has broadened its musical range with subsequent releases. As he had more influence on the band's sound, Vedder sought to make the band's musical output less catchy. He said, "I felt that with more popularity, we were going to be crushed, our heads were going to pop like grapes." By 1994's Vitalogy, the band began to incorporate more punk influences into its music. The band's 1996 album, No Code, was a deliberate break from the musical style of Ten. The songs on the album featured elements of garage rock, worldbeat, and experimentalism. After Yield in 1998, which was somewhat of a return to the straightforward rock approach of the band's early work, they dabbled with experimental art rock on the Binaural album of 2000, and with folk rock elements on the 2002 Riot Act album. The band's 2006 album, Pearl Jam, was cited as a return to their early sound. Their 2009 album, Backspacer, contains elements of pop and new wave. Critic Jim DeRogatis describes Vedder's vocals as a "Jim Morrison-like vocal growl." Greg Prato of AllMusic said, "With his hard-hitting and often confessional lyrical style and Jim Morrison-esque baritone, Vedder also became one of the most copied lead singers in all of rock." Vedder's lyrical topics range from personal ("Alive", "Better Man") to social and political concerns ("Even Flow", "World Wide Suicide"). His lyrics have often invoked the use of storytelling and have included themes of freedom, individualism, and sympathy for troubled individuals. When the band started, Gossard and McCready were clearly designated as rhythm and lead guitarists, respectively. The dynamic began to change when Vedder started to play more rhythm guitar during the Vitalogy era. McCready said in 2006, "Even though there are three guitars, I think there's maybe more room now. Stone will pull back and play a two-note line and Ed will do a power chord thing, and I fit into all that." CANNOTANSWER
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Pearl Jam is an American rock band formed in Seattle, Washington, in 1990. The band's lineup consists of founding members Jeff Ament (bass guitar), Stone Gossard (rhythm guitar), Mike McCready (lead guitar), and Eddie Vedder (lead vocals, guitar), as well as Matt Cameron (drums), who joined in 1998. Keyboardist Boom Gaspar has also been a touring/session member with the band since 2002. Drummers Jack Irons, Dave Krusen, Matt Chamberlain, and Dave Abbruzzese are former members of the band. Pearl Jam outsold many of their contemporaries from the early 1990s, and are considered one of the most influential bands of the decade, being dubbed as "the most popular American rock and roll band of the '90s". Formed after the demise of Gossard and Ament's previous band, Mother Love Bone, Pearl Jam broke into the mainstream with their debut album, Ten, in 1991. Ten stayed on the Billboard 200 chart for nearly five years, and has gone on to become one of the highest-selling rock records ever, going 13× platinum in the United States. Released in 1993, Pearl Jam's second album, Vs., sold over 950,000 copies in its first week of release, setting the record for most copies of an album sold in its first week of release at the time. Their third album, Vitalogy (1994), became the second-fastest-selling CD in history at the time, with more than 877,000 units sold in its first week. One of the key bands in the grunge movement of the early 1990s, Pearl Jam's members often shunned popular music industry practices such as making music videos or participating in interviews. The band also sued Ticketmaster, claiming it had monopolized the concert-ticket market. In 2006, Rolling Stone described the band as having "spent much of the past decade deliberately tearing apart their own fame." Pearl Jam had sold more than 85million albums worldwide by 2018, including nearly 32million albums in the United States by 2012, making them one of the best-selling bands of all time. Pearl Jam was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2017 in its first year of eligibility. They were ranked eighth in a readers' poll by Rolling Stone magazine in its "Top Ten Live Acts of All Time" issue. Throughout its career, the band has also promoted wider social and political issues, from pro-abortion rights sentiments to opposition to George W. Bush's presidency. Vedder acts as the band's spokesman on these issues. History Formation and early years (1984–1990) Stone Gossard and Jeff Ament were members of grunge band Green River during the mid-1980s. Green River toured and recorded to moderate success but disbanded in 1987 due to a stylistic division between the pair and bandmates Mark Arm and Steve Turner. In late 1987, Gossard and Ament began playing with Malfunkshun vocalist Andrew Wood, eventually organizing the band Mother Love Bone. In 1988 and 1989, the band recorded and toured to increasing interest and found the support of the PolyGram record label, which signed the band in early 1989. Mother Love Bone's debut album, Apple, was released in July 1990, four months after Wood died of a heroin overdose. Ament and Gossard were devastated by the death of Wood and the resulting demise of Mother Love Bone. Gossard spent his time afterwards writing material that was harder-edged than what he had been doing previously. After a few months, Gossard started practicing with fellow Seattle guitarist Mike McCready, whose band, Shadow, had broken up; McCready in turn encouraged Gossard to reconnect with Ament. After practicing for a while, the trio sent out a five-song demo tape in order to find a singer and a drummer. They gave former Red Hot Chili Peppers drummer Jack Irons the demo to see if he would be interested in joining the band and to distribute the demo to anyone he felt might fit the lead vocal position. Irons passed on the invitation but gave the demo to his friend Eddie Vedder. Vedder was the lead vocalist for a San Diego band Bad Radio and worked part-time at a gas station. He listened to the tape shortly before going surfing, where lyrics came to him. He then recorded the vocals to three of the songs ("Alive", "Once", and "Footsteps") in what he later described as a "mini-opera" titled Mamasan. Vedder sent the tape with his vocals back to the three Seattle musicians, who were impressed enough to fly Vedder up to Seattle for an audition. Within a week, Vedder had joined the band. With the addition of Dave Krusen on drums, the band took the name Mookie Blaylock, in reference to the then-active basketball player. The band played its first official show at the Off Ramp Café in Seattle on October 22, 1990. They opened for Alice in Chains at the Moore Theatre in Seattle on December 22, 1990, and served as the opening act for the band's Facelift tour in 1991. Mookie Blaylock soon signed to Epic Records and renamed themselves Pearl Jam. In an early promotional interview, Vedder said that the name "Pearl Jam" was a reference to his great-grandmother Pearl, who was married to a Native American and had a special recipe for peyote-laced jam. In a 2006 cover story for Rolling Stone, Vedder admitted that this story was "total bullshit", but he did have a great-grandma named Pearl. Ament and McCready explained that Ament came up with "pearl", and that the band later settled on Pearl Jam after attending a Neil Young concert, in which he extended his songs as improvisations of 15–20 minutes in length. Ten and the grunge explosion (1991–1992) Pearl Jam entered Seattle's London Bridge Studios in March 1991 to record its debut album Ten. McCready said that "Ten was mostly Stone and Jeff; Eddie and I were along for the ride at that time." Krusen left the band in May 1991 after checking himself into rehabilitation for alcoholism; he was replaced by Matt Chamberlain, who previously played with Edie Brickell & New Bohemians. After playing only a handful of shows, one of which was filmed for the "Alive" video, Chamberlain left to join the band for Saturday Night Live. Chamberlain suggested Dave Abbruzzese as his replacement. Abbruzzese joined the group and played the rest of Pearl Jam's live shows supporting Ten. Released on August 27, 1991, Ten (named after Mookie Blaylock's jersey number) contained 11 tracks dealing with dark subjects like depression, suicide, loneliness, and murder. Ten's musical style, influenced by classic rock, combined an "expansive harmonic vocabulary" with an anthemic sound. The album was slow to sell, but by the second half of 1992 it became a breakthrough success, being certified gold and reaching number two on the Billboard charts. Ten produced the hit singles "Alive", "Even Flow", and "Jeremy". Originally interpreted as an anthem by many, Vedder later revealed that "Alive" tells the semi-autobiographical tale of a son discovering that his father is actually his stepfather, and his mother's grief turns her to sexually embrace her son, who strongly resembles the biological father. In this lyric, even though Vedder originally looked at "being alive as a curse," as the sadness the speaker in the song suggests, "But as fans quickly turned the title phrase into a self-empowering anthem," particularly at Pearl Jam concerts, Vedder said "they lifted the curse. The audience changed the meaning for me," he told VH1 Storytellers in 2006. The song "Jeremy" and its accompanying video were inspired by a true story in which a high school student shot himself in front of his classmates. Ten stayed on the Billboard charts for nearly five years, going 13× platinum. With the success of Ten, Pearl Jam became a key member of the Seattle grunge explosion, along with Alice in Chains, Nirvana, and Soundgarden. The band was criticized in the music press; British music magazine NME wrote that Pearl Jam was "trying to steal money from young alternative kids' pockets." Nirvana's Kurt Cobain angrily attacked Pearl Jam, claiming the band were commercial sellouts, and argued Ten was not a true alternative album because it had so many prominent guitar leads. Cobain later reconciled with Vedder, and they reportedly were on amicable terms before Cobain's death in 1994. Pearl Jam toured relentlessly in support of Ten. Ament stated that "essentially Ten was just an excuse to tour," adding, "We told the record company, 'We know we can be a great band, so let's just get the opportunity to get out and play.'" The band's manager Kelly Curtis stated "Once people came and saw them live, this lightbulb would go on. Doing their first tour, you kind of knew it was happening and there was no stopping it." Early on in Pearl Jam's career, the band became known for its intense live performances. Looking back at this time, Vedder said that "playing music and then getting a shot at making a record and at having an audience and stuff, it's just like an untamed force...But it didn't come from jock mentality. It came from just being let out of the gates." In 1992, Pearl Jam made television appearances on Saturday Night Live and MTV Unplugged and took a slot on that summer's Lollapalooza tour with Ministry, Red Hot Chili Peppers, and Soundgarden, among others. The band contributed two songs to the soundtrack of the 1992 Cameron Crowe film Singles: "State of Love and Trust" and "Breath". Ament, Gossard and Vedder appeared in Singles under the name Citizen Dick; their parts were filmed when Pearl Jam was known as Mookie Blaylock. Vs., Vitalogy and dealing with success (1993–1995) The band members grew uncomfortable with their success, with much of the burden of Pearl Jam's popularity falling on frontman Vedder. While Pearl Jam received four awards at the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards for its video for "Jeremy", including Video of the Year and Best Group Video, the band refused to make a video for "Black" in spite of pressure from the label. This action began a trend of the band refusing to make videos for its songs. Vedder felt that the concept of music videos robbed listeners from creating their own interpretations of the song, stating that "Before music videos first came out, you'd listen to a song with headphones on, sitting in a beanbag chair with your eyes closed, and you'd come up with your own visions, these things that came from within. Then all of a sudden, sometimes even the first time you heard a song, it was with these visual images attached, and it robbed you of any form of self-expression." "Ten years from now," Ament said, "I don't want people to remember our songs as videos." Pearl Jam headed into the studio in early 1993 facing the challenge of following up the commercial success of its debut. McCready said "The band was blown up pretty big and everything was pretty crazy." Released on October 19, 1993, Pearl Jam's second album, Vs., sold 950,378 copies in its first week of release and outperformed all other entries in the Billboard top ten that week combined. The album set the record for most copies of an album sold in its first week of release, which it held until broken by Garth Brooks' 1998 album Double Live. Vs. included the singles "Go", "Daughter", "Animal", and "Dissident". Paul Evans of Rolling Stone stated "Few American bands have arrived more clearly talented than this one did with Ten; and Vs. tops even that debut." He added "Like Jim Morrison and Pete Townshend, Vedder makes a forte of his psychological-mythic explorations...As guitarists Stone Gossard and Mike McCready paint dense and slashing backdrops, he invites us into a drama of experiment and strife." The band decided, beginning with the release of Vs., to scale back its commercial efforts. The members declined to produce any more music videos after the massive success of "Jeremy" and opted for fewer interviews and television appearances. Industry insiders compared Pearl Jam's tour that year to the touring habits of Led Zeppelin in that the band "ignored the press and took its music directly to the fans." During the Vs. Tour, the band set a cap on ticket prices in an attempt to thwart scalpers. By 1994, Pearl Jam was "fighting on all fronts" as its manager described the band at the time. Reporter Chuck Philips broke a series of stories showing that Ticketmaster was gouging Pearl Jam's customers. Pearl Jam was outraged when, after it played a pair of charity benefit shows in Chicago, it discovered that ticket vendor Ticketmaster had added a service charge to the tickets. Pearl Jam was committed to keeping their concert ticket prices down but Fred Rosen of Ticketmaster refused to waive the service charge. Because Ticketmaster controlled most major venues, the band was forced to create from scratch its own outdoor stadiums in rural areas in order to perform. Pearl Jam's efforts to organize a tour without the ticket giant collapsed, which Pearl Jam said was evidence of Ticketmaster's monopoly. An analysis of journalist Chuck Philips' investigative series in a well known legal monograph concluded that it was hard to imagine a legitimate reason for Ticketmaster's exclusive contracts with venues and contracts to cover such a lengthy period of time. The authors wrote "The pervasiveness of Ticketmaster's exclusive agreements, coupled with their excessive duration and the manner in which they are procured, supported a finding that Ticketmaster had engaged in anticompetitive conduct under section 2 of the Sherman Act." The United States Department of Justice was investigating the company's practices at the time and asked the band to create a memorandum of its experiences with the company. Band members Gossard and Ament testified at a subcommittee investigation on June 30, 1994 in Washington, D.C. Pearl Jam alleged that Ticketmaster used anti-competitive and monopolistic practices to gouge fans. After Pearl Jam's testimony before Congress, Congressman Dingell (D-Mich.) wrote a bill requiring full disclosure to prevent Ticketmaster from burying escalating service fees. Pearl Jam's manager said he was gratified that Congress recognized the problem as a national issue. The band eventually canceled its 1994 summer tour in protest. After the Justice Department dropped the case, Pearl Jam continued to boycott Ticketmaster, refusing to play venues that had contracts with the company. The band tried to work around Ticketmaster's exclusive contracts by hosting charities and benefits at major venues because the exclusive contracts often contained a clause allowing charity event promoters to sell their own tickets. Music critic Jim DeRogatis noted that, along with the Ticketmaster debacle, "the band has refused to release singles or make videos; it has demanded that its albums be released on vinyl; and it wants to be more like its 1960s heroes, The Who, releasing two or three albums a year." He also stated that sources said that most of the band's third album Vitalogy was completed by early 1994, but that either a forced delay by Epic or the battle with Ticketmaster was to blame for the delay. Pearl Jam wrote and recorded while touring behind Vs. and the majority of the tracks for Vitalogy were recorded during breaks on the tour. Tensions within the band had increased by this time. Producer Brendan O'Brien said "Vitalogy was a little strained. I'm being polite—there was some imploding going on." After Pearl Jam finished the recording of Vitalogy, drummer Dave Abbruzzese was fired. The band cited political differences between Abbruzzese and the other members; for example, Abbruzzese disagreed with the Ticketmaster boycott. He was replaced by Jack Irons, who had connected Vedder to the rest of the band some four years prior. Irons made his debut with the band at Neil Young's 1994 Bridge School Benefit, but he was not announced as the band's new drummer until its 1995 Self-Pollution satellite radio broadcast, a four-and-a-half-hour-long pirate broadcast out of Seattle which was available to any radio stations that wanted to carry it. Vitalogy was released first on November 22, 1994 on vinyl and then two weeks later on December 6, 1994 on CD and cassette. The CD became the second-fastest-selling in history, with more than 877,000 units sold in its first week. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic stateed that "thanks to its stripped-down, lean production, Vitalogy stands as Pearl Jam's most original and uncompromising album." Many of the songs on the album appear to be inspired by the pressures of fame. The song "Spin the Black Circle", an homage to vinyl records, won a Grammy Award in 1996 for Best Hard Rock Performance. Vitalogy also included the songs "Not for You", "Corduroy", "Better Man", and "Immortality". "Better Man" (), a song originally written and performed by Vedder while in Bad Radio, reached number one on the Billboard Mainstream Rock chart, spending a total of eight weeks there. Considered a "blatantly great pop song" by producer Brendan O'Brien, Pearl Jam was reluctant to record it and initially rejected it from Vs. due to its accessibility. The band continued its boycott against Ticketmaster during its 1995 tour for Vitalogy, but was surprised that virtually no other bands joined. Pearl Jam's initiative to play only at non-Ticketmaster venues effectively, with a few exceptions, prevented it from playing shows in the United States for the next three years. Ament later said "We were so hardheaded about the 1995 tour. Had to prove we could tour on our own, and it pretty much killed us, killed our career." In the same year, Pearl Jam backed Neil Young, whom the band had noted as an influence, on his album Mirror Ball. Contractual obligations prevented the use of the band's name anywhere on the album, but the members were all credited individually in the album's liner notes. Two songs from the sessions were left off Mirror Ball: "I Got Id" and "Long Road". These two tracks were released separately by Pearl Jam in the form of the 1995 EP Merkin Ball. No Code and Yield (1996–1999) Following the round of touring for Vitalogy, the band went into the studio to record No Code. Vedder said "Making No Code was all about gaining perspective." Released in 1996, No Code was seen as a deliberate break from the band's sound since Ten, favoring experimental ballads and noisy garage rockers. David Browne of Entertainment Weekly stated that "No Code displays a wider range of moods and instrumentation than on any previous Pearl Jam album." The lyrical themes on the album deal with issues of self-examination, with Ament stating, "In some ways, it's like the band's story. It's about growing up." Although the album debuted at number one on the Billboard charts, it quickly fell down the charts. No Code included the singles "Who You Are" (), "Hail, Hail", and "Off He Goes". As with Vitalogy, very little touring was done to promote No Code because of the band's refusal to play in Ticketmaster's venue areas. A European tour took place in the fall of 1996. Gossard stated that there was "a lot of stress associated with trying to tour at that time" and that "it was growing more and more difficult to be excited about being part of the band." Following the short tour for No Code, the band went into the studio in 1997 to record its follow-up. The sessions for the band's fifth album represented more of a team effort among all members of the group, with Ament stating that "everybody really got a little bit of their say on the record...because of that, everybody feels like they're an integral part of the band." On February 3, 1998, Pearl Jam released Yield. The album was cited as a return to the band's early, straightforward rock sound. Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly stated that the band has "turned in an intermittently affecting album that veers between fiery garage rock and rootsy, acoustic-based ruminations. Perhaps mindful of their position as the last alt-rock ambassadors with any degree of clout, they've come up with their most cohesive album since their 1991 debut, Ten." Lyrically, Yield continued with the more contemplative type of writing found on No Code, with Vedder saying, "What was rage in the past has become reflection." Yield debuted at number two on the Billboard charts, but like No Code soon began dropping down the charts. It included the singles "Given to Fly" and "Wishlist". The band hired comic book artist Todd McFarlane to create an animated video for the song "Do the Evolution" from the album, its first music video since 1992. A documentary detailing the making of Yield, Single Video Theory, was released on VHS and DVD later that year. In April 1998, Pearl Jam again changed drummers. Jack Irons left the band due to dissatisfaction with touring and was replaced with former Soundgarden drummer Matt Cameron on a temporary basis, but he soon became a permanent replacement for Irons. Pearl Jam's 1998 Yield Tour in North America marked the band's return to full-scale touring. The band's anti-trust lawsuit against Ticketmaster had proven to be unsuccessful and hindered live tours. Many fans had complained about the difficulty in obtaining tickets and the use of non-Ticketmaster venues, which were judged to be out-of-the-way and impersonal. For this tour and future tours, Pearl Jam again began using Ticketmaster in order to "better accommodate concertgoers." The 1998 summer tour was a big success, and after it was completed the band released Live on Two Legs, a live album which featured select performances from the tour. In 1998, Pearl Jam recorded "Last Kiss", a cover of a 1960s ballad made famous by J. Frank Wilson and the Cavaliers. It was recorded during a soundcheck and released on the band's 1998 fan club Christmas single. The following year, the cover was put into heavy rotation across the country. By popular demand, the cover was released to the public as a single in 1999, with all of the proceeds going to the aid of refugees of the Kosovo War. The band also decided to include the song on the 1999 charity compilation album, No Boundaries: A Benefit for the Kosovar Refugees. "Last Kiss" peaked at number two on the Billboard charts and became the band's highest-charting single. Binaural and the Roskilde tragedy (2000–2001) Following its full-scale tour in support of Yield, the band took a short break, but then reconvened toward the end of 1999 and commenced work on a new album. On May 16, 2000, Pearl Jam released its sixth studio album, Binaural. It was drummer Matt Cameron's studio recording debut with the band. The title is a reference to the binaural recording techniques that were utilized on several tracks by producer Tchad Blake, known for his use of the technique. Binaural was the first album since the band's debut not produced by Brendan O'Brien, although O'Brien was called in later to remix several tracks. Gossard stated that the band members "were ready for a change." Jon Pareles of Rolling Stone wrote "Apparently as tired of grunge as everyone except Creed fans, Pearl Jam delve elsewhere." He added "The album reflects both Pearl Jam's longstanding curse of self-importance and a renewed willingness to be experimental or just plain odd." The album is lyrically darker than the band's previous album Yield, with Gossard describing the lyrics as "pretty sombre." Binaural included the singles "Nothing as It Seems", one of the songs featuring binaural recording, and "Light Years". The album sold just over 700,000 copies and became the first Pearl Jam studio album to fail to reach platinum status. Pearl Jam decided to record every show on its 2000 Binaural Tour professionally, after noting the desire of fans to own a copy of the shows they attended and the popularity of bootleg recordings. The band had been open in the past about allowing fans to make amateur recordings, and these "official bootlegs" were an attempt to provide a more affordable and better quality product for fans. Pearl Jam originally intended to release them to only fan club members, but the band's record contract prevented it from doing so. Pearl Jam released all of the albums in record stores as well as through its fan club. The band released 72 live albums in 2000 and 2001, and twice set a record for most albums to debut in the Billboard 200 at the same time. Pearl Jam's 2000 European tour ended in tragedy on June 30, with an accident at the Roskilde Festival in Denmark. Nine fans were crushed underfoot and suffocated to death as the crowd rushed to the front. After numerous requests for the crowd to step back, the band stopped playing and tried to calm the crowd when the musicians realized what was happening, but it was already too late. The two remaining dates of the tour were canceled and members of the band contemplated retiring after this event. A month after the European tour concluded, the band embarked on its two-leg 2000 North American tour. On performing after the Roskilde tragedy, Vedder said that "playing, facing crowds, being together—it enabled us to start processing it." On October 22, 2000, the band played the MGM Grand in Las Vegas, celebrating the tenth anniversary of its first live performance as a band. Vedder took the opportunity to thank the many people who had helped the band come together and make it to ten years. He noted that "I would never do this accepting a Grammy or something." After concluding the Binaural Tour, the band released Touring Band 2000 the following year. The DVD featured select performances from the North American legs of the tour. Following the events of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, Vedder and McCready were joined by Neil Young to perform the song "Long Road" from the EP Merkin Ball at the America: A Tribute to Heroes benefit concert. The concert, which aired on September 21, 2001, raised money for the victims and their families. Riot Act (2002–2005) Pearl Jam commenced work on a new album following a year-long break after its full-scale tour in support of Binaural. McCready described the recording environment as "a pretty positive one" and "very intense and spiritual." Regarding the time period when the lyrics were being written, Vedder said "There's been a lot of mortality...It's a weird time to be writing. Roskilde changed the shape of us as people, and our filter for seeing the world changed." Pearl Jam released Riot Act on November 12, 2002. It included the singles "I Am Mine" and "Save You". The album featured a much more folk-based and experimental sound, evident in the presence of B3 organist Boom Gaspar on songs such as "Love Boat Captain". Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic wrote "Riot Act is the album that Pearl Jam has been wanting to make since Vitalogy—a muscular art rock record, one that still hits hard but that is filled with ragged edges and odd detours." The track entitled "Arc" was recorded as a vocal tribute to the nine people who died at the Roskilde Festival in June 2000. Vedder only performed this song nine times on the 2003 tour, and the band left the track off all released bootlegs. In 2003, the band embarked on its Riot Act Tour, which included tours in Australia and North America. The band continued its official bootleg program, making every concert from the tour available in CD form through its official website. A total of six bootlegs were made available in record stores: Perth, Western Australia; Tokyo; State College, Pennsylvania; two shows from Madison Square Garden; and Mansfield, Massachusetts. At many shows during the 2003 North American tour, Vedder performed Riot Acts "Bu$hleaguer", a commentary on President George W. Bush, with a rubber mask of Bush, wearing it at the beginning of the song and then hanging it on a mic stand to allow him to sing. The band made news when it was reported that several fans left after Vedder had "impaled" the Bush mask on his mic stand at the band's show in Denver, Colorado. In June 2003, Pearl Jam announced it was leaving Epic Records following the end of its contract with the label. The band stated it had "no interest" in signing with another label. The band's first release without a label was the single for "Man of the Hour", in partnership with Amazon.com. Director Tim Burton approached Pearl Jam to request an original song for the soundtrack of his film Big Fish. After screening an early print of the film, Pearl Jam recorded the song for him. "Man of the Hour", which was later nominated for a Golden Globe Award, can be heard in the closing credits of Big Fish. The band released Lost Dogs, a two-disc collection of rarities and B-sides, and Live at the Garden, a DVD featuring the band's July 8, 2003 concert at Madison Square Garden through Epic Records in November 2003. In 2004, Pearl Jam released the live album Live at Benaroya Hall through a one-album deal with BMG. 2004 marked the first time that Pearl Jam licensed a song for usage in a television show; a snippet of the song "Yellow Ledbetter" was used in the final episode of the television series Friends. Later that year, Epic released rearviewmirror (Greatest Hits 1991–2003), a greatest-hits collection spanning 1991 to 2003. This release marked the end of Pearl Jam's contractual agreement with Epic Records. Pearl Jam played a show at Easy Street Records in Seattle in April 2005; recordings from the show were compiled for the album Live at Easy Street and released exclusively to independent record stores in June 2006. The band embarked on a Canadian cross-country tour in September 2005, kicking off the tour with a fundraising concert in Missoula, Montana for Democratic politician Jon Tester and playing the Gorge Amphitheater. After touring Canada, Pearl Jam proceeded to open a Rolling Stones concert in Pittsburgh, then played two shows at the Borgata casino in Atlantic City, New Jersey, then closed the tour with a concert in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The official bootlegs for the band's 2005 shows were distributed via Pearl Jam's official website in MP3 form. Pearl Jam also played a benefit concert to raise money for Hurricane Katrina relief on October 5, 2005 at the House of Blues in Chicago. On November 22, 2005, Pearl Jam began its first Latin American tour. Move to J Records and Pearl Jam (2006–2008) The work for Pearl Jam's follow-up to Riot Act began after its appearance on the 2004 Vote for Change tour. The time period between the two albums was the longest gap between Pearl Jam's studio albums to date and the new album was its first release for a new label. Clive Davis announced in February 2006 that Pearl Jam had signed with his label J Records, which like Epic, is part of Sony Music Entertainment (then known as Sony BMG), though J has since folded into RCA Records. The album Pearl Jam was released on May 2, 2006. A number of critics cited Pearl Jam as a return to the band's early sound, and McCready compared the material to Vs. in a 2005 interview. Ament said "The band playing in a room—that came across. There's a kind of immediacy to the record, and that's what we were going for." Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that "in a world full of boys sent to do a man's job of rocking, Pearl Jam can still pull off gravitas." Current socio-political issues in the United States are addressed on the album. "World Wide Suicide", a song criticizing the Iraq War and U.S. foreign policy, was released as a single and topped the Billboard Modern Rock chart; it was Pearl Jam's first number one on that chart since "Who You Are" in 1996, and first number one on any chart in the United States since 1998 when "Given to Fly" reached number one on the Mainstream Rock chart. Pearl Jam also included the singles "Life Wasted" and "Gone". To support Pearl Jam, the band embarked on its 2006 world tour. It toured North America, Australia and notably Europe; Pearl Jam had not toured the continent for six years. The North American tour included three two-night stands opening for Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers. The band served as the headliners for the Leeds and Reading festivals, despite having vowed to never play at a festival again after Roskilde. Vedder started both concerts with an emotional plea to the crowd to look after each other. He commented during the Leeds set that the band's decision to play a festival for the first time after Roskilde had nothing to do with "guts" but with trust in the audience. In 2007, Pearl Jam recorded a cover of The Who's "Love, Reign o'er Me" for the film Reign Over Me; it was later made available as a music download on the iTunes Music Store. The band embarked on a 13-date European tour, and headlined Lollapalooza in Grant Park, Chicago on August 5, 2007. The band released a CD box set in June 2007, titled Live at the Gorge 05/06, that documents its shows at The Gorge Amphitheatre, and in September 2007 a concert DVD, titled Immagine in Cornice, which documents the band's Italian shows from its 2006 tour was released. In June 2008, Pearl Jam performed as the headline act at the Bonnaroo Music Festival. The Bonnaroo appearance took place amidst a twelve-date tour in the Eastern United States. In July 2008, the band performed at the VH1 tribute to The Who with Foo Fighters, Incubus and The Flaming Lips. In the days prior to Election Day 2008, Pearl Jam digitally released through its official website a free documentary film, titled Vote for Change? 2004, which follows the band's time spent on the 2004 Vote for Change tour. Reissues and Backspacer (2009–2012) In March 2009, Ten was reissued in four editions, featuring such extras as a remastering and remix of the entire album by Brendan O'Brien, a DVD of the band's 1992 appearance on MTV Unplugged, and an LP of its concert of September 20, 1992 at Magnuson Park in Seattle. It was the first reissue in a planned re-release of Pearl Jam's entire catalog that led up to the band's 20th anniversary in 2011. A Pearl Jam retrospective film directed by Cameron Crowe titled Pearl Jam Twenty was also planned to coincide with the anniversary. In 2011, Vs. and Vitalogy were reissued in the spring time in deluxe form. Pearl Jam began work for the follow-up to Pearl Jam in early 2008. In 2009, the band began to build on instrumental and demo tracks written during 2008. The album Backspacer was its first to be produced by Brendan O'Brien since Yield. Backspacer debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard music charts, the band's first album to do so since No Code in 1996, and has sold 635,000 copies as of July 2013, according to Nielsen SoundScan. The music on the record features a sound influenced by pop and new wave. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic wrote that "prior to Backspacer, Pearl Jam wouldn't or couldn't have made music this unfettered, unapologetically assured, casual, and, yes, fun." Regarding the lyrics, Vedder said "I've tried, over the years, to be hopeful in the lyrics, and I think that's going to be easier now." "The Fixer" was chosen as the album's first single. Pearl Jam did not re-sign its record deal with J Records, and the band released the album through its own label Monkeywrench Records in the United States and through Universal Music Group internationally. Pearl Jam reached a deal with Target to be the exclusive big-box retailer for the album in the United States. The album also saw release through the band's official website, independent record stores, online retailers, and iTunes. In an interview in September 2009 McCready revealed that Pearl Jam was scheduled to finish the Backspacer outtakes within six months, and told San Diego radio station KBZT that the band may release an EP in 2010 consisting of those songs, and Vedder instead suggested that the songs may be used for the band's next studio album. In August 2009, Pearl Jam headlined the Virgin Festival, the Outside Lands Music and Arts Festival, and played five shows in Europe and three in North America. In October 2009, Pearl Jam headlined the Austin City Limits Music Festival. Later in October on Halloween night, the band played in what was the last performance at the Philadelphia Spectrum. An additional leg consisting of a tour of Oceania took place afterwards. In May 2010, the band embarked on a month-long tour starting with the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival. The tour headed to the East Coast and ended May 21, 2010 at Madison Square Garden in New York. A European tour took place in June and July 2010, where the band performed in Northern Ireland for the first time at the Odyssey Arena in Belfast. In late October 2010, Pearl Jam performed at the 24th Annual Bridge School Benefit Concert at the Shoreline Amphitheater in Mountain View, California. A live album, titled Live on Ten Legs, was released on January 17, 2011. It is a compilation of live tracks from their 2003 to 2010 world tours, and is a follow-up to Live on Two Legs, which consisted of songs recorded during their 1998 North American tour. In March 2011, bassist Jeff Ament told Billboard that the band had 25 songs and they'd be heading into the studio in April to begin recording the follow-up to Backspacer. On May 16, 2011, the band confirmed that they would play the Labor Day weekend at the Alpine Valley Music Theatre in East Troy, Wisconsin, followed by ten shows in Canada. On September 8, 2011, the band released a new song titled "Olé". On November 18, the band released Toronto 9.11.11—a free live album available through the launch of Google Music. On November 21, 2011, as part of their PJ20 World Tour, Pearl Jam visited Costa Rica for the first time to a 30,000 crowd of fans at the National Stadium. The following month, the band announced a tour of Europe, which started in June 2012. Lightning Bolt (2013–2017) On July 11, 2013, the band announced that their tenth studio album Lightning Bolt would be released internationally on October 14, 2013 and on the next day in the United States, along with releasing the first single "Mind Your Manners". The band played a two-leg tour in North America during October and November, followed by headlining the final Big Day Out festival in Australia and New Zealand in 2014. The second single, "Sirens", was released on September 18, 2013. After selling 166,000 copies in its first week, Lightning Bolt became Pearl Jam's fifth album to reach number one on the Billboard 200. At the 57th Annual Grammy Awards in February 2015, the album won the award for Best Recording Package. In November 2015 the band played a nine-date tour of Latin America. In January 2016, the band announced a tour of the United States and Canada, including appearances at the New Orleans Jazz Festival and Bonnaroo. In April 2017, Pearl Jam was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. At the ceremony they were inducted by comedian David Letterman. In August 2017, the band announced the release of the live album and concert film Let's Play Two from the band's shows at Wrigley Field in Chicago the previous year. Touring and Gigaton (2018–present) The band launched a 2018 tour with shows in South America in March 2018, including shows at the Lollapalooza festival events in Brazil, Chile and Argentina, with the latter being cancelled due to heavy rain the night before. followed by performances in Europe and North America. The tour included two shows for homelessness-related charities in the band's hometown of Seattle. Prior to the first shows of the tour, Pearl Jam released the song "Can't Deny Me". In December 2019, Pearl Jam confirmed that they would be touring Europe in the summer of 2020. On January 13, 2020, the band announced that their album Gigaton would be released on March 27, 2020. In conjunction with the release of their eleventh studio album, the band also announced tour dates in North America during March and April 2020. However, the North American leg was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, with the aim to reschedule them for a later date. In September 2020, the band confirmed that their MTV Unplugged live set would be released on vinyl and CD for the first time the following month. In May 2021, Pearl Jam announced the release of a digital collection of nearly 200 concerts dating from 2000 to 2013. The collection of 5,404 individual songs, entitled Deep, is accessible by members of the Pearl Jam Ten Club. On September 18, 2021, the band played their first show since 2018 at the Sea.Hear.Now Festival in Asbury Park, New Jersey, where former Red Hot Chili Peppers guitarist Josh Klinghoffer made his debut as a touring musician with the band. In May 2022, Matt Cameron was forced to miss his first shows in 24 years since joining the band due to testing positive for the COVID-19 virus. Josh Klinghoffer and Richard Stuverud played drums for Cameron. Musical style and influences Compared with the other grunge bands of the early 1990s, Pearl Jam's style is noticeably less heavy and harks back to the classic rock music of the 1970s. Pearl Jam has cited many classic rock bands as influences, including The Who, Led Zeppelin, Neil Young, The Rolling Stones, Pink Floyd, Jimi Hendrix and the Ramones. Pearl Jam's success has been attributed to its sound, which fuses "the riff-heavy stadium rock of the '70s with the grit and anger of '80s post-punk, without ever neglecting hooks and choruses." Gossard's rhythm guitar style is known for its sense of beat and groove, while McCready's lead guitar style, influenced by artists such as Jimi Hendrix, has been described as "feel-oriented" and "rootsy." Pearl Jam has broadened its musical range with subsequent releases. As he had more influence on the band's sound, Vedder sought to make the band's musical output less catchy. He said "I felt that with more popularity, we were going to be crushed, our heads were going to pop like grapes." By 1994's Vitalogy, the band began to incorporate more punk influences into its music. The band's 1996 album, No Code, was a deliberate break from the musical style of Ten. The songs on the album featured elements of garage rock, worldbeat, and experimentalism. After Yield in 1998, which was somewhat of a return to the straightforward rock approach of the band's early work, they dabbled with experimental art rock on the Binaural album of 2000, and with folk rock elements on the 2002 Riot Act album. The band's 2006 album, Pearl Jam, was cited as a return to their early sound. Their 2009 album, Backspacer, contains elements of pop and new wave. Critic Jim DeRogatis describes Vedder's vocals as a "Jim Morrison-like vocal growl." Greg Prato of AllMusic staed "With his hard-hitting and often confessional lyrical style and Jim Morrison-esque baritone, Vedder also became one of the most copied lead singers in all of rock." Vedder's lyrical topics range from personal ("Alive", "Better Man") to social and political concerns ("Even Flow", "World Wide Suicide"). His lyrics have often invoked the use of storytelling and have included themes of freedom, individualism, and sympathy for troubled individuals. When the band started, Gossard and McCready were designated as rhythm and lead guitarists, respectively. The dynamic began to change when Vedder started to play more rhythm guitar during the Vitalogy era. McCready said in 2006 "Even though there are three guitars, I think there's maybe more room now. Stone will pull back and play a two-note line and Ed will do a power chord thing, and I fit into all that." Legacy While Nirvana had brought grunge to the mainstream in the early 1990s with Nevermind, Pearl Jam's debut Ten outsold it in the United States, and the band became "the most popular American rock & roll band of the '90s" according to AllMusic. Pearl Jam has been described as "modern rock radio's most influential stylists – the workmanlike midtempo chug of songs like "Alive" and "Even Flow" just melodic enough to get moshers singing along." The band inspired and influenced a number of bands, including Silverchair, Puddle of Mudd and The Strokes. The band has also been credited for inspiring the indie rock scene of 90s-era urban Pakistan, that has since evolved into a rich rock music culture in the country. Pearl Jam were ranked at number 8 by Rolling Stone magazine in its "Top Ten Live Acts of All Time". Pearl Jam has been praised for its rejection of rock star excess and its insistence on backing causes it believes in. Music critic Jim DeRogatis stated in the aftermath of the band's battle with Ticketmaster that it "proved that a rock band which isn't greed heads can play stadiums and not milk the audience for every last dime...it indicated that idealism in rock 'n' roll is not the sole province of those '60s bands enshrined in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame." In 2001, Eric Weisbard of Spin wrote "The group that was once accused of being synthetic grunge now seem as organic and principled a rock band as exists." In a 2005 readers' poll in USA Today, Pearl Jam was voted the greatest American rock band of all time. In April 2006, Pearl Jam was awarded the prize for "Best Live Act" in Esquire'''s Esky Music Awards. The blurb called Pearl Jam "the rare superstars who still play as though each show could be their last." Pearl Jam's fanbase following has been compared to that of the Grateful Dead's, with Rolling Stone magazine stating that Pearl Jam "toured incessantly and became one of rock's great arena acts, attracting a fanatical, Grateful Dead-like cult following with marathon, true-believer shows in the vanishing spirit of Bruce Springsteen, the Who and U2." When asked about Pearl Jam's legacy in a 2000 interview, Vedder said "I think at some point along the way we began feeling we wanted to give people something to believe in because we all had bands that gave that to us when we needed something to believe in. That was the big challenge for us after the first record and the response to it. The goal immediately became how do we continue to be musicians and grow and survive in view of all this...The answers weren't always easy, but I think we found a way." Their 1992 MTV Unplugged performance was ranked second in Rolling Stones list of its 15 Best Episodes. Campaigning and activism Throughout its career, Pearl Jam has promoted wider social and political issues, from pro-abortion rights sentiments to opposition to George W. Bush's presidency. Vedder acts as the band's spokesman on these issues. The band has promoted an array of causes, including awareness of Crohn's disease, which Mike McCready suffers from, Ticketmaster venue monopolization and the environment and wildlife protection, among others. Guitarist Stone Gossard has been active in environmental pursuits, and has been an advocate of Pearl Jam's carbon neutral policy, offsetting the band's environmental impact. Vedder has advocated for the release of the West Memphis 3 for years and Damien Echols, a member of the three, shares a writing credit for the song "Army Reserve" (from Pearl Jam). The band, and especially frontman Eddie Vedder, have been vocal supporters of the abortion rights movement. In 1992, Spin printed an article by Vedder, entitled "Reclamation", which detailed his views on abortion. In an MTV Unplugged concert the same year, Vedder stood on a stool and wrote "PRO-CHOICE!" on his arm in protest when the band performed the song "Porch". The band are members of a number of abortion rights organizations, including Choice USA and Voters for Choice. As members of Rock the Vote and Vote for Change, the band has encouraged voter registration and participation in United States elections. Vedder was outspoken in support of Green Party presidential candidate Ralph Nader in 2000, and Pearl Jam played a series of concerts on the Vote for Change tour in October 2004, supporting the candidacy of John Kerry for U.S. president. In a Rolling Stone feature showcasing the Vote for Change tour's performers, Vedder told the magazine "I supported Ralph Nader in 2000, but it's a time of crisis. We have to get a new administration." In 2006, the members of Pearl Jam founded the non-profit organization Vitalogy Foundation. Named after their third studio album, the foundation supports non-profit organizations working in the fields of community health, the environment, arts, education and social change. Vedder sometimes comments on politics between songs, often to criticize U.S. foreign policy, and a number of his songs, including "Bu$hleaguer" and "World Wide Suicide", are openly critical of the Bush administration. At Lollapalooza 2007, Vedder spoke out against BP Amoco dumping effluent in Lake Michigan, and at the end of "Daughter", he sang the lyrics "George Bush leave this world alone/George Bush find yourself another home". In the beginning of the second encore Vedder invited Iraq war veteran Tomas Young, the subject of the documentary Body of War, onto the stage to urge an end to the war. Young in turn introduced Ben Harper, who contributed vocals to "No More" and "Rockin' in the Free World". The band later discovered that some of the Bush-related lyrics were excised from the AT&T webcast of the event, and questioned whether that constitutes censorship. AT&T later apologized and blamed the censorship on contractor Davie Brown Entertainment. Pearl Jam has performed numerous benefit concerts in aid of charities and causes. For example, the band headlined a Seattle concert in 2001 to support the United Nations' efforts to combat world hunger. The band added a date at the Chicago House of Blues to its 2005 tour to help the victims of Hurricane Katrina; the concert proceeds were donated to Habitat for Humanity, the American Red Cross and the Jazz Foundation of America. In 2011, Pearl Jam was named 2011 Planet Defenders by Rock The Earth for their environmental activism and their large-scale efforts to decrease their own carbon emissions. Band members Current members Jeff Ament – bass, backing vocals (1990–present) Stone Gossard – rhythm and lead guitar, backing vocals (1990–present) Mike McCready – lead guitar, backing vocals (1990–present) Eddie Vedder – lead vocals, rhythm guitar (1990–present) Matt Cameron – drums, percussion, backing vocals (1998–present) Touring/session members Boom Gaspar – keyboards, piano, organ (2002–present) Josh Klinghoffer – guitar, percussion, keyboards, drums, backing vocals (2021–present) Richard Stuverud – drums, percussion (2022–present) Former members Dave Krusen – drums, percussion (1990–1991; touring guest 2017, 2022) Matt Chamberlain – drums, percussion (1991) Dave Abbruzzese – drums, percussion (1991–1994) Jack Irons – drums, percussion (1994–1998) Timeline Discography Ten (1991) Vs. (1993) Vitalogy (1994) No Code (1996) Yield (1998) Binaural (2000) Riot Act (2002) Pearl Jam (2006) Backspacer (2009) Lightning Bolt (2013) Gigaton (2020) See also List of alternative rock artists List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. alternative rock chart List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Mainstream Rock chart List of awards and nominations received by Pearl Jam List of Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees References Further reading Clark, Martin. Pearl Jam & Eddie Vedder: None Too Fragile (2005). Jones, Allan. Pearl Jam – The Illustrated Story, A Melody Maker Book (1995). McCready, Mike. Of Potato Heads and Polaroids: My Life Inside and Out of Pearl Jam (2017). Neely, Kim. Five Against One: The Pearl Jam Story (1998). Pearl Jam. Twenty (2011). Prato, Greg. Grunge Is Dead: The Oral History of Seattle Rock Music (2009). Prato, Greg. 100 Things Pearl Jam Fans Should Know & Do Before They Die (2018). Wall, Mick. Pearl Jam'' (1996). External links Category:Alternative rock groups from Washington (state) Category:American grunge groups Category:Hard rock musical groups from Washington (state) Category:Epic Records artists Category:J Records artists Category:Universal Music Group artists Category:Grammy Award winners Category:Musical groups established in 1990 Category:1990 establishments in Washington (state) Category:Musical groups from Seattle Category:Musical quintets Category:Musical groups from Washington (state) Category:Third Man Records artists
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[ "The context does not provide information on any female musician's genre of music.", "Some songs mentioned in the context include \"Alive\", \"Better Man\", \"Even Flow\", and \"World Wide Suicide\".", "The context mentions several albums released by Pearl Jam, including \"Vitalogy\", \"No Code\", \"Yield\", \"Binaural\", \"Riot Act\", \"Pearl Jam\", and \"Backspacer\".", "Some interesting aspects in this article include the detailed discussion of Pearl Jam's evolving musical style - starting with a fusion of '70s rock and '80s post-punk, then incorporating influences from punk, garage rock, worldbeat, experimentalism, art rock, folk rock, and even elements of pop and new wave in their later works. The article also highlights the changes in the guitar dynamics within the band, with Eddie Vedder starting to play more rhythm guitar. Additionally, Vedder's unique vocals, compared to Jim Morrison's, and his lyrical range covering both personal and social-political topics, are also stressed.", "Pearl Jam's success could be attributed to their unique sound, which fused \"the riff-heavy stadium rock of the '70s with the grit and anger of '80s post-punk, without ever neglecting hooks and choruses.\" Particular elements such as Gossard's rhythm guitar style and McCready's lead guitar style, influenced by artists such as Jimi Hendrix, also contributed to their distinctive sound. The evolving dynamic within the band, with Eddie Vedder playing more rhythm guitar, also enriched their music. Additionally, Vedder's impactful and often confessional lyrical style, covering a wide range of personal to social-political topics, added a significant depth to their music." ]
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C_2cf092e67cc94730b09d048f641ecb86_1
Pearl Jam
Pearl Jam is an American rock band formed in Seattle, Washington, in 1990. Since its inception, the band's line-up has consisted of Eddie Vedder (lead vocals), Mike McCready (lead guitar), Stone Gossard (rhythm guitar) and Jeff Ament (bass). The band's fifth member is drummer Matt Cameron (also of Soundgarden), who has been with the band since 1998. Boom Gaspar (piano) has also been a session/touring member with the band since 2002.
Formation and early years (1984-1990)
Stone Gossard and Jeff Ament were members of pioneering grunge band Green River during the mid-1980s. Green River toured and recorded to moderate success but disbanded in 1987 due to a stylistic division between the pair and bandmates Mark Arm and Steve Turner. In late 1987, Gossard and Ament began playing with Malfunkshun vocalist Andrew Wood, eventually organizing the band Mother Love Bone. In 1988 and 1989, the band recorded and toured to increasing interest and found the support of the PolyGram record label, which signed the band in early 1989. Mother Love Bone's debut album, Apple, was released in July 1990, four months after Wood died of a heroin overdose. Ament and Gossard were devastated by the death of Wood and the resulting demise of Mother Love Bone. Gossard spent his time afterwards writing material that was harder-edged than what he had been doing previously. After a few months, Gossard started practicing with fellow Seattle guitarist Mike McCready, whose band, Shadow, had broken up; McCready in turn encouraged Gossard to reconnect with Ament. After practicing for a while, the trio sent out a five-song demo tape in order to find a singer and a drummer. They gave former Red Hot Chili Peppers drummer Jack Irons the demo to see if he would be interested in joining the band and to distribute the demo to anyone he felt might fit the lead vocal position. Irons passed on the invitation but gave the demo to his basketball friend, San Diego, California singer Eddie Vedder. Vedder was the lead vocalist for a San Diego band, Bad Radio, and worked part-time at a gas station. He listened to the tape shortly before going surfing, where lyrics came to him. He then recorded the vocals to three of the songs ("Alive", "Once", and "Footsteps") in what he later described as a "mini-opera" entitled Momma-Son. Vedder sent the tape with his vocals back to the three Seattle musicians, who were impressed enough to fly Vedder up to Seattle for an audition. Within a week, Vedder had joined the band. With the addition of Dave Krusen on drums, the band took the name Mookie Blaylock, in reference to the then-active basketball player Mookie Blaylock. The band played its first official show at the Off Ramp Cafe in Seattle on October 22, 1990. They opened for Alice in Chains at the Moore Theatre in Seattle on December 22, 1990, and served as the opening act for the band's Facelift tour in 1991. Mookie Blaylock soon signed to Epic Records and renamed themselves Pearl Jam. In an early promotional interview, Vedder said that the name "Pearl Jam" was a reference to his great-grandmother Pearl, who was married to a Native American and had a special recipe for peyote-laced jam. In a 2006 Rolling Stone cover story however, Vedder admitted that this story was "total bullshit", even though he indeed had a great-grandma named Pearl. Ament and McCready explained that Ament came up with "pearl", and that the band later settled on "Pearl Jam" after attending a concert by Neil Young, in which he extended his songs as improvisations of 15-20 minutes in length. CANNOTANSWER
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Pearl Jam is an American rock band formed in Seattle, Washington, in 1990. The band's lineup consists of founding members Jeff Ament (bass guitar), Stone Gossard (rhythm guitar), Mike McCready (lead guitar), and Eddie Vedder (lead vocals, guitar), as well as Matt Cameron (drums), who joined in 1998. Keyboardist Boom Gaspar has also been a touring/session member with the band since 2002. Drummers Jack Irons, Dave Krusen, Matt Chamberlain, and Dave Abbruzzese are former members of the band. Pearl Jam outsold many of their contemporaries from the early 1990s, and are considered one of the most influential bands of the decade, being dubbed as "the most popular American rock and roll band of the '90s". Formed after the demise of Gossard and Ament's previous band, Mother Love Bone, Pearl Jam broke into the mainstream with their debut album, Ten, in 1991. Ten stayed on the Billboard 200 chart for nearly five years, and has gone on to become one of the highest-selling rock records ever, going 13× platinum in the United States. Released in 1993, Pearl Jam's second album, Vs., sold over 950,000 copies in its first week of release, setting the record for most copies of an album sold in its first week of release at the time. Their third album, Vitalogy (1994), became the second-fastest-selling CD in history at the time, with more than 877,000 units sold in its first week. One of the key bands in the grunge movement of the early 1990s, Pearl Jam's members often shunned popular music industry practices such as making music videos or participating in interviews. The band also sued Ticketmaster, claiming it had monopolized the concert-ticket market. In 2006, Rolling Stone described the band as having "spent much of the past decade deliberately tearing apart their own fame." Pearl Jam had sold more than 85million albums worldwide by 2018, including nearly 32million albums in the United States by 2012, making them one of the best-selling bands of all time. Pearl Jam was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2017 in its first year of eligibility. They were ranked eighth in a readers' poll by Rolling Stone magazine in its "Top Ten Live Acts of All Time" issue. Throughout its career, the band has also promoted wider social and political issues, from pro-abortion rights sentiments to opposition to George W. Bush's presidency. Vedder acts as the band's spokesman on these issues. History Formation and early years (1984–1990) Stone Gossard and Jeff Ament were members of grunge band Green River during the mid-1980s. Green River toured and recorded to moderate success but disbanded in 1987 due to a stylistic division between the pair and bandmates Mark Arm and Steve Turner. In late 1987, Gossard and Ament began playing with Malfunkshun vocalist Andrew Wood, eventually organizing the band Mother Love Bone. In 1988 and 1989, the band recorded and toured to increasing interest and found the support of the PolyGram record label, which signed the band in early 1989. Mother Love Bone's debut album, Apple, was released in July 1990, four months after Wood died of a heroin overdose. Ament and Gossard were devastated by the death of Wood and the resulting demise of Mother Love Bone. Gossard spent his time afterwards writing material that was harder-edged than what he had been doing previously. After a few months, Gossard started practicing with fellow Seattle guitarist Mike McCready, whose band, Shadow, had broken up; McCready in turn encouraged Gossard to reconnect with Ament. After practicing for a while, the trio sent out a five-song demo tape in order to find a singer and a drummer. They gave former Red Hot Chili Peppers drummer Jack Irons the demo to see if he would be interested in joining the band and to distribute the demo to anyone he felt might fit the lead vocal position. Irons passed on the invitation but gave the demo to his friend Eddie Vedder. Vedder was the lead vocalist for a San Diego band Bad Radio and worked part-time at a gas station. He listened to the tape shortly before going surfing, where lyrics came to him. He then recorded the vocals to three of the songs ("Alive", "Once", and "Footsteps") in what he later described as a "mini-opera" titled Mamasan. Vedder sent the tape with his vocals back to the three Seattle musicians, who were impressed enough to fly Vedder up to Seattle for an audition. Within a week, Vedder had joined the band. With the addition of Dave Krusen on drums, the band took the name Mookie Blaylock, in reference to the then-active basketball player. The band played its first official show at the Off Ramp Café in Seattle on October 22, 1990. They opened for Alice in Chains at the Moore Theatre in Seattle on December 22, 1990, and served as the opening act for the band's Facelift tour in 1991. Mookie Blaylock soon signed to Epic Records and renamed themselves Pearl Jam. In an early promotional interview, Vedder said that the name "Pearl Jam" was a reference to his great-grandmother Pearl, who was married to a Native American and had a special recipe for peyote-laced jam. In a 2006 cover story for Rolling Stone, Vedder admitted that this story was "total bullshit", but he did have a great-grandma named Pearl. Ament and McCready explained that Ament came up with "pearl", and that the band later settled on Pearl Jam after attending a Neil Young concert, in which he extended his songs as improvisations of 15–20 minutes in length. Ten and the grunge explosion (1991–1992) Pearl Jam entered Seattle's London Bridge Studios in March 1991 to record its debut album Ten. McCready said that "Ten was mostly Stone and Jeff; Eddie and I were along for the ride at that time." Krusen left the band in May 1991 after checking himself into rehabilitation for alcoholism; he was replaced by Matt Chamberlain, who previously played with Edie Brickell & New Bohemians. After playing only a handful of shows, one of which was filmed for the "Alive" video, Chamberlain left to join the band for Saturday Night Live. Chamberlain suggested Dave Abbruzzese as his replacement. Abbruzzese joined the group and played the rest of Pearl Jam's live shows supporting Ten. Released on August 27, 1991, Ten (named after Mookie Blaylock's jersey number) contained 11 tracks dealing with dark subjects like depression, suicide, loneliness, and murder. Ten's musical style, influenced by classic rock, combined an "expansive harmonic vocabulary" with an anthemic sound. The album was slow to sell, but by the second half of 1992 it became a breakthrough success, being certified gold and reaching number two on the Billboard charts. Ten produced the hit singles "Alive", "Even Flow", and "Jeremy". Originally interpreted as an anthem by many, Vedder later revealed that "Alive" tells the semi-autobiographical tale of a son discovering that his father is actually his stepfather, and his mother's grief turns her to sexually embrace her son, who strongly resembles the biological father. In this lyric, even though Vedder originally looked at "being alive as a curse," as the sadness the speaker in the song suggests, "But as fans quickly turned the title phrase into a self-empowering anthem," particularly at Pearl Jam concerts, Vedder said "they lifted the curse. The audience changed the meaning for me," he told VH1 Storytellers in 2006. The song "Jeremy" and its accompanying video were inspired by a true story in which a high school student shot himself in front of his classmates. Ten stayed on the Billboard charts for nearly five years, going 13× platinum. With the success of Ten, Pearl Jam became a key member of the Seattle grunge explosion, along with Alice in Chains, Nirvana, and Soundgarden. The band was criticized in the music press; British music magazine NME wrote that Pearl Jam was "trying to steal money from young alternative kids' pockets." Nirvana's Kurt Cobain angrily attacked Pearl Jam, claiming the band were commercial sellouts, and argued Ten was not a true alternative album because it had so many prominent guitar leads. Cobain later reconciled with Vedder, and they reportedly were on amicable terms before Cobain's death in 1994. Pearl Jam toured relentlessly in support of Ten. Ament stated that "essentially Ten was just an excuse to tour," adding, "We told the record company, 'We know we can be a great band, so let's just get the opportunity to get out and play.'" The band's manager Kelly Curtis stated "Once people came and saw them live, this lightbulb would go on. Doing their first tour, you kind of knew it was happening and there was no stopping it." Early on in Pearl Jam's career, the band became known for its intense live performances. Looking back at this time, Vedder said that "playing music and then getting a shot at making a record and at having an audience and stuff, it's just like an untamed force...But it didn't come from jock mentality. It came from just being let out of the gates." In 1992, Pearl Jam made television appearances on Saturday Night Live and MTV Unplugged and took a slot on that summer's Lollapalooza tour with Ministry, Red Hot Chili Peppers, and Soundgarden, among others. The band contributed two songs to the soundtrack of the 1992 Cameron Crowe film Singles: "State of Love and Trust" and "Breath". Ament, Gossard and Vedder appeared in Singles under the name Citizen Dick; their parts were filmed when Pearl Jam was known as Mookie Blaylock. Vs., Vitalogy and dealing with success (1993–1995) The band members grew uncomfortable with their success, with much of the burden of Pearl Jam's popularity falling on frontman Vedder. While Pearl Jam received four awards at the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards for its video for "Jeremy", including Video of the Year and Best Group Video, the band refused to make a video for "Black" in spite of pressure from the label. This action began a trend of the band refusing to make videos for its songs. Vedder felt that the concept of music videos robbed listeners from creating their own interpretations of the song, stating that "Before music videos first came out, you'd listen to a song with headphones on, sitting in a beanbag chair with your eyes closed, and you'd come up with your own visions, these things that came from within. Then all of a sudden, sometimes even the first time you heard a song, it was with these visual images attached, and it robbed you of any form of self-expression." "Ten years from now," Ament said, "I don't want people to remember our songs as videos." Pearl Jam headed into the studio in early 1993 facing the challenge of following up the commercial success of its debut. McCready said "The band was blown up pretty big and everything was pretty crazy." Released on October 19, 1993, Pearl Jam's second album, Vs., sold 950,378 copies in its first week of release and outperformed all other entries in the Billboard top ten that week combined. The album set the record for most copies of an album sold in its first week of release, which it held until broken by Garth Brooks' 1998 album Double Live. Vs. included the singles "Go", "Daughter", "Animal", and "Dissident". Paul Evans of Rolling Stone stated "Few American bands have arrived more clearly talented than this one did with Ten; and Vs. tops even that debut." He added "Like Jim Morrison and Pete Townshend, Vedder makes a forte of his psychological-mythic explorations...As guitarists Stone Gossard and Mike McCready paint dense and slashing backdrops, he invites us into a drama of experiment and strife." The band decided, beginning with the release of Vs., to scale back its commercial efforts. The members declined to produce any more music videos after the massive success of "Jeremy" and opted for fewer interviews and television appearances. Industry insiders compared Pearl Jam's tour that year to the touring habits of Led Zeppelin in that the band "ignored the press and took its music directly to the fans." During the Vs. Tour, the band set a cap on ticket prices in an attempt to thwart scalpers. By 1994, Pearl Jam was "fighting on all fronts" as its manager described the band at the time. Reporter Chuck Philips broke a series of stories showing that Ticketmaster was gouging Pearl Jam's customers. Pearl Jam was outraged when, after it played a pair of charity benefit shows in Chicago, it discovered that ticket vendor Ticketmaster had added a service charge to the tickets. Pearl Jam was committed to keeping their concert ticket prices down but Fred Rosen of Ticketmaster refused to waive the service charge. Because Ticketmaster controlled most major venues, the band was forced to create from scratch its own outdoor stadiums in rural areas in order to perform. Pearl Jam's efforts to organize a tour without the ticket giant collapsed, which Pearl Jam said was evidence of Ticketmaster's monopoly. An analysis of journalist Chuck Philips' investigative series in a well known legal monograph concluded that it was hard to imagine a legitimate reason for Ticketmaster's exclusive contracts with venues and contracts to cover such a lengthy period of time. The authors wrote "The pervasiveness of Ticketmaster's exclusive agreements, coupled with their excessive duration and the manner in which they are procured, supported a finding that Ticketmaster had engaged in anticompetitive conduct under section 2 of the Sherman Act." The United States Department of Justice was investigating the company's practices at the time and asked the band to create a memorandum of its experiences with the company. Band members Gossard and Ament testified at a subcommittee investigation on June 30, 1994 in Washington, D.C. Pearl Jam alleged that Ticketmaster used anti-competitive and monopolistic practices to gouge fans. After Pearl Jam's testimony before Congress, Congressman Dingell (D-Mich.) wrote a bill requiring full disclosure to prevent Ticketmaster from burying escalating service fees. Pearl Jam's manager said he was gratified that Congress recognized the problem as a national issue. The band eventually canceled its 1994 summer tour in protest. After the Justice Department dropped the case, Pearl Jam continued to boycott Ticketmaster, refusing to play venues that had contracts with the company. The band tried to work around Ticketmaster's exclusive contracts by hosting charities and benefits at major venues because the exclusive contracts often contained a clause allowing charity event promoters to sell their own tickets. Music critic Jim DeRogatis noted that, along with the Ticketmaster debacle, "the band has refused to release singles or make videos; it has demanded that its albums be released on vinyl; and it wants to be more like its 1960s heroes, The Who, releasing two or three albums a year." He also stated that sources said that most of the band's third album Vitalogy was completed by early 1994, but that either a forced delay by Epic or the battle with Ticketmaster was to blame for the delay. Pearl Jam wrote and recorded while touring behind Vs. and the majority of the tracks for Vitalogy were recorded during breaks on the tour. Tensions within the band had increased by this time. Producer Brendan O'Brien said "Vitalogy was a little strained. I'm being polite—there was some imploding going on." After Pearl Jam finished the recording of Vitalogy, drummer Dave Abbruzzese was fired. The band cited political differences between Abbruzzese and the other members; for example, Abbruzzese disagreed with the Ticketmaster boycott. He was replaced by Jack Irons, who had connected Vedder to the rest of the band some four years prior. Irons made his debut with the band at Neil Young's 1994 Bridge School Benefit, but he was not announced as the band's new drummer until its 1995 Self-Pollution satellite radio broadcast, a four-and-a-half-hour-long pirate broadcast out of Seattle which was available to any radio stations that wanted to carry it. Vitalogy was released first on November 22, 1994 on vinyl and then two weeks later on December 6, 1994 on CD and cassette. The CD became the second-fastest-selling in history, with more than 877,000 units sold in its first week. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic stateed that "thanks to its stripped-down, lean production, Vitalogy stands as Pearl Jam's most original and uncompromising album." Many of the songs on the album appear to be inspired by the pressures of fame. The song "Spin the Black Circle", an homage to vinyl records, won a Grammy Award in 1996 for Best Hard Rock Performance. Vitalogy also included the songs "Not for You", "Corduroy", "Better Man", and "Immortality". "Better Man" (), a song originally written and performed by Vedder while in Bad Radio, reached number one on the Billboard Mainstream Rock chart, spending a total of eight weeks there. Considered a "blatantly great pop song" by producer Brendan O'Brien, Pearl Jam was reluctant to record it and initially rejected it from Vs. due to its accessibility. The band continued its boycott against Ticketmaster during its 1995 tour for Vitalogy, but was surprised that virtually no other bands joined. Pearl Jam's initiative to play only at non-Ticketmaster venues effectively, with a few exceptions, prevented it from playing shows in the United States for the next three years. Ament later said "We were so hardheaded about the 1995 tour. Had to prove we could tour on our own, and it pretty much killed us, killed our career." In the same year, Pearl Jam backed Neil Young, whom the band had noted as an influence, on his album Mirror Ball. Contractual obligations prevented the use of the band's name anywhere on the album, but the members were all credited individually in the album's liner notes. Two songs from the sessions were left off Mirror Ball: "I Got Id" and "Long Road". These two tracks were released separately by Pearl Jam in the form of the 1995 EP Merkin Ball. No Code and Yield (1996–1999) Following the round of touring for Vitalogy, the band went into the studio to record No Code. Vedder said "Making No Code was all about gaining perspective." Released in 1996, No Code was seen as a deliberate break from the band's sound since Ten, favoring experimental ballads and noisy garage rockers. David Browne of Entertainment Weekly stated that "No Code displays a wider range of moods and instrumentation than on any previous Pearl Jam album." The lyrical themes on the album deal with issues of self-examination, with Ament stating, "In some ways, it's like the band's story. It's about growing up." Although the album debuted at number one on the Billboard charts, it quickly fell down the charts. No Code included the singles "Who You Are" (), "Hail, Hail", and "Off He Goes". As with Vitalogy, very little touring was done to promote No Code because of the band's refusal to play in Ticketmaster's venue areas. A European tour took place in the fall of 1996. Gossard stated that there was "a lot of stress associated with trying to tour at that time" and that "it was growing more and more difficult to be excited about being part of the band." Following the short tour for No Code, the band went into the studio in 1997 to record its follow-up. The sessions for the band's fifth album represented more of a team effort among all members of the group, with Ament stating that "everybody really got a little bit of their say on the record...because of that, everybody feels like they're an integral part of the band." On February 3, 1998, Pearl Jam released Yield. The album was cited as a return to the band's early, straightforward rock sound. Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly stated that the band has "turned in an intermittently affecting album that veers between fiery garage rock and rootsy, acoustic-based ruminations. Perhaps mindful of their position as the last alt-rock ambassadors with any degree of clout, they've come up with their most cohesive album since their 1991 debut, Ten." Lyrically, Yield continued with the more contemplative type of writing found on No Code, with Vedder saying, "What was rage in the past has become reflection." Yield debuted at number two on the Billboard charts, but like No Code soon began dropping down the charts. It included the singles "Given to Fly" and "Wishlist". The band hired comic book artist Todd McFarlane to create an animated video for the song "Do the Evolution" from the album, its first music video since 1992. A documentary detailing the making of Yield, Single Video Theory, was released on VHS and DVD later that year. In April 1998, Pearl Jam again changed drummers. Jack Irons left the band due to dissatisfaction with touring and was replaced with former Soundgarden drummer Matt Cameron on a temporary basis, but he soon became a permanent replacement for Irons. Pearl Jam's 1998 Yield Tour in North America marked the band's return to full-scale touring. The band's anti-trust lawsuit against Ticketmaster had proven to be unsuccessful and hindered live tours. Many fans had complained about the difficulty in obtaining tickets and the use of non-Ticketmaster venues, which were judged to be out-of-the-way and impersonal. For this tour and future tours, Pearl Jam again began using Ticketmaster in order to "better accommodate concertgoers." The 1998 summer tour was a big success, and after it was completed the band released Live on Two Legs, a live album which featured select performances from the tour. In 1998, Pearl Jam recorded "Last Kiss", a cover of a 1960s ballad made famous by J. Frank Wilson and the Cavaliers. It was recorded during a soundcheck and released on the band's 1998 fan club Christmas single. The following year, the cover was put into heavy rotation across the country. By popular demand, the cover was released to the public as a single in 1999, with all of the proceeds going to the aid of refugees of the Kosovo War. The band also decided to include the song on the 1999 charity compilation album, No Boundaries: A Benefit for the Kosovar Refugees. "Last Kiss" peaked at number two on the Billboard charts and became the band's highest-charting single. Binaural and the Roskilde tragedy (2000–2001) Following its full-scale tour in support of Yield, the band took a short break, but then reconvened toward the end of 1999 and commenced work on a new album. On May 16, 2000, Pearl Jam released its sixth studio album, Binaural. It was drummer Matt Cameron's studio recording debut with the band. The title is a reference to the binaural recording techniques that were utilized on several tracks by producer Tchad Blake, known for his use of the technique. Binaural was the first album since the band's debut not produced by Brendan O'Brien, although O'Brien was called in later to remix several tracks. Gossard stated that the band members "were ready for a change." Jon Pareles of Rolling Stone wrote "Apparently as tired of grunge as everyone except Creed fans, Pearl Jam delve elsewhere." He added "The album reflects both Pearl Jam's longstanding curse of self-importance and a renewed willingness to be experimental or just plain odd." The album is lyrically darker than the band's previous album Yield, with Gossard describing the lyrics as "pretty sombre." Binaural included the singles "Nothing as It Seems", one of the songs featuring binaural recording, and "Light Years". The album sold just over 700,000 copies and became the first Pearl Jam studio album to fail to reach platinum status. Pearl Jam decided to record every show on its 2000 Binaural Tour professionally, after noting the desire of fans to own a copy of the shows they attended and the popularity of bootleg recordings. The band had been open in the past about allowing fans to make amateur recordings, and these "official bootlegs" were an attempt to provide a more affordable and better quality product for fans. Pearl Jam originally intended to release them to only fan club members, but the band's record contract prevented it from doing so. Pearl Jam released all of the albums in record stores as well as through its fan club. The band released 72 live albums in 2000 and 2001, and twice set a record for most albums to debut in the Billboard 200 at the same time. Pearl Jam's 2000 European tour ended in tragedy on June 30, with an accident at the Roskilde Festival in Denmark. Nine fans were crushed underfoot and suffocated to death as the crowd rushed to the front. After numerous requests for the crowd to step back, the band stopped playing and tried to calm the crowd when the musicians realized what was happening, but it was already too late. The two remaining dates of the tour were canceled and members of the band contemplated retiring after this event. A month after the European tour concluded, the band embarked on its two-leg 2000 North American tour. On performing after the Roskilde tragedy, Vedder said that "playing, facing crowds, being together—it enabled us to start processing it." On October 22, 2000, the band played the MGM Grand in Las Vegas, celebrating the tenth anniversary of its first live performance as a band. Vedder took the opportunity to thank the many people who had helped the band come together and make it to ten years. He noted that "I would never do this accepting a Grammy or something." After concluding the Binaural Tour, the band released Touring Band 2000 the following year. The DVD featured select performances from the North American legs of the tour. Following the events of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, Vedder and McCready were joined by Neil Young to perform the song "Long Road" from the EP Merkin Ball at the America: A Tribute to Heroes benefit concert. The concert, which aired on September 21, 2001, raised money for the victims and their families. Riot Act (2002–2005) Pearl Jam commenced work on a new album following a year-long break after its full-scale tour in support of Binaural. McCready described the recording environment as "a pretty positive one" and "very intense and spiritual." Regarding the time period when the lyrics were being written, Vedder said "There's been a lot of mortality...It's a weird time to be writing. Roskilde changed the shape of us as people, and our filter for seeing the world changed." Pearl Jam released Riot Act on November 12, 2002. It included the singles "I Am Mine" and "Save You". The album featured a much more folk-based and experimental sound, evident in the presence of B3 organist Boom Gaspar on songs such as "Love Boat Captain". Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic wrote "Riot Act is the album that Pearl Jam has been wanting to make since Vitalogy—a muscular art rock record, one that still hits hard but that is filled with ragged edges and odd detours." The track entitled "Arc" was recorded as a vocal tribute to the nine people who died at the Roskilde Festival in June 2000. Vedder only performed this song nine times on the 2003 tour, and the band left the track off all released bootlegs. In 2003, the band embarked on its Riot Act Tour, which included tours in Australia and North America. The band continued its official bootleg program, making every concert from the tour available in CD form through its official website. A total of six bootlegs were made available in record stores: Perth, Western Australia; Tokyo; State College, Pennsylvania; two shows from Madison Square Garden; and Mansfield, Massachusetts. At many shows during the 2003 North American tour, Vedder performed Riot Acts "Bu$hleaguer", a commentary on President George W. Bush, with a rubber mask of Bush, wearing it at the beginning of the song and then hanging it on a mic stand to allow him to sing. The band made news when it was reported that several fans left after Vedder had "impaled" the Bush mask on his mic stand at the band's show in Denver, Colorado. In June 2003, Pearl Jam announced it was leaving Epic Records following the end of its contract with the label. The band stated it had "no interest" in signing with another label. The band's first release without a label was the single for "Man of the Hour", in partnership with Amazon.com. Director Tim Burton approached Pearl Jam to request an original song for the soundtrack of his film Big Fish. After screening an early print of the film, Pearl Jam recorded the song for him. "Man of the Hour", which was later nominated for a Golden Globe Award, can be heard in the closing credits of Big Fish. The band released Lost Dogs, a two-disc collection of rarities and B-sides, and Live at the Garden, a DVD featuring the band's July 8, 2003 concert at Madison Square Garden through Epic Records in November 2003. In 2004, Pearl Jam released the live album Live at Benaroya Hall through a one-album deal with BMG. 2004 marked the first time that Pearl Jam licensed a song for usage in a television show; a snippet of the song "Yellow Ledbetter" was used in the final episode of the television series Friends. Later that year, Epic released rearviewmirror (Greatest Hits 1991–2003), a greatest-hits collection spanning 1991 to 2003. This release marked the end of Pearl Jam's contractual agreement with Epic Records. Pearl Jam played a show at Easy Street Records in Seattle in April 2005; recordings from the show were compiled for the album Live at Easy Street and released exclusively to independent record stores in June 2006. The band embarked on a Canadian cross-country tour in September 2005, kicking off the tour with a fundraising concert in Missoula, Montana for Democratic politician Jon Tester and playing the Gorge Amphitheater. After touring Canada, Pearl Jam proceeded to open a Rolling Stones concert in Pittsburgh, then played two shows at the Borgata casino in Atlantic City, New Jersey, then closed the tour with a concert in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The official bootlegs for the band's 2005 shows were distributed via Pearl Jam's official website in MP3 form. Pearl Jam also played a benefit concert to raise money for Hurricane Katrina relief on October 5, 2005 at the House of Blues in Chicago. On November 22, 2005, Pearl Jam began its first Latin American tour. Move to J Records and Pearl Jam (2006–2008) The work for Pearl Jam's follow-up to Riot Act began after its appearance on the 2004 Vote for Change tour. The time period between the two albums was the longest gap between Pearl Jam's studio albums to date and the new album was its first release for a new label. Clive Davis announced in February 2006 that Pearl Jam had signed with his label J Records, which like Epic, is part of Sony Music Entertainment (then known as Sony BMG), though J has since folded into RCA Records. The album Pearl Jam was released on May 2, 2006. A number of critics cited Pearl Jam as a return to the band's early sound, and McCready compared the material to Vs. in a 2005 interview. Ament said "The band playing in a room—that came across. There's a kind of immediacy to the record, and that's what we were going for." Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that "in a world full of boys sent to do a man's job of rocking, Pearl Jam can still pull off gravitas." Current socio-political issues in the United States are addressed on the album. "World Wide Suicide", a song criticizing the Iraq War and U.S. foreign policy, was released as a single and topped the Billboard Modern Rock chart; it was Pearl Jam's first number one on that chart since "Who You Are" in 1996, and first number one on any chart in the United States since 1998 when "Given to Fly" reached number one on the Mainstream Rock chart. Pearl Jam also included the singles "Life Wasted" and "Gone". To support Pearl Jam, the band embarked on its 2006 world tour. It toured North America, Australia and notably Europe; Pearl Jam had not toured the continent for six years. The North American tour included three two-night stands opening for Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers. The band served as the headliners for the Leeds and Reading festivals, despite having vowed to never play at a festival again after Roskilde. Vedder started both concerts with an emotional plea to the crowd to look after each other. He commented during the Leeds set that the band's decision to play a festival for the first time after Roskilde had nothing to do with "guts" but with trust in the audience. In 2007, Pearl Jam recorded a cover of The Who's "Love, Reign o'er Me" for the film Reign Over Me; it was later made available as a music download on the iTunes Music Store. The band embarked on a 13-date European tour, and headlined Lollapalooza in Grant Park, Chicago on August 5, 2007. The band released a CD box set in June 2007, titled Live at the Gorge 05/06, that documents its shows at The Gorge Amphitheatre, and in September 2007 a concert DVD, titled Immagine in Cornice, which documents the band's Italian shows from its 2006 tour was released. In June 2008, Pearl Jam performed as the headline act at the Bonnaroo Music Festival. The Bonnaroo appearance took place amidst a twelve-date tour in the Eastern United States. In July 2008, the band performed at the VH1 tribute to The Who with Foo Fighters, Incubus and The Flaming Lips. In the days prior to Election Day 2008, Pearl Jam digitally released through its official website a free documentary film, titled Vote for Change? 2004, which follows the band's time spent on the 2004 Vote for Change tour. Reissues and Backspacer (2009–2012) In March 2009, Ten was reissued in four editions, featuring such extras as a remastering and remix of the entire album by Brendan O'Brien, a DVD of the band's 1992 appearance on MTV Unplugged, and an LP of its concert of September 20, 1992 at Magnuson Park in Seattle. It was the first reissue in a planned re-release of Pearl Jam's entire catalog that led up to the band's 20th anniversary in 2011. A Pearl Jam retrospective film directed by Cameron Crowe titled Pearl Jam Twenty was also planned to coincide with the anniversary. In 2011, Vs. and Vitalogy were reissued in the spring time in deluxe form. Pearl Jam began work for the follow-up to Pearl Jam in early 2008. In 2009, the band began to build on instrumental and demo tracks written during 2008. The album Backspacer was its first to be produced by Brendan O'Brien since Yield. Backspacer debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard music charts, the band's first album to do so since No Code in 1996, and has sold 635,000 copies as of July 2013, according to Nielsen SoundScan. The music on the record features a sound influenced by pop and new wave. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic wrote that "prior to Backspacer, Pearl Jam wouldn't or couldn't have made music this unfettered, unapologetically assured, casual, and, yes, fun." Regarding the lyrics, Vedder said "I've tried, over the years, to be hopeful in the lyrics, and I think that's going to be easier now." "The Fixer" was chosen as the album's first single. Pearl Jam did not re-sign its record deal with J Records, and the band released the album through its own label Monkeywrench Records in the United States and through Universal Music Group internationally. Pearl Jam reached a deal with Target to be the exclusive big-box retailer for the album in the United States. The album also saw release through the band's official website, independent record stores, online retailers, and iTunes. In an interview in September 2009 McCready revealed that Pearl Jam was scheduled to finish the Backspacer outtakes within six months, and told San Diego radio station KBZT that the band may release an EP in 2010 consisting of those songs, and Vedder instead suggested that the songs may be used for the band's next studio album. In August 2009, Pearl Jam headlined the Virgin Festival, the Outside Lands Music and Arts Festival, and played five shows in Europe and three in North America. In October 2009, Pearl Jam headlined the Austin City Limits Music Festival. Later in October on Halloween night, the band played in what was the last performance at the Philadelphia Spectrum. An additional leg consisting of a tour of Oceania took place afterwards. In May 2010, the band embarked on a month-long tour starting with the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival. The tour headed to the East Coast and ended May 21, 2010 at Madison Square Garden in New York. A European tour took place in June and July 2010, where the band performed in Northern Ireland for the first time at the Odyssey Arena in Belfast. In late October 2010, Pearl Jam performed at the 24th Annual Bridge School Benefit Concert at the Shoreline Amphitheater in Mountain View, California. A live album, titled Live on Ten Legs, was released on January 17, 2011. It is a compilation of live tracks from their 2003 to 2010 world tours, and is a follow-up to Live on Two Legs, which consisted of songs recorded during their 1998 North American tour. In March 2011, bassist Jeff Ament told Billboard that the band had 25 songs and they'd be heading into the studio in April to begin recording the follow-up to Backspacer. On May 16, 2011, the band confirmed that they would play the Labor Day weekend at the Alpine Valley Music Theatre in East Troy, Wisconsin, followed by ten shows in Canada. On September 8, 2011, the band released a new song titled "Olé". On November 18, the band released Toronto 9.11.11—a free live album available through the launch of Google Music. On November 21, 2011, as part of their PJ20 World Tour, Pearl Jam visited Costa Rica for the first time to a 30,000 crowd of fans at the National Stadium. The following month, the band announced a tour of Europe, which started in June 2012. Lightning Bolt (2013–2017) On July 11, 2013, the band announced that their tenth studio album Lightning Bolt would be released internationally on October 14, 2013 and on the next day in the United States, along with releasing the first single "Mind Your Manners". The band played a two-leg tour in North America during October and November, followed by headlining the final Big Day Out festival in Australia and New Zealand in 2014. The second single, "Sirens", was released on September 18, 2013. After selling 166,000 copies in its first week, Lightning Bolt became Pearl Jam's fifth album to reach number one on the Billboard 200. At the 57th Annual Grammy Awards in February 2015, the album won the award for Best Recording Package. In November 2015 the band played a nine-date tour of Latin America. In January 2016, the band announced a tour of the United States and Canada, including appearances at the New Orleans Jazz Festival and Bonnaroo. In April 2017, Pearl Jam was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. At the ceremony they were inducted by comedian David Letterman. In August 2017, the band announced the release of the live album and concert film Let's Play Two from the band's shows at Wrigley Field in Chicago the previous year. Touring and Gigaton (2018–present) The band launched a 2018 tour with shows in South America in March 2018, including shows at the Lollapalooza festival events in Brazil, Chile and Argentina, with the latter being cancelled due to heavy rain the night before. followed by performances in Europe and North America. The tour included two shows for homelessness-related charities in the band's hometown of Seattle. Prior to the first shows of the tour, Pearl Jam released the song "Can't Deny Me". In December 2019, Pearl Jam confirmed that they would be touring Europe in the summer of 2020. On January 13, 2020, the band announced that their album Gigaton would be released on March 27, 2020. In conjunction with the release of their eleventh studio album, the band also announced tour dates in North America during March and April 2020. However, the North American leg was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, with the aim to reschedule them for a later date. In September 2020, the band confirmed that their MTV Unplugged live set would be released on vinyl and CD for the first time the following month. In May 2021, Pearl Jam announced the release of a digital collection of nearly 200 concerts dating from 2000 to 2013. The collection of 5,404 individual songs, entitled Deep, is accessible by members of the Pearl Jam Ten Club. On September 18, 2021, the band played their first show since 2018 at the Sea.Hear.Now Festival in Asbury Park, New Jersey, where former Red Hot Chili Peppers guitarist Josh Klinghoffer made his debut as a touring musician with the band. In May 2022, Matt Cameron was forced to miss his first shows in 24 years since joining the band due to testing positive for the COVID-19 virus. Josh Klinghoffer and Richard Stuverud played drums for Cameron. Musical style and influences Compared with the other grunge bands of the early 1990s, Pearl Jam's style is noticeably less heavy and harks back to the classic rock music of the 1970s. Pearl Jam has cited many classic rock bands as influences, including The Who, Led Zeppelin, Neil Young, The Rolling Stones, Pink Floyd, Jimi Hendrix and the Ramones. Pearl Jam's success has been attributed to its sound, which fuses "the riff-heavy stadium rock of the '70s with the grit and anger of '80s post-punk, without ever neglecting hooks and choruses." Gossard's rhythm guitar style is known for its sense of beat and groove, while McCready's lead guitar style, influenced by artists such as Jimi Hendrix, has been described as "feel-oriented" and "rootsy." Pearl Jam has broadened its musical range with subsequent releases. As he had more influence on the band's sound, Vedder sought to make the band's musical output less catchy. He said "I felt that with more popularity, we were going to be crushed, our heads were going to pop like grapes." By 1994's Vitalogy, the band began to incorporate more punk influences into its music. The band's 1996 album, No Code, was a deliberate break from the musical style of Ten. The songs on the album featured elements of garage rock, worldbeat, and experimentalism. After Yield in 1998, which was somewhat of a return to the straightforward rock approach of the band's early work, they dabbled with experimental art rock on the Binaural album of 2000, and with folk rock elements on the 2002 Riot Act album. The band's 2006 album, Pearl Jam, was cited as a return to their early sound. Their 2009 album, Backspacer, contains elements of pop and new wave. Critic Jim DeRogatis describes Vedder's vocals as a "Jim Morrison-like vocal growl." Greg Prato of AllMusic staed "With his hard-hitting and often confessional lyrical style and Jim Morrison-esque baritone, Vedder also became one of the most copied lead singers in all of rock." Vedder's lyrical topics range from personal ("Alive", "Better Man") to social and political concerns ("Even Flow", "World Wide Suicide"). His lyrics have often invoked the use of storytelling and have included themes of freedom, individualism, and sympathy for troubled individuals. When the band started, Gossard and McCready were designated as rhythm and lead guitarists, respectively. The dynamic began to change when Vedder started to play more rhythm guitar during the Vitalogy era. McCready said in 2006 "Even though there are three guitars, I think there's maybe more room now. Stone will pull back and play a two-note line and Ed will do a power chord thing, and I fit into all that." Legacy While Nirvana had brought grunge to the mainstream in the early 1990s with Nevermind, Pearl Jam's debut Ten outsold it in the United States, and the band became "the most popular American rock & roll band of the '90s" according to AllMusic. Pearl Jam has been described as "modern rock radio's most influential stylists – the workmanlike midtempo chug of songs like "Alive" and "Even Flow" just melodic enough to get moshers singing along." The band inspired and influenced a number of bands, including Silverchair, Puddle of Mudd and The Strokes. The band has also been credited for inspiring the indie rock scene of 90s-era urban Pakistan, that has since evolved into a rich rock music culture in the country. Pearl Jam were ranked at number 8 by Rolling Stone magazine in its "Top Ten Live Acts of All Time". Pearl Jam has been praised for its rejection of rock star excess and its insistence on backing causes it believes in. Music critic Jim DeRogatis stated in the aftermath of the band's battle with Ticketmaster that it "proved that a rock band which isn't greed heads can play stadiums and not milk the audience for every last dime...it indicated that idealism in rock 'n' roll is not the sole province of those '60s bands enshrined in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame." In 2001, Eric Weisbard of Spin wrote "The group that was once accused of being synthetic grunge now seem as organic and principled a rock band as exists." In a 2005 readers' poll in USA Today, Pearl Jam was voted the greatest American rock band of all time. In April 2006, Pearl Jam was awarded the prize for "Best Live Act" in Esquire'''s Esky Music Awards. The blurb called Pearl Jam "the rare superstars who still play as though each show could be their last." Pearl Jam's fanbase following has been compared to that of the Grateful Dead's, with Rolling Stone magazine stating that Pearl Jam "toured incessantly and became one of rock's great arena acts, attracting a fanatical, Grateful Dead-like cult following with marathon, true-believer shows in the vanishing spirit of Bruce Springsteen, the Who and U2." When asked about Pearl Jam's legacy in a 2000 interview, Vedder said "I think at some point along the way we began feeling we wanted to give people something to believe in because we all had bands that gave that to us when we needed something to believe in. That was the big challenge for us after the first record and the response to it. The goal immediately became how do we continue to be musicians and grow and survive in view of all this...The answers weren't always easy, but I think we found a way." Their 1992 MTV Unplugged performance was ranked second in Rolling Stones list of its 15 Best Episodes. Campaigning and activism Throughout its career, Pearl Jam has promoted wider social and political issues, from pro-abortion rights sentiments to opposition to George W. Bush's presidency. Vedder acts as the band's spokesman on these issues. The band has promoted an array of causes, including awareness of Crohn's disease, which Mike McCready suffers from, Ticketmaster venue monopolization and the environment and wildlife protection, among others. Guitarist Stone Gossard has been active in environmental pursuits, and has been an advocate of Pearl Jam's carbon neutral policy, offsetting the band's environmental impact. Vedder has advocated for the release of the West Memphis 3 for years and Damien Echols, a member of the three, shares a writing credit for the song "Army Reserve" (from Pearl Jam). The band, and especially frontman Eddie Vedder, have been vocal supporters of the abortion rights movement. In 1992, Spin printed an article by Vedder, entitled "Reclamation", which detailed his views on abortion. In an MTV Unplugged concert the same year, Vedder stood on a stool and wrote "PRO-CHOICE!" on his arm in protest when the band performed the song "Porch". The band are members of a number of abortion rights organizations, including Choice USA and Voters for Choice. As members of Rock the Vote and Vote for Change, the band has encouraged voter registration and participation in United States elections. Vedder was outspoken in support of Green Party presidential candidate Ralph Nader in 2000, and Pearl Jam played a series of concerts on the Vote for Change tour in October 2004, supporting the candidacy of John Kerry for U.S. president. In a Rolling Stone feature showcasing the Vote for Change tour's performers, Vedder told the magazine "I supported Ralph Nader in 2000, but it's a time of crisis. We have to get a new administration." In 2006, the members of Pearl Jam founded the non-profit organization Vitalogy Foundation. Named after their third studio album, the foundation supports non-profit organizations working in the fields of community health, the environment, arts, education and social change. Vedder sometimes comments on politics between songs, often to criticize U.S. foreign policy, and a number of his songs, including "Bu$hleaguer" and "World Wide Suicide", are openly critical of the Bush administration. At Lollapalooza 2007, Vedder spoke out against BP Amoco dumping effluent in Lake Michigan, and at the end of "Daughter", he sang the lyrics "George Bush leave this world alone/George Bush find yourself another home". In the beginning of the second encore Vedder invited Iraq war veteran Tomas Young, the subject of the documentary Body of War, onto the stage to urge an end to the war. Young in turn introduced Ben Harper, who contributed vocals to "No More" and "Rockin' in the Free World". The band later discovered that some of the Bush-related lyrics were excised from the AT&T webcast of the event, and questioned whether that constitutes censorship. AT&T later apologized and blamed the censorship on contractor Davie Brown Entertainment. Pearl Jam has performed numerous benefit concerts in aid of charities and causes. For example, the band headlined a Seattle concert in 2001 to support the United Nations' efforts to combat world hunger. The band added a date at the Chicago House of Blues to its 2005 tour to help the victims of Hurricane Katrina; the concert proceeds were donated to Habitat for Humanity, the American Red Cross and the Jazz Foundation of America. In 2011, Pearl Jam was named 2011 Planet Defenders by Rock The Earth for their environmental activism and their large-scale efforts to decrease their own carbon emissions. Band members Current members Jeff Ament – bass, backing vocals (1990–present) Stone Gossard – rhythm and lead guitar, backing vocals (1990–present) Mike McCready – lead guitar, backing vocals (1990–present) Eddie Vedder – lead vocals, rhythm guitar (1990–present) Matt Cameron – drums, percussion, backing vocals (1998–present) Touring/session members Boom Gaspar – keyboards, piano, organ (2002–present) Josh Klinghoffer – guitar, percussion, keyboards, drums, backing vocals (2021–present) Richard Stuverud – drums, percussion (2022–present) Former members Dave Krusen – drums, percussion (1990–1991; touring guest 2017, 2022) Matt Chamberlain – drums, percussion (1991) Dave Abbruzzese – drums, percussion (1991–1994) Jack Irons – drums, percussion (1994–1998) Timeline Discography Ten (1991) Vs. (1993) Vitalogy (1994) No Code (1996) Yield (1998) Binaural (2000) Riot Act (2002) Pearl Jam (2006) Backspacer (2009) Lightning Bolt (2013) Gigaton (2020) See also List of alternative rock artists List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. alternative rock chart List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Mainstream Rock chart List of awards and nominations received by Pearl Jam List of Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees References Further reading Clark, Martin. Pearl Jam & Eddie Vedder: None Too Fragile (2005). Jones, Allan. Pearl Jam – The Illustrated Story, A Melody Maker Book (1995). McCready, Mike. Of Potato Heads and Polaroids: My Life Inside and Out of Pearl Jam (2017). Neely, Kim. Five Against One: The Pearl Jam Story (1998). Pearl Jam. Twenty (2011). Prato, Greg. Grunge Is Dead: The Oral History of Seattle Rock Music (2009). Prato, Greg. 100 Things Pearl Jam Fans Should Know & Do Before They Die (2018). Wall, Mick. Pearl Jam'' (1996). External links Category:Alternative rock groups from Washington (state) Category:American grunge groups Category:Hard rock musical groups from Washington (state) Category:Epic Records artists Category:J Records artists Category:Universal Music Group artists Category:Grammy Award winners Category:Musical groups established in 1990 Category:1990 establishments in Washington (state) Category:Musical groups from Seattle Category:Musical quintets Category:Musical groups from Washington (state) Category:Third Man Records artists
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[ "Stone Gossard and Jeff Ament, who were part of the mid-1980s grunge band Green River, started playing with the vocalist from Malfunkshun, Andrew Wood, after Green River disbanded. They organized the band Mother Love Bone, which saw increasing interest and eventually signed with the PolyGram record label. After Wood's death and the subsequent dissolution of Mother Love Bone, Gossard began writing harder-edged material and started practicing with Mike McCready, who persuaded Gossard to reconnect with Ament. They created a demo tape to search for a singer and a drummer. The tape made its way to Eddie Vedder, who after recording his vocals on it, was flown up to Seattle for an audition and joined the band within a week. With the addition of Dave Krusen on drums, they named the band Mookie Blaylock. They later signed with Epic Records and renamed themselves Pearl Jam.", "The context doesn't provide specific information on the success of Pearl Jam.", "One interesting aspect from the article is the story behind the band's name, Pearl Jam. Originally called Mookie Blaylock, the band changed its name after signing to Epic Records. Eddie Vedder initially said that \"Pearl Jam\" was a reference to his great-grandmother Pearl's recipe for peyote-laced jam. However, Vedder later admitted that this story was not true. Instead, the band members explained that \"pearl\" was suggested by Jeff Ament and they decided on \"Pearl Jam\" after attending a Neil Young concert where songs were extended through lengthy improvisations.", "Yes, Eddie Vedder joined the band after his audition. Within a week of sending his vocal recordings to the trio of Seattle musicians, Vedder was flown up to Seattle and became part of the band.", "The context does not provide information on how long Eddie Vedder stayed with the band Pearl Jam.", "The context does not provide information on Eddie Vedder leaving the band Pearl Jam." ]
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C_edaebe3ab81442119e1b04a542df10d0_0
Popol Vuh
Popol Vuh (also Popol Wuj) is a cultural narrative that recounts the mythology and history of the K'iche' people who inhabit the Guatemalan Highlands northwest of present-day Guatemala City. The Popol Vuh is a creation narrative written by the K'iche' people before the Spanish conquest of Guatemala, originally preserved through oral tradition until approximately 1550 when it was written down. The survival of the Popol Vuh is credited to the 18th century Dominican friar Francisco Ximenez who made a copy of the original text in Spanish The name "Popol Vuh" translates as "Book of the Community", "Book of Counsel", or more literally as "Book of the People". The Popol Vuh includes the Mayan creation myth, beginning with the exploits of the Hero Twins Hunahpu and Xbalanque.
Reflections in Western culture
Since its rediscovery by Europeans in the 19th century, the Popol Vuh has attracted the attention of many authors. For example, the myths and legends included in Louis L'Amour's novel The Haunted Mesa are largely based on the Popol Vuh. The planet of Camazotz in Madeleine L'Engle's A Wrinkle in Time is named for the bat-god of the hero-twins story. The text was also used by German film director Werner Herzog as extensive narration for the first chapter of his movie Fata Morgana (released 1972). Mexican painter Diego Rivera did a series of watercolors in 1931, as illustrations for the book. In 1934, the Franco-American early avant-garde composer Edgard Varese wrote his Ecuatorial - a setting of words from the Popol Vuh for bass soloist and various instruments. The Argentinian composer Alberto Ginastera began writing his opus 44 symphonic work Popol Vuh in 1975, but left the work incomplete at his death in 1983. In Munich, Germany in 1969, keyboardist Florian Fricke--at the time ensconced in Mayan myth--formed a band named Popol Vuh with synth player Frank Fiedler and percussionist Holger Trulzsch. Their 1970 debut album, Affenstunde, reflected this spiritual connection. The band is notable especially for its extremely early experimentation with forms that became popularized through the modern electronic, new age/ambient music that was to follow years later. They also worked together with Werner Herzog for 5 of his movies. Another band by the same name, this one of Norwegian descent, formed around the same time, its name also inspired by the K'iche' writings. CANNOTANSWER
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Popol Vuh (also Popol Wuj or Popul Vuh or Pop Vuj) is a text recounting the mythology and history of the Kʼicheʼ people, one of the Maya peoples, who inhabit Guatemala and the Mexican states of Chiapas, Campeche, Yucatan and Quintana Roo, as well as areas of Belize, Honduras and El Salvador. The Popol Vuh is a foundational sacred narrative of the Kʼicheʼ people from long before the Spanish conquest of the Maya. It includes the Mayan creation myth, the exploits of the Hero Twins Hunahpú and Xbalanqué, and a chronicle of the Kʼicheʼ people. The name "Popol Vuh" translates as "Book of the Community" or "Book of Counsel" (literally "Book that pertains to the mat", since a woven mat was used as a royal throne in ancient Kʼicheʼ society and symbolised the unity of the community). It was originally preserved through oral tradition until approximately 1550, when it was recorded in writing. The documentation of the Popol Vuh is credited to the 18th-century Spanish Dominican friar Francisco Ximénez, who prepared a manuscript with a transcription in Kʼicheʼ and parallel columns with translations into Spanish. Like the Chilam Balam and similar texts, the Popol Vuh is of particular importance given the scarcity of early accounts dealing with Mesoamerican mythologies. After the Spanish conquest, missionaries and colonists destroyed many documents. History Father Ximénez's manuscript In 1701, Father Ximénez came to Santo Tomás Chichicastenango (also known as Santo Tomás Chuilá). This town was in the Quiché territory and is likely where Father Ximénez first recorded the work. Ximénez transcribed and translated the account, setting up parallel Kʼicheʼ and Spanish language columns in his manuscript. (He represented the Kʼicheʼ language phonetically with Latin and Parra characters.) In or around 1714, Ximénez incorporated the Spanish content in book one, chapters 2–21 of his Historia de la provincia de San Vicente de Chiapa y Guatemala de la orden de predicadores. Ximénez's manuscripts were held posthumously by the Dominican Order until General Francisco Morazán expelled the clerics from Guatemala in 1829–30. At that time the Order's documents were taken over largely by the Universidad de San Carlos. From 1852 to 1855, Moritz Wagner and Carl Scherzer traveled in Central America, arriving in Guatemala City in early May 1854. Scherzer found Ximénez's writings in the university library, noting that there was one particular item "del mayor interés" ('of the greatest interest'). With assistance from the Guatemalan historian and archivist Juan Gavarrete, Scherzer copied (or had a copy made of) the Spanish content from the last half of the manuscript, which he published upon his return to Europe. In 1855, French Abbot Charles Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg also came across Ximénez's manuscript in the university library. However, whereas Scherzer copied the manuscript, Brasseur apparently stole the university's volume and took it back to France. After Brasseur's death in 1874, the Mexico-Guatémalienne collection containing Popol Vuh passed to Alphonse Pinart, through whom it was sold to Edward E. Ayer. In 1897, Ayer decided to donate his 17,000 pieces to The Newberry Library in Chicago, a project that was not completed until 1911. Father Ximénez's transcription-translation of Popol Vuh was among Ayer's donated items. Father Ximénez's manuscript sank into obscurity until Adrián Recinos rediscovered it at the Newberry in 1941. Recinos is generally credited with finding the manuscript and publishing the first direct edition since Scherzer. But Munro Edmonson and Carlos López attribute the first rediscovery to Walter Lehmann in 1928. Experts Allen Christenson, Néstor Quiroa, Rosa Helena Chinchilla Mazariegos, John Woodruff, and Carlos López all consider the Newberry volume to be Ximénez's one and only "original." Father Ximénez's source It is generally believed that Ximénez borrowed a phonetic manuscript from a parishioner for his source, although Néstor Quiroa points out that "such a manuscript has never been found, and thus Ximenez's work represents the only source for scholarly studies." This document would have been a phonetic rendering of an oral recitation performed in or around Santa Cruz del Quiché shortly following Pedro de Alvarado's 1524 conquest. By comparing the genealogy at the end of Popol Vuh with dated colonial records, Adrián Recinos and Dennis Tedlock suggest a date between 1554 and 1558. But to the extent that the text speaks of a "written" document, Woodruff cautions that "critics appear to have taken the text of the first folio recto too much at face value in drawing conclusions about Popol Vuh's survival." If there was an early post-conquest document, one theory (first proposed by Rudolf Schuller) ascribes the phonetic authorship to Diego Reynoso, one of the signatories of the Título de Totonicapán. Another possible author could have been Don Cristóbal Velasco, who, also in Titulo de Totonicapán, is listed as "Nim Chokoh Cavec" ('Great Steward of the Kaweq'). In either case, the colonial presence is clear in Popol Vuh's preamble: "This we shall write now under the Law of God and Christianity; we shall bring it to light because now the Popol Vuh, as it is called, cannot be seen any more, in which was clearly seen the coming from the other side of the sea and the narration of our obscurity, and our life was clearly seen." Accordingly, the need to "preserve" the content presupposes an imminent disappearance of the content, and therefore, Edmonson theorized a pre-conquest glyphic codex. No evidence of such a codex has yet been found. A minority, however, disputes the existence of pre-Ximénez texts on the same basis that is used to argue their existence. Both positions are based on two statements by Ximénez. The first of these comes from Historia de la provincia where Ximénez writes that he found various texts during his curacy of Santo Tomás Chichicastenango that were guarded with such secrecy "that not even a trace of it was revealed among the elder ministers" although "almost all of them have it memorized." The second passage used to argue pre-Ximénez texts comes from Ximénez's addendum to Popol Vuh. There he states that many of the natives' practices can be "seen in a book that they have, something like a prophecy, from the beginning of their [pre-Christian] days, where they have all the months and signs corresponding to each day, one of which I have in my possession." Scherzer explains in a footnote that what Ximénez is referencing "is only a secret calendar" and that he himself had "found this rustic calendar previously in various indigenous towns in the Guatemalan highlands" during his travels with Wagner. This presents a contradiction because the item which Ximénez has in his possession is not Popol Vuh, and a carefully guarded item is not likely to have been easily available to Ximénez. Apart from this, Woodruff surmises that because "Ximenez never discloses his source, instead inviting readers to infer what they wish [. . .], it is plausible that there was no such alphabetic redaction among the Indians. The implied alternative is that he or another missionary made the first written text from an oral recitation." Story of Hunahpú and Xbalanqué Many versions of the legend of the Hero Twins Hunahpú and Xbalanqué circulated through the Mayan peoples, but the story that survives was preserved by the Dominican priest Francisco Ximénez who translated the document between 1700 and 1715. Maya deities in the Post-Classic codices differ from the earlier versions described in the Early Classic period. In Mayan mythology Hunahpú and Xbalanqué are the second pair of twins out of three, preceded by Hun-Hunahpú and his brother Vucub-Hunahpú, and precursors to the third pair of twins, Hun Batz and Hun Chuen. In the Popol Vuh, the first set of twins, Hun-Hunahpú and Vucub-Hanahpú were invited to the Mayan Underworld, Xibalba, to play a ballgame with the Xibalban lords. In the Underworld the twins faced many trials filled with trickery; eventually they fail and are put to death. The Hero Twins, Hunahpú and Xbalanqué, are magically conceived after the death of their father, Hun-Hunahpú, and in time they return to Xibalba to avenge the deaths of their father and uncle by defeating the Lords of the Underworld. Structure Popol Vuh encompasses a range of subjects that includes creation, ancestry, history, and cosmology. There are no content divisions in the Newberry Library's holograph, but popular editions have adopted the organization imposed by Brasseur de Bourbourg in 1861 in order to facilitate comparative studies. Though some variation has been tested by Dennis Tedlock and Allen Christenson, editions typically take the following form: Preamble Introduction to the piece that introduces Xpiyacoc and Xmucane, the purpose for writing the Popol Vuh, and the measuring of the earth. Book One Account of the creation of living beings. Animals were created first, followed by humans. The first humans were made of earth and mud, but crumbled. The second humans were created from wood, but they did not function well and were washed away in a flood and killed by animals. Vucub-Caquix ascends. Book Two The Hero Twins plan to kill Vucub-Caquix and his sons, Zipacna and Cabracan. They succeed, "restoring order and balance to the world." Book Three The father and uncle of The Hero Twins, Hun Hunahpu and Vucub Hunahpu, sons of Xmucane and Xpiacoc, are murdered at a ball game in Xibalba. Hun Hunahpu's head is placed in a calabash tree, where it spits in the hand of Xquiq, impregnating her. She leaves the underworld to be with her mother-in-law, Xmucane. Her sons then challenge the Lords who killed their father and uncle, succeeding and becoming the sun and the moon. Book Four Humans are successfully created from maize. The gods give them morality in order to keep them loyal. Later, they give the humans wives to make them content. This book also describes the movement of the Kʼicheʼ and includes the introduction of Gucumatz. Excerpts A visual comparison of two sections of the Popol Vuh are presented below and include the original Kʼiche, literal English translation, and modern English translation as shown by Allen Christenson. "Preamble" "The Primordial World" Modern history Modern editions Since Brasseur's and Scherzer's first editions, the Popol Vuh has been translated into many other languages besides its original Kʼicheʼ. The Spanish edition by Adrián Recinos is still a major reference, as is Recino's English translation by Delia Goetz. Other English translations include those of Victor Montejo, Munro Edmonson (1985), and Dennis Tedlock (1985, 1996). Tedlock's version is notable because it builds on commentary and interpretation by a modern Kʼicheʼ daykeeper, Andrés Xiloj. Augustín Estrada Monroy published a facsimile edition in the 1970s and Ohio State University has a digital version and transcription online. Modern translations and transcriptions of the Kʼicheʼ text have been published by, among others, Sam Colop (1999) and Allen J. Christenson (2004). In 2018, The New York Times named Michael Bazzett's new translation as one of the ten best books of poetry of 2018. The tale of Hunahpu and Xbalanque has also been rendered as an hour-long animated film by Patricia Amlin. Contemporary culture The Popol Vuh continues to be an important part in the belief system of many Kʼicheʼ. Although Catholicism is generally seen as the dominant religion, some believe that many natives practice a syncretic blend of Christian and indigenous beliefs. Some stories from the Popol Vuh continued to be told by modern Maya as folk legends; some stories recorded by anthropologists in the 20th century may preserve portions of the ancient tales in greater detail than the Ximénez manuscript. On August 22, 2012, the Popol Vuh was declared intangible cultural heritage of Guatemala by the Guatemalan Ministry of Culture. Reflections in Western culture Since its rediscovery by Europeans in the nineteenth century, the Popol Vuh has attracted the attention of many creators of cultural works. Mexican muralist Diego Rivera produced a series of watercolors in 1931 as illustrations for the book. In 1934, the early avant-garde Franco-American composer Edgard Varèse wrote his Ecuatorial, a setting of words from the Popol Vuh for bass soloist and various instruments. The planet of Camazotz in Madeleine L'Engle's A Wrinkle in Time (1962) is named for the bat-god of the hero-twins story. In 1969 in Munich, Germany, keyboardist Florian Fricke—at the time ensconced in Mayan myth—formed a band named Popol Vuh with synth player Frank Fiedler and percussionist Holger Trulzsch. Their 1970 debut album, Affenstunde, reflected this spiritual connection. Another band by the same name, this one of Norwegian descent, formed around the same time, its name also inspired by the Kʼicheʼ writings. The text was used by German film director Werner Herzog as extensive narration for the first chapter of his movie Fata Morgana (1971). Herzog and Florian Fricke were life long collaborators and friends. The Argentinian composer Alberto Ginastera began writing his symphonic work Popol Vuh in 1975, but neglected to complete the piece before his death in 1983. The myths and legends included in Louis L'Amour's novel The Haunted Mesa (1987) are largely based on the Popol Vuh. The Popol Vuh is referenced throughout Robert Rodriguez's television show From Dusk till Dawn: The Series (2014). In particular, the show's protagonists, the Gecko Brothers, Seth and Richie, are referred to as the embodiment of Hunahpú and Xbalanqué, the hero twins, from the Popol Vuh. Antecedents in Maya iconography Contemporary archaeologists (first of all Michael D. Coe) have found depictions of characters and episodes from Popol Vuh on Mayan ceramics and other art objects (e.g., the Hero Twins, Howler Monkey Gods, the shooting of Vucub-Caquix and, as many believe, the restoration of the Twins' dead father, Hun Hunahpu). The accompanying sections of hieroglyphical text could thus, theoretically, relate to passages from the Popol Vuh. Richard D. Hansen found a stucco frieze depicting two floating figures that might be the Hero Twins at the site of El Mirador. Following the Twin Hero narrative, mankind is fashioned from white and yellow corn, demonstrating the crop's transcendent importance in Maya culture. To the Maya of the Classic period, Hun Hunahpu may have represented the maize god. Although in the Popol Vuh his severed head is unequivocally stated to have become a calabash, some scholars believe the calabash to be interchangeable with a cacao pod or an ear of corn. In this line, decapitation and sacrifice correspond to harvesting corn and the sacrifices accompanying planting and harvesting. Planting and harvesting also relate to Maya astronomy and calendar, since the cycles of the moon and sun determined the crop seasons. Notable editions 1857. 1861. 1944. 1947. 1950. 1971. 1973. 1985. 1999. 2004. 2007. 2007. 2018. See also Ancient murals at El Mirador, Guatemala Notes External links Popol Wuj Archives, sponsored by the Department of Spanish and Portuguese at The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, and the Center for Latin American Studies at OSU. A facsimile of the earliest preserved manuscript, in Quiché and Spanish, hosted at The Ohio State University Libraries. Learn more about this project by reading "Decolonial Information Practices: Repatriating and Stewarding the Popol Vuh Online." The original Quiché text with line-by-line English translation Allen J. Christenson edition An English translation by Allen J. Christenson. Text in English A link to sections of the animated depiction by Patricia Amlin. Creation (1931). From the Collections at the Library of Congress Category:Maya mythology and religion Category:Mayan literature Category:Guatemalan folklore Category:Religious texts Category:Creation myths Category:16th-century books Category:K'iche'
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C_edaebe3ab81442119e1b04a542df10d0_1
Popol Vuh
Popol Vuh (also Popol Wuj) is a cultural narrative that recounts the mythology and history of the K'iche' people who inhabit the Guatemalan Highlands northwest of present-day Guatemala City. The Popol Vuh is a creation narrative written by the K'iche' people before the Spanish conquest of Guatemala, originally preserved through oral tradition until approximately 1550 when it was written down. The survival of the Popol Vuh is credited to the 18th century Dominican friar Francisco Ximenez who made a copy of the original text in Spanish The name "Popol Vuh" translates as "Book of the Community", "Book of Counsel", or more literally as "Book of the People". The Popol Vuh includes the Mayan creation myth, beginning with the exploits of the Hero Twins Hunahpu and Xbalanque.
Father Ximenez's manuscript
In 1701, Father Ximenez came to Santo Tomas Chichicastenango (also known as Santo Tomas Chuila). This town was in the Quiche territory and therefore is probably where Fr. Ximenez first redacted the mythistory. Ximenez transcribed and translated the manuscript in parallel K'iche' and Spanish columns (the K'iche' having been represented phonetically with Latin and Parra characters). In or around 1714, Ximenez incorporated the Spanish content in book one, chapters 2-21 of his Historia de la provincia de San Vicente de Chiapa y Guatemala de la orden de predicadores. Ximenez's manuscripts remained posthumously in the possession of the Dominican Order until General Francisco Morazan expelled the clerics from Guatemala in 1829-30 whereupon the Order's documents passed largely to the Universidad de San Carlos. From 1852 to 1855, Moritz Wagner and Carl Scherzer traveled to Central America, arriving in Guatemala City in early May 1854. Scherzer found Ximenez's writings in the university library, noting that there was one particular item "del mayor interes" ('of the greatest interest'). With assistance from the Guatemalan historian and archivist Juan Gavarrete, Scherzer copied (or had a copy made) of the Spanish content from the last half of the manuscript, which he published upon his return to Europe. In 1855, French Abbot Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg also found Ximenez's writings in the university library. However, whereas Scherzer copied the manuscript, Brasseur apparently stole the university's volume and took it back to France. After Brasseur's death in 1874, the Mexico-Guatemalienne collection containing Popol Vuh passed to Alphonse Pinart through whom it was sold to Edward E. Ayer. In 1897, Ayer decided to donate his 17,000 pieces to The Newberry Library, a project that tarried until 1911. Father Ximenez's transcription-translation of "Popol Vuh" was among Ayer's donated items. Father Ximenez's manuscript sank into obscurity until Adrian Recinos (re)discovered it at The Newberry in 1941. Generally speaking, Recinos receives credit for finding the manuscript and publishing the first direct edition since Scherzer. But Munro Edmonson and Carlos Lopez attribute the first (re)discovery to Walter Lehmann in 1928. Allen Christenson, Nestor Quiroa, Rosa Helena Chinchilla Mazariegos, John Woodruff, and Carlos Lopez all consider the Newberry's volume to be Ximenez's one and only "original." CANNOTANSWER
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Popol Vuh (also Popol Wuj or Popul Vuh or Pop Vuj) is a text recounting the mythology and history of the Kʼicheʼ people, one of the Maya peoples, who inhabit Guatemala and the Mexican states of Chiapas, Campeche, Yucatan and Quintana Roo, as well as areas of Belize, Honduras and El Salvador. The Popol Vuh is a foundational sacred narrative of the Kʼicheʼ people from long before the Spanish conquest of the Maya. It includes the Mayan creation myth, the exploits of the Hero Twins Hunahpú and Xbalanqué, and a chronicle of the Kʼicheʼ people. The name "Popol Vuh" translates as "Book of the Community" or "Book of Counsel" (literally "Book that pertains to the mat", since a woven mat was used as a royal throne in ancient Kʼicheʼ society and symbolised the unity of the community). It was originally preserved through oral tradition until approximately 1550, when it was recorded in writing. The documentation of the Popol Vuh is credited to the 18th-century Spanish Dominican friar Francisco Ximénez, who prepared a manuscript with a transcription in Kʼicheʼ and parallel columns with translations into Spanish. Like the Chilam Balam and similar texts, the Popol Vuh is of particular importance given the scarcity of early accounts dealing with Mesoamerican mythologies. After the Spanish conquest, missionaries and colonists destroyed many documents. History Father Ximénez's manuscript In 1701, Father Ximénez came to Santo Tomás Chichicastenango (also known as Santo Tomás Chuilá). This town was in the Quiché territory and is likely where Father Ximénez first recorded the work. Ximénez transcribed and translated the account, setting up parallel Kʼicheʼ and Spanish language columns in his manuscript. (He represented the Kʼicheʼ language phonetically with Latin and Parra characters.) In or around 1714, Ximénez incorporated the Spanish content in book one, chapters 2–21 of his Historia de la provincia de San Vicente de Chiapa y Guatemala de la orden de predicadores. Ximénez's manuscripts were held posthumously by the Dominican Order until General Francisco Morazán expelled the clerics from Guatemala in 1829–30. At that time the Order's documents were taken over largely by the Universidad de San Carlos. From 1852 to 1855, Moritz Wagner and Carl Scherzer traveled in Central America, arriving in Guatemala City in early May 1854. Scherzer found Ximénez's writings in the university library, noting that there was one particular item "del mayor interés" ('of the greatest interest'). With assistance from the Guatemalan historian and archivist Juan Gavarrete, Scherzer copied (or had a copy made of) the Spanish content from the last half of the manuscript, which he published upon his return to Europe. In 1855, French Abbot Charles Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg also came across Ximénez's manuscript in the university library. However, whereas Scherzer copied the manuscript, Brasseur apparently stole the university's volume and took it back to France. After Brasseur's death in 1874, the Mexico-Guatémalienne collection containing Popol Vuh passed to Alphonse Pinart, through whom it was sold to Edward E. Ayer. In 1897, Ayer decided to donate his 17,000 pieces to The Newberry Library in Chicago, a project that was not completed until 1911. Father Ximénez's transcription-translation of Popol Vuh was among Ayer's donated items. Father Ximénez's manuscript sank into obscurity until Adrián Recinos rediscovered it at the Newberry in 1941. Recinos is generally credited with finding the manuscript and publishing the first direct edition since Scherzer. But Munro Edmonson and Carlos López attribute the first rediscovery to Walter Lehmann in 1928. Experts Allen Christenson, Néstor Quiroa, Rosa Helena Chinchilla Mazariegos, John Woodruff, and Carlos López all consider the Newberry volume to be Ximénez's one and only "original." Father Ximénez's source It is generally believed that Ximénez borrowed a phonetic manuscript from a parishioner for his source, although Néstor Quiroa points out that "such a manuscript has never been found, and thus Ximenez's work represents the only source for scholarly studies." This document would have been a phonetic rendering of an oral recitation performed in or around Santa Cruz del Quiché shortly following Pedro de Alvarado's 1524 conquest. By comparing the genealogy at the end of Popol Vuh with dated colonial records, Adrián Recinos and Dennis Tedlock suggest a date between 1554 and 1558. But to the extent that the text speaks of a "written" document, Woodruff cautions that "critics appear to have taken the text of the first folio recto too much at face value in drawing conclusions about Popol Vuh's survival." If there was an early post-conquest document, one theory (first proposed by Rudolf Schuller) ascribes the phonetic authorship to Diego Reynoso, one of the signatories of the Título de Totonicapán. Another possible author could have been Don Cristóbal Velasco, who, also in Titulo de Totonicapán, is listed as "Nim Chokoh Cavec" ('Great Steward of the Kaweq'). In either case, the colonial presence is clear in Popol Vuh's preamble: "This we shall write now under the Law of God and Christianity; we shall bring it to light because now the Popol Vuh, as it is called, cannot be seen any more, in which was clearly seen the coming from the other side of the sea and the narration of our obscurity, and our life was clearly seen." Accordingly, the need to "preserve" the content presupposes an imminent disappearance of the content, and therefore, Edmonson theorized a pre-conquest glyphic codex. No evidence of such a codex has yet been found. A minority, however, disputes the existence of pre-Ximénez texts on the same basis that is used to argue their existence. Both positions are based on two statements by Ximénez. The first of these comes from Historia de la provincia where Ximénez writes that he found various texts during his curacy of Santo Tomás Chichicastenango that were guarded with such secrecy "that not even a trace of it was revealed among the elder ministers" although "almost all of them have it memorized." The second passage used to argue pre-Ximénez texts comes from Ximénez's addendum to Popol Vuh. There he states that many of the natives' practices can be "seen in a book that they have, something like a prophecy, from the beginning of their [pre-Christian] days, where they have all the months and signs corresponding to each day, one of which I have in my possession." Scherzer explains in a footnote that what Ximénez is referencing "is only a secret calendar" and that he himself had "found this rustic calendar previously in various indigenous towns in the Guatemalan highlands" during his travels with Wagner. This presents a contradiction because the item which Ximénez has in his possession is not Popol Vuh, and a carefully guarded item is not likely to have been easily available to Ximénez. Apart from this, Woodruff surmises that because "Ximenez never discloses his source, instead inviting readers to infer what they wish [. . .], it is plausible that there was no such alphabetic redaction among the Indians. The implied alternative is that he or another missionary made the first written text from an oral recitation." Story of Hunahpú and Xbalanqué Many versions of the legend of the Hero Twins Hunahpú and Xbalanqué circulated through the Mayan peoples, but the story that survives was preserved by the Dominican priest Francisco Ximénez who translated the document between 1700 and 1715. Maya deities in the Post-Classic codices differ from the earlier versions described in the Early Classic period. In Mayan mythology Hunahpú and Xbalanqué are the second pair of twins out of three, preceded by Hun-Hunahpú and his brother Vucub-Hunahpú, and precursors to the third pair of twins, Hun Batz and Hun Chuen. In the Popol Vuh, the first set of twins, Hun-Hunahpú and Vucub-Hanahpú were invited to the Mayan Underworld, Xibalba, to play a ballgame with the Xibalban lords. In the Underworld the twins faced many trials filled with trickery; eventually they fail and are put to death. The Hero Twins, Hunahpú and Xbalanqué, are magically conceived after the death of their father, Hun-Hunahpú, and in time they return to Xibalba to avenge the deaths of their father and uncle by defeating the Lords of the Underworld. Structure Popol Vuh encompasses a range of subjects that includes creation, ancestry, history, and cosmology. There are no content divisions in the Newberry Library's holograph, but popular editions have adopted the organization imposed by Brasseur de Bourbourg in 1861 in order to facilitate comparative studies. Though some variation has been tested by Dennis Tedlock and Allen Christenson, editions typically take the following form: Preamble Introduction to the piece that introduces Xpiyacoc and Xmucane, the purpose for writing the Popol Vuh, and the measuring of the earth. Book One Account of the creation of living beings. Animals were created first, followed by humans. The first humans were made of earth and mud, but crumbled. The second humans were created from wood, but they did not function well and were washed away in a flood and killed by animals. Vucub-Caquix ascends. Book Two The Hero Twins plan to kill Vucub-Caquix and his sons, Zipacna and Cabracan. They succeed, "restoring order and balance to the world." Book Three The father and uncle of The Hero Twins, Hun Hunahpu and Vucub Hunahpu, sons of Xmucane and Xpiacoc, are murdered at a ball game in Xibalba. Hun Hunahpu's head is placed in a calabash tree, where it spits in the hand of Xquiq, impregnating her. She leaves the underworld to be with her mother-in-law, Xmucane. Her sons then challenge the Lords who killed their father and uncle, succeeding and becoming the sun and the moon. Book Four Humans are successfully created from maize. The gods give them morality in order to keep them loyal. Later, they give the humans wives to make them content. This book also describes the movement of the Kʼicheʼ and includes the introduction of Gucumatz. Excerpts A visual comparison of two sections of the Popol Vuh are presented below and include the original Kʼiche, literal English translation, and modern English translation as shown by Allen Christenson. "Preamble" "The Primordial World" Modern history Modern editions Since Brasseur's and Scherzer's first editions, the Popol Vuh has been translated into many other languages besides its original Kʼicheʼ. The Spanish edition by Adrián Recinos is still a major reference, as is Recino's English translation by Delia Goetz. Other English translations include those of Victor Montejo, Munro Edmonson (1985), and Dennis Tedlock (1985, 1996). Tedlock's version is notable because it builds on commentary and interpretation by a modern Kʼicheʼ daykeeper, Andrés Xiloj. Augustín Estrada Monroy published a facsimile edition in the 1970s and Ohio State University has a digital version and transcription online. Modern translations and transcriptions of the Kʼicheʼ text have been published by, among others, Sam Colop (1999) and Allen J. Christenson (2004). In 2018, The New York Times named Michael Bazzett's new translation as one of the ten best books of poetry of 2018. The tale of Hunahpu and Xbalanque has also been rendered as an hour-long animated film by Patricia Amlin. Contemporary culture The Popol Vuh continues to be an important part in the belief system of many Kʼicheʼ. Although Catholicism is generally seen as the dominant religion, some believe that many natives practice a syncretic blend of Christian and indigenous beliefs. Some stories from the Popol Vuh continued to be told by modern Maya as folk legends; some stories recorded by anthropologists in the 20th century may preserve portions of the ancient tales in greater detail than the Ximénez manuscript. On August 22, 2012, the Popol Vuh was declared intangible cultural heritage of Guatemala by the Guatemalan Ministry of Culture. Reflections in Western culture Since its rediscovery by Europeans in the nineteenth century, the Popol Vuh has attracted the attention of many creators of cultural works. Mexican muralist Diego Rivera produced a series of watercolors in 1931 as illustrations for the book. In 1934, the early avant-garde Franco-American composer Edgard Varèse wrote his Ecuatorial, a setting of words from the Popol Vuh for bass soloist and various instruments. The planet of Camazotz in Madeleine L'Engle's A Wrinkle in Time (1962) is named for the bat-god of the hero-twins story. In 1969 in Munich, Germany, keyboardist Florian Fricke—at the time ensconced in Mayan myth—formed a band named Popol Vuh with synth player Frank Fiedler and percussionist Holger Trulzsch. Their 1970 debut album, Affenstunde, reflected this spiritual connection. Another band by the same name, this one of Norwegian descent, formed around the same time, its name also inspired by the Kʼicheʼ writings. The text was used by German film director Werner Herzog as extensive narration for the first chapter of his movie Fata Morgana (1971). Herzog and Florian Fricke were life long collaborators and friends. The Argentinian composer Alberto Ginastera began writing his symphonic work Popol Vuh in 1975, but neglected to complete the piece before his death in 1983. The myths and legends included in Louis L'Amour's novel The Haunted Mesa (1987) are largely based on the Popol Vuh. The Popol Vuh is referenced throughout Robert Rodriguez's television show From Dusk till Dawn: The Series (2014). In particular, the show's protagonists, the Gecko Brothers, Seth and Richie, are referred to as the embodiment of Hunahpú and Xbalanqué, the hero twins, from the Popol Vuh. Antecedents in Maya iconography Contemporary archaeologists (first of all Michael D. Coe) have found depictions of characters and episodes from Popol Vuh on Mayan ceramics and other art objects (e.g., the Hero Twins, Howler Monkey Gods, the shooting of Vucub-Caquix and, as many believe, the restoration of the Twins' dead father, Hun Hunahpu). The accompanying sections of hieroglyphical text could thus, theoretically, relate to passages from the Popol Vuh. Richard D. Hansen found a stucco frieze depicting two floating figures that might be the Hero Twins at the site of El Mirador. Following the Twin Hero narrative, mankind is fashioned from white and yellow corn, demonstrating the crop's transcendent importance in Maya culture. To the Maya of the Classic period, Hun Hunahpu may have represented the maize god. Although in the Popol Vuh his severed head is unequivocally stated to have become a calabash, some scholars believe the calabash to be interchangeable with a cacao pod or an ear of corn. In this line, decapitation and sacrifice correspond to harvesting corn and the sacrifices accompanying planting and harvesting. Planting and harvesting also relate to Maya astronomy and calendar, since the cycles of the moon and sun determined the crop seasons. Notable editions 1857. 1861. 1944. 1947. 1950. 1971. 1973. 1985. 1999. 2004. 2007. 2007. 2018. See also Ancient murals at El Mirador, Guatemala Notes External links Popol Wuj Archives, sponsored by the Department of Spanish and Portuguese at The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, and the Center for Latin American Studies at OSU. A facsimile of the earliest preserved manuscript, in Quiché and Spanish, hosted at The Ohio State University Libraries. Learn more about this project by reading "Decolonial Information Practices: Repatriating and Stewarding the Popol Vuh Online." The original Quiché text with line-by-line English translation Allen J. Christenson edition An English translation by Allen J. Christenson. Text in English A link to sections of the animated depiction by Patricia Amlin. Creation (1931). From the Collections at the Library of Congress Category:Maya mythology and religion Category:Mayan literature Category:Guatemalan folklore Category:Religious texts Category:Creation myths Category:16th-century books Category:K'iche'
[]
[ "Father Ximenez's manuscript was written in or around 1714.", "The manuscript transcribed and translated a mythistory from the K'iche' culture, which was later used as content in Ximenez's book, \"Historia de la provincia de San Vicente de Chiapa y Guatemala de la orden de predicadores\". The manuscript was later recognized as being of great interest by Moritz Wagner and Carl Scherzer, and was copied and published upon their return to Europe. The manuscript, referred to as \"Popol Vuh\", was also donated to The Newberry Library, where it was (re)discovered and considered by some as Ximenez's one and only \"original\".", "The name of the library is The Newberry Library.", "An interesting fact about this manuscript is that it sank into obscurity for a quite a number of years. It was rediscovered in The Newberry Library in 1941 by Adrian Recinos, who is generally credited for finding the manuscript and publishing the first direct edition since Scherzer. However, the credit for the first (re)discovery has also been attributed to Walter Lehmann in 1928. Also, there is some contention around the manuscript as various experts consider the Newberry's volume to be Ximenez's one and only \"original\"." ]
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C_6f91e3f350304da9b2a21bf4e3e5c081_0
Wilhelm Stekel
Wilhelm Stekel (German: ['Ste:k@l]; 18 March 1868 - 25 June 1940) was an Austrian physician and psychologist, who became one of Sigmund Freud's earliest followers, and was once described as "Freud's most distinguished pupil". According to Ernest Jones, "Stekel may be accorded the honour, together with Freud, of having founded the first psycho-analytic society"; while he also described him as "a naturally gifted psychologist with an unusual flair for detecting repressed material." He later had a falling-out with Freud, who announced in November 1912 that "Stekel is going his own way". His works are translated and published in many languages.
Contributions to the theory of fetishism and of perversion
Stekel contrasted what he called "normal fetishes" from extreme interests: "They become pathological only when they have pushed the whole love object into the background and themselves appropriate the function of a love object, e.g., when a lover satisfies himself with the possession of a woman's shoe and considers the woman herself as secondary or even disturbing and superfluous (p. 3). Stekel also deals differently than Freud with the problem of perversion. A lot of perversions are defense mechanisms (Schutzbauten) of the moral "self"; they represent hidden forms of asceticism. To Freud, the primal sexual venting meant health, while neuroses were created because of repressing sexual drives. Stekel, on the other hand, points out the significance of the repressed religious "self" in neuroses and indicates that apart from the repressed sexuality type, there is also a repressed morality type. This type is created in the conditions of sexual licentiousness while being opposed to doing it at the same time. In the latter instance, 'Stekel holds that fetichism is the patient's unconscious religion'. "Normal" fetishes for Stekel contributed more broadly to choice of lifestyle: thus "choice of vocation was actually an attempt to solve mental conflicts through the displacement of them", so that doctors for Stekel were "voyeurs who have transferred their original sexual current into the art of diagnosis". Complaining of Freud's tendency to indiscretion, Ernest Jones wrote that he had told him "the nature of Stekel's sexual perversion, which he should not have and which I have never repeated to anyone". Stekel's "elaboration of the idea that everyone, and in particular every neurotic, has a peculiar form of sexual gratification which is alone adequate" may thus have been grounded in personal experience. On sado-masochism, "Stekel has described the essence of the sadomasochistic act to be humiliation". CANNOTANSWER
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[ "What did he say about fetishes?", "What else did he say?", "Did he have any more comments?", "What did he say next about fetishes?", "Did he have any other thoughts on this topic?" ]
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{ "answer_starts": [ 76, 234, 729, 1112, 1621 ], "texts": [ "They become pathological only when they have pushed the whole love object into the background and themselves appropriate the function of a love object,", "when a lover satisfies himself with the possession of a woman's shoe and considers the woman herself as secondary or even disturbing and superfluous", "points out the significance of the repressed religious \"self\" in neuroses and indicates that apart from the repressed sexuality type, there is also a repressed morality type.", "Normal\" fetishes for Stekel contributed more broadly to choice of lifestyle: thus \"choice of vocation was actually an attempt to solve mental conflicts through the displacement of them", "Stekel's \"elaboration of the idea that everyone, and in particular every neurotic, has a peculiar form of sexual gratification which is alone adequate\"" ] }
Wilhelm Stekel (; 18 March 1868 – 25 June 1940) was an Austrian physician and psychologist, who became one of Sigmund Freud's earliest followers, and was once described as "Freud's most distinguished pupil". According to Ernest Jones, "Stekel may be accorded the honour, together with Freud, of having founded the first psycho-analytic society.". However, a phrase used by Freud in a letter to Stekel, "the Psychological Society founded by you," suggests that the initiative was entirely Stekel's. Jones also wrote of Stekel that he was "a naturally gifted psychologist with an unusual flair for detecting repressed material." Freud and Stekel later had a falling-out, with Freud announcing in November 1912 that "Stekel is going his own way". A letter from Freud to Stekel dated January 1924 indicates that the falling out was on interpersonal rather than theoretical grounds, and that at some point Freud developed a low opinion of his former associate. He wrote: "I...contradict your often repeated assertion that you were rejected by me on account of scientific differences. This sounds quite good in public but it doesn't correspond with the truth. It was exclusively your personal qualities - usually described as character and behavior - which made collaboration with you impossible for my friends and myself." Stekel's works are translated and published in many languages. Early life Stekel was born to Jewish parents in 1868 in Boiany (Yiddish Boyan), Bukovina, then an eastern province of the Austro-Hungarian empire, but now divided between Ukraine in the north and Romania in the south. His parents, who were of mixed Ashkenazi and Sephardic background, were relatively poor, a fact which restricted his life choices. However, the fact that he later used "Boyan" as one of his noms de plume seems to corroborate his own account of a happy childhood. His parents enrolled him into a Protestant school. After an abortive apprenticeship to a shoemaker, he completed his education, matriculating in 1887. He then enlisted as a "one-year-volunteer" with the 9th Company, Prince Eugen's Imperial Infantry Regiment No 41 in Czernowitz [today's Chernivtsi, Ukraine]. Under this scheme he was not obliged to do his military service until 1890, after completing the first part of his medical studies. He was therefore free to enrol at the University of Vienna in 1887, and studied under the eminent sexologist Richard von Krafft-Ebing, Theodor Meynert, Emil Zuckerkandl, (whose son would later marry Stekel's daughter, Gertrude), Ernst Wilhelm von Brücke, Hermann Notnagel, and Max Kassowitz. From 1886 to 1896 Freud was head of the neurological department at the "1st Public Institute for Sick Children" (otherwise known as the Kassowitz Institute) of which Kassowitz had been the director since 1882. As Stekel worked at this institute during the summer semester of 1891, it seems probable that he knew about Freud then, and possibly was also introduced to him by one of the founder members of the Wednesday Psychological Society, Max Kahane, who also worked there. In 1890 Stekel completed the first six months of required military training, which he described as "the most disagreeable period of my life." No doubt in part because of this experience, in 1891 Stekel attended the International Pacifist Convention in Bern, funded by the well-known peace activist Berta von Suttner, and founded a University Pacifists Club supported not only by von Suttner, but also by Krafft-Ebing. Nevertheless, he was in such financial straits that at the instigation of his family he applied for a military scholarship. This bound him to another six years of service in the army, and also prohibited him from marrying until his release in 1897. He managed, however, by intentionally failing an examination and using a loophole in the regulations, to gain his release in 1894. Thereafter Stekel opened a successful doctor's practice, while as a sideline, following the example of his elder brother, the journalist Moritz Stekel, wrote articles and pamphlets covering issues around health and disease. In 1895 Stekel wrote an article, "Coitus in Childhood" which Freud cited in an article on "The Aetiology of Hysteria" in 1896. The same year Stekel cited Freud in an article on migraine, which, however, did not appear until 1897. Career Stekel wrote a book called Auto-erotism: A Psychiatric Study of Onanism and Neurosis, first published in English in 1950. He is also credited with coining the term paraphilia to replace perversion. He analysed, among others, the psychoanalysts Otto Gross and A. S. Neill, as well as Freud's first biographer, Fritz Wittels. In his 1924 Freud biography, Wittels expressed his admiration for Stekel, to whose school he at that time adhered. This annoyed Freud who wrote in the margin of the copy of the book Wittels sent him 'Zu viel Stekel,' (Too much Stekel). Much later, Wittels, who by then had returned to the Freudian fold, still praised Stekel's "strange ease in understanding" but commented, "The trouble with Stekel's analysis was that it almost invariably reached an impasse when the so-called negative transference grew stronger". Stekel's autobiography was published posthumously in English in 1950. Contributions to psychoanalytic theory Theory of neurosis Stekel made significant contributions to symbolism in dreams, "as successive editions of The Interpretation of Dreams attest, with their explicit acknowledgement of Freud's debt to Stekel": "the works of Wilhelm Stekel and others...since taught me to form a truer estimate of the extent and importance of symbolism in dreams". Considering obsessional doubts, Stekel said,In anxiety the libido is transformed into organic and somatic symptoms; in doubt, the libido is transformed into intellectual symptoms. The more intellectual someone is, the greater will be the doubt component of the transformed forces. Doubt becomes pleasure sublimated as intellectual achievement. Stekel wrote one of a set of three early "Psychoanalytic studies of psychical impotence" referred to approvingly by Freud: "Freud had written a preface to Stekel's book". Related to this may be Stekel's "elaboration of the idea that everyone, and in particular neurotics, has a peculiar form of sexual gratification which is alone adequate". Freud credited Stekel as a potential forerunner when pondering the possibility that (for obsessional neurotics) "in the order of development hate is the precursor of love. This is perhaps the meaning of an assertion by Stekel (1911 [Die Sprache des Traumes], 536), which at the time I found incomprehensible, to the effect that hate and not love is the primary emotional relation between men". The same work is credited by Otto Fenichel as establishing 'the symbolic significance of right and left...right meaning correct and left meaning wrong '.<ref>Otto Fenichel, 'The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis (London 1946) p. 224</ref> Less flatteringly, Fenichel also associated it with "a comparatively large school of pseudo analysis which held that the patient should be 'bombarded' with 'deep interpretations,'" a backhanded tribute to the extent of Stekel's early following in the wake of his break with Freud. Contributions to the theory of fetishism and of perversion Stekel contrasted what he called "normal fetishes" from extreme interests: "They become pathological only when they have pushed the whole love object into the background and themselves appropriate the function of a love object, e.g., when a lover satisfies himself with the possession of a woman's shoe and considers the woman herself as secondary or even disturbing and superfluous (p. 3). Stekel also deals differently than Freud with the problem of perversion. A lot of perversions are defense mechanisms (Schutzbauten) of the moral “self”; they represent hidden forms of asceticism. To Freud, the primal sexual venting meant health, while neuroses were created because of repressing sexual drives. Stekel, on the other hand, points out the significance of the repressed religious “self” in neuroses and indicates that apart from the repressed sexuality type, there is also a repressed morality type. This type is created in the conditions of sexual licentiousness while being opposed to doing it at the same time. In the latter instance, 'Stekel holds that fetichism is the patient's unconscious religion'. "Normal" fetishes for Stekel contributed more broadly to choice of lifestyle: thus "choice of vocation was actually an attempt to solve mental conflicts through the displacement of them", so that doctors for Stekel were "voyeurs who have transferred their original sexual current into the art of diagnosis". Complaining of Freud's tendency to indiscretion, Ernest Jones wrote that he had told him "the nature of Stekel's sexual perversion, which he should not have and which I have never repeated to anyone". Stekel's "elaboration of the idea that everyone, and in particular every neurotic, has a peculiar form of sexual gratification which is alone adequate" may thus have been grounded in personal experience. On sado-masochism, "Stekel has described the essence of the sadomasochistic act to be humiliation". Freud's critique of Stekel's theory of the origin of phobias In The Ego and the Id, Freud wrote of the "high-sounding phrase, 'every fear is ultimately the fear of death'" — associated with Stekel (1908) — that it "has hardly any meaning, and at any rate cannot be justified", evidence perhaps (as with psychic impotence and love/hate) of his continuing engagement with the thought of his former associate. On technique Stekel "was also an innovator in technique...devis[ing] a form of short-term therapy called active analysis which has much in common with some modern form of counselling and therapy". On aesthetics Stekel maintained that "in every child there slumbered a creative artist". In connection with the psychoanalytic examination of the roots of art, however, he emphasised that "...the Freudian interpretation, no matter how far it be carried, never offers even the rudest criterion of 'artistic' excellence...we are investigating only the impulse which drives people to create". Analyzing the dreams of artists and non-artists alike, Stekel pointed out that "at the level of symbol production the poet does not differ from the most prosaic soul...Is it not remarkable that the great poet Goethe and the unknown little woman...should have constructed such similar dreams?". Personal life Stekel was married twice and had two children. Stekel committed suicide in Kensington by taking an overdose of Aspirin "to end the pain of his prostate and the diabetic gangrene". He died at 34–37 Pembridge Gardens, Kensington, London W2, leaving a modest estate valued at £2,430. His remains were cremated at Golders Green Crematorium on 29 June 1940. His ashes lie in section 3-V of the Garden of Remembrance but there is no memorial. Stekel's autobiography was published posthumously, edited by his former personal assistant Emil Gutheil and his wife Hilda Binder Stekel. His widow died in 1969. A biographical account of Stekel's life appeared in The Self-Marginalization of Wilhem Stekel (2007) by Jaap Bos and Leendert Groenendijk, which also includes his correspondence with Sigmund Freud. See also L. Mecacci, Freudian Slips: The Casualties of Psychoanalysis from the Wolf Man to Marilyn Monroe, Vagabond Voices 2009, pp. 101 In popular culture He is referenced in the episodes 22 and 26 of Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex. A quote attributed to Stekel ("The mark of the immature man is that he wants to die nobly for a cause. The mark of the mature man is that he wants to live humbly for one.") is referenced in The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger. Cited by a character in the novel as a statement of Stekel's, it has sometimes been attributed to Salinger and may indeed be his paraphrase of a statement by the German writer Otto Ludwig (1813-1865), which Stekel himself has quoted in his writings: "Das Höchste, wozu er sich erheben konnte, war, für etwas rühmlich zu sterben; jetzt erhebt er sich zu dem Größern, für etwas ruhmlos zu leben." Cf. q:Wilhelm Stekel#Misattributed. Selected publications Stekel W. (1908) Nervöse Angstzustände und ihre Behandlung. Fourth Edition. Urban & Schwarzenberg. Stekel W. (1911). Die Sprache des Traumes: Eine Darstellung der Symbolik und Deutung des Traumes in ihren BezeihungenStekel W. (1911). Sexual Root of Kleptomania. J. Am. Inst. Crim. L. & CriminologyStekel W. (1917). Nietzsche und Wagner, eine sexualpsychologische Studie zur Psychogenese des Freundschaftsgefühles und des FreundschaftsverratesStekel W. (1921). The beloved ego, foundations of the new study of the psyche Stekel W. (1921) The depths of the soul; psycho-analytical studies Stekel W. (1922). Compulsion and Doubt (Zwang und Zweifel) Liveright Stekel W. (1922). Disguises of love ; psycho-analytical sketches Stekel W. (1922). The Homosexual Neuroses Stekel W. (1922). Bi-sexual love; the homosexual neurosis (2003 reprint: Bisexual Love. Fredonia) Stekel W. (1922). Sex and dreams; the language of dreams Stekel W. (1923) Conditions of Nervous Anxiety and Their Treatment, Tr. Rosalie Gabler, Dood, Mead & Co. Reprinted (2014) by Routledge Stekel W. (1926). Frigidity in women Vol. II. Grove Press Stekel W., Boltz O.H. (1927). Impotence in the Male: The Psychic Disorders of Sexual Function in the Male. Boni and Liveright Stekel W., Van Teslaar J.S. (1929). Peculiarities of Behavior: Wandering Mania, Dipsomania, Cleptomania, Pyromania and Allied Impulsive Disorders. H. Liveright Stekel W. (1929). Sadism and Masochism: The Psychology of Hatred and Cruelty. Liveright Stekel W. (1943). The Interpretation of Dreams: New Developments and Technique. Liveright Stekel W., Gutheil E. (1950). The Autobiography of Wilhelm Stekel. Liveright Stekel W., Boltz O.H. (1950). Technique of Analytical Psychotherapy. Live right Stekel W. (1952). Disorders of the Instincts and the Emotions -- The Parapathaic Disorders, Vol. 1 and Sexual Aberrations -- The Phenomena of Fetishism in Relation to Sex, Volume 2. (Two volumes in one.) Liveright Stekel W. (1952). Patterns of Psychosexual Infantilism Grove Press Books and Evergreen Books Stekel W. (1961). Auto-erotism: a psychiatric study of masturbation and neurosis''. Grove Press References Further reading External links Wilhelm Stekel's article "Poetry and Neurosis. Psychology of the Artist", Heksis 2/2010 Kazimierz Dąbrowski "Remarks on Wilhelm Stekel's Active Psychoanalysis", Heksis 2/2010 Category:1868 births Category:1940 deaths Category:1940 suicides Category:People from Chernivtsi Oblast Category:Austrian Jews Category:Austrian psychologists Category:Freudians Category:Austrian sexologists Category:Austrian psychoanalysts Category:History of psychiatry Category:Suicides in Kensington Category:Jewish psychoanalysts Category:Austrian emigrants to the United Kingdom Category:Drug-related suicides in England Category:Scientists from Austria-Hungary
[]
[ "Stekel described \"normal fetishes\" as interests that only become pathological when they overshadow the whole love object and replace it. For instance, when a lover is satisfied only with possessing a woman's shoe and considers the woman herself as secondary or a distraction. Stekel also believed that so-called \"normal\" fetishes contributed to the choice of lifestyle, such as choosing a profession, suggesting that such choices were attempts to solve mental conflicts through displacement. He suggested that fetichism could serve as the patient's unconscious religion in certain situations.", "Stekel also commented on what he termed the problem of perversion. He suggested that many perversions are defense mechanisms of the moral \"self\". He contrasted this perspective with Freud's, who viewed primal sexual expression as healthy and neuroses as the result of repressed sexual drives. Stekel emphasized the importance of the repressed religious \"self\" in neuroses and indicated that there is a type of person whose neuroses stem from repressed morality. This type of person emerges in situations of sexual licentiousness while concurrently opposing such behaviour. On another topic, Stekel described the essence of the sadomasochistic act to be humiliation.", "The context provided does not offer further information on this matter.", "The context provided does not contain any additional information on Stekel's views about fetishes.", "The text does not provide any more information about Stekel's thoughts on the topic of fetishes." ]
[ "Yes", "No", "No", "no", "No" ]
C_6f91e3f350304da9b2a21bf4e3e5c081_1
Wilhelm Stekel
Wilhelm Stekel (German: ['Ste:k@l]; 18 March 1868 - 25 June 1940) was an Austrian physician and psychologist, who became one of Sigmund Freud's earliest followers, and was once described as "Freud's most distinguished pupil". According to Ernest Jones, "Stekel may be accorded the honour, together with Freud, of having founded the first psycho-analytic society"; while he also described him as "a naturally gifted psychologist with an unusual flair for detecting repressed material." He later had a falling-out with Freud, who announced in November 1912 that "Stekel is going his own way". His works are translated and published in many languages.
Theory of neurosis
Stekel made significant contributions to symbolism in dreams, "as successive editions of The Interpretation of Dreams attest, with their explicit acknowledgement of Freud's debt to Stekel": "the works of Wilhelm Stekel and others...since taught me to form a truer estimate of the extent and importance of symbolism in dreams". Considering obsessional doubts, Stekel said, In anxiety the libido is transformed into organic and somatic symptoms; in doubt, the libido is transformed into intellectual symptoms. The more intellectual someone is, the greater will be the doubt component of the transformed forces. Doubt becomes pleasure sublimated as intellectual achievement. Stekel wrote one of a set of three early "Psychoanalytic studies of psychical impotence" referred to approvingly by Freud: "Freud had written a preface to Stekel's book". Related to this may be Stekel's "elaboration of the idea that everyone, and in particular neurotics, has a peculiar form of sexual gratification which is alone adequate". Freud credited Stekel as a potential forerunner when pondering the possibility that (for obsessional neurotics) "in the order of development hate is the precursor of love. This is perhaps the meaning of an assertion by Stekel (1911 [Die Sprache des Traumes], 536), which at the time I found incomprehensible, to the effect that hate and not love is the primary emotional relation between men". The same work is credited by Otto Fenichel as establishing 'the symbolic significance of right and left...right meaning correct and left meaning wrong '. Less flatteringly, Fenichel also associated it with "a comparatively large school of pseudo analysis which held that the patient should be 'bombarded' with 'deep interpretations,'" a backhanded tribute to the extent of Stekel's early following in the wake of his break with Freud. CANNOTANSWER
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Wilhelm Stekel (; 18 March 1868 – 25 June 1940) was an Austrian physician and psychologist, who became one of Sigmund Freud's earliest followers, and was once described as "Freud's most distinguished pupil". According to Ernest Jones, "Stekel may be accorded the honour, together with Freud, of having founded the first psycho-analytic society.". However, a phrase used by Freud in a letter to Stekel, "the Psychological Society founded by you," suggests that the initiative was entirely Stekel's. Jones also wrote of Stekel that he was "a naturally gifted psychologist with an unusual flair for detecting repressed material." Freud and Stekel later had a falling-out, with Freud announcing in November 1912 that "Stekel is going his own way". A letter from Freud to Stekel dated January 1924 indicates that the falling out was on interpersonal rather than theoretical grounds, and that at some point Freud developed a low opinion of his former associate. He wrote: "I...contradict your often repeated assertion that you were rejected by me on account of scientific differences. This sounds quite good in public but it doesn't correspond with the truth. It was exclusively your personal qualities - usually described as character and behavior - which made collaboration with you impossible for my friends and myself." Stekel's works are translated and published in many languages. Early life Stekel was born to Jewish parents in 1868 in Boiany (Yiddish Boyan), Bukovina, then an eastern province of the Austro-Hungarian empire, but now divided between Ukraine in the north and Romania in the south. His parents, who were of mixed Ashkenazi and Sephardic background, were relatively poor, a fact which restricted his life choices. However, the fact that he later used "Boyan" as one of his noms de plume seems to corroborate his own account of a happy childhood. His parents enrolled him into a Protestant school. After an abortive apprenticeship to a shoemaker, he completed his education, matriculating in 1887. He then enlisted as a "one-year-volunteer" with the 9th Company, Prince Eugen's Imperial Infantry Regiment No 41 in Czernowitz [today's Chernivtsi, Ukraine]. Under this scheme he was not obliged to do his military service until 1890, after completing the first part of his medical studies. He was therefore free to enrol at the University of Vienna in 1887, and studied under the eminent sexologist Richard von Krafft-Ebing, Theodor Meynert, Emil Zuckerkandl, (whose son would later marry Stekel's daughter, Gertrude), Ernst Wilhelm von Brücke, Hermann Notnagel, and Max Kassowitz. From 1886 to 1896 Freud was head of the neurological department at the "1st Public Institute for Sick Children" (otherwise known as the Kassowitz Institute) of which Kassowitz had been the director since 1882. As Stekel worked at this institute during the summer semester of 1891, it seems probable that he knew about Freud then, and possibly was also introduced to him by one of the founder members of the Wednesday Psychological Society, Max Kahane, who also worked there. In 1890 Stekel completed the first six months of required military training, which he described as "the most disagreeable period of my life." No doubt in part because of this experience, in 1891 Stekel attended the International Pacifist Convention in Bern, funded by the well-known peace activist Berta von Suttner, and founded a University Pacifists Club supported not only by von Suttner, but also by Krafft-Ebing. Nevertheless, he was in such financial straits that at the instigation of his family he applied for a military scholarship. This bound him to another six years of service in the army, and also prohibited him from marrying until his release in 1897. He managed, however, by intentionally failing an examination and using a loophole in the regulations, to gain his release in 1894. Thereafter Stekel opened a successful doctor's practice, while as a sideline, following the example of his elder brother, the journalist Moritz Stekel, wrote articles and pamphlets covering issues around health and disease. In 1895 Stekel wrote an article, "Coitus in Childhood" which Freud cited in an article on "The Aetiology of Hysteria" in 1896. The same year Stekel cited Freud in an article on migraine, which, however, did not appear until 1897. Career Stekel wrote a book called Auto-erotism: A Psychiatric Study of Onanism and Neurosis, first published in English in 1950. He is also credited with coining the term paraphilia to replace perversion. He analysed, among others, the psychoanalysts Otto Gross and A. S. Neill, as well as Freud's first biographer, Fritz Wittels. In his 1924 Freud biography, Wittels expressed his admiration for Stekel, to whose school he at that time adhered. This annoyed Freud who wrote in the margin of the copy of the book Wittels sent him 'Zu viel Stekel,' (Too much Stekel). Much later, Wittels, who by then had returned to the Freudian fold, still praised Stekel's "strange ease in understanding" but commented, "The trouble with Stekel's analysis was that it almost invariably reached an impasse when the so-called negative transference grew stronger". Stekel's autobiography was published posthumously in English in 1950. Contributions to psychoanalytic theory Theory of neurosis Stekel made significant contributions to symbolism in dreams, "as successive editions of The Interpretation of Dreams attest, with their explicit acknowledgement of Freud's debt to Stekel": "the works of Wilhelm Stekel and others...since taught me to form a truer estimate of the extent and importance of symbolism in dreams". Considering obsessional doubts, Stekel said,In anxiety the libido is transformed into organic and somatic symptoms; in doubt, the libido is transformed into intellectual symptoms. The more intellectual someone is, the greater will be the doubt component of the transformed forces. Doubt becomes pleasure sublimated as intellectual achievement. Stekel wrote one of a set of three early "Psychoanalytic studies of psychical impotence" referred to approvingly by Freud: "Freud had written a preface to Stekel's book". Related to this may be Stekel's "elaboration of the idea that everyone, and in particular neurotics, has a peculiar form of sexual gratification which is alone adequate". Freud credited Stekel as a potential forerunner when pondering the possibility that (for obsessional neurotics) "in the order of development hate is the precursor of love. This is perhaps the meaning of an assertion by Stekel (1911 [Die Sprache des Traumes], 536), which at the time I found incomprehensible, to the effect that hate and not love is the primary emotional relation between men". The same work is credited by Otto Fenichel as establishing 'the symbolic significance of right and left...right meaning correct and left meaning wrong '.<ref>Otto Fenichel, 'The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis (London 1946) p. 224</ref> Less flatteringly, Fenichel also associated it with "a comparatively large school of pseudo analysis which held that the patient should be 'bombarded' with 'deep interpretations,'" a backhanded tribute to the extent of Stekel's early following in the wake of his break with Freud. Contributions to the theory of fetishism and of perversion Stekel contrasted what he called "normal fetishes" from extreme interests: "They become pathological only when they have pushed the whole love object into the background and themselves appropriate the function of a love object, e.g., when a lover satisfies himself with the possession of a woman's shoe and considers the woman herself as secondary or even disturbing and superfluous (p. 3). Stekel also deals differently than Freud with the problem of perversion. A lot of perversions are defense mechanisms (Schutzbauten) of the moral “self”; they represent hidden forms of asceticism. To Freud, the primal sexual venting meant health, while neuroses were created because of repressing sexual drives. Stekel, on the other hand, points out the significance of the repressed religious “self” in neuroses and indicates that apart from the repressed sexuality type, there is also a repressed morality type. This type is created in the conditions of sexual licentiousness while being opposed to doing it at the same time. In the latter instance, 'Stekel holds that fetichism is the patient's unconscious religion'. "Normal" fetishes for Stekel contributed more broadly to choice of lifestyle: thus "choice of vocation was actually an attempt to solve mental conflicts through the displacement of them", so that doctors for Stekel were "voyeurs who have transferred their original sexual current into the art of diagnosis". Complaining of Freud's tendency to indiscretion, Ernest Jones wrote that he had told him "the nature of Stekel's sexual perversion, which he should not have and which I have never repeated to anyone". Stekel's "elaboration of the idea that everyone, and in particular every neurotic, has a peculiar form of sexual gratification which is alone adequate" may thus have been grounded in personal experience. On sado-masochism, "Stekel has described the essence of the sadomasochistic act to be humiliation". Freud's critique of Stekel's theory of the origin of phobias In The Ego and the Id, Freud wrote of the "high-sounding phrase, 'every fear is ultimately the fear of death'" — associated with Stekel (1908) — that it "has hardly any meaning, and at any rate cannot be justified", evidence perhaps (as with psychic impotence and love/hate) of his continuing engagement with the thought of his former associate. On technique Stekel "was also an innovator in technique...devis[ing] a form of short-term therapy called active analysis which has much in common with some modern form of counselling and therapy". On aesthetics Stekel maintained that "in every child there slumbered a creative artist". In connection with the psychoanalytic examination of the roots of art, however, he emphasised that "...the Freudian interpretation, no matter how far it be carried, never offers even the rudest criterion of 'artistic' excellence...we are investigating only the impulse which drives people to create". Analyzing the dreams of artists and non-artists alike, Stekel pointed out that "at the level of symbol production the poet does not differ from the most prosaic soul...Is it not remarkable that the great poet Goethe and the unknown little woman...should have constructed such similar dreams?". Personal life Stekel was married twice and had two children. Stekel committed suicide in Kensington by taking an overdose of Aspirin "to end the pain of his prostate and the diabetic gangrene". He died at 34–37 Pembridge Gardens, Kensington, London W2, leaving a modest estate valued at £2,430. His remains were cremated at Golders Green Crematorium on 29 June 1940. His ashes lie in section 3-V of the Garden of Remembrance but there is no memorial. Stekel's autobiography was published posthumously, edited by his former personal assistant Emil Gutheil and his wife Hilda Binder Stekel. His widow died in 1969. A biographical account of Stekel's life appeared in The Self-Marginalization of Wilhem Stekel (2007) by Jaap Bos and Leendert Groenendijk, which also includes his correspondence with Sigmund Freud. See also L. Mecacci, Freudian Slips: The Casualties of Psychoanalysis from the Wolf Man to Marilyn Monroe, Vagabond Voices 2009, pp. 101 In popular culture He is referenced in the episodes 22 and 26 of Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex. A quote attributed to Stekel ("The mark of the immature man is that he wants to die nobly for a cause. The mark of the mature man is that he wants to live humbly for one.") is referenced in The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger. Cited by a character in the novel as a statement of Stekel's, it has sometimes been attributed to Salinger and may indeed be his paraphrase of a statement by the German writer Otto Ludwig (1813-1865), which Stekel himself has quoted in his writings: "Das Höchste, wozu er sich erheben konnte, war, für etwas rühmlich zu sterben; jetzt erhebt er sich zu dem Größern, für etwas ruhmlos zu leben." Cf. q:Wilhelm Stekel#Misattributed. Selected publications Stekel W. (1908) Nervöse Angstzustände und ihre Behandlung. Fourth Edition. Urban & Schwarzenberg. Stekel W. (1911). Die Sprache des Traumes: Eine Darstellung der Symbolik und Deutung des Traumes in ihren BezeihungenStekel W. (1911). Sexual Root of Kleptomania. J. Am. Inst. Crim. L. & CriminologyStekel W. (1917). Nietzsche und Wagner, eine sexualpsychologische Studie zur Psychogenese des Freundschaftsgefühles und des FreundschaftsverratesStekel W. (1921). The beloved ego, foundations of the new study of the psyche Stekel W. (1921) The depths of the soul; psycho-analytical studies Stekel W. (1922). Compulsion and Doubt (Zwang und Zweifel) Liveright Stekel W. (1922). Disguises of love ; psycho-analytical sketches Stekel W. (1922). The Homosexual Neuroses Stekel W. (1922). Bi-sexual love; the homosexual neurosis (2003 reprint: Bisexual Love. Fredonia) Stekel W. (1922). Sex and dreams; the language of dreams Stekel W. (1923) Conditions of Nervous Anxiety and Their Treatment, Tr. Rosalie Gabler, Dood, Mead & Co. Reprinted (2014) by Routledge Stekel W. (1926). Frigidity in women Vol. II. Grove Press Stekel W., Boltz O.H. (1927). Impotence in the Male: The Psychic Disorders of Sexual Function in the Male. Boni and Liveright Stekel W., Van Teslaar J.S. (1929). Peculiarities of Behavior: Wandering Mania, Dipsomania, Cleptomania, Pyromania and Allied Impulsive Disorders. H. Liveright Stekel W. (1929). Sadism and Masochism: The Psychology of Hatred and Cruelty. Liveright Stekel W. (1943). The Interpretation of Dreams: New Developments and Technique. Liveright Stekel W., Gutheil E. (1950). The Autobiography of Wilhelm Stekel. Liveright Stekel W., Boltz O.H. (1950). Technique of Analytical Psychotherapy. Live right Stekel W. (1952). Disorders of the Instincts and the Emotions -- The Parapathaic Disorders, Vol. 1 and Sexual Aberrations -- The Phenomena of Fetishism in Relation to Sex, Volume 2. (Two volumes in one.) Liveright Stekel W. (1952). Patterns of Psychosexual Infantilism Grove Press Books and Evergreen Books Stekel W. (1961). Auto-erotism: a psychiatric study of masturbation and neurosis''. Grove Press References Further reading External links Wilhelm Stekel's article "Poetry and Neurosis. Psychology of the Artist", Heksis 2/2010 Kazimierz Dąbrowski "Remarks on Wilhelm Stekel's Active Psychoanalysis", Heksis 2/2010 Category:1868 births Category:1940 deaths Category:1940 suicides Category:People from Chernivtsi Oblast Category:Austrian Jews Category:Austrian psychologists Category:Freudians Category:Austrian sexologists Category:Austrian psychoanalysts Category:History of psychiatry Category:Suicides in Kensington Category:Jewish psychoanalysts Category:Austrian emigrants to the United Kingdom Category:Drug-related suicides in England Category:Scientists from Austria-Hungary
[]
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C_8ec26f5ba97949c5a5d343a2b5b4bc90_1
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. Although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers--and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are--many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time and work in reshaping and cultivating the flora indigenous to the Americas. Although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting and gathering.
Music and art
Indigenas or pueblos indigenas ("indigenous peoples") is a common term in Spanish-speaking countries, and pueblos nativos or nativos (lit. "native peoples") may also be heard, while aborigen (aborigine) is used in Argentina, and pueblos aborigenes (aboriginal peoples) is common in Chile. The term "Amerindian" (short for "'Indians of the Americas") is used in Quebec, the Guianas, and the English-speaking Caribbean. In Brazil, indigenas or povos indigenas are common if formal-sounding designations, while indio is still the more often-heard term (the noun for the Indian nationality being indiano), and aborigene and nativo being rarely used in Amerindian-specific contexts (e.g. aborigene is usually understood as the ethnonym for Indigenous Australians). Indigenous peoples are commonly known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, which includes not only First Nations and Arctic Inuit, but also the minority population of First Nations-European mixed-race Metis people who identify culturally and ethnically with indigenous peoplehood. This is contrasted, for instance, to the American Indian-European mixed-race mestizos of Hispanic America (caboclos in Brazil) who, with their larger population (in most Latin American countries constituting either outright majorities, pluralities, or at the least large minorities), identify largely as a new ethnic group distinct from both Europeans and Indigenous Americans, but still considering themselves a subset of the European-derived Hispanic or Brazilian peoplehood in culture and ethnicity (cf. ladinos). Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term "Indian" originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for India, thought that he had arrived in the East Indies. Eventually, those islands came to be known as the "West Indies", a name still used. This led to the blanket term "Indies" and "Indians" (Spanish indios, Portuguese indios) for the indigenous inhabitants, which implied some kind of racial or cultural unity among the indigenous peoples of the Americas. This unifying concept, codified in law, religion, and politics, was not originally accepted by the myriad groups of indigenous peoples themselves, but has since been embraced by many over the last two centuries. Even though the term "Indian" generally does not include the culturally and linguistically distinct indigenous peoples of the Arctic regions of the Americas--such as the Aleuts, Inuit, or Yupik peoples, who entered the continent as a second more recent wave of migration several thousand years before, and have much more recent genetic and cultural commonalities with the aboriginal peoples of the Asiatic Arctic Russian Far East--these groups are nonetheless considered "indigenous peoples of the Americas". The Portuguese and Spanish equivalents to Indian, nevertheless, could be used to mean any hunter-gatherer or full-blooded Indigenous person, particularly to continents other than Europe or Africa--for example, indios filipinos. The Pre-Columbian era refers to all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European and African influences on the American continents, spanning the time of the original arrival in the Upper Paleolithic to European colonization during the early modern period. While technically referring to the era before Christopher Columbus' voyages of 1492 to 1504, in practice the term usually includes the history of American indigenous cultures until Europeans either conquered or significantly influenced them. "Pre-Columbian" is used especially often in the context of discussing the pre-contact Mesoamerican indigenous societies: Olmec; Toltec; Teotihuacano' Zapotec; Mixtec; Aztec and Maya civilizations; and the complex cultures of the Andes: Inca Empire, Moche culture, Muisca Confederation, and Canari. The Norte Chico civilization (in present-day Peru) is one of the defining six original civilizations of the world, arising independently around the same time as that of Egypt. Many later pre-Columbian civilizations achieved great complexity, with hallmarks that included permanent or urban settlements, agriculture, civic and monumental architecture, and complex societal hierarchies. Some of these civilizations had long faded by the time of the first significant European and African arrivals (ca. late 15th-early 16th centuries), and are known only through oral history and through archaeological investigations. Others were contemporary with the contact and colonization period, and were documented in historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Mayan, Olmec, Mixtec, and Nahua peoples, had their own written languages and records. However, the European colonists of the time worked to eliminate non-Christian beliefs, and burned many pre-Columbian written records. Only a few documents remained hidden and survived, leaving contemporary historians with glimpses of ancient culture and knowledge. According to both indigenous American and European accounts and documents, American civilizations before and at the time of European encounter had achieved great complexity and many accomplishments. For instance, the Aztecs built one of the largest cities in the world, Tenochtitlan, the ancient site of Mexico City, with an estimated population of 200,000. American civilizations also displayed impressive accomplishments in astronomy and mathematics. The domestication of maize or corn required thousands of years of selective breeding, and continued cultivation of multiple varieties was done with planning and selection, generally by women. Inuit, Yupik, Aleut, and American Indian creation myths tell of a variety of origins of their respective peoples. Some were "always there" or were created by gods or animals, some migrated from a specified compass point, and others came from "across the ocean". Native American music in North America is almost entirely monophonic, but there are notable exceptions. Traditional Native American music often centers around drumming. Rattles, clappersticks, and rasps were also popular percussive instruments. Flutes were made of rivercane, cedar, and other woods. The tuning of these flutes is not precise and depends on the length of the wood used and the hand span of the intended player, but the finger holes are most often around a whole step apart and, at least in Northern California, a flute was not used if it turned out to have an interval close to a half step. The Apache fiddle is a single stringed instrument. The music of the indigenous peoples of Central Mexico and Central America was often pentatonic. Before the arrival of the Spaniards and other Europeans, music was inseparable from religious festivities and included a large variety of percussion and wind instruments such as drums, flutes, sea snail shells (used as a trumpet) and "rain" tubes. No remnants of pre-Columbian stringed instruments were found until archaeologists discovered a jar in Guatemala, attributed to the Maya of the Late Classic Era (600-900 CE), which depicts a stringed musical instrument which has since been reproduced. This instrument is one of the very few stringed instruments known in the Americas prior to the introduction of European musical instruments; when played, it produces a sound that mimics a jaguar's growl. Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas comprise a major category in the world art collection. Contributions include pottery, paintings, jewellery, weavings, sculptures, basketry, carvings, and beadwork. Because too many artists were posing as Native Americans and Alaska Natives in order to profit from the cachet of Indigenous art in the United States, the U.S. passed the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990, requiring artists to prove that they are enrolled in a state or federally recognized tribe. To support the ongoing practice of American Indian, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian arts and cultures in the United States, the Ford Foundation, arts advocates and American Indian tribes created an endowment seed fund and established a national Native Arts and Cultures Foundation in 2007. CANNOTANSWER
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The Indigenous peoples of the Americas are the inhabitants of the Americas before the arrival of European settlers and African slaves in the 15th century, and the ethnic groups who now identify themselves with those peoples. Many Indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are, but many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. While some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions, the Indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, city-states, chiefdoms, states, kingdoms, republics, confederacies, and empires. Some had varying degrees of knowledge of engineering, architecture, mathematics, astronomy, writing, physics, medicine, planting and irrigation, geology, mining, metallurgy, sculpture, and gold smithing. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by Indigenous peoples; some countries have sizeable populations, especially Bolivia, Canada, Chile, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru, and the United States. At least a thousand different Indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Several of these languages are recognized as official by several governments such as those in Bolivia, Peru, Paraguay and Greenland. Some, such as Quechua, Arawak, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan, and Nahuatl, count their speakers in the millions. Many also maintain aspects of Indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many Indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects but also cater to modern needs. Some Indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. Bolivia is the only country in the Americas where Indigenous peoples constitute the majority. Terminology Application of the term "Indian" originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for India, thought that he had arrived in the East Indies. Eventually, those islands came to be known as the "West Indies", a name still used. This led to the blanket term "Indies" and "Indians" (; ; ; ) for the Indigenous inhabitants, which implied some kind of ethnic or cultural unity among the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. This unifying concept, codified in law, religion, and politics, was not originally accepted by the myriad groups of Indigenous peoples themselves, but has since been embraced or tolerated by many over the last two centuries. Even though the term "Indian" generally does not include the culturally and linguistically distinct Indigenous peoples of the Arctic regions of the Americas—such as the Aleuts, Inuit, or Yupik peoples, who entered the continent as a second, more recent wave of migration several thousand years later and have much more recent genetic and cultural commonalities with the Aboriginal peoples of the Asiatic Arctic Russian Far East—these groups are nonetheless considered "Indigenous peoples of the Americas". The term Amerindian, a portmanteau of "American Indian", was coined in 1902 by the American Anthropological Association. However, it has been controversial since its creation. It was immediately rejected by some leading members of the Association, and, while adopted by many, it was never universally accepted. While never popular in Indigenous communities themselves, it remains a preferred term among some anthropologists, notably in some parts of Canada and the English-speaking Caribbean. Indigenous peoples in Canada is used as the collective name for First Nations, Inuit, and Métis. The term Aboriginal peoples as a collective noun (also describing First Nations, Inuit, and Métis) is a specific term of art used in some legal documents, including the Constitution Act, 1982, though in most Indigenous circles Aboriginal has also fallen into disfavor. Over time, as societal perceptions and government-Indigenous relationships have shifted, many historical terms have changed definition or been replaced as they have fallen out of favor. Use of the term "Indian" is frowned upon because it represents the imposition and restriction of Indigenous peoples and cultures by the Canadian Government. The terms "Native" and "Eskimo" are generally regarded as disrespectful, and so are rarely used unless specifically required. While "Indigenous peoples" is the preferred term, many individuals or communities may choose to describe their identity using a different term. The Métis people of Canada can be contrasted, for instance, to the Indigenous-European mixed race mestizos (or in Brazil) of Hispanic America who, with their larger population (in most Latin-American countries constituting either outright majorities, pluralities, or at the least large minorities), identify largely as a new ethnic group distinct from both Europeans and Indigenous, but still considering themselves a subset of the European-derived Hispanic or Brazilian peoplehood in culture and ethnicity (cf. ). Among Spanish-speaking countries, or ('Indigenous peoples') is a common term, though or ('native peoples') may also be heard; moreover, ('aborigine') is used in Argentina and ('original peoples') is common in Chile. In Brazil, or ('Indigenous peoples') are common of formal-sounding designations, while ('Indian') is still the more often-heard term (the noun for the South-Asian nationality being ). and is rarely used in Brazil in Indigenous-specific contexts (e.g., is usually understood as the ethnonym for Indigenous Australians). The Spanish and Portuguese equivalents to Indian, nevertheless, could be used to mean any hunter-gatherer or full-blooded Indigenous person, particularly to continents other than Europe or Africa—for example, . Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans, Indians, as well as Alaska Natives. The term "Indian" is still used in some communities and remains in use in the official names of many institutions and businesses in Indian Country. Name controversy The various Nations, tribes, and bands of Indigenous peoples of the Americas have differing preferences in terminology for themselves. While there are regional and generational variations in which umbrella terms are preferred for Indigenous peoples as a whole, in general, most Indigenous peoples prefer to be identified by the name of their specific Nation, tribe, or band. Early settlers often adopted terms that some tribes used for each other, not realizing these were derogatory terms used by enemies. When discussing broader subsets of peoples, naming has often been based on shared language, region, or historical relationship. Many English exonyms have been used to refer to the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Some of these names were based on foreign-language terms used by earlier explorers and colonists, while others resulted from the colonists' attempts to translate or transliterate endonyms from the native languages. Other terms arose during periods of conflict between the colonists and Indigenous peoples. Since the late 20th century, Indigenous peoples in the Americas have been more vocal about how they want to be addressed, pushing to suppress use of terms widely considered to be obsolete, inaccurate, or racist. During the latter half of the 20th century and the rise of the Indian rights movement, the United States government responded by proposing the use of the term "Native American", to recognize the primacy of Indigenous peoples' tenure in the nation. As may be expected among people of over 400 different cultures in the US alone, not all of the people intended to be described by this term have agreed on its use or adopted it. No single group naming convention has been accepted by all Indigenous peoples in the Americas. Most prefer to be addressed as people of their tribe or nations when not speaking about Native Americans/American Indians as a whole. Since the 1970s, Indigenous (capitalized when referring to people) has gradually emerged as a favored umbrella term. The capitalization is to acknowledge that Indigenous peoples have cultures and societies that are equal to Europeans, Africans, and Asians. This has recently been acknowledged in the AP Stylebook. Some consider it improper to refer to Indigenous people as "Indigenous Americans" or to append any colonial nationality to the term because Indigenous cultures have existed prior to European colonization. Indigenous groups have territorial claims that are different from modern national and international borders, and when labelled as part of a country, their traditional lands are not acknowledged. Some who have written guidelines consider it more appropriate to describe an Indigenous person as "living in" or "of" the Americas, rather than calling them "American"; or to simply call them "Indigenous" without any addition of a colonial state. History Settlement of the Americas Geneticist and professor of anthropology Jennifer Raff (2022) in the book "A Genetic Chronicle of the First Peoples in the Americas" summarized that the first people in the Americas formed from the merger of a distinct Paleolithic Siberian population (known as Ancient North Eurasians), with a deeply diverged Ancient East Asian group about 36,000 years ago, giving rise to both Paleosiberian peoples and Ancient Native Americans, which later migrated towards the Beringian region, became isolated from other populations, and subsequently populated the Americas. Pre-Columbian era The Pre-Columbian era refers to all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European and African influences on the American continents, spanning the time of the original arrival in the Upper Paleolithic to European colonization during the early modern period. While technically referring to the era before Christopher Columbus' voyages of 1492 to 1504, in practice the term usually includes the history of Indigenous cultures until Europeans either conquered or significantly influenced them. "Pre-Columbian" is used especially often in the context of discussing the pre-contact Mesoamerican Indigenous societies: Olmec; Toltec; Teotihuacano' Zapotec; Mixtec; Aztec and Maya civilizations; and the complex cultures of the Andes: Inca Empire, Moche culture, Muisca Confederation, and Cañari. The Norte Chico civilization (in present-day Peru) is one of the defining six original civilizations of the world, arising independently around the same time as that of Egypt. Many later pre-Columbian civilizations achieved great complexity, with hallmarks that included permanent or urban settlements, agriculture, engineering, astronomy, trade, civic and monumental architecture, and complex societal hierarchies. Some of these civilizations had long faded by the time of the first significant European and African arrivals (ca. late 15th–early 16th centuries), and are known only through oral history and through archaeological investigations. Others were contemporary with the contact and colonization period, and were documented in historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Mayan, Olmec, Mixtec, Aztec and Nahua peoples, had their own written languages and records. However, the European colonists of the time worked to eliminate non-Christian beliefs, and burned many pre-Columbian written records. Only a few documents remained hidden and survived, leaving contemporary historians with glimpses of ancient culture and knowledge. According to both Indigenous and European accounts and documents, American civilizations before and at the time of European encounter had achieved great complexity and many accomplishments. For instance, the Aztecs built one of the largest cities in the world, Tenochtitlan (the historical site of what would become Mexico City), with an estimated population of 200,000 for the city proper and a population of close to five million for the extended empire. By comparison, the largest European cities in the 16th century were Constantinople and Paris with 300,000 and 200,000 inhabitants respectively. The population in London, Madrid and Rome hardly exceeded 50,000 people. In 1523, right around the time of the Spanish conquest, the entire population in the country of England was just under three million people. This fact speaks to the level of sophistication, agriculture, governmental procedure and rule of law that existed in Tenochtitlan, needed to govern over such a large citizenry. Indigenous civilizations also displayed impressive accomplishments in astronomy and mathematics, including the most accurate calendar in the world. The domestication of maize or corn required thousands of years of selective breeding, and continued cultivation of multiple varieties was done with planning and selection, generally by women. Inuit, Yupik, Aleut, and Indigenous creation myths tell of a variety of origins of their respective peoples. Some were "always there" or were created by gods or animals, some migrated from a specified compass point, and others came from "across the ocean". European colonization The European colonization of the Americas fundamentally changed the lives and cultures of the resident Indigenous peoples. Although the exact pre-colonization population-count of the Americas is unknown, scholars estimate that Indigenous populations diminished by between 80% and 90% within the first centuries of European colonization. The majority of these losses are attributed to the introduction of Afro-Eurasian diseases into the Americas. Epidemics ravaged the Americas with diseases such as smallpox, measles, and cholera, which the early colonists brought from Europe. The spread of infectious diseases was slow initially, as most Europeans were not actively or visibly infected, due to inherited immunity from generations of exposure to these diseases in Europe. This changed when the Europeans began the human trafficking of massive numbers of enslaved Western and Central African people to the Americas. Like Indigenous peoples, these African people, newly exposed to European diseases, lacked any inherited resistances to the diseases of Europe. In 1520 an African who had been infected with smallpox had arrived in Yucatán. By 1558, the disease had spread throughout South America and had arrived at the Plata basin. Colonist violence towards Indigenous peoples accelerated the loss of lives. European colonists perpetrated massacres on the Indigenous peoples and enslaved them. According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894), the North American Indian Wars of the 19th century cost the lives of about 19,000 Europeans and 30,000 Native Americans. The first Indigenous group encountered by Columbus, the 250,000 Taínos of Hispaniola, represented the dominant culture in the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas. Within thirty years about 70% of the Taínos had died. They had no immunity to European diseases, so outbreaks of measles and smallpox ravaged their population. One such outbreak occurred in a camp of enslaved Africans, where smallpox spread to the nearby Taíno population and reduced their numbers by 50%. Increasing punishment of the Taínos for revolting against forced labor, despite measures put in place by the encomienda, which included religious education and protection from warring tribes, eventually led to the last great Taíno rebellion (1511–1529). Following years of mistreatment, the Taínos began to adopt suicidal behaviors, with women aborting or killing their infants and men jumping from cliffs or ingesting untreated cassava, a violent poison. Eventually, a Taíno Cacique named Enriquillo managed to hold out in the Baoruco Mountain Range for thirteen years, causing serious damage to the Spanish, Carib-held plantations and their Indian auxiliaries. Hearing of the seriousness of the revolt, Emperor Charles V (also King of Spain) sent captain Francisco Barrionuevo to negotiate a peace treaty with the ever-increasing number of rebels. Two months later, after consultation with the Audencia of Santo Domingo, Enriquillo was offered any part of the island to live in peace. The Laws of Burgos, 1512–1513, were the first codified set of laws governing the behavior of Spanish settlers in America, particularly with regard to Indigenous peoples. The laws forbade the maltreatment of them and endorsed their conversion to Catholicism. The Spanish crown found it difficult to enforce these laws in distant colonies. Epidemic disease was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the Indigenous peoples. After initial contact with Europeans and Africans, Old World diseases caused the deaths of 90 to 95% of the native population of the New World in the following 150 years. Smallpox killed from one third to half of the native population of Hispaniola in 1518. By killing the Incan ruler Huayna Capac, smallpox caused the Inca Civil War of 1529–1532. Smallpox was only the first epidemic. Typhus (probably) in 1546, influenza and smallpox together in 1558, smallpox again in 1589, diphtheria in 1614, measles in 1618—all ravaged the remains of Inca culture. Smallpox killed millions of native inhabitants of Mexico. Unintentionally introduced at Veracruz with the arrival of Pánfilo de Narváez on 23 April 1520, smallpox ravaged Mexico in the 1520s, possibly killing over 150,000 in Tenochtitlán (the heartland of the Aztec Empire) alone, and aiding in the victory of Hernán Cortés over the Aztec Empire at Tenochtitlan (present-day Mexico City) in 1521. There are many factors as to why Indigenous peoples suffered such immense losses from Afro-Eurasian diseases. Many European diseases, like cow pox, are acquired from domesticated animals that are not indigenous to the Americas. European populations had adapted to these diseases, and built up resistance, over many generations. Many of the European diseases that were brought over to the Americas were diseases, like yellow fever, that were relatively manageable if infected as a child, but were deadly if infected as an adult. Children could often survive the disease, resulting in immunity to the disease for the rest of their lives. But contact with adult populations without this childhood or inherited immunity would result in these diseases proving fatal. Colonization of the Caribbean led to the destruction of the Arawaks of the Lesser Antilles. Their culture was destroyed by 1650. Only 500 had survived by the year 1550, though the bloodlines continued through to the modern populace. In Amazonia, Indigenous societies weathered, and continue to suffer, centuries of colonization and genocide. Contact with European diseases such as smallpox and measles killed between 50 and 67 per cent of the Indigenous population of North America in the first hundred years after the arrival of Europeans. Some 90 per cent of the native population near Massachusetts Bay Colony died of smallpox in an epidemic in 1617–1619. In 1633, in Fort Orange (New Netherland), the Native Americans there were exposed to smallpox because of contact with Europeans. As it had done elsewhere, the virus wiped out entire population-groups of Native Americans. It reached Lake Ontario in 1636, and the lands of the Iroquois by 1679. During the 1770s smallpox killed at least 30% of the West Coast Native Americans. The 1775–82 North American smallpox epidemic and the 1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic brought devastation and drastic population depletion among the Plains Indians. In 1832 the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans (The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832). The Indigenous peoples in Brazil declined from a pre-Columbian high of an estimated three million to some 300,000 in 1997. The Spanish Empire and other Europeans re-introduced horses to the Americas. Some of these animals escaped and began to breed and increase their numbers in the wild. The re-introduction of the horse, extinct in the Americas for over 7500 years, had a profound impact on Indigenous cultures in the Great Plains of North America and in Patagonia in South America. By domesticating horses, some tribes had great success: horses enabled them to expand their territories, exchange more goods with neighboring tribes, and more easily capture game, especially bison. Indigenous historical trauma (IHT) Indigenous historical trauma (IHT) is the trauma that can accumulate across generations that develops as a result of the historical ramifications of colonization and is linked to mental and physical health hardships and population decline. IHT affects many different people in a multitude of ways because the Indigenous community and their history is diverse. Many studies (such as Whitbeck et al., 2014; Brockie, 2012; Anastasio et al., 2016; Clark & Winterowd, 2012; Tucker et al., 2016) have evaluated the impact of IHT on health outcomes of Indigenous communities from the United States and Canada. IHT is a difficult term to standardize and measure because of the vast and variable diversity of Indigenous people and their communities. Therefore, it is an arduous task to assign an operational definition and systematically collect data when studying IHT. Many of the studies that incorporate IHT measure it in different ways, making it hard to compile data and review it holistically. This is an important point that provides context for the following studies that attempt to understand the relationship between IHT and potential adverse health impacts. Some of the methodologies to measure IHT include a "Historical Losses Scale" (HLS), "Historical Losses Associated Symptoms Scale" (HLASS), and residential school ancestry studies. HLS uses a survey format that includes "12 kinds of historical losses," such as loss of language and loss of land and asks participants how often they think about those losses. The HLASS includes 12 emotional reactions and asks participants how they feel when they think about these losses. Lastly, the residential school ancestry studies ask respondents if their parents, grandparents, great-grandparents or "elders from their community" went to a residential school to understand if family or community history in residential schools are associated with negative health outcomes. In a comprehensive review of the research literature, Joseph Gone and colleagues compiled and compared outcomes for studies using these IHT measures relative to health outcomes of Indigenous peoples. The study defined negative health outcomes to include such concepts as anxiety, suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, polysubstance abuse, PTSD, depression, binge eating, anger, and sexual abuse. The connection between IHT and health conditions is complicated because of the difficult nature of measuring IHT, the unknown directionality of IHT and health outcomes, and because the term Indigenous people used in the various samples comprises a huge population of individuals with drastically different experiences and histories. That being said, some studies such as Bombay, Matheson, and Anisman (2014), Elias et al. (2012), and Pearce et al. (2008) found that Indigenous respondents with a connection to residential schools have more negative health outcomes (e.g., suicide ideation, suicide attempts, and depression) than those who did not have a connection to residential schools. Additionally, Indigenous respondents with higher HLS and HLASS scores had one or more negative health outcomes. While there many studies that found an association between IHT and adverse health outcomes, scholars continue to suggest that it remains difficult to understand the impact of IHT. IHT needs to be systematically measured. Indigenous people also need to be understood in separated categories based on similar experiences, location, and background as opposed to being categorized as one monolithic group. Agriculture Plants In the course of thousands of years, Indigenous peoples domesticated, bred and cultivated a large array of plant species. These species now constitute between 50% and 60% of all crops in cultivation worldwide. In certain cases, the Indigenous peoples developed entirely new species and strains through artificial selection, as with the domestication and breeding of maize from wild teosinte grasses in the valleys of southern Mexico. Numerous such agricultural products retain their native names in the English and Spanish lexicons. The South American highlands became a center of early agriculture. Genetic testing of the wide variety of cultivars and wild species suggests that the potato has a single origin in the area of southern Peru, from a species in the Solanum brevicaule complex. Over 99% of all modern cultivated potatoes worldwide are descendants of a subspecies Indigenous to south-central Chile, Solanum tuberosum ssp. tuberosum, where it was cultivated as long as 10,000 years ago. According to Linda Newson, "It is clear that in pre-Columbian times some groups struggled to survive and often suffered food shortages and famines, while others enjoyed a varied and substantial diet." Persistent drought around AD 850 coincided with the collapse of Classic Maya civilization, and the famine of One Rabbit (AD 1454) was a major catastrophe in Mexico. Indigenous peoples of North America began practicing farming approximately 4,000 years ago, late in the Archaic period of North American cultures. Technology had advanced to the point where pottery had started to become common and the small-scale felling of trees had become feasible. Concurrently, the Archaic Indigenous peoples began using fire in a controlled manner. They carried out intentional burning of vegetation to mimic the effects of natural fires that tended to clear forest understories. It made travel easier and facilitated the growth of herbs and berry-producing plants, which were important both for food and for medicines. In the Mississippi River valley, Europeans noted that Native Americans managed groves of nut- and fruit-trees not far from villages and towns and their gardens and agricultural fields. They would have used prescribed burning further away, in forest and prairie areas. Many crops first domesticated by Indigenous peoples are now produced and used globally, most notably maize (or "corn") arguably the most important crop in the world. Other significant crops include cassava; chia; squash (pumpkins, zucchini, marrow, acorn squash, butternut squash); the pinto bean, Phaseolus beans including most common beans, tepary beans and lima beans; tomatoes; potatoes; sweet potatoes; avocados; peanuts; cocoa beans (used to make chocolate); vanilla; strawberries; pineapples; peppers (species and varieties of Capsicum, including bell peppers, jalapeños, paprika and chili peppers); sunflower seeds; rubber; brazilwood; chicle; tobacco; coca; blueberries, cranberries, and some species of cotton. Studies of contemporary Indigenous environmental management—including of agro-forestry practices among Itza Maya in Guatemala and of hunting and fishing among the Menominee of Wisconsin—suggest that longstanding "sacred values" may represent a summary of sustainable millennial traditions. Animals Indigenous peoples also domesticated some animals, such as turkeys, llamas, alpacas, guinea-pigs, Muscovy ducks, Fuegian dogs, Puna ibis, and neotropic cormorants. Culture Cultural practices in the Americas seem to have been shared mostly within geographical zones where distinct ethnic groups adopting shared cultural traits, similar technologies, and social organizations. An example of such a cultural area is Mesoamerica, where millennia of coexistence and shared development among the peoples of the region produced a fairly homogeneous culture with complex agricultural and social patterns. Another well-known example is the North American plains where until the 19th century several peoples shared the traits of nomadic hunter-gatherers based primarily on buffalo hunting. Languages The languages of the North American Indians have been classified into 56 groups or stock tongues, in which the spoken languages of the tribes may be said to centre. In connection with speech, reference may be made to gesture language which was highly developed in parts of this area. Of equal interest is the picture writing especially well developed among the Chippewas and Delawares. Writing systems Beginning in the 1st millennium BCE, pre-Columbian cultures in Mesoamerica developed several Indigenous writing systems (independent of any influence from the writing systems that existed in other parts of the world). The Cascajal Block is perhaps the earliest-known example in the Americas of what may be an extensive written text. The Olmec hieroglyphs tablet has been indirectly dated (from ceramic shards found in the same context) to approximately 900 BCE-which is around the same time that the Olmec occupation of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán began to weaken. The Maya writing system was logosyllabic (a combination of phonetic syllabic symbols and logograms). It is the only pre-Columbian writing system known to have completely represented the spoken language of its community. It has more than a thousand different glyphs, but a few are variations on the same sign or have the same meaning, many appear only rarely or in particular localities, no more than about five hundred were in use in any given time period, and, of those, it seems only about two hundred (including variations) represented a particular phoneme or syllable. The Zapotec writing system, one of the earliest in the Americas, was logographic and presumably syllabic. There are remnants of Zapotec writing in inscriptions on some of the monumental architecture of the period, but so few inscriptions are extant that it is difficult to fully describe the writing system. The oldest example of Zapotec script, dating from around 600 BCE, is on a monument that was discovered in San José Mogote. Aztec codices (singular codex) are books that were written by pre-Columbian and colonial-era Aztecs. These codices are some of the best primary sources for descriptions of Aztec culture. The pre-Columbian codices are largely pictorial; they do not contain symbols that represent spoken or written language. By contrast, colonial-era codices contain not only Aztec pictograms, but also writing that uses the Latin alphabet in several languages: Classical Nahuatl, Spanish, and occasionally Latin. Spanish mendicants in the sixteenth century taught Indigenous scribes in their communities to write their languages using Latin letters, and there are a large number of local-level documents in Nahuatl, Zapotec, Mixtec, and Yucatec Maya from the colonial era, many of which were part of lawsuits and other legal matters. Although Spaniards initially taught Indigenous scribes alphabetic writing, the tradition became self-perpetuating at the local level. The Spanish crown gathered such documentation, and contemporary Spanish translations were made for legal cases. Scholars have translated and analyzed these documents in what is called the New Philology to write histories of Indigenous peoples from Indigenous viewpoints. The Wiigwaasabak, birch bark scrolls on which the Ojibwa (Anishinaabe) people wrote complex geometrical patterns and shapes, can also be considered a form of writing, as can Mi'kmaq hieroglyphics. Aboriginal syllabic writing, or simply syllabics, is a family of abugidas used to write some Indigenous languages of the Algonquian, Inuit, and Athabaskan language families. Music and art Indigenous music can vary between cultures, however there are significant commonalities. Traditional music often centers around drumming and singing. Rattles, clapper sticks, and rasps are also popular percussive instruments, both historically and in contemporary cultures. Flutes are made of river-cane, cedar, and other woods. The Apache have a type of fiddle, and fiddles are also found among a number of First Nations and Métis cultures. The music of the Indigenous peoples of Central Mexico and Central America, like that of the North American cultures, tend to be spiritual ceremonies. It traditionally includes a large variety of percussion and wind instruments such as drums, flutes, sea shells (used as trumpets) and "rain" tubes. No remnants of pre-Columbian stringed instruments were found until archaeologists discovered a jar in Guatemala, attributed to the Maya of the Late Classic Era (600–900 CE); this jar was decorated with imagery depicting a stringed musical instrument which has since been reproduced. This instrument is one of the very few stringed instruments known in the Americas prior to the introduction of European musical instruments; when played, it produces a sound that mimics a jaguar's growl. Visual arts by Indigenous peoples of the Americas comprise a major category in the world art collection. Contributions include pottery, paintings, jewellery, weavings, sculptures, basketry, carvings, and beadwork. Because too many artists were posing as Native Americans and Alaska Natives in order to profit from the cachet of Indigenous art in the United States, the U.S. passed the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990, requiring artists to prove that they are enrolled in a state or federally recognized tribe. To support the ongoing practice of American Indian, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian arts and cultures in the United States, the Ford Foundation, arts advocates and American Indian tribes created an endowment seed fund and established a national Native Arts and Cultures Foundation in 2007. After the entry of the Spaniards, the process of spiritual conquest was favored, among other things, by the liturgical musical service to which the natives, whose musical gifts came to surprise the missionaries, were integrated. The musical gifts of the natives were of such magnitude that they soon learned the rules of counterpoint and polyphony and even the virtuous handling of the instruments. This helped to ensure that it was not necessary to bring more musicians from Spain, which significantly annoyed the clergy. The solution that was proposed was not to employ but a certain number of indigenous people in the musical service, not to teach them counterpoint, not to allow them to play certain instruments (brass breaths, for example, in Oaxaca, Mexico) and, finally, not to import more instruments so that the indigenous people would not have access to them. The latter was not an obstacle to the musical enjoyment of the natives, who experienced the making of instruments, particularly rubbed strings (violins and double basses) or plucked (third). It is there where we can find the origin of what is now called traditional music whose instruments they have their own tuning and a typical western structure. Demography The following table provides estimates for each country in the Americas of the populations of Indigenous people and those with partial Indigenous ancestry, each expressed as a percentage of the overall population. The total percentage obtained by adding both of these categories is also given. Note: these categories are inconsistently defined and measured differently from country to country. Some figures are based on the results of population-wide genetic surveys while others are based on self-identification or observational estimation. History and status by continent and country North America Canada Indigenous peoples in Canada comprise the First Nations, Inuit and Métis; the descriptors "Indian" and "Eskimo" are falling into disuse. In Canada, it is quite frowned upon to use the name "Indian" in casual conversation. "Eskimo" is considered derogatory in many other places because it was given by non-Inuit and was said to mean "eater of raw meat". Hundreds of Indigenous nations evolved trade, spiritual and social hierarchies. The Métis ethnicity developed a culture during the 18th century after generations of First Nations married European settlers. They were small farmers, hunters and trappers, and usually Catholic and French-speaking. The Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during that early period. Various laws, treaties, and legislation have been enacted between European-Canadians and First Nations across Canada. Aboriginal Right to Self-Government provides the opportunity for First Nations to manage their own historical, cultural, political, health care and economic control within their communities. Although not without conflict, early European interactions in the east with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful compared to the later experience of Indigenous peoples in the United States. Combined with a late economic development in many regions, this relatively peaceful history resulted in Indigenous peoples having a fairly strong influence on the early national culture, while preserving their own identity. From the late 18th century, European Canadians (primarily British Canadians and French Canadians) worked to force Indigenous peoples to assimilate into the mainstream European-influenced culture, which they referred to as Canadian culture. The government attempted violent forced integration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Notable examples here include residential schools. National Indigenous Peoples Day recognizes the cultures and contributions of Indigenous peoples of Canada. There are currently over 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands encompassing 1,807,250 people spread across Canada, with distinctive Indigenous cultures, languages, art, and music. Greenland The Greenlandic Inuit (Kalaallisut: kalaallit, Tunumiisut: tunumiit, Inuktun: inughuit) are the Indigenous and most populous ethnic group in Greenland. This means that Denmark has one officially recognized Indigenous group. the Inuit – the Greenlandic Inuit of Greenland and the Greenlandic people in Denmark (Inuit residing in Denmark). Approximately 89 percent of Greenland's population of 57,695 is Greenlandic Inuit, or 51,349 people . Ethnographically, they consist of three major groups: the Kalaallit of west Greenland, who speak Kalaallisut the Tunumiit of Tunu (east Greenland), who speak Tunumiit oraasiat ("East Greenlandic") the Inughuit of north Greenland, who speak Inuktun ("Polar Inuit") Mexico The territory of modern-day Mexico was home to numerous Indigenous civilizations prior to the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores: The Olmecs, who flourished from between 1200 BCE to about 400 BCE in the coastal regions of the Gulf of Mexico; the Zapotecs and the Mixtecs, who held sway in the mountains of Oaxaca and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec; the Maya in the Yucatán (and into neighbouring areas of contemporary Central America); the Purépecha in present-day Michoacán and surrounding areas, and the Aztecs/Mexica, who, from their central capital at Tenochtitlan, dominated much of the centre and south of the country (and the non-Aztec inhabitants of those areas) when Hernán Cortés first landed at Veracruz. In contrast to what was the general rule in the rest of North America, the history of the colony of New Spain was one of racial intermingling (mestizaje). Mestizos, which in Mexico designate people who do not identify culturally with any Indigenous grouping, quickly came to account for a majority of the colony's population. Today, Mestizos in Mexico of mixed indigenous and European ancestry (with a minor African contribution) are still a majority of the population. Genetic studies vary over whether indigenous or European ancestry predominates in the Mexican Mestizo population. In the 2015 census, 20.3% of the Mexican population self-identified as indigenous. In the 2020 INEGI (National Institute of Statistics and Geography) census showed that at the national level there are 11.8 million indigenous people (9.3% of the Mexican population). In 2020 the National Institute of Indigenous Peoples reported 11.1 million people in Mexico belonging to an indigenous ethnicity (8.8% of the Mexican population). The indigenous population is distributed throughout the territory of Mexico, but is especially concentrated in the Sierra Madre del Sur, the Yucatán Peninsula and in the most remote and difficult-to-access areas, such as the Sierra Madre Oriental, the Sierra Madre Occidental and neighboring areas. The CDI identifies 62 Indigenous groups in Mexico, each with a unique language. In the states of Chiapas and Oaxaca and in the interior of the Yucatán Peninsula a large amount of the population is Indigenous descent with the largest ethnic group being mayan with a population of 900,000. Large Indigenous minorities, including Aztecs or Nahua, Purépechas, Mazahua, Otomi, and Mixtecs are also present in the central regions of Mexico. In the Northern and Bajio regions of Mexico, Indigenous people are a small minority. The General Law of Linguistic Rights of the Indigenous Peoples grants all Indigenous languages spoken in Mexico, regardless of the number of speakers, the same validity as Spanish in all territories in which they are spoken, and Indigenous peoples are entitled to request some public services and documents in their native languages. Along with Spanish, the law has granted them—more than 60 languages—the status of "national languages". The law includes all Indigenous languages of the Americas regardless of origin; that is, it includes the Indigenous languages of ethnic groups non-native to the territory. The National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples recognizes the language of the Kickapoo, who immigrated from the United States, and recognizes the languages of the Indigenous refugees from Guatemala. The Mexican government has promoted and established bilingual primary and secondary education in some Indigenous rural communities. Nonetheless, of the Indigenous peoples in Mexico, 93% are either a native speaker or a bilingual second language speaker of Spanish with only about 62.4% of them (or 5.4% of the country's population) speak an Indigenous language and about a sixth do not speak Spanish (0.7% of the country's population). The Indigenous peoples in Mexico have the right of free determination under the second article of the constitution. According to this article the Indigenous peoples are granted: the right to decide the internal forms of social, economic, political and cultural organization; the right to apply their own normative systems of regulation as long as human rights and gender equality are respected; the right to preserve and enrich their languages and cultures; the right to elect representatives before the municipal council in which their territories are located; amongst other rights. United States Indigenous peoples in what is now the contiguous United States, including their descendants, were commonly called American Indians, or simply Indians domestically and since the late 20th century the term Native American came into common use. In Alaska, Indigenous peoples belong to 11 cultures with 11 languages. These include the St. Lawrence Island Yupik, Iñupiat, Athabaskan, Yup'ik, Cup'ik, Unangax, Alutiiq, Eyak, Haida, Tsimshian, and Tlingit, and are collectively called Alaska Natives. They include Native American peoples as well as Inuit, who are distinct but occupy areas of the region. The United States has authority with Indigenous Polynesian peoples, which include Hawaiians, Marshallese (Micronesian), and Samoan; politically they are classified as Pacific Islander American. They are geographically, genetically, and culturally distinct from Indigenous peoples of the mainland continents of the Americas. Native Americans in the United States make up 1.1% of the population. In the 2020 census, 3.7 million people identified as Native American and Alaska Native alone. A total of 9.7 million people identified as Native Americans and Alaska Native, either alone or in combination with one or more ethnicity or other races. Tribes have established their own criteria for membership, which are often based on blood quantum, lineal descent, or residency. A minority of Native Americans live in land units called Indian reservations. Some California and Southwestern tribes, such as the Kumeyaay, Cocopa, Pascua Yaqui, Tohono O'odham and Apache, span both sides of the US–Mexican border. By treaty, Haudenosaunee people have the legal right to freely cross the US–Canada border. Athabascan, Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Iñupiat, Blackfeet, Nakota, Cree, Anishinaabe, Huron, Lenape, Mi'kmaq, Penobscot, and Haudenosaunee, among others, live in both Canada and the United States, whose international border cut through their common cultural territory. Central America Belize Mestizos (mixed European-Indigenous) number about 34% of the population; unmixed Maya make up another 10.6% (Kekchi, Mopan, and Yucatec). The Garifuna, who came to Belize in the 19th century from Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, have mixed African, Carib and Arawak ancestry and make up another 6% of the population. Costa Rica There are over 114,000 inhabitants of Native American origins, representing 2.4% of the population. Most of them live in secluded reservations, distributed among eight ethnic groups: Quitirrisí (In the Central Valley), Matambú or Chorotega (Guanacaste), Maleku (Northern Alajuela), Bribri (Southern Atlantic), Cabécar (Cordillera de Talamanca), Boruca (Southern Costa Rica) and Ngäbe (Southern Costa Rica long the Panamá border). These native groups are characterized for their work in wood, like masks, drums and other artistic figures, as well as fabrics made of cotton. Their subsistence is based on agriculture, having corn, beans and plantains as the main crops. El Salvador Estimates for El Salvador's indigenous population vary. The last time a reported census had an Indigenous ethnic option was in 2007, which estimated that 0.23% of the population identified as Indigenous. Historically, estimates have claimed higher amounts. A 1930 census stated that 5.6% were Indigenous. By the mid-20th century, there may have been as much as 20% (or 400,000) that would qualify as "Indigenous". Another estimate stated that by the late 1980s, 10% of the population was Indigenous, and another 89% was mestizo (or people of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry). Much of El Salvador was home to the Pipil, the Lenca, Xinca, and Kakawira. The Pipil lived in western El Salvador, spoke Nawat, and had many settlements there, most noticeably Cuzcatlan. The Pipil had no precious mineral resources, but they did have rich and fertile land that was good for farming. The Spaniards were disappointed not to find gold or jewels in El Salvador as they had in other lands like Guatemala or Mexico, but upon learning of the fertile land in El Salvador, they attempted to conquer it. Noted Meso-American Indigenous warriors to rise militarily against the Spanish included Princes Atonal and Atlacatl of the Pipil people in central El Salvador and Princess Antu Silan Ulap of the Lenca people in eastern El Salvador, who saw the Spanish not as gods but as barbaric invaders. After fierce battles, the Pipil successfully fought off the Spanish army led by Pedro de Alvarado along with their Indigenous allies (the Tlaxcalas), sending them back to Guatemala. After many other attacks with an army reinforced with Indigenous allies, the Spanish were able to conquer Cuzcatlan. After further attacks, the Spanish also conquered the Lenca people. Eventually, the Spaniards intermarried with Pipil and Lenca women, resulting in the mestizo population that would make up the vast majority of the Salvadoran people. Today many Pipil and other Indigenous populations live in the many small towns of El Salvador like Izalco, Panchimalco, Sacacoyo, and Nahuizalco. Guatemala Guatemala has one of the largest Indigenous populations in Central America, with approximately 43.6% of the population considering themselves Indigenous. The Indigenous demographic portion of Guatemala's population consists of majority Mayan groups and one Non-Mayan group. The Mayan language speaking portion makes up 29.7% of the population and is distributed into 23 groups namely Q’eqchi' 8.3%, K’iche 7.8%, Mam 4.4%, Kaqchikel 3%, Q'anjob'al 1.2%, Poqomchi' 1%, and Other 4%. The Non-Mayan group consists of the Xinca who are another set of Indigenous people making up 1.8% of the population. Other sources indicate that between 50% and 60% of the population could be Indigenous, because part of the Mestizo population is predominantly Indigenous. The Mayan tribes cover a vast geographic area throughout Central America and expanding beyond Guatemala into other countries. One could find vast groups of Mayan people in Boca Costa, in the Southern portions of Guatemala, as well as the Western Highlands living together in close communities. Within these communities and outside of them, around 23 Indigenous languages (or Native American Indigenous languages) are spoken as a first language. Of these 23 languages, they only received official recognition by the Government in 2003 under the Law of National Languages. The Law on National Languages recognizes 23 Indigenous languages including Xinca, enforcing that public and government institutions not only translate but also provide services in said languages. It would provide services in Cakchiquel, Garifuna, Kekchi, Mam, Quiche and Xinca.  The Law of National Languages has been an effort to grant and protect Indigenous people rights not afforded to them previously. Along with the Law of National Languages passed in 2003, in 1996 the Guatemalan Constitutional Court had ratified the ILO Convention 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples. The ILO Convention 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples, is also known as Convention 169. Which is the only International Law regarding Indigenous peoples that Independent countries can adopt. The convention, establishes that governments like Guatemala's must consult with Indigenous groups prior to any projects occurring on tribal lands. Honduras About five percent of the population are of full-blooded Indigenous descent, but as much as 80 percent of Hondurans are mestizo or part-Indigenous with European admixture, and about ten percent are of Indigenous or African descent. The largest concentrations of Indigenous communities in Honduras are in the westernmost areas facing Guatemala and along the coast of the Caribbean Sea, as well as on the border with Nicaragua. The majority of Indigenous people are Lencas, Miskitos to the east, Mayans, Pech, Sumos, and Tolupan. Nicaragua About 5% of the Nicaraguan population are Indigenous. The largest Indigenous group in Nicaragua is the Miskito people. Their territory extended from Cape Camarón, Honduras, to Rio Grande, Nicaragua along the Mosquito Coast. There is a native Miskito language, but large numbers speak Miskito Coast Creole, Spanish, Rama and other languages. Their use of Creole English came about through frequent contact with the British, who colonized the area. Many Miskitos are Christians. Traditional Miskito society was highly structured, politically and otherwise. It had a king, but he did not have total power. Instead, the power was split between himself, a Miskito Governor, a Miskito General, and by the 1750s, a Miskito Admiral. Historical information on Miskito kings is often obscured by the fact that many of the kings were semi-mythical. Another major Indigenous culture in eastern Nicaragua are the Mayangna (or Sumu) people, counting some 10,000 people. A smaller Indigenous culture in southeastern Nicaragua are the Rama. Other Indigenous groups in Nicaragua are located in the central, northern, and Pacific areas and they are self-identified as follows: Chorotega, Cacaopera (or Matagalpa), Xiu-Subtiaba, and Nicarao. Panama South America Argentina In 2005, Indigenous population living in Argentina (known as pueblos originarios) numbered about 600,329 (1.6% of total population); this figure includes 457,363 people who self-identified as belonging to an Indigenous ethnic group and 142,966 who identified themselves as first-generation descendants of an Indigenous people. The ten most populous Indigenous peoples are the Mapuche (113,680 people), the Kolla (70,505), the Toba (69,452), the Guaraní (68,454), the Wichi (40,036), the Diaguita–Calchaquí (31,753), the Mocoví (15,837), the Huarpe (14,633), the Comechingón (10,863) and the Tehuelche (10,590). Minor but important peoples are the Quechua (6,739), the Charrúa (4,511), the Pilagá (4,465), the Chané (4,376), and the Chorote (2,613). The Selknam (Ona) people are now virtually extinct in its pure form. The languages of the Diaguita, Tehuelche, and Selknam nations have become extinct or virtually extinct: the Cacán language (spoken by Diaguitas) in the 18th century and the Selknam language in the 20th century; one Tehuelche language (Southern Tehuelche) is still spoken by a handful of elderly people. Bolivia In Bolivia, the 2001 census reported that 62% of residents over the age of 15 identify as belonging to an Indigenous people. Some 3.7% report growing up with an Indigenous mother tongue but do not identify as Indigenous. When both of these categories are totaled, and children under 15, some 66.4% of Bolivia's population was recorded as Indigenous in the 2001 Census. The largest Indigenous ethnic groups are: Quechua, about 2.5 million people; Aymara, 2.0 million; Chiquitano, 181,000; Guaraní, 126,000; and Mojeño, 69,000. Some 124,000 belong to smaller Indigenous groups. The Constitution of Bolivia, enacted in 2009, recognizes 36 cultures, each with its own language, as part of a pluri-national state. Some groups, including CONAMAQ (the National Council of Ayllus and Markas of Qullasuyu), draw ethnic boundaries within the Quechua- and Aymara-speaking population, resulting in a total of 50 Indigenous peoples native to Bolivia. Large numbers of Bolivian highland peasants retained Indigenous language, culture, customs, and communal organization throughout the Spanish conquest and the post-independence period. They mobilized to resist various attempts at the dissolution of communal landholdings and used legal recognition of "empowered caciques" to further communal organization. Indigenous revolts took place frequently until 1953. While the National Revolutionary Movement government begun in 1952 discouraged people identifying as Indigenous (reclassifying rural people as campesinos, or peasants), renewed ethnic and class militancy re-emerged in the Katarista movement beginning in the 1970s. Many lowland Indigenous peoples, mostly in the east, entered national politics through the 1990 March for Territory and Dignity organized by the CIDOB confederation. That march successfully pressured the national government to sign the ILO Convention 169 and to begin the still-ongoing process of recognizing and giving official title to Indigenous territories. The 1994 Law of Popular Participation granted "grassroots territorial organizations;" these are recognized by the state and have certain rights to govern local areas. Some radio and television programs are produced in the Quechua and Aymara languages. The constitutional reform in 1997 recognized Bolivia as a multi-lingual, pluri-ethnic society and introduced education reform. In 2005, for the first time in the country's history, an Indigenous Aymara, Evo Morales, was elected as president. Morales began work on his "Indigenous autonomy" policy, which he launched in the eastern lowlands department on 3 August 2009. Bolivia was the first nation in the history of South America to affirm the right of Indigenous people to self-government. Speaking in Santa Cruz Department, the President called it "a historic day for the peasant and Indigenous movement", saying that, though he might make errors, he would "never betray the fight started by our ancestors and the fight of the Bolivian people". A vote on further autonomy for jurisdictions took place in December 2009, at the same time as general elections to office. The issue divided the country. At that time, Indigenous peoples voted overwhelmingly for more autonomy: five departments that had not already done so voted for it; as did Gran Chaco Province in Taríja, for regional autonomy; and 11 of 12 municipalities that had referendums on this issue. Brazil Indigenous peoples of Brazil make up 0.4% of Brazil's population, or about 817,000 people, but millions of Brazilians are mestizo or have some Indigenous ancestry. Indigenous peoples are found in the entire territory of Brazil, although in the 21st century, the majority of them live in Indigenous territories in the North and Center-Western part of the country. On 18 January 2007, Fundação Nacional do Índio (FUNAI) reported that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. Brazil is now the nation that has the largest number of uncontacted tribes, and the island of New Guinea is second. The Washington Post reported in 2007, "As has been proved in the past when uncontacted tribes are introduced to other populations and the microbes they carry, maladies as simple as the common cold can be deadly. In the 1970s, 185 members of the Panara tribe died within two years of discovery after contracting such diseases as flu and chickenpox, leaving only 69 survivors." Chile According to the 2012 Census, 10% of the Chilean population, including the Rapa Nui (a Polynesian people) of Easter Island, was Indigenous, although most show varying degrees of mixed heritage. Many are descendants of the Mapuche, and live in Santiago, Araucanía and Los Lagos Region. The Mapuche successfully fought off defeat in the first 300–350 years of Spanish rule during the Arauco War. Relations with the new Chilean Republic were good until the Chilean state decided to occupy their lands. During the Occupation of Araucanía the Mapuche surrendered to the country's army in the 1880s. Their land was opened to settlement by Chileans and Europeans. Conflict over Mapuche land rights continues to the present. Other groups include the Aymara, the majority of whom live in Bolivia and Peru, with smaller numbers in the Arica-Parinacota and Tarapacá regions, and the Atacama people (Atacameños), who reside mainly in El Loa. Colombia A minority today within Colombia's overwhelmingly Mestizo and White Colombian population, Indigenous peoples living in Colombia, consist of around 85 distinct cultures and more than 1,378,884 people. A variety of collective rights for Indigenous peoples are recognized in the 1991 Constitution. One of the influences is the Muisca culture, a subset of the larger Chibcha ethnic group, famous for their use of gold, which led to the legend of El Dorado. At the time of the Spanish conquest, the Muisca were the largest Indigenous civilization geographically between the Incas and the Aztecs empires. Ecuador Ecuador was the site of many Indigenous cultures, and civilizations of different proportions. An early sedentary culture, known as the Valdivia culture, developed in the coastal region, while the Caras and the Quitus unified to form an elaborate civilization that ended at the birth of the Capital Quito. The Cañaris near Cuenca were the most advanced, and most feared by the Inca, due to their fierce resistance to the Incan expansion. Their architecture remains were later destroyed by Spaniards and the Incas. Between 55% and 65% of Ecuador's population consists of Mestizos of mixed indigenous and European ancestry while indigenous people comprise about 25%. Genetic analysis indicates that Ecuadorian Mestizos are of predominantly indigenous ancestry. Approximately 96.4% of Ecuador's Indigenous population are Highland Quichuas living in the valleys of the Sierra region. Primarily consisting of the descendants of peoples conquered by the Incas, they are Kichwa speakers and include the Caranqui, the Otavalos, the Cayambe, the Quitu-Caras, the Panzaleo, the Chimbuelo, the Salasacan, the Tugua, the Puruhá, the Cañari, and the Saraguro. Linguistic evidence suggests that the Salascan and the Saraguro may have been the descendants of Bolivian ethnic groups transplanted to Ecuador as mitimaes. Coastal groups, including the Awá, Chachi, and the Tsáchila, make up 0.24% percent of the Indigenous population, while the remaining 3.35 percent live in the Oriente and consist of the Oriente Kichwa (the Canelo and the Quijos), the Shuar, the Huaorani, the Siona-Secoya, the Cofán, and the Achuar. In 1986, Indigenous peoples formed the first "truly" national political organization. The Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador (CONAIE) has been the primary political institution of Indigenous peoples since then and is now the second largest political party in the nation. It has been influential in national politics, contributing to the ouster of presidents Abdalá Bucaram in 1997 and Jamil Mahuad in 2000. French Guiana French Guiana is home to approximately 10,000 indigenous peoples, such as the Kalina and Lokono. Over time, the indigenous population has protested against various environmental issues, such as illegal gold mining, pollution and a drastic decrease in wild game. Guyana During the early stages of colonization, the indigenous peoples in Guyana partook in trade relations with Dutch settlers and assisted in militia services such as hunting down escaped slaves for the British, which continued until the 19th century. Indigenous Guyanese people are responsible for the invention of the canoe as well as Guyanese pepperpot and the foundation of the Alleluia church. Guyana's indigenous peoples have been recognized under the Constitution of 1965 and comprise 9.16% of the overall population. Paraguay The vast majority of indigenous peoples in Paraguay is concentrated in the Gran Chaco region in the northwest of the country, with the Guaraní making up the majority of the indigenous population in Paraguay. The Guaraní language is recognized as an official language alongside Spanish, with approximately 90% of the population speaking Guaraní. The indigenous population in Paraguay suffers from several social issues such as low literacy rates as well as inaccessiblility to drinking water and electricity. Peru According to the 2017 Census, the Indigenous population in Peru make up around 26% approximately. However, this does not include Mestizos of mixed indigenous and European descent, who make up the majority of the population. Genetic testing indicates that Peruvian Mestizos are of predominantly indigenous ancestry. Indigenous traditions and customs have shaped the way Peruvians live and see themselves today. Cultural citizenship—or what Renato Rosaldo has called, "the right to be different and to belong, in a democratic, participatory sense" (1996:243)—is not yet very well developed in Peru. This is perhaps no more apparent than in the country's Amazonian regions where Indigenous societies continue to struggle against state-sponsored economic abuses, cultural discrimination, and pervasive violence. Suriname Uruguay Unlike most other Spanish-speaking countries, indigenous peoples are not a significant element in Uruguay, as the entire indigenous population is virtually extinct, with a few exceptions such as the Guaraní. Approximately 2.4% of the population in Uruguay is reported to have indigenous ancestry. Venezuela Most Venezuelans have some degree of indigenous heritage even if they may not identify as such. The 2011 census estimated that around 52% of the population identified as mestizo. But those who identify as Indigenous, from being raised in those cultures, make up only around 2% of the total population. The Indigenous peoples speak around 29 different languages and many more dialects. As some of the ethnic groups are very small, their native languages are in danger of becoming extinct in the next decades. The most important Indigenous groups are the Ye'kuana, the Wayuu, the Kali'na, the Ya̧nomamö , the Pemon and the Warao. The most advanced Indigenous peoples to have lived within the boundaries of present-day Venezuela is thought to have been the Timoto-cuicas, who lived in the Venezuelan Andes. Historians estimate that there were between 350 thousand and 500 thousand Indigenous inhabitants at the time of Spanish colonization. The most densely populated area was the Andean region (Timoto-cuicas), thanks to their advanced agricultural techniques and ability to produce a surplus of food. The 1999 constitution of Venezuela gives indigenous peoples special rights, although the vast majority of them still live in very critical conditions of poverty. The government provides primary education in their languages in public schools to some of the largest groups, in efforts to continue the languages. Caribbean The indigenous population of the Caribbean islands consisted of the Taíno of the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles and the northern Lesser Antilles, the Kalinago of the Lesser Antilles, the Ciguayo and Macorix of parts of Hispaniola, and the Guanahatabey of western Cuba. The overall population suffered the most adverse colonial effects out of all the indigenous populations in the Americas, as the Kalinago have been reduced to a few islands in the Lesser Antilles such as Dominica and the Taíno are culturally extinct, though a large proportion of populations in Greater Antillean islands such as Puerto Rico possesses degrees of Taíno ancestry. Rise of Indigenous movements Since the late 20th century, Indigenous peoples in the Americas have become more politically active in asserting their treaty rights and expanding their influence. Some have organized in order to achieve some sort of self-determination and preservation of their cultures. Organizations such as the Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin and the Indian Council of South America are examples of movements that are overcoming national borders to reunite Indigenous populations, for instance those across the Amazon Basin. Similar movements for Indigenous rights can also be seen in Canada and the United States, with movements like the International Indian Treaty Council and the accession of native Indigenous groups into the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization. There has been a recognition of Indigenous movements on an international scale. The membership of the United Nations voted to adopt the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, despite dissent from some of the stronger countries of the Americas. In Colombia, various Indigenous groups have protested the denial of their rights. People organized a march in Cali in October 2008 to demand the government live up to promises to protect Indigenous lands, defend the Indigenous against violence, and reconsider the free trade pact with the United States. Indigenous heads of state The first Indigenous candidate to be democratically elected as head of a country in the Americas was Benito Juárez, a Zapotec Mexican who was elected President of Mexico in 1858. In 1930 Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro became the first Peruvian President with Indigenous Peruvian ancestry and the first in South America. He came to power in a military coup. In 2005, Evo Morales of the Aymara people was the first Indigenous candidate elected as president of Bolivia and the first elected in South America. Genetic research Genetic history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas primarily focuses on Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups and Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroups. "Y-DNA" is passed solely along the patrilineal line, from father to son, while "mtDNA" is passed down the matrilineal line, from mother to offspring of both sexes. Neither recombines, and thus Y-DNA and mtDNA change only by chance mutation at each generation with no intermixture between parents' genetic material. Autosomal "atDNA" markers are also used, but differ from mtDNA or Y-DNA in that they overlap significantly. AtDNA is generally used to measure the average continent-of-ancestry genetic admixture in the entire human genome and related isolated populations. Genetic comparisons of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and Y-chromosome of Native Americans to that of certain Siberian and Central Asian peoples (specifically Paleosiberians, Turkic, and historically the Okunev culture) have led Russian researcher I.A. Zakharov to believe that, among all the previously studied Asian peoples, it is "the peoples living between Altai and Lake Baikal along the Sayan mountains that are genetically closest to" Indigenous Americans. Some scientific evidence furthermore links them also to North Asian peoples, specifically the Indigenous peoples of Siberia, such as the Ket, Selkup, Chukchi and Koryak peoples. Indigenous peoples of the Americas have been linked to some extent to North Asian populations by the distribution of blood types, and in genetic composition as reflected by molecular data, and limited DNA studies. The common occurrence of the mtDNA Haplogroups A, B, C, and D among eastern Asian and Native American populations has been noted. Some subclades of C and D that have been found in the limited populations of Native Americans who have agreed to DNA testing bear some resemblance to the C and D sublades in Mongolian, Amur, Japanese, Korean, and Ainu populations. Available genetic patterns lead to two main theories of genetic episodes affecting the Indigenous peoples of the Americas; first with the initial peopling of the Americas, and secondly with European colonization of the Americas. The former is the determinant factor for the number of gene lineages, zygosity mutations, and founding haplotypes present in today's Indigenous peoples of the Americas populations. The most popular theory among anthropologists is the Bering Strait theory, of human settlement of the New World occurred in stages from the Bering sea coast line, with a possible initial layover of 10,000 to 20,000 years in Beringia for the small founding population. The micro-satellite diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicates that certain Indigenous peoples of the Americas populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region. The Na-Dené, Inuit and Indigenous populations of Alaska exhibit haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations, however are distinct from other Indigenous peoples of the Americas with various mtDNA and atDNA mutations. This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later migrant populations. Multiple recent findings on autosomal DNA and full genome revealed more information about the formation, settlement and external relationships of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas to other populations. Native Americans are very closely related to the Paleosiberian tribes of Siberia, and to the ancient samples of the Mal'ta–Buret' culture (Ancient North Eurasians) as well as to the Ancient Beringians. Native Americans also share relatively higher genetic affinity with East Asian peoples. Native American genetic ancestry is occasionally dubbed as "Amerindian". This type of ancestry largely overlaps with "Paleosiberian" ancestry, but is differentiated from "Neo-Siberian" ancestry which represents historical expansions from Northeast Asia and is today widespread among Siberian populations. The ancestors of Native Americans used a single migration route, most likely through Beringia, and subsequently populated all of the Americas in a time range between 25,000 and 15,000 years ago. Possible contact between Native Americans and Polynesians is dated back to 1,400 years ago. Previously hypothesized "Paleo-Indian" groups turned out to be genetically identical with modern Native Americans. The controversial claim that the first peoples came from Europe via the North Atlantic, based on an ostensible similarity in stone-tool technology between the Solutrean culture of Pleistocene Europe and Clovis in North America, was undermined by the genome of the Anzick Clovis child, which sits squarely on the branch of Ancestral Native American peoples. No ancient or present-day genome (or mtDNA or Y chromosome marker) in the Americas has shown any direct affinities to Upper Palaeolithic European populations. The date for the formation of the Amerindian gene pool range from 36,000 to 25,000 years ago, with their internal diverging being around 21,000 years ago, during the settlement of the Americas. The 'Ancestral Native Americans' formed from a lineage which diverged from East Asian people around 36,000 years ago somewhere in Southern China, and subsequently migrated northwards into Siberia and encountered/interacted with a distinct Paleolithic Siberian population known as Ancient North Eurasians, closer related to modern Europeans, giving rise to both Indigenous peoples of Siberia and Native Americans. Based on a 2023 mitochondrial DNA study, a subsequent wave of migration from Northern China, originating near the present-day cities of Beijing and Tianjin, occurred as recently as 9000 BCE, following a previously unknown coastal route from Asia to America. Notable people See also Indigenous peoples in Ecuador Indigenous peoples in Paraguay Indigenous peoples of Costa Rica Indigenous peoples in Argentina Indigenous peoples of Peru Indigenous peoples in Canada Languages of Guatemala Indigenous languages of the Americas Ancient American engineering List of Indigenous peoples List of Greenlandic Inuit List of Indigenous artists of the Americas List of Indigenous peoples of the Americas List of Indigenous writers from the Americas Culture Ceramics of Indigenous peoples of the Americas Chunkey Fully feathered basket Indian Mass Native American religion Pow wow Shamanism Population and demographics Child development of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas Classification of Indigenous peoples of the Americas Indigenous Movements in the Americas Origins of Paleoindians Pacific Islander Population history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas Latin America Indigenous peoples of South America List of Mayan languages Society in the Spanish Colonial Americas Caribbean Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean Indigenous peoples of Guyana Indigenous peoples of Suriname North America Genocide of Indigenous peoples of the Americas History of the west coast of North America List of traditional territories of the Indigenous peoples of North America Native Americans in the United States List of American Inuit Native American Languages Act of 1990 Native American weaponry Native Americans in German popular culture Republic of Lakotah Redskin References Sources Journal articles Woodhead, M. (1998). Children's perspectives on their working lives: A participatory study in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, the Philippines, Guatemala, El Salvador and Nicaragua. Gaskins, S. (2006). 13 The Cultural Organization of Yucatec Mayan Children's Social Interactions. Peer relationships in cultural context, 283. Books Further reading External links America's Stone Age Explorers, from PBS's Nova A History of the Native People of Canada from the Canadian Museum of Civilization Indigenous Peoples in Brazil from the Instituto Socioambiental (ISA) Official website of the National Museum of the American Indian, part of the Smithsonian Institution Category:Latin American caste system Category:Person of color
[ { "text": "\n\nDefinition \n\nIndigenous communities, peoples, and nations are those which have a historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, and may consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing on those territories, or parts of them. They form at present non-dominant sectors of society and are determined to preserve, develop and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal system.\n\nThis historical continuity may consist of the continuation, for an extended period reaching into the present of one or more of the following factors:\n Occupation of ancestral lands, or at least of part of them\n Common ancestry with the original occupants of these lands\n Culture in general, or in specific manifestations (such as religion, living under a tribal system, membership in an Indigenous community, dress, means of livelihood, lifestyle, etc.)\n Language (whether used as the only language, as mother-tongue, as the habitual means of communication at home or in the family, or as the main, preferred, habitual, general or normal language)\n Residence in certain parts of the country, or in certain regions of the world\n Other relevant factors.\n On an individual basis, an Indigenous person is one who belongs to these Indigenous populations through self-identification as Indigenous (group consciousness) and is recognized and accepted by these populations as one of its members (acceptance by the group). This preserves for these communities the sovereign right and power to decide who belongs to them, without external interference.\n\nAfrica\n\nAfrican Great Lakes \n\nAbagusii: Kenya\nHadza (Hadzabe): Tanzania, Singida region: southeast, south and northwest of Lake Eyashi.\nIraqw: Tanzania\nKalenjin: Kenya\nKikuyu: Kenya\nLuhya: Kenya\nMaasai: Kenya, Tanzania\nRendille: Kenya\nSamburu: Kenya, Tanzania\nSandawe: Tanzania, Dodoma region: Kondoa district, between Bubu and Mponde rivers, Singida region.\nPygmy peoples:\nTwa\nBangweulu Twa: Northern Zambia, Bangweulu Swamps,\nGreat Lakes Twa: Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo\nKafwe Twa: Southern Zambia, Kafue Flats\nLukanga Twa: Central Zambia, Lukanga Swamp\nNsua: Western Uganda\n\nCentral Africa \n\nPygmy peoples:\nBedzan: Northern Central Cameroon\nMbenga:\nAka (Bayaka)\nBaka (Bebayaka): Cameroon, Congo (Brazzaville), Gabon, and Central African Republic\nBongo (Babongo):\nGyele (Bagyele):\nKola (Bakola):\nMbuti (Bambuti):\nAsua: Democratic Republic of the Congo\nEfé: Democratic Republic of the Congo\nKango/Sua:\nMbuti:\nWochua:\nTwa\nAngola Twa: Northeastern, Eastern and Southern Angola\nKasai Twa (Kuba Twa): Central Democratic Republic of Congo\nMbote Twa: Southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Northwest of Lake Tanganyika\nMongo Twa (Ntomba Twa): Western Democratic Republic of Congo, Lake Tumba, Lake Mai-Ndombe\nUpemba Twa (Luba Twa): Southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Upemba Depression\n\nHorn of Africa \nAfar people (Qafár/'Afár): the Afar Triangle of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia\nAmhara: Ethiopia\nBanna: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nBasketo: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nBerta (Funj): Western Ethiopia, Benishangul-Gumuz Region, Far Eastern Sudan\nBurji: Southern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nGedeo: Southern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nGumuz: Western Ethiopia, Benishangul-Gumuz Region, Far Eastern Sudan\nHamer: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nKaro: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nKunama: Western Eritrea, Gash-Barka Region, Far Eastern Sudan\nMaale: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nMursi (Mun): mainly in Debub Omo Zone, Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region, Southwest Ethiopia\nNara: Western Eritrea, Gash-Barka Region, Far Eastern Sudan\nOromo people: Ethiopia, Kenya\nSaho: Central Eritrea, Southern part of Northern Red Sea Region\nShinasha (Shinasha): Northwestern Ethiopia\nSidama: Southern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nSomalis: Somalia, Djibouti, eastern Ethiopia, northeastern Kenya\nSuri Baale: Ethiopia\nSuri Chai: Ethiopia\nSuri Timaga: Ethiopia\nWolayta: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nYem: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\n\nNorth Africa \n\nAfroasiatic languages\nBerbers (Imazighen): Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya, Egypt, Mauritania, Mediterranean Coast, Atlas Mountains (Idurar n Waṭlas), North and Western Sahara\nEastern Berbers\nNafusa people: Nafusa Mountains (Drar n infusen), Tripolitania, northwestern Libya\nZuwara Berbers: Zuwara, coast of western Tripolitania in northwestern Libya.\nMatmata Berbers: Matmâta, southern Tunisia\nDjerba Berbers: Djerba Island, southern Tunisia coast\nSokna Berbers: Sokna Oasis (Isuknan), Fezzan, north central Libya, Sahara\nAwjila: Awjila oasis, Cyrenaica, eastern Libya, Sahara\nGhadamès: Ghadamès Oasis, Western Libya, Sahara\nNorthern Berbers\nKabyles (Iqvayliyen): Kabylie (Tamurt n Iqvayliyen), Mediterranean coast of northern Algeria\nZenati (Iznaten/Iznasen) speakers: regions in Algeria and Morocco\nMozabites (At Mzab): Mzab region, northern Sahara, north central Algeria\nShawiya (Išawiyen): Aurès Mountains (Idurar n Awras), northeastern Algeria\nShenwa (Ichenwiyen): west-central mountains of northwestern Algeria\nRiffians (Irifiyen): Rif, Rif Mountains (Arrif), northern Morocco\nSanhaja (Iẓnagen/Iẓnajen) peoples: regions in Middle West Atlas mountains and Eastern Morocco\nMasmuda peoples: regions in Northern and Western Morocco\nGhomara: Far West Rif Mountains (Arrif), Northern Morocco\nShilha (Shlḥi): West Atlas mountains, Western Morocco\nHaratin: Indigenous population of the Maghreb and Sahara of uncertain origin; members now speak either Berber languages or Arabic; inhabit Morocco, Mauritania, Western Sahara, Algeria.\nSerer - current habit Senega, Gambia, Mauritania\nToubou: Chad\n\nNile Valley\n\nEgypt\nCopts (Rem en Khēmi/Rem en Kēme): Egypt, the majority of Egypt's population descended from Ancient Egyptians\nBeja: Northeastern Sudan, between Red Sea coast and almost to the Nile River (White Nile and Blue Nile) eastern banks, Far Northwest Eritrea, Sahara Eastern Desert, Far Southeast Egypt \nSiwi Berbers: Siwa Oasis (Isiwan), western Egypt, Sahara\n\nSudan\nNuba peoples: Sudan, Nuba Hills\n\nNubians: Far Northern North Sudan and Far Southern Egypt, along middle Nile river valley banks \nDinka (Jieng): mainly in Lakes, Warrap and Unity States, Upper Nile river course, Central and North South Sudan.\nNuer (Naadh): mainly in Jonglei State, East of Upper Nile river course, East Central South Sudan.\nAnuak (Anywaa): mainly East Jonglei State, East South Sudan, and also mainly in Gambela Region, Lowlands of Far Southwest Ethiopia (border areas between South Sudan and Ethiopia).\nShilluk (Chollo/Cøllø): mainly in North South Sudan, west of the Upper Nile river course, Upper Nile State, South Sudan (Kodok or Kothok, formerly known as Fashoda is in their territory).\nFur (Fòòrà): Darfur, Western Sudan\nMasalit: Darfur, Western Sudan\nKadu peoples: Sudan, Nuba Hills\n\nSouthern Africa \n\nSouthern Khoikhoi languages speaking peoples: Angola, Namibia, Botswana, Kalahari desert, Zimbabwe, west and southwestern South Africa.\nKhoikhoi\nNama (Namaqua)\nDamara \n\nHaiǁom\nGǀu and Gǁana\nNaro\nTsoa/Tshwa/Kua\nSouthern San languages speaking peoples: Angola, Namibia, Botswana, Kalahari desert, west and southwestern South Africa.\nKx'a/Ju–ǂHoan\nǃKung/Juu\nǂʼAmkoe\nǂKxʼao-ǁʼae (Auen)\nTuu\nǃKwi (!Ui)\nǀXam\nǂKhomani (Nǀu)\nKhwe (Khoi, Kxoe)\nTaa\nǃXooŋake/Nǀumde\n\nEurasia\n\nAsia\n\nWest Asia (Middle East) \n\nAfroasiatic languages\nSemitic peoples\nEast Semitic peoples\nAssyrians (Āṯūrāyē/Sūrāyē/Sūryāyē): A Christian Neo-Aramaic speaking people indigenous to Assyria, which is located in what is now northern Iraq, southeastern Turkey, northeastern Syria and northwestern Iran in Upper Mesopotamia. There is a testified historical continuity between ancient Assyrians and modern Assyrians, for the majority of Assyrians in the same land that they have lived in since antiquity: (Assyria, Athura, Roman Assyria, & Asoristan), before the Arabization of Upper Mesopotamia, that corresponds with old Assyria (originally speakers of the Akkadian language but in antiquity, by the end of the 1st millennium BC, Assyrians adopted the Aramaic language from Aramaeans as an official language of the Assyrian Empire and in present times speak Assyrian Neo-Aramaic. However, not all Assyrians identify as Assyrian, and several are from peoples that adopted an Assyrian ethnic identity (see terms for Syriac Christians).\nWest Semitic peoples\nCentral Semitic peoples\nArabic peoples\nBedouin (Badawī) of the interior deserts of Arabia and Syria.\nDruze (Al-Muwaḥḥidūn/Al-Muwaḥḥidīn/Ahl al-Tawḥīd): of Jabal al-Druze, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Israel. The faith of the Druze is a blend of Islam's Ismailism, Judaism, Christianity, Neoplatonism, Pythagoreanism, Gnosticism and Greek philosophy. The foundational text of the faith is the Epistles of Wisdom. Even though they have been a minority for their entire history, they have played a significant role in shaping the history of the Levant. Although the faith originally developed out of Ismaili Islam, Druze are usually not considered Muslims. The oldest and most densely-populated Druze communities exist in Mount Lebanon and in the south of Syria around Jabal al-Druze (literally the \"Mountain of the Druze\").\nMandaeans\nMarsh Dwellers/Marsh Arabs (Ma'dan/ʻArab al-Ahwār): An Arabic-speaking people living in the marshes of southern Iraq or on the Iranian side of the Shatt al-Arab.\nNorthwest Semitic peoples\nArameans (Āramayē): Central and Western Syria, ancient land of the Aramaeans (Aram) in the Levant, an Aramaic-speaking people that descends from ancient Aramaeans. In recent years, there has been an attempt to revive Western Aramaic among Aramean Christians living in the Israeli village of Jish.\nCanaanite peoples\nJews: along with Samaritans, descend from the Israelite nation of the southern Levant, who are believed by archaeologists and historians to have branched out of the Canaanite peoples and culture through the development of a distinct monolatrous—and later monotheistic—religion centered on El/Yahweh, one of the Ancient Canaanite deities. A Jewish diaspora existed for several centuries before the fall of the Second Temple, and their dwelling in other countries for the most part was not a result of compulsory dislocation. Following the Roman Siege of Jerusalem, destruction of Herod's Temple, and failed Jewish revolts, some Jews were either expelled, taken as slaves to Rome, or massacred, while other Jews continued to live in the region over the centuries, despite the conversion of many Jews to Christianity and Islam as well as persecution by the various conquerors of the region, including the Romans, Arabs, Ottomans, and the British. Additionally, a substantial number of diaspora Jews immigrated to Palestine during the 19th and 20th centuries (mainly under the Zionist movement), as well as after the modern State of Israel was established in 1948. This was coupled with the revival of Hebrew, the only Canaanite language still spoken today. DNA studies show that many major diaspora Jewish communities derive a substantial portion of their ancestry from ancient Israelites.\n\nThere are competing claims that Palestinian Arabs and Jews are indigenous to historic Palestine/the Land of Israel. The argument entered the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in the 1990s, with Palestinians claiming Indigenous status as a pre-existing population displaced by Jewish settlement, and currently constituting a minority in the State of Israel. Israeli Jews have in turn claimed indigeneity based on historic ties to the region and disputed the authenticity of Palestinian claims. In 2007, the Negev Bedouin were officially recognised as Indigenous peoples of Israel by the United Nations. This has been criticised both by scholars associated with the Israeli state, who dispute the Bedouin's claim to indigeneity, and those who argue that recognising just one group of Palestinians as Indigenous risks undermining others' claims and \"fetishising\" nomadic cultures.\n\nSamaritans (Samerim): of Samaria. An ethno-religious group of the Levant, closely related genetically and culturally to the Jewish diaspora and are understood to have branched off from the latter around the time of the Assyrian exile. The Samaritans are adherents of Samaritanism, an Abrahamic religion closely related to Judaism. Their sole norm of religious observance is the Samaritan Pentateuch.\n\nBathari people: Dhofar, Southern Oman. Descendants from the original people of Dhofar before Arabization.\nHarasis: Jiddat al-Harasis, Central Oman. Descendants from the original people of South Arabia before Arabization.\nHobyót people: Dhofar, Southern Oman, Far Eastern Yemen. Descendants from the original people of Dhofar before Arabization.\nMehris: Al Mahrah, Eastern Yemen, Dhofar, Southern Oman. Descendants from the original people of Dhofar before Arabization.\nShehri people/Jibbali people: Dhofar, Southern Oman. Descendants from the original people of Dhofar before Arabization.\nSoqotri people: Soqotra island and group of islands, southeast of mainland Yemen, Indian Ocean. Descendants from the original natives of South Arabia before Arabization.\n\nArmenians (Hayer): The Christian Armenian people were the original inhabitants of what is now modern Eastern Turkey, specifically around Lake Van and the biblical mountain of Ararat and spoke the Western Armenian language. Since the Armenian genocide in which up to 1,500,000 people perished, the number of the original Armenian inhabitants is almost non-existent and they have since been replaced with ethnic Turks and Kurds.\nIranian peoples\nEast Iranian peoples\nNortheast Iranian peoples\nOssetians (Iræттæ): South Ossetia, Georgia, Southern Caucasus Mountains\nWest Iranian peoples\nCaspian/South Caspian peoples\nGilaks: Gilan, North Iran, South Caspian Sea coast and Elburz Mountains\nMazanderanis/Mazanis/Tabaris: Mazanderan, Tabaristan, Northern Iran, South Caspian Sea coast and Elburz Mountains\nNorthwest Iranian peoples\nNorthwestern I\nKurds (Kurd/Kurmandzh): Kurdistan, Northwestern and Western Iran, Northern Iraq, Northeast and Northern Syria, Southeast Turkey, Zagros and East Anatolian Plateau\nYazidis (Êzidî): Nineveh Governorate, Northern Iraq\nLak people (Iran): Southwestern Iran, Zagros Mountains\nZaza-Gorani peoples \nShabaks: Sinjar District of the Nineveh Governorate in northern Iraq.\nZazas: Southeastern Turkey, Upper Euphrates river, East Anatolian Plateau\nNorthwestern II\nBaluchis (Baloch/Baluch): Baluchistan, Southeastern Iran, Southwestern Pakistan, Extreme Southern Afghanistan\nTatic peoples\nTalysh (Talyshon): Northwestern Iran, Far South Azerbaijan, South Caspian Sea coast and Elburz Mountains\nTats (Iran)/South Tats (Irünə Tâtün): Northwest Iran\nSouthwest Iranian peoples\nPersian: Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan\nLarestani–Gulf peoples\nKumzaris: Northern Musandam, Oman\nLurs and Bakhtiaris\nLurs (Lur): Luristan, Western and Southwestern Iran, Zagros Mountains\nBakhtiaris (Bakhtiar): Southwestern Iran, Zagros\nTats (Caucasus): Republic of Azerbaijan, Dagestan (Russia)\n\nCaucasus \n\nIndo-European peoples\nArmenians (Hayer): \nIranian peoples\nEast Iranian peoples\nNortheast Iranian peoples\nOssetians (Iræттæ): Ossetia (Iryston), North Ossetia (Cægat Iryston), a Republic of Russia, and South Ossetia (Khussar Iryston), a De Jure autonomous region of Georgia (Sakartvelo), self-proclaimed sovereign country, North and South slopes of Central Caucasus Mountains.\nWest Iranian peoples\nSouthwest Iranian peoples\nPersian peoples\nTats (Caucasus) (Tati/Parsi/Lohijon/Daghli): East Caucasus Mountains, Azerbaijan\nKartvelian peoples\nZan\nLazs (Lazepe): Southwestern Georgia, Far Northeastern Turkey\nNortheast Caucasian peoples\nAvar-Andic peoples\nAvar people (Caucasus) (Magharulal/Avaral): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nAndic peoples\nAkhvakh (Ashvado/Atluatii)\nAndis (Qhvannal/Khivannal)\nBagvalal (Bagval)\nBotlikhs (Buykhal'ida/Buykhalyi)\nChamalals (Chamalaldu)\nGodoberis (Giybdiridi)\nKaratas (Khkhiridi)\nTindis (Idarab)\nDargins (Darganti): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nKhinalug (Kettiturdur/Kayttiodur/Ketid/Ketsh Khalkh)\nLak people (Dagestan): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nLezgic peoples\nAghul (Agular): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nArchins (Arshishttib)\nBudukh (Budad)\nJeks (Cekad/Dzhekad)\nKryts (Kh'rytsha'/Kyrtuar)\nLezgians (Lezgiyar/Leqer): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nRutul (Mykhabyr): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nTabasarans: Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nTsakhur (Yiqby): Azerbaijan, Southern Caucasus Mountains\nUdins (Udi/Uti): Northern Azerbaijan, Southern Caucasus Mountains\nNakh peoples\nBats (Batsbi)\nVainakh peoples\nChechens (Nokhchiy): Chechenia, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nIngush (Ghalghay): Ingushetia, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nTsezic (Didoic) peoples\nBezhtas\nHinukh (Hinuqes)\nHunzibs (Hunzib)\nKhwarshi (Khuani)\nTsez/Dido people\nNorthwest Caucasian peoples\nAbkhaz-Abaza peoples\nAbazins (Abaza)\nAbkhazians (Aphsua): Abkhazia (Aphsny) - a De Jure autonomous region of Georgia (Sakartvelo), self-proclaimed sovereign country.\nCircassian peoples\nWest Circassian peoples\nAdyghe (Adyge): Adyghe Republic, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nEast Circassian peoples\nCherkess (Cherkes): Karachay-Cherkessia, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nKabardians (Qeberdeykher): Kabardino-Balkaria, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nKarachays (Karachai): Karachay-Cherkessia, North Caucasian peoples, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nUbykh (Tʷaχ): were indigenous to the mountains of West Caucasus, Sochi area, Krasnodar Krai, Russia, later migrated to Turkey.\n\nSiberia (North Asia) \n\n \n\nOver 40 distinct peoples, each with their own language and culture in the Asiatic part of Russia (Siberia/North Asia).\nChukchi-Kamchatkan peoples\nChukotkan peoples\nChukchi (Lyg'oravetl'et/Chukchi people|O'ravetl'et/Ankalyn-Chavchu): Northeast Siberia, Russia\nKoryaks (Nymylan-Chauchuven): Russian Far East\nAlyutors: Russian Far East\nKereks: Russian Far East\nKamchatkan peoples\nItelmens: Kamchatka Krai\nEskimo-Aleut peoples\nYupik: Alaska and the Russian Far East\nSiberian Yupik (Yupighyt): Siberia, Russia, Alaska, United States.\nSirenik Eskimos, Russian Far East.\nNaukan, Russian Far East.\nMongolic peoples\nBuryats (Buryaad): Buryatia, Russia, and Mongolia\nHamnigans: Zabaykalsky Krai, Russia, Mongolia, and China\nTungusic peoples\nNorthern Tungusic peoples\nEvenks (Evenkil): Siberia (They are also distributed in China and Mongolia in East Asia).\nUdege (Udihe/Udekhe/Udeghe): Russian Far East, Ukraine\nTurkic peoples\nSiberian Turks\nAltaians (Altay-kizhi): titular nation of Altai Republic, Russia\nChelkans\nTelengits\nTubalars\nChulyms: Tomsk Oblast, Russia\nDolgans: Northern Siberia \nKhakas (Tadarlar): titular nation of Khakassia, Russia\nKumandins: Altai Krai, Russia\nShors: Southern Siberia\nSoyots: Buryatia, Russia\nTeleuts: Kemerovo Oblast, Russia\nTofalars: Southern Siberia \nTuvans (Tyvalar): titular nation of Tuva Republic, Russia\nTozhu Tuvans: Tuva Republic, Russia\nYakuts (Sakha): titular nation of Yakutia, Russia\nKipchak Turks\nSiberian Tatars\nBaraba Tatars\nUgric peoples\nUgrians: Yugra, Western Siberia, Russia\nKhanty (Hantõ-Kantõk/Kantek/Khanti): Yugra, Western Siberia, Russia\nMansi (Maan's'i/Maan's'i Maahum/Mansi), formerly known as Voguls: Yugra, Western Siberia, Russia\nSamoyedic peoples\nNorthern Samoyedic peoples: West Siberia and Far Northern European Russia\nEnets (Entsi): Far Northern Western Siberia, Russia\nNenets (Neney Neneche): Far Northern Western Siberia and Far Northern European Russia\nNganasan (Ŋənəhsa(nəh)): Taymyr Peninsula, Siberia, Russia\nYukaghirs (Odul/Vadul/Detkil'): Far Northern East Siberia, Russia\nYeniseian peoples\nKet (Deng): Along middle Yenisei river banks\nNivkh (Gilyak): Sakhalin, Russia\nOroks (Uilta): Sakhalin, Russia\n\nEurasian Steppe \n\nIndo-European peoples\nIranian peoples\nEast Iranian peoples\nNortheast Iranian peoples\nPamiris (Pomir): Badakhshan (Afghanistan, Tajikistan), Pamir Mountains, Tashkurgan (in Xinjiang)\nTajiks: Tajikistan\nYaghnobi (Yaγnōbī́t): Tajikistan\nMongolic peoples\nCentral Mongolic peoples\nKhoid: Mongolia\nMangud: Historically Mongolia\nMongols: Mongolia, China\nNaimans (Nayman): Inner Mongolia, China\nOirats (Oirad/Oird) (Dzungars and Torghuts): Dzungaria (Northern Xinjiang), China\nSartuul: Zavkhan, Mongolia\nSino-Tibetan-speaking peoples\nTibetans: Tibet, China and neighbouring regions\nTurkic peoples\nCommon Turks\nKarluk Turks (Southeastern Common Turkic peoples)\nUyghurs (Uyghur): Tarim Basin (Southern Xinjiang), China\nIli Turks: Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, Northern Xinjiang, China\nYugur (Yogïr/Sarïg Yogïr): Sunan Yugur Autonomous County, Gansu province, China\nSalar (Salır): Xunhua Salar Autonomous County, Qinghai province, China\nDukha (Dukha/Dukhans/Duhalar/Tsaatan): Mongolia\nUriankhai (Wūliánghǎi/Uriankhan/урианхан/Uriankhat/урианхад): Mongolia\nKipchak Turks (Northwestern Common Turkic peoples)\nBashkirs (Başqorttar): Bashkir Republic, European Russia\nKazakhs: Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, Russia\nKyrgyzs: Kyrgyzstan, China\nKrymchaks (Qrymçaklar): Crimean Peninsula in Southern Ukraine\nCrimean Karaites (Qrymqaraylar): Crimean Peninsula in Southern Ukraine\nCrimean Tatars (Qırımtatarlar): Crimean Peninsula in Southern Ukraine\nVolga Tatars (Tatarlar): Tatarstan, European Russia\nOghuz Turks (Southwestern Common Turkic peoples)\nGagauz (Gagauzlar): Gagauzia, Moldova\nOghur (tribe)\nChuvash (Chăvаsh): Chuvash Republic, Russia\n\nSouth Asia \n\nAdivasis: collective term for many Indigenous peoples in India (see also Scheduled Tribes in India)\nDravidian peoples\nBadaga: Tamil Nadu, South India\nGond: Gondwana Land, Central India\nIrula: Tamil Nadu, South India\nKisan: Indigenous peoples of the Odisha, East India\nKodava: Kodagu, Karnataka, South India\nKota (Kothar/Kov): Tamil Nadu, South India\nKuruba: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, South India\nTamil: Tamil Nadu, South India and Sri Lanka\nToda: Tamil Nadu, South India\nSouth Dravidian peoples\nGiraavaru: Maldives\nIndo-European peoples\nIranian peoples\nPashtuns: southern Afghanistan and Northwest Pakistan\nBaloch: southeastern Iran and southwest Pakistan\nIndo-Aryan peoples\nDard: Dardistan, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Gilgit-Baltistan, Northern Pakistan\nKalasha of Chitral (Kaĺaśa): Ancient pre-Muslim polytheistic pagan ethnic minority in Chitral District, Northern Pakistan\nShina: Gilgit-Baltistan, Northern Pakistan\nKashmiri Hindus: India\nSindhi: Sindh, Pakistan, India\nBengali: Bangladesh, India\nGujarati: India \nBanjara: Rajasthan\nBhil people: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh\nJaunsari people: Uttarakhand\nDogras: Jammu\nTharu: Nepal, East India\nWarli\nSino-Tibetan-speaking peoples\nBodish peoples\nLadakhi: Ladakh, North India\nKonyak peoples\nIndigenous Assamese people\nTripuri (Borok): Tripura, North-East India\nKonyak peoples\nNocte: Tirap, Arunachal Pradesh, North-East India\nKukish peoples\nKarbi: Karbi Anglong, Assam, North-East-India\nMizo (Mizo hnam): Mizoram, North-East India\nNaga: Nagaland, North-East India\nRaji-Raute peoples\nRaute: Nepal, North India\nDigaro peoples\nMishmi: Arunachal Pradesh, North-East India\nJumma people (a collective term for several peoples)\nChakma: Bangladesh, Arunachal Pradesh - North-East India\nIndigenous peoples of Sikkim: India\nSino-Tibetan-speaking peoples\nBodish peoples\nBhutia (Denzongpa)\nLepcha (Róng ʔágít/Róngkup/Mútuncí Róngkup Rumkup)\nMeitei: Manipur, North-East India\nBurusho: Hunza and Chitral districts, Gilgit-Baltistan, Northern Pakistan\nSino-Tibetan-speaking peoples\nLolo-Burmese peoples\nBurmish peoples\nMarma: Bangladesh\nMeitei people: Manipur and neighboring states of India, Bangladesh, Myanmar\nVedda (Wanniyala-Aetto): Sri Lanka\nSinhalese: Sri Lanka\nDhivehi: Maldives\n\nSoutheast Asia\n\nMainland Southeast Asia (Indochinese Peninsula) \n\nAustroasiatic peoples\nAslian peoples\nSenoi (Sengoi/Sng'oi) (a people of the ethnic groups called by the generic word Orang Asli - Original People): in Peninsular Malaysia)\nKhmer Krom: of Vietnam\nKhmuic groups:\nKhmu (Kmm̥uʔ/Kmmúʔ): Thailand and Laos\nMlabri: Northern Thailand and Laos\nPray: Thailand and Laos\nPalaungic peoples\nWa (Vāx): One of the hill tribes of Myanmar (They are also distributed in Yunnan Province, China in East Asia).\nZomi (Zo Pau): One of the Indigenous peoples in Southeast Asia. The word Zomi is the collective name given to many tribes who traced their descent from a common ancestor. Through history they have been known under various appellation, such as Chin, Kuki and Mizo, but the expression was disliked by them, and they insist that the term was a misnomer given by others and by which they have been recorded in certain documents designate their ancient origins as a separate ethnicity.\nVietic peoples\nMuong\nTho\nTuom\nLiha\nPhong\nThavueng\nAhoe (Phon Sung)\nAhao\nAhlao\nChuet\nRục\nMày\nArem\nMã Liềng\nSách\nSalang\nMaleng–Pakatan\nBo\nArao\nAtel\nAtop\nKaleun\nMaleng\nPakatan\nThemarou\nKri–Phoóng\nKrii\nPhoóng\nMlengbrou\nAustronesian peoples\nMalayo-Polynesian peoples\nChamic peoples\nCham (Chams/Urang Campa): of Vietnam and Cambodia\nProto-Malay (a people of the ethnic groups called by the generic word Orang Asli - Original People): in Peninsular Malaysia\nMoken: in Myanmar, and Thailand\nHmong-Mien peoples\nHmong: subgroups of Thailand, Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam (They are also distributed in China in East Asia). \nMontagnards (Degar): an umbrella term for several Pre-Vietnamese peoples that dwell in the plateaus and mountains of the southern regions of Vietnam\nAustroasiatic peoples\nBahnaric peoples\nNorth Bahnaric peoples\nSedang, Halang and Kayong: Vietnam\nH're people: Quảng Ngãi Province, Central Vietnam\nCentral Bahnaric peoples\nBahnar: Central Highland provinces of Gia Lai and Kon Tum, as well as the coastal provinces of Bình Định and Phú Yên (Vietnam)\nJeh-Tariang people: Kon Tum, Vietnam\nSouthern Bahnaric peoples\nMạ people: Central Highlands, Vietnam\nMnong: Cambodia and Vietnam\nStieng: Cambodia and Vietnam\nKoho: Di Linh Highland of Vietnam \nEastern Bahnaric:\nCor people \nKatuic peoples\nKatu\nKatu: Vietnam and Laos\nWest\nBru (Bruu): Thailand, Laos, India and Vietnam\nTa Oi people: Laos, Vietnam\nAustronesian peoples\nMalayo-Polynesian peoples\nChamic peoples\nHighlands Chamic peoples\nRade-Jarai\nJarai: Central Highlands of Vietnam, as well as in the Northeast Province of Ratanakiri (Cambodia)\nRhade: Southern Vietnam\nChru–Northern\nNorthern Cham\nRaglai: in Khánh Hòa Province of South Central Coast, and Ninh Thuận Province in the Southeast region of Vietnam\nNegrito:\nMani (Maniq): Far Southern Thailand\nSemang (a group of several peoples of the ethnic groups called by the generic word Orang Asli - Original People): Peninsular Malaysia\nBatek: Peninsular Malaysia\nSino-Tibetan-speaking peoples\nKarenic peoples\nKaren (Per Ploan Poe/Ploan/Pwa Ka Nyaw/Kanyaw): an alliance of hill tribes of Myanmar and Thailand\nLolo-Burmese peoples\nAkha a.k.a. Aini or Aini-Akha: One of the hill tribes of Thailand, Laos and Burma (They are also distributed in Yunnan Province, China in East Asia).\nLahu (Ladhulsi/Kawzhawd): One of the hill tribes of Thailand, Myanmar and Laos (They are also distributed in Yunnan, China).\nLisu: One of the hill tribes of Myanmar and Thailand (They are also distributed in Arunachal Pradesh, India in South Asia and Yunnan and Sichuan, China).\nRakhine (Rəkhàin lùmjó), Kaman and Marma: Arakan in Myanmar\nYi (Nuosu/Nisu/Sani/Axi/Lolo): a group of several related peoples mainly in Yunnan, China.\nTibeto-Burman peoples\nIntha: Inle Lake of Myanmar\nTai peoples: Vietnam, Myanmar, Laos and Thailand (They are also distributed in Yunnan, China).\nSouthwestern Tai peoples\nKhün (Thai Khün)\nPhu Thai \nTai Dam: Northwest Vietnam, Laos and Thailand (They are also distributed in Yunnan)\nTai Lu: Laos, Northern Thailand, Myanmar, and Lai Châu Province in Vietnam (They are also distributed in Xishuangbanna in Yunnan, China).\nTai Nüa\n\nMaritime Southeast Asia (Malay Archipelago) \n\nAustroasiatic peoples\nNicobarese people (Holchu): Nicobar Islands, India\nShompen people (Kalay-Keyet): Nicobar Islands, India\nAustronesian peoples\nMalayo-Polynesian peoples\nBarito peoples\nBajau (Sama/Samah/Samal): Borneo and the Sulu Archipelago (Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines)\nDayak: Borneo, (Malaysia and Indonesia)\nNorthwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands peoples\nMentawai peoples\nMentawai: Mentawai Islands, Indonesia\nSakuddei: Siberut Island and Mentawai Islands, Indonesia\nMalayic peoples\nOrang Laut and Orang Seletar: Malaysia and Singapore\nProto-Malay (Melayu asli/Melayu purba): Malaysia\nNorth Bornean peoples\nPenan: Sarawak, Malaysia\nLun Bawang: Sarawak, Malaysia\nPhilippine peoples\nIgorot (Ifugao: Ipugao; Benguet: Ibaloi, Kankanaey; Mountain Province: Bontoc; Kalinga: Kiangan; Abra: Itneg; Apayao: Isneg): Cordillera mountains in Luzon in the Philippines\nLumad (Katawhang Lumad): Mindanao in the Philippines\nMangyan: Mindoro in the Philippines\nMoro: Mindanao and Sulu archipelago in the Philippines\nTausug (Tausūg/Suluk/Sulug)\nMaguindanao\nMaranao (Iranon/Iranun)\nTribes of Palawan: Palawan, Philippines\nOrang Rimba (Orang Batin Sembilan/Orang Rimba/Anak Dalam/Kubu): Sumatra, Indonesia\nLubu: Sumatra, Indonesia\nNegrito:\nAndamanese, in the Andaman Islands, which include:\nGreat Andamanese: formerly at least 10 distinct groups living throughout Great Andaman, now confined to a single community on Strait Island, Andaman Is.\nJangil (Rutland Jarawa): now extinct, formerly of Rutland Island, Andamans\nJarawa: South Andaman and Middle Andaman\nOnge (Önge): Little Andaman, Andaman Islands\nSentinelese (?): North Sentinel Island, Andaman Islands\nAeta: Luzon, Philippines\nAti: Panay, Philippines\nBatak: Palawan, Philippines\nPribumi (Native Indonesians): of Indonesia\n\nEast Asia\n\nWestern China \nTurkic peoples\nÄynu peoples\nIli Turk peoples: Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture\nUyghur peoples\nTibetan peoples\n\nNorth China \nFuyu Kyrgyz: Fuyu County, Heilongjiang\nHui peoples\nTungusic peoples\nNorthern Tungusic peoples\nNanai (Hezhen/Nanai/Hezhe/Golds/Samagir): Heilongjiang in China, Khabarovsk Krai and Primorsky Krai in Russia\nOroqen: Far Northern China\nSouthern Tungusic peoples\nManchu (Manju/Manchu people): Manchuria, northeast China\n\nSouth China \n\nHmong-Mien peoples\nMiao: Southern China (provinces of Guizhou, Yunnan, Sichuan, Hubei, Hunan, Guangxi, Guangdong and Hainan), Myanmar, northern Vietnam, Laos and Thailand\nHmong: Southern China, Vietnam and Laos\nYao (Mien): Southern China (provinces Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, and Yunnan)\n\nTaiwan \n\nIndigenous peoples of the island of Taiwan\nAmis (Pangcah)\nSakizaya\nBunun\nKavalan (Kebalan; Kbaran)\nAtayal (Tayal; Tayan)\nSaisiyat (Say-Siyat)\nSeediq\nTruku (Taroko)\nThao (Ngan)\nPaiwan (Payuan)\nPuyuma (Pinuyumayan)\nRukai (Drekay)\nTsou (Cou)\nYami (Tao)\nHla'alua (Saaroa)\nKanakanavu\n\nJapan \nAinu (Aynu): Hokkaido, Japan and (until the end of World War II) on Sakhalin Island, Russia\nJaponic peoples\nRyukyuans (Ruuchuu Minzuku): Old Ryūkyū Kingdom, now Japan\n\nAmericas \n\nAmericas is the supercontinent comprising North and South America, and associated islands.\n\nList of peoples by geographical and ethnolinguistic grouping:\n\nNorth America \n\nNorth America includes all of the continent and islands east of the Bering Strait and north of the Isthmus of Panama; it includes Greenland, Canada, United States, Mexico, Central American and Caribbean countries. However a distinction can be made between a broader North America and a narrower Northern America and Middle America due to ethnic and cultural characteristics.\n\nIndigenous peoples in North America by Country\nAboriginal peoples in Canada\nFirst Nations\nInuit\nMétis\nIndigenous peoples in the United States\nAlaska Natives\nIndigenous peoples of Mexico\nIndigenous peoples in North America by native cultural regions\n\nArctic \n\nAncient Beringian - Siberia and Alaska\nEskimo–Aleut\nAleut (Unangax): Aleutian Islands and Kamchatka Krai\nEskimo/Yupit-Inuit\nYupik: Alaska, United States\nAlutiiq (Sugpiat): Alaska, United States\nCentral Alaskan Yup'ik (Yupiat/Yupiit): Alaska, United States\nCup'ik (Cupiit): Alaska, United States\nCup'ig: Nunivak Island, Alaska, United States\nSiberian Yupik of St. Lawrence Island, Alaska, United States.\nInuit: Canadian Arctic - Northwest Territories, Nunavik, Nunatsiavut, Nunavut; Greenland; Alaska, United States\nGreenlandic Inuit: Greenland\nInughuit: North Greenland\nKalaallit: West Greenland\nTunumiit: East Greenland\nInupiat (Iñupiat): Arctic Alaska, North Slope and boroughs and the Bering Strait\nNunamiut: Interior Alaska.\nInuit: Canadian Arctic\nEastern Canadian Inuit: East Canadian Arctic, East Nunavut, Nunavik, Nunatsiavut\nWestern Canadian Inuit (Inuvialuit): West Canadian Arctic, Inuvialuit Settlement Region, Arctic coast of Northwest Territories, West Nunavut\nMétis: a mixed First Nations (from several peoples) and European (from several peoples) people of Canada.\n\nSubarctic \n\nNa-Dené peoples\nAthabaskan peoples\nNorthern Athabaskan peoples\nDene of Yukon, British Columbia, Manitoba, Northwest Territory, and Alberta, Canada.\nAlaskan Athabaskans\nSouthern Alaskan peoples\nAhtna\nIngalik\nKoyukon of Interior Alaska.\nKutchin of Interior Alaska and the Yukon.\nTanana Athabaskans.\nKolchan of Interior Alaska.\nDeg Hit'an of Interior Alaska.\nDena'ina of Interior Alaska.\nHolikachuk\nHän of Yukon, Canada, and Alaska, United States.\nMétis: a mixed Native American (from several peoples) and European (from several peoples) people of Canada.\nAlgonquians\nCree of Montana, United States, and Manitoba, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, Canada.\nInnu of Northeastern Quebec, and Western Labrador, Canada.\nAnnishinabe of Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba, Canada, as well as Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin, United States.\nAlgonquin of Quebec, and Ontario, Canada.\nBeothuk of Newfoundland, Canada.\n\nPacific Northwest Coast \n\nMakah of Washington, United States.\nQuinault of Washington, United States.\nNootka of British Columbia, Canada.\nKwakiutl of British Columbia, Canada.\nEyak of Alaska, United States.\nHaida of British Columbia, Canada, and Alaska, United States.\nTlingit of Alaska, United States.\nTshimshian of British Columbia, Canada, and Alaska, United States.\n\nNorthwest Plateau-Great Basin-California\n\nNorthwest Plateau\n\nGreat Basin \n\nUte of Utah, United States.\nShoshone of Colorado, Nevada, and Utah, United States.\nMono of California, United States.\nBannock of Idaho, United States.\nWestern Shoshone of Nevada, United States.\nTimbisha of Nevada, United States.\nWashoe of Nevada, United States.\nPaiute of Colorado, California, Nevada, and Utah, United States.\nNorthern Paiute.\nSouthern Paiute.\nPais of Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico, United States, as well as Baja California, Mexico.\nHualapai of Arizona, United States.\nWalapai of Arizona and Colorado, United States.\n\nCalifornia \n\nYuman-Cochimi peoples\nCochimí people: Baja California, Mexico\nCore Yuman peoples\nKiliwa (K'olew): Baja California, Mexico\nPaipai (Akwa'ala/Yakakwal): Baja California, Mexico\nDelta-Californian peoples\nCocopa (Cocopah/Xawiƚƚ Kwñchawaay): Baja California, Mexico, and Arizona, United States.\nKumeyaay (Ipai-Tipai/MuttTipi): Baja California, Mexico, and California, United States.\nMiwok of California, United States.\nMaidu of California, United States.\nWintu of California, United States.\nChumash of California, United States.\nTongva of California, United States.\nModoc of California, and Oregon, United States.\nAthabaskans\nAchumawi of California, and Oregon, United States.\nHupa of California and Oregon, United States.\nCahuilla of California, United States.\nMojave of California, and Nevada, United States.\nUto-Aztecans\nMono of California, and Nevada, United States.\nNorthern Paiute of California and Nevada, United States.\nOhlone of California, United States.\nKarok of California, United States.\n\nGreat Plains \n\nComanche of Texas and Oklahoma, United States.\nOsage of Kansas and Nebraska, United States.\nSioux of North Dakota, South Dakota, and Minnesota, United States, as well as Saskatchewan, and Alberta, Canada.\nLakota of South Dakota, United States.\nDakota people of Minnesota, United States, and Saskatchewan, Canada.\nKiowa of Texas, and Oklahoma.\nPlains Apache (see the Southwest section for another category this tribe belongs too) of Texas, and Oklahoma.\nCrow of Montana.\nOmaha of Nebraska.\nBlackfoot of Montana, United States, Alberta, Canada, and Saskatchewan, Canada.\n\nEastern Woodlands\n\nNortheastern Woodlands \n\nIroquoian peoples\nHaudenosaunee of New York, Wisconsin, and Oklahoma, United States, as well as Quebec and Ontario, Canada.\nMohawk of Quebec, Canada, and New York, United States.\nSeneca of New York, and Oklahoma, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nCayuga of Oklahoma, and New York, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nOneida of Wisconsin and New York, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nTuscarora of New York, United States, and Ontario, Canada.\nOnondaga of New York, United States, and Ontario, Canada.\nWyandot of Kansas, Michigan, and Oklahoma, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nNation du chat of Upstate New York, Ohio, and Northwest Pennsylvania, United States.\nConestoga (Susquehannock) of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, New York, and Maryland (United States).\nSt. Lawrence Iroquoians: St. Lawrence River, Quebec, Canada, and New York, United States.\nMonongahela: Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Ohio, United States.\nNottoway of Virginia, United States.\nWesto of Virginia and South Carolina, United States.\nAlgic peoples\nAlgonquian peoples\nChowanoke of North Carolina.\nCarolina Algonquian\nRoanoke of North Carolina.\nCroatan of North Carolina.\nPowhatan Confederacy of Virginia.\nPamunkey of Virginia, United States.\nPowhatan people of Virginia, United States.\nWampanoag of Massachusetts.\nWabanaki of Maine, United States, and New Brunswick and Newfoundland, Canada.\nAbenaki of New Hampshire, Maine and Vermont.\nPenobscot of Maine.\nMiqmac of Maine, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland.\nPassamaquoddy of Maine, United States, and New Brunswick, Canada.\nMaliseet of New Brunswick and Quebec.\nShawnee of the Ohio River Valley, now Oklahoma.\nCentral Algonquian peoples\nKikapú (Kiikaapoa/Kiikaapoi): Indigenous peoples from southeast Michigan, United States, also in Coahuila, Mexico.\nPeoria (Illiniwek)\nAnnishinabe\nOjibwe of Minnesota, North Dakota, and Michigan, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nPotawatomi of Michigan and Indiana, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nOdawa of Oklahoma and Michigan, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nCree of Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, Saskatchewan, and the Northwest Territories, Canada, as well as Montana, United States.\n\nSoutheastern Woodlands \n\nCherokee of North Carolina, Georgia, and Oklahoma.\nNatchez of Louisiana and Arkansas.\nMuskogeans\nMuskogee of Georgia, now Oklahoma.\nChoctaw of Louisiana, Alabama, and Oklahoma.\nChickasaw of Tennessee, now Oklahoma.\nIndigenous peoples of Florida\nIndigenous people of the Everglades region\nCalusa of South Florida.\nTequesta of South Florida.\nTimucua of Northern Florida and Southern Georgia.\nApalachee of the Florida Panhandle and Alabama.\nSeminole of Oklahoma, and Florida.\nSiouans\nHo-Chunk of Wisconsin and Michigan.\nCatawba of North Carolina.\nPee Dee of South Carolina.\nCaddoans\nCaddo of Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana.\nPawnee of Oklahoma, Nebraska and Kansas, United States.\nSouthern Plains villagers of Western Oklahoma, Texas, Kansas, and Southeastern Colorado.\nArikara of North Dakota, United States.\nHidatsa of North Dakota, United States.\nWichita of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Texas, United States.\n\nSouthwest \n\nUto-Aztecan peoples\nAztecan (Nahuan) peoples\nMexicanero (Mēxihcah): Durango, Mexico\nCáhitan peoples\nYaqui (Hiaki/Yoeme): Sonora, Mexico, and Arizona, United States.\nMayo (Yoreme): Sonora, Mexico\nTarahumaran peoples\nGuarijío: Sonora, Mexico\nTarahumara (Rarámuri-Omugí): Chihuahua and Durango, Mexico\nTepiman peoples\nPima Bajo: Chihuahua, Mexico\nTepehuán (O'dam/Audam/Ódami): Chihuahua and Durango, Mexico\nSeri (Comcaac): Sonora, Mexico\nPuebloan peoples: Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and Texas, United States\nHopi of New Mexico, United States.\nZuni of Arizona, United States.\nAnasazi of New Mexico and Colorado, United States.\nTiwa of New Mexico, United States.\nMogollon of New Mexico, Arizona, United States, and Sonora, Mexico.\nHohokam of Southern Arizona, United States.\nSouthern Athabascans\nApache of Chihuahua, Coahuilla, and Sonora, Mexico, as well as Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas, United States.\nChiricahua of Southern New Mexico, Northern Mexico, and Southeast Arizona.\nLipan Apache of Northern Texas, and Western Oklahoma.\nPlains Apache of Oklahoma.\nMescalero of Arizona, New Mexico, and Northern Chihuahua.\nWestern Apache of Western Arizona.\nNavajo of the Four Corners region.\nO'odham of Sonora, Mexico, and Arizona, United States.\nPima of Arizona, United States.\nPapago of far Northern Sonora, Mexico, and Southern Arizona, United States.\n\nMesoamerica \n\nHuave (Ikoots/Kunajts): Oaxaca, Mexico\nLenca: Honduras and El Salvador\nMaya peoples\nCh'olan peoples\nCh'ol: Chiapas, Mexico\nCh'orti': El Salvador\nChontal Maya (Yokot'anob/Yokot'an): Tabasco, Mexico\nTzeltal (Winik Atel/Batzilʼop): Chiapas, Mexico\nTzotzil (Bats'ik'op/Sotz'leb): Chiapas, Mexico\nHuastec (Téenek/Te' Inik): San Luis Potosí, Mexico\nMamean peoples\nIxil: Guatemala\nMam: Guatemala\nQ'anjobalan peoples\nChuj: Guatemala\nJakaltek: Guatemala – also called Poptí\nQ'anjob'al: Guatemala\nTojolabal: Guatemala\nQichean peoples\nAchi': Guatemala\nKaqchikel: Guatemala\nK'iche': Guatemala\nPoqomchi': Guatemala\nPoqomam: Guatemala\nQ'eqchi': Guatemala\nTz'utujil: Guatemala\nYucatecan peoples\nItza: Guatemala\nLacandón (Hach Winik): Chiapas, Mexico\nMopan: Guatemala and Belize\nYucatec Maya (Maya proper) (Màaya): Yucatán, Quintana Roo and Campeche, Mexico\nMixe-Zoquean peoples\nMixe (Ayüükjä'äy): Oaxaca, Mexico\nZoque: Oaxaca and Chiapas Mexico\nOto-Manguean peoples\nAmuzgo (Tzjon Non/Tzo'tyio/Ñ'anncue): Oaxaca, Mexico\nChinantec: Oaxaca, Mexico\nManguean\nChorotega (Mangue/Mankeme): Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica\nMixtecan\nCuicatec:Oaxaca, Mexico\nMixtec (Ñuù Savi/Nayívi Savi/Ñuù Davi/Nayivi Davi): Oaxaca, Mexico\nTrique: Oaxaca, Mexico\nOto-Pamean peoples\nChichimeca Jonaz (Úza): San Luis Potosí, Mexico\nMatlatzinca: Mexico (state), Mexico\nMazahua (Tetjo Ñaa Jñatjo): Mexico (state), Mexico\nOtomi (Hñähñu/Hñähño/Ñuhu/Ñhato/Ñuhmu): Central Mexico, Mexico\nPame (Xi'úi): San Luis Potosí, Mexico\nPopolocan peoples\nChocho (Ngiwa): Oaxaca, Mexico\nIxcatec: Oaxaca, Mexico\nPopoloca: Oaxaca, and Puebla, Mexico\nMazatec (Ha Shuta Enima): Puebla and Oaxaca, Mexico\nTlapanec (Me'phaa): Guerrero, Mexico\nZapotecan peoples\nChatino (Kitse Cha'tño): Oaxaca, Mexico\nZapotec (Be'ena'a/Didxažon): Oaxaca, Mexico\nTarascan (P'urhépecha): Michoacán, Mexico\nTequistlatecan/Chontal de Oaxaca: Oaxaca, Mexico\nTotonacan peoples\nTotonac (Tutunacu): Veracruz and Puebla, Mexico\nUto-Aztecan peoples\nAztecan peoples\nNahua (Nāhuatlācah): Mexico\nCorachol peoples\nCora (Náayarite): Jalisco and Nayarit, Mexico\nHuichol (Wixáritari/Wixárita): Jalisco and Nayarit, Mexico\nXinca (Xinka): Guatemala\n\nCircum-Caribbean \n\nChibchan peoples\nBoruca: Costa Rica\nBribri: Costa Rica\nCabécar: Costa Rica\nNaso/Teribe/Tjër Di: Costa Rica, Panama\nGuaymi/Waimi peoples\nBokota: Panama\nNgäbe–Buglé: Panama, Costa Rica\nTalamanca peoplesl\nKuna (Dule/Tule): Panama\nPech: Honduras\nVotic peoples\nMaleku: Costa Rica\nRama: Nicaragua\nChocó/Embera-Wounaan peoples\nEmberá/Chocó proper (ɛ̃berá): Panama\nMisumalpan peoples\nMiskito (Miskitu): Honduras and Nicaragua\nTawira Miskito (Tawira Miskitu) \nSumalpan peoples\nSumo (Mayangna): Nicaragua\nTolupan/Jicaque: Honduras\nZambo/Cafuso peoples (mixed West African and Amerindian peoples)\nGarífuna: A mixed West African (from several peoples) and Amerindian people (mainly from the Island Caribs - Kalhíphona) that traditionally speaks an Arawakan language in Belize and Honduras.\nMiskito Sambu: A mixed West African (from several peoples) and Amerindian people (mainly from the original Miskito) that traditionally speaks Miskito, a Misumalpan language, and also Nicaragua Creole English in Nicaragua and Honduras.\nBlack Seminoles: Florida, The Bahamas, and Mexico. (Mixed Seminole and African).\n\nWest Indies \n\nThe West Indies, or the Caribbean, generally includes the island chains of the Caribbean Sea.\nArawakan peoples\nNorthern\nCircum-Caribbean/Ta-Arawakan peoples\nEyeri/Igneri: Lesser Antilles. An Arawak people, may have been the Kalinago/Island Caribs before caribbeanization. (The Island Caribs had the tradition that the Igneri were the older people of Lesser Antilles but they could have been ancestors of the majority of Island Caribs).\nIsland Caribs (Carib/Kalinago/Kalhíphona): Lesser Antilles. Often called \"Island Caribs\" (but may have been an older arawak people with a carib conquering warrior elite or influenced by Mainland Caribs. Apparently, the majority of the people spoke an arawakan language and not a carib one.)\nTaíno: Amerindians who originally inhabited the Greater Antilles of the Caribbean, they are of Arawakan descent.\nNeo-Taíno nations Some scholars distinguish between the Taíno and Neo-Taíno groups. Neo-Taíno groups were also native to the Antilles islands, but had distinctive languages and cultural practices that differed from the High Taíno. These groups include:\nCiboney: a term preferred in Cuban historical texts for the neo-Taino-Siboney nations of the island of Cuba.\nCiguayo: Eastern Hispaniola\nLucayans: Based in the Bahamas.\nMacorix: Hispaniola.\nGuanahatabey people: Western Cuba island, a Pre-Arawakan and Pre-Island Carib people of the Caribbean Islands.\n\nSouth America \n\nSouth America generally includes all of the continent and islands south of the Isthmus of Panama.\n\nIndigenous peoples in South America by Country:\nIndigenous peoples in Argentina\nList of indigenous peoples of Brazil\nIndigenous peoples in Chile\nIndigenous peoples in Colombia\nIndigenous peoples in Ecuador\nIndigenous peoples in Peru\nIndigenous peoples in South America by native cultural regions\n\nCircum-Caribbean (Chibcha) \n\nArawakan peoples\nNorthern\nTa-Arawakan\nWayuu: Venezuela/Colombia\nChibchan peoples\nChibcha–Motilon\nChibcha–Tunebo\nU'wa: Colombia\nKuna–Colombian\nKuna (Dule/Tule): Panama\nChocoan peoples\nEmbera (ɛ̃berá): Colombia/Panamá\nWarao: Venezuela's Orinoco River delta region.\n\nAmazon \n\nArawakan peoples\nSouthern\nCampa\nAsháninka: Peru\nBarbacoan peoples\nAwan\nAwá-Kwaiker: Northern Ecuador\nBora-Witoto peoples\nBora: Colombia/Peru\nCahuapanan peoples\nChayahuita: Loreto, Peru\nJivaroan (Shuar): Loreto and San Martín, Peru\nNukak: Colombia\nPanoan peoples\nMainline Panoan\nNawa\nChama\nShipibo-Conibo people: Ucayali, Peru\nShipibo: Ucayali, Peru\nHeadwaters\nYora: Amazon rainforest, southeast Peru\nMayoruna\nMayo\nKorubu (Dslala): Brazil\nMatis: Brazil/Peru\nMatsés: Brazil/Peru\nPirahã: Brazil\nTicuna-Yuri peoples\nTicuna (Tikuna): Brazil/Peru/Colombia\nTucanoan peoples\nEastern\nNorth\nTukano: Colombia\nWestern\nNapo\nSiona–Secoya\nSecoya: Loreto, Peru/Ecuador\nTupian peoples\nTupí-Guaraní\nTupi: Paraguay, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru and Argentina\nCocama-Omagua\nCocama-Cocamilla (Kokáma): Loreto, Peru\nTapirape: Brazil\nWayampí\nGuajá\nAwá-Guajá: eastern Amazonian rainforest, Brazil\nUrarina (Kachá): Chambira Basin, Loreto Peru\nYanomami (Yanõmami/Yanõmami Thëpë): Venezuela/Brazil\n\nGuianas \n\nCariban peoples\nGalibi/Kalina (Mainland Caribs): Guianas, Venezuela (northern coast of South America)\nYekuana\nEñapa (Panare)\nPemóng\nPemóng\nMakuxi: Brazil, Guyana\nYanomami (Yanõmami/Yanõmami Thëpë): Venezuela/Brazil\nPiaroa (Wothïha): Venezuela/Colombia\n\nEastern Highlands (Brazilian Highlands) \n\nCharruan peoples\nCharrúa: Uruguay, Brazil and Argentina\nMacro-Gê peoples\nBororoan\nBororo: Mato Grosso, Brazil\nOfaie\nKarajá/Iny: Brazil\nTupian peoples\nTupí-Guaraní\nGuaraní (I)\nAche: Paraguay\nPai Tavytera: Paraguay\nGuaraní\nGuaraní (Abá/Avá): Paraguay, Uruguay, Brazil, Bolivia and Argentina\nTupi: Paraguay, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru and Argentina\nCocama-Omagua\nCocama-Cocamilla (Kokáma): Loreto, Peru\nTapirape: Brazil\nWayampí\nGuajá\nAwá-Guajá: eastern Amazonian rainforest, Brazil\n\nChaco \n\nMascoian peoples\nEnxet: Paraguay\nMatacoan peoples\nWichí: the Chaco, Argentina/Bolivia\nZamucoan peoples\nAyoreo: the Chaco, Paraguay/Bolivia\n\nCentral Andes \n\nAymaran peoples\nAymara: Peru/Bolivia/Chile\nNasa: Colombia\nQuechuan peoples\nQuechua (Nunakuna/Runakuna/Kichwa/Inga)\n\nSouthern Cone\n\nAraucania \nAraucanian peoples\nMapuche (Araucanians): Chile/Argentina\nMapuche-Huilliche\nPehuenche\n\nPatagonia \nChono: Chiloé, Guaitecas and Chonos\nTehuelche: Southern Chile/Argentina\n\nTierra del Fuego \nAlacalufe (Kawésqar): Far Southern Chile\nSelk'nam: Southern Argentina and Chile\nYaghan (Yámana): Far Southern Chile\nHaush: Far Southern Argentina\n\nOceania \nOceania includes most islands of the Pacific Ocean, New Guinea, New Zealand and the continent of Australia.\n\nList of peoples by geographical and ethnolinguistic grouping:\n\nAustralia \n\nIndigenous Australians include Aboriginal Australians on the mainland and Tiwi Islands as well as Torres Strait Islander peoples from the Torres Strait Islands.\nAboriginal Australians include hundreds of groupings of people, defined by various overlapping characteristics such as language, culture and geography, which may include sub-groups. The Indigenous peoples of the island state of Tasmania and the Tiwi people (of the Tiwi Islands off the Northern Territory) are also Aboriginal peoples, who are genetically and culturally distinct from Torres Strait Islander peoples.\nTorres Strait Islander peoples are culturally and linguistically Papuo-Austronesian, and the various peoples of the islands are of predominantly Melanesian descent. The Torres Strait Islands are part of the state of Queensland.\n\nWestern Desert \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nKunapa: Northern Territory, Australia\nPini: Western Australia, Australia\nSpinifex: Western Australia, Australia\nWangkatha: Western Australia, Australia\nWarumungu: Northern Territory, Australia\nWati peoples\nAntakirinja: South Australia, Australia\nKokatha: South Australia, Australia\nLuritja: Northern Territory, Australia\nMadoidja: Western Australia, Australia\nMaduwongga: Western Australia, Australia\nMartu peoples\nKartudjara: Western Australia, Australia\nKeiadjara: Western Australia, Australia\nMandjildjara: Western Australia, Australia\nPutidjara: Western Australia, Australia\nWanman: Western Australia, Australia\nMarrngu peoples\nKarajarri: Great Sandy Desert, Western Australia, Australia\nMangarla: Great Sandy Desert, Western Australia, Australia\nNyangumarta: Great Sandy Desert, Western Australia, Australia\nNgaanyatjarra: Northern Territory, Australia\nNgaatjatjarra: Western Australia, Australia\nPintupi: Western Australia, Australia\nPitjantjatjara: Northern Territory, Australia\nWangkatjunga: Western Australia, Australia\nYankunytjatjara: South Australia, Australia\nYulparirra: Western Australia, Australia\nYumu: Northern Territory, Australia\nYankuntjatjarra: South Australia, Australia\nMirindi peoples\nNgurlun peoples\nNgarnka: Northern Territory, Australia\nWambaya: Northern Territory, Australia\n\nKimberley \n\nBunuban peoples\nBunuba: Fitzroy Crossing, Western Australia, Australia\nGooniyandi: Fitzroy Crossing, Western Australia, Australia\nJarrakan peoples\nGija: Halls Creek and Kununurra, Western Australia, Australia\nMiriwoongic peoples\nMiriwoong: Kunurra, Western Australia, Australia\nGajirrawoong: Eastern Kimberley and Northern Territory, Australia\nNyulnyulan peoples\nNyulnyulic peoples\nBardi: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nJabirr Jabirr: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nJawi: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nNimanburru: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nNyulnyul: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nDyukun peoples\nJugun: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nNgombal: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nNyigina: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nWarrwa: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nYawuru: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nWorrorran peoples\nNgarinyin: Western Australia, Australia\nWorrorra: Western Australia, Australia\nWunambal: Western Australia, Australia\n\nNorthwest \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nNgayarda peoples\nBailgu: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nInawongga: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nJadira: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nKurrama: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nMardudunera: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nNgarla: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nNgarluma: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nNiabali: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nNhuwala: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nNyamal: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nPanyjima: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nTjuroro: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nKanyara-Mantharta peoples\nKanyara peoples\nBaiyungu: Gascoyne region, Western Australia, Australia\nBinigura: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nBuruna: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nThalanyji: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nYinikutira: Exmouth, Western Australia, Australia\nMantharta peoples\nDjiwali: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nTharrkari: Gascoyne region, Western Australia, Australia\nTenma: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nWarriyangga: Gascoyne region, Western Australia, Australia\nKartu peoples\nBadimaya: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nMaia: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nMalgana: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nNanda: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nNokaan: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nWajarri: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nWidi: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nYingkarta: Gascoyne region, Western Australia, Australia\n\nSouthwest \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nNyungic peoples\nNoongar peoples\nAmangu: Geraldton Sandplains, Western Australia, Australia\nBallardong: Avon Wheatbelt, Western Australia, Australia\nYued: Swan Coastal Plain, Western Australia, Australia\nKaneang: Jarrah Forest, Western Australia, Australia\nKoreng: Mallee, Western Australia, Australia\nMineng: Warren, Western Australia, Australia\nNjakinjaki: Avon Wheatbelt, Western Australia, Australia\nNjunga: Esperance Plains, Western Australia, Australia\nBibulman: Warren, Western Australia, Australia\nPindjarup: Jarrah Forest, Western Australia, Australia\nWarandi: Swan Coastal Plain, Western Australia, Australia\nWhadjuk: Jarrah Forest, Western Australia, Australia\nWiilman: Western Australia, Australia\nWudjari: Mallee, Western Australia, Australia\nKalaako: Goldfields–Esperance region, Western Australia, Australia\nKalamaia: Western Australia, Australia\nMirning peoples\nMirning: Western Australia and South Australia, Australia\nNgadjumaya: Goldfields–Esperance region, Western Australia, Australia\nYingkarta: Gascoyne region, Western Australia, Australia\n\nFitzmaurice Basin \n\nYirram peoples\nNungali: Northern Territory, Australia\nJaminjung: Northern Territory, Australia\nMacro-Gunwinyguan peoples\nKungarakany: Northern Territory, Australia\nWarrayic peoples\nAwarai: Northern Territory, Australia\nAwinmul: Northern Territory, Australia\nWulwulam: Northern Territory, Australia\nDaly peoples\nWagaydic peoples\nWadjiginy: Anson Bay, Northern Territory, Australia\nMulluk-Mulluk: Northern Territory, Australia\nWestern Daly peoples\nEmmiyangal: Anson Bay, Northern Territory, Australia\nMarranunggu: Daly River, Northern Territory, Australia\nMenthe: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarrithiyal: Daly River, Northern Territory, Australia\nMaramanindji: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarridan: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarri Amu: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarri Tjevin: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarijedi: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarri Ngarr: Moyle River, Northern Territory, Australia\nMati Ke: Wadeye, Northern Territory, Australia\nEastern Daly peoples\nMadngela: Northern Territory, Australia\nYunggor: Northern Territory, Australia\nSouthern Daly peoples\nMurrinh-Patha: Wadeye, Northern Territory, Australia\nMuringura people: Fitzmaurice River, Northern Territory, Australia\nNgan'gimerri: Daly River, Northern Territory, Australia\n\nArnhem Land \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nYolngu: Northern Territory, Australia\nMacro-Gunwinyguan peoples\nManingrida peoples\nBurarra: Maningrida, Northern Territory, Australia\nGadjalivia: Blyth River, Northern Territory, Australia\nGunavidji: Maningrida, Northern Territory, Australia\nGurr-Goni: Maningrida, Northern Territory, Australia\nNagara: Blyth River, Northern Territory, Australia\nEast Arnhem peoples\nAnindilyakwa: Northern Territory, Australia\nNgandi: Northern Territory, Australia\nNunggubuyu: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarran peoples\nAlawa: Northern Territory, Australia\nMangarayi: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarra: Northern Territory, Australia\nWarndarrang: Northern Territory, Australia\nYukul: Northern Territory, Australia\nGaagudju: Northern Territory, Australia\nGunwinyguan peoples\nGunwinggic peoples\nBininj: Northern Territory, Australia\nGambalang: Northern Territory, Australia\nDalabon: Northern Territory, Australia\nJawoyn: Nitmiluk National Park, Northern Territory, Australia\nJala peoples\nNgalakgan: Northern Territory, Australia\nRembarrnga: Northern Territory, Australia\nIwaidjan peoples\nAmurdak: Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory, Australia\nIwaidjic peoples\nMaung: Goulburn Islands, Northern Territory, Australia\nWarrkbi\nGaari: Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory, Australia\nIwaidja: Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory, Australia\nMarrku-Wurrugu peoples\nWurango: Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory, Australia\nYaako: Croker Island, Northern Territory, Australia\n\nTop End \n\nTiwi: Tiwi Islands, Northern Territory, Australia\nDarwin Region peoples\nLarrakia: Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia\nLimilngan\nPuneitja: Northern Territory, Australia\nBeriguruk: Northern Territory, Australia\nDjerimanga: Northern Territory, Australia\nUmbugarlic peoples\nNgomburr: Alligator Rivers, Northern Territory, Australia\nGiimbiyu: Alligator Rivers, Northern Territory, Australia\n\nGulf Country \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nMayabic peoples\nMayi-Kutuna: Queensland, Australia\nMarrago: Queensland, Australia\nMaikulan: Queensland, Australia\nMaithakari: Queensland, Australia\nMaijabi: Queensland, Australia\nNgaun: Queensland, Australia\nWanamara: Queensland, Australia\nPaman peoples\nSouthwestern Paman peoples\nAgwamin: Queensland, Australia\nKok-Nar: Queensland, Australia\nMbara: Queensland, Australia\nYanga: Queensland, Australia\nTankgkic peoples\nLardil: Mornington Island, Wellesley Islands, Queensland, Australia\nKaiadilt: Wellesley Islands, Queensland, Australia\nYukulta: Queensland, Australia\nNguburinji: Queensland, Australia\nMingin: Queensland, Australia\nGarawan peoples\nGarrwa: Northern Territory and Queensland, Australia\nWaanyi: Queensland, Australia\n\nCape York\n\nWest Cape \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nPaman peoples\nNorth Cape York Paman peoples\nDjagaraga: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nTjungundji: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nInjinoo: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nLuthigh: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nMbewum: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nTjungundji: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nTotj: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nUnduyamo: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik peoples\nWik-Mungkan: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nKugu Nganhcara: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWiknatanja: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik Me'anh: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik Epa: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik Elken: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik Paach: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik Ompom: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWimaranga: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWinduwinda: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nThaypan peoples\nTagalag: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\n\nEast Cape \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nPaman peoples\nNorth Cape York Paman peoples\nYadhaykenu: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWuthathi: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nKaantju, Coen, Queensland, Australia\nPakadji: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nUutaalnganu: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nLamalamic peoples\nLama Lama: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nNortheast Paman peoples\nUmpila: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\n\nDaintree Rainforest \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nPaman peoples\nDjabugay: Queensland, Australia\nYidiny: Queensland, Australia\nMbabaram: Atherton Tableland, Queensland, Australia\nDyirbalic peoples\nDyirbal: Atherton Tableland, Queensland, Australia\nWarrgamay: Queensland, Australia\nNyawigi: Halifax Bay, Queensland, Australia\n\nLake Eyre Basin \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nKalkatungic peoples\nKalkatungu: Queensland, Australia\nYalarnnga: Queensland, Australia\nKarnic peoples\nArabana: South Australia, Australia\nWangkangurru: Simpson Desert, South Australia, Australia\nPitapita: Queensland, Australia\nYandruwandha: South Australia, Australia\nYawarrawarrka: South Australia, Australia\nMitaka: Queensland, Australia\nWanggumara: Queensland, Australia\nYarli peoples\nKarenggapa: New South Wales, Australia\n\nSpencer Gulf \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nThura-Yura peoples\nWirangu: South Australia, Australia\nNauo: Eyre Peninsula, South Australia, Australia\nBarngarla: Eyre Peninsula, South Australia, Australia\nKuyani: South Australia, Australia\nAdnyamathanha: Flinders Ranges, South Australia, Australia\nMalyangapa: New South Wales, Australia\nNgadjuri: South Australia, Australia\nNukunu: South Australia, Australia\nNarungga: Yorke Peninsula, South Australia, Australia\nKaurna: Adelaide Plains, South Australia, Australia\nPeramangk: Adelaide Plains, South Australia, Australia\n\nMurray-Darling Basin \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nYotayotic peoples\nYorta Yorta: New South Wales and Victoria, Australia\nNgarrimouro: New South Wales and Victoria, Australia\nLower Murray peoples\nNgarrindjeri: South Australia, Australia\nNgaiawang: South Australia, Australia\nYuyu peoples\nNgawait: Murray River, South Australia, Australia\nErawirung: Riverland, South Australia, Australia\nNgintait: South Australia and Victoria, Australia\nNgarkat: South Australia, Australia\nKureinji: New South Wales, Australia\nJitajita: New South Wales, Australia\nTatitati: Murray River, Victoria, Australia\nWiradhuric peoples\nGamilaraay: New South Wales and Queensland, Australia\nWiradjuri: New South Wales, Australia\nNgiyampaa: New South Wales, Australia\nMuruwari: New South Wales and Queensland, Australia\n\nNortheast \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nLower Burdekin peoples\nJuru: Queensland, Australia\nBindal: Queensland, Australia\nMaric peoples\nBiri peoples\nGugu-Badhun: Burdekin River, Queensland, Australia\nYilba: Mackay, Queensland, Australia\nGia: Queensland, Australia\nBiria: Queensland, Australia\nYambina: Queensland, Australia\nGaraynbal: Queensland, Australia\nYangga: Queensland, Australia\nBaranha: Queensland, Australia\nMiyan: Queensland, Australia\nYuwibara: Queensland, Australia\nKingkel peoples\nDarumbal: Queensland, Australia\nGuwinmal: Queensland, Australia\nWaka-Kabic peoples\nGoreng Goreng: Queensland, Australia\nWulli Wulli: Queensland, Australia\nWakka Wakka: Queensland, Australia\nBaruŋgam: Queensland, Australia\nGubbi Gubbi: Queensland, Australia\nButchulla: Fraser Island, Queensland, Australia\nJagera: Queensland, Australia\n\nSoutheast \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nYugambeh-Bundjalung peoples\nBundjalung: New South Wales, Australia\nNgarbal: New South Wales, Australia\nGumbaynggiric peoples\nGumbaynggirr: Mid North Coast, New South Wales, Australia\nYaygirr: Coffs Harbour, New South Wales, Australia\nAnēwan: Northern Tablelands, New South Wales, Australia\nYuin-Kuric peoples\nDjangadi: Macleay Valley, New South Wales, Australia\nGeawegal: Hunter Valley, New South Wales, Australia\nWorimi: New South Wales, Australia\nWonnarua: New South Wales, Australia\nAwabakal: New South Wales, Australia\nEora: New South Wales, Australia\nDarug: New South Wales, Australia\nGandangara: New South Wales, Australia\nTharawal: Sydney, New South Wales, Australia\nNgarigo: New South Wales and Victoria, Australia\nKoori: New South Wales and Victoria, Australia\nGippsland peoples\nGunai: Gippsland, Victoria, Australia\nBidawal: Gippsland, Victoria, Australia\nDhudhuroa: Victoria, Australia\nKulinic peoples\nKulin peoples\nWurundjeri: Yarra River, Victoria, Australia\nBoonwurrung: Werribee River, Victoria, Australia\nWathaurong: Victoria, Australia\nTaungurung: Victoria, Australia\nDjadjawurrung: Victoria, Australia\nDrual peoples\nBungandidj: Mount Gambier, South Australia, Australia\nGunditjmara: Victoria, Australia\nGulidjan: Lake Colac, Victoria, Australia\n\nTasmania \n\nPalawa peoples\nWestern Tasmanian peoples\nPeerapper: Circular Head and Robbins Island, Tasmania, Australia\nToogee: Macquarie Harbour, Tasmania, Australia\nNorthern Tasmanian peoples\nTommeginne: Northern Tasmania, Australia\nNortheastern Tasmanian peoples\nPyemmairre: Northeastern Tasmania, Australia\nTyerrernotepanner: Northern Midlands and Ben Lomond, Tasmania, Australia\nEastern Tasmanian peoples\nParedarerme: Oyster Bay, Tasmania, Australia\nLairmairrener: Big River, Tasmania, Australia\nNuennone: Bruny Island, Tasmania, Australia\n\nTorres Strait Islands \n\nTorres Strait Islanders\nBadu: Badu Island, Torres Strait Islands, Queensland, Australia\nKaurareg: Central Torres Strait Islands, Queensland, Australia\nMabuiag: Torres Strait Islands, Queensland, Australia\nMeriam: Eastern Torres Strait Islands, Queensland, Australia\n\nMelanesia \n\nMelanesia generally includes New Guinea and other (far-)western Pacific islands from the Arafura Sea out to Fiji. The region is mostly inhabited by the Melanesian peoples.\nMelanesians\nAustronesian speaking Melanesians\nFijians (iTaukei): Fiji\nKanak: New-Caledonia\nMalaitan people: Malaita, Solomon Islands\nNi-Vanuatu: Vanuatu\nPapuan speaking Melanesians\nBaining\nPapuans: more than 250 distinct tribes or clans, each with their own language and culture. The main island of New Guinea and surrounding islands (territory forming independent state of Papua New Guinea (PNG) and the Indonesian provinces of West Papua and Papua). Considered \"Indigenous\" these people are a subject to many debates.\nSepik peoples\nKwoma: Peilungua Mountains, Papua New Guinea.\nIatmul: Sepik, Papua New Guinea.\nSepik Hill\nSanio\nHewa: Southern Highlands, PNG\nTrans New-Guinean peoples\nHuli of the Southern Highlands, Papua New Guinea.\nAngu: Southwestern Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea.\nBosavi\nKaluli-Kasua\nKaluli: Great Papuan Plateau, PNG\nOk\nMountain Ok\nWopkaimin: western PNG, Star Mountains.\nWest Trans New-Guinean peoples\nDani: Papua, Indonesia\nKorowai: West Papua, close to the Papua New Guinea border.\nAsmat: Asmat Regency, West Papua.\n\nMicronesia \nMicronesia generally includes the various small island chains of the western and central Pacific. The region is mostly inhabited by the Micronesian peoples.\nMicronesians\nChamorro people: Northern Marianas and Guam\nCarolinians: Northern Marianas\n Yapese, Kosraeans, Chuukese, Pohnpeians, Palauans, Kiribati's\n\nPolynesia \n\nPolynesia includes New Zealand and the islands of Oceania, and has various Indigenous populations.\n\nPolynesians\nNative Hawaiians\nTongans\nTuvaluan people\nMarquesas Islanders\nRapanui\nSamoans\nTokelau\nAustral Islanders\nCook Islanders\nMaohi, Tahiti\nMāori, New Zealand\nMoriori, Chatham Islands\nTahitians, French Polynesia\nTuamotus\nNiueans\n\nPolynesian outliers\nVanuatuans\nKapingamarangi and Nukuoro, The Federated States of Micronesia\nRennel, Tikopia and Vaeakau-Taumako, Solomon Islands\nNuguria, Papua New Guinea\nNukumanu, Papua New Guinea\nTakuu, Papua New Guinea\nOntong Java\nSikaiana\nAnuta, Solomon Islands\nFagauvea, Ouvéa, New Caledonia\nAniwa\nBellona\nRennel\n\nCircumpolar \nCircumpolar peoples is an umbrella term for the various Indigenous peoples of the Arctic.\nList of peoples by ethnolinguistic grouping: \n\"Paleosiberian\"\nChukotko-Kamchatkan\nChukchi (Lyg'oravetl'et/O'ravetl'et): Siberia, Russian Far East, Russia\nKoryaks (Nymylan-Chauchuven): Russian Far East\nTungusic\nEvenks (Evenkil): China, Mongolia, Russia\nEskimo–Aleut\nAleut (Unangax): Aleutian Islands and Kamchatka Krai\nEskimo/Yupik-Inuit\nYupik: Alaska, United States and the Russian Far East, Siberia\nAlutiiq (Sugpiat): Alaska, United States\nYup'ik (Yupiat/Yupiit/Cup'ik/Cupiit): Alaska, United States\nCup'ig (Nunivak Cup'ig people): Nunivak Island (Alaska), United States\nSiberian Yupik (Yupighyt): Siberia, Russia\nInuit: Greenland, Northern Canada (Nunavut, Nunavik and Northwest Territories), Alaska, United States\nInupiat (Iñupiat): Alaska's Arctic and North Slope boroughs and the Bering Straits\nKalaallit (Kalaallit): Greenland\nTurkic\nNortheast Turks\nDolgans (Dolgan/Tya Kikhi): Siberia (Krasnoyarsk Krai), Russia\nYakuts (Sakha): Siberia (Sakha Republic), Russia\nUgrians, Yugra, Siberia, Russia\nKhanty (Kantek/Khanti): Yugra, Siberia, Russia\nMansi, formerly known as Voguls: Yugra, Siberia, Russia\nSami (Sámi/Saami/Lapp), formerly known by the exonym Lapps: Northern Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Kola Peninsula in Russia\nSamoyedic peoples\nNorthern Samoyedic peoples: West Siberia and Far Northern European Russia\nEnets (Entsi): Far Northern Western Siberia, Russia\nNenets (Neney Neneche): Far Northern Western Siberia and Far Northern European Russia\nNganasan (Ŋənəhsa(nəh)): Taymyr Peninsula, Siberia, Russia\nYukaghirs (Odul/Vadul/Detkil'): Far Northern East Siberia, Russia\n\nSee also \n\nCenter for World Indigenous Studies\nDeclaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples\nIndigenous peoples\nIndigenous archaeology\nIndigenous Dialogues\nIndigenous (ecology)\nIndigenous intellectual property\nIndigenous knowledge\nIndigenous language\nIndigenous medicine\nIndigenous music\nInternational Work Group for Indigenous Affairs\nUnited Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues\nWorld Council of Indigenous Peoples\nWorking Group on Indigenous Populations\nList of contemporary ethnic groups\nLists of people by nationality\nList of indigenous rights organizations\nSee all pages that start with indigenous people or indigenous\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nCitations\n\nSources\n\n \n \n \n \n\nList\nIndigenous", "title": "List of Indigenous peoples" }, { "text": "Culture () is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups. Culture is often originated from or attributed to a specific region or location.\n\nHumans acquire culture through the learning processes of enculturation and socialization, which is shown by the diversity of cultures across societies.\n\nA cultural norm codifies acceptable conduct in society; it serves as a guideline for behavior, dress, language, and demeanor in a situation, which serves as a template for expectations in a social group.\nAccepting only a monoculture in a social group can bear risks, just as a single species can wither in the face of environmental change, for lack of functional responses to the change.\nThus in military culture, valor is counted a typical behavior for an individual and duty, honor, and loyalty to the social group are counted as virtues or functional responses in the continuum of conflict. In the practice of religion, analogous attributes can be identified in a social group.\n\nCultural change, or repositioning, is the reconstruction of a cultural concept of a society. Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies.\n\nOrganizations like UNESCO attempt to preserve culture and cultural heritage.\n\nDescription \n\nCulture is considered a central concept in anthropology, encompassing the range of phenomena that are transmitted through social learning in human societies. Cultural universals are found in all human societies. These include expressive forms like art, music, dance, ritual, religion, and technologies like tool usage, cooking, shelter, and clothing. The concept of material culture covers the physical expressions of culture, such as technology, architecture and art, whereas the immaterial aspects of culture such as principles of social organization (including practices of political organization and social institutions), mythology, philosophy, literature (both written and oral), and science comprise the intangible cultural heritage of a society.\n\nIn the humanities, one sense of culture as an attribute of the individual has been the degree to which they have cultivated a particular level of sophistication in the arts, sciences, education, or manners. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes been used to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies. Such hierarchical perspectives on culture are also found in class-based distinctions between a high culture of the social elite and a low culture, popular culture, or folk culture of the lower classes, distinguished by the stratified access to cultural capital. In common parlance, culture is often used to refer specifically to the symbolic markers used by ethnic groups to distinguish themselves visibly from each other such as body modification, clothing or jewelry. Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of consumer culture that emerged in the 20th century. Some schools of philosophy, such as Marxism and critical theory, have argued that culture is often used politically as a tool of the elites to manipulate the proletariat and create a false consciousness. Such perspectives are common in the discipline of cultural studies. In the wider social sciences, the theoretical perspective of cultural materialism holds that human symbolic culture arises from the material conditions of human life, as humans create the conditions for physical survival, and that the basis of culture is found in evolved biological dispositions.\n\nWhen used as a count noun, a \"culture\" is the set of customs, traditions, and values of a society or community, such as an ethnic group or nation. Culture is the set of knowledge acquired over time. In this sense, multiculturalism values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet. Sometimes \"culture\" is also used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society, a subculture (e.g. \"bro culture\"), or a counterculture. Within cultural anthropology, the ideology and analytical stance of cultural relativism hold that cultures cannot easily be objectively ranked or evaluated because any evaluation is necessarily situated within the value system of a given culture.\n\nEtymology\nThe modern term \"culture\" is based on a term used by the ancient Roman orator Cicero in his Tusculanae Disputationes, where he wrote of a cultivation of the soul or \"cultura animi,\" using an agricultural metaphor for the development of a philosophical soul, understood teleologically as the highest possible ideal for human development. Samuel Pufendorf took over this metaphor in a modern context, meaning something similar, but no longer assuming that philosophy was man's natural perfection. His use, and that of many writers after him, \"refers to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original barbarism, and through artifice, become fully human.\"\n\nIn 1986, philosopher Edward S. Casey wrote, \"The very word culture meant 'place tilled' in Middle English, and the same word goes back to Latin colere, 'to inhabit, care for, till, worship' and cultus, 'A cult, especially a religious one.' To be cultural, to have a culture, is to inhabit a place sufficiently intensely to cultivate it—to be responsible for it, to respond to it, to attend to it caringly.\"\n\nCulture described by Richard Velkley: ... originally meant the cultivation of the soul or mind, acquires most of its later modern meaning in the writings of the 18th-century German thinkers, who were on various levels developing Rousseau's criticism of \"modern liberalism and Enlightenment.\" Thus a contrast between \"culture\" and \"civilization\" is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such.\n\nIn the words of anthropologist E.B. Tylor, it is \"that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.\" Alternatively, in a contemporary variant, \"Culture is defined as a social domain that emphasizes the practices, discourses and material expressions, which, over time, express the continuities and discontinuities of social meaning of a life held in common.\n\nThe Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is \"the way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs, of a particular group of people at a particular time.\" Terror management theory posits that culture is a series of activities and worldviews that provide humans with the basis for perceiving themselves as \"person[s] of worth within the world of meaning\"—raising themselves above the merely physical aspects of existence, in order to deny the animal insignificance and death that Homo sapiens became aware of when they acquired a larger brain.\n\nThe word is used in a general sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with symbols and to act imaginatively and creatively. This ability arose with the evolution of behavioral modernity in humans around 50,000 years ago and is often thought to be unique to humans. However, some other species have demonstrated similar, though much less complicated, abilities for social learning. It is also used to denote the complex networks of practices and accumulated knowledge and ideas that are transmitted through social interaction and exist in specific human groups, or cultures, using the plural form.\n\nChange\n\nRaimon Panikkar identified 29 ways in which cultural change can be brought about, including growth, development, evolution, involution, renovation, reconception, reform, innovation, revivalism, revolution, mutation, progress, diffusion, osmosis, borrowing, eclecticism, syncretism, modernization, indigenization, and transformation. In this context, modernization could be viewed as adoption of Enlightenment era beliefs and practices, such as science, rationalism, industry, commerce, democracy, and the notion of progress. Rein Raud, building on the work of Umberto Eco, Pierre Bourdieu and Jeffrey C. Alexander, has proposed a model of cultural change based on claims and bids, which are judged by their cognitive adequacy and endorsed or not endorsed by the symbolic authority of the cultural community in question.\n\nCultural invention has come to mean any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior but which does not exist as a physical object. Humanity is in a global \"accelerating culture change period,\" driven by the expansion of international commerce, the mass media, and above all, the human population explosion, among other factors. Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the cultural concept of a society.\n\nCultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. These forces are related to both social structures and natural events, and are involved in the perpetuation of cultural ideas and practices within current structures, which themselves are subject to change.\n\nSocial conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action. These social shifts may accompany ideological shifts and other types of cultural change. For example, the U.S. feminist movement involved new practices that produced a shift in gender relations, altering both gender and economic structures. Environmental conditions may also enter as factors. For example, after tropical forests returned at the end of the last ice age, plants suitable for domestication were available, leading to the invention of agriculture, which in turn brought about many cultural innovations and shifts in social dynamics.\n\nCultures are externally affected via contact between societies, which may also produce—or inhibit—social shifts and changes in cultural practices. War or competition over resources may impact technological development or social dynamics. Additionally, cultural ideas may transfer from one society to another, through diffusion or acculturation. In diffusion, the form of something (though not necessarily its meaning) moves from one culture to another. For example, Western restaurant chains and culinary brands sparked curiosity and fascination to the Chinese as China opened its economy to international trade in the late 20th-century. \"Stimulus diffusion\" (the sharing of ideas) refers to an element of one culture leading to an invention or propagation in another. \"Direct borrowing,\" on the other hand, tends to refer to technological or tangible diffusion from one culture to another. Diffusion of innovations theory presents a research-based model of why and when individuals and cultures adopt new ideas, practices, and products.\n\nAcculturation has different meanings. Still, in this context, it refers to the replacement of traits of one culture with another, such as what happened to certain Native American tribes and many indigenous peoples across the globe during the process of colonization. Related processes on an individual level include assimilation (adoption of a different culture by an individual) and transculturation. The transnational flow of culture has played a major role in merging different cultures and sharing thoughts, ideas, and beliefs.\n\nEarly modern discourses\n\nGerman Romanticism\n\nImmanuel Kant (1724–1804) formulated an individualist definition of \"enlightenment\" similar to the concept of bildung: \"Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-incurred immaturity.\" He argued that this immaturity comes not from a lack of understanding, but from a lack of courage to think independently. Against this intellectual cowardice, Kant urged: \"\" (\"Dare to be wise!\"). In reaction to Kant, German scholars such as Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803) argued that human creativity, which necessarily takes unpredictable and highly diverse forms, is as important as human rationality. Moreover, Herder proposed a collective form of : \"For Herder, was the totality of experiences that provide a coherent identity, and sense of common destiny, to a people.\"\n\nIn 1795, the Prussian linguist and philosopher Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) called for an anthropology that would synthesize Kant's and Herder's interests. During the Romantic era, scholars in Germany, especially those concerned with nationalist movements—such as the nationalist struggle to create a \"Germany\" out of diverse principalities, and the nationalist struggles by ethnic minorities against the Austro-Hungarian Empire—developed a more inclusive notion of culture as \"worldview\" (). According to this school of thought, each ethnic group has a distinct worldview that is incommensurable with the worldviews of other groups. Although more inclusive than earlier views, this approach to culture still allowed for distinctions between \"civilized\" and \"primitive\" or \"tribal\" cultures.\n\nIn 1860, Adolf Bastian (1826–1905) argued for \"the psychic unity of mankind.\" He proposed that a scientific comparison of all human societies would reveal that distinct worldviews consisted of the same basic elements. According to Bastian, all human societies share a set of \"elementary ideas\" (); different cultures, or different \"folk ideas\" (), are local modifications of the elementary ideas. This view paved the way for the modern understanding of culture. Franz Boas (1858–1942) was trained in this tradition, and he brought it with him when he left Germany for the United States.\n\nEnglish Romanticism\n\nIn the 19th century, humanists such as English poet and essayist Matthew Arnold (1822–1888) used the word \"culture\" to refer to an ideal of individual human refinement, of \"the best that has been thought and said in the world.\" This concept of culture is also comparable to the German concept of : \"...culture being a pursuit of our total perfection by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world.\"\n\nIn practice, culture referred to an elite ideal and was associated with such activities as art, classical music, and haute cuisine. As these forms were associated with urban life, \"culture\" was identified with \"civilization\" (from ). Another facet of the Romantic movement was an interest in folklore, which led to identifying a \"culture\" among non-elites. This distinction is often characterized as that between high culture, namely that of the ruling social group, and low culture. In other words, the idea of \"culture\" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries reflected inequalities within European societies.\n\nMatthew Arnold contrasted \"culture\" with anarchy; other Europeans, following philosophers Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, contrasted \"culture\" with \"the state of nature.\" According to Hobbes and Rousseau, the Native Americans who were being conquered by Europeans from the 16th centuries on were living in a state of nature; this opposition was expressed through the contrast between \"civilized\" and \"uncivilized.\" According to this way of thinking, one could classify some countries and nations as more civilized than others and some people as more cultured than others. This contrast led to Herbert Spencer's theory of Social Darwinism and Lewis Henry Morgan's theory of cultural evolution. Just as some critics have argued that the distinction between high and low cultures is an expression of the conflict between European elites and non-elites, other critics have argued that the distinction between civilized and uncivilized people is an expression of the conflict between European colonial powers and their colonial subjects.\n\nOther 19th-century critics, following Rousseau, have accepted this differentiation between higher and lower culture, but have seen the refinement and sophistication of high culture as corrupting and unnatural developments that obscure and distort people's essential nature. These critics considered folk music (as produced by \"the folk,\" i.e., rural, illiterate, peasants) to honestly express a natural way of life, while classical music seemed superficial and decadent. Equally, this view often portrayed indigenous peoples as \"noble savages\" living authentic and unblemished lives, uncomplicated and uncorrupted by the highly stratified capitalist systems of the West.\n\nIn 1870 the anthropologist Edward Tylor (1832–1917) applied these ideas of higher versus lower culture to propose a theory of the evolution of religion. According to this theory, religion evolves from more polytheistic to more monotheistic forms. In the process, he redefined culture as a diverse set of activities characteristic of all human societies. This view paved the way for the modern understanding of religion.\n\nAnthropology\n\nAlthough anthropologists worldwide refer to Tylor's definition of culture, in the 20th century \"culture\" emerged as the central and unifying concept of American anthropology, where it most commonly refers to the universal human capacity to classify and encode human experiences symbolically, and to communicate symbolically encoded experiences socially. American anthropology is organized into four fields, each of which plays an important role in research on culture: biological anthropology, linguistic anthropology, cultural anthropology, and in the United States and Canada, archaeology. The term , or \"culture glasses,\" coined by German American anthropologist Franz Boas, refers to the \"lenses\" through which a person sees their own culture. Martin Lindstrom asserts that , which allow a person to make sense of the culture they inhabit, \"can blind us to things outsiders pick up immediately.\"\n\nSociology\n\nThe sociology of culture concerns culture as manifested in society. For sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918), culture referred to \"the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history.\" As such, culture in the sociological field can be defined as the ways of thinking, the ways of acting, and the material objects that together shape a people's way of life. Culture can be either of two types, non-material culture or material culture. Non-material culture refers to the non-physical ideas that individuals have about their culture, including values, belief systems, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions, while material culture is the physical evidence of a culture in the objects and architecture they make or have made. The term tends to be relevant only in archeological and anthropological studies, but it specifically means all material evidence which can be attributed to culture, past or present.\n\nCultural sociology first emerged in Weimar Germany (1918–1933), where sociologists such as Alfred Weber used the term ('cultural sociology'). Cultural sociology was then reinvented in the English-speaking world as a product of the cultural turn of the 1960s, which ushered in structuralist and postmodern approaches to social science. This type of cultural sociology may be loosely regarded as an approach incorporating cultural analysis and critical theory. Cultural sociologists tend to reject scientific methods, instead hermeneutically focusing on words, artifacts and symbols. Culture has since become an important concept across many branches of sociology, including resolutely scientific fields like social stratification and social network analysis. As a result, there has been a recent influx of quantitative sociologists to the field. Thus, there is now a growing group of sociologists of culture who are, confusingly, not cultural sociologists. These scholars reject the abstracted postmodern aspects of cultural sociology, and instead, look for a theoretical backing in the more scientific vein of social psychology and cognitive science.\n\nEarly researchers and development of cultural sociology\nThe sociology of culture grew from the intersection between sociology (as shaped by early theorists like Marx, Durkheim, and Weber) with the growing discipline of anthropology, wherein researchers pioneered ethnographic strategies for describing and analyzing a variety of cultures around the world. Part of the legacy of the early development of the field lingers in the methods (much of cultural, sociological research is qualitative), in the theories (a variety of critical approaches to sociology are central to current research communities), and in the substantive focus of the field. For instance, relationships between popular culture, political control, and social class were early and lasting concerns in the field.\n\nCultural studies\n\nIn the United Kingdom, sociologists and other scholars influenced by Marxism such as Stuart Hall (1932–2014) and Raymond Williams (1921–1988) developed cultural studies. Following nineteenth-century Romantics, they identified culture with consumption goods and leisure activities (such as art, music, film, food, sports, and clothing). They saw patterns of consumption and leisure as determined by relations of production, which led them to focus on class relations and the organization of production.\n\nIn the United Kingdom, cultural studies focuses largely on the study of popular culture; that is, on the social meanings of mass-produced consumer and leisure goods. Richard Hoggart coined the term in 1964 when he founded the Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies or CCCS. It has since become strongly associated with Stuart Hall, who succeeded Hoggart as Director. Cultural studies in this sense, then, can be viewed as a limited concentration scoped on the intricacies of consumerism, which belongs to a wider culture sometimes referred to as Western civilization or globalism.\n\nFrom the 1970s onward, Stuart Hall's pioneering work, along with that of his colleagues Paul Willis, Dick Hebdige, Tony Jefferson, and Angela McRobbie, created an international intellectual movement. As the field developed, it began to combine political economy, communication, sociology, social theory, literary theory, media theory, film/video studies, cultural anthropology, philosophy, museum studies, and art history to study cultural phenomena or cultural texts. In this field researchers often concentrate on how particular phenomena relate to matters of ideology, nationality, ethnicity, social class, and/or gender. Cultural studies is concerned with the meaning and practices of everyday life. These practices comprise the ways people do particular things (such as watching television or eating out) in a given culture. It also studies the meanings and uses people attribute to various objects and practices. Specifically, culture involves those meanings and practices held independently of reason. Watching television to view a public perspective on a historical event should not be thought of as culture unless referring to the medium of television itself, which may have been selected culturally; however, schoolchildren watching television after school with their friends to \"fit in\" certainly qualifies since there is no grounded reason for one's participation in this practice.\n\nIn the context of cultural studies, a text includes not only written language, but also films, photographs, fashion or hairstyles: the texts of cultural studies comprise all the meaningful artifacts of culture. Similarly, the discipline widens the concept of culture. Culture, for a cultural-studies researcher, not only includes traditional high culture (the culture of ruling social groups) and popular culture, but also everyday meanings and practices. The last two, in fact, have become the main focus of cultural studies. A further and recent approach is comparative cultural studies, based on the disciplines of comparative literature and cultural studies.\n\nScholars in the United Kingdom and the United States developed somewhat different versions of cultural studies after the late 1970s. The British version of cultural studies had originated in the 1950s and 1960s, mainly under the influence of Richard Hoggart, E.P. Thompson, and Raymond Williams, and later that of Stuart Hall and others at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies at the University of Birmingham. This included overtly political, left-wing views, and criticisms of popular culture as \"capitalist\" mass culture; it absorbed some of the ideas of the Frankfurt School critique of the \"culture industry\" (i.e. mass culture). This emerges in the writings of early British cultural-studies scholars and their influences: see the work of (for example) Raymond Williams, Stuart Hall, Paul Willis, and Paul Gilroy.\n\nIn the United States, Lindlof and Taylor write, \"cultural studies [were] grounded in a pragmatic, liberal-pluralist tradition.\" The American version of cultural studies initially concerned itself more with understanding the subjective and appropriative side of audience reactions to, and uses of, mass culture; for example, American cultural-studies advocates wrote about the liberatory aspects of fandom. The distinction between American and British strands, however, has faded. Some researchers, especially in early British cultural studies, apply a Marxist model to the field. This strain of thinking has some influence from the Frankfurt School, but especially from the structuralist Marxism of Louis Althusser and others. The main focus of an orthodox Marxist approach concentrates on the production of meaning. This model assumes a mass production of culture and identifies power as residing with those producing cultural artifacts. In a Marxist view, the mode and relations of production form the economic base of society, which constantly interacts and influences superstructures, such as culture. Other approaches to cultural studies, such as feminist cultural studies and later American developments of the field, distance themselves from this view. They criticize the Marxist assumption of a single, dominant meaning, shared by all, for any cultural product. The non-Marxist approaches suggest that different ways of consuming cultural artifacts affect the meaning of the product. This view comes through in the book Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman (by Paul du Gay et al.), which seeks to challenge the notion that those who produce commodities control the meanings that people attribute to them. Feminist cultural analyst, theorist, and art historian Griselda Pollock contributed to cultural studies from viewpoints of art history and psychoanalysis. The writer Julia Kristeva is among influential voices at the turn of the century, contributing to cultural studies from the field of art and psychoanalytical French feminism.\n\nPetrakis and Kostis (2013) divide cultural background variables into two main groups:\n\n The first group covers the variables that represent the \"efficiency orientation\" of the societies: performance orientation, future orientation, assertiveness, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance.\n The second covers the variables that represent the \"social orientation\" of societies, i.e., the attitudes and lifestyles of their members. These variables include gender egalitarianism, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism, and human orientation.\nIn 2016, a new approach to culture was suggested by Rein Raud, who defines culture as the sum of resources available to human beings for making sense of their world and proposes a two-tiered approach, combining the study of texts (all reified meanings in circulation) and cultural practices (all repeatable actions that involve the production, dissemination or transmission of purposes), thus making it possible to re-link anthropological and sociological study of culture with the tradition of textual theory.\n\nPsychology \n\nStarting in the 1990s, psychological research on culture influence began to grow and challenge the universality assumed in general psychology. Culture psychologists began to try to explore the relationship between emotions and culture, and answer whether the human mind is independent from culture. For example, people from collectivistic cultures, such as the Japanese, suppress their positive emotions more than their American counterparts. Culture may affect the way that people experience and express emotions. On the other hand, some researchers try to look for differences between people's personalities across cultures. As different cultures dictate distinctive norms, culture shock is also studied to understand how people react when they are confronted with other cultures. Cognitive tools may not be accessible or they may function differently cross culture. For example, people who are raised in a culture with an abacus are trained with distinctive reasoning style. Cultural lenses may also make people view the same outcome of events differently. Westerners are more motivated by their successes than their failures, while East Asians are better motivated by the avoidance of failure. Culture is important for psychologists to consider when understanding the human mental operation.\n\nProtection of culture \n\nThere are a number of international agreements and national laws relating to the protection of culture and cultural heritage. UNESCO and its partner organizations such as Blue Shield International coordinate international protection and local implementation. The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and the UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions deal with the protection of culture. Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights deals with cultural heritage in two ways: it gives people the right to participate in cultural life on the one hand and the right to the protection of their contributions to cultural life on the other.\n\nIn the 21st century, the protection of culture has been the focus of increasing activity by national and international organizations. The UN and UNESCO promote cultural preservation and cultural diversity through declarations and legally-binding conventions or treaties. The aim is not to protect a person's property, but rather to preserve the cultural heritage of humanity, especially in the event of war and armed conflict. According to Karl von Habsburg, President of Blue Shield International, the destruction of cultural assets is also part of psychological warfare. The target of the attack is the identity of the opponent, which is why symbolic cultural assets become a main target. It is also intended to affect the particularly sensitive cultural memory, the growing cultural diversity and the economic basis (such as tourism) of a state, region or municipality.\n\nTourism is having an increasing impact on the various forms of culture. On the one hand, this can be physical impact on individual objects or the destruction caused by increasing environmental pollution and, on the other hand, socio-cultural effects on society.\n\nSee also \n\n Animal culture\n Anthropology\n Cultural area\n Cultural studies\n Cultural tourism\n Culture 21 – United Nations plan of action\n \n Outline of culture\n Recombinant culture\n Semiotics of culture\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nBooks\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Bastian, Adolf (2009), Encyclopædia Britannica Online\n \n Arnold, Matthew. 1869. Culture and Anarchy. New York: Macmillan. Third edition, 1882, available online. Retrieved: 2006-06-28.\n Bakhtin, M.M. (1981) The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans. Caryl Press. .\n Barzilai, Gad (2003). Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities University of Michigan Press. \n \n Bourdieu, Pierre (1977). Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge University Press. \n Carhart. Michael C. (2007). The Science of Culture in Enlightenment Germany, Cambridge, Harvard University press.\n Cohen, Anthony P. (1985). The Symbolic Construction of Community. New York: Routledge \n Dawkins, R. (1999) [1982]. The Extended Phenotype: The Long Reach of the Gene. Oxford Paperbacks. \n Findley & Rothney (1986). Twentieth-Century World, Houghton Mifflin \n Geertz, Clifford (1973). The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. New York. .\n \n Goodall, J. (1986). The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. \n Hoult, T.F., ed. (1969). Dictionary of Modern Sociology. Totowa, New Jersey: Littlefield, Adams & Co. \n Jary, D. and J. Jary (1991). The HarperCollins Dictionary of Sociology. New York: HarperCollins. \n Keiser, R. Lincoln (1969). The Vice Lords: Warriors of the Streets. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. .\n Kroeber, A.L. and C. Kluckhohn (1952). Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Peabody Museum \n Kim, Uichol (2001). \"Culture, science and indigenous psychologies: An integrated analysis.\" In D. Matsumoto (Ed.), Handbook of culture and psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press \n McClenon, James. Tylor, Edward B(urnett) (1998) Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. Ed. William Swatos and Peter Kivisto. Walnut Creek: AltaMira, pp. 528–529. \n Middleton, R. (1990). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. .\n O'Neil, D. (2006). Cultural Anthropology Tutorials , Behavioral Sciences Department, Palomar College, San Marco, California. Retrieved: 2006-07-10.\n Reagan, Ronald. \"Final Radio Address to the Nation\" , January 14, 1989. Retrieved June 3, 2006.\n Reese, W.L. (1980). Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought. New Jersey US; Sussex, UK: Humanities Press. \n \n UNESCO (2002). Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, issued on International Mother Language Day, \n White, L. (1949). The Science of Culture: A study of man and civilization. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. \n Wilson, Edward O. (1998). Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge. New York: Vintage. .\n Wolfram, Stephen (2002). A New Kind of Science. Wolfram Media, Inc. .\n\nArticles\n The Meaning of \"Culture\" (2014-12-27), Joshua Rothman, The New Yorker\n\nExternal links\n\n Cultura: International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology\n What is Culture?\n\n \nCategory:Social concepts\nCategory:Social constructionism\nCategory:Main topic articles", "title": "Culture" }, { "text": "Latin America is a cultural concept denoting the Americas where Romance languages—languages derived from Vulgar Latin —are predominantly spoken. The term was coined in the nineteenth century to refer to regions in the Americas that were ruled by the Spanish, Portuguese and French empires. The term does not have a precise definition, but it is \"commonly used to describe South America, Central America, Mexico, and the islands of the Caribbean.\" In a narrow sense, it refers to Hispanic America, Brazil, French West Indies and Antillean Creole French speaking Caribbean countries.\n\nThe term \"Latin America\" is broader than categories such as Hispanic America, which specifically refers to Spanish-speaking countries; and Ibero-America, a term not generally used that specifically refers to Spanish, French and French Creole-speaking countries and Portuguese-speaking countries sometimes leaving French and British excolonies aside.\n\nThe term Latin America was first used in an 1856 conference called \"Initiative of America: Idea for a Federal Congress of the Republics\" (Iniciativa de la América. Idea de un Congreso Federal de las Repúblicas), by the Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao. The term was further popularized by French emperor Napoleon III's government in the 1860s as to justify France's military involvement in the Second Mexican Empire and to include French-speaking territories in the Americas such as French Canada, French Louisiana, French Guiana, Martinique, Guadeloupe, Haiti and the French Antillean Creole Caribbean islands Saint Lucia and Dominica, in the larger group of countries where Spanish and Portuguese languages prevailed.\n\nThe region covers an area that stretches from Mexico to Tierra del Fuego and includes much of the Caribbean. It has an area of approximately 19,197,000 km (7,412,000 sq mi), almost 13% of the Earth's land surface area. As of March 2, 2020, the population of Latin America and the Caribbean was estimated at more than 652 million, and in 2019, Latin America had a combined nominal GDP of US$5,188,250 trillion and a GDP PPP of US$10,284,588 trillion.\n\nEtymology and definitions\n\nOrigins\n \nThere is no universal agreement on the origin of the term Latin America. The concept and term came into being in the nineteenth century, following the political independence of countries from the Spanish and Portuguese empires. It was also popularized in 1860s France during the reign of Napoleon III. The term Latin America was a part of its attempt to create a French empire in the Americas. Research has shown that the idea that a part of the Americas has a linguistic and cultural affinity with the Romance cultures as a whole can be traced back to the 1830s, in the writing of the French Saint-Simonian Michel Chevalier, who postulated that a part of the Americas was inhabited by people of a \"Latin race\", and that it could, therefore, ally itself with \"Latin Europe\", ultimately overlapping the Latin Church, in a struggle with \"Teutonic Europe,\" \"Anglo-Saxon America,\" and \"Slavic Europe.\"\n\nHistorian John Leddy Phelan located the origins of the term Latin America to be from the French occupation of Mexico. His argument is that French imperialists used the concept of \"Latin\" America as a way to counter British imperialism, as well as to challenge the German threat to France. The idea of a \"Latin race\" was then taken up by Latin American intellectuals and political leaders of the mid- and late-nineteenth century, who no longer looked to Spain or Portugal as cultural models, but rather to France. French ruler Napoleon III had a strong interest in extending French commercial and political power in the region. He and his business promoter Felix Belly called it \"Latin America\" to emphasize the shared Latin background of France with the former viceroyalties of Spain and colonies of Portugal. This led to Napoleon III's failed attempt to take military control of Mexico in the 1860s.\n\nHowever, though Phelan's thesis is still frequently cited in US academy, further scholarship has shown earlier usage of the term. Two Latin American historians, Uruguayan Arturo Ardao and Chilean Miguel Rojas Mix, found evidence that the term \"Latin America\" was used earlier than Phelan claimed, and the first use of the term was in fact in opposition to imperialist projects in the Americas. Ardao wrote about this subject in his book Génesis de la idea y el nombre de América latina (Genesis of the Idea and the Name of Latin America, 1980), and Miguel Rojas Mix in his article \"Bilbao y el hallazgo de América latina: Unión continental, socialista y libertaria\" (Bilbao and the Finding of Latin America: a Continental, Socialist and Libertarian Union, 1986). As Michel Gobat points out in his article \"The Invention of Latin America: A Transnational History of Anti-Imperialism, Democracy, and Race\", \"Arturo Ardao, Miguel Rojas Mix, and Aims McGuinness have revealed [that] the term 'Latin America' had already been used in 1856 by Central Americans and South Americans protesting US expansion into the Southern Hemisphere\". Edward Shawcross summarizes Ardao's and Rojas Mix's findings in the following way: \"Ardao identified the term in a poem by a Colombian diplomat and intellectual resident in France, José María Torres Caicedo, published on 15 February 1857 in a French based Spanish-language newspaper, while Rojas Mix located it in a speech delivered in France by the radical liberal Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao in June 1856\".\n\nBy the late 1850s, the term was being used in California (which had become a part of the United States), in local newspapers such as El Clamor Público by Californios writing about and , and identifying as as the abbreviated term for their \"hemispheric membership in \".\n\nThe words \"Latin\" and \"America\" were first found to be combined in a printed work to produce the term \"Latin America\" in 1856 in a conference by the Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao in Paris. The conference had the title \"Initiative of the America. Idea for a Federal Congress of Republics.\" The following year, Colombian writer José María Torres Caicedo also used the term in his poem \"The Two Americas\". Two events related with the United States played a central role in both works. The first event happened less than a decade before the publication of Bilbao's and Torres Caicedo's works: the Invasion of Mexico or, in USA, the Mexican–American War, after which Mexico lost a third of its territory. The second event, the Walker affair, which happened the same year that both works were written: the decision by US president Franklin Pierce to recognize the regime recently established in Nicaragua by American William Walker and his band of filibusters who ruled Nicaragua for nearly a year (1856–57) and attempted to reinstate slavery there, where it had been already abolished for three decades\n\nIn both Bilbao's and Torres Caicedo's works, the Mexican–American War (1846–48) and William Walker's expedition to Nicaragua are explicitly mentioned as examples of dangers for the region. For Bilbao, \"Latin America\" was not a geographical concept, as he excluded Brazil, Paraguay, and Mexico. Both authors also asked for the union of all Latin American countries as the only way to defend their territories against further foreign US interventions. Both also rejected European imperialism, claiming that the return of European countries to non-democratic forms of government was another danger for Latin American countries, and used the same word to describe the state of European politics at the time: \"despotism.\" Several years later, during the French invasion of Mexico, Bilbao wrote another work, \"Emancipation of the Spirit in America,\" where he asked all Latin American countries to support the Mexican cause against France, and rejected French imperialism in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas. He asked Latin American intellectuals to search for their \"intellectual emancipation\" by abandoning all French ideas, claiming that France was: \"Hypocrite, because she [France] calls herself protector of the Latin race just to subject it to her exploitation regime; treacherous, because she speaks of freedom and nationality, when, unable to conquer freedom for herself, she enslaves others instead!\" Therefore, as Michel Gobat puts it, the term Latin America itself had an \"anti-imperial genesis,\" and their creators were far from supporting any form of imperialism in the region, or in any other place of the globe.\n\nIn France, the term Latin America was used with the opposite intention. It was employed by the French Empire of Napoleon III during the French invasion of Mexico as a way to include France among countries with influence in the Americas and to exclude Anglophone countries. It played a role in his campaign to imply cultural kinship of the region with France, transform France into a cultural and political leader of the area, and install Maximilian of Habsburg as emperor of the Second Mexican Empire. The term was also used in 1861 by French scholars in La revue des races Latines, a magazine dedicated to the Pan-Latinism movement.\n\nContemporary definitions \n\n Latin America is often used synonymously with Ibero-America (\"Iberian America\"), where the populations speak Spanish or Portuguese and the dominant religion is Roman Catholic. This definition excludes the predominantly Protestant English-speaking and Dutch-speaking regions, as well as French-speaking predominantly Catholic regions. This definition has come under scrutiny for its racist connotations intentionally excluding Haiti, a culturally parallel nation to the rest of Ibero-America which played a major role in Latin American liberation and falls under the semantic definition of the term, explained below. Belize, Guyana and Suriname, as well as several French overseas departments, are excluded from the definition. Puerto Rico, the Spanish-speaking Caribbean territory of the U.S., acquired from the Spanish Empire following its defeat in the 1898 Spanish American War, is then usually included. \n In another definition, which is close to the semantic origin, Latin America designates the set of countries in the Americas where a Romance language (a language derived from Latin) predominates: Spanish, Portuguese, French, or a creole language based upon the three. Thus, it includes Mexico; most of Central and South America; and in the Caribbean, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti. Latin America then comprises all of the countries in the Americas that were once part of the Spanish, Portuguese, and French Empires. Puerto Rico, although not a sovereign nation, is often included.\n The term is sometimes used more broadly to refer to all of the Americas south of the United States, thus including the Guianas (French Guiana, Guyana, and Suriname); the Anglophone Caribbean (and Belize); the Francophone Caribbean; and the Dutch Caribbean. This definition emphasizes a similar socioeconomic history of the region, which was characterized by formal or informal colonialism, rather than cultural aspects (see, for example, dependency theory). Some sources avoid this simplification by using the alternative phrase \"Latin America and the Caribbean\", as in the United Nations geoscheme for the Americas. A number of academic area-studies programs and centers of Latin American studies are titled \"Latin American and Caribbean\" studies, such as the Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies, University of Michigan, New York University Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies (CLACS), and University of Washington's Latin American and Caribbean Studies, The Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Although the U.S. acquired a large swath of territory from the Spanish Empire and called Spanish borderlands and nearly 20% of the U.S. population identifies as \"Hispanic\" (or \"Latinx\"), the U.S. is generally not classified as being part of Latin America. However, the significant demographic is sometimes brought under the umbrella of Latin American studies, such as at University of Albany.\n\nThe distinction between Latin America and Anglo-America is a convention based on the predominant languages in the Americas by which Romance language- and English-speaking cultures are distinguished. Neither area is culturally or linguistically homogeneous; in substantial portions of Latin America (e.g., highland Peru, Bolivia, Mexico, Guatemala), Native American cultures and, to a lesser extent, Amerindian languages, are predominant, and in other areas, the influence of African cultures is strong (e.g., the Caribbean basinincluding parts of Colombia and Venezuela).\n\nThe term's meaning is contested and not without controversy. Historian Mauricio Tenorio-Trillo explores at length the \"allure and power\" of the idea of Latin America. He remarks at the outset, \"The idea of 'Latin America' ought to have vanished with the obsolescence of racial theory... But it is not easy to declare something dead when it can hardly be said to have existed,\" going on to say, \"The term is here to stay, and it is important.\" Following in the tradition of Chilean writer Francisco Bilbao, who excluded Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay from his early conceptualization of Latin America, Chilean historian Jaime Eyzaguirre has criticized the term Latin America for \"disguising\" and \"diluting\" the Spanish character of a region (i.e. Hispanic America) with the inclusion of nations that, according to him, do not share the same pattern of conquest and colonization.\n\nThe Francophone part of North America which includes Quebec and Acadia is generally excluded from the definition of Latin America.\n\nSubregions and countries\n\nLatin America can be subdivided into several subregions based on geography, politics, demographics and culture. It is defined as all of the Americas south of the United States, the basic geographical subregions are North America, Central America, the Caribbean and South America; the latter contains further politico-geographical subdivisions such as the Southern Cone, The Guianas and the Andean states. It may be subdivided on linguistic grounds into Spanish America, Portuguese America, and French America.\n\n*: Not a sovereign state\n\nHistory\n\nBefore European contact in 1492\n\n \n\nThe earliest known human settlement in the area was identified at Monte Verde, near Puerto Montt in southern Chile. Its occupation dates to some 14,000 years ago and there is disputed evidence of even earlier occupation. Over the course of millennia, people spread to all parts of the North and South America and the Caribbean islands. Although the region now known as Latin America stretches from northern Mexico to Tierra del Fuego, the diversity of its geography, topography, climate, and cultivable land means that populations were not evenly distributed. Sedentary populations of fixed settlements supported by agriculture gave rise to complex civilizations in Mesoamerica (central and southern Mexico and Central America) and the highland Andes populations of Quechua and Aymara, as well as Chibcha.\n\nAgricultural surpluses from intensive cultivation of maize in Mesoamerica and potatoes and hardy grains in the Andes were able to support distant populations beyond farmers' households and communities. Surpluses allowed the creation of social, political, religious, and military hierarchies, urbanization with stable village settlements and major cities, specialization of craft work, and the transfer of products via tribute and trade. In the Andes, llamas were domesticated and used to transport goods; Mesoamerica had no large domesticated animals to aid human labor or provide meat. Mesoamerican civilizations developed systems of writing; in the Andes, knotted quipus emerged as a system of accounting.\n\nThe Caribbean region had sedentary populations settled by Arawak or Tainos and in what is now Brazil, many Tupian peoples lived in fixed settlements. Semi-sedentary populations had agriculture and settled villages, but soil exhaustion required relocation of settlements. Populations were less dense and social and political hierarchies less institutionalized. Non-sedentary peoples lived in small bands, with low population density and without agriculture. They lived in harsh environments. By the first millennium CE, the Western Hemisphere was the home of tens of millions of people; the exact numbers are a source of ongoing research and controversy.\n\nThe last two great civilizations, the Aztecs and Incas, emerged into prominence in the early fourteenth century and mid-fifteenth centuries. Although the Indigenous empires were conquered by Europeans, the sub-imperial organization of the densely populated regions remained in place. The presence or absence of Indigenous populations had an impact on how European imperialism played out in the Americas. The pre-Columbian civilizations of Mesoamerica and the highland Andes became sources of pride for American-born Spaniards in the late colonial era and for nationalists in the post-independence era. For some modern Latin American nation-states, the Indigenous roots of national identity are expressed in the ideology of indigenismo. These modern constructions of national identity usually critique their colonial past.\n\nColonial era, 1492-1825\n\nSpanish and Portuguese colonization of the Western Hemisphere laid the basis for societies now seen as characteristic of Latin America. In the fifteenth century, both Portugal and Spain embarked on voyages of overseas exploration, following the Christian Reconquista of Iberia from Muslims. Portugal sailed down the west coast of Africa and the Crown of Castile in central Spain authorized the voyage of Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus. Portugal's maritime expansion into the Indian Ocean was initially its main interest; but the off-course voyage of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 allowed Portugal to claim Brazil. The 1494 line of demarcation between Spain and Portugal gave Spain all areas to the west, and Portugal all areas to the east. For Portugal, the riches of Africa, India, and the Spice Islands were far more important initially than the unknown territory of Brazil. By contrast, having no better prospects, the Spanish crown directed its energies to its New World territories. Spanish colonists began founding permanent settlements in the circum-Caribbean region, starting in 1493. In these regions of early contact, Spaniards established patterns of interaction with Indigenous peoples that they transferred to the mainland. At the time of European contact, the area was densely populated by Indigenous peoples who had not organized as empires, nor created large physical complexes. With the expedition of Hernán Cortés from Cuba to Mexico in 1519, Spaniards encountered the Indigenous imperial civilization of the Aztecs. Using techniques of warfare honed in their early Caribbean settlements, Cortés sought Indigenous allies to topple the superstructure of the Aztec Empire after a two-year war of conquest. The Spanish recognized many Indigenous elites as nobles under Spanish rule with continued power and influence over commoners, and used them as intermediaries in the emerging Spanish imperial system.\n\nWith the example of the conquest of central Mexico, Spaniards sought similar great empires to conquer, and expanded into other regions of Mexico and Central America, and then the Inca empire, by Francisco Pizarro. By the end of the sixteenth century Spain and Portugal claimed territory extending from Alaska to the southern tip of Patagonia. They founded cities that remain important centers. In Spanish America, these include Panama City (1519), Mexico City (1521) Guadalajara (1531–42), Cartagena (1532), Cuzco (1534), Lima (1535), and Quito (1534). \nIn Brazil, coastal cities were founded: Olinda (1537), Salvador de Bahia (1549), São Paulo (1554), and Rio de Janeiro (1565). \n\nSpaniards explored extensively in the mainland territories they claimed, but they settled in great numbers in areas with dense and hierarchically organized Indigenous populations and exploitable resources, especially silver. Early Spanish conquerors saw the Indigenous themselves as an exploitable resource for tribute and labor, and individual Spaniards were awarded grants of encomienda forced labor as reward for participation in the conquest. Throughout most of Spanish America, Indigenous populations were the largest component, with some black slaves serving in auxiliary positions. The three main racial groups during the colonial era were European whites, black Africans, and Indigenous. Over time, these populations intermixed, resulting in castas. In most of Spanish America, the Indigenous were the majority population.\n\nBoth dense Indigenous populations and silver were found in New Spain (colonial Mexico) and Peru, and the now-countries became centers of the Spanish empire. The Viceroyalty of New Spain, centered in Mexico City, was established in 1535 and the Viceroyalty of Peru, centered in Lima, in 1542. The Viceroyalty of New Spain also had jurisdiction over the Spanish East Indies, once the Spanish established themselves there in the late sixteenth century. The viceroy was the direct representative of the king.\n\nThe Roman Catholic Church, as an institution, launched a \"spiritual conquest\" to convert Indigenous populations to Christianity, incorporating them into Christendom, with no other religion permitted. Pope Alexander VI in 1493 had bestowed on the Catholic Monarchs great power over ecclesiastical appointments and the functioning of the church in overseas possessions. The monarch was the patron of the institutional church. The state and the Catholic church were the institutional pillars of Spanish colonial rule. In the late eighteenth century, the crown also established a royal military to defend its possessions against foreign incursions, especially by the British. It also increased the number of viceroyalties in Spanish South America.\n\nPortugal did not establish firm institutional rule in Brazil until the 1530s, but it paralleled many patterns of colonization in Spanish America. The Brazilian Indigenous peoples were initially dense, but were semi-sedentary and lacked the organization that allowed Spaniards to more easily incorporate the Indigenous into the colonial order. The Portuguese used Indigenous laborers to extract the valuable commodity known as brazilwood, which gave its name to the colony. Portugal took greater control of the region to prevent other European powers, particularly France, from threatening its claims.\n\nEuropeans sought wealth in the form of high-value, low-bulk products exported to Europe. The Spanish Empire established institutions to secure wealth for itself and protect its empire in the Americas from rivals. In trade it followed principles of mercantilism, where its overseas possessions were to enrich the center of power in Iberia. Trade was regulated through the royal House of Trade in Seville, Spain, with the main export from Spanish America to Spain being silver, later followed by the red dye cochineal. Silver was found in the Andes, in particular the silver mountain of Potosí, (now in Bolivia) in the region where Indigenous men were forced to labor in the mines. In New Spain, rich deposits of silver were found in northern Mexico, in Zacatecas and Guanajuato, outside areas of dense Indigenous settlement. Labor was attracted from elsewhere for mining and landed estates were established to raise wheat, range cattle and sheep. Mules were bred for transportation and to replace of human labor in refining silver. \n\nIn Brazil and some Spanish Caribbean islands, plantations for sugar cultivation developed on a large scale for the export market. For Brazil, the development of the plantation complex transformed the colony from a backwater of the Portuguese empire to a major asset. The Portuguese transported enslaved laborers from their African territories and the seventeenth-century \"age of sugar\" was transformational, seeing Brazil becoming a major economic component of the Portuguese empire. The population increase exponentially, with the majority being enslaved Africans. Settlement and economic development was largely coastal, the goal of sugar export to European markets. With competition from other sugar producers, Brazil's fortunes based on sugar declined, but in the eighteenth century, diamonds and gold were found in the southern interior, fueling a new wave of economic activity. As the economic center of the colony shifted from the sugar-producing northeast to the southern region of gold and diamond mines, the capital was transferred from Salvador de Bahia to Rio de Janeiro in 1763. During the colonial era, Brazil was also the manufacturing center for Portugal's ships. As a global maritime empire, Portugal created a vital industry in Brazil. Once Brazil achieved its independence, this industry languished.\n\nIn Spanish America, manufactured and luxury goods were sent from Spain and entered Spanish America legally only through the Caribbean ports of Veracruz, Havana, and Cartagena, as well as the Pacific port of Callao, in Peru. Trans-Pacific trade was established in the late sixteenth century from Acapulco to the Philippines via the Manila Galleon, transporting silver from Mexico and Peru to Asia; Chinese silks and porcelains were sent first to Mexico and then re-exported to Spain. This system of commerce was in theory was tightly controlled, but was increasingly undermined by other European powers. The English, French, and Dutch seized Caribbean islands claimed by the Spanish and established their own sugar plantations. The islands also became hubs for contraband trade with Spanish America. Many regions of Spanish America that were not well supplied by Spanish merchants, such as Central America, participated in contraband trade with foreign merchants. The eighteenth-century Bourbon reforms sought to modernize the mercantile system to stimulate greater trade exchanges between Spain and Spanish America in a system known as comercio libre. It was not free trade in the modern sense, but rather free commerce within the Spanish empire. Liberalization of trade and limited deregulation sought to break the monopoly of merchants based in the Spanish port of Cádiz. Administrative reforms created the system of districts known as intendancies, modeled on those in France. Their creation was aimed at strengthening crown control over its possessions and sparking economic development.\n\nBoth Spain and Portugal restricted foreign powers from trading in their American colonies or entering coastal waters it had claimed. Other European powers challenged the exclusive rights claimed by the Iberian powers. The English, Dutch, and French permanently seized islands in the Caribbean and created sugar plantations on the model developed in Brazil. In Brazil, the Dutch seized the sugar-producing area of the northeast, but after 30 years they were expelled.\n\nColonial legacies\n\nMore than three centuries of direct Spanish and Portuguese colonial rule left lasting imprints on Latin America. Spanish and Portuguese are the dominant languages of the region, and Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion. Diseases to which Indigenous peoples had no immunity devastated their populations, although populations still exist in many places. The forced transportation of African slaves transformed major regions where they labored to produce the export products, especially sugar. In regions with dense Indigenous populations, they remained the largest percentage of the population; sugar-producing regions had the largest percentage of blacks. European whites in both Spanish America and Brazil were a small percentage of the population, but they were also the wealthiest and most socially elite; and the racial hierarchies they established in the colonial era have persisted. Cities founded by Europeans in the colonial era remain major centers of power. In the modern era, Latin American governments have worked to designate many colonial cities as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Exports of metals and agricultural products to Europe dominate Latin American economies, with the manufacturing sector deliberately suppressed; the development of modern, industrial economies of Europe depended on the underdevelopment of Latin America.\n\nDespite the many commonalities of colonial Spanish America and Brazil, they did not think of themselves as being part of a particular region; that was a development of the post-independence period beginning in the nineteenth century. The imprint of Christopher Columbus and Iberian colonialism in Latin America began shifting in the twentieth century. \"Discovery\" by Europeans was reframed as \"encounter\" between the Old World and the New. An example of the new consciousness was the dismantling of the Christopher Columbus monument in Buenos Aires, one of many in the hemisphere, mandated by leftist President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner. Its replacement was a statue to a mestiza fighter for independence, Juana Azurduy de Padilla, provoking a major controversy in Argentina over historical and national identity.\n\nIndependence era (1776–1825)\n\nIndependence in the Americas was not inevitable or uniform in the Americas. Events in Europe had a profound impact on the colonial empires of Spain, Portugal, and France in the Americas. France and Spain had supported the American Revolution that saw the independence of the Thirteen Colonies from Britain, which had defeated them in the Seven Years' War (1757–63). The outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, a political and social uprising toppling the Bourbon monarchy and overturning the established order, precipitated events in France's rich Caribbean sugar colony of Saint-Domingue, whose black population rose up, led by Toussaint L'ouverture. The Haitian Revolution had far-reaching consequences. Britain declared war on France and attacked ports in Saint-Domingue. Haiti gained independence in 1804, led by ex-slave Jean-Jacques Dessalines following many years of violent struggle, with huge atrocities on both sides. Haitian independence affected colonial empires in the Americas, as well as the United States. Many white, slave-owning sugar planters of Saint-Domingue fled to the Spanish island of Cuba, where they established sugar plantations that became the basis of Cuba's economy. Uniquely in the hemisphere, the black victors in Haiti abolished slavery at independence. Many thousands of remaining whites were executed on the orders of Dessalines. For other regions with large enslaved populations, the Haitian Revolution was a cautionary tale for the white slave-owning planters. Despite Spain and Britain's satisfaction with France's defeat, they \"were obsessed by the possible impact of the slave uprising on Cuba, Santo Domingo, and Jamaica\", by then a British sugar colony. US President Thomas Jefferson, a wealthy slave owner, refused to recognize Haiti's independence. Recognition only came in 1862 from President Abraham Lincoln. Given France's failure to defeat the slave insurgency and since needing money for the war with Britain, Napoleon Bonaparte sold France's remaining mainland holdings in North America to the United States in the 1803 Louisiana Purchase.\n\nNapoleon's invasion of the Iberian peninsula in 1807-1808 was a major change in the world order, with the stability of both the metropoles and their overseas possessions upended. It resulted in the movement, with British help, of the Portuguese royal court to Brazil, its richest colony. In Spain, France forced abdication of the Spanish Bourbon monarchs and their replacement with Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte as king. The period from 1808 to the restoration in 1814 of the Bourbon monarchy saw new political experiments. In Spanish America, the question of the legitimacy of the new foreign monarch's right to rule set off fierce debate and in many regions to wars of independence. The conflicts were regional and usually quite complex. Chronologically, the Spanish American independence wars were the conquest in reverse, with the areas most recently incorporated into the Spanish empire, such as Argentina and Chile, becoming the first to achieve independence, while the colonial strongholds of Mexico and Peru were the last to achieve independence in the early nineteenth century. Cuba and Puerto Rico, both old Caribbean sugar-producing areas, were not detached from Spain until the 1898 Spanish–American War, with US intervention. \n\nIn Spain, a bloody war against the French invaders broke out and regional juntas were established to rule in the name of the deposed Bourbon king, Ferdinand VII. In Spanish America, local juntas also rejected Napoleon's brother as their monarch. Spanish Liberals re-imagined the Spanish Empire as equally being Iberia and the overseas territories. Liberals sought a new model of government, a constitutional monarchy, with limits on the power of the king as well as on the Catholic Church. Ruling in the name of the deposed Bourbon monarch Ferdinand VII, representatives of the Spanish empire, both from the peninsula and Spanish America, convened a convention in the port of Cadiz. For Spanish American elites who had been shut out of official positions in the late eighteenth century in favor of peninsular-born appointees, this was a major recognition of their role in the empire. These empire-wide representatives drafted and ratified the Spanish Constitution of 1812, establishing a constitutional monarchy and set down other rules of governance, including citizenship and limitations on the Catholic Church. Constitutional rule was a break from absolutist monarchy and gave Spanish America a starting point for constitutional governance. So long as Napoleon controlled Spain, the liberal constitution was the governing document.\n\nWhen Napoleon was defeated and the Bourbon monarchy was restored in 1814, Ferdinand VII and his conservative supporters immediately reasserted absolutist monarchy, ending the liberal interregnum. In Spanish America, it set off a new wave of struggles for independence.\n \nIn South America, Simón Bolívar of Venezuela, José de San Martín of Argentina, and Bernardo O'Higgins in Chile led armies who fought for independence. In Mexico, which had seen the initial insurgency led by Hidalgo and José María Morelos, royalist forces maintained control. In 1820, when military officers in Spain restored the liberal Constitution of 1812, conservatives in Mexico saw independence as a better option. Royalist military officer Agustín de Iturbide changed sides and forged an alliance with insurgent leader Vicente Guerrero, and together they brought about Mexico's independence in 1821.\n\nFor Portugal and Brazil, Napoleon's defeat did not immediately result in the return of the Portuguese monarch to Portugal, as Brazil was the richest part of the Portuguese empire. As with Spain in 1820, Portuguese liberals threatened the power of the monarchy and compelled John VI to return in April 1821, leaving his son Pedro to rule Brazil as regent. In Brazil, Pedro contended with revolutionaries and insubordination by Portuguese troops, all of whom he subdued. The Portuguese government threatened to revoke the political autonomy that Brazil had enjoyed since 1808, provoking widespread opposition in Brazil. Pedro declared Brazil's independence from Portugal on 7 September 1822 and became emperor. By March 1824 he had defeated all armies loyal to Portugal. Brazil's independence was achieved relatively peaceably, territorial integrity was maintained, and its ruler was from the Royal House of Braganza, whose successors ruled Brazil until their overthrow in 1889.\n\nEarly Post-Independence, ca. 1825–1879\n\nAfter independence Spanish America and Brazil differed in their forms of state rule, with most of Spanish America becoming federated republics (with the exceptions of Cuba and Puerto Rico, which remained Spanish colonies), and Brazil becoming a monarchy ruled by the Brazilian branch of the Portuguese royal family. Spanish America's fragmentation into republics with weakened state structures meant that political turmoil and violence on many levels was a characteristic of the era throughout the region. Brazil's monarchy was a stabilizing political force and the territorial integrity of the Portuguese colony carried over into the post-independence era.\n\nAlthough much of Latin America gained its independence in the early nineteenth century, formal recognition by their former metropolitan powers in Spain and Portugal did not come immediately. Portugal officially recognized Brazil on August 29, 1825. The Spanish crown did not recognize new Spanish American nations' independence and sent expeditions to Mexico in failed attempts to regain control over its valuable former territory. Spain finally recognized Mexico's independence in 1836, 15 years after it was achieved. Its recognition of Ecuador's independence came in 1840 and Paraguay's as late as 1880. The new independent territories exerted their rights to establish a government, control their national territory, establish trade relations with other nations, and levy taxes. Brazil and Mexico both established independent monarchies in 1822. Mexico's was short-lived (1822–23) under leader of the independence movement General Iturbide, who was elected constitutional emperor 19 May 1822 and forced to abdicate 19 March 1823. Iturbide had no royal pedigree, so as a commoner he had no prestige or permanent legitimacy as ruler. Brazil's monarchy, a branch of the House of Braganza, lasted until 1889. Spanish America fragmented into various regions.\n\nAs a consequence of the violent struggles for independence in most of Spanish America, the military grew in importance. In the post-independence period, it often played a key role in politics. Military leaders often became the initial heads of state, but regional strongmen, or caudillos, also emerged. The first half of the nineteenth century is sometimes characterized as the \"age of caudillos.\" In Argentina, Juan Manuel Rosas and in Mexico Antonio López de Santa Anna are exemplars of caudillos. Although most countries created written constitutions and created separate branches of government, the state and the rule of law were weak, and the military emerged as the dominant institution in the civil sphere. Constitutions were written laying out division of powers, but the rule of personalist strongmen dominated. Dictatorial powers were granted to some strongmen, nominally ruling as presidents under a constitution, as \"constitutional dictators.\" \n \nIn the religious sphere, the Roman Catholic Church, one of the pillars of colonial rule, remained a powerful institution and generally continued as the only permissible religion. With the Spanish monarch no longer the patron of the church, many national governments asserted their right to appoint clerics as a logical transfer of power to a sovereign state. The Catholic Church denied that this right had transferred to the new governments, and for a time the Vatican refused to appoint new bishops. In Brazil, because the ruler after independence was a member of the House of Braganza, and Portugal recognized political independence quite speedily, the Vatican appointed a papal nuncio to Brazil in 1830. This official had jurisdiction over not just Brazil, but also the new states in Spanish America. However, in Brazil, there were also conflicts between church and state. During the reign of Pedro II, Protestant missionaries were tolerated, and when the monarchy was overthrown in 1889, the Catholic Church was disestablished.\n\nIn the new nation-states, conservatives favored the old order of a powerful, centralized state and continuation of the Catholic Church as a key institution. In Mexico, following the abdication of Emperor Iturbide in 1823, Mexican political leaders wrote a constitution for its newly declared federated republic, the Constitution of 1824. Central America opted out of joining the new federated republic of Mexico, with no real conflict. Hero of the insurgency Guadalupe Victoria became the first president of Mexico in 1824. Conservatives pushed to take control of the government, favoring central rule of the nation, as opposed to liberals, who generally favored the power of states expressed in federalism. General Santa Anna was elected president in 1833 and was in and out of office until 1854. In South America, Gran Colombia came into being, spanning what are now the separate countries of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, and Peru, with independence leader Simón Bolívar as head of state (1819–30). Gran Colombia dissolved in 1831 due to conflicts similar to those elsewhere in Spanish America between centralist conservatives and pro-federalist liberals. In Argentina, the conflict resulted in a prolonged civil war between unitarianas (i.e. centralists) and federalists, which were in some aspects respectively analogous to liberals and conservatives in other countries. Adding to this dispute was the almost inherited colonial-era conflict over its borders with Brazil. The Cisplatine War erupted in 1814 and ended in 1828, resulting in occupation and further secession of Provincia Oriental which in 1830 became the modern Republic of Uruguay with a central government in Montevideo. Between 1832 and 1852, Argentina existed as a confederation, without a head of state, although the federalist governor of Buenos Aires province, Juan Manuel de Rosas, was given the power to pay debt and manage international relations, and exerted a growing hegemony over the country. A national constitution was not enacted until 1853, and reformed in 1860, and the country reorganized as a federal republic led by a liberal-conservative elite. Centralist Uruguay enacted its constitution on its first day of existence in 1830, but wasn't immune to a similar polarization of the new state that involved blancos and colorados, where the agrarian conservative interests of blancos were pitted against the liberal commercial interests of colorados based in Montevideo, and which eventually resulted in the Guerra Grande civil war (1839–1851). Both the blancos and colorados evolved into political parties of the same names that still exist in Uruguay today and are considered among the first and most longstanding political parties in the world.\n\nIn Brazil, Emperor Dom Pedro I, worn down by years of administrative turmoil and political dissension with both the liberal and conservative sides of politics (including an attempt of republican secession), went to Portugal in 1831 to reclaim his daughter's crown, abdicating the Brazilian throne in favor of his five-year-old son and heir (who thus became the Empire's second monarch, with the title of Dom Pedro II). As a minor, the new Emperor could not exert his constitutional powers until he came of age, so a regency was set up by the National Assembly. In the absence of a charismatic figure who could represent a moderate face of power, during this period a series of localized rebellions took place, as the Cabanagem, the Malê Revolt, the Balaiada, the Sabinada, and the Ragamuffin War, which emerged from dissatisfaction of the provinces with the central power, coupled with old and latent social tensions peculiar to a vast, slave-holding and newly independent nation state. This period of internal political and social upheaval, which included the Praieira revolt, was overcome only at the end of the 1840s, years after the end of the regency, which occurred with the premature coronation of Pedro II in 1841. During the last phase of the monarchy, an internal political debate was centered on the issue of slavery. The Atlantic slave trade was abandoned in 1850, as a result of the British Aberdeen Act, but only in May 1888 after a long process of internal mobilization and debate for an ethical and legal dismantling of slavery in the country, was the institution formally abolished. On 15 November 1889, worn out by years of economic stagnation, attrition of the majority of Army officers, as well as with rural and financial elites (for different reasons), the monarchy was overthrown by a military coup.\n\nForeign powers, particularly the Great Britain and the U.S., were keenly interested in the possibilities resulting from political independence. They quickly recognized the governments of newly independent countries in Latin America and established commercial relationships with them. The former imperial limits on trade with foreign powers ended with independence and foreign investors sought newly opened opportunities. With the 1803 Louisiana Purchase from France, the U.S. now bordered New Spain. Both the U.S. and Spain sought clarity about their borders, signing the 1819 Adams-Onís Treaty ceding Florida to the U.S. and setting the northern border of Spain's claim in North America. When Mexico achieved independence in 1821 and briefly became a monarchy, the U.S. recognized the government under Agustín de Iturbide, sending diplomat Joel Poinsett as its representative 1822–23. Poinsett concluded an agreement with Mexico confirming the terms of the Adams-Onís Treaty. Previously Poinsett had traveled widely in Latin America and had concluded a trade agreement with independent Argentina. European and U.S. interests in the region fueled the demand for Latin American travelogues, an important source of information that described economic, political, and social conditions.\n\nThe U.S. saw itself as an important power in the Americas and had a foreign policy interest in the hemisphere to exclude former imperial powers from regaining their influence. The first major articulation of U.S. foreign policy toward Latin America as a region was the 1820 Monroe Doctrine. It warned foreign powers not to intervene in the Americas. The U.S. was relatively weak compared to the powerful British Empire, but it was a key policy that informed U.S. actions toward Latin America to the current day. The U.S. was concerned that foreign powers could support Spain in its attempts to reclaim its empire. The actions that the U.S. took against potential reclamation of foreign powers of their former colonies often included its own direct interventions in the region, justified by President Theodore Roosevelt in his 1904 Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine.\n\nFor Britain, their commercial interests were eager to seize the opportunity to trade with newly independent Latin America. Britain and Portugal had long been allies against the Spanish and French, so British recognition of Brazil's 1822 independence followed quickly after Portugal's. As with many other Latin American countries, Brazil exported raw materials and imported manufactured goods, which for both Britain and Brazil suited their economic strengths. For Britain, asserting economic dominance in Latin America (what is now called neocolonialism) meant that nation-states were sovereign countries, but were dependent on other powers economically. British dominance hindered the development of Latin American industries and strengthened their dependence on the world trade network. Britain now replaced Spain as the region's largest trading partner. Great Britain invested significant capital in Latin America to develop the area as a market for processed goods. \n\nFrom the early 1820s to 1850, the post-independence economies of Latin American countries were lagging and stagnant. Over the nineteenth century, enhanced trade between Britain and Latin America led to development such as infrastructure improvements, including roads and railroads, which grew the trade between the countries and outside nations such as Great Britain. By 1870, exports dramatically increased, attracting capital from abroad (including Europe and USA). Until 1914 and the outbreak of World War I, Britain was a major economic power in Latin America, especially in South America.\n\nFor the U.S., its initial sphere of influence was in Mexico, but the drive for territorial expansion, particularly for Southern slave-owners seeking new territory for their enterprises, saw immigration of white slave-owners with their slaves to Texas, which ultimately precipitated conflict between the Mexican government and the Anglo-American settlers. The Texas Revolution of 1836-37 defeated Mexican forces, and in 1845, U.S. annexation of the Texas territory that Mexico still claimed set the stage for the Mexican–American War (1846–48). The war resulted in the resounding defeat of Mexico. U.S. troops occupied Mexico City. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo added a huge swath of what had been north and northwest Mexico to the U.S., territory that Spain and then Mexico had claimed, but had not succeeded in occupying effectively. Southern slave owners were also interested in the possibility of the U.S. acquiring Cuba from Spain, with the aim of expanding both slavery and U.S. territory. The 1854 leak of the Ostend Manifesto, offering $130 million to Spain, caused a scandal among abolitionists in the U.S., who sought to end the expansion of slavery. It was repudiated by U.S. President Franklin Pierce. The American Civil War (1861–1965) decided the question of slavery. Another episode in US–Latin American relations involved the filibuster William Walker. In 1855, he traveled to Nicaragua hoping to overthrow the government and take territory for the United States. With Only 56 followers, he was able to take over the city of Granada, declaring himself commander of the army and installing Patricio Rivas as a puppet president. However, Rivas' presidency ended when he fled Nicaragua; Walker rigged the ensuing election to ensure that he became the next president. His presidency did not last long, however, as he was met with much opposition in Nicaragua and from neighboring countries. On 1 May 1857, Walker was forced by a coalition of Central American armies to surrender himself to a United States Navy officer who repatriated him and his followers. When Walker subsequently returned to Central America in 1860, he was apprehended by the Honduran authorities and executed.\n\nBritain's nineteenth-century policy was to end slavery and the slave trade, including in Latin America. In Brazil, Britain made the end of the slave trade a condition for diplomatic recognition. The Brazilian economy was entirely dependent on slaves. Abolitionists in Brazil pressed for the end of slavery, which finally ended in 1888, followed the next year by the fall of the Brazilian monarchy.\n\nThe French also sought commercial ties to Latin America, to export luxury goods and establish financial ties, including extending foreign loans to governments, often in dire need of revenue. As Mexican conservatives and liberals fought the War of the Reform over La Reforma, Mexican conservatives, to bolster their side, sought a European monarch to put on the throne of Mexico. Napoleon III of France invaded Mexico in 1862 and facilitated the appointment of Maximilian von Hapsburg. Since the U.S. was embroiled in its own civil war, it could not hinder the French occupation, which it saw as a violation of the Monroe Doctrine, but the government of Abraham Lincoln continued to recognize the Republic of Mexico as the nation's government under President Benito Juárez. The French were expelled in 1867 and Emperor Maximilian executed by the victorious Republican forces, setting the stage for an era of stability and foreign economic investment a few years later when Porfirio Díaz liberal hero of the war against the French, became president of Mexico for 30 years.\n\nExport boom and neocolonialism\n\nLatin American nations after about 1870 were stable enough politically and produced commodities in demand in Western Europe and the United States so that export economies tied producing countries to consuming countries. Rather than formally ruling countries in the region, investors and their government backers exercised power and influence over local elites seeking to maintain or enhance their own positions. Companies in Great Britain forged ties especially in Brazil and Argentina, with Brazilian coffee and Argentine beef and wheat becoming staples on European dining tables. Britain constructed infrastructure to enable the efficient movement of goods and people, building port facilities to accommodate transatlantic shipping, railroads to transport goods from interior regions of production to ports, and electricity enabling telegraphs, later telephones, and street lighting in urban areas. As technology became more sophisticated, bulky agricultural products like wheat could be shipped on large ships at relatively low cost. As refrigerated ships were developed, chilled beef and tropical bananas could be shipped efficiently enough that they would not spoil. The U.S. in particular imported bananas from Central and South America. The U.S. United Fruit Company and Cuyamel Fruit Company, both ancestors of Chiquita, and the Standard Fruit Company (now Dole), acquired large tracts of land in Central America, including Guatemala, Honduras, and Costa Rica, as well as Ecuador. The companies gained leverage over governments and ruling elites in these countries by dominating their economies and paying kickbacks, and exploited local workers. Such countries came to be called banana republics.\n \nDemand for commodities fueled armed conflicts for territory with economic potential. One such conflict was the Spanish–American War in 1898, where the U.S. intervened in the long-standing independence war in Cuba against the Spanish crown, which had held onto it after the almost complete loss of is overseas territories in the early nineteenth century. Cuba produced sugar and tobacco, both in high demand in the U.S. In the treaty with Spain ending the war, the U.S. gain Puerto Rico, Spain's other remaining Caribbean colony, as well as the Philippine Islands. There were also conflicts between Latin American nations in the late nineteenth century, as well as protracted civil wars in Mexico and Colombia. One notable international conflict was the War of the Pacific from 1879 to 1884, in which Chile seized territory and resources from Peru and Bolivia, gaining valuable nitrate deposits and leaving Bolivia landlocked with no access to the sea. Another notable conflict was the War of the Triple Alliance (1864–1870) in which Paraguay under Francisco Solano López tried to assist Uruguay against the Brazil-backed rebels, which angered Brazil and led to a war against Paraguay. With Brazil allied to Argentina and Uruguay, the war escalated to total war and decimated Paraguay in what became one of the most horrendous chapters in the history of the continent, with huge loss of life, land, and the destruction of the modernized sector.\n\nThe export boom created a demand for labor, which many countries could not meet domestically. Countries such as Argentina, Brazil, and Peru, sought laborers from abroad, some of whom immigrated permanently, while other workers developed a pattern of cyclical work, returning to their home countries at intervals. Workers came from poorer regions of Europe, such as Italy, but also China and Japan, with single men and few women making up the initial immigrant populations.\n\nWorld War I (1914–1918) \n\nIn general, Latin America stayed out of direct conflict in World War I, but the Great Powers were aware of the region's importance for the short and long term. Germany attempted to draw Mexico into supporting its side against the British, the French, and especially the U.S., by trying to leverage anti-Americanism to its advantage. The Great Powers had been actively working to affect the course of the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920). Great Britain and the U.S. had huge investments in Mexico, with Germany close behind, so the outcome of the conflict would have consequences there. The U.S. directly intervened militarily, but not on a huge scale. A German diplomatic proposal, now known as the January 1917 Zimmermann Telegram, sought to entice Mexico to join an alliance with Germany in the event of the United States entering World War I against Germany by promising the return of territory Mexico had lost to the U.S. The proposal was intercepted and decoded by British intelligence. The revelation of the contents outraged the American public and swayed public opinion. The news helped to generate support for the United States declaration of war on Germany in April 1917 as well as to calm U.S.-Mexico relations. Mexico, far weaker militarily, economically, and politically than the U.S., ignored the German proposal; after the U.S. entered the war, it officially rejected it.\n\nWhen the U.S. entered the conflict in 1917, it abandoned its hunt in Mexico for the revolutionary Pancho Villa who had attacked the U.S. in Columbus, New Mexico. The Mexican government was not pro-Villa, but was angered by U.S. violation of Mexico's sovereign territory with troops. The expeditionary force led by General John J. Pershing that had hopelessly chased him around northern Mexico was deployed to Europe. The U.S. then asked Latin American nations to join Britain, France, and the U.S. against Germany. They were not quick to join, as Germany was now a major financial lender to Latin America, and a number of nations were antipathetic to the traditional lenders in Britain and France. While Latin America did join the allies, it was not without cost. The U.S. sought hemispheric solidarity against Germany, and Brazil, Costa Rica, Cuba, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Haiti declared war. Others took the lesser step of breaking diplomatic relations. Argentina, Chile, Mexico and Uruguay remained neutral.\n \nMore important was the impact of the war on transatlantic shipping, the economic lifeline for their export economies. Export economies from the mining sector and especially nitrates for gunpowder did boom, but agricultural exports of sugar and coffee languished when European economies turned to war production. Britain was on the winning side of the war, but in the aftermath its economic power was fairly reduced. After 1914, the U.S. replaced Britain as the major foreign power in Latin America. Latin American nations gained standing internationally in the aftermath of the war, participating in the Versailles Conference, signing the Treaty of Versailles and joining the League of Nations. Latin America also played an important role in the International Court of Justice.\n\nInterwar and World War II, 1920s–1945\n\nThe Great Depression was a worldwide phenomenon and had an impact on Latin America. Exports largely fell and economies stagnated. For a number of Latin American countries, the Depression made them favor an internal economic development policy of import substitution industrialization.\n\nWorld War I and the League of Nations did not settle conflicts between European nations, but in the wake of World War I, Latin American nations gained success in pressing discussions of hemispheric importance. The Inter-American System was institutionally established with the First International Conference of American States of 1889–1890, where 17 Latin American nations sent delegates to Washington D.C. and formed the Pan American Union. Subsequent Pan-American Conferences saw the initial dominance of the U.S. in the hemisphere give way as Latin American nations asserted their priorities. The Havana Conference of 1928 was the high water mark of U.S. dominance and assertion of its right to intervene in Latin America, but with the election of Franklin Delano Roosevelt to the U.S. presidency in 1932, U.S. policy changed toward Latin America. He abandoned the routine U.S. interventions in Latin America that it had claimed as its right and initiated the Good Neighbor Policy in March 1933. He sought hemispheric cooperation rather than U.S. coercion in the region. At the Montevideo Convention in December 1933, the U.S. Secretary of State voted in favor of the Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, declaring \"no state has the right to intervene in the internal or external affairs of another.\" President Roosevelt himself attended the inaugural session of the hemispheric conference in Buenos Aires in 1936, where the U.S. reaffirmed the policy of non-intervention in Latin America and discussed the issue of neutrality for the hemisphere should war break out. With the Nazi invasion of Poland in September 1939 and the spread of war in Europe, foreign ministers of hemispheric nations met in Panama, at which the Declaration of Neutrality was signed, and the territorial waters bordering the hemisphere were expanded. The aim of these moves was to strengthen hemispheric solidarity and security. With the 7 December 1941 Japanese attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, hemispheric ministers met in January 1942 in Rio de Janeiro. Some nations had already declared war on the Axis powers, while others severed relations with the Axis. Chile did not do so until 1943, and Argentina, traditionally pro-German, not until 1945. The U.S. requested that Germans suspected of Nazi sympathies be deported from Latin America to the U.S.\n\nCold War era (1945–1992)\nMany Latin American economies continued to grow in the post-World War II era, but not as quickly as they had hoped. When the transatlantic trade re-opened following the peace, Europe looked as if it would need Latin American food exports and raw materials. The policies of import substitution industrialization adopted in Latin America when exports slowed due to the Great Depression and subsequent isolation in World War II were now subject to international competition. Those who supported a return to the export of commodities for which Latin America had a competitive advantage disagreed with advocates of an expanded industrial sector. The rebuilding of Europe, including Germany, with the aid of the U.S. after World War II did not bring stronger demand for Latin American exports. In Latin America, much of the hard currency earned by their participation in the war went to nationalize foreign-owned industries and pay down their debt. A number of governments set tariff and exchange rate policies that undermined the export sector and aided the urban working classes. Growth slowed in the post-war period and by the mid-1950s, the optimism of the postwar period was replaced by pessimism.\n\nFollowing World War II, the United States policy toward Latin America focused on what it perceived as the threat of communism and the Soviet Union to the interests of Western Europe and the United States. Although Latin American countries had been staunch allies in the war and reaped some benefits from it, in the post-war period the region did not prosper as it had expected. Latin America struggled in the post-war period without large-scale aid from the U.S., which devoted its resources to rebuilding Western Europe, including Germany. In Latin America there was increasing inequality, with political consequences in the individual countries. The U.S. returned to a policy of interventionism when it felt its political and economic interests were threatened. With the breakup of the Soviet bloc in the late 1980s and early 1990s, including the Soviet Union itself, Latin America sought to find new solutions to long-standing problems. With its Soviet alliance dissolved, Cuba entered a Special Period of severe economic disruption, high death rates, and food shortages.\n\nDeeply alarming for the U.S. were two revolutions that threaten, fed its dominance in the region. The Guatemalan Revolution (1944–54) saw the replacement of a U.S.-backed regime of Jorge Ubico in 1945 followed by elections. Reformist Juan José Arévalo (1945–51) was elected and began instituting populist reforms. Reforms included land laws that threatened the interests of large foreign-owned enterprises, a social security law, workmen's compensation, laws allowing labor to organize and strike, and universal suffrage except for illiterate women. His government established diplomatic ties with the Soviet Union in April 1945, when the Soviet Union and the U.S. were allied against the Axis powers. Communists entered leadership positions in the labor movement. At the end of his term, his hand-picked successor, the populist and nationalist Jacobo Arbenz, was elected. Arbenz proposed placing capital in the hands of Guatemalans, building new infrastructure, and significant land reform via Decree 900. With what the U.S. considered the prospect of even more radical changes in Guatemala, it backed a coup against Arbenz in 1954, overthrowing him. Argentine Che Guevara was in Guatemala during the Arbenz presidency; the coup ousting Arbenz was instructive for him and for Latin American nations seeking significant structural change. In 1954 the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency aided successful military coup against Arbenz.\n\n \nThe 1959 Cuban Revolution led by Cuban lawyer Fidel Castro overthrew the regime of Fulgencio Batista, with 1 January 1959 marking as the revolution's victory. The revolution was a huge event not only in Cuban history, but also the history of Latin America and the world. Almost the immediately, the U.S. reacted with hostility against the new regime. As the revolutionaries began consolidating power, many middle- and upper-class Cubans left for the U.S., likely not expecting the Castro regime to last long. Cuba became a poorer and blacker country, and the Cuba Revolution sought to transform the social and economic inequalities and political instability of the previous regimes into a more socially and economically equal one. The government put emphasis on literacy as a key to Cuba's overall betterment, essentially wiping out illiteracy after an early major literacy campaign. Schools became a means to instill in Cuban students messages of nationalism, solidarity with the Third World, and Marxism. Cuba also made a commitment to universal health care, so the education of doctors and construction of hospitals were top priorities. Cuba also sought to diversify its economy, until then based mainly on sugar, but also tobacco.\n\nThe U.S. attempted to overthrow Castro, using the template of the successful 1954 coup in Guatemala. In the April 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion, Cuba entered into a formal alliance with the Soviet Union. In February 1962, the U.S placed an embargo on trade with Cuba, which remains in force as of 2021. In February 1962, the U.S. pressured members of the Organization of American States to expel Cuba, attempting to isolate it. In response to the Bay of Pigs, Cuba called for revolution in the Americas. The efforts ultimately failed, most notably with Che Guevara in Bolivia, where he was isolated, captured, and executed.\n\nWhen the U.S. discovered that the Soviet Union had placed missiles in Cuba in 1962, they reacted swiftly with a showdown now called the Cuban Missile Crisis, which ended with an agreement between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, who did not consult Cuba about its terms. One term of the agreement was that the U.S. would cease efforts to invade Cuba, a guarantee of its sovereignty. However, the U.S. continued to attempt to remove Castro from power by assassination. The Soviet Union continued to materially support the Cuban regime, providing oil and other petrochemicals, technical support, and other aid, in exchange for Cuban sugar and tobacco.\n\nFrom 1959 to 1992, Fidel Castro ruled as a caudillo, or strong man, dominating politics and the international stage. His commitment to social and economic equality brought about positive changes in Cuba, including the improvement of the position of women, eliminating prostitution, reducing homelessness, and raising the standard of living for most Cubans. However, Cuba lacks freedom of expression; dissenters were monitored by the Committees for the Defense of the Revolution, and travel was restricted. In 1980, Castro told Cubans who wanted to leave to do so, promising that the government would not stop them. The Mariel boatlift saw some 125,000 Cubans sail from the Cuban port of Mariel, across the straits to the U.S., where U.S. President Carter initially welcomed them.\n\nThe Cuban Revolution had a tremendous impact not just on Cuba, but on Latin America as a whole, and the world. The Cuban Revolution was for many countries an inspiration and a model, but for the U.S. it was a challenge to its power and influence in Latin America. After leftists took power in Chile (1970) and Nicaragua (1979), Fidel Castro visited them both, extending Cuban solidarity. In Chile, Salvador Allende and a coalition of leftists, Unidad Popular, won an electoral victory in 1970 and lasted until the violent military coup of 11 September 1973. In the Nicaragua leftists held power from 1979 to 1990. The U.S. was concerned with the spread of communism in Latin America, and U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower responded to the threat he saw in the Dominican Republic's dictator Rafael Trujillo, who voiced a desire to seek an alliance with the Soviet Union. In 1961, Trujillo was murdered with weapons supplied by the CIA. U.S. President John F. Kennedy initiated the Alliance for Progress in 1961, to establish economic cooperation between the U.S. and Latin America and provide $20 billion for reform and counterinsurgency measures. The reform failed because of the simplistic theory that guided it and the lack of experienced American experts who understood Latin American customs.\n\nFrom 1966 to the late 1980s, the Soviet government upgraded Cuba's military capabilities, and Cuba was active in foreign interventions, assisting with movements in several countries in Latin America and elsewhere in the world. Most notable were the MPLA during the Angolan Civil War and the Derg during the Ogaden War. They also supported governments and rebel movements in Syria, Mozambique, Algeria, Venezuela, Bolivia, and Vietnam.\n\nIn Chile, the postwar period saw uneven economic development. The mining sector (copper, nitrates) continued to be important, but an industrial sector also emerged. The agricultural sector stagnated and Chile needed to import foodstuffs. After the 1958 election, Chile entered a period of reform. The secret ballot was introduced, the Communist Party was relegalized, and populism grew in the countryside. In 1970, democratic elections brought to power socialist Salvador Allende, who implemented many reforms begun in 1964 under Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei. The economy continued to depend on mineral exports and a large portion of the population reaped no benefits from the prosperity and modernity of some sectors. Chile had a long tradition of stable electoral democracy, In the 1970 election, a coalition of leftists, the Unidad Popular (\"popular unity\") candidate Allende was elected. Allende and his coalition held power for three years, with the increasing hostility of the U.S. The Chilean military staged a bloody coup with US support in 1973. The military under General Augusto Pinochet then held power until 1990.\n\nThe 1970s and 1980s saw a large and complex political conflict in Central America. The U.S. administration of Ronald Reagan funded right-wing governments and proxy fighters against left-wing challenges to the political order. Complicating matters were the liberation theology emerging in the Catholic Church and the rapid growth of evangelical Christianity, which were entwined with politics. The Nicaraguan Revolution revealed the country as a major proxy war battleground in the Cold War. Although the initial overthrow of the Somoza regime in 1978–79 was a bloody affair, the Contra War of the 1980s took the lives of tens of thousands of Nicaraguans and was the subject of fierce international debate. During the 1980s both the FSLN (a leftist collection of political parties) and the Contras (a rightist collection of counter-revolutionary groups) received considerable aid from the Cold War superpowers. The Sandinistas allowed free elections in 1990 and after years of war, lost the election. They became the opposition party, following a peaceful transfer of power. A civil war in El Salvador pitted leftist guerrillas against a repressive government. The bloody war there ended in a stalemate, and following the fall of the Soviet Union, a negotiated peace accord ended the conflict in 1992. In Guatemala, the civil war included genocide of Mayan peasants. A peace accord was reached in 1996 and the Catholic Church called for a truth and reconciliation commission.\n\nIn the religious sphere, the Roman Catholic Church continued to be a major institution in nineteenth-century Latin America. For a number of countries in the nineteenth century, especially Mexico, liberals viewed the Catholic Church as an intransigent obstacle to modernization, and when liberals gained power, anticlericalism was written into law, such as the Mexican liberal Constitution of 1857 and the Uruguayan Constitution of 1913 which secularized the state. Although secularism was an increasing trend in Europe and North America, most Latin Americans identified as Catholic, even if they did not attend church regularly. Many followed folk Catholicism, venerated saints, and celebrated religious festivals. Many communities did not have a resident priest or even visits by priests to keep contact between the institutional church and the people. In the 1950s, evangelical Protestants began proselytizing in Latin America. In Brazil, the Catholic bishops organized themselves into a national council, aimed at better meeting the competition not only of Protestants, but also of secular socialism and communism. Following Vatican II (1962–65) called by Pope John XXIII, the Catholic Church initiated a series of major reforms empowering the laity. Pope Paul VI actively implemented reforms and sought to align the Catholic Church on the side of the dispossessed, (\"preferential option for the poor\"), rather than remain a of conservative elites and right-wing repressive regimes. Colombian Catholic priest Camilo Torres took up arms with the Colombian guerrilla movement ELN, which modeled itself on Cuba but was killed in his first combat in 1966. In 1968, Pope Paul came to the meeting of Latin American bishops in Medellín, Colombia. Peruvian priest Gustavo Gutiérrez was one of the founders of liberation theology, a term he coined in 1968, sometimes described as linking Christianity and Marxism. Conservatives saw the church as politicized, and priests ask proselytizing leftist positions. Priests became targets as \"subversives,\" such as Salvadoran Jesuit Rutilio Grande. Archbishop of El Salvador Óscar Romero called for an end to persecution of the church, and took positions of social justice. He was assassinated on 24 March 1980 while saying mass. Liberation theology informed the struggle by Nicaraguan leftists against the Somoza dictatorship, and when they came to power in 1979, the ruling group included some priests.\n\nWhen a Polish cleric became Pope John Paul II following the death of Paul VI, and the brief papacy of John Paul I, he reversed the progressive position of the church, evident in the 1979 Puebla conference of Latin American bishops. On a papal visit to Nicaragua in 1983, he reprimanded Father Ernesto Cardenal, who was Minister of Culture, and called on priests to leave politics. Brazilian theologian Leonardo Boff was silenced by the Vatican. Despite the Vatican stance against liberation theology, articulated in 1984 by Cardinal Josef Ratzinger, later Pope Benedict XVI, many Catholic clergy and laity worked against repressive military regimes. After a military coup ousted the democratically elected Salvador Allende, the Chilean Catholic Church was a force in opposition to the regime of Augusto Pinochet and for human rights. The Argentine Church did not follow the Chilean pattern of opposition however. When Jesuit Jorge Bergoglio was elected Pope Francis, his actions during the Dirty War were an issue, as portrayed in the film The Two Popes.\n\nAlthough most countries did not have Catholicism as the established religion, Protestantism made few inroads in the region until the late twentieth century. Evangelical Protestants, particularly Pentecostals, proselytized and gained adherents in Brazil, Central America, and elsewhere. In Brazil, Pentecostals had a long history. But in a number of countries ruled by military dictatorships many Catholics followed the social and political teachings of liberation theology and were seen as subversives. Under these conditions, the influence of religious non-Catholics grew. Evangelical churches often grew quickly in poor communities where small churches and members could participate in ecstatic worship, often many times a week. Pastors in these churches did attend a seminary nor were there other institutional requirements. In some cases, the first evangelical pastors came from the U.S., but these churches quickly became \"Latin Americanized,\" with local pastors building religious communities. In some countries, they gained a significant hold and were not persecuted by military dictators, since they were largely apolitical. In Guatemala under General Efraín Ríos Montt, an evangelical Christian, Catholic Maya peasants were targeted as subversives and slaughtered. Perpetrators were later put on trial in Guatemala, including Ríos Montt.\n\nPost-Cold War era\n\nAfter the fall of the Soviet Union, the Cold War which saw U.S. intervention in Latin America as preventing Soviet influence dissipating. The Central American wars ended, with a free and fair election in Nicaragua that voted out the leftist Sandinistas, a peace treaty was concluded between factions in El Salvador, and the Guatemalan civil war ended. Cuba had lost its political and economic patron, the Soviet Union, which could no longer provide support. Cuba entered what is known there are the Special Period, when the economy contracted severely, but the revolutionary government nonetheless retained power and the U.S. remained hostile to its revolution. U.S. policy-makers developed the Washington Consensus, a set of specific economic policy prescriptions considered the standard reform package for crisis-wracked developing countries by Washington, D.C.-based institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, and the US Department of the Treasury during the 1980s and 1990s. The term has become associated with neoliberal policies in general and drawn into the broader debate over the expanding role of the free market, constraints upon the state, and US influence on other countries' national sovereignty. The politico-economical initiative was institutionalized in North America by the 1994 NAFTA, and elsewhere in the Americas through a series of similar agreements. The comprehensive Free Trade Area of the Americas project, however, was rejected by most South American countries at the 4th Summit of the Americas in 2005.\n\nA debt crisis ensured after 1982 when the price of oil crashed and Mexico announced that it could not meet its foreign debt payment obligations. Other Latin American economies followed suit, with hyperinflation and the inability of governments to meet their debt obligations and the era became known as the \"lost decade.\" The debt crisis would lead to neoliberal reforms that would instigate many social movements in the region. A \"reversal of development\" reigned over Latin America, seen through negative economic growth, declines in industrial production, and thus, falling living standards for the middle and lower classes. Governments made financial security their primary policy goal over social programs, enacting new neoliberal economic policies that implemented privatization of previously national industries and the informal sector of labor. In an effort to bring more investors to these industries, these governments also embraced globalization through more open interactions with the international economy.\n\nSignificantly, democratic governments began replacing military regimes across much of Latin America and the realm of the state became more inclusive (a trend that proved conducive to social movements), but economic ventures remained exclusive to a few elite groups within society. Neoliberal restructuring consistently redistributed income upward, while denying political responsibility to provide social welfare rights, and development projects throughout the region increased both inequality and poverty. Feeling excluded from the new projects, the lower classes took ownership of their own democracy through a revitalization of social movements in Latin America.\n\nBoth urban and rural populations had serious grievances as a result of economic and global trends and voiced them in mass demonstrations. Some of the largest and most violent have been protests against cuts in urban services to the poor, such as the Caracazo in Venezuela and the Argentinazo in Argentina. In 2000, the Cochabamba Water War in Bolivia saw major protests against a World Bank-funded project that would have brought potable water to the city, but at a price that no residents could afford. The title of the Oscar nominated film Even the Rain alludes to the fact that Cochabamba residents could no longer legally collect rainwater; the film depicts the protest movement.\n\nRural movements made demands related to unequal land distribution, displacement at the hands of development projects and dams, environmental and Indigenous concerns, neoliberal agricultural restructuring, and insufficient means of livelihood. In Bolivia, coca workers organized into a union, and Evo Morales, ethnically an Aymara, became its head. The cocaleros supported the struggles in the Cochabamba water war. The rural-urban coalition became a political party, Movement for Socialism (Bolivia) (MAS, \"more\"), which decisively won the 2005 presidential election, making Evo Morales the first Indigenous president of Bolivia. A documentary of the campaign, Cocalero, shows how they successfully organized.\n\nA number of movements have benefited considerably from transnational support from conservationists and INGOs. The Movement of Rural Landless Workers (MST) in Brazil for example is an important contemporary Latin American social movement.\n\nIndigenous movements account for a large portion of rural social movements, including, in Mexico, the Zapatista rebellion and the broad Indigenous movement in Guerrero, Also important are the Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador (CONAIE) and Indigenous organizations in the Amazon region of Ecuador and Bolivia, pan-Mayan communities in Guatemala, and mobilization by the Indigenous groups of Yanomami peoples in the Amazon, Kuna peoples in Panama, and Altiplano Aymara and Quechua peoples in Bolivia.\n\nAfter 2000\n\nIn many countries in the early 2000s, left-wing political parties rose to power, known as the Pink tide. The presidencies of Hugo Chávez (1999–2013) in Venezuela, Ricardo Lagos and Michelle Bachelet in Chile, Lula da Silva and Dilma Rousseff of the Workers Party (PT) in Brazil, Néstor Kirchner and his wife Cristina Fernández in Argentina, Tabaré Vázquez and José Mujica in Uruguay, Evo Morales in Bolivia, Daniel Ortega in Nicaragua, Rafael Correa in Ecuador, Fernando Lugo in Paraguay, Manuel Zelaya in Honduras (removed from power by a coup d'état), Mauricio Funes and Salvador Sánchez Cerén in El Salvador are all part of this wave of left-wing politicians who often declare themselves socialists, Latin Americanists, or anti-imperialists, often implying opposition to US policies towards the region. An aspect of this has been the creation of the eight-member ALBA alliance, or \"The Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America\" (Spanish: Alianza Bolivariana para los Pueblos de Nuestra América) by some of these countries.\n\nFollowing the pink tide, there was a Conservative wave across Latin America. In Mexico, the rightwing National Action Party (PAN) won the presidential election of 2000 with its candidate Vicente Fox, ending the 71-year rule of the Institutional Revolutionary Party. He was succeed six-years later by another conservative, Felipe Calderón (2006-2012), who attempted to crack down on the Mexican drug cartels and instigated the Mexican drug war . Several right-wing leaders rose to power, including Argentina's Mauricio Macri and Brazil's Michel Temer, following the impeachment of the country's first female president. In Chile, the conservative Sebastián Piñera succeeded the socialist Michelle Bachelet in 2017. In 2019, center-right Luis Lacalle Pou ended a 15-year leftist rule in Uruguay, after defeating the Broad Front candidate.\n\nEconomically, the 2000s commodities boom caused positive effects for many Latin American economies. Another trend was the rapidly increasing importance of their relations with China.\nHowever, with the Great Recession beginning in 2008, there was an end to the commodity boom, resulting in economic stagnation or recession resulted in some countries. A number of left-wing governments of the Pink tide lost support. The worst-hit was Venezuela, which is facing severe social and economic upheaval.\n\nCharges of against a major Brazilian conglomerate, Odebrecht, has raised allegations of corruption across the region's governments (see Operation Car Wash). This bribery ring has become the largest corruption scandal in Latin American history. As of July 2017, the highest ranking politicians charged were former Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, who was arrested, and former Peruvian presidents Ollanta Humala, also arrested, and Alejandro Toledo, who fled to the United States and is now a fugitive.\n\nThe COVID-19 pandemic proved a political challenge for many unstable Latin American democracies, with scholars identifying a decline in civil liberties as a result of opportunistic emergency powers. This was especially true for countries with strong presidential regimes, such as Brazil.\n\nInequality\n\nWealth inequality in Latin America and the Caribbean remains a serious issue despite strong economic growth and improved social indicators. A report released in 2013 by the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs entitled Inequality Matters: Report of the World Social Situation, observed that: 'Declines in the wage share have been attributed to the impact of labour-saving technological change and to a general weakening of labour market regulations and institutions.' Such declines are likely to disproportionately affect individuals in the middle and bottom of the income distribution, as they rely mostly on wages for income. In addition, the report noted that 'highly-unequal land distribution has created social and political tensions and is a source of economic inefficiency, as small landholders frequently lack access to credit and other resources to increase productivity, while big owners may not have had enough incentive to do so.\n\nAccording to the United Nations ECLAC, Latin America is the most unequal region in the world. Inequality in Latin America has deep historical roots in the Latin European racially based Casta system instituted in Latin America during colonial times that has been difficult to eradicate because of the differences between initial endowments and opportunities among social groups have constrained the poorest's social mobility, thus causing poverty to transmit from generation to generation, and become a vicious cycle. Inequality has been reproduced and transmitted through generations because Latin American political systems allow a differentiated access on the influence that social groups have in the decision-making process, and it responds in different ways to the least favored groups that have less political representation and capacity of pressure. Recent economic liberalisation also plays a role as not everyone is equally capable of taking advantage of its benefits. Differences in opportunities and endowments tend to be based on race, ethnicity, rurality, and gender. Because inequality in gender and location are near-universal, race and ethnicity play a larger, more integral role in discriminatory practices in Latin America. The differences have a strong impact on the distribution of income, capital and political standing.\n\nOne indicator of inequality is access to and quality of education. During the first phase of globalization in Latin America, educational inequality was on the rise, peaking around the end of the 19th century. In comparison with other developing regions, Latin America then had the highest level of educational inequality, which is certainly a contributing factor for its current general high inequality. During the 20th century, however, educational inequality started decreasing.\n\nStandard of living \nLatin America has the highest levels of income inequality in the world. The following table lists all the countries in Latin America indicating a valuation of the country's Human Development Index, GDP at purchasing power parity per capita, measurement of inequality through the Gini index, measurement of poverty through the Human Poverty Index, a measure of extreme poverty based on people living on less than 1.25 dollars a day, life expectancy, murder rates and a measurement of safety through the Global Peace Index. Green cells indicate the best performance in each category, and red the lowest.\n\nDemographics\n\nLargest cities\nUrbanization accelerated starting in the mid-twentieth century, especially in capital cities, or in the case of Brazil, traditional economic and political hubs founded in the colonial era. In Mexico, the rapid growth and modernization in country's north has seen the growth of Monterrey, in Nuevo León. The following is a list of the ten largest metropolitan areas in Latin America. Entries in \"bold\" indicate they are ranked the highest.\n\nRace and ethnicity\n\nLatin American populations are diverse, with descendants of the Indigenous peoples, European whites, Africans initially brought as slaves, and Asians, as well as new immigrants. Mixing of groups was a fact of life at contact of the Old World and the New, but colonial regimes established legal and social discrimination against non-white populations simply on the basis of perceived ethnicity and skin color. Social class was usually linked to a person's racial category, with whites on top. During the colonial era, with a dearth initially of European women, European men and Indigenous women and African women produced what were considered mixed-race children. In Spanish America, the so-called Sociedad de castas or Sistema de castas was constructed by white elites to try to rationalize the processes at work. In the sixteenth century the Spanish crown sought to protect Indigenous populations from exploitation by white elites for their labor and land. The crown created the to paternalistically govern and protect Indigenous peoples. It also created the República de Españoles, which included not only European whites, but all non-Indigenous peoples, such as blacks, mulattoes, and mixed-race castas who were not dwelling in Indigenous communities. In the religious sphere, the Indigenous were deemed perpetual neophytes in the Catholic faith, which meant Indigenous men were not eligible to be ordained as Catholic priests; however, Indigenous were also excluded from the jurisdiction of the Inquisition. Catholics saw military conquest and religious conquest as two parts of the assimilation of Indigenous populations, suppressing Indigenous religious practices and eliminating the Indigenous priesthood. Some worship continued underground. Jews and other non-Catholics, such as Protestants (all called \"Lutherans\") were banned from settling and were subject to the Inquisition. Considerable mixing of populations occurred in cities, while the countryside was largely Indigenous. At independence in the early nineteenth century, in many places in Spanish America formal racial and legal distinctions disappeared, although black slavery was not uniformly abolished.\n\nSignificant black populations exist in Brazil and Spanish Caribbean islands such as Cuba and Puerto Rico and the circum-Caribbean mainland (Venezuela, Colombia, Panama), as long as in the southern part of South America and Central America (Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua Ecuador, and Peru) a legacy of their use in plantations. All these areas had small white populations. In Brazil, coastal Indigenous peoples largely died out in the early sixteenth century, with Indigenous populations surviving far from cities, sugar plantations, and other European enterprises.\n\nDominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Brazil have dominate Mulatto/Triracial populations (\"Pardo\" in Brazil), in Brazil and Cuba, there is equally large white populations and smaller black populations, while Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico are more Mulatto/Triracial dominated, with significant black and white minorities. Parts of Central America and northern South America are more diverse in that they are dominated by Mestizos and whites but also have large numbers of Mulattos, blacks, and indigenous, especially Colombia, Venezuela, and Panama. The southern cone region, Argentina, Uruguay, and Chile are completely dominated by whites and mestizos. Haiti and other areas in the French Caribbean are dominated mostly by blacks. The rest of Latin America, including México, northern Central America (Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras), and central South America (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay), are dominated by mestizos but also have large white and indigenous minorities.\n\nIn the nineteenth century, a number of Latin American countries sought immigrants from Europe and Asia. With the abolition of black slavery in 1888, the Brazilian monarchy fell in 1889. By then, another source of cheap labor to work on coffee plantations was found in Japan. Chinese male immigrants arrived in Cuba, Mexico, Peru and elsewhere. With political turmoil in Europe during the mid-nineteenth century and widespread poverty, Germans, Spaniards, and Italians immigrated to Latin America in large numbers, welcomed by Latin American governments both as a source of labor as well as a way to increase the size of their white populations. In Argentina, many Afro-Argentines married Europeans, so that in modern Argentina there is no discernible black population.\n\nIn twentieth-century Brazil, sociologist Gilberto Freyre proposed that Brazil was a \"racial democracy,\" with less discrimination against blacks than in the U.S. Subsequent research has shown that Brazilians also discriminate against darker citizens, and that whites remain the elites in the country. In Mexico, the Afro-Mexican population was largely written out of the national narrative of indigenismo, and Indigenous and especially mestizo populations were considered the true embodiment of Mexicanness (mexicanidad), \"the cosmic race\", according to Mexican intellectual José Vasconcelos. In Mexico, there was considerable discrimination against Asians, with calls for the expulsion of Chinese in northern Mexico during the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) and racially motivated massacres.\nIn a number of Latin American countries, Indigenous groups have organized explicitly as Indigenous, to claim human rights and influence political power. With the passage of anti-colonial resolutions in the United Nations General Assembly and the signing of resolutions for Indigenous rights, the Indigenous are able to act to guarantee their existence within nation-states with legal standing.\n\nLanguage\n\nSpanish is the predominant language of Latin America. It is spoken as first language by about 60% of the population. Portuguese is spoken by about 30%, and about 10% speak other languages such as Quechua, Mayan languages, Guaraní, Aymara, Nahuatl, English, French, Dutch and Italian. Portuguese is spoken mostly in Brazil, the largest and most populous country in the region. Spanish is the official language of most of the other countries and territories on the Latin American mainland, as well as in Cuba and Puerto Rico (where it is co-official with English), and the Dominican Republic. French is spoken in Haiti and in the French overseas departments of Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Guiana. It is also spoken by some Panamanians of Afro-Antillean descent. Dutch is the official language in Suriname, Aruba, Curaçao, and the Netherlands Antilles. (As Dutch is a Germanic language, the territories are not necessarily considered part of Latin America.) However, the native language of Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, is Papiamento, a creole language largely based on Portuguese and Spanish that has had a considerable influence from Dutch and the Portuguese-based creole languages.\n\nAmerindian languages are widely spoken in Peru, Guatemala, Bolivia, Paraguay and Mexico, and to a lesser degree, in Panama, Ecuador, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina, and Chile. In other Latin American countries, the population of speakers of Indigenous languages tend to be very small or even non-existent, for example in Uruguay. Mexico is possibly contains more Indigenous languages than any other Latin American country, but the most-spoken Indigenous language there is Nahuatl.\n\nIn Peru, Quechua is an official language, alongside Spanish and other Indigenous languages in the areas where they predominate. In Ecuador, while Quichua holds no official status, it is a recognized language under the country's constitution; however, it is only spoken by a few groups in the country's highlands. In Bolivia, Aymara, Quechua and Guaraní hold official status alongside Spanish. Guaraní, like Spanish, is an official language of Paraguay, and is spoken by a majority of the population, which is, for the most part, bilingual, and it is co-official with Spanish in the Argentine province of Corrientes. In Nicaragua, Spanish is the official language, but on the country's Caribbean coast English and Indigenous languages such as Miskito, Sumo, and Rama also hold official status. Colombia recognizes all Indigenous languages spoken within its territory as official, though fewer than 1% of its population are native speakers of these languages. Nahuatl is one of the 62 Native languages spoken by Indigenous people in Mexico, which are officially recognized by the government as \"national languages\" along with Spanish.\n\nOther European languages spoken in Latin America include: English, by half of the current population in Puerto Rico, as well as in nearby countries that may or may not be considered Latin American, like Belize and Guyana, and spoken by descendants of British settlers in Argentina and Chile. German is spoken in southern Brazil, southern Chile, portions of Argentina, Venezuela and Paraguay; Italian in Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, and Uruguay; Ukrainian, Polish, and Russian in southern Brazil and Argentina; and Welsh, in southern Argentina. Yiddish and Hebrew are possible to be heard around Buenos Aires and São Paulo especially. Non-European or Asian languages include Japanese in Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, and Paraguay, Korean in Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Chile, Arabic in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, and Chile, and Chinese throughout South America. Countries like Venezuela, Argentina and Brazil have their own dialects or variations of German and Italian.\n\nIn several nations, especially in the Caribbean region, creole languages are spoken. The most widely-spoken creole language in Latin America and the Caribbean is Haitian Creole, the predominant language of Haiti, derived primarily from French and certain West African tongues, with Amerindian, English, Portuguese and Spanish influences as well. Creole languages of mainland Latin America, similarly, are derived from European languages and various African tongues.\n\nThe Garifuna language is spoken along the Caribbean coast in Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua and Belize, mostly by the Garifuna people, a mixed-race Zambo people who were the result of mixing between Indigenous Caribbeans and escaped Black slaves. Primarily an Arawakan language, it has influences from Caribbean and European languages.\n\nArchaeologists have deciphered over 15 pre-Columbian distinct writing systems from Mesoamerican societies. Ancient Maya had the most sophisticated textually written language, but since texts were largely confined to the religious and administrative elite, traditions were passed down orally. Oral traditions also prevailed in other major Indigenous groups including, but not limited to the Aztecs and other Nahuatl speakers, Quechua and Aymara of the Andean regions, the Quiché of Central America, the Tupi-Guaraní in today's Brazil, the Guaraní in Paraguay and the Mapuche in Chile.\n\nReligion\n\nThe vast majority of Latin Americans are Christians (90%), mostly Roman Catholics belonging to the Latin Church. About 70% of the Latin American population considers itself Catholic. In 2012 Latin America constitutes in absolute terms the second world's largest Christian population, after Europe.\n\nAccording to the detailed Pew multi-country survey in 2014, 69% of the Latin American population is Catholic and 19% is Protestant. Protestants are 26% in Brazil and over 40% in much of Central America. More than half of these are converts from Roman Catholicism.\n\nMigration\n\nThe entire hemisphere was settled by migrants from Asia, Europe, and Africa. Native American populations settled throughout the hemisphere before the arrival of Europeans in the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and the forced migration of slaves from Africa.\n\nIn the post-independence period, a number of Latin American countries sought to attract European immigrants as a source of labor as well as to deliberately change the proportions of racial and ethnic groups within their borders. Chile, Argentina, and Brazil actively recruited labor from Catholic southern Europe, where populations were poor and sought better economic opportunities. Many nineteenth-century immigrants went to the United States and Canada, but a significant number arrived in Latin America. Although Mexico tried to attract immigrants, it largely failed. As black slavery was abolished in Brazil in 1888, coffee growers recruited Japanese migrants to work in coffee plantations. There is a significant population of Japanese descent in Brazil. Cuba and Peru recruited Chinese labor in the late nineteenth century. Some Chinese immigrants who were excluded from immigrating to the U.S. settled in northern Mexico. When the U.S. acquired its southwest by conquest in the Mexican American War, Latin American populations did not cross the border to the U.S., the border crossed them.\n\nIn the twentieth century there have been several types of migration. One is the movement of rural populations within a given country to cities in search of work, causing many Latin American cities to grow significantly. Another is international movement of populations, often fleeing repression or war. Other international migration is for economic reasons, often unregulated or undocumented. Mexicans immigrated to the U.S. during the violence of the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) and the religious Cristero War (1926–29); during World War II, Mexican men worked in the U.S. in the bracero program. Economic migration from Mexico followed the crash of the Mexican economy in the 1980s.\nSpanish refugees fled to Mexico following the fascist victory in the Spanish Civil War (1936–38), with some 50,000 exiles finding refuge at the invitation of President Lázaro Cárdenas. Following World War II a larger wave of refugees to Latin America, many of them Jews, settled in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Cuba, and Venezuela. Some were only transiting through the region, but others stayed and created communities. A number of Nazis escaped to Latin America, living under assumed names, in an attempting to avoid attention and prosecution.\n\nIn the aftermath of the Cuban Revolution, middle class and elite Cubans moved to the U.S., particularly to Florida. Some fled Chile for the U.S. and Europe after the 1973 military coup. Colombians migrated to Spain and the United Kingdom during the region's political turmoil, compounded by the rise of narcotrafficking and guerrilla warfare. During the Central American wars of the 1970s to the 1990s, many Salvadorans, Guatemalans, and Hondurans migrated to the U.S. to escape narcotrafficking, gangs, and poverty. As living conditions deteriorated in Venezuela under Hugo Chávez and Nicolás Maduro, many left for neighboring Colombia and Ecuador. In the 1990s, economic stress in Ecuador during the La Década Perdida triggered considerable migration to Spain and to the U.S.\n\nSome Latin American countries seek to strengthen links between migrants and their states of origin, while promoting their integration in the receiving state. These emigrant policies focus on the rights, obligations and opportunities for participation of emigrated citizens who already live outside the borders of the country of origin. Research on Latin America shows that the extension of policies towards migrants is linked to a focus on civil rights and state benefits that can positively influence integration in recipient countries. In addition, the tolerance of dual citizenship has spread more in Latin America than in any other region of the world.\n\nEducation\n\nDespite significant progress, education access and school completion remains unequal in Latin America. The region has made great progress in educational coverage; almost all children attend primary school, and access to secondary education has increased considerably. Quality issues such as poor teaching methods, lack of appropriate equipment, and overcrowding exist throughout the region. These issues lead to adolescents dropping out of the educational system early. Most educational systems in the region have implemented various types of administrative and institutional reforms that have enabled reach for places and communities that had no access to education services in the early 1990s. School meal programs are also employed to expand access to education, and at least 23 countries in the Latin America and Caribbean region have large-scale school feeding activities, altogether reaching 88% of primary school-age children in the region. Compared to prior generations, Latin American youth have seen an increase in their levels of education. On average, they have completed two more years of school than their parents.\n\nHowever, there are still 23 million children in the region between the ages of 4 and 17 outside of the formal education system. Estimates indicate that 30% of preschool age children (ages 4–5) do not attend school, and for the most vulnerable populations, the poor and rural, this proportion exceeds 40 percent. Among primary school age children (ages 6 to 12), attendance is almost universal; however there is still a need to enroll five million more children in the primary education system. These children mostly live in remote areas, are Indigenous or Afro-descendants and live in extreme poverty.\n\nAmong people between the ages of 13 and 17 years, only 80% are full-time students, and only 66% of these advance to secondary school. These percentages are lower among vulnerable population groups: only 75% of the poorest youth between the ages of 13 and 17 years attend school. Tertiary education has the lowest coverage, with only 70% of people between the ages of 18 and 25 years outside of the education system. Currently, more than half of low income or rural children fail to complete nine years of education.\n\nCrime and violence\n\nLatin America and the Caribbean have been cited by numerous sources to be the most dangerous regions in the world. Studies have shown that Latin America contains the majority of the world's most dangerous cities. Many analysts attribute this to social and income inequality in the region. Many agree that the prison crisis will not be resolved until the gap between the rich and the poor is addressed.\n\nCrime and violence prevention and public security are now important issues for governments and citizens in Latin America and the Caribbean region. Homicide rates in Latin America are the highest in the world. From the early 1980s through the mid-1990s, homicide rates increased by 50 percent. Latin America and the Caribbean experienced more than 2.5 million murders between 2000 and 2017. There were a total of 63,880 murders in Brazil in 2018.\n\nThe most frequent victims of such homicides are young men, 69 percent of them between the ages of 15 and 19. Countries with the highest homicide rate per year per 100,000 inhabitants in 2015 were: El Salvador 109, Honduras 64, Venezuela 57, Jamaica 43, Belize 34.4, St. Kitts and Nevis 34, Guatemala 34, Trinidad and Tobago 31, the Bahamas 30, Brazil 26.7, Colombia 26.5, the Dominican Republic 22, St. Lucia 22, Guyana 19, Mexico 16, Puerto Rico 16, Ecuador 13, Grenada 13, Costa Rica 12, Bolivia 12, Nicaragua 12, Panama 11, Antigua and Barbuda 11, and Haiti 10. Most of the countries with the highest homicide rates are in Africa and Latin America. Countries in Central America, like El Salvador and Honduras, top the list of homicides in the world.\n\nBrazil has more overall homicides than any country in the world, at 50,108, accounting for one in 10 globally. Crime-related violence is the biggest threat to public health in Latin America, striking more victims than HIV/AIDS or any other infectious disease. Countries with the lowest homicide rate per year per 100,000 inhabitants as of 2015 were: Chile 3, Peru 7, Argentina 7, Uruguay 8 and Paraguay 9.\n\nPublic health\n\nWater\n\nReproductive rights\n\nHIV/AIDS\n\nEconomy\n\nSize\n\nAccording to Goldman Sachs' BRICS review of emerging economies, by 2050 the largest economies in the world will be as follows: China, United States, India, Japan, Germany, United Kingdom, Mexico and Brazil.\n\nAgriculture\n\nThe four countries with the strongest agricultural sector in South America are Brazil, Argentina, Chile and Colombia. Currently:\n\n Brazil is the world's largest producer of sugarcane, soy, coffee, oranges, guaraná, açaí and Brazil nut; is one of the top five producers of maize, papaya, tobacco, pineapple, banana, cotton, beans, coconut, watermelon, lemon and yerba mate; is one of the top ten world producers of cocoa, cashew, avocado, tangerine, persimmon, mango, guava, rice, oat, sorghum and tomato; and is one of the top 15 world producers of grapes, apples, melons, peanuts, figs, peaches, onions, palm oil and natural rubber;\n Argentina is the world's largest producer of yerba mate; is one of the five largest producers in the world of soy, maize, sunflower seeds, lemons and pears, one of the 10 largest producers in the world of barley, grapes, artichokes, tobacco and cotton, and one of the 15 largest producers in the world of wheat, oats, chickpeas, sugarcane, sorghum and grapefruit;\n Chile is one of the five largest world producers of cherries and cranberries, and one of the ten largest world producers of grapes, apples, kiwi, peaches, plums and hazelnuts, focusing on exporting high-value fruits;\n Colombia is one of the five largest producers in the world of coffee, avocados and palm oil, and one of the ten largest producers in the world of sugarcane, bananas, pineapples and cocoa;\n Peru is the world's largest producer of quinoa; is one of the five largest producers of avocados, blueberry, artichokes and asparagus; one of the ten largest producers in the world of coffee and cocoa; one of the 15 largest producers in the world of potatoes and pineapples, and also has a large production of grapes, sugarcane, rice, bananas, maize and cassava; its agriculture is considerably diversified;\n Paraguay is currently the 6th largest producer of soy in the world and entering the list of the 20 largest producers of maize and sugarcane.\n\nIn Central America, the following stand out:\n Guatemala is one of the ten largest producers in the world of coffee, sugar cane, melons and natural rubber, and one of the world's 15 largest producers of bananas and palm oil;\n Honduras is one of the five largest producers of coffee in the world, and one of the ten largest producers of palm oil;\n Costa Rica is the world's largest producer of pineapples;\n Dominican Republic is one of the world's top five producers of papayas and avocados, and one of the ten largest producers of cocoa.\n Mexico is the world's largest producer of avocados, one of the world's top five producers of Chile, lemons, oranges, mangos, papayas, strawberries, grapefruit, pumpkins and asparagus, and one of the world's 10 largest producers of sugar cane, maize, sorghum, beans, tomatoes, coconuts, pineapple, melons and blueberries.\n\nBrazil is the world's largest exporter of chicken meat: 3.77 million tons in 2019. The country had the second largest herd of cattle in the world, 22.2% of the world herd. The country was the second largest producer of beef in 2019, responsible for 15.4% of global production. It was also the third largest world producer of milk in 2018. This year, the country produced 35.1 billion liters. In 2019, Brazil was the fourth largest pork producer in the world, with almost four million tons.\n\nIn 2018, Argentina was the fourth largest producer of beef in the world, with a production of 3 million tons (behind only United States, Brazil and China). Uruguay is also a major meat producer. In 2018, it produced 589 thousand tons of beef.\n\nIn the production of chicken meat, Mexico is among the ten largest producers in the world, Argentina among the 15 largest and Peru and Colombia among the 20 largest. In beef production, Mexico is one of the ten largest producers in the world and Colombia is one of the 20 largest producers. In the production of pork, Mexico is among the 15 largest producers in the world. In the production of honey, Argentina is among the five largest producers in the world, Mexico among the ten largest and Brazil among the 15 largest. In terms of cow's milk production, Mexico is among the 15 largest producers in the world and Argentina among the 20 largest.\n\nMining and petroleum\n\nMining is one of the most important economic sectors in Latin America, especially for Chile, Peru and Bolivia, whose economies are highly dependent on this sector. The continent has large productions of:\ngold (mainly in Peru, Mexico, Brazil and Argentina); \nsilver (mainly in Mexico, Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina); \ncopper (mainly in Chile, Peru, Mexico and Brazil); \niron ore (Brazil, Peru and Chile); \nzinc (Peru, Mexico, Bolivia and Brazil); \nmolybdenum (Chile, Peru and Mexico); \nlithium (Chile, Argentina and Brazil); \nlead (Peru, Mexico and Bolivia); \nbauxite (Brazil and Jamaica); \ntin (Peru, Bolivia and Brazil); \nmanganese (Brazil and Mexico); \nantimony (Bolivia, Mexico, Guatemala and Ecuador); \nnickel (Brazil, Dominican Republic and Cuba); \nniobium (Brazil); \nrhenium (Chile); \niodine (Chile),\n\nBrazil stands out in the extraction of \niron ore (where it is the 2nd largest producer and exporter in the world—iron ore is usually one of the three export products that generate the greatest value in the country's trade balance)\ncopper\ngold\nbauxite (one of the five largest producers in the world)\nmanganese (one of the five largest producers in the world)\ntin (one of the largest producers in the world)\nniobium (98% of known world reserves) and \nnickel\n\nIn terms of gemstones, Brazil is the world's largest producer of amethysts, topaz, and agates and one of the main producers of tourmaline, emeralds, aquamarines, garnets and opals.\n\nChile contributes about a third of the world's copper production. In addition, Chile was, in 2019, the world's largest producer of iodine and rhenium, the second largest producer of lithium and molybdenum, the sixth largest producer of silver, the seventh largest producer of salt, the eighth largest producer of potash, the thirteenth-largest producer of sulfur and the thirteenth largest producer of iron ore in the world.\n\nIn 2019, Peru was the second largest world producer of copper and silver, 8th largest world producer of gold, third largest world producer of lead, second largest world producer of zinc, fourth largest world producer of tin, fifth largest world producer of boron, and fourth largest world producer of molybdenum.\n\nIn 2019, Bolivia was the eighth largest world producer of silver; fourth largest world producer of boron; fifth largest world producer of antimony; fifth largest world producer of tin; sixth largest world producer of tungsten; seventh largest producer of zinc, and the eighth largest producer of lead.\n\nIn 2019, Mexico was the world's largest producer of silver (representing almost 23% of world production, producing more than 200 million ounces in 2019); ninth largest producer of gold, the eighth largest producer of copper, the world's fifth largest producer of lead, the world's sixth largest producer of zinc, the world's fifth largest producer of molybdenum, the world's third largest producer of mercury, the world's fifth largest producer of bismuth, the world's 13th largest producer of manganese and the 23rd largest world producer of phosphate. It is also the eighth largest world producer of salt.\n\nIn 2019, Argentina was the fourth largest world producer of lithium, the ninth largest world producer of silver, the 17th largest world producer of gold and the seventh largest world producer of boron.\n\nColombia is the world's largest producer of emeralds. In the production of gold, between 2006 and 2017, the country produced 15 tons per year until 2007, when its production increased significantly, breaking a record of 66.1 tons extracted in 2012. In 2017, it extracted 52.2 tons. The country is among the 25 largest gold producers in the world. In the production of silver, in 2017 the country extracted 15,5 tons.\n\nIn the production of oil, Brazil was the tenth largest oil producer in the world in 2019, with 2.8 million barrels a day. Mexico was the twelfth largest, with 2.1 million barrels a day, Colombia in 20th place with 886 thousand barrels a day, Venezuela was the twenty-first place, with 877 thousand barrels a day, Ecuador in 28th with 531 thousand barrels a day and Argentina. 29th with 507 thousand barrels a day. Since Venezuela and Ecuador consume little oil and export most of their production, they are part of OPEC. Venezuela had a big drop in production after 2015 (when it produced 2.5 million barrels a day), falling in 2016 to 2.2 million, in 2017 to 2 million, in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, due to lack of investment.\n\nIn the production of natural gas, in 2018, Argentina produced 1,524 bcf (billions of cubic feet), Mexico produced 999, Venezuela 946, Brazil 877, Bolivia 617, Peru 451, Colombia 379.\n\nIn the production of coal, the continent had three of the 30 largest world producers in 2018: Colombia (12th), Mexico (24th) and Brazil (27th).\n\nManufacturing\n\nThe World Bank annually lists the top manufacturing countries by total manufacturing value. According to the 2019 list:\nMexico had the twelfth most valuable industry in the world (US$217.8 billion)\nBrazil the thirteenth largest (US$173.6 billion)\nVenezuela the thirtieth largest (US$58.2 billion, however, it depends on oil to reach this value)\nArgentina the 31st largest (US$57.7 billion)\nColombia the 46th largest (US$35.4 billion)\nPeru the 50th largest (US$28.7 billion) \nChile the 51st largest (US$28.3 billion).\n\nIn Latin America, few countries stand out in industrial activity: Brazil, Argentina, Mexico and, less prominently, Chile. Begun late, the industrialization of these countries received a great boost from World War II: this prevented the countries at war from buying the products they were used to importing and exporting what they produced. At that time, benefiting from the abundant local raw material, the low wages paid to the labor force and a certain specialization brought by immigrants, countries such as Brazil, Mexico and Argentina, as well as Venezuela, Chile, Colombia and Peru, were able to implement important industrial parks. In general, in these countries there are industries that require little capital and simple technology for their installation, such as the food processing and textile industries. The basic industries (steel, etc.) also stand out, as well as the metallurgical and mechanical industries.\n\nThe industrial parks of Brazil, Mexico, Argentina and Chile, however, present much greater diversity and sophistication, producing advanced technology items. In the rest of Latin American countries, mainly in Central America, the processing industries of primary products for export predominate.\n\nIn the food industry, in 2019, Brazil was the second largest exporter of processed foods in the world. In 2016, the country was the second largest producer of pulp in the world and the eighth largest producer of paper. In the footwear industry, in 2019, Brazil ranked fourth among world producers. In 2019, the country was the eighth largest producer of vehicles and the ninth largest producer of steel in the world. In 2018, the chemical industry of Brazil was the eighth largest in the world. In the textile industry, Brazil, although it was among the five largest world producers in 2013, is very little integrated into world trade. In the aviation sector, Brazil has Embraer, the third largest aircraft manufacturer in the world, behind Boeing and Airbus.\n\nInfrastructure\n\nTransport in Latin America is basically carried out using the road mode, the most developed in the region. There is also a considerable infrastructure of ports and airports. The railway and fluvial sector, although it has potential, is usually treated in a secondary way.\n\nBrazil has more than 1.7 million km of roads, of which 215,000 km are paved, and about 14,000 km are divided highways. The two most important highways in the country are BR-101 and BR-116. Argentina has more than 600,000 km of roads, of which about 70,000 km are paved, and about 2,500 km are divided highways. The three most important highways in the country are Route 9, Route 7 and Route 14. Colombia has about 210,000 km of roads, and about 2,300 km are divided highways. Chile has about 82,000 km of roads, 20,000 km of which are paved, and about 2,000 km are divided highways. The most important highway in the country is the Route 5 (Pan-American Highway) These 4 countries are the ones with the best road infrastructure and with the largest number of double-lane highways, in South America.\n\nThe roadway network in Mexico has an extent of , of which are paved, Of these, are multi-lane expressways: are four-lane highways and the rest have 6 or more lanes.\n\nDue to the Andes Mountains, Amazon River and Amazon Forest, there have always been difficulties in implementing transcontinental or bioceanic highways. Practically the only route that existed was the one that connected Brazil to Buenos Aires, in Argentina and later to Santiago, in Chile. However, in recent years, with the combined effort of countries, new routes have started to emerge, such as Brazil-Peru (Interoceanic Highway), and a new highway between Brazil, Paraguay, northern Argentina and northern Chile (Bioceanic Corridor).\n\nThere are more than 2,000 airports in Brazil. The country has the second largest number of airports in the world, behind only the United States. São Paulo International Airport, located in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo, is the largest and busiest in the country – the airport connects São Paulo to practically all major cities around the world. Brazil has 44 international airports, such as those in Rio de Janeiro, Brasília, Belo Horizonte, Porto Alegre, Florianópolis, Cuiabá, Salvador, Recife, Fortaleza, Belém and Manaus, among others. Argentina has important international airports such as Buenos Aires, Cordoba, Bariloche, Mendoza, Salta, Puerto Iguazú, Neuquén and Usuhaia, among others. Chile has important international airports such as Santiago, Antofagasta, Puerto Montt, Punta Arenas and Iquique, among others. Colombia has important international airports such as Bogotá, Medellín, Cartagena, Cali and Barranquilla, among others. Peru has important international airports such as Lima, Cuzco and Arequipa. Other important airports are those in the capitals of Uruguay (Montevideo), Paraguay (Asunción), Bolivia (La Paz) and Ecuador (Quito). The 10 busiest airports in South America in 2017 were: São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago (Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasília (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Buenos Aires-Aeroparque (Argentina), Buenos Aires-Ezeiza (Argentina), and Minas Gerais (Brazil).\n\nThere are 1,834 airports in Mexico, the third-largest number of airports by country in the world. The seven largest airports—which absorb 90% of air travel—are (in order of air traffic): Mexico City, Cancún, Guadalajara, Monterrey, Tijuana, Acapulco, and Puerto Vallarta. Considering all of Latin America, the 10 busiest airports in 2017 were: Mexico City (Mexico), São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), Cancún (Mexico), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago ( Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasilia (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) and Tocumen (Panama).\n\nAbout ports, Brazil has some of the busiest ports in South America, such as Port of Santos, Port of Rio de Janeiro, Port of Paranaguá, Port of Itajaí, Port of Rio Grande, Port of São Francisco do Sul and Suape Port. Argentina has ports such as Port of Buenos Aires and Port of Rosario. Chile has important ports in Valparaíso, Caldera, Mejillones, Antofagasta, Iquique, Arica and Puerto Montt. Colombia has important ports such as Buenaventura, Cartagena Container Terminal and Puerto Bolivar. Peru has important ports in Callao, Ilo and Matarani. The 15 busiest ports in South America are: Port of Santos (Brazil), Port of Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil (Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile), Buenaventura (Colombia), Itajaí (Brazil), Valparaíso (Chile), Montevideo (Uruguay), Paranaguá (Brazil), Rio Grande (Brazil), São Francisco do Sul (Brazil), Manaus (Brazil) and Coronel (Chile).\n\nThe four major seaports concentrating around 60% of the merchandise traffic in Mexico are Altamira and Veracruz in the Gulf of Mexico, and Manzanillo and Lázaro Cárdenas in the Pacific Ocean. Considering all of Latin America, the 10 largest ports in terms of movement are: Colon (Panama), Santos (Brazil), Manzanillo (Mexico), Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Pacifico (Panama), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil ( Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile) and Buenaventura (Colombia).\n\nThe Brazilian railway network has an extension of about 30,000 kilometers. It is basically used for transporting ores. The Argentine rail network, with 47,000 km of tracks, was one of the largest in the world and continues to be the most extensive in Latin America. It came to have about 100,000 km of rails, but the lifting of tracks and the emphasis placed on motor transport gradually reduced it. It has four different trails and international connections with Paraguay, Bolivia, Chile, Brazil and Uruguay. Chile has almost 7,000 km of railways, with connections to Argentina, Bolivia and Peru. Colombia has only about 3,500 km of railways.\n\nAmong the main Brazilian waterways, two stand out: Hidrovia Tietê-Paraná (which has a length of 2,400 km, 1,600 on the Paraná River and 800 km on the Tietê River, draining agricultural production from the states of Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Goiás and part of Rondônia, Tocantins and Minas General) and Hidrovia do Solimões-Amazonas (it has two sections: Solimões, which extends from Tabatinga to Manaus, with approximately 1600 km, and Amazonas, which extends from Manaus to Belém, with 1650 km. Almost entirely passenger transport from the Amazon plain is done by this waterway, in addition to practically all cargo transportation that is directed to the major regional centers of Belém and Manaus). In Brazil, this transport is still underutilized: the most important waterway stretches, from an economic point of view, are found in the Southeast and South of the country. Its full use still depends on the construction of locks, major dredging works and, mainly, of ports that allow intermodal integration. In Argentina, the waterway network is made up of the La Plata, Paraná, Paraguay and Uruguay rivers. The main river ports are Zárate and Campana. The port of Buenos Aires is historically the first in individual importance, but the area known as Up-River, which stretches along 67 km of the Santa Fé portion of the Paraná River, brings together 17 ports that concentrate 50% of the total exports of the country.\n\nEnergy\n\nBrazil\n\nThe Brazilian government has undertaken an ambitious program to reduce dependence on imported petroleum. Imports previously accounted for more than 70% of the country's oil needs but Brazil became self-sufficient in oil in 2006–2007. Brazil was the 10th largest oil producer in the world in 2019, with 2.8 million barrels / day. Production manages to supply the country's demand. In the beginning of 2020, in the production of oil and natural gas, the country exceeded 4 million barrels of oil equivalent per day, for the first time. In January this year, 3.168 million barrels of oil per day and 138.753 million cubic meters of natural gas were extracted.\n\nBrazil is one of the main world producers of hydroelectric power. In 2019, Brazil had 217 hydroelectric plants in operation, with an installed capacity of 98,581 MW, 60.16% of the country's energy generation. In the total generation of electricity, in 2019 Brazil reached 170,000 megawatts of installed capacity, more than 75% from renewable sources (the majority, hydroelectric).\n\nIn 2013, the Southeast Region used about 50% of the load of the National Integrated System (SIN), being the main energy consuming region in the country. The region's installed electricity generation capacity totaled almost 42,500 MW, which represented about a third of Brazil's generation capacity. The hydroelectric generation represented 58% of the region's installed capacity, with the remaining 42% corresponding basically to the thermoelectric generation. São Paulo accounted for 40% of this capacity; Minas Gerais by about 25%; Rio de Janeiro by 13.3%; and Espírito Santo accounted for the rest. The South Region owns the Itaipu Dam, which was the largest hydroelectric plant in the world for several years, until the inauguration of Three Gorges Dam in China. It remains the second largest operating hydroelectric in the world. Brazil is the co-owner of the Itaipu Plant with Paraguay: the dam is located on the Paraná River, located on the border between countries. It has an installed generation capacity of 14 GW for 20 generating units of 700 MW each. North Region has large hydroelectric plants, such as Belo Monte Dam and Tucuruí Dam, which produce much of the national energy. Brazil's hydroelectric potential has not yet been fully exploited, so the country still has the capacity to build several renewable energy plants in its territory.\n\n according to ONS, total installed capacity of wind power was 22 GW, with average capacity factor of 58%. While the world average wind production capacity factors is 24.7%, there are areas in Northern Brazil, specially in Bahia State, where some wind farms record with average capacity factors over 60%; the average capacity factor in the Northeast Region is 45% in the coast and 49% in the interior. In 2019, wind energy represented 9% of the energy generated in the country. In 2019, it was estimated that the country had an estimated wind power generation potential of around 522 GW (this, only onshore), enough energy to meet three times the country's current demand. In 2021 Brazil was the 7th country in the world in terms of installed wind power (21 GW), and the 4th largest producer of wind energy in the world (72 TWh), behind only China, USA and Germany.\n\nNuclear energy accounts for about 4% of Brazil's electricity. The nuclear power generation monopoly is owned by Eletronuclear (Eletrobrás Eletronuclear S/A), a wholly owned subsidiary of Eletrobrás. Nuclear energy is produced by two reactors at Angra. It is located at the Central Nuclear Almirante Álvaro Alberto (CNAAA) on the Praia de Itaorna in Angra dos Reis, Rio de Janeiro. It consists of two pressurized water reactors, Angra I, with capacity of 657 MW, connected to the power grid in 1982, and Angra II, with capacity of 1,350 MW, connected in 2000. A third reactor, Angra III, with a projected output of 1,350 MW, is planned to be finished.\n\n according to ONS, total installed capacity of photovoltaic solar was 21 GW, with average capacity factor of 23%. Some of the most irradiated Brazilian States are MG (\"Minas Gerais\"), BA (\"Bahia\") and GO (Goiás), which have indeed world irradiation level records. In 2019, solar power represented 1.27% of the energy generated in the country. In 2021, Brazil was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed solar power (13 GW), and the 11th largest producer of solar energy in the world (16.8 TWh).\n\nIn 2020, Brazil was the 2nd largest country in the world in the production of energy through biomass (energy production from solid biofuels and renewable waste), with 15,2 GW installed.\n\nOther countries\nAfter Brazil, Mexico is the country in Latin America that most stands out in energy production. In 2020, the country was the 14th largest petroleum producer in the world, and in 2018 it was the 12th largest exporter. In natural gas, the country was, in 2015, the 21st largest producer in the world, and in 2007 it was the 29th largest exporter. Mexico was also the world's 24th largest producer of coal in 2018. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 14th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (8.1 GW), 20th in the world in terms of installed solar energy (5.6 GW) and 19th in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (12.6 GW). In third place, Colombia stands out: In 2020, the country was the 20th largest petroleum producer in the world, and in 2015 it was the 19th largest exporter. In natural gas, the country was, in 2015, the 40th largest producer in the world. Colombia's biggest highlight is in coal, where the country was, in 2018, the world's 12th largest producer and the 5th largest exporter. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 45th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (0.5 GW), 76th in the world in terms of installed solar energy (0.1 GW) and 20th in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (12.6 GW). Venezuela, which was one of the world's largest oil producers (about 2.5 million barrels/day in 2015) and one of the largest exporters, due to its political problems, has had its production drastically reduced in recent years: in 2016, it dropped to 2.2 million, in 2017 to 2 million, in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, reaching only 300,000 barrels/day at a given point. The country also stands out in hydroelectricity, where it was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed capacity in 2020 (16,5 GW). Argentina was, in 2017, the 18th largest producer in the world, and the largest producer in Latin America, of natural gas, in addition to being the 28th largest oil producer; although the country has the Vaca Muerta field, which holds close to 16 billion barrels of technically recoverable shale oil, and is the second largest shale natural gas deposit in the world, the country lacks the capacity to exploit the deposit: it is necessary capital, technology and knowledge that can only come from offshore energy companies, who view Argentina and its erratic economic policies with considerable suspicion, not wanting to invest in the country. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 27th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (2.6 GW), 42nd in the world in terms of installed solar energy (0.7 GW) and 21st in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (11.3 GW). The country has great future potential for the production of wind energy in the Patagonia region. Chile, although currently not a major energy producer, has great future potential for solar energy production in the Atacama Desert region. Paraguay stands out today in hydroelectric production thanks to the Itaipu Power Plant. Trinidad and Tobago and Bolivia stand out in the production of natural gas, where they were, respectively, the 20th and 31st largest in the world in 2015. Ecuador, because it consumes little energy, is part of OPEC and was the 27th largest oil producer in the world in 2020, being the 22nd largest exporter in 2014.\n\nTrade blocs\n\nThe major trade blocs (or agreements) in the region are the Pacific Alliance and Mercosur. Minor blocs or trade agreements are the G3 Free Trade Agreement, the Dominican Republic – Central America Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA), the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and the Andean Community of Nations (CAN). However, major reconfigurations are taking place along opposing approaches to integration and trade; Venezuela has officially withdrawn from both the CAN and G3 and it has been formally admitted into the Mercosur (pending ratification from the Paraguayan legislature). The president-elect of Ecuador has manifested his intentions of following the same path. This bloc nominally opposes any Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the United States, although Uruguay has manifested its intention otherwise. Chile, Peru, Colombia and Mexico are the only four Latin American nations that have an FTA with the United States and Canada, both members of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).\n\nChina \nChina's economic influence in Latin America increased substantially in the 21st century. Imports from China valued $8.3B in 2000, but by 2019, its value was $184.2B and had grown to be the region's largest trading partner. In particular, many of the investments are related to the Belt and Road Initiative or energy. China has also provided loans to several Latin American countries; this has raised concerns about the possibility of \"debt traps.\" Specifically, Venezuela, Brazil, Ecuador, and Argentina received the most loans from China during 2005-2016.\n\nTourism\n\nIncome from tourism is key to the economy of several Latin American countries. Mexico is the only Latin American country to be ranked in the top 10 worldwide in the number of tourist visits. It received by far the largest number of international tourists, with 39.3 million visitors in 2017, followed by Argentina, with 6.7 million; then Brazil, with 6.6 million; Chile, with 6.5 million; Dominican Republic, with 6.2 million; Cuba with 4.3 million; Peru and Colombia with 4.0 million. The World Tourism Organization reports the following destinations as the top six tourism earners for the year 2017: Mexico, with US$21,333 million; the Dominican Republic, with US$7,178 million; Brazil, with US$6,024 million; Colombia, with US$4,773 million; Argentina, with US$4,687 million; and Panama, with US$4,258 million.\n\nPlaces such as Cancún, Riviera Maya, Chichen Itza, Cabo San Lucas, Mexico City, Acapulco, Puerto Vallarta, Guanajuato City, San Miguel de Allende, Guadalajara in Mexico, Punta Cana, Santo Domingo in Dominican Republic, Punta del Este in Uruguay, Labadee in Haiti, San Juan, Ponce in Puerto Rico, Panama City in Panama, Poás Volcano National Park in Costa Rica, Viña del Mar in Chile, Rio de Janeiro, Florianópolis, Iguazu Falls, São Paulo, Armação dos Búzios, Salvador, Bombinhas, Angra dos Reis, Balneário Camboriú, Paraty, Ipojuca, Natal, Cairu, Fortaleza and Itapema in Brazil; Buenos Aires, Bariloche, Salta, Jujuy, Perito Moreno Glacier, Valdes Peninsula, Guarani Jesuit Missions in the cities of Misiones and Corrientes, Ischigualasto Provincial Park, Ushuaia and Patagonia in Argentina;\nIsla Margarita, Angel Falls, Los Roques archipelago, Gran Sabana in Venezuela; Machu Picchu, Lima, Nazca Lines, Cuzco in Peru; Lake Titicaca, Salar de Uyuni, La Paz, Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos in Bolivia; Tayrona National Natural Park, Santa Marta, Bogotá, Cali, Medellín, Cartagena, San Andrés in Colombia, and the Galápagos Islands in Ecuador. are popular among international visitors in the region.\n\n(*) Data for 2015 rather than 2017, as the newest data is currently unavailable.\n\nCulture\n\nLatin American culture is a mixture of many influences:\n\n Indigenous cultures of the people who inhabited the continent prior to European colonization. Ancient and advanced civilizations developed their own political, social and religious systems. The Maya, the Aztec and the Inca are examples of these. Indigenous legacies in music, dance, foods, arts and crafts, clothing, folk culture and traditions are strong in Latin America. Indigenous languages affected Spanish and Portuguese, giving rise to loanwords like pampa, taco, tamale, cacique.\n The culture of Europe was brought mainly by the colonial powersthe Spanish, Portuguese and Frenchbetween the 16th and 19th centuries. The most enduring European colonial influences are language and Catholicism. Additional cultural influences came from the United States and Europe during the 19th and 20th centuries, due to the growing influence of the former on the world stage and immigration from the latter. The influence of the United States is particularly strong in northern Latin America, especially Puerto Rico, which is an American territory. Prior to 1959, Cuba, which fought for its independence with American aid in the Spanish–American War, also had a close political and economic relationship with the United States. The United States also helped Panama become independent from Colombia and built the twenty-mile-long Panama Canal Zone in Panama, which it held from 1903 — the Panama Canal opened to transoceanic freight traffic in 1914 — to 1999, when the Torrijos-Carter Treaties restored Panamanian control of the Canal Zone. South America experienced waves of immigration of Europeans, especially Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese, Germans, Austrians, Poles, Ukrainians, French, Dutch, Russians, Croatians, Lithuanians, and Ashkenazi Jews. With the end of colonialism, French culture also exerted a direct influence in Latin America, especially in the realms of high culture, science and medicine. This can be seen in the region's artistic traditions, including painting, literature, and music, and in the realms of science and politics. \n Due to the impact of Enlightenment ideals after the French revolution, a certain number of Iberian American countries decriminalized homosexuality after France and French territories in the Americas did so in 1791. Some of the countries that abolished sodomy laws or banned state interference in consensual adult sexuality in the 19th century were Dominican Republic (1822), Brazil (1824), Peru (1836), Mexico (1871), Paraguay (1880), Argentina (1887), Honduras (1899), Guatemala, and El Salvador. Today same-sex marriage is legal in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, Uruguay, and French overseas departments. Civil unions can be held in Chile.\n African cultures, whose presence stems from a long history of the Atlantic slave trade. People of African descent have influenced the ethno-scapes of Latin America and the Caribbean. This is manifested for instance in music, dance and religion, especially in countries like Brazil, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, Haiti, Honduras, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, and Cuba.\n Asian cultures, whose part of the presence derives from the long history of the coolies who mostly arrived during the 19th and 20th centuries, most commonly Chinese workers in Peru and Venezuela, but also from Japanese and Korean immigration. especially headed to Brazil. This has greatly affected cuisine and other traditions including literature, art and lifestyles and politics. Asian influences have especially affected Brazil, Cuba, Panama and Peru.\n\nArt\n\nBeyond the tradition of Indigenous art, the development of Latin American visual art owed much to the influence of Spanish, Portuguese and French Baroque painting, which in turn often followed the trends of the Italians. In general, artistic Eurocentrism began to wane in the early twentieth century with the increased appreciation for indigenous forms of representation.\n\nFrom the early twentieth century, the art of Latin America was greatly inspired by the Constructivist Movement. The movement rapidly spread from Russia to Europe and then into Latin America. Joaquín Torres García and Manuel Rendón have been credited with bringing the Constructivist Movement into Latin America from Europe.\n\nAn important artistic movement generated in Latin America is muralism represented by Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, José Clemente Orozco and Rufino Tamayo in Mexico, Santiago Martinez Delgado and Pedro Nel Gómez in Colombia and Antonio Berni in Argentina. Some of the most impressive Muralista works can be found in Mexico, Colombia, New York City, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Philadelphia.\n\nPainter Frida Kahlo, one of the most famous Mexican artists, painted about her own life and the Mexican culture in a style combining Realism, Symbolism and Surrealism. Kahlo's work commands the highest selling price of all Latin American paintings.\n\nThe Venezuelan Armando Reverón, whose work begins to be recognized internationally, is one of the most important artists of the 20th century in South America; he is a precursor of Arte Povera and Happening. In the 60s kinetic art emerged in Venezuela. Its main representatives are Jesús Soto, Carlos Cruz-Diez, Alejandro Otero and Gego.\n\nColombian sculptor and painter Fernando Botero is also widely known for his works which, on first examination, are noted for their exaggerated proportions and the corpulence of the human and animal figures.\n\nThe Ecuadorian Oswaldo Guayasamín, considered one of the most important and seminal artists in Ecuador and South America. In his life, he made over 13,000 paintings and held more than 180 exhibitions all over the world, including Paris, Barcelona, New York, Buenos Aires, Moscow, Prague, and Rome. He brought his unique style of expressionism and cubism to the collection of Ecuador artwork during the Age of Anger which relates to the period of the Cold War when the United States opposed communist presence in South America. Social criticism of human and social inequality was central to his artwork.\n\nFilm\n\nLatin American film is both rich and diverse. Historically, the main centers of production have been Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, and Cuba. Latin American film flourished after sound was introduced in cinema, which added a linguistic barrier to the export of Hollywood film south of the border.\n\nMexican cinema began in the silent era from 1896 to 1929 and flourished in the Golden Era of the 1940s. It boasted a huge industry comparable to Hollywood at the time, with stars such as María Félix, Dolores del Río, and Pedro Infante. In the 1970s, Mexico was the location for many cult horror and action movies. More recently, films such as Amores Perros (2000) and Y tu mamá también (2001) enjoyed box office and critical acclaim and propelled Alfonso Cuarón and Alejandro González Iñárritu to the front rank of Hollywood directors. Iñárritu in 2010 directed Biutiful and Birdman (2014), Alfonso Cuarón directed Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban in 2004 and Gravity in 2013. A close friend of both, Guillermo del Toro, a top rank Hollywood director in Hollywood and Spain, directed Pan's Labyrinth (2006) and produced El Orfanato (2007). Carlos Carrera (The Crime of Father Amaro), and screenwriter Guillermo Arriaga are also some of the best known modern Mexican film makers. Rudo y Cursi released in December (2008) in Mexico, was directed by Carlos Cuarón.\n\nArgentine cinema has also been prominent since the first half of the 20th century and today averages over 60 full-length titles yearly. The industry suffered during the 1976–1983 military dictatorship; but re-emerged to produce the Academy Award winner The Official Story in 1985. A wave of imported US films again damaged the industry in the early 1990s, though it soon recovered, thriving even during the Argentine economic crisis around 2001. Many Argentine movies produced during recent years have been internationally acclaimed, including Nueve reinas (2000), Son of the Bride (2001), El abrazo partido (2004), El otro (2007), the 2010 Foreign Language Academy Award winner El secreto de sus ojos and Wild Tales (2014).\n\nIn Brazil, the Cinema Novo movement created a particular way of making movies with critical and intellectual screenplays, clearer photography related to the light of the outdoors in a tropical landscape, and a political message. The modern Brazilian film industry has become more profitable inside the country, and some of its productions have received prizes and recognition in Europe and the United States, with movies such as Central do Brasil (1999), Cidade de Deus (2002) and Tropa de Elite (2007).\n\nPuerto Rican cinema has produced some notable films, such as Una Aventura Llamada Menudo, Los Diaz de Doris and Casi Casi. An influx of Hollywood films affected the local film industry in Puerto Rico during the 1980s and 1990s, but several Puerto Rican films have been produced since and it has been recovering.\n\nCuban cinema has enjoyed much official support since the Cuban revolution and important film-makers include Tomás Gutiérrez Alea.\n\nVenezuelan television has also had a great impact in Latin America, is said that whilst \"Venezuelan cinema began sporadically in the 1950s[, it] only emerged as a national-cultural movement in the mid-1970s\" when it gained state support and auteurs could produce work. International co-productions with Latin America and Spain continued into this era and beyond, and Venezuelan films of this time were counted among the works of New Latin American Cinema. This period is known as Venezuela's Golden Age of cinema, having massive popularity even though it was a time of much social and political upheaval.\n\nOne of the most famous Venezuelan films, even to date, is the 1976 film Soy un delincuente by Clemente de la Cerda, which won the Special Jury Prize at the 1977 Locarno International Film Festival. Soy un delincuente was one of nine films for which the state gave substantial funding to produce, made in the year after the Venezuelan state began giving financial support to cinema in 1975. The support likely came from increased oil wealth in the early 1970s, and the subsequent 1973 credit incentive policy. At the time of its production the film was the most popular film in the country, and took a decade to be usurped from this position, even though it was only one in a string of films designed to tell social realist stories of struggle in the 1950s and '60s. Equally famous is the 1977 film El Pez que Fuma (Román Chalbaud). In 1981 FONCINE (the Venezuelan Film Fund) was founded, and this year it provided even more funding to produce seventeen feature films. A few years later in 1983 with Viernes Negro, oil prices dropped and Venezuela entered a depression which prevented such extravagant funding, but film production continued; more transnational productions occurred, many more with Spain due to Latin America's poor economic fortune in general, and there was some in new cinema, as well: Fina Torres' 1985 Oriana won the Caméra d'Or Prize at the 1985 Cannes Film Festival as the best first feature. Film production peaked in 1984–5,:37 with 1986 considered Venezuelan cinema's most successful year by the state, thanks to over 4 million admissions to national films, according to Venezuelanalysis. The Venezuelan capital of Caracas hosted the Ibero-American Forum on Cinematography Integration in 1989, from which the pan-continental IBERMEDIA was formed; a union which provides regional funding.\n\nLiterature\n\nPre-Columbian cultures were primarily oral, although the Aztecs and Maya, for instance, produced elaborate codices. Oral accounts of mythological and religious beliefs were also sometimes recorded after the arrival of European colonizers, as was the case with the Popol Vuh. Moreover, a tradition of oral narrative survives to this day, for instance among the Quechua-speaking population of Peru and the Quiché (K'iche') of Guatemala.\n\nFrom the very moment of Europe's discovery of the continents, early explorers and conquistadores produced written accounts and crónicas of their experiencesuch as Columbus's letters or Bernal Díaz del Castillo's description of the conquest of Mexico. During the colonial period, written culture was often in the hands of the church, within which context Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz wrote memorable poetry and philosophical essays. Towards the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th, a distinctive criollo literary tradition emerged, including the first novels such as Lizardi's El Periquillo Sarniento (1816).\n\nThe 19th century was a period of \"foundational fictions\" in critic Doris Sommer's words, novels in the Romantic or Naturalist traditions that attempted to establish a sense of national identity, and which often focussed on the Indigenous question or the dichotomy of \"civilization or barbarism\" (for which see, say, Domingo Sarmiento's Facundo (1845), Juan León Mera's Cumandá (1879), or Euclides da Cunha's Os Sertões (1902)). The 19th century also witnessed the realist work of Machado de Assis, who made use of surreal devices of metaphor and playful narrative construction, much admired by critic Harold Bloom.\n\nAt the turn of the 20th century, modernismo emerged, a poetic movement whose founding text was Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío's Azul (1888). This was the first Latin American literary movement to influence literary culture outside of the region, and was also the first truly Latin American literature, in that national differences were no longer so much at issue. José Martí, for instance, though a Cuban patriot, also lived in Mexico and the United States and wrote for journals in Argentina and elsewhere.\n\nHowever, what really put Latin American literature on the global map was no doubt the literary boom of the 1960s and 1970s, distinguished by daring and experimental novels (such as Julio Cortázar's Rayuela (1963)) that were frequently published in Spain and quickly translated into English. The Boom's defining novel was Gabriel García Márquez's Cien años de soledad (1967), which led to the association of Latin American literature with magic realism, though other important writers of the period such as the Peruvian Mario Vargas Llosa and Carlos Fuentes do not fit so easily within this framework. Arguably, the Boom's culmination was Augusto Roa Bastos's monumental Yo, el supremo (1974). In the wake of the Boom, influential precursors such as Juan Rulfo, Alejo Carpentier, and above all Jorge Luis Borges were also rediscovered.\n\nContemporary literature in the region is vibrant and varied, ranging from the best-selling Paulo Coelho and Isabel Allende to the more avant-garde and critically acclaimed work of writers such as Diamela Eltit, Giannina Braschi, Ricardo Piglia, or Roberto Bolaño. There has also been considerable attention paid to the genre of testimonio, texts produced in collaboration with subaltern subjects such as Rigoberta Menchú. Finally, a new breed of chroniclers is represented by the more journalistic Carlos Monsiváis and Pedro Lemebel.\n\nThe region boasts six Nobel Prize winners: in addition to the two Chilean poets Gabriela Mistral (1945) and Pablo Neruda (1971), there is also the Guatemalan novelist Miguel Ángel Asturias (1967), the Colombian writer Gabriel García Márquez (1982), the Mexican poet and essayist Octavio Paz (1990), and the Peruvian novelist Mario Vargas Llosa (2010).\n\nMusic and dance\n\nLatin America has produced many successful worldwide artists in terms of recorded global music sales. Among the most successful have been Juan Gabriel (Mexico) only Latin American musician to have sold over 200 million records worldwide, Gloria Estefan (Cuba), Carlos Santana, Luis Miguel (Mexico) of whom have sold over 90 million records, Shakira (Colombia) and Vicente Fernández (Mexico) with over 50 million records sold worldwide. Enrique Iglesias, although not a Latin American, has also contributed for the success of Latin music.\n\nOther notable successful mainstream acts through the years, include RBD, Celia Cruz, Soda Stereo, Thalía, Ricky Martin, Maná, Marc Anthony, Ricardo Arjona, Selena, and Menudo.\n\nLatin Caribbean music, such as merengue, bachata, salsa, and more recently reggaeton, from such countries as the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Panama, has been strongly influenced by African rhythms and melodies. Haiti's compas is a genre of music that is influenced by its Latin Caribbean counterparts, along with elements of jazz and modern sounds. The French Antillean zouk (derived from Haitian compas) is a musical style originating from the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique and popularized by the French Antillean Creole band Kassav' in the early 1980s then became popular mainly in the Caribbean islands of Saint Lucia, Dominica, and Haiti, all in the French Antilles (French West Indies). \n\nAnother well-known Latin American musical genre includes the Argentine and Uruguayan tango (with Carlos Gardel as the greatest exponent), as well as the distinct nuevo tango, a fusion of tango, acoustic and electronic music popularized by bandoneón virtuoso Ástor Piazzolla. Samba, North American jazz, European classical music and choro combined to form bossa nova in Brazil, popularized by guitarist João Gilberto with singer Astrud Gilberto and pianist Antonio Carlos Jobim.\n\nOther influential Latin American sounds include the Antillean soca and calypso, Dennery segment which is a style of Soca music developed in Saint Lucia in the early 2010s which came from Kuduro music, Zouk influence and Lucian drums alongside lyrics usually sung in French Antillean Creole Kwéyòl , Bouyon music is a mixture of Soca, Zouk, and traditional genres native to Dominica which is sung in French Antillean Creole and is one of the most popular musical genres in Dominica, the Honduran (Garifuna) punta, the Colombian cumbia and vallenato, the Chilean cueca, the Ecuadorian boleros, and rockoleras, the Mexican ranchera and the mariachi which is the epitome of Mexican soul, the Nicaraguan palo de Mayo, the Peruvian marinera and tondero, the Uruguayan candombe and the various styles of music from pre-Columbian traditions that are widespread in the Andean region.\n\nThe classical composer Heitor Villa-Lobos (1887–1959) worked on the recording of Native musical traditions within his homeland of Brazil. The traditions of his homeland heavily influenced his classical works. Also notable is the recent work of the Cuban Leo Brouwer, Uruguayan-American Miguel del Águila, guitar works of the Venezuelan Antonio Lauro and the Paraguayan Agustín Barrios. Latin America has also produced world-class classical performers such as the Chilean pianist Claudio Arrau, Brazilian pianist Nelson Freire and the Argentine pianist and conductor Daniel Barenboim. Brazilian opera soprano Bidu Sayão, one of Brazil's most famous musicians, was a leading artist of the Metropolitan Opera in New York City from 1937 to 1952.\n\nArguably, the main contribution to music entered through folklore, where the true soul of the Latin American and Caribbean countries is expressed. Musicians such as Yma Súmac, Chabuca Granda, Atahualpa Yupanqui, Violeta Parra, Víctor Jara, Jorge Cafrune, Facundo Cabral, Mercedes Sosa, Jorge Negrete, Luiz Gonzaga, Caetano Veloso, Susana Baca, Chavela Vargas, Simon Diaz, Julio Jaramillo, Toto la Momposina, Gilberto Gil, Maria Bethânia, Nana Caymmi, Nara Leão, Gal Costa, Ney Matogrosso as well as musical ensembles such as Inti Illimani and Los Kjarkas are magnificent examples of the heights that this soul can reach.\n\nLatin pop, including many forms of rock, is popular in Latin America today (see Spanish language rock and roll). A few examples are Café Tacuba, Soda Stereo, Maná, Los Fabulosos Cadillacs, Rita Lee, Mutantes, Secos e Molhados Legião Urbana, Titãs, Paralamas do Sucesso, Cazuza, Barão Vermelho, Skank, Miranda!, Cansei de Ser Sexy or CSS, and Bajo Fondo.\n\nMore recently, reggaeton, which blends Jamaican reggae and dancehall with Latin America genres such as bomba and plena, as well as hip hop, is becoming more popular, in spite of the controversy surrounding its lyrics, dance steps (Perreo) and music videos. It has become very popular among populations with a \"migrant culture\" influence – both Latino populations in the United States, such as southern Florida and New York City, and parts of Latin America where migration to the United States is common, such as Trinidad and Tobago, Dominican Republic, Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, and Mexico.\n\nWorld Heritage Sites\nThe following is a list of the ten countries with the most UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Latin America.\n\nSee also \n\nAmericas (terminology)\nAnglo-America\nEuro-Latin American Parliamentary Assembly\nFrench America\nHispanic America\nHispanic and Latino Americans\nIbero-America\nIndigenous peoples of the Americas (Amerindians)\nInter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance\nLatin America and the Caribbean\nLatin America and the League of Nations\nLatin America–United States relations\nLatin American diaspora\nLatin American integration\nLatin American studies\nLatin American Studies Association\nLatin Americans\nList of Latin Americans\nMesoamerica\nOrganization of American States\nPan-American Conferences\nPan-Americanism\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n\n Alonso, Paul. Digital Humor as Cultural Globalization in Latin America. Internet, Humor, and Nation in Latin/x America, 2022.\n Ardao, Arturo. Génesis de la idea y nombre de América Latina. Caracas: Centro de Estudios Latinoamericanos Rómulo Gallegos, 1980.\n Ayala Mora, Enrique. \"El origen del nombre América Latina y la tradición católica del siglo XIX.\" Anuario Colombiano de Historia Social y de la Cultura 40, no. 1 (2013), 213–41.\n Berryman, Phillip. Latin America at 200. Austin: University of Texas Press 2016.\n Bethell, Leslie, The Cambridge History of Latin America. 12 volumes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1985–2008.\n Bomfim, Manoel. A América latina: Males de origem. Rio de Janeiro: H. Garnier 1905.\n Braudel, Fernand. \"Y a-t-il une Amérique latine?\" Annales ESC 3 (1948), 467–71.\n Calderón, Fernando and Manuel Castells. The New Latin America. Cambridge: Polity Press 2020.\n Coatsworth, John H., and Alan M. Taylor, eds. Latin America and the World Economy Since 1800. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press 1998.\n Edwards, Sebastián. Left Behind: Latin America and the False Promise of Populism. University of Chicago Press, 2010.\n \n Galeano, Eduardo. Open Veins of Latin America: Five Centuries of the Pillage of a Continent. 1973\n Gobat, Michel, \"The Invention of Latin America: A Transnational History of Anti-Imperialism, Democracy, and Race,\" American Historical Review Vol. 118, no. 3 (December 2013), pp. 1345–1375.\n Halperin Donghi, Tulio. The Contemporary History of Latin America. Durham: Duke University Press 1993. \n Lockhart, James and Stuart B. Schwartz. Early Latin America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1982.\n Martínez Estrada, Ezequiel. Diferencias y semejanzas entre los países de América Latina. Mexico\" Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México 1962.\n Maurer Queipo, Isabel (ed.): \"Directory of World Cinema: Latin America\", intellectbooks, Bristol 2013, \n Mazzuca, Sebastián, Latecomer State Formation: Political Geography and Capacity Failure in Latin America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2021.\n McGinnes, Aims. \"Searching for 'Latin America': Race and Sovereignty in the Americas in the 1850s.\" In Race and Nation in Modern Latin America, edited by Nancy P. Appelbaum, Anne S. Macpherson, and Karin alejandra Rosemblatt. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 2003, pp, 87–107.\n Mignolo, Walter, The Idea of Latin America. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell 2005.\n Moraña, Mabel, Enrique Dussel, and Carlos A. Jáuregui, eds. Coloniality at Large: Latin America and the Postcolonial Debate. Durham: Duke University Press 2008.\n Phelan, John Leddy. (1968). Pan-latinisms, French Intervention in Mexico (1861–1867) and the Genesis of the Idea of Latin America. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autonónoma de México 1968.\n Tenenbaum, Barbara A. ed. Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture. 5 vols. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996\n Tenorio-Trillo, Mauricio. Latin America: The Allure and Power of an Idea. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 2017. \n Vasconcelos, José. Indología: Una interpretación de la cultura ibero-americana. Barcelona: Agencia Mundial de Librería 1927.\n Zea, Leopoldo, ed. Fuentes de la cultura latinoamericana. 2 vols. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica 1993.\n\nExternal links \n\n IDB Education Initiative\n Latin American, Caribbean, U.S. Latinx, and Iberian Online Free E-Resources (LACLI). \n Latin American Network Information Center \n Latin America Data Base \n Washington Office on Latin America\n Council on Hemispheric Affairs\n Codigos De Barra\n \n Map of Land Cover: Latin America and Caribbean (FAO) \n Lessons From Latin America by Benjamin Dangl, The Nation, March 4, 2009\n \n \n Latin America Cold War Resources, Yale University\n Latin America Cold War, Harvard University\n Latin American Research Centre, University of Calgary\n The war on Democracy, by John Pilger\n\n \nCategory:Country classifications", "title": "Latin America" }, { "text": "The Caribbean ( , ; ; ; ; ) is a subregion of the Americas that consists of the Caribbean Sea and its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean); the nearby coastal areas on the mainland may also be included. The region is southeast of the Gulf of Mexico and the North American mainland, east of Central America, and north of South America.\n\nSituated largely on the Caribbean Plate, the region has more than 700 islands, islets, reefs, and cays (see the list of Caribbean islands). Island arcs delineate the northern and eastern edges of the Caribbean Sea: the Greater Antilles in the north and the Lesser Antilles (which includes the Leeward Antilles) in the east and south. The nearby Lucayan Archipelago (comprising The Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands) is considered to be a part of the Caribbean despite not bordering the Caribbean Sea. All the islands in the Antilles plus the Lucayan Archipelago form the West Indies, which is often interchangeable with the term Caribbean. On the mainland, Belize, Guyana, and Suriname are often included as parts of the Caribbean due to their political and cultural ties with the region.\n\nGeopolitically, the islands of the Caribbean are often regarded as a subregion of North America, though sometimes they are included in Middle America or left as a subregion of their own and are organized into 33 political entities, including 13 sovereign states, 12 dependencies, 1 disputed territory, and 7 other overseas territories. From December 15, 1954, to October 10, 2010, there was a territory known as the Netherlands Antilles composed of five islands, all of which were Dutch dependencies. From January 3, 1958, to May 31, 1962, there was also a short-lived political union called the West Indies Federation composed of ten English-speaking Caribbean territories, all of which were then British dependencies. The West Indies cricket team continues to represent many of those nations.\n\nEtymology and pronunciation\nThe region takes its name from that of the Caribs, an ethnic group present in the Lesser Antilles and parts of adjacent South America at the time of the Spanish conquest of the Americas.\n\nThe two most prevalent pronunciations of \"Caribbean\" outside the Caribbean are (), with the primary stress on the third syllable, and (), with the stress on the second. Most authorities of the last century preferred the stress on the third syllable. This is the older of the two pronunciations, but the stressed-second-syllable variant has been established for over 75 years. It has been suggested that speakers of British English prefer () while North American speakers more typically use (), but major American dictionaries and other sources list the stress on the third syllable as more common in American English too. According to the American version of Oxford Online Dictionaries, the stress on the second syllable is becoming more common in UK English and is increasingly considered \"by some\" to be more up to date and more \"correct\".\n\nThe Oxford Online Dictionaries claim that the stress on the second syllable is the most common pronunciation in the Caribbean itself, but according to the Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage, the most common pronunciation in Caribbean English stresses the first syllable instead, ().\n\nDefinition\n\nThe word \"Caribbean\" has multiple uses. Its principal ones are geographical and political. The Caribbean can also be expanded to include territories with strong cultural and historical connections to Africa, slavery, European colonisation and the plantation system.\n The United Nations geoscheme for the Americas presents the Caribbean as a distinct region within the Americas.\n Physiographically, the Caribbean region is mainly a chain of islands surrounding the Caribbean Sea. To the north, the region is bordered by the Gulf of Mexico, the Straits of Florida and the Northern Atlantic Ocean, which lies to the east and northeast. To the south lies the coastline of the continent of South America.\n\nCountries and territories list\n\nHistory\n\nThe oldest evidence of humans in the Caribbean is in southern Trinidad at Banwari Trace, where remains have been found from seven thousand years ago. These pre-ceramic sites, which belong to the Archaic (pre-ceramic) age, have been termed Ortoiroid. The earliest archaeological evidence of human settlement in Hispaniola dates to about 3600 BC, but the reliability of these finds is questioned. Consistent dates of 3100 BC appear in Cuba. The earliest dates in the Lesser Antilles are from 2000 BC in Antigua. A lack of pre-ceramic sites in the Windward Islands and differences in technology suggest that these Archaic settlers may have Central American origins. Whether an Ortoiroid colonization of the islands took place is uncertain, but there is little evidence of one.\n\nDNA studies changed some of the traditional beliefs about pre-Columbian indigenous history. According to National Geographic, \"studies confirm that a wave of pottery-making farmers—known as Ceramic Age people—set out in canoes from the northeastern coast of South America starting some 2,500 years ago and island-hopped across the Caribbean. They were not, however, the first colonizers. On many islands they encountered a foraging people who arrived some 6,000 or 7,000 years ago...The ceramicists, who are related to today's Arawak-speaking peoples, supplanted the earlier foraging inhabitants—presumably through disease or violence—as they settled new islands.\"\n\nBetween 400 BC and 200 BC the first ceramic-using agriculturalists, the Saladoid culture, entered Trinidad from South America. They expanded up the Orinoco River to Trinidad, and then spread rapidly up the islands of the Caribbean. Some time after 250 AD another group, the Barancoid, entered Trinidad. The Barancoid society collapsed along the Orinoco around 650 AD and another group, the Arauquinoid, expanded into these areas and up the Caribbean chain. Around 1300 AD a new group, the Mayoid, entered Trinidad and remained the dominant culture until Spanish settlement.\n\nAt the time of the European discovery of most of the islands of the Caribbean, three major Amerindian indigenous peoples lived on the islands: the Taíno in the Greater Antilles, the Bahamas and the Leeward Islands, the Island Caribs and Galibi in the Windward Islands, and the Ciboney in western Cuba. The Taínos are subdivided into Classic Taínos, who occupied Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, Western Taínos, who occupied Cuba, Jamaica, and the Bahamian archipelago, and the Eastern Taínos, who occupied the Leeward Islands. Trinidad was inhabited by both Carib speaking and Arawak-speaking groups.\n\nEuropean Contact \n\nSoon after Christopher Columbus came to the Caribbean, both Portuguese and Spanish explorers began claiming territories in Central and South America. These early colonies brought gold to Europe; most specifically England, the Netherlands, and France. These nations hoped to establish profitable colonies in the Caribbean. Colonial rivalries made the Caribbean a cockpit for European wars for centuries.\n\nColumbus, and the early colonists of Hispaniola, treated the indigenous peoples brutally, even enslaving children. In 1512, after pressure from Dominican friars, the Laws of Burgos were introduced by the Spanish Crown to better protect the rights of the New World natives. The Spanish used a form of slavery called the Encomienda, where slaves would be awarded to the conquistadors, who were charged with protecting and converting their slaves. This had a devastating impact on the population, so starting in 1503, slaves from Africa were imported to the colony.\n\nWhile early slave traders were Portuguese and Spanish, known as the First Atlantic System, by the 17th century the trade became dominated by British, French, and Dutch merchants. This was known as the Second Atlantic System. 5 million African slaves would be taken to the Caribbean, and around half would be traded to the British Caribbean islands. Slavery was abolished first in the Dutch Empire in 1814. Spain abolished slavery in its empire in 1811, with the exceptions of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Santo Domingo. Slavery was not abolished in Cuba until 1886. Britain abolished the slave trade in 1807, and slavery proper in 1833. France abolished slavery in its colonies in 1848.\n\t\nThe Caribbean was known for pirates, especially between 1640 and 1680. The term \"buccaneer\" is often used to describe a pirate operating in this region. The Caribbean region was war-torn throughout much of its colonial history, but the wars were often based in Europe, with only minor battles fought in the Caribbean. Some wars, however, were born of political turmoil in the Caribbean itself.\n\nIn 1791, a slave rebellion in the French colony of Saint-Domingue led to the establishment in 1804 of Haiti, the first republic in the Caribbean. Cuba became independent in 1898 following American intervention in the War of Independence during the Spanish-American war. Following the war, Spain's last colony in the Americas, Puerto Rico, became an unincorporated territory of the United States.\n\nDecolonisation and Modern period \nBetween the 1960s and 80s, most of the British holdings in the Caribbean achieved political independence, starting with Jamaica in 1962, then Trinidad and Tobago (1962), British Guiana (1966), Barbados (1966), Bahamas (1973), Grenada (1974), Dominica (1978), St. Lucia (1979), St. Vincent (1979), Antigua and Barbuda (1981), St. Kitts and Nevis (1983). Presently, the United States, Britain, France and the Netherlands still have some Caribbean possessions.\n\nThe decline of the export industries meant a need to diversify the economies of the Caribbean territories. The tourism industry started developing in the early 20th century, rapidly developing in the 1960s when regular international flights made vacations affordable and is now a $50 billion industry. Another industry that developed in the early 20th century was offshore banking and financial services, particularly in The Bahamas and the Cayman Islands, as the proximity of the Caribbean islands to North America made them an attractive location for branches of foreign banks seeking to avail themselves of more complicated regulations and higher tax rates.\n\nUS interventions\n\nThe United States has conducted military operations in the Caribbean for at least 100 years.\n\nSince the Monroe Doctrine, the United States gained a major influence on most Caribbean nations. In the early part of the 20th century this influence was extended by participation in the Banana Wars. Victory in the Spanish–American War and the signing of the Platt Amendment in 1901 ensured that the United States would have the right to interfere in Cuban political and economic affairs, militarily if necessary. After the Cuban Revolution of 1959, relations deteriorated rapidly leading to the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Cuban Missile Crisis, and successive US attempts to destabilize the island, based upon Cold War fears of the Soviet threat. The US invaded and occupied Hispaniola for 19 years (1915–34), subsequently dominating the Haitian economy through aid and loan repayments. The US invaded Haiti again in 1994 and in 2004 were accused by CARICOM of arranging a coup d'état to remove elected Haitian leader Jean-Bertrand Aristide. In 1965, 23,000 US troops were sent to the Dominican Republic to quash a local uprising against military rule (see Dominican Civil War). President Lyndon Johnson had ordered the invasion to stem what he deemed to be a \"Communist threat.\" However, the mission appeared ambiguous and was roundly condemned throughout the hemisphere as a return to gunboat diplomacy. In 1983, the US invaded Grenada to remove populist left-wing leader Maurice Bishop. The US maintains a naval military base in Cuba at Guantanamo Bay. The base is one of five unified commands whose \"area of responsibility\" is Latin America and the Caribbean. The command is headquartered in Miami, Florida.\n\nGeography and geology\n\nThe geography and climate in the Caribbean region varies: Some islands in the region have relatively flat terrain of non-volcanic origin. These islands include Aruba (possessing only minor volcanic features), Curaçao, Barbados, Bonaire, the Cayman Islands, Saint Croix, the Bahamas, and Antigua. Others possess rugged towering mountain-ranges like the islands of Saint Martin, Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Dominica, Montserrat, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Saint Kitts, Saint Lucia, Saint Thomas, Saint John, Tortola, Grenada, Saint Vincent, Guadeloupe, Martinique and Trinidad and Tobago.\n\nDefinitions of the terms Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles often vary. The Virgin Islands as part of the Puerto Rican bank are sometimes included with the Greater Antilles. The term Lesser Antilles is often used to define an island arc that includes Grenada but excludes Trinidad and Tobago and the Leeward Antilles.\n\nThe waters of the Caribbean Sea host large, migratory schools of fish, turtles, and coral reef formations. The Puerto Rico Trench, located on the fringe of the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea just to the north of the island of Puerto Rico, is the deepest point in all of the Atlantic Ocean.\n\nThe region sits in the line of several major shipping routes with the Panama Canal connecting the western Caribbean Sea with the Pacific Ocean.\n\nClimate\n\nThe climate of the area is tropical, varying from tropical rainforest in some areas to tropical monsoon and tropical savanna in others. There are also some locations that are arid climates with considerable drought in some years, and the peaks of mountains tend to have cooler temperate climates.\n\nRainfall varies with elevation, size and water currents, such as the cool upwellings that keep the ABC islands arid. Warm, moist trade winds blow consistently from the east, creating both rain forest and semi arid climates across the region. The tropical rainforest climates include lowland areas near the Caribbean Sea from Costa Rica north to Belize, as well as the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico, while the more seasonal dry tropical savanna climates are found in Cuba, northern Colombia and Venezuela, and southern Yucatán, Mexico. Arid climates are found along the extreme northern coast of Venezuela out to the islands including Aruba and Curacao, as well as the northwestern tip of Yucatán.\n\nWhile the region generally is sunny much of the year, the wet season from May through November sees more frequent cloud cover (both broken and overcast), while the dry season from December through April is more often clear to mostly sunny. Seasonal rainfall is divided into 'dry' and 'wet' seasons, with the latter six months of the year being wetter than the first half. The air temperature is hot much of the year, varying from 25 to 33 C (77 F to 90 F) between the wet and dry seasons. Seasonally, monthly mean temperatures vary from only about 5 C (7 F) in the northern most regions, to less than 3 C in the southernmost areas of the Caribbean.\n\nHurricane season is from June to November, but they occur more frequently in August and September and more common in the northern islands of the Caribbean. Hurricanes that sometimes batter the region usually strike northwards of Grenada and to the west of Barbados. The principal hurricane belt arcs to northwest of the island of Barbados in the Eastern Caribbean. A great example being recent events of Hurricane Irma devastating the island of Saint Martin during the 2017 hurricane season.\n\nSea surface temperatures change little annually, normally running from 30 °C (87 °F) in the warmest months to 26 °C (76 °F) in the coolest months. The air temperature is warm year round, in the 70s, 80s and 90s, and only varies from winter to summer about 2–5 degrees on the southern islands and about a 10–20 degrees difference on the northern islands of the Caribbean. The northern islands, like the Bahamas, Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic, may be influenced by continental masses during winter months, such as cold fronts.\n\nAruba: Latitude 12°N\n\nPuerto Rico: Latitude 18°N\n\nCuba: at Latitude 22°N\n\nIsland groups\nLucayan Archipelago\n \n (United Kingdom)\nGreater Antilles\n (United Kingdom)\n \n Hispaniola\n \n \n \n (U.S. Commonwealth)\n Spanish Virgin Islands\n Navassa Island \nLesser Antilles\n Leeward Islands\n (U.S.)\n Saint Croix\n Saint Thomas\n Saint John\n Water Island\n (United Kingdom)\n Tortola\n Virgin Gorda\n Anegada\n Jost Van Dyke\n (United Kingdom)\n \n Antigua\n Barbuda\n Redonda\n Saint Martin, politically divided between\n (France)\n (Kingdom of the Netherlands)\n (Caribbean Netherlands, Netherlands)\n (Caribbean Netherlands, Netherlands)\n (French Antilles, France)\n \n Saint Kitts\n Nevis\n (United Kingdom)\n (French Antilles, France) including\n Les Saintes\n Marie-Galante\n La Désirade\n Windward Islands\n \n (French Antilles, France)\n \n \n Saint Vincent\n The Grenadines\n \n Grenada\n Carriacou and Petite Martinique\n \n\n Tobago\n Trinidad\n Leeward Antilles\n (Kingdom of the Netherlands)\n (Kingdom of the Netherlands)\n (Caribbean Netherlands, Netherlands)\n\nHistorical groupings\n\nAll islands at some point were, and a few still are, colonies of European nations; a few are overseas or dependent territories:\n British West Indies/Anglophone Caribbean – Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Bay Islands, Guyana, Belize, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, Saint Croix (briefly), Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago (from 1797) and the Turks and Caicos Islands\n Danish West Indies – Possession of Denmark-Norway before 1814, then Denmark, present-day United States Virgin Islands\n Dutch West Indies – Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Sint Maarten, Bay Islands (briefly), Saint Croix (briefly), Tobago, Surinam and Virgin Islands\n French West Indies – Anguilla (briefly), Antigua and Barbuda (briefly), Dominica, Dominican Republic (briefly), Grenada, Haiti (formerly Saint-Domingue), Montserrat (briefly), Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Sint Eustatius (briefly), Sint Maarten, St. Kitts (briefly), Tobago (briefly), Saint Croix, the current French overseas départements of French Guiana, Martinique and Guadeloupe (including Marie-Galante, La Désirade and Les Saintes), the current French overseas collectivities of Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin\n Portuguese West Indies – present-day Barbados, known as in the 16th century when the Portuguese claimed the island en route to Brazil. The Portuguese left Barbados abandoned years before the British arrived.\n Spanish West Indies – Cuba, Hispaniola (present-day Dominican Republic), Haiti (until 1659, lost to France), Puerto Rico, Jamaica (until 1655, lost to Great Britain), the Cayman Islands (until 1670 to Great Britain) Trinidad (until 1797, lost to Great Britain) and Bay Islands (until 1643, lost to Great Britain), coastal islands of Central America (except Belize), and some Caribbean coastal islands of Panama, Colombia, Mexico, and Venezuela.\n Swedish West Indies – present-day French Saint-Barthélemy, Guadeloupe (briefly) and Tobago (briefly).\n Courlander West Indies – Tobago (until 1691)\n\nThe British West Indies were united by the United Kingdom into a West Indies Federation between 1958 and 1962. The independent countries formerly part of the B.W.I. still have a joint cricket team that competes in Test matches, One Day Internationals and Twenty20 Internationals. The West Indian cricket team includes the South American nation of Guyana, the only former British colony on the mainland of that continent.\n\nIn addition, these countries share the University of the West Indies as a regional entity. The university consists of three main campuses in Jamaica, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago, a smaller campus in the Bahamas and Resident Tutors in other contributing territories such as Trinidad.\n\nContinental countries with Caribbean coastlines and islands\n\n \n Ambergris Caye\n Caye Caulker\n Glover's Reef\n Hick's Cayes\n Lighthouse Reef\n St. George's Caye\n Tobacco Caye\n Turneffe Atoll\n \n Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina\nBajo Nuevo Bank\nCrab Cay\nQuita Sueño Bank\nRoncador Bank\nRoncador Cay\nSan Andrés (island)\nSanta Catalina Island (Colombia)\nSerrana Bank\nSerranilla Bank\n Rosario Islands\n \nBrava Island, Costa Rica\nIsla Calero\nUvita Island\n \n \n \n \n Islas de la Bahía\n Cayos Cochinos\n Guanaja\n Roatán\n Swan Islands\n Útila\nCayos Cochinos\nCayo Gorda\nBobel Cay\n\n \n Corn Islands\n Miskito Cays\n Pearl Cays\nCalala Island\nRama Cay\n \n Archipelago off Guna Yala coast (including the San Blas Islands)\n Bocas del Toro Archipelago (approximately 300 islands)\n Galeta Island (Panama)\nIsla Grande\nSoledad Miria\nCayos Limones\n \n Quintana Roo\n Banco Chinchorro\n Cozumel\n Isla Blanca\n Isla Contoy\n Isla Holbox\n Isla Mujeres\n \n \n Blanquilla Island\n Coche Island\n Cubagua Island\n Isla Aves\n Islas Los Frailes\n Isla Margarita\n La Orchila\n La Sola Island\n La Tortuga Island\n Las Aves archipelago\n Los Hermanos Archipelago\n Los Monjes Archipelago\n Los Roques archipelago\n Los Testigos Islands\n Patos Island\n\nBiodiversity\nThe Caribbean islands have one of the most diverse eco systems in the world. The animals, fungi and plants, and have been classified as one of Conservation International's biodiversity hotspots because of their exceptionally diverse terrestrial and marine ecosystems, ranging from montane cloud forests, to tropical rainforest, to cactus scrublands. The region also contains about 8% (by surface area) of the world's coral reefs along with extensive seagrass meadows, both of which are frequently found in the shallow marine waters bordering the island and continental coasts of the region.\n\nFor the fungi, there is a modern checklist based on nearly 90,000 records derived from specimens in reference collections, published accounts and field observations. That checklist includes more than 11,250 species of fungi recorded from the region. As its authors note, the work is far from exhaustive, and it is likely that the true total number of fungal species already known from the Caribbean is higher. The true total number of fungal species occurring in the Caribbean, including species not yet recorded, is likely far higher given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have been discovered. Though the amount of available information is still small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to some Caribbean islands. For Cuba, 2200 species of fungi have been tentatively identified as possible endemics of the island; for Puerto Rico, the number is 789 species; for the Dominican Republic, the number is 699 species; for Trinidad and Tobago, the number is 407 species.\n\nMany of the ecosystems of the Caribbean islands have been devastated by deforestation, pollution, and human encroachment. The arrival of the first humans is correlated with extinction of giant owls and dwarf ground sloths. The hotspot contains dozens of highly threatened animals (ranging from birds, to mammals and reptiles), fungi and plants. Examples of threatened animals include the Puerto Rican amazon, two species of solenodon (giant shrews) in Cuba and the Hispaniola island, and the Cuban crocodile.\n\nThe region's coral reefs, which contain about 70 species of hard corals and from 500 to 700 species of reef-associated fishes have undergone rapid decline in ecosystem integrity in recent years, and are considered particularly vulnerable to global warming and ocean acidification. According to a UNEP report, the Caribbean coral reefs might get extinct in next 20 years due to population explosion along the coast lines, overfishing, the pollution of coastal areas and global warming.\n\nSome Caribbean islands have terrain that Europeans found suitable for cultivation for agriculture. Tobacco was an important early crop during the colonial era, but was eventually overtaken by sugarcane production as the region's staple crop. Sugar was produced from sugarcane for export to Europe. Cuba and Barbados were historically the largest producers of sugar. The tropical plantation system thus came to dominate Caribbean settlement. Other islands were found to have terrain unsuited for agriculture, for example Dominica, which remains heavily forested. The islands in the southern Lesser Antilles, Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao, are extremely arid, making them unsuitable for agriculture. However, they have salt pans that were exploited by the Dutch. Sea water was pumped into shallow ponds, producing coarse salt when the water evaporated.\n\nThe natural environmental diversity of the Caribbean islands has led to recent growth in eco-tourism. This type of tourism is growing on islands lacking sandy beaches and dense human populations.\n\nPlants and animals\n\nDemographics\n\nIndigenous groups\n\n Arawak peoples\n Igneri\n Taíno\n Caquetio people\n Ciboney\n Ciguayo\n Garifuna\n Kalina\n Kalinago\n Lucayan\n Macorix\n Raizal\n\nAt the time of European contact, the dominant ethnic groups in the Caribbean included the Taíno of the Greater Antilles and northern Lesser Antilles, the Island Caribs of the southern Lesser Antilles, and smaller distinct groups such as the Guanajatabey of western Cuba and the Ciguayo of eastern Hispaniola. The population of the Caribbean is estimated to have been around 750,000 immediately before European contact, although lower and higher figures are given. After contact, social disruption and epidemic diseases such as smallpox and measles (to which they had no natural immunity) led to a decline in the Amerindian population. such as the Kongo, Igbo, Akan, Fon and Yoruba as well as military prisoners from Ireland, who were deported during the Cromwellian reign in England. Immigrants from Britain, Italy, France, Spain, the Netherlands, Portugal and Denmark also arrived, although the mortality rate was high for both groups.\n\nThe population is estimated to have reached 2.2 million by 1800. Immigrants from India, China, Indonesia, and other countries arrived in the mid-19th century as indentured servants. After the ending of the Atlantic slave trade, the population increased naturally. The total regional population was estimated at 37.5 million by 2000.\n\nIn Haiti and most of the French, Anglophone and Dutch Caribbean, the population is predominantly of African origin; on many islands there are also significant populations of mixed racial origin (including Mulatto-Creole, Dougla, Mestizo, Quadroon, Cholo, Castizo, Criollo, Zambo, Pardo, Asian Latin Americans, Chindian, Cocoa panyols, and Eurasian), as well as populations of European ancestry: Dutch, English, French, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish ancestry. Asians, especially those of Chinese, Indian descent, and Javanese Indonesians, form a significant minority in parts of the region. Indians form a plurality of the population in Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, and Suriname. Most of their ancestors arrived in the 19th century as indentured laborers.\n\nThe Spanish-speaking Caribbean populations are primarily of European, African, or racially mixed origins. Puerto Rico has a European majority with a mixture of European-African-Native American (tri-racial), and a large Mulatto (European-West African) and West African minority. Cuba also has a European majority, along with a significant population of African ancestry. The Dominican Republic has the largest mixed-race population, primarily descended from Europeans, West Africans, and Amerindians.\n\nJamaica has a large African majority, in addition to a significant population of mixed racial background, and has minorities of Chinese, Europeans, Indians, Latinos, Jews, and Arabs. This is a result of years of importation of slaves and indentured laborers, and migration. Most multi-racial Jamaicans refer to themselves as either mixed race or brown. Similar populations can be found in the Caricom states of Belize, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago. Trinidad and Tobago has a multi-racial cosmopolitan society due to the arrivals of Africans, Indians, Chinese, Arabs, Jews, Latinos, and Europeans along with the native indigenous Amerindians population. This multi-racial mix of the Caribbean has created sub-ethnicities that often straddle the boundaries of major ethnicities and include Mulatto-Creole, Mestizo, Pardo, Zambo, Dougla, Chindian, Afro-Asians, Eurasian, Cocoa panyols, and Asian Latinos.\n\nLanguage\n\nSpanish (64%), French (25%), English (14%), Dutch, Haitian Creole, and Papiamento are the predominant official languages of various countries in the region, although a handful of unique creole languages or dialects can also be found in virtually every Caribbean country. Other languages such as Caribbean Hindustani, Chinese, Javanese, Arabic, Hmong, Amerindian languages, other African languages, other European languages, and other Indian languages can also be found.\n\nReligion\n\nChristianity is the predominant religion in the Caribbean (84.7%). Other religions in the region are Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Rastafari, Buddhism, Chinese folk religion (incl. Taoism and Confucianism), Bahá'í, Jainism, Sikhism, Kebatinan, Traditional African religions, Yoruba (incl. Trinidad Orisha), Afro-American religions, (incl. Santería, Palo, Umbanda, Brujería, Hoodoo, Candomblé, Quimbanda, Orisha, Xangô de Recife, Xangô do Nordeste, Comfa, Espiritismo, Santo Daime, Obeah, Candomblé, Abakuá, Kumina, Winti, Sanse, Cuban Vodú, Dominican Vudú, Louisiana Voodoo, Haitian Vodou, and Vodun).\n\nPolitics\n\nRegionalism\n\nCaribbean societies are very different from other Western societies in terms of size, culture, and degree of mobility of their citizens. The current economic and political problems the states face individually are common to all Caribbean states. Regional development has contributed to attempts to subdue current problems and avoid projected problems. From a political and economic perspective, regionalism serves to make Caribbean states active participants in current international affairs through collective coalitions. In 1973, the first political regionalism in the Caribbean Basin was created by advances of the English-speaking Caribbean nations through the institution known as the Caribbean Common Market and Community (CARICOM) which is located in Guyana.\n\nCertain scholars have argued both for and against generalizing the political structures of the Caribbean. On the one hand the Caribbean states are politically diverse, ranging from communist systems such as Cuba toward more capitalist Westminster-style parliamentary systems as in the Commonwealth Caribbean. Other scholars argue that these differences are superficial, and that they tend to undermine commonalities in the various Caribbean states. Contemporary Caribbean systems seem to reflect a \"blending of traditional and modern patterns, yielding hybrid systems that exhibit significant structural variations and divergent constitutional traditions yet ultimately appear to function in similar ways.\" The political systems of the Caribbean states share similar practices.\n\nThe influence of regionalism in the Caribbean is often marginalized. Some scholars believe that regionalism cannot exist in the Caribbean because each small state is unique. On the other hand, scholars also suggest that there are commonalities amongst the Caribbean nations that suggest regionalism exists. \"Proximity as well as historical ties among the Caribbean nations has led to cooperation as well as a desire for collective action.\" These attempts at regionalization reflect the nations' desires to compete in the international economic system.\n\nFurthermore, a lack of interest from other major states promoted regionalism in the region. In recent years the Caribbean has suffered from a lack of U.S. interest. \"With the end of the Cold War, U.S. security and economic interests have been focused on other areas. As a result there has been a significant reduction in U.S. aid and investment to the Caribbean.\" The lack of international support for these small, relatively poor states, helped regionalism prosper.\n\nFollowing the Cold War another issue of importance in the Caribbean has been the reduced economic growth of some Caribbean States due to the United States and European Union's allegations of special treatment toward the region by each other.\n\nUnited States–EU trade dispute\nThe United States under President Bill Clinton launched a challenge in the World Trade Organization against the EU over Europe's preferential program, known as the Lomé Convention, which allowed banana exports from the former colonies of the Group of African, Caribbean and Pacific states (ACP) to enter Europe cheaply. The World Trade Organization sided in the United States' favour and the beneficial elements of the convention to African, Caribbean and Pacific states has been partially dismantled and replaced by the Cotonou Agreement.\n\nDuring the US/EU dispute, the United States imposed large tariffs on European Union goods (up to 100%) to pressure Europe to change the agreement with the Caribbean nations in favour of the Cotonou Agreement.\n\nFarmers in the Caribbean have complained of falling profits and rising costs as the Lomé Convention weakens. Some farmers have faced increased pressure to turn towards the cultivation of illegal drugs, which has a higher profit margin and fills the sizable demand for these illegal drugs in North America and Europe.\n\nCaribbean Financial Action Task Force and Association of Caribbean States\nCaribbean nations have also started to more closely cooperate in the Caribbean Financial Action Task Force and other instruments to add oversight of the offshore industry. One of the most important associations that deal with regionalism amongst the nations of the Caribbean Basin has been the Association of Caribbean States (ACS). Proposed by CARICOM in 1992, the ACS soon won the support of the other countries of the region. It was founded in July 1994. The ACS maintains regionalism within the Caribbean on issues unique to the Caribbean Basin. Through coalition building, like the ACS and CARICOM, regionalism has become an undeniable part of the politics and economics of the Caribbean. The successes of region-building initiatives are still debated by scholars, yet regionalism remains prevalent throughout the Caribbean.\n\nBolivarian Alliance\nThe President of Venezuela, Hugo Chavez launched an economic group called the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas (ALBA), which several eastern Caribbean islands joined. In 2012, the nation of Haiti, with 9 million people, became the largest CARICOM nation that sought to join the union.\n\nRegional institutions\nHere are some of the bodies that several islands share in collaboration:\n\n African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States\n Association of Caribbean States (ACS), Trinidad and Tobago\n Caribbean Association of Industry and Commerce (CAIC), Trinidad and Tobago\n Caribbean Association of National Telecommunication Organizations (CANTO), Trinidad and Tobago\n Caribbean Community (CARICOM), Guyana\n Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), Barbados\n Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency (CDERA), Barbados\n Caribbean Educators Network\n Caribbean Electric Utility Services Corporation (CARILEC), Saint Lucia\n Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC), Barbados and Jamaica\n Caribbean Financial Action Task Force (CFATF), Trinidad and Tobago\n Caribbean Food Crops Society, Puerto Rico\n Caribbean Football Union (CFU), Jamaica\n Caribbean Hotel & Tourism Association (CHTA), Florida and Puerto Rico\n Caribbean Initiative (Initiative of the IUCN)\n Caribbean Programme for Economic Competitiveness (CPEC), Saint Lucia\n Caribbean Regional Environmental Programme (CREP), Barbados\n Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM), Belize\n Caribbean Regional Negotiating Machinery (CRNM), Barbados and Dominican Republic\n Caribbean Telecommunications Union (CTU), Trinidad and Tobago\n Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO), Barbados\n Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC)\n Foundation for the Development of Caribbean Children, Barbados\n Latin America and Caribbean Network Information Centre (LACNIC), Brazil and Uruguay\n Latin American and the Caribbean Economic System, Venezuela\n Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), Saint Lucia\n United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Chile and Trinidad and Tobago\n University of the West Indies, Jamaica, Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago. In addition, the fourth campus, the Open Campus was formed in June 2008 as a result of an amalgamation of the Board for Non-Campus Countries and Distance Education, Schools of Continuing Studies, the UWI Distance Education Centres and Tertiary Level Units. The Open Campus has 42 physical sites in 16 Anglophone caribbean countries.\n West Indies Cricket Board, Antigua and Barbuda\n\nCuisine\n\nFavourite or national dishes\n\n Anguilla – rice, peas and fish\n Antigua and Barbuda – fungee and pepperpot\n Bahamas – Guava duff, Conch Salad, Peas n' Rice, and Conch Fritters\n Barbados – cou-cou and flying fish\n Belize – rice and beans, stew chicken with potato salad; white rice, stew beans and fry fish with cole slaw\n British Virgin Islands – fish and fungee\n Cayman Islands – turtle stew, turtle steak, grouper\n Colombian Caribbean – rice with coconut milk, arroz con pollo, sancocho, Arab cuisine (due to the large Arab population)\n Cuba – platillo Moros y Cristianos, ropa vieja, lechon, maduros, ajiaco\n Dominica – mountain chicken, rice and peas, dumplings, saltfish, dashin, bakes (fried dumplings), coconut confiture, curry goat, cassava farine, oxtail\n Dominican Republic – arroz con pollo with stewed red kidney beans, pan fried or braised beef, salad/ ensalada de coditos, empanadas, mangú, sancocho\n Grenada – oil down, Roti and rice & chicken\n Guyana – roti and curry, pepperpot, cookup rice, methem, pholourie\n Haiti – griot (fried pork) served with du riz a pois or diri ak pwa (rice and beans)\n Jamaica – ackee and saltfish, callaloo, jerk chicken, curry chicken\n Montserrat – Goat water\n Puerto Rico – yellow rice with green pigeon peas, saltfish stew, roasted pork shoulder, chicken fricassée, mofongo, tripe soup, alcapurria, coconut custard, rice pudding, guava turnovers, Mallorca bread\n Saint Kitts and Nevis – goat water, coconut dumplings, spicy plantain, saltfish, breadfruit\n Saint Lucia – callaloo, dal roti, dried and salted cod, green bananas, rice and beans\n Saint Vincent and the Grenadines – roasted breadfruit and fried jackfish\n Suriname – brown beans and rice, roti and curry, peanut soup, battered fried plantain with peanut sauce, nasi goreng, moksie alesi, bara, pom\n Trinidad and Tobago – doubles, curry with roti or dal bhat, aloo pie, phulourie, callaloo, bake and shark, curry crab and dumpling\n United States Virgin Islands – stewed goat, oxtail or beef, seafood, callaloo, fungee\n Venezuela Caribbean – fried fish with salad and rise, tostones, sancocho, patacon, pabellon\n\nSee also \n\n African diaspora\n Anchor coinage\n British African-Caribbean people\n British Indo-Caribbean people\n Caribbean people\n Climate change in the Caribbean\n CONCACAF\n Council on Hemispheric Affairs\n Culture of the Caribbean\n Economy of the Caribbean\n Indian diaspora\n Indo-Caribbean\n Indo-Caribbean American\n List of Caribbean music genres\n List of sovereign states and dependent territories in the Caribbean\n NECOBELAC Project\n Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin\n Piracy in the Caribbean\n Politics of the Caribbean\n Tourism in the Caribbean\n\nGeography:\n Americas (terminology)\n List of archipelagos by number of islands\n List of Caribbean islands\n List of indigenous names of Eastern Caribbean islands\n List of mountain peaks of the Caribbean\n List of Ultras of the Caribbean\n Middle America (Americas)\n Latin America and the Caribbean (region)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography \n Engerman, Stanley L. \"A Population History of the Caribbean\", pp. 483–528 in A Population History of North America Michael R. Haines and Richard Hall Steckel (Eds.), Cambridge University Press, 2000, .\n Hillman, Richard S., and Thomas J. D'agostino, eds. Understanding the Contemporary Caribbean, London: Lynne Rienner, 2003 .\n\nFurther reading \n Develtere, Patrick R. 1994. \"Co-operation and development: With special reference to the experience of the Commonwealth Caribbean\" ACCO, \n Gowricharn, Ruben. Caribbean Transnationalism: Migration, Pluralization, and Social Cohesion. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2006.\n Henke, Holger, and Fred Reno, eds. Modern Political Culture in the Caribbean. Kingston: University of West Indies Press, 2003.\n Heuman, Gad. The Caribbean: Brief Histories. London: A Hodder Arnold Publication, 2006.\n de Kadt, Emanuel, (editor). Patterns of foreign influence in the Caribbean, Oxford University Press, 1972.\n Knight, Franklin W. The Modern Caribbean (University of North Carolina Press, 1989).\n Kurlansky, Mark. 1992. A Continent of Islands: Searching for the Caribbean Destiny. Addison-Wesley Publishing. \n Langley, Lester D. The United States and the Caribbean in the Twentieth Century. London: University of Georgia Press, 1989.\n Maingot, Anthony P. The United States and the Caribbean: Challenges of an Asymmetrical Relationship. Westview Press, 1994.\n Palmie, Stephan, and Francisco A. Scarano, eds. The Caribbean: A History of the Region and Its Peoples (University of Chicago Press; 2011); 660 pp.; writings on the region since the pre-Columbia era.\n Ramnarine, Tina K. Beautiful Cosmos: Performance and Belonging in the Caribbean Diaspora. London, Pluto Press, 2007.\n Rowntree, Lester/Martin Lewis/Marie Price/William Wyckoff. Diversity Amid Globalization: World Regions, Environment, Development, 4th edition, 2008.\n\nExternal links \n\n \n Digital Library of the Caribbean\n Latin American, Caribbean, U.S. Latinx, and Iberian Online Free E-Resources (LACLI). \n Manioc, open access digital Library, books, images, conferences, articles about the Caribbean \n Federal Research Division of the U.S. Library of Congress: Caribbean Islands (1987)\n LANIC Caribbean country pages", "title": "Caribbean" }, { "text": "At the time of first contact between Europe and the Americas, the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean included the Taíno of the northern Lesser Antilles, most of the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas, the Kalinago of the Lesser Antilles, the Ciguayo and Macorix of parts of Hispaniola, and the Guanahatabey of western Cuba. The Kalinago have maintained an identity as an indigenous people, with a reserved territory in Dominica.\n\nIntroduction\n\nSome scholars consider it important to distinguish the Taíno from the neo-Taíno nations of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Hispaniola, and the Lucayan of the Bahamas and Jamaica. Linguistically or culturally these differences extended from various cognates or types of canoe: canoa, piragua, cayuco to distinct languages. Languages diverged even over short distances. Previously these groups often had distinctly non-Taíno deities such as the goddess Jagua, strangely enough the god Teju Jagua is a major demon of indigenous Paraguayan mythology. Still these groups plus the high Taíno are considered Island Arawak, part of a widely diffused assimilating culture, a circumstance witnessed even today by names of places in the New World; for example localities or rivers called Guamá are found in Cuba, Venezuela and Brazil. Guamá was the name of famous Taíno who fought the Spanish.\n\nThus, since the neo-Taíno had far more diverse cultural input and a greater societal and ethnic heterogeneity than the true high Taíno (Rouse, 1992) of Boriquen (Puerto Rico) a separate section is presented here. A broader language group is Arawakan languages. The term Arawak (Aruaco) is said to be derived from an insulting term meaning \"eaters of meal\" given to them by mainland Caribs. In turn the Arawak legend explains the origin of the Caribs as offspring of a putrid serpent.\n\nThe social classes of the neo-Taíno, generalized from Bartolomé de las Casas, appeared to have been loosely feudal with the following Taíno classes: naboría (common people), nitaíno' (sub-chiefs, or nobles), bohique, (shamans priests/healers), and the cacique (chieftains, or princes). However, the neo-Taíno seem to have been more relaxed in this respect.\n\nAdministrative and national units\nThe Spanish found that most Cuban peoples for the part living peacefully in tidy towns and villages grouped into numerous principalities called cacicazgos or principalities with an almost feudal social structure. They were ruled by leaders or princes, called Caciques. Cuba was then divided into Guanahatabey, Ciboney, and Classical Taíno. Then some of Western Cuba was Guanahatabey. and some Ciboney. Taíno-like cultures controlled most of Cuba dividing it into the cacicazgos. Granberry and Vescelius (2004) and other contemporary authors only consider the cazicazgo of Baracoa as classical or high Taíno. Cuban cacicazgos including Bayaquitiri, Macaca, Bayamo, Camagüey, Jagua, Habana y Haniguanica are treated here as \"neo-Taíno\". Hispaniolan principalities at about 1500 included Maguá (Cacique Guarionex); Xaraguá (Behecchio); Maguana (Caonabo); Higüey also called Iguayagua (Higüayo); Cigüayo (Mayobanex), and unnamed region under Cacique Guanacagarí (Wilson, 1990). These principalities are considered to have various affinities to the contemporary Taíno and neo-Taíno cultures from what is now known as Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic and Haiti, but are generally believed somewhat different.\n\nFarming and fishing\nThe adroit farming and fishing skills of the neo-Taíno nations should not be underestimated; the names of fauna and flora that survive today are testimony of their continued use. Neo-Taíno fishing technologies were most inventive, including harpoons and fishnets and traps. Neo-Taíno common names of fish are still used today (DeSola, 1932 ; Erdman, 1983; Florida Fish and Wild Life Commission (Division of Marine Fisheries) 2002; Puerto Rico, Commonwealth, 1998). Agriculture included a wide variety of germplasm, including maize, peanuts, tomato, squash, and beans plus a vast array of tree fruits. Tubers in most frequent use were yuca (Manihot esculenta) a crop with perhaps 10,000 years of development in the Americas; boniato (the \"sweet potato\" — Ipomoea batatas), and malanga (Xanthosoma sp.)\n\nTaíno pharmacopoeia\nAs with all Arawak (Schultes, Raffault. 1990) and similar cultures there was considerable use of natural pharmacopoeia (Robineau, 1991).\n\nTaíno studies\nTaíno studies are in a state of both vigorous revival and conflict (Haslip-Viera, 2001). In this conflict deeply embedded cultural mores, senses of nationality and ethnicity struggle with each other. The Syboneistas undertook studies and wrote of neo-Taínos as part and cover for independence struggles against Spain (Fajardo, 1829 - circa 1862; Gautier Benítez, 1873).\n\nNeo-Taíno and Taíno art\nTaíno and related art has been celebrated in several significant exhibitions (Alegria, and Arrom 1998; Bercht, et al. 1997; Bullen, Dacal et al.; Kerchache, 1994, most notably in Paris.\n\nNeo-Taíno music (areíto) survives as echoes in the rich traditions of the popular music of the Caribbean, but is believed to continue to exist in its purest form and associated spirituality among the Waroa of Venezuela.\n\nMetallurgy\nThe art of the neo-Taínos demonstrates that these nations had metallurgical skills, and it has been postulated by some e.g. Paul Sidney Martin, that the inhabitants of these islands mined and exported metals such as copper (Martin et al. 1947). The Cuban town of (San Ramón de) Guaninao means the place of copper and is surmised to have been a site of pre-Columbian mining.\n\nPeoples of the Caribbean\n\nArchaic Age people\n\nDNA studies changed some of the traditional beliefs about pre-Columbian indigenous history. According to National Geographic, \"studies confirm that a wave of pottery-making farmers—known as Ceramic Age people—set out in canoes from the northeastern coast of South America starting some 2,500 years ago and island-hopped across the Caribbean. They were not, however, the first colonizers. On many islands they encountered a foraging people who arrived some 6,000 or 7,000 years ago...The ceramicists, who are related to today’s Arawak-speaking peoples, supplanted the earlier foraging inhabitants—presumably through disease or violence—as they settled new islands.\"\n\nTaíno\n\nThe Taíno, an Arawak people, were the major population group throughout most of the Caribbean. Their culture was divided into three main groups, the Western Taíno, the Classic Taíno, and the Eastern Taíno, with other variations within the islands.\n\nClassic Taíno\nThe Classic Taíno lived in eastern Cuba, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico. They spoke a dialect called Classic Taíno. Compared to their neighbors, the Classic Taíno had substantially developed agricultural societies. Puerto Rico was divided into twenty chiefdoms which were organized into one united kingdom or confederation, Borinquen. Hispaniola was divided into roughly 45 chiefdoms, which were organized into five kingdoms under the leadership of the chief of each area's premier chiefdom. Beginning around 1450, Classic Taíno from Hispaniola began migrating to eastern Cuba; they are conventionally known as the Cuban Taíno. The Cuban Taíno gained power over some of Cuba's earlier Western Taíno inhabitants, the Ciboney, but no regional or island-wide political structure had developed on the island at the time of Spanish colonization of the Americas.\n\nEastern Taíno\nThe Eastern Taíno inhabited the Leeward Islands of the Lesser Antilles, from the Virgin Islands to Montserrat. They had less sophisticated societies than the Classic Taíno.\n\nWestern Taíno\n\nThe Western Taíno lived in the Bahamas, central Cuba, westernmost Hispaniola, and Jamaica. They spoke a dialect known as Ciboney Taíno or Western Taíno. The Western Taíno of the Bahamas were known as the Lucayans, they were wiped out by Spanish slave raids by 1520. Western Taíno living in Cuba were known as the Ciboney. They had no chiefdoms or organized political structure beyond individual villages, but by the time of Spanish conquest many were under the control of the Cuban Taíno in eastern Cuba.\n\nIgneri\n\nAccording to oral history, the Igneri were the original Arawak inhabitants of the Windward Islands in the Lesser Antilles before being conquered by the Caribs who are thought to have arrived from South America. Contemporary sources like to suggest that the Caribs took Igneri women as their wives while killing the men, resulting in the two sexes speaking different languages. This is not proven, and there appears to be a confusion of the reality: despite the name, the Island Carib language was Arawakan, not Cariban. Irving Rouse suggests that small numbers of Caribs may have conquered the Igneri without displacing them, and could have gradually adopted their language while retaining the Carib identity, but there is no evidence to prove this. Though they were Arawaks, the Igneri language appears to be as distinct from the Taíno language as it was from the mainland Arawak language of South America.\n\nKalinago\n\nBy the contact period, the Kalinago, also known as Island Caribs, inhabited the Windward Islands of the Lesser Antilles. \"Caribbean\" derives from the name \"Carib\", by which the Kalinago were formerly known. They self-identified with the Kalina or mainland Carib people of South America. Contemporary accounts asserted that the Island Caribs had conquered the Windward Islands from their previous inhabitants, the Igneri. However, the Kalinago language was Arawakan, not Cariban. Irving Rouse suggests that small numbers of South American Caribs invaded the Windwards and conquered the Igneri without displacing them; they gradually adopted the local language while maintaining the Carib identity. The Kalinago outlasted their Taíno neighbors, and continue to live in the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean. Noteworthy Kalinago descendants live on within the Garifuna people, known as the Black Caribs who descend from St. Vincent in the Lesser Antilles.\n\nGuanahatabey\n\nA separate ethnic identity from far western Cuba. They were an archaic hunter-gatherer people who spoke a language distinct from Taíno, and appear to have predated the agricultural, Taíno-speaking Ciboney.\n\nCiguayo\n\nA separate ethnic people that inhabited the Peninsula of Samaná and part of the northern coast toward Nagua in what today is the Dominican Republic, and, by most contemporary accounts, differed in language and customs from the classical or high Taíno who lived on the eastern part of the island of Hispaniola then known. According to Eustaquio Fernandez de Navarrete, they were “warriors and spirited people,” (“gente animosa y guerrera”). The Cronista de Indias, Pedro Martir accused them of cannibalism: “when they descend from the mountains to wage war on their neighbors, they kill and eat some of them” (“trae[n] origen de los caníbales, pues cuando de las montañas bajan a lo llano para hacer guerra á sus vecinos, si matan á algunos se los comen”). Fray Ramón Pané, often dubbed as the first anthropologist of the Caribbean, distinguished the Ciguayo language from the rest of those spoken on Hispaniola. Bartolomé de las Casas, who studied them and was one of the few who read Ramón Pané’s original work in Spanish, provided most of the documentation about this group. Linguists Granberry and Gary Vescelius believe that the Cigüayos emigrated from Central America. Wilson (1990) states that circa 1500 this was the kingdom Cacicazgo of Cacique Guacangarí.\n\nMacorix\n\nAnother separate ethnic group that lived on the eastern side of the island of Hispaniola. Their region today is in the Dominican Republic. According to las Casas, their language was unintelligible for the Taínos, but may have been similar to the Ciguayo language.(Wilson, 1990)\n\nRecent studies show that the Macorix people coexisted with the Tainos on Hispaniola. The names San Francisco de Macorix and San Pedro de Macorix in the Dominican Republic are indirect references to the political divisions of the cacicazgo. The Spaniards wrongly assumed that the names given to the different territories were a reference \"to what they called a Cacicazgo:\n\nFlorida tribes\n\nThe Tequesta of the southeast coast of the Florida peninsula were once considered to be related to the Taíno, but most anthropologists now doubt this. The Tequesta had been present in the area for at least 2,000 years at the time of first European contact, and are believed to have built the Miami Stone Circle. Carl O. Sauer called the Florida Straits \"one of the most strongly marked cultural boundaries in the New World\", noting that the Straits were also a boundary between agricultural systems, with Florida Indians growing seed crops that originated in Mexico, while the Lucayans of the Bahamas grew root crops that originated in South America.\n\nIt is possible that a few Lucayas reached Florida shortly before the first European contacts in the area, but the northwestern Bahamas had remained uninhabited until approximately 1200, and the long established presence of the existing tribes in Florida would have likely prevented any pioneering settlements by people who had only just reached the neighboring islands. Analysis of ocean currents and weather patterns indicates that people traveling by canoe from the Bahamas to Florida were likely to land in northern Florida rather than closer to the Bahamas. A single 'Antillean axe head' found near Gainesville, Florida may support some limited contacts. Due to the same ocean currents, direct travel in canoes from southern Florida to the Bahamas was unlikely.\n\nThe term and context of the Ciboney (Siboney)\nCiboney (also Siboney) is a term preferred in Cuban historic contexts for the neo-Taíno nations of Cuba.\n\nOur knowledge of the Cuban indigenous cultures which are often, but less precisely, lumped into a category called Taíno (Caribbean Island Arawak) comes from early Spanish sources, oral traditions and considerable archeological evidence. The Spanish found that most Cuban peoples were, for the most part, living peacefully in tidy towns and villages grouped into numerous principalities called Cacicazgos with an almost feudal social structure (see Bartolomé de las Casas). They were ruled by leaders called Caciques. Cuba was divided into Guanahatabey, Ciboney-Taíno (here neo-Taíno), and Classical (High) Taíno. Some of western Cuba was Guanahatabey and some Siboney (see below).\n\nTaíno-like cultures controlled most of Cuba, dividing it into cacicazgos or principalities. Granberry, Vescelius (2004), and other contemporary authors only consider the cacicazgo of Baracoa as Classical or High Taíno. Cuban cacicazgos including Bayaquitiri, Macaca, Bayamo, Camagüey, Jagua, Habana y Haniguanica are considered neo-Taíno. These principalities are considered to have various affinities to contemporary Taíno and neo-Taíno cultures from Puerto Rico and Hispaniola, but are generally believed to have been somewhat different.\n\nEthnic/cultural derivatives\n\nGuajiros and Jibaros\nThe common name given to the rural inhabitants of Cuba is guajiros. Del Campo implies that quajiros are \"native-born whites\" and states that in Puerto Rico \"the influence of the indigenous population is more marked than that of the native populations in Cuba\".\n\nIn Puerto Rico, the rural inhabitants are called Jibaros. The term jíbaro, according to the Catholic online encyclopedia, is also the name of a tribal group in South America, it meant \"mountain men.\" Jíbaro means \"People of the Forest\" in the Taíno language. So the term obviously came with them as they immigrated from South America. However \"jíbaro\" – as is used in Puerto Rico, is not used the same in Cuba or the Dominican Republic, which were populated with the very same Taíno people. In Cuba the word jibaro is used to denote something wild or untamed, such as \"perros jibaros\" or wild dogs.\n\nGuajiro nation\nThe term Guajira/Guajiro, also refers to indigenous Arawak nation of the Guajira Peninsula between Venezuela and Colombia. For a small compendium of myths of this Nation please see:\nde Cora, Maria Manuela 1972. Kuai-Mare. Mitos Aborígenes de Venezuela. Monte Avila Editores Caracas.\n\nLater nations in this general area\nThe Arawak, Carib, other Mesoamerican coast, and Amazonian cultures can be considered as part of a tenuous continuum of nations, linked by some shared vocabulary, ethnic links, agricultural practices, reinforced by bride abduction, and continuous exogamy. After the violence of the Spanish conquest, and subsequent events of African slavery and rebellion, nations and cultures with diverse amounts of Arawak ethnicity, culture, and/or traditions transmuted and arose. Some of these nations had mixed or even predominantly African roots, which include the Cimarrón of Cuba and the Maroons of Jamaica and Guyana.\n\nSee also\nIndigenous peoples of the Americas\nArawak\nArawakan languages\nCariban languages\nLanguages of the Caribbean\nPre-Arawakan languages of the Greater Antilles\nGarifuna\nGenetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas\nIgneri\nIndigenous peoples of Florida\nIndigenous peoples in Venezuela\nIsland Caribs\nList of Spanish words of Indigenous American Indian origin\nInflux of disease in the Caribbean\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nAlbury, Paul 1975 The Story of the Bahamas. MacMillan Education Limited, London and Basingstoke. p. 19 \"After the first screams of despair, terror took such sole possession of the Lucayan's mind and body that it robbed him of the ability to defend himself. He became a jellied mass of sweating, trembling, helpless flesh. Men, women, and children were bound with ropes, stacked in the cane and taken to Carib land. There the males were mutilated, tortured and finally eaten. The females were kept for breeding purposes. And, it is said, their male offspring, sired by Caribs, were also eaten.\"\nAlonso José Ramón 2004 (accessed 11/7/2005). Panorama histórico-crítico sobre el estudio del arte rupestre de Punta del Este, Cuba. http://rupestreweb.tripod.com/puntadeleste.html\nAlvarez Chanca, Diego. La Carta del Doctor Chanca, que escribió à la Ciudad de Sevilla. Collección de los viages y descubrimientos. Martin Fernández de Navarrete. Madrid, 1825 Atl atl? \"Los desta isla pelean con unas varas agudas, las cuales tiran con unas tiranderas como las que tiran los mochachos las varillas en Castilla, con las cuales tiran muy lejos asaz certero. \"\nÁlvarez Conde, José 1956. Arqueología Indocubana. Junta Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología Impresores Úcar, García, S. A. Havana.\nÁlvarez Nazario, Manuel 1996. Arqueología Lingüística. Estudios modernos dirigidos al rescate y reconstrucción del arahuaco taíno. Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico.\nArciniegas, Germán (editor) 1999. Historiadores de las Indias. Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes. Editorial Océano de México S.A.\nArrom, Jose Juan 2000 Estudios de Lexicologia Antillana. Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico. San Juan, Puerto Rico\nAzcárate Rosell, Rafael 1937. Historia de los Indios de Cuba. Editorial Tropical, Havana.\n\nBarreiro, José 1990 A Note on Taínos: Whither Progress? Northeast Indian Quarterly Fall, 1990, pp. 66–77. http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/41/013.html https://web.archive.org/web/20051125070332/http://www.uctp.org/ANoteonTainos.html\nBarreiro, José 2005 In Cuba the cry was for water. Indian Country Today part one October 13, part two October 20, 2005. (accessed October 25, 2005) https://web.archive.org/web/20071010125128/http://www.indiancountry.com/content.cfm?id=1096411742 https://web.archive.org/web/20060114074516/http://www.indiancountry.com/content.cfm?id=1096411782\nBeltran, Juan. 1924. \"Bojeo de Cuba por Sebastian de O’Campo\" El Universal, Havana p. 9 paragraph 3 \"Vista de los Azules y aun tal vez vagamente presentada al misterioso reflejo de los lambentes, que andando los días había de servir de base a la poética y sentimental Luz de Yara...\"\nBercht, Fatima Estrellita Brodsky, John Alan Farmer, Dicey Taylor, (eds) 1997. Taíno: Pre-Columbian Art and Culture from the Caribbean. Museo Del Barrio Monacelli Press, New York.\nBiarakú (a Taíno Cultural Interest Group) 1999. 2. Taíno Sun Symbols Taíno Forum #25 http://members.aol.com/STaino/forum_25.htm, rixturey@netscape.net rixturey@netscape.net\nBiarakú (a Taíno Cultural Interest Group) 2003 Taíno Short Dictionary\nBlack, Clinton V. 1965. History of Jamaica. 3rd edition Collins Clear Type Press, London and Glasgow.\nBreton, Raymond 1665. Dictionnaire caraïbe–français (El caribe insular del siglo XVII Tratado sobre la lengua y la cultura de los Callínago) Translated to Spanish by Duna Troiani CELIA-CNRS / París (Centro de estudios de las lenguas indígenas de América, Centre national de la recherche scientifique.) Link found at https://web.archive.org/web/20050414091620/http://www.centrelink.org/General.html\nBueno, Salvador (ed.) 2003. Cuban Leyends (SeigfriedKaden illustrator, Christine R. Ayorinde translator). Markus Weiner Publishers, Princeton, New Jersey, USA.\nCarrada, Alfred 2003 (Accessed 11/5/2005) Dictionary of the Taíno language\nDe las Casas, Bartolomé (circa 1474–1566, 1995 reprinting). Historia de las Indias, Cultura Economica, Mexico City (Casas vol. 2, p. 521-522).\nCastellanos Garcia, Gerardo 1927. Tierras y Glorias de Oriente (Calixto Garcia Iñiguez), Editorial Hermes Havana p. 155.\nCastellanos, Juan de. 1874 Elegia VI. Elegías de varones ilustres de Indias. Madrid: M. Rivadeneyra, pp. 14–17.\nCienfuegos page (sampled September 9, 2004) Leyendas de Cienfuegos, Las Mulatas. http://www.cienfuegoscuba.galeon.com/lasmulatas.htm\nCohen, J. M (editor and translator) 1969. The Four Voyages of Christopher Columbus. Being His Own Log-Book, Letters and Dispatches. Penguin Books, London, New York and Victoria Australia.\n \"He therefore went to the island of Guadalupe, anchored there and sent boats ashore well armed. But, before they arrived, a number of women came out of the woods carrying bows and arrows, and with feathers on their heads, apparently resolved to defend the island … to northern islands … When the ships came very close to shore, they saw many Indian men coming out on to the beach with bows and arrows, which they shot at our men with great daring and great shouts. But they shot in vain, for their arrows fell short … The houses were square not round like on the islands, and in one of them a human arm was found cooking in a stew pot.\" (pp. 195–196)\nColl y Toste, Cayetano 1972. \"Vocabulario indo-antillano.\" In: Clásicos de Puerto Rico second edition, Ediciones Latinoamericanas. Found at: http://www.angelfire.com/de2/bohemia/diccionario.html https://web.archive.org/web/20080430163856/http://members.dandy.net/~orocobix/terms1.htm\nDe Cora, Maria Manuela 1972. Kuai-Mare. Mitos Aborígenes de Venezuela. Monte Avila Editores Caracas.\nCrespo, George 1993. How the Sea Began. A Taíno Myth Retold and Illustrated. Clarion Books, New York.\n\nDacal Moure, Ramon, Manuel Rivero De La Calle, Daniel H. Sandweiss 1996 Art and Archaeology of Pre-Columbian Cuba (Pitt Latin American Series) University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburg.\n\nDrummond, Lee. 1981 \"The serpent's children: semiotics of cultural genesis in Arawak and Trobriand myth.\" – American ethnologist (Washington) 8 (3): 633-660. \"Drummond tells us in his study of Arawak myth (1981), the action of celebrating the myth of Arawak origins actually creates the distinction between the Arawak and the Carib. It renders the Arawak people real.\" https://web.archive.org/web/20051102230133/http://www.uwm.edu/~wash/mirror13.htm\nErdman, D.S. 1983. \"Nombres vulgares de peces de Puerto Rico. Common names of fishes in Puerto Rico CODREMAR\". Inf. Téc. 3(2): 1-44 (not yet obtained).\nEstefanía, Carlos Manuel 2005 Así nació Cuba In: Cuba Nuestra digital (accessed 11/5/2005) https://web.archive.org/web/20050507075517/http://www.cubanuestra.nu/web/article.asp?artID=2330\nD’ Estéfano Pisani, Miguel A. 1943. La Delincuencia de los Indios de Cuba. Jesus Montero (Editor), Havana. (Note: this book shows a strong biased against the Taínos, and yet it provides useful insights into Taíno word usage)\nFajardo, Juan Cristobal Nápoles (known as Cucalambé 1829–1862?). Cucalambé (Décimas Cubanas. Selección de Rumores del Hórmigo) Ediciones Universal Miami 2nd Edition 1999.\nFernández de Oviedo, Gonzalo (República Dominicana, Puerto Rico, Cuba, 1478–1557). Libro doceno. Primera Parte. Historia General y Natural de las Indias. Volume 2. Primera Parte. Historia General y Natural de las Indias.\nFergus, Claudius 2003. The 'Carib' Work Stones of Chateaubelair: curio or calendar system? St Vincent and the Grenadines Country Conference Pre-Prints University of the West Indies. St Vincent and the Grenadines. http://www.uwichill.edu.bb/bnccde/svg/conference/papers/fergus.html\nFigueroa, Ivonne 2004 Taínos El Boricua. Edited by Barbara Yañez, Assistant WebSite Editor http://www.elboricua.com/history.html accessed 2/15/04\nFlorida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (Division of Marine Fisheries) 2002 Land Crabs (Cardisoma guanhumi). September 2002 http://www.floridaconservation.org/commission/2002/sept/LANDCRABS.pdf\nGautier Benítez, José. \"Romance\". El Progreso (periodical), 24 August 1873. p. 3.\nGomez de la Maza y Jimenez, Manuel and Juan Tomas Roig y Mesa 1914. Flora de Cuba (Datos para su estudio) Rambla, Bouza y Cia, Havana.\nBobby Gonzalez. Taino Indian reading list\nGonzalez, Francisco J. 1996 Taíno-Maya Contacts. Taíno-L Taíno Forum The retrospective history of the Native Caribbean World History Archives Hartford Web Publishing http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/41/238.html\nGrondine, E.P. (accessed 11/5/2005) Going into the water: A survey of impact events and the coastal peoples of south-east North America, the Caribbean, and Central America http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/ccc/ce010702.html\nTorres, Pedro. circa 1999. Taíno Words. The Taíno Tribal Council http://www.hartford-hwp.com/Taino/jatibonuco.html\nGuitar, Lynne (2002). Documentando el mito de la extinción de la cultura Taína. KACIKE: Revista de la historia y antropología de los indígenas del Caribe [Revista electrónica], special edition, Lynne Guitar, editor. Disponible en: https://web.archive.org/web/20051026125615/http://www.kacike.org/GuitarEspanol.html [Accessed 05/11/2005]\nGranberry, Julian, and Gary Vescelius 2004 Languages of the Pre-Columbian Antilles, University Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, \nGulf States Maine Fisheries Commission 2003 Cairina moschata Linnaeus,\nHaslip-Viera, Gabriel (Editor) 2001 Taíno Revival: Critical Perspectives on Puerto Rican Identity and Cultural Politics. Markus Wiener Publishers, Princeton N.J. \nHerbold, Stacey. Jamaican Patois and the Power of Language in Reggae Music The only evidence of the Arawak dialect in Jamaica today is a few loan words, place names, food, natural objects, and events (hurricane) (Lalla and D’Costa, 1990). Xaymaca is actually an Arawak word meaning \"island of springs\", which is where the name Jamaica is derived from (Pryce, 1997). It is possible that the first contact of the Arawaks and the Spaniards may have led to an early pidgin or bilingualism among the first generation of mixed blood.\"\nHernández Aquino, Luis. 1993. Diccionario de voces indígenas de Puerto Rico. Tercera edición, Editorial Cultural, Esmaco, Hato Rey, Puerto Rico.\nHill, Jonathan D. and Fernando Santos-Granero (eds.). 2002. Comparative Arawakan Histories. Rethinking Language Family and Cultural Area in Amazonia. University of Illinois Press, Urbana and Chicago. \nJiménez, Mariano II and Mariano G. Jiménez 2003 El Güije. Cuentos de Antaño http://www.guije.com/index.htm\nJohnson, Kim (accessed 5/3/2005) The story of the 'Caribs and Arawaks' http://www.raceandhistory.com/Taino/Caribs.htm\nLópez de Gómara, Francisco. Primera Parte. La historia general de las Indias. Historiadores primitivos de Indias. Enrique de Vedia, ed. Madrid: Imprenta de M. Ribadeneyra, 1877.\nMaciques Sánchez, Esteban 2004. El arte rupestre del Caribe insular: estilo y cronología in Rupestreweb, http://rupestreweb.tripod.com/maciques.html\nMartinez Arango, Felipe, 1997. \"Los Aborigines de la Cuenca de Santiago de Cuba.\" Ediciones Universal, Miami.\n\nMendez, Eugenio Fernandez 1981. Cronicas de Puerto Rico, Desde la Conquista Hasta Nuestros Dias (1493–1955) Editorial Universitaria, Universidad de Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras.\nMiner Solá, Edwin 2002 Diccionario Taíno Ilustrado. Ediciones Servilibros (Serie Puerto Rico Prehistórico, 1). San Juan, Indigenous language dictionary arranged thematically with numerous illustrations, many in color.\nNápoles Fajardo, Juan Cristobal (known as Cucalambé 1829–1862?). Cucalambé (Décimas Cubanas. Selección de Rumores del Hórmigo) Ediciones Universal Miami 2nd Edition1999.\nNicholson, Desmond V. 1983. The Story of the Arawaks in Antigua and Bermuda. Antigua Archeological Society. Antigua West Indies.\nOlsen, Fred 1974. On the Trail of the Arawaks. Civilization of the American Indian, v 129. University of Oklahoma Press. Norman. Oklahoma.\nPané, Fray Ramón (circa 1475-circa 1498) An Account of the Antiquities of the Indians: Chronicles of the New World Encounter (Latin America in Translation/En Traduccion/En Traducao) Jose Juan Arom (Editor), Susan C. Griswold (translator). Duke University Press, Durham and London. (1999 edition).\nPané, Fray Ramón. Relación de Fray Ramon de las antigüedades de los indios. Cuba primitiva. Habana: Miguel de Villa, 1883.\nPapá Lino 2002 \"¡Qué Te Parece, Boricua\" Publicaciones Puertorriqueñas, 2nd ed. \"El dios taíno Yuquiyú es el mismo 'Loukuo' de la mitología escandinava.\" Cited from https://web.archive.org/web/20071112091459/http://groups.msn.com/CarlitosWay/triviadeborinquen.msnw\nPuerto Rico, Commonwealth. 1998 Reglamento de Pesca de Puerto Rico Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales. Salvador Salas Quintana (Secretario). https://web.archive.org/web/20060227201150/http://www.drna.gobierno.pr/reglamentospdf/DRNA/Reglamento%20de%20Pesca.pdf\nRivas, Anthony T. 2000 Enigmas of Cuban Spanish Proteus, Newsletter of the National Association of Judiciary Interpreters and Translators Vol. IX, No. 3 Summer 2000 https://web.archive.org/web/20051124160310/http://www.najit.org/proteus/v9n3/rivas_v9n3.htm \"While lacking conclusive proof, some linguists believe that the marked intonation pattern exhibited by some natives of the former Oriente province originates in Arawak, a language spoken by the indigenous Taíno people, who survived for a limited time just in this province.\"\nRobineau, Lionel (editor) 1991. Towards a Caribbean Pharmacopoeia. End-Caribe, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic.\nRobiou La Marche, Sebastián 2003. Taínos and Caribes. Las culturas aborígenes antillanas. Editorial Punto y Coma, San Juan Puerto Rico.\n\nRouse, Irving 1992. The Taínos. Rise and Decline of the People Who Greeted Columbus. Yale University Press. New Haven and London.\nSauer, Carl Otwin. 1966. (Fourth printing, 1992.) The Early Spanish Main. The University of California Press. \nde la Sagra, Ramón 1843. Historia física, política y natural de la Isla de Cuba, Libreria de Arthus Bertrand, Paris.\nSchwartz, Marion. 1997. A History of Dogs in the Early Americas. Yale University Press, New Haven pp. 76–78.\nSears, William H. 1977. Seaborne contacts between early cultures in the lower southeastern United States and Middle (-) through South America. In: The Sea in the pre-Columbian World. Elizabeth P. Benson, editor. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collections, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington, D.C. pp. 1–15.\nSuarez, Constantino 1921 Vocabulario Cubano, Libreria Cervantes, Havana and Perlado, Páez y Cía, Madrid.\nSued Badillo, Jalil. 1985. Las Cacicas Indoantillanas, Revista del Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña 87, 1-26.\nUCTP (United Confederation of Taíno People) 2002. Diccionario de Voces Taína’ (Taíno Dictionary) https://web.archive.org/web/20071016055722/http://www.uctp.org/VocesIndigena.html \nVazquez Doris M. 1993 (accessed 11/7/2005) Puerto Rican Folktales\nhttp://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1993/2/93.02.12.x.html#top\nVela, Enrique (editor). 1988. La navegación entre los Mayas. Arqueología Mexicana 6 (number 33, September October 1988) 4-5.\nVespucio, Américo (circa 1454–1512), Fragments and Letters found at https://web.archive.org/web/20051210061617/http://www.e-libro.net/E-libro-viejo/gratis/nvomundo.pdf https://web.archive.org/web/20051028185055/http://www.unsl.edu.ar/librosgratis/gratis/nvomundo.pdf \nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040818183442/http://www.banrep.gov.co/blaavirtual/credencial/hamerica.htm translated '.. the women go naked and are libidinous, lewd, and lustful but despite this their bodies are beautiful and clean....\"\nWilbert, Johannes1977. Navigators of the Winter Sun In: The Sea in the pre-Columbian World. Elizabeth P. Benson, editor. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collections, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington, D.C. pp. 16–44.\nWilson, Samuel M. 1990 Hispaniola Caribbean Chiefdoms in the Age of Columbus. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa and London. \nZayas y Alfonso, Alfredo 1914. \"Lexografía Antillana\" El Siglo XX Press, Havana.\nHill, Jonathan D. and Fernando Santos-Granero (eds.). 2002. Comparative Arawakan Histories. Rethinking Language Family and Cultural Area in Amazonia. University of Illinois Press, Urbana and Chicago. \nHulme. Peter 2000 Remnants of Conquest. The Island Caribs and their Visitors, 1877–1898. Oxford University Press \nLa Rosa Corzo, Gabino (translated by Mary Todd) [1988] 2003 Runaway Slave Settlements in Cuba: Resistance and Repression, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill \nDe la Riva Herrera, Martín 2003 La Conquista de los Motilones, Tabalosos, Maynas y Jíbaros. CETA Iquitos, Perú\n\nExternal links", "title": "Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean" }, { "text": "North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as a part of North America geographically.\n\nNorth America covers an area of about , about 16.5% of Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface area. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7.5% of the world's population. In human geography and in the English-speaking world outside the United States, particularly in Canada, \"North America\" and \"North American\" can refer to just Canada and the United States together.\n\nNorth America was reached by its first human populations during the Last Glacial Period, via crossing the Bering land bridge approximately 20,000 to 17,000 years ago. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago (the beginning of the Archaic or Meso-Indian period). The classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The first recorded Europeans to visit North America (other than Greenland) were the Norse around 1000 AD. Christopher Columbus's arrival in 1492 sparked a transatlantic exchange which included migrations of European settlers during the Age of Discovery and the early modern period. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves, immigrants from Europe, Asia, and the descendants of these groups.\n\nOwing to Europe's colonization of the Americas, most North Americans speak European languages such as English, Spanish or French, and their cultures commonly reflect Western traditions. However, in parts of Canada, the United States, Mexico, and Central America, there are indigenous populations continuing their cultural traditions and speaking native languages.\n\nName \n\nThe Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a world map, in which he placed the word \"America\" on the continent of South America. What was known about the continent was referred to as Parias above what is today Mexico. On a 1553 world map published by Petrus Apianus, North America was called Baccalearum, meaning \"realm of the Cod fish\", in reference to the abundance of Cod fish on the east coast.\n\nWaldseemüller used the Latinized version of Vespucci's name (Americus Vespucius), but in its feminine form \"America\", following the examples of \"Europa\", \"Asia\" and \"Africa\". Later mapmakers extended the name America to the northern continent. In 1538, Gerard Mercator used America on his map of the world for the entire Western Hemisphere.\n\nGerardus Mercator on his map called North America \"America or New India\" (America sive India Nova). The Spanish Empire called its territories in North and South America \"Las Indias\"; the state body overseeing them was the Council of the Indies.\n\nExtent \n\nThe United Nations formally recognizes \"North America\" as comprising three areas: Northern America, Central America, and the Caribbean. This has been formally defined by the UN Statistics Division.\n\n\"Northern America\", as a term distinct from \"North America\", excludes Central America, which itself may or may not include Mexico. In the limited context of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the term covers Canada, the United States, and Mexico, which are the three signatories of that treaty.\n\nFrance, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Romania, Greece, and the countries of Latin America use a six-continent model, with the Americas viewed as a single continent and North America designating a subcontinent comprising Canada, the U.S., Mexico, and Saint Pierre et Miquelon (politically part of France), and often Greenland, and Bermuda.\n\nNorth America has been historically referred to by other names. Spanish North America (New Spain) was often referred to as Northern America, and this was the first official name given to Mexico.\n\nRegions\n\nGeographically, the North American continent has many regions and subregions. These include cultural, economic, and geographic regions. Economic regions included those formed by trade blocs, such as those of the NAFTA and Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA). Linguistically and culturally, the continent could be divided into Anglo-America and Latin America. Anglo-America includes most of Northern America, Belize, and Caribbean islands with English-speaking populations (though sub-national entities, such as Louisiana and Quebec, have large Francophone populations; in Quebec, French is the sole official language).\n\nThe southern part of the North American continent is composed of two regions. These are Central America and the Caribbean. The north of the continent maintains recognized regions as well. In contrast to the common definition of \"North America\", which encompasses the whole continent, the term \"North America\" is sometimes used to refer only to Mexico, Canada, the U.S., and Greenland.\n\nThe term Northern America refers to the northernmost countries and territories of North America: the U.S., Bermuda, St. Pierre and Miquelon, Canada, and Greenland. Although the term does not refer to a unified region, Middle America—not to be confused with the Midwestern U.S.—groups the regions of Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean.\n\nNorth America's largest countries by land area, Canada and the U.S., also have well-defined and recognized regions. In the case of Canada, these are (from east to west) Atlantic Canada, Central Canada, Canadian Prairies, the British Columbia Coast, and Northern Canada. These regions also contain many subregions. In the case of the U.S.—and in accordance with the U.S. Census Bureau definitions—these regions are: New England, Mid-Atlantic, South Atlantic states, East North Central states, West North Central states, East South Central states, West South Central states, Mountain states, and Pacific states. Regions shared between both nations include the Great Lakes region. Megalopolises have formed between both nations in the case of the Pacific Northwest and the Great Lakes Megaregion.\n\nCountries, dependencies, and other territories\n\nNatural characteristics\n\nGeography \n\nNorth America occupies the northern portion of the landmass generally referred to as the New World, the Western Hemisphere, the Americas, or simply America (which, in many countries is considered as a single continent with North America a subcontinent). North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa. North America's only land connection to South America is at the Isthmus of Darian/Isthmus of Panama. The continent is delimited on the southeast by most geographers at the Darién watershed along the Colombia-Panama border, placing almost all of Panama within North America. Alternatively, some geologists physiographically locate its southern limit at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico, with Central America extending southeastward to South America from this point. The Caribbean islands, or West Indies, are considered part of North America. The continental coastline is long and irregular. The Gulf of Mexico is the largest body of water indenting the continent, followed by Hudson Bay. Others include the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the Gulf of California.\n\nBefore the Central American isthmus formed, the region had been underwater. The islands of the West Indies delineate a submerged former land bridge, which had connected North and South America via what are now Florida and Venezuela.\n\nThere are numerous islands off the continent's coasts; principally, the Arctic Archipelago, the Bahamas, Turks & Caicos, the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Aleutian Islands (some of which are in the Eastern Hemisphere proper), the Alexander Archipelago, the many thousand islands of the British Columbia Coast, and Newfoundland. Greenland, a self-governing Danish island, and the world's largest, is on the same tectonic plate (the North American Plate) and is part of North America geographically. In a geologic sense, Bermuda is not part of the Americas, but an oceanic island that was formed on the fissure of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge over 100 million years ago (mya). The nearest landmass to it is Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. However, Bermuda is often thought of as part of North America, especially given its historical, political and cultural ties to Virginia and other parts of the continent.\n\nThe vast majority of North America is on the North American Plate. Parts of western Mexico, including Baja California, and of California, including the cities of San Diego, Los Angeles, and Santa Cruz, lie on the eastern edge of the Pacific Plate, with the two plates meeting along the San Andreas fault. The southernmost portion of the continent and much of the West Indies lie on the Caribbean Plate, whereas the Juan de Fuca and Cocos plates border the North American Plate on its western frontier.\n\nThe continent can be divided into four great regions (each of which contains many subregions): the Great Plains stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to the Canadian Arctic; the geologically young, mountainous west, including the Rocky Mountains, the Great Basin, California and Alaska; the raised but relatively flat plateau of the Canadian Shield in the northeast; and the varied eastern region, which includes the Appalachian Mountains, the coastal plain along the Atlantic seaboard, and the Florida peninsula. Mexico, with its long plateaus and cordilleras, falls largely in the western region, although the eastern coastal plain does extend south along the Gulf.\n\nThe western mountains are split in the middle into the main range of the Rockies and the coast ranges in California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, with the Great Basin—a lower area containing smaller ranges and low-lying deserts—in between. The highest peak is Denali in Alaska.\n\nThe U.S. Geographical Survey (USGS) states that the geographic center of North America is \"6 miles [10 km] west of Balta, Pierce County, North Dakota\" at about , about from Rugby, North Dakota. The USGS further states that \"No marked or monumented point has been established by any government agency as the geographic center of either the 50 states, the conterminous United States, or the North American continent.\" Nonetheless, there is a field stone obelisk in Rugby claiming to mark the center. The North American continental pole of inaccessibility is located from the nearest coastline, between Allen and Kyle, South Dakota at .\n\nGeology\n\nGeologic history \n\nLaurentia is an ancient craton which forms the geologic core of North America; it formed between 1.5 and 1.0 billion years ago during the Proterozoic eon. The Canadian Shield is the largest exposure of this craton. From the Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic eras, North America was joined with the other modern-day continents as part of the supercontinent Pangaea, with Eurasia to its east. One of the results of the formation of Pangaea was the Appalachian Mountains, which formed some 480 mya, making it among the oldest mountain ranges in the world. When Pangaea began to rift around 200 mya, North America became part of Laurasia, before it separated from Eurasia as its own continent during the mid-Cretaceous period. The Rockies and other western mountain ranges began forming around this time from a period of mountain building called the Laramide orogeny, between 80 and 55 mya. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama that connected the continent to South America arguably occurred approximately 12 to 15 mya, and the Great Lakes (as well as many other northern freshwater lakes and rivers) were carved by receding glaciers about 10,000 years ago.\n\nNorth America is the source of much of what humanity knows about geologic time periods. The geographic area that would later become the United States has been the source of more varieties of dinosaurs than any other modern country. According to paleontologist Peter Dodson, this is primarily due to stratigraphy, climate and geography, human resources, and history. Much of the Mesozoic Era is represented by exposed outcrops in the many arid regions of the continent. The most significant Late Jurassic dinosaur-bearing fossil deposit in North America is the Morrison Formation of the western U.S.\n\nCanada \n\nGeologically, Canada is one of the oldest regions in the world, with more than half of the region consisting of Precambrian rocks that have been above sea level since the beginning of the Palaeozoic era. Canada's mineral resources are diverse and extensive. Across the Canadian Shield and in the north there are large iron, nickel, zinc, copper, gold, lead, molybdenum, and uranium reserves. Large diamond concentrations have been recently developed in the Arctic, making Canada one of the world's largest producers. Throughout the Shield, there are many mining towns extracting these minerals. The largest, and best known, is Sudbury, Ontario. Sudbury is an exception to the normal process of forming minerals in the Shield since there is significant evidence that the Sudbury Basin is an ancient meteorite impact crater. The nearby, but less known Temagami Magnetic Anomaly has striking similarities to the Sudbury Basin. Its magnetic anomalies are very similar to the Sudbury Basin, and so it could be a second metal-rich impact crater. The Shield is also covered by vast boreal forests that support an important logging industry.\n\nUnited States \nThe lower 48 U.S. states can be divided into roughly five physiographic provinces:\n The American cordillera\n The Canadian Shield Northern portion of the upper midwestern U.S.\n The stable platform\n The coastal plain\n The Appalachian orogenic belt\n\nThe geology of Alaska is typical of that of the cordillera, while the major islands of Hawaii consist of Neogene volcanics erupted over a hot spot.\n\nCentral America \n\nCentral America is geologically active with volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occurring from time to time. In 1976 Guatemala was hit by a major earthquake, killing 23,000 people; Managua, the capital of Nicaragua, was devastated by earthquakes in 1931 and 1972, the last one killing about 5,000 people; three earthquakes devastated El Salvador, one in 1986 and two in 2001; one earthquake devastated northern and central Costa Rica in 2009, killing at least 34 people; in Honduras a powerful earthquake killed seven people in 2009.\n\nVolcanic eruptions are common in the region. In 1968 the Arenal Volcano, in Costa Rica, erupted and killed 87 people. Fertile soils from weathered volcanic lavas have made it possible to sustain dense populations in agriculturally productive highland areas.\n\nCentral America has many mountain ranges; the longest are the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, the Cordillera Isabelia, and the Cordillera de Talamanca. Between the mountain ranges lie fertile valleys that are suitable for the people; in fact, most of the population of Honduras, Costa Rica, and Guatemala live in valleys. Valleys are also suitable for the production of coffee, beans, and other crops.\n\nClimate \n\nNorth America is a very large continent that extends from north of the Arctic Circle to south of the Tropic of Cancer. Greenland, along with the Canadian Shield, is tundra with average temperatures ranging from , but central Greenland is composed of a very large ice sheet. This tundra radiates throughout Canada, but its border ends near the Rocky Mountains (but still contains Alaska) and at the end of the Canadian Shield, near the Great Lakes.\nClimate west of the Cascade Range is described as being temperate weather with average precipitation .\nClimate in coastal California is described to be Mediterranean, with average temperatures in cities like San Francisco ranging from over the course of the year.\n\nStretching from the East Coast to eastern North Dakota, and stretching down to Kansas, is the humid continental climate featuring intense seasons, with a large amount of annual precipitation, with places like New York City averaging .\nStarting at the southern border of the humid continental climate and stretching to the Gulf of Mexico (whilst encompassing the eastern half of Texas) is the humid subtropical climate. This area has the wettest cities in the contiguous U.S., with annual precipitation reaching in Mobile, Alabama.\nStretching from the borders of the humid continental and subtropical climates, and going west to the Sierra Nevada, south to the southern tip of Durango, north to the border with tundra climate, the steppe/desert climates are the driest in the United States. Highland climates cut from north to south of the continent, where subtropical or temperate climates occur just below the tropics, as in central Mexico and Guatemala. Tropical climates appear in the island regions and in the subcontinent's bottleneck, found in countries and states bathed by the Caribbean Sea or to the south of the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. Precipitation patterns vary across the region, and as such rainforest, monsoon, and savanna types can be found, with rains and high temperatures throughout the year.\n\nEcology \n\nNotable North American fauna include the bison, black bear, jaguar, cougar, prairie dog, turkey, pronghorn, raccoon, coyote and monarch butterfly.\n\nNotable plants that were domesticated in North America include tobacco, maize, squash, tomato, sunflower, blueberry, avocado, cotton, chile pepper\nand vanilla.\n\nHistory\n\nPre-Columbian \n\nThe indigenous peoples of the Americas have many creation myths by which they assert that they have been present on the land since its creation, but there is no evidence that humans evolved there. The specifics of the initial settlement of the Americas by ancient Asians are subject to ongoing research and discussion. The traditional theory has been that hunters entered the Bering Land Bridge between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska from 27,000 to 14,000 years ago. A growing viewpoint is that the first American inhabitants sailed from Beringia some 13,000 years ago, with widespread habitation of the Americas during the end of the Last Glacial Period, in what is known as the Late Glacial Maximum, around 12,500 years ago. The oldest petroglyphs in North America date from 15,000 to 10,000 years before present. Genetic research and anthropology indicate additional waves of migration from Asia via the Bering Strait during the Early-Middle Holocene.\n\nBefore contact with Europeans, the natives of North America were divided into many different polities, from small bands of a few families to large empires. They lived in several \"culture areas\", which roughly correspond to geographic and biological zones and give a good indication of the main way of life of the people who lived there (e.g., the bison hunters of the Great Plains, or the farmers of Mesoamerica). Native groups can also be classified by their language family (e.g., Athapascan or ). Peoples with similar languages did not always share the same material culture, nor were they always allies. Anthropologists think that the Inuit of the high Arctic came to North America much later than other native groups, as evidenced by the disappearance of Dorset culture artifacts from the archaeological record, and their replacement by the Thule people.\n\nDuring the thousands of years of native habitation on the continent, cultures changed and shifted. One of the oldest yet discovered is the Clovis culture (c. 9550–9050 BCE) in modern New Mexico. Later groups include the Mississippian culture and related Mound building cultures, found in the Mississippi river valley and the Pueblo culture of what is now the Four Corners. The more southern cultural groups of North America were responsible for the domestication of many common crops now used around the world, such as tomatoes, squash, and maize. As a result of the development of agriculture in the south, many other cultural advances were made there. The Mayans developed a writing system, built huge pyramids and temples, had a complex calendar, and developed the concept of zero around 400 CE.\n\nThe first recorded European references to North America are in Norse sagas where it is referred to as Vinland. The earliest verifiable instance of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact by any European culture with the North America mainland has been dated to around 1000 CE. The site, situated at the northernmost extent of the island named Newfoundland, has provided unmistakable evidence of Norse settlement. Norse explorer Leif Erikson (c. 970–1020 CE) is thought to have visited the area. Erikson was the first European to make landfall on the continent (excluding Greenland).\n\nThe Mayan culture was still present in southern Mexico and Guatemala when the Spanish conquistadors arrived, but political dominance in the area had shifted to the Aztec Empire, whose capital city Tenochtitlan was located further north in the Valley of Mexico. The Aztecs were conquered in 1521 by Hernán Cortés.\n\nPost-contact, 1492–1910 \n\nDuring the so-called Age of Discovery, Europeans explored overseas and staked claims to various parts of North America, much of which was already settled by indigenous peoples. Upon Europeans' arrival in the \"New World\", indigenous peoples had a variety of reactions, including curiosity, trading, cooperation, resignation, and resistance. The indigenous population declined substantially following European arrival, primarily due to the introduction of Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox, to which the indigenous peoples lacked immunity, and because of violent conflicts with Europeans. Indigenous culture changed significantly and their affiliation with political and cultural groups also changed. Several linguistic groups died out, and others changed quite quickly.\n\nOn the southern east coast of North America, Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León, who had accompanied Columbus's second voyage, visited and named in 1513 La Florida. As the colonial period unfolded, Spain, England, and France appropriated and claimed extensive territories in North America eastern and southern coastlines. Spain established permanent settlements on the Caribbean islands of Hispaniola and Cuba in the 1490s, building cities, putting the resident indigenous populations to work, raising crops for Spanish settlers and panning gold to enrich the Spaniards. Much of the indigenous population died due to disease and overwork, spurring the Spaniards on to claim new lands and peoples. An expedition under the command of Spanish settler, Hernán Cortés, sailed westward in 1519 to what turned out to be the mainland in Mexico. With local indigenous allies, the Spanish conquered the Aztec empire in central Mexico in 1521. Spain then established permanent cities in Mexico, Central America, and Spanish South America in the sixteenth century. Once Spaniards conquered the high civilization of the Aztecs and Incas, the Caribbean was a backwater of the Spanish empire.\n\nOther European powers began to intrude on areas that Spain had claimed, including the Caribbean islands. France took the western half of Hispaniola and developed Saint-Domingue as a cane sugar producing colony worked by black slave labor. Britain took Barbados and Jamaica; the Dutch and Danes also took islands previously claimed by Spain. Britain did not begin settling on the North American mainland until a hundred years after the first Spanish settlements, since it sought first to control nearby Ireland. The first permanent English settlement was in Jamestown, Virginia in 1607, and then further settler colonial establishments on the east coast of the continent from what is now Georgia up to Massachusetts, forming the Thirteen Colonies. The English did not establish settlements north, east of the St. Lawrence Valley in what would become Canada until well after the war of independence. English early permanent settlements were St. John's, Newfoundland in 1630 and Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1749. The first permanent French settlement was in Quebec City, Quebec in 1608. In the British victory the Seven Years' War, France ceded to Britain its claims east of the Mississippi River in 1763. Spain gained rights to the territories west of Mississippi now acting as a border. French so-called \"colonists\" that had first settled the Illinois Country after several generations of experience on the new continent migrated over the Mississippi in the absence of Spanish occupants while leveraging earlier Louisiana French settlements around the Gulf of Mexico. These early French settlers partnering with midwest indigenous tribes and their mixed ancestry descendants would precede the westward push and guide through waves of followers all the way to the Pacific.\n\nThe Thirteen Colonies on the North Atlantic coast declared independence in 1776, fighting a protracted war of independence with the aid of Britain's enemies France and Spain, becoming the United States of America. The new nation steadily attempted to increase its territory. By that time, the Russians were already well established on the Pacific Northwest northern coastline with maritime fur trade activities supported by active settlements. As a result, the Spanish were showing more interest in controlling the trade on the Pacific coast and mapped most of its coastline. The first Spanish settlements were attempted in Alta California during that period. Numerous overland explorations associated with voyageurs, fur trade, and U.S. led expeditions (e.g., Lewis and Clark, Fremont and Wilkes) were reaching the Pacific at various latitudes around the turn of the century. In 1803 Napoleon Bonaparte sold France's remaining claims in North America, west of the Mississippi River, to the U.S., in a deal named the Louisiana Purchase. Spain and the U.S. settled their western boundary dispute in 1819 in the Adams–Onís Treaty. Mexico fought a lengthy war for independence from Spain, winning it for Mexico (which included Central America at the time) in 1821. The U.S. sought further westward expansion and fought the Mexican–American War, gaining a vast territory that first Spain and then Mexico claimed but which they did not effectively control. Much of the area was in fact dominated by indigenous peoples, which did not recognize the claims of Spain, France, or the U.S. Russia sold its North American claims, which included Alaska, to the U.S in 1867. Also in 1867, settler colonies in eastern North America were unified as the dominion of Canada. The U.S. sought to dig a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, a part of Colombia, and aided Panamanians in a war to separate it from Colombia. The U.S. carved out the Panama Canal Zone, over which it claimed sovereignty. After decades of work the Panama Canal was completed, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans in 1913.\n\nDemographics\n\nEconomically, Canada and the U.S. are the wealthiest and most developed nations in the continent, followed by Mexico, a newly industrialized country. The countries of Central America and the Caribbean are at various levels of economic and human development. For example, small Caribbean island-nations, such as Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, and Antigua and Barbuda, have a higher GDP (PPP) per capita than Mexico due to their smaller populations. Panama and Costa Rica have a significantly higher Human Development Index and GDP than the rest of the Central American nations. Additionally, despite Greenland's vast resources in oil and minerals, much of them remain untapped, and the island is economically dependent on fishing, tourism, and subsidies from Denmark. Nevertheless, the island is highly developed.\n\nDemographically, North America is ethnically diverse. Its three main groups are Whites, Mestizos and Blacks. There is a significant minority of Indigenous Americans and Asians among other less numerous groups.\n\nLanguages \n\nThe dominant languages in North America are English, Spanish, and French. Danish is prevalent in Greenland alongside Greenlandic, and Dutch is spoken side by side local languages in the Dutch Caribbean. The term Anglo-America is used to refer to the anglophone countries of the Americas: namely Canada (where English and French are co-official) and the U.S., but also sometimes Belize and parts of the tropics, especially the Commonwealth Caribbean. Latin America refers to the other areas of the Americas (generally south of the U.S.) where the Romance languages, derived from Latin, of Spanish and Portuguese, (but French-speaking countries are not usually included) predominate: the other republics of Central America (but not always Belize), part of the Caribbean (not the Dutch-, English-, or French-speaking areas), Mexico, and most of South America (except Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana [France], and the Falkland Islands [UK]).\n\nThe French language has historically played a significant role in North America and now retains a distinctive presence in some regions. Canada is officially bilingual. French is the official language of the Province of Quebec, where 95% of the people speak it as either their first or second language, and it is co-official with English in the Province of New Brunswick. Other French-speaking locales include the Province of Ontario (the official language is English, but there are an estimated 600,000 Franco-Ontarians), the Province of Manitoba (co-official as de jure with English), the French West Indies and Saint-Pierre et Miquelon, as well as the U.S. state of Louisiana, where French is also an official language. Haiti is included with this group based on historical association but Haitians speak both Creole and French. Similarly, French and French Antillean Creole is spoken in Saint Lucia and the Commonwealth of Dominica alongside English.\n\nA significant number of Indigenous languages are spoken in North America, with 372,000 people in the U.S. speaking an indigenous language at home, about 225,000 in Canada and roughly 6 million in Mexico. In the U.S. and Canada, there are approximately 150 surviving indigenous languages of the 300 spoken prior to European contact.\n\nReligions \n\nChristianity is the largest religion in the U.S., Canada and Mexico. According to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey, 77% of the population considered themselves Christians. Christianity also is the predominant religion in the 23 dependent territories in North America. The U.S. has the largest Christian population in the world, with nearly 247 million Christians (70%), although other countries have higher percentages of Christians among their populations. Mexico has the world's second largest number of Catholics, surpassed only by Brazil.\n\nAccording to the same study, the religiously unaffiliated (including agnostics and atheists) make up about 17% of the population of Canada and the U.S. Those with no religious affiliation make up about 24% of Canada's total population.\n\nCanada, the U.S. and Mexico host communities of Jews (6 million or about 1.8%), Buddhists (3.8 million or 1.1%) and Muslims (3.4 million or 1.0%). The largest number of Jews can be found in the U.S. (5.4 million), Canada (375,000) and Mexico (67,476). The U.S. hosts the largest Muslim population in North America with 2.7 million or 0.9%, while Canada hosts about one million Muslims or 3.2% of the population. In Mexico there were 3,700 Muslims in 2010. In 2012, U-T San Diego estimated U.S. practitioners of Buddhism at 1.2 million people, of whom 40% are living in Southern California.\n\nThe predominant religion in Mexico and Central America is Christianity (96%). Beginning with the Spanish colonization of Mexico in the 16th century, Roman Catholicism was the only religion permitted by Spanish crown and Catholic church. A vast campaign of religious conversion, the so-called \"spiritual conquest\", was launched to bring the indigenous peoples into the Christian fold. The Inquisition was established to assure orthodox belief and practice. The Catholic Church remained an important institution, so that even after political independence, Roman Catholicism remained the dominant religion. Since the 1960s, there has been an increase in other Christian groups, particularly Protestantism, as well as other religious organizations, and individuals identifying themselves as having no religion. Christianity is also the predominant religion in the Caribbean (85%). Other religious groups in the region are Hinduism, Islam, Rastafari (in Jamaica), and Afro-American religions such as Santería and Vodou.\n\nPopulace \n\nNorth America is the fourth most populous continent after Asia, Africa, and Europe. Its most populous country is the U.S. with 329.7 million persons. The second largest country is Mexico with a population of 112.3 million. Canada is the third most populous country with 37.0 million. The majority of Caribbean island-nations have national populations under a million, though Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico (a territory of the U.S.), Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago each have populations higher than a million. Greenland has a small population of 55,984 for its massive size (2,166,000 km2 or 836,300 mi2), and therefore, it has the world's lowest population density at 0.026 pop./km2 (0.067 pop./mi2).\n\nWhile the U.S., Canada, and Mexico maintain the largest populations, large city populations are not restricted to those nations. There are also large cities in the Caribbean. The largest cities in North America, by far, are Mexico City and New York City. These cities are the only cities on the continent to exceed eight million, and two of three in the Americas. Next in size are Los Angeles, Toronto, Chicago, Havana, Santo Domingo, and Montreal. Cities in the Sun Belt regions of the U.S., such as those in Southern California and Houston, Phoenix, Miami, Atlanta, and Las Vegas, are experiencing rapid growth. These causes included warm temperatures, retirement of Baby Boomers, large industry, and the influx of immigrants. Cities near the U.S. border, particularly in Mexico, are also experiencing large amounts of growth. Most notable is Tijuana, a city bordering San Diego that receives immigrants from all over Latin America and parts of Europe and Asia. Yet as cities grow in these warmer regions of North America, they are increasingly forced to deal with the major issue of water shortages.\n\nEight of the top ten metropolitan areas are located in the U.S. These metropolitan areas all have a population of above 5.5 million and include the New York City metropolitan area, Los Angeles metropolitan area, Chicago metropolitan area, and the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex. Whilst the majority of the largest metropolitan areas are within the U.S., Mexico is host to the largest metropolitan area by population in North America: Greater Mexico City. Canada also breaks into the top ten largest metropolitan areas with the Toronto metropolitan area having six million people. The proximity of cities to each other on the Canada–U.S. border and Mexico–U.S. border has led to the rise of international metropolitan areas. These urban agglomerations are observed at their largest and most productive in Detroit–Windsor and San Diego–Tijuana and experience large commercial, economic, and cultural activity. The metropolitan areas are responsible for millions of dollars of trade dependent on international freight. In Detroit-Windsor the Border Transportation Partnership study in 2004 concluded US$13 billion was dependent on the Detroit–Windsor international border crossing while in San Diego-Tijuana freight at the Otay Mesa Port of Entry was valued at US$20 billion.\n\nNorth America has also been witness to the growth of megapolitan areas. In the U.S. exists eleven megaregions that transcend international borders and comprise Canadian and Mexican metropolitan regions. These are the Arizona Sun Corridor, Cascadia, Florida, Front Range, Great Lakes Megalopolis, Gulf Coast, Northeast, Northern California, Piedmont Atlantic, Southern California, and the Texas Triangle. Canada and Mexico are also the home of megaregions. These include the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor, Golden Horseshoe—both of which are considered part of the Great Lakes Megalopolis—and the Central Mexico megalopolis. Traditionally the largest megaregion has been considered the Boston-Washington, DC Corridor, or the Northeast, as the region is one massive contiguous area. Yet megaregion criterion have allowed the Great Lakes Megalopolis to maintain status as the most populated region, being home to 53,768,125 people in 2000.\n\n†2011 Census figures\n\nEconomy \n\nNorth America's GDP per capita was evaluated in October 2016 by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to be $41,830, making it the richest continent in the world, followed by Oceania.\n\nCanada, Mexico, and the U.S. have significant and multifaceted economic systems. The U.S. has the largest economy of all three countries and in the world. In 2016, the U.S. had an estimated per capita gross domestic product (PPP) of $57,466 according to the World Bank, and is the most technologically developed economy of the three. The U.S.'s services sector comprises 77% of the country's GDP (estimated in 2010), industry comprises 22% and agriculture comprises 1.2%. The U.S. economy is also the fastest growing economy in North America and the Americas as a whole, with the highest GDP per capita in the Americas as well.\n\nCanada shows significant growth in the sectors of services, mining and manufacturing. Canada's per capita GDP (PPP) was estimated at $44,656 and it had the 11th largest GDP (nominal) in 2014. Canada's services sector comprises 78% of the country's GDP (estimated in 2010), industry comprises 20% and agriculture comprises 2%. Mexico has a per capita GDP (PPP) of $16,111 and as of 2014 is the 15th largest GDP (nominal) in the world. Being a newly industrialized country, Mexico maintains both modern and outdated industrial and agricultural facilities and operations. Its main sources of income are oil, industrial exports, manufactured goods, electronics, heavy industry, automobiles, construction, food, banking and financial services.\n\nThe North American economy is well defined and structured in three main economic areas. These areas are those under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM), and the Central American Common Market (CACM). Of these trade blocs, the U.S. takes part in two. In addition to the larger trade blocs there is the Canada-Costa Rica Free Trade Agreement among numerous other free-trade relations, often between the larger, more developed countries and Central American and Caribbean countries.\n\nThe NAFTA forms one of the four largest trade blocs in the world. Its implementation in 1994 was designed for economic homogenization with hopes of eliminating barriers of trade and foreign investment between Canada, the U.S. and Mexico. While Canada and the U.S. already conducted the largest bilateral trade relationship—and to present day still do—in the world and Canada–U.S. trade relations already allowed trade without national taxes and tariffs, NAFTA allowed Mexico to experience a similar duty-free trade. The free-trade agreement allowed for the elimination of tariffs that had previously been in place on U.S.–Mexico trade. Trade volume has steadily increased annually and in 2010, surface trade between the three NAFTA nations reached an all-time historical increase of 24.3% or US$791 billion. The NAFTA trade bloc GDP (PPP) is the world's largest with US$17.617 trillion. This is in part attributed to the fact that the economy of the U.S. is the world's largest national economy; the country had a nominal GDP of approximately $14.7 trillion in 2010. The countries of NAFTA are also some of each other's largest trade partners. The U.S. is the largest trade partner of Canada and Mexico, while Canada and Mexico are each other's third largest trade partners. In 2018, the NAFTA was replaced by the U.S.–Mexico–Canada Agreement.\n\nThe Caribbean trade bloc (CARICOM) came into agreement in 1973 when it was signed by 15 Caribbean nations. As of 2000, CARICOM trade volume was US$96 billion. CARICOM also allowed for the creation of a common passport for associated nations. In the past decade the trade bloc focused largely on free-trade agreements and under the CARICOM Office of Trade Negotiations free-trade agreements have been signed into effect.\n\nIntegration of Central American economies occurred under the signing of the Central American Common Market agreement in 1961; this was the first attempt to engage the nations of this area into stronger financial cooperation. The 2006 implementation of the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) left the future of the CACM unclear. The Central American Free Trade Agreement was signed by five Central American countries, the Dominican Republic, and the U.S. The focal point of CAFTA is to create a free trade area similar to that of NAFTA. In addition to the U.S., Canada also has relations in Central American trade blocs.\n\nThese nations also take part in inter-continental trade blocs. Mexico takes a part in the G3 Free Trade Agreement with Colombia and Venezuela and has a trade agreement with the EU. The U.S. has proposed and maintained trade agreements under the Transatlantic Free Trade Area between itself and the European Union; the U.S.–Middle East Free Trade Area between numerous Middle Eastern nations and itself; and the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership between Southeast Asian nations, Australia, and New Zealand.\n\nTransport \n\nThe Pan-American Highway route in the Americas is the portion of a network of roads nearly in length which travels through the mainland nations. No definitive length of the Pan-American Highway exists because the U.S. and Canadian governments have never officially defined any specific routes as being part of the Pan-American Highway, and Mexico officially has many branches connecting to the U.S. border. However, the total length of the portion from Mexico to the northern extremity of the highway is roughly .\n\nThe first transcontinental railroad in the U.S. was built in the 1860s, linking the railroad network of the eastern U.S. with California on the Pacific coast. Finished on 10 May 1869 at the famous golden spike event at Promontory Summit, Utah, it created a nationwide mechanized transportation network that revolutionized the population and economy of the American West, catalyzing the transition from the wagon trains of previous decades to a modern transportation system. Although an accomplishment, it achieved the status of first transcontinental railroad by connecting myriad eastern U.S. railroads to the Pacific and was not the largest single railroad system in the world. The Canadian Grand Trunk Railway had, by 1867, already accumulated more than of track by connecting Ontario with the Canadian Atlantic provinces west as far as Port Huron, Michigan, through Sarnia, Ontario.\n\nCommunications \nA shared telephone system known as the North American Numbering Plan (NANP) is an integrated telephone numbering plan of 24 countries and territories: the U.S. and its territories, Canada, Bermuda, and 17 Caribbean nations.\n\nCulture \n\nThe cultures of North America are diverse. The U.S. and English Canada have many cultural similarities, while French Canada has a distinct culture from Anglophone Canada, which is protected by law. Since the U.S. was formed from portions previously part of the Spanish Empire and then independent Mexico, and there has been considerable and continuing immigration of Spanish speakers from south of the U.S.–Mexico border. In the southwest of the U.S. there are many Hispanic cultural traditions and considerable bilingualism. Mexico and Central America are part of Latin America and are culturally distinct from anglophone and francophone North America. However, they share with the United States the establishment of post-independence governments that are federated representative republics with written constitutions dating from their founding as nations. Canada is a federated parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy.\n\nCanada's constitution dates to 1867, with confederation, in the British North America Act, but not until 1982 did Canada have the power to amend its own constitution. Canada's Francophone heritage has been enshrined in law since the British parliament passed the Quebec Act of 1774. In contrast to largely Protestant Anglo settlers in North America, French-speaking Canadians were Catholic and with the Quebec Act were guaranteed freedom to practice their religion, restored the right of the Catholic Church to impose tithes for its support, and established French civil law in most circumstances.\n\nThe distinctiveness of French language and culture has been codified in Canadian law, so that both English and French are designated official languages. The U.S. has no official language, but its national language is English.\n\nThe Canadian government took action to protect Canadian culture by limiting non-Canadian content in broadcasting, creating the Canadian Radio and Telecommunications Commission to monitor Canadian content. In Quebec, the provincial government established the Quebec Office of the French Language, often called the \"language police\" by Anglophones, which mandates the use of French terminology and signage in French. Since 1968 the unicameral legislature has been called the Quebec National Assembly. Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day, 24 June, is the national holiday of Quebec and celebrated by francophone Canadians throughout Canada. In Quebec, the school system was divided into Catholic and Protestant, so-called confessional schools. Anglophone education in Quebec has been increasingly undermined.\n\nLatino culture is strong in the southwest of the U.S., as well as Florida, which draws Latin Americans from many countries in the hemisphere. Northern Mexico, particularly in the cities of Monterrey, Tijuana, Ciudad Juárez, and Mexicali, is strongly influenced by the culture and way of life of the U.S. Monterrey, a modern city with a significant industrial group, has been regarded as the most Americanized city in Mexico. Northern Mexico, the Western U.S. and Alberta, Canada share a cowboy culture.\n\nThe Anglophone Caribbean states have witnessed and participated in the decline of the British Empire and its influence on the region, and its replacement by the economic influence of Northern America in the Anglophone Caribbean. This is partly due to the relatively small populations of the English-speaking Caribbean countries, and also because many of them now have more people living abroad than those remaining at home.\n\nGreenland has experienced many immigration waves from Northern Canada, e.g. the Thule people. Therefore, Greenland shares some cultural ties with the indigenous peoples of Canada. Greenland is also considered Nordic and has strong Danish ties due to centuries of colonization by Denmark.\n\nPopular culture – sports \nThe U.S. and Canada have major sports teams that compete against each other, including baseball, basketball, hockey, and soccer/football.\nCanada, Mexico and the U.S. submitted a joint bid to host the 2026 FIFA World Cup.\nThe following table shows the most prominent sports leagues in North America, in order of average revenue. Canada has a separate Canadian Football League from the U.S. teams.\n\nThe Native American game of lacrosse is considered a national sport in Canada. Curling is an important winter sport in Canada, and the Winter Olympics includes it in the roster. The English sport of cricket is popular in parts of anglophone Canada and very popular in parts of the former British empire, but in Canada is considered a minor sport. Boxing is also a major sport in some countries, such as Mexico, Panama and Puerto Rico, and it is considered one of the main individual sports in the U.S.\n\nSee also \n Flags of North America\n List of cities in North America\n North American Union\n Outline of North America\n Table manners in North America\n\nReferences\n\nFootnotes\n\nCitations\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links \n \n \n North America: Human Geography at the National Geographic Society \n European Colonization of North America at the National Geographic Society \n \n \n The Columbia Gazetteer of the World Online Columbia University Press \n \n \n\n \n\n \nCategory:Continents", "title": "North America" } ]
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C_8ec26f5ba97949c5a5d343a2b5b4bc90_0
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. Although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers--and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are--many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time and work in reshaping and cultivating the flora indigenous to the Americas. Although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting and gathering.
Guatemala
Guatemala has one of the largest Indigenous populations in Central America, with approximately 39.3% of the population considering themselves Indigenous. The Indigenous demographic portion of Guatemala's population consists of majority Mayan groups and one Non-Mayan group. The Mayan portion, can be broken down into 23 groups namely K'iche 11.3%, Kaqchikel 7.4%, Mam 5.5%, Q'eqchi' 7.6% and Other 7.5%. The Non-Mayan group consists of the Xinca who are another set of Indigenous people making up 0.5% of the population. The Mayan tribes cover a vast geographic area throughout Central America and expanding beyond Guatemala into other countries. One could find vast groups of Mayan people in Boca Costa, in the Southern portions of Guatemala, as well as the Western Highlands living together in close communities. Within these communities and outside of them, around 23 Indigenous languages or Amerindian Languages are spoken as a first language. Of these 23 languages, they only received official recognition by the Government in 2003 under the Law of National Languages. The Law on National Languages recognizes 23 Indigenous languages including Xinca, enforcing that public and government institutions not only translate but also provide services in said languages. It would provide services in Cakchiquel, Garifuna, Kekchi, Mam, Quiche and Xinca. The Law of National Languages has been an effort to grant and protect Indigenous people rights not afforded to them previously. Along with the Law of National Languages passed in 2003, in 1996 the Guatemalan Constitutional Court had ratified the ILO Convention 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples. The ILO Convention 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples, is also known as Convention 169 . Which is the only International Law regarding Indigenous peoples that Independent countries can adopt. The Convention, establishes that Governments like Guatemala's must consult with Indigenous groups prior to any projects occurring on tribal lands. CANNOTANSWER
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The Indigenous peoples of the Americas are the inhabitants of the Americas before the arrival of European settlers and African slaves in the 15th century, and the ethnic groups who now identify themselves with those peoples. Many Indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are, but many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. While some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions, the Indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, city-states, chiefdoms, states, kingdoms, republics, confederacies, and empires. Some had varying degrees of knowledge of engineering, architecture, mathematics, astronomy, writing, physics, medicine, planting and irrigation, geology, mining, metallurgy, sculpture, and gold smithing. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by Indigenous peoples; some countries have sizeable populations, especially Bolivia, Canada, Chile, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru, and the United States. At least a thousand different Indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Several of these languages are recognized as official by several governments such as those in Bolivia, Peru, Paraguay and Greenland. Some, such as Quechua, Arawak, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan, and Nahuatl, count their speakers in the millions. Many also maintain aspects of Indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many Indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects but also cater to modern needs. Some Indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. Bolivia is the only country in the Americas where Indigenous peoples constitute the majority. Terminology Application of the term "Indian" originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for India, thought that he had arrived in the East Indies. Eventually, those islands came to be known as the "West Indies", a name still used. This led to the blanket term "Indies" and "Indians" (; ; ; ) for the Indigenous inhabitants, which implied some kind of ethnic or cultural unity among the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. This unifying concept, codified in law, religion, and politics, was not originally accepted by the myriad groups of Indigenous peoples themselves, but has since been embraced or tolerated by many over the last two centuries. Even though the term "Indian" generally does not include the culturally and linguistically distinct Indigenous peoples of the Arctic regions of the Americas—such as the Aleuts, Inuit, or Yupik peoples, who entered the continent as a second, more recent wave of migration several thousand years later and have much more recent genetic and cultural commonalities with the Aboriginal peoples of the Asiatic Arctic Russian Far East—these groups are nonetheless considered "Indigenous peoples of the Americas". The term Amerindian, a portmanteau of "American Indian", was coined in 1902 by the American Anthropological Association. However, it has been controversial since its creation. It was immediately rejected by some leading members of the Association, and, while adopted by many, it was never universally accepted. While never popular in Indigenous communities themselves, it remains a preferred term among some anthropologists, notably in some parts of Canada and the English-speaking Caribbean. Indigenous peoples in Canada is used as the collective name for First Nations, Inuit, and Métis. The term Aboriginal peoples as a collective noun (also describing First Nations, Inuit, and Métis) is a specific term of art used in some legal documents, including the Constitution Act, 1982, though in most Indigenous circles Aboriginal has also fallen into disfavor. Over time, as societal perceptions and government-Indigenous relationships have shifted, many historical terms have changed definition or been replaced as they have fallen out of favor. Use of the term "Indian" is frowned upon because it represents the imposition and restriction of Indigenous peoples and cultures by the Canadian Government. The terms "Native" and "Eskimo" are generally regarded as disrespectful, and so are rarely used unless specifically required. While "Indigenous peoples" is the preferred term, many individuals or communities may choose to describe their identity using a different term. The Métis people of Canada can be contrasted, for instance, to the Indigenous-European mixed race mestizos (or in Brazil) of Hispanic America who, with their larger population (in most Latin-American countries constituting either outright majorities, pluralities, or at the least large minorities), identify largely as a new ethnic group distinct from both Europeans and Indigenous, but still considering themselves a subset of the European-derived Hispanic or Brazilian peoplehood in culture and ethnicity (cf. ). Among Spanish-speaking countries, or ('Indigenous peoples') is a common term, though or ('native peoples') may also be heard; moreover, ('aborigine') is used in Argentina and ('original peoples') is common in Chile. In Brazil, or ('Indigenous peoples') are common of formal-sounding designations, while ('Indian') is still the more often-heard term (the noun for the South-Asian nationality being ). and is rarely used in Brazil in Indigenous-specific contexts (e.g., is usually understood as the ethnonym for Indigenous Australians). The Spanish and Portuguese equivalents to Indian, nevertheless, could be used to mean any hunter-gatherer or full-blooded Indigenous person, particularly to continents other than Europe or Africa—for example, . Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans, Indians, as well as Alaska Natives. The term "Indian" is still used in some communities and remains in use in the official names of many institutions and businesses in Indian Country. Name controversy The various Nations, tribes, and bands of Indigenous peoples of the Americas have differing preferences in terminology for themselves. While there are regional and generational variations in which umbrella terms are preferred for Indigenous peoples as a whole, in general, most Indigenous peoples prefer to be identified by the name of their specific Nation, tribe, or band. Early settlers often adopted terms that some tribes used for each other, not realizing these were derogatory terms used by enemies. When discussing broader subsets of peoples, naming has often been based on shared language, region, or historical relationship. Many English exonyms have been used to refer to the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Some of these names were based on foreign-language terms used by earlier explorers and colonists, while others resulted from the colonists' attempts to translate or transliterate endonyms from the native languages. Other terms arose during periods of conflict between the colonists and Indigenous peoples. Since the late 20th century, Indigenous peoples in the Americas have been more vocal about how they want to be addressed, pushing to suppress use of terms widely considered to be obsolete, inaccurate, or racist. During the latter half of the 20th century and the rise of the Indian rights movement, the United States government responded by proposing the use of the term "Native American", to recognize the primacy of Indigenous peoples' tenure in the nation. As may be expected among people of over 400 different cultures in the US alone, not all of the people intended to be described by this term have agreed on its use or adopted it. No single group naming convention has been accepted by all Indigenous peoples in the Americas. Most prefer to be addressed as people of their tribe or nations when not speaking about Native Americans/American Indians as a whole. Since the 1970s, Indigenous (capitalized when referring to people) has gradually emerged as a favored umbrella term. The capitalization is to acknowledge that Indigenous peoples have cultures and societies that are equal to Europeans, Africans, and Asians. This has recently been acknowledged in the AP Stylebook. Some consider it improper to refer to Indigenous people as "Indigenous Americans" or to append any colonial nationality to the term because Indigenous cultures have existed prior to European colonization. Indigenous groups have territorial claims that are different from modern national and international borders, and when labelled as part of a country, their traditional lands are not acknowledged. Some who have written guidelines consider it more appropriate to describe an Indigenous person as "living in" or "of" the Americas, rather than calling them "American"; or to simply call them "Indigenous" without any addition of a colonial state. History Settlement of the Americas Geneticist and professor of anthropology Jennifer Raff (2022) in the book "A Genetic Chronicle of the First Peoples in the Americas" summarized that the first people in the Americas formed from the merger of a distinct Paleolithic Siberian population (known as Ancient North Eurasians), with a deeply diverged Ancient East Asian group about 36,000 years ago, giving rise to both Paleosiberian peoples and Ancient Native Americans, which later migrated towards the Beringian region, became isolated from other populations, and subsequently populated the Americas. Pre-Columbian era The Pre-Columbian era refers to all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European and African influences on the American continents, spanning the time of the original arrival in the Upper Paleolithic to European colonization during the early modern period. While technically referring to the era before Christopher Columbus' voyages of 1492 to 1504, in practice the term usually includes the history of Indigenous cultures until Europeans either conquered or significantly influenced them. "Pre-Columbian" is used especially often in the context of discussing the pre-contact Mesoamerican Indigenous societies: Olmec; Toltec; Teotihuacano' Zapotec; Mixtec; Aztec and Maya civilizations; and the complex cultures of the Andes: Inca Empire, Moche culture, Muisca Confederation, and Cañari. The Norte Chico civilization (in present-day Peru) is one of the defining six original civilizations of the world, arising independently around the same time as that of Egypt. Many later pre-Columbian civilizations achieved great complexity, with hallmarks that included permanent or urban settlements, agriculture, engineering, astronomy, trade, civic and monumental architecture, and complex societal hierarchies. Some of these civilizations had long faded by the time of the first significant European and African arrivals (ca. late 15th–early 16th centuries), and are known only through oral history and through archaeological investigations. Others were contemporary with the contact and colonization period, and were documented in historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Mayan, Olmec, Mixtec, Aztec and Nahua peoples, had their own written languages and records. However, the European colonists of the time worked to eliminate non-Christian beliefs, and burned many pre-Columbian written records. Only a few documents remained hidden and survived, leaving contemporary historians with glimpses of ancient culture and knowledge. According to both Indigenous and European accounts and documents, American civilizations before and at the time of European encounter had achieved great complexity and many accomplishments. For instance, the Aztecs built one of the largest cities in the world, Tenochtitlan (the historical site of what would become Mexico City), with an estimated population of 200,000 for the city proper and a population of close to five million for the extended empire. By comparison, the largest European cities in the 16th century were Constantinople and Paris with 300,000 and 200,000 inhabitants respectively. The population in London, Madrid and Rome hardly exceeded 50,000 people. In 1523, right around the time of the Spanish conquest, the entire population in the country of England was just under three million people. This fact speaks to the level of sophistication, agriculture, governmental procedure and rule of law that existed in Tenochtitlan, needed to govern over such a large citizenry. Indigenous civilizations also displayed impressive accomplishments in astronomy and mathematics, including the most accurate calendar in the world. The domestication of maize or corn required thousands of years of selective breeding, and continued cultivation of multiple varieties was done with planning and selection, generally by women. Inuit, Yupik, Aleut, and Indigenous creation myths tell of a variety of origins of their respective peoples. Some were "always there" or were created by gods or animals, some migrated from a specified compass point, and others came from "across the ocean". European colonization The European colonization of the Americas fundamentally changed the lives and cultures of the resident Indigenous peoples. Although the exact pre-colonization population-count of the Americas is unknown, scholars estimate that Indigenous populations diminished by between 80% and 90% within the first centuries of European colonization. The majority of these losses are attributed to the introduction of Afro-Eurasian diseases into the Americas. Epidemics ravaged the Americas with diseases such as smallpox, measles, and cholera, which the early colonists brought from Europe. The spread of infectious diseases was slow initially, as most Europeans were not actively or visibly infected, due to inherited immunity from generations of exposure to these diseases in Europe. This changed when the Europeans began the human trafficking of massive numbers of enslaved Western and Central African people to the Americas. Like Indigenous peoples, these African people, newly exposed to European diseases, lacked any inherited resistances to the diseases of Europe. In 1520 an African who had been infected with smallpox had arrived in Yucatán. By 1558, the disease had spread throughout South America and had arrived at the Plata basin. Colonist violence towards Indigenous peoples accelerated the loss of lives. European colonists perpetrated massacres on the Indigenous peoples and enslaved them. According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894), the North American Indian Wars of the 19th century cost the lives of about 19,000 Europeans and 30,000 Native Americans. The first Indigenous group encountered by Columbus, the 250,000 Taínos of Hispaniola, represented the dominant culture in the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas. Within thirty years about 70% of the Taínos had died. They had no immunity to European diseases, so outbreaks of measles and smallpox ravaged their population. One such outbreak occurred in a camp of enslaved Africans, where smallpox spread to the nearby Taíno population and reduced their numbers by 50%. Increasing punishment of the Taínos for revolting against forced labor, despite measures put in place by the encomienda, which included religious education and protection from warring tribes, eventually led to the last great Taíno rebellion (1511–1529). Following years of mistreatment, the Taínos began to adopt suicidal behaviors, with women aborting or killing their infants and men jumping from cliffs or ingesting untreated cassava, a violent poison. Eventually, a Taíno Cacique named Enriquillo managed to hold out in the Baoruco Mountain Range for thirteen years, causing serious damage to the Spanish, Carib-held plantations and their Indian auxiliaries. Hearing of the seriousness of the revolt, Emperor Charles V (also King of Spain) sent captain Francisco Barrionuevo to negotiate a peace treaty with the ever-increasing number of rebels. Two months later, after consultation with the Audencia of Santo Domingo, Enriquillo was offered any part of the island to live in peace. The Laws of Burgos, 1512–1513, were the first codified set of laws governing the behavior of Spanish settlers in America, particularly with regard to Indigenous peoples. The laws forbade the maltreatment of them and endorsed their conversion to Catholicism. The Spanish crown found it difficult to enforce these laws in distant colonies. Epidemic disease was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the Indigenous peoples. After initial contact with Europeans and Africans, Old World diseases caused the deaths of 90 to 95% of the native population of the New World in the following 150 years. Smallpox killed from one third to half of the native population of Hispaniola in 1518. By killing the Incan ruler Huayna Capac, smallpox caused the Inca Civil War of 1529–1532. Smallpox was only the first epidemic. Typhus (probably) in 1546, influenza and smallpox together in 1558, smallpox again in 1589, diphtheria in 1614, measles in 1618—all ravaged the remains of Inca culture. Smallpox killed millions of native inhabitants of Mexico. Unintentionally introduced at Veracruz with the arrival of Pánfilo de Narváez on 23 April 1520, smallpox ravaged Mexico in the 1520s, possibly killing over 150,000 in Tenochtitlán (the heartland of the Aztec Empire) alone, and aiding in the victory of Hernán Cortés over the Aztec Empire at Tenochtitlan (present-day Mexico City) in 1521. There are many factors as to why Indigenous peoples suffered such immense losses from Afro-Eurasian diseases. Many European diseases, like cow pox, are acquired from domesticated animals that are not indigenous to the Americas. European populations had adapted to these diseases, and built up resistance, over many generations. Many of the European diseases that were brought over to the Americas were diseases, like yellow fever, that were relatively manageable if infected as a child, but were deadly if infected as an adult. Children could often survive the disease, resulting in immunity to the disease for the rest of their lives. But contact with adult populations without this childhood or inherited immunity would result in these diseases proving fatal. Colonization of the Caribbean led to the destruction of the Arawaks of the Lesser Antilles. Their culture was destroyed by 1650. Only 500 had survived by the year 1550, though the bloodlines continued through to the modern populace. In Amazonia, Indigenous societies weathered, and continue to suffer, centuries of colonization and genocide. Contact with European diseases such as smallpox and measles killed between 50 and 67 per cent of the Indigenous population of North America in the first hundred years after the arrival of Europeans. Some 90 per cent of the native population near Massachusetts Bay Colony died of smallpox in an epidemic in 1617–1619. In 1633, in Fort Orange (New Netherland), the Native Americans there were exposed to smallpox because of contact with Europeans. As it had done elsewhere, the virus wiped out entire population-groups of Native Americans. It reached Lake Ontario in 1636, and the lands of the Iroquois by 1679. During the 1770s smallpox killed at least 30% of the West Coast Native Americans. The 1775–82 North American smallpox epidemic and the 1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic brought devastation and drastic population depletion among the Plains Indians. In 1832 the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans (The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832). The Indigenous peoples in Brazil declined from a pre-Columbian high of an estimated three million to some 300,000 in 1997. The Spanish Empire and other Europeans re-introduced horses to the Americas. Some of these animals escaped and began to breed and increase their numbers in the wild. The re-introduction of the horse, extinct in the Americas for over 7500 years, had a profound impact on Indigenous cultures in the Great Plains of North America and in Patagonia in South America. By domesticating horses, some tribes had great success: horses enabled them to expand their territories, exchange more goods with neighboring tribes, and more easily capture game, especially bison. Indigenous historical trauma (IHT) Indigenous historical trauma (IHT) is the trauma that can accumulate across generations that develops as a result of the historical ramifications of colonization and is linked to mental and physical health hardships and population decline. IHT affects many different people in a multitude of ways because the Indigenous community and their history is diverse. Many studies (such as Whitbeck et al., 2014; Brockie, 2012; Anastasio et al., 2016; Clark & Winterowd, 2012; Tucker et al., 2016) have evaluated the impact of IHT on health outcomes of Indigenous communities from the United States and Canada. IHT is a difficult term to standardize and measure because of the vast and variable diversity of Indigenous people and their communities. Therefore, it is an arduous task to assign an operational definition and systematically collect data when studying IHT. Many of the studies that incorporate IHT measure it in different ways, making it hard to compile data and review it holistically. This is an important point that provides context for the following studies that attempt to understand the relationship between IHT and potential adverse health impacts. Some of the methodologies to measure IHT include a "Historical Losses Scale" (HLS), "Historical Losses Associated Symptoms Scale" (HLASS), and residential school ancestry studies. HLS uses a survey format that includes "12 kinds of historical losses," such as loss of language and loss of land and asks participants how often they think about those losses. The HLASS includes 12 emotional reactions and asks participants how they feel when they think about these losses. Lastly, the residential school ancestry studies ask respondents if their parents, grandparents, great-grandparents or "elders from their community" went to a residential school to understand if family or community history in residential schools are associated with negative health outcomes. In a comprehensive review of the research literature, Joseph Gone and colleagues compiled and compared outcomes for studies using these IHT measures relative to health outcomes of Indigenous peoples. The study defined negative health outcomes to include such concepts as anxiety, suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, polysubstance abuse, PTSD, depression, binge eating, anger, and sexual abuse. The connection between IHT and health conditions is complicated because of the difficult nature of measuring IHT, the unknown directionality of IHT and health outcomes, and because the term Indigenous people used in the various samples comprises a huge population of individuals with drastically different experiences and histories. That being said, some studies such as Bombay, Matheson, and Anisman (2014), Elias et al. (2012), and Pearce et al. (2008) found that Indigenous respondents with a connection to residential schools have more negative health outcomes (e.g., suicide ideation, suicide attempts, and depression) than those who did not have a connection to residential schools. Additionally, Indigenous respondents with higher HLS and HLASS scores had one or more negative health outcomes. While there many studies that found an association between IHT and adverse health outcomes, scholars continue to suggest that it remains difficult to understand the impact of IHT. IHT needs to be systematically measured. Indigenous people also need to be understood in separated categories based on similar experiences, location, and background as opposed to being categorized as one monolithic group. Agriculture Plants In the course of thousands of years, Indigenous peoples domesticated, bred and cultivated a large array of plant species. These species now constitute between 50% and 60% of all crops in cultivation worldwide. In certain cases, the Indigenous peoples developed entirely new species and strains through artificial selection, as with the domestication and breeding of maize from wild teosinte grasses in the valleys of southern Mexico. Numerous such agricultural products retain their native names in the English and Spanish lexicons. The South American highlands became a center of early agriculture. Genetic testing of the wide variety of cultivars and wild species suggests that the potato has a single origin in the area of southern Peru, from a species in the Solanum brevicaule complex. Over 99% of all modern cultivated potatoes worldwide are descendants of a subspecies Indigenous to south-central Chile, Solanum tuberosum ssp. tuberosum, where it was cultivated as long as 10,000 years ago. According to Linda Newson, "It is clear that in pre-Columbian times some groups struggled to survive and often suffered food shortages and famines, while others enjoyed a varied and substantial diet." Persistent drought around AD 850 coincided with the collapse of Classic Maya civilization, and the famine of One Rabbit (AD 1454) was a major catastrophe in Mexico. Indigenous peoples of North America began practicing farming approximately 4,000 years ago, late in the Archaic period of North American cultures. Technology had advanced to the point where pottery had started to become common and the small-scale felling of trees had become feasible. Concurrently, the Archaic Indigenous peoples began using fire in a controlled manner. They carried out intentional burning of vegetation to mimic the effects of natural fires that tended to clear forest understories. It made travel easier and facilitated the growth of herbs and berry-producing plants, which were important both for food and for medicines. In the Mississippi River valley, Europeans noted that Native Americans managed groves of nut- and fruit-trees not far from villages and towns and their gardens and agricultural fields. They would have used prescribed burning further away, in forest and prairie areas. Many crops first domesticated by Indigenous peoples are now produced and used globally, most notably maize (or "corn") arguably the most important crop in the world. Other significant crops include cassava; chia; squash (pumpkins, zucchini, marrow, acorn squash, butternut squash); the pinto bean, Phaseolus beans including most common beans, tepary beans and lima beans; tomatoes; potatoes; sweet potatoes; avocados; peanuts; cocoa beans (used to make chocolate); vanilla; strawberries; pineapples; peppers (species and varieties of Capsicum, including bell peppers, jalapeños, paprika and chili peppers); sunflower seeds; rubber; brazilwood; chicle; tobacco; coca; blueberries, cranberries, and some species of cotton. Studies of contemporary Indigenous environmental management—including of agro-forestry practices among Itza Maya in Guatemala and of hunting and fishing among the Menominee of Wisconsin—suggest that longstanding "sacred values" may represent a summary of sustainable millennial traditions. Animals Indigenous peoples also domesticated some animals, such as turkeys, llamas, alpacas, guinea-pigs, Muscovy ducks, Fuegian dogs, Puna ibis, and neotropic cormorants. Culture Cultural practices in the Americas seem to have been shared mostly within geographical zones where distinct ethnic groups adopting shared cultural traits, similar technologies, and social organizations. An example of such a cultural area is Mesoamerica, where millennia of coexistence and shared development among the peoples of the region produced a fairly homogeneous culture with complex agricultural and social patterns. Another well-known example is the North American plains where until the 19th century several peoples shared the traits of nomadic hunter-gatherers based primarily on buffalo hunting. Languages The languages of the North American Indians have been classified into 56 groups or stock tongues, in which the spoken languages of the tribes may be said to centre. In connection with speech, reference may be made to gesture language which was highly developed in parts of this area. Of equal interest is the picture writing especially well developed among the Chippewas and Delawares. Writing systems Beginning in the 1st millennium BCE, pre-Columbian cultures in Mesoamerica developed several Indigenous writing systems (independent of any influence from the writing systems that existed in other parts of the world). The Cascajal Block is perhaps the earliest-known example in the Americas of what may be an extensive written text. The Olmec hieroglyphs tablet has been indirectly dated (from ceramic shards found in the same context) to approximately 900 BCE-which is around the same time that the Olmec occupation of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán began to weaken. The Maya writing system was logosyllabic (a combination of phonetic syllabic symbols and logograms). It is the only pre-Columbian writing system known to have completely represented the spoken language of its community. It has more than a thousand different glyphs, but a few are variations on the same sign or have the same meaning, many appear only rarely or in particular localities, no more than about five hundred were in use in any given time period, and, of those, it seems only about two hundred (including variations) represented a particular phoneme or syllable. The Zapotec writing system, one of the earliest in the Americas, was logographic and presumably syllabic. There are remnants of Zapotec writing in inscriptions on some of the monumental architecture of the period, but so few inscriptions are extant that it is difficult to fully describe the writing system. The oldest example of Zapotec script, dating from around 600 BCE, is on a monument that was discovered in San José Mogote. Aztec codices (singular codex) are books that were written by pre-Columbian and colonial-era Aztecs. These codices are some of the best primary sources for descriptions of Aztec culture. The pre-Columbian codices are largely pictorial; they do not contain symbols that represent spoken or written language. By contrast, colonial-era codices contain not only Aztec pictograms, but also writing that uses the Latin alphabet in several languages: Classical Nahuatl, Spanish, and occasionally Latin. Spanish mendicants in the sixteenth century taught Indigenous scribes in their communities to write their languages using Latin letters, and there are a large number of local-level documents in Nahuatl, Zapotec, Mixtec, and Yucatec Maya from the colonial era, many of which were part of lawsuits and other legal matters. Although Spaniards initially taught Indigenous scribes alphabetic writing, the tradition became self-perpetuating at the local level. The Spanish crown gathered such documentation, and contemporary Spanish translations were made for legal cases. Scholars have translated and analyzed these documents in what is called the New Philology to write histories of Indigenous peoples from Indigenous viewpoints. The Wiigwaasabak, birch bark scrolls on which the Ojibwa (Anishinaabe) people wrote complex geometrical patterns and shapes, can also be considered a form of writing, as can Mi'kmaq hieroglyphics. Aboriginal syllabic writing, or simply syllabics, is a family of abugidas used to write some Indigenous languages of the Algonquian, Inuit, and Athabaskan language families. Music and art Indigenous music can vary between cultures, however there are significant commonalities. Traditional music often centers around drumming and singing. Rattles, clapper sticks, and rasps are also popular percussive instruments, both historically and in contemporary cultures. Flutes are made of river-cane, cedar, and other woods. The Apache have a type of fiddle, and fiddles are also found among a number of First Nations and Métis cultures. The music of the Indigenous peoples of Central Mexico and Central America, like that of the North American cultures, tend to be spiritual ceremonies. It traditionally includes a large variety of percussion and wind instruments such as drums, flutes, sea shells (used as trumpets) and "rain" tubes. No remnants of pre-Columbian stringed instruments were found until archaeologists discovered a jar in Guatemala, attributed to the Maya of the Late Classic Era (600–900 CE); this jar was decorated with imagery depicting a stringed musical instrument which has since been reproduced. This instrument is one of the very few stringed instruments known in the Americas prior to the introduction of European musical instruments; when played, it produces a sound that mimics a jaguar's growl. Visual arts by Indigenous peoples of the Americas comprise a major category in the world art collection. Contributions include pottery, paintings, jewellery, weavings, sculptures, basketry, carvings, and beadwork. Because too many artists were posing as Native Americans and Alaska Natives in order to profit from the cachet of Indigenous art in the United States, the U.S. passed the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990, requiring artists to prove that they are enrolled in a state or federally recognized tribe. To support the ongoing practice of American Indian, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian arts and cultures in the United States, the Ford Foundation, arts advocates and American Indian tribes created an endowment seed fund and established a national Native Arts and Cultures Foundation in 2007. After the entry of the Spaniards, the process of spiritual conquest was favored, among other things, by the liturgical musical service to which the natives, whose musical gifts came to surprise the missionaries, were integrated. The musical gifts of the natives were of such magnitude that they soon learned the rules of counterpoint and polyphony and even the virtuous handling of the instruments. This helped to ensure that it was not necessary to bring more musicians from Spain, which significantly annoyed the clergy. The solution that was proposed was not to employ but a certain number of indigenous people in the musical service, not to teach them counterpoint, not to allow them to play certain instruments (brass breaths, for example, in Oaxaca, Mexico) and, finally, not to import more instruments so that the indigenous people would not have access to them. The latter was not an obstacle to the musical enjoyment of the natives, who experienced the making of instruments, particularly rubbed strings (violins and double basses) or plucked (third). It is there where we can find the origin of what is now called traditional music whose instruments they have their own tuning and a typical western structure. Demography The following table provides estimates for each country in the Americas of the populations of Indigenous people and those with partial Indigenous ancestry, each expressed as a percentage of the overall population. The total percentage obtained by adding both of these categories is also given. Note: these categories are inconsistently defined and measured differently from country to country. Some figures are based on the results of population-wide genetic surveys while others are based on self-identification or observational estimation. History and status by continent and country North America Canada Indigenous peoples in Canada comprise the First Nations, Inuit and Métis; the descriptors "Indian" and "Eskimo" are falling into disuse. In Canada, it is quite frowned upon to use the name "Indian" in casual conversation. "Eskimo" is considered derogatory in many other places because it was given by non-Inuit and was said to mean "eater of raw meat". Hundreds of Indigenous nations evolved trade, spiritual and social hierarchies. The Métis ethnicity developed a culture during the 18th century after generations of First Nations married European settlers. They were small farmers, hunters and trappers, and usually Catholic and French-speaking. The Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during that early period. Various laws, treaties, and legislation have been enacted between European-Canadians and First Nations across Canada. Aboriginal Right to Self-Government provides the opportunity for First Nations to manage their own historical, cultural, political, health care and economic control within their communities. Although not without conflict, early European interactions in the east with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful compared to the later experience of Indigenous peoples in the United States. Combined with a late economic development in many regions, this relatively peaceful history resulted in Indigenous peoples having a fairly strong influence on the early national culture, while preserving their own identity. From the late 18th century, European Canadians (primarily British Canadians and French Canadians) worked to force Indigenous peoples to assimilate into the mainstream European-influenced culture, which they referred to as Canadian culture. The government attempted violent forced integration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Notable examples here include residential schools. National Indigenous Peoples Day recognizes the cultures and contributions of Indigenous peoples of Canada. There are currently over 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands encompassing 1,807,250 people spread across Canada, with distinctive Indigenous cultures, languages, art, and music. Greenland The Greenlandic Inuit (Kalaallisut: kalaallit, Tunumiisut: tunumiit, Inuktun: inughuit) are the Indigenous and most populous ethnic group in Greenland. This means that Denmark has one officially recognized Indigenous group. the Inuit – the Greenlandic Inuit of Greenland and the Greenlandic people in Denmark (Inuit residing in Denmark). Approximately 89 percent of Greenland's population of 57,695 is Greenlandic Inuit, or 51,349 people . Ethnographically, they consist of three major groups: the Kalaallit of west Greenland, who speak Kalaallisut the Tunumiit of Tunu (east Greenland), who speak Tunumiit oraasiat ("East Greenlandic") the Inughuit of north Greenland, who speak Inuktun ("Polar Inuit") Mexico The territory of modern-day Mexico was home to numerous Indigenous civilizations prior to the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores: The Olmecs, who flourished from between 1200 BCE to about 400 BCE in the coastal regions of the Gulf of Mexico; the Zapotecs and the Mixtecs, who held sway in the mountains of Oaxaca and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec; the Maya in the Yucatán (and into neighbouring areas of contemporary Central America); the Purépecha in present-day Michoacán and surrounding areas, and the Aztecs/Mexica, who, from their central capital at Tenochtitlan, dominated much of the centre and south of the country (and the non-Aztec inhabitants of those areas) when Hernán Cortés first landed at Veracruz. In contrast to what was the general rule in the rest of North America, the history of the colony of New Spain was one of racial intermingling (mestizaje). Mestizos, which in Mexico designate people who do not identify culturally with any Indigenous grouping, quickly came to account for a majority of the colony's population. Today, Mestizos in Mexico of mixed indigenous and European ancestry (with a minor African contribution) are still a majority of the population. Genetic studies vary over whether indigenous or European ancestry predominates in the Mexican Mestizo population. In the 2015 census, 20.3% of the Mexican population self-identified as indigenous. In the 2020 INEGI (National Institute of Statistics and Geography) census showed that at the national level there are 11.8 million indigenous people (9.3% of the Mexican population). In 2020 the National Institute of Indigenous Peoples reported 11.1 million people in Mexico belonging to an indigenous ethnicity (8.8% of the Mexican population). The indigenous population is distributed throughout the territory of Mexico, but is especially concentrated in the Sierra Madre del Sur, the Yucatán Peninsula and in the most remote and difficult-to-access areas, such as the Sierra Madre Oriental, the Sierra Madre Occidental and neighboring areas. The CDI identifies 62 Indigenous groups in Mexico, each with a unique language. In the states of Chiapas and Oaxaca and in the interior of the Yucatán Peninsula a large amount of the population is Indigenous descent with the largest ethnic group being mayan with a population of 900,000. Large Indigenous minorities, including Aztecs or Nahua, Purépechas, Mazahua, Otomi, and Mixtecs are also present in the central regions of Mexico. In the Northern and Bajio regions of Mexico, Indigenous people are a small minority. The General Law of Linguistic Rights of the Indigenous Peoples grants all Indigenous languages spoken in Mexico, regardless of the number of speakers, the same validity as Spanish in all territories in which they are spoken, and Indigenous peoples are entitled to request some public services and documents in their native languages. Along with Spanish, the law has granted them—more than 60 languages—the status of "national languages". The law includes all Indigenous languages of the Americas regardless of origin; that is, it includes the Indigenous languages of ethnic groups non-native to the territory. The National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples recognizes the language of the Kickapoo, who immigrated from the United States, and recognizes the languages of the Indigenous refugees from Guatemala. The Mexican government has promoted and established bilingual primary and secondary education in some Indigenous rural communities. Nonetheless, of the Indigenous peoples in Mexico, 93% are either a native speaker or a bilingual second language speaker of Spanish with only about 62.4% of them (or 5.4% of the country's population) speak an Indigenous language and about a sixth do not speak Spanish (0.7% of the country's population). The Indigenous peoples in Mexico have the right of free determination under the second article of the constitution. According to this article the Indigenous peoples are granted: the right to decide the internal forms of social, economic, political and cultural organization; the right to apply their own normative systems of regulation as long as human rights and gender equality are respected; the right to preserve and enrich their languages and cultures; the right to elect representatives before the municipal council in which their territories are located; amongst other rights. United States Indigenous peoples in what is now the contiguous United States, including their descendants, were commonly called American Indians, or simply Indians domestically and since the late 20th century the term Native American came into common use. In Alaska, Indigenous peoples belong to 11 cultures with 11 languages. These include the St. Lawrence Island Yupik, Iñupiat, Athabaskan, Yup'ik, Cup'ik, Unangax, Alutiiq, Eyak, Haida, Tsimshian, and Tlingit, and are collectively called Alaska Natives. They include Native American peoples as well as Inuit, who are distinct but occupy areas of the region. The United States has authority with Indigenous Polynesian peoples, which include Hawaiians, Marshallese (Micronesian), and Samoan; politically they are classified as Pacific Islander American. They are geographically, genetically, and culturally distinct from Indigenous peoples of the mainland continents of the Americas. Native Americans in the United States make up 1.1% of the population. In the 2020 census, 3.7 million people identified as Native American and Alaska Native alone. A total of 9.7 million people identified as Native Americans and Alaska Native, either alone or in combination with one or more ethnicity or other races. Tribes have established their own criteria for membership, which are often based on blood quantum, lineal descent, or residency. A minority of Native Americans live in land units called Indian reservations. Some California and Southwestern tribes, such as the Kumeyaay, Cocopa, Pascua Yaqui, Tohono O'odham and Apache, span both sides of the US–Mexican border. By treaty, Haudenosaunee people have the legal right to freely cross the US–Canada border. Athabascan, Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Iñupiat, Blackfeet, Nakota, Cree, Anishinaabe, Huron, Lenape, Mi'kmaq, Penobscot, and Haudenosaunee, among others, live in both Canada and the United States, whose international border cut through their common cultural territory. Central America Belize Mestizos (mixed European-Indigenous) number about 34% of the population; unmixed Maya make up another 10.6% (Kekchi, Mopan, and Yucatec). The Garifuna, who came to Belize in the 19th century from Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, have mixed African, Carib and Arawak ancestry and make up another 6% of the population. Costa Rica There are over 114,000 inhabitants of Native American origins, representing 2.4% of the population. Most of them live in secluded reservations, distributed among eight ethnic groups: Quitirrisí (In the Central Valley), Matambú or Chorotega (Guanacaste), Maleku (Northern Alajuela), Bribri (Southern Atlantic), Cabécar (Cordillera de Talamanca), Boruca (Southern Costa Rica) and Ngäbe (Southern Costa Rica long the Panamá border). These native groups are characterized for their work in wood, like masks, drums and other artistic figures, as well as fabrics made of cotton. Their subsistence is based on agriculture, having corn, beans and plantains as the main crops. El Salvador Estimates for El Salvador's indigenous population vary. The last time a reported census had an Indigenous ethnic option was in 2007, which estimated that 0.23% of the population identified as Indigenous. Historically, estimates have claimed higher amounts. A 1930 census stated that 5.6% were Indigenous. By the mid-20th century, there may have been as much as 20% (or 400,000) that would qualify as "Indigenous". Another estimate stated that by the late 1980s, 10% of the population was Indigenous, and another 89% was mestizo (or people of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry). Much of El Salvador was home to the Pipil, the Lenca, Xinca, and Kakawira. The Pipil lived in western El Salvador, spoke Nawat, and had many settlements there, most noticeably Cuzcatlan. The Pipil had no precious mineral resources, but they did have rich and fertile land that was good for farming. The Spaniards were disappointed not to find gold or jewels in El Salvador as they had in other lands like Guatemala or Mexico, but upon learning of the fertile land in El Salvador, they attempted to conquer it. Noted Meso-American Indigenous warriors to rise militarily against the Spanish included Princes Atonal and Atlacatl of the Pipil people in central El Salvador and Princess Antu Silan Ulap of the Lenca people in eastern El Salvador, who saw the Spanish not as gods but as barbaric invaders. After fierce battles, the Pipil successfully fought off the Spanish army led by Pedro de Alvarado along with their Indigenous allies (the Tlaxcalas), sending them back to Guatemala. After many other attacks with an army reinforced with Indigenous allies, the Spanish were able to conquer Cuzcatlan. After further attacks, the Spanish also conquered the Lenca people. Eventually, the Spaniards intermarried with Pipil and Lenca women, resulting in the mestizo population that would make up the vast majority of the Salvadoran people. Today many Pipil and other Indigenous populations live in the many small towns of El Salvador like Izalco, Panchimalco, Sacacoyo, and Nahuizalco. Guatemala Guatemala has one of the largest Indigenous populations in Central America, with approximately 43.6% of the population considering themselves Indigenous. The Indigenous demographic portion of Guatemala's population consists of majority Mayan groups and one Non-Mayan group. The Mayan language speaking portion makes up 29.7% of the population and is distributed into 23 groups namely Q’eqchi' 8.3%, K’iche 7.8%, Mam 4.4%, Kaqchikel 3%, Q'anjob'al 1.2%, Poqomchi' 1%, and Other 4%. The Non-Mayan group consists of the Xinca who are another set of Indigenous people making up 1.8% of the population. Other sources indicate that between 50% and 60% of the population could be Indigenous, because part of the Mestizo population is predominantly Indigenous. The Mayan tribes cover a vast geographic area throughout Central America and expanding beyond Guatemala into other countries. One could find vast groups of Mayan people in Boca Costa, in the Southern portions of Guatemala, as well as the Western Highlands living together in close communities. Within these communities and outside of them, around 23 Indigenous languages (or Native American Indigenous languages) are spoken as a first language. Of these 23 languages, they only received official recognition by the Government in 2003 under the Law of National Languages. The Law on National Languages recognizes 23 Indigenous languages including Xinca, enforcing that public and government institutions not only translate but also provide services in said languages. It would provide services in Cakchiquel, Garifuna, Kekchi, Mam, Quiche and Xinca.  The Law of National Languages has been an effort to grant and protect Indigenous people rights not afforded to them previously. Along with the Law of National Languages passed in 2003, in 1996 the Guatemalan Constitutional Court had ratified the ILO Convention 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples. The ILO Convention 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples, is also known as Convention 169. Which is the only International Law regarding Indigenous peoples that Independent countries can adopt. The convention, establishes that governments like Guatemala's must consult with Indigenous groups prior to any projects occurring on tribal lands. Honduras About five percent of the population are of full-blooded Indigenous descent, but as much as 80 percent of Hondurans are mestizo or part-Indigenous with European admixture, and about ten percent are of Indigenous or African descent. The largest concentrations of Indigenous communities in Honduras are in the westernmost areas facing Guatemala and along the coast of the Caribbean Sea, as well as on the border with Nicaragua. The majority of Indigenous people are Lencas, Miskitos to the east, Mayans, Pech, Sumos, and Tolupan. Nicaragua About 5% of the Nicaraguan population are Indigenous. The largest Indigenous group in Nicaragua is the Miskito people. Their territory extended from Cape Camarón, Honduras, to Rio Grande, Nicaragua along the Mosquito Coast. There is a native Miskito language, but large numbers speak Miskito Coast Creole, Spanish, Rama and other languages. Their use of Creole English came about through frequent contact with the British, who colonized the area. Many Miskitos are Christians. Traditional Miskito society was highly structured, politically and otherwise. It had a king, but he did not have total power. Instead, the power was split between himself, a Miskito Governor, a Miskito General, and by the 1750s, a Miskito Admiral. Historical information on Miskito kings is often obscured by the fact that many of the kings were semi-mythical. Another major Indigenous culture in eastern Nicaragua are the Mayangna (or Sumu) people, counting some 10,000 people. A smaller Indigenous culture in southeastern Nicaragua are the Rama. Other Indigenous groups in Nicaragua are located in the central, northern, and Pacific areas and they are self-identified as follows: Chorotega, Cacaopera (or Matagalpa), Xiu-Subtiaba, and Nicarao. Panama South America Argentina In 2005, Indigenous population living in Argentina (known as pueblos originarios) numbered about 600,329 (1.6% of total population); this figure includes 457,363 people who self-identified as belonging to an Indigenous ethnic group and 142,966 who identified themselves as first-generation descendants of an Indigenous people. The ten most populous Indigenous peoples are the Mapuche (113,680 people), the Kolla (70,505), the Toba (69,452), the Guaraní (68,454), the Wichi (40,036), the Diaguita–Calchaquí (31,753), the Mocoví (15,837), the Huarpe (14,633), the Comechingón (10,863) and the Tehuelche (10,590). Minor but important peoples are the Quechua (6,739), the Charrúa (4,511), the Pilagá (4,465), the Chané (4,376), and the Chorote (2,613). The Selknam (Ona) people are now virtually extinct in its pure form. The languages of the Diaguita, Tehuelche, and Selknam nations have become extinct or virtually extinct: the Cacán language (spoken by Diaguitas) in the 18th century and the Selknam language in the 20th century; one Tehuelche language (Southern Tehuelche) is still spoken by a handful of elderly people. Bolivia In Bolivia, the 2001 census reported that 62% of residents over the age of 15 identify as belonging to an Indigenous people. Some 3.7% report growing up with an Indigenous mother tongue but do not identify as Indigenous. When both of these categories are totaled, and children under 15, some 66.4% of Bolivia's population was recorded as Indigenous in the 2001 Census. The largest Indigenous ethnic groups are: Quechua, about 2.5 million people; Aymara, 2.0 million; Chiquitano, 181,000; Guaraní, 126,000; and Mojeño, 69,000. Some 124,000 belong to smaller Indigenous groups. The Constitution of Bolivia, enacted in 2009, recognizes 36 cultures, each with its own language, as part of a pluri-national state. Some groups, including CONAMAQ (the National Council of Ayllus and Markas of Qullasuyu), draw ethnic boundaries within the Quechua- and Aymara-speaking population, resulting in a total of 50 Indigenous peoples native to Bolivia. Large numbers of Bolivian highland peasants retained Indigenous language, culture, customs, and communal organization throughout the Spanish conquest and the post-independence period. They mobilized to resist various attempts at the dissolution of communal landholdings and used legal recognition of "empowered caciques" to further communal organization. Indigenous revolts took place frequently until 1953. While the National Revolutionary Movement government begun in 1952 discouraged people identifying as Indigenous (reclassifying rural people as campesinos, or peasants), renewed ethnic and class militancy re-emerged in the Katarista movement beginning in the 1970s. Many lowland Indigenous peoples, mostly in the east, entered national politics through the 1990 March for Territory and Dignity organized by the CIDOB confederation. That march successfully pressured the national government to sign the ILO Convention 169 and to begin the still-ongoing process of recognizing and giving official title to Indigenous territories. The 1994 Law of Popular Participation granted "grassroots territorial organizations;" these are recognized by the state and have certain rights to govern local areas. Some radio and television programs are produced in the Quechua and Aymara languages. The constitutional reform in 1997 recognized Bolivia as a multi-lingual, pluri-ethnic society and introduced education reform. In 2005, for the first time in the country's history, an Indigenous Aymara, Evo Morales, was elected as president. Morales began work on his "Indigenous autonomy" policy, which he launched in the eastern lowlands department on 3 August 2009. Bolivia was the first nation in the history of South America to affirm the right of Indigenous people to self-government. Speaking in Santa Cruz Department, the President called it "a historic day for the peasant and Indigenous movement", saying that, though he might make errors, he would "never betray the fight started by our ancestors and the fight of the Bolivian people". A vote on further autonomy for jurisdictions took place in December 2009, at the same time as general elections to office. The issue divided the country. At that time, Indigenous peoples voted overwhelmingly for more autonomy: five departments that had not already done so voted for it; as did Gran Chaco Province in Taríja, for regional autonomy; and 11 of 12 municipalities that had referendums on this issue. Brazil Indigenous peoples of Brazil make up 0.4% of Brazil's population, or about 817,000 people, but millions of Brazilians are mestizo or have some Indigenous ancestry. Indigenous peoples are found in the entire territory of Brazil, although in the 21st century, the majority of them live in Indigenous territories in the North and Center-Western part of the country. On 18 January 2007, Fundação Nacional do Índio (FUNAI) reported that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. Brazil is now the nation that has the largest number of uncontacted tribes, and the island of New Guinea is second. The Washington Post reported in 2007, "As has been proved in the past when uncontacted tribes are introduced to other populations and the microbes they carry, maladies as simple as the common cold can be deadly. In the 1970s, 185 members of the Panara tribe died within two years of discovery after contracting such diseases as flu and chickenpox, leaving only 69 survivors." Chile According to the 2012 Census, 10% of the Chilean population, including the Rapa Nui (a Polynesian people) of Easter Island, was Indigenous, although most show varying degrees of mixed heritage. Many are descendants of the Mapuche, and live in Santiago, Araucanía and Los Lagos Region. The Mapuche successfully fought off defeat in the first 300–350 years of Spanish rule during the Arauco War. Relations with the new Chilean Republic were good until the Chilean state decided to occupy their lands. During the Occupation of Araucanía the Mapuche surrendered to the country's army in the 1880s. Their land was opened to settlement by Chileans and Europeans. Conflict over Mapuche land rights continues to the present. Other groups include the Aymara, the majority of whom live in Bolivia and Peru, with smaller numbers in the Arica-Parinacota and Tarapacá regions, and the Atacama people (Atacameños), who reside mainly in El Loa. Colombia A minority today within Colombia's overwhelmingly Mestizo and White Colombian population, Indigenous peoples living in Colombia, consist of around 85 distinct cultures and more than 1,378,884 people. A variety of collective rights for Indigenous peoples are recognized in the 1991 Constitution. One of the influences is the Muisca culture, a subset of the larger Chibcha ethnic group, famous for their use of gold, which led to the legend of El Dorado. At the time of the Spanish conquest, the Muisca were the largest Indigenous civilization geographically between the Incas and the Aztecs empires. Ecuador Ecuador was the site of many Indigenous cultures, and civilizations of different proportions. An early sedentary culture, known as the Valdivia culture, developed in the coastal region, while the Caras and the Quitus unified to form an elaborate civilization that ended at the birth of the Capital Quito. The Cañaris near Cuenca were the most advanced, and most feared by the Inca, due to their fierce resistance to the Incan expansion. Their architecture remains were later destroyed by Spaniards and the Incas. Between 55% and 65% of Ecuador's population consists of Mestizos of mixed indigenous and European ancestry while indigenous people comprise about 25%. Genetic analysis indicates that Ecuadorian Mestizos are of predominantly indigenous ancestry. Approximately 96.4% of Ecuador's Indigenous population are Highland Quichuas living in the valleys of the Sierra region. Primarily consisting of the descendants of peoples conquered by the Incas, they are Kichwa speakers and include the Caranqui, the Otavalos, the Cayambe, the Quitu-Caras, the Panzaleo, the Chimbuelo, the Salasacan, the Tugua, the Puruhá, the Cañari, and the Saraguro. Linguistic evidence suggests that the Salascan and the Saraguro may have been the descendants of Bolivian ethnic groups transplanted to Ecuador as mitimaes. Coastal groups, including the Awá, Chachi, and the Tsáchila, make up 0.24% percent of the Indigenous population, while the remaining 3.35 percent live in the Oriente and consist of the Oriente Kichwa (the Canelo and the Quijos), the Shuar, the Huaorani, the Siona-Secoya, the Cofán, and the Achuar. In 1986, Indigenous peoples formed the first "truly" national political organization. The Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador (CONAIE) has been the primary political institution of Indigenous peoples since then and is now the second largest political party in the nation. It has been influential in national politics, contributing to the ouster of presidents Abdalá Bucaram in 1997 and Jamil Mahuad in 2000. French Guiana French Guiana is home to approximately 10,000 indigenous peoples, such as the Kalina and Lokono. Over time, the indigenous population has protested against various environmental issues, such as illegal gold mining, pollution and a drastic decrease in wild game. Guyana During the early stages of colonization, the indigenous peoples in Guyana partook in trade relations with Dutch settlers and assisted in militia services such as hunting down escaped slaves for the British, which continued until the 19th century. Indigenous Guyanese people are responsible for the invention of the canoe as well as Guyanese pepperpot and the foundation of the Alleluia church. Guyana's indigenous peoples have been recognized under the Constitution of 1965 and comprise 9.16% of the overall population. Paraguay The vast majority of indigenous peoples in Paraguay is concentrated in the Gran Chaco region in the northwest of the country, with the Guaraní making up the majority of the indigenous population in Paraguay. The Guaraní language is recognized as an official language alongside Spanish, with approximately 90% of the population speaking Guaraní. The indigenous population in Paraguay suffers from several social issues such as low literacy rates as well as inaccessiblility to drinking water and electricity. Peru According to the 2017 Census, the Indigenous population in Peru make up around 26% approximately. However, this does not include Mestizos of mixed indigenous and European descent, who make up the majority of the population. Genetic testing indicates that Peruvian Mestizos are of predominantly indigenous ancestry. Indigenous traditions and customs have shaped the way Peruvians live and see themselves today. Cultural citizenship—or what Renato Rosaldo has called, "the right to be different and to belong, in a democratic, participatory sense" (1996:243)—is not yet very well developed in Peru. This is perhaps no more apparent than in the country's Amazonian regions where Indigenous societies continue to struggle against state-sponsored economic abuses, cultural discrimination, and pervasive violence. Suriname Uruguay Unlike most other Spanish-speaking countries, indigenous peoples are not a significant element in Uruguay, as the entire indigenous population is virtually extinct, with a few exceptions such as the Guaraní. Approximately 2.4% of the population in Uruguay is reported to have indigenous ancestry. Venezuela Most Venezuelans have some degree of indigenous heritage even if they may not identify as such. The 2011 census estimated that around 52% of the population identified as mestizo. But those who identify as Indigenous, from being raised in those cultures, make up only around 2% of the total population. The Indigenous peoples speak around 29 different languages and many more dialects. As some of the ethnic groups are very small, their native languages are in danger of becoming extinct in the next decades. The most important Indigenous groups are the Ye'kuana, the Wayuu, the Kali'na, the Ya̧nomamö , the Pemon and the Warao. The most advanced Indigenous peoples to have lived within the boundaries of present-day Venezuela is thought to have been the Timoto-cuicas, who lived in the Venezuelan Andes. Historians estimate that there were between 350 thousand and 500 thousand Indigenous inhabitants at the time of Spanish colonization. The most densely populated area was the Andean region (Timoto-cuicas), thanks to their advanced agricultural techniques and ability to produce a surplus of food. The 1999 constitution of Venezuela gives indigenous peoples special rights, although the vast majority of them still live in very critical conditions of poverty. The government provides primary education in their languages in public schools to some of the largest groups, in efforts to continue the languages. Caribbean The indigenous population of the Caribbean islands consisted of the Taíno of the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles and the northern Lesser Antilles, the Kalinago of the Lesser Antilles, the Ciguayo and Macorix of parts of Hispaniola, and the Guanahatabey of western Cuba. The overall population suffered the most adverse colonial effects out of all the indigenous populations in the Americas, as the Kalinago have been reduced to a few islands in the Lesser Antilles such as Dominica and the Taíno are culturally extinct, though a large proportion of populations in Greater Antillean islands such as Puerto Rico possesses degrees of Taíno ancestry. Rise of Indigenous movements Since the late 20th century, Indigenous peoples in the Americas have become more politically active in asserting their treaty rights and expanding their influence. Some have organized in order to achieve some sort of self-determination and preservation of their cultures. Organizations such as the Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin and the Indian Council of South America are examples of movements that are overcoming national borders to reunite Indigenous populations, for instance those across the Amazon Basin. Similar movements for Indigenous rights can also be seen in Canada and the United States, with movements like the International Indian Treaty Council and the accession of native Indigenous groups into the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization. There has been a recognition of Indigenous movements on an international scale. The membership of the United Nations voted to adopt the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, despite dissent from some of the stronger countries of the Americas. In Colombia, various Indigenous groups have protested the denial of their rights. People organized a march in Cali in October 2008 to demand the government live up to promises to protect Indigenous lands, defend the Indigenous against violence, and reconsider the free trade pact with the United States. Indigenous heads of state The first Indigenous candidate to be democratically elected as head of a country in the Americas was Benito Juárez, a Zapotec Mexican who was elected President of Mexico in 1858. In 1930 Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro became the first Peruvian President with Indigenous Peruvian ancestry and the first in South America. He came to power in a military coup. In 2005, Evo Morales of the Aymara people was the first Indigenous candidate elected as president of Bolivia and the first elected in South America. Genetic research Genetic history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas primarily focuses on Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups and Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroups. "Y-DNA" is passed solely along the patrilineal line, from father to son, while "mtDNA" is passed down the matrilineal line, from mother to offspring of both sexes. Neither recombines, and thus Y-DNA and mtDNA change only by chance mutation at each generation with no intermixture between parents' genetic material. Autosomal "atDNA" markers are also used, but differ from mtDNA or Y-DNA in that they overlap significantly. AtDNA is generally used to measure the average continent-of-ancestry genetic admixture in the entire human genome and related isolated populations. Genetic comparisons of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and Y-chromosome of Native Americans to that of certain Siberian and Central Asian peoples (specifically Paleosiberians, Turkic, and historically the Okunev culture) have led Russian researcher I.A. Zakharov to believe that, among all the previously studied Asian peoples, it is "the peoples living between Altai and Lake Baikal along the Sayan mountains that are genetically closest to" Indigenous Americans. Some scientific evidence furthermore links them also to North Asian peoples, specifically the Indigenous peoples of Siberia, such as the Ket, Selkup, Chukchi and Koryak peoples. Indigenous peoples of the Americas have been linked to some extent to North Asian populations by the distribution of blood types, and in genetic composition as reflected by molecular data, and limited DNA studies. The common occurrence of the mtDNA Haplogroups A, B, C, and D among eastern Asian and Native American populations has been noted. Some subclades of C and D that have been found in the limited populations of Native Americans who have agreed to DNA testing bear some resemblance to the C and D sublades in Mongolian, Amur, Japanese, Korean, and Ainu populations. Available genetic patterns lead to two main theories of genetic episodes affecting the Indigenous peoples of the Americas; first with the initial peopling of the Americas, and secondly with European colonization of the Americas. The former is the determinant factor for the number of gene lineages, zygosity mutations, and founding haplotypes present in today's Indigenous peoples of the Americas populations. The most popular theory among anthropologists is the Bering Strait theory, of human settlement of the New World occurred in stages from the Bering sea coast line, with a possible initial layover of 10,000 to 20,000 years in Beringia for the small founding population. The micro-satellite diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicates that certain Indigenous peoples of the Americas populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region. The Na-Dené, Inuit and Indigenous populations of Alaska exhibit haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations, however are distinct from other Indigenous peoples of the Americas with various mtDNA and atDNA mutations. This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later migrant populations. Multiple recent findings on autosomal DNA and full genome revealed more information about the formation, settlement and external relationships of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas to other populations. Native Americans are very closely related to the Paleosiberian tribes of Siberia, and to the ancient samples of the Mal'ta–Buret' culture (Ancient North Eurasians) as well as to the Ancient Beringians. Native Americans also share relatively higher genetic affinity with East Asian peoples. Native American genetic ancestry is occasionally dubbed as "Amerindian". This type of ancestry largely overlaps with "Paleosiberian" ancestry, but is differentiated from "Neo-Siberian" ancestry which represents historical expansions from Northeast Asia and is today widespread among Siberian populations. The ancestors of Native Americans used a single migration route, most likely through Beringia, and subsequently populated all of the Americas in a time range between 25,000 and 15,000 years ago. Possible contact between Native Americans and Polynesians is dated back to 1,400 years ago. Previously hypothesized "Paleo-Indian" groups turned out to be genetically identical with modern Native Americans. The controversial claim that the first peoples came from Europe via the North Atlantic, based on an ostensible similarity in stone-tool technology between the Solutrean culture of Pleistocene Europe and Clovis in North America, was undermined by the genome of the Anzick Clovis child, which sits squarely on the branch of Ancestral Native American peoples. No ancient or present-day genome (or mtDNA or Y chromosome marker) in the Americas has shown any direct affinities to Upper Palaeolithic European populations. The date for the formation of the Amerindian gene pool range from 36,000 to 25,000 years ago, with their internal diverging being around 21,000 years ago, during the settlement of the Americas. The 'Ancestral Native Americans' formed from a lineage which diverged from East Asian people around 36,000 years ago somewhere in Southern China, and subsequently migrated northwards into Siberia and encountered/interacted with a distinct Paleolithic Siberian population known as Ancient North Eurasians, closer related to modern Europeans, giving rise to both Indigenous peoples of Siberia and Native Americans. Based on a 2023 mitochondrial DNA study, a subsequent wave of migration from Northern China, originating near the present-day cities of Beijing and Tianjin, occurred as recently as 9000 BCE, following a previously unknown coastal route from Asia to America. Notable people See also Indigenous peoples in Ecuador Indigenous peoples in Paraguay Indigenous peoples of Costa Rica Indigenous peoples in Argentina Indigenous peoples of Peru Indigenous peoples in Canada Languages of Guatemala Indigenous languages of the Americas Ancient American engineering List of Indigenous peoples List of Greenlandic Inuit List of Indigenous artists of the Americas List of Indigenous peoples of the Americas List of Indigenous writers from the Americas Culture Ceramics of Indigenous peoples of the Americas Chunkey Fully feathered basket Indian Mass Native American religion Pow wow Shamanism Population and demographics Child development of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas Classification of Indigenous peoples of the Americas Indigenous Movements in the Americas Origins of Paleoindians Pacific Islander Population history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas Latin America Indigenous peoples of South America List of Mayan languages Society in the Spanish Colonial Americas Caribbean Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean Indigenous peoples of Guyana Indigenous peoples of Suriname North America Genocide of Indigenous peoples of the Americas History of the west coast of North America List of traditional territories of the Indigenous peoples of North America Native Americans in the United States List of American Inuit Native American Languages Act of 1990 Native American weaponry Native Americans in German popular culture Republic of Lakotah Redskin References Sources Journal articles Woodhead, M. (1998). Children's perspectives on their working lives: A participatory study in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, the Philippines, Guatemala, El Salvador and Nicaragua. Gaskins, S. (2006). 13 The Cultural Organization of Yucatec Mayan Children's Social Interactions. Peer relationships in cultural context, 283. Books Further reading External links America's Stone Age Explorers, from PBS's Nova A History of the Native People of Canada from the Canadian Museum of Civilization Indigenous Peoples in Brazil from the Instituto Socioambiental (ISA) Official website of the National Museum of the American Indian, part of the Smithsonian Institution Category:Latin American caste system Category:Person of color
[ { "text": "\n\nDefinition \n\nIndigenous communities, peoples, and nations are those which have a historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, and may consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing on those territories, or parts of them. They form at present non-dominant sectors of society and are determined to preserve, develop and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal system.\n\nThis historical continuity may consist of the continuation, for an extended period reaching into the present of one or more of the following factors:\n Occupation of ancestral lands, or at least of part of them\n Common ancestry with the original occupants of these lands\n Culture in general, or in specific manifestations (such as religion, living under a tribal system, membership in an Indigenous community, dress, means of livelihood, lifestyle, etc.)\n Language (whether used as the only language, as mother-tongue, as the habitual means of communication at home or in the family, or as the main, preferred, habitual, general or normal language)\n Residence in certain parts of the country, or in certain regions of the world\n Other relevant factors.\n On an individual basis, an Indigenous person is one who belongs to these Indigenous populations through self-identification as Indigenous (group consciousness) and is recognized and accepted by these populations as one of its members (acceptance by the group). This preserves for these communities the sovereign right and power to decide who belongs to them, without external interference.\n\nAfrica\n\nAfrican Great Lakes \n\nAbagusii: Kenya\nHadza (Hadzabe): Tanzania, Singida region: southeast, south and northwest of Lake Eyashi.\nIraqw: Tanzania\nKalenjin: Kenya\nKikuyu: Kenya\nLuhya: Kenya\nMaasai: Kenya, Tanzania\nRendille: Kenya\nSamburu: Kenya, Tanzania\nSandawe: Tanzania, Dodoma region: Kondoa district, between Bubu and Mponde rivers, Singida region.\nPygmy peoples:\nTwa\nBangweulu Twa: Northern Zambia, Bangweulu Swamps,\nGreat Lakes Twa: Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo\nKafwe Twa: Southern Zambia, Kafue Flats\nLukanga Twa: Central Zambia, Lukanga Swamp\nNsua: Western Uganda\n\nCentral Africa \n\nPygmy peoples:\nBedzan: Northern Central Cameroon\nMbenga:\nAka (Bayaka)\nBaka (Bebayaka): Cameroon, Congo (Brazzaville), Gabon, and Central African Republic\nBongo (Babongo):\nGyele (Bagyele):\nKola (Bakola):\nMbuti (Bambuti):\nAsua: Democratic Republic of the Congo\nEfé: Democratic Republic of the Congo\nKango/Sua:\nMbuti:\nWochua:\nTwa\nAngola Twa: Northeastern, Eastern and Southern Angola\nKasai Twa (Kuba Twa): Central Democratic Republic of Congo\nMbote Twa: Southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Northwest of Lake Tanganyika\nMongo Twa (Ntomba Twa): Western Democratic Republic of Congo, Lake Tumba, Lake Mai-Ndombe\nUpemba Twa (Luba Twa): Southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Upemba Depression\n\nHorn of Africa \nAfar people (Qafár/'Afár): the Afar Triangle of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia\nAmhara: Ethiopia\nBanna: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nBasketo: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nBerta (Funj): Western Ethiopia, Benishangul-Gumuz Region, Far Eastern Sudan\nBurji: Southern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nGedeo: Southern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nGumuz: Western Ethiopia, Benishangul-Gumuz Region, Far Eastern Sudan\nHamer: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nKaro: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nKunama: Western Eritrea, Gash-Barka Region, Far Eastern Sudan\nMaale: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nMursi (Mun): mainly in Debub Omo Zone, Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region, Southwest Ethiopia\nNara: Western Eritrea, Gash-Barka Region, Far Eastern Sudan\nOromo people: Ethiopia, Kenya\nSaho: Central Eritrea, Southern part of Northern Red Sea Region\nShinasha (Shinasha): Northwestern Ethiopia\nSidama: Southern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nSomalis: Somalia, Djibouti, eastern Ethiopia, northeastern Kenya\nSuri Baale: Ethiopia\nSuri Chai: Ethiopia\nSuri Timaga: Ethiopia\nWolayta: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\nYem: Southwestern Ethiopia, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR)\n\nNorth Africa \n\nAfroasiatic languages\nBerbers (Imazighen): Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya, Egypt, Mauritania, Mediterranean Coast, Atlas Mountains (Idurar n Waṭlas), North and Western Sahara\nEastern Berbers\nNafusa people: Nafusa Mountains (Drar n infusen), Tripolitania, northwestern Libya\nZuwara Berbers: Zuwara, coast of western Tripolitania in northwestern Libya.\nMatmata Berbers: Matmâta, southern Tunisia\nDjerba Berbers: Djerba Island, southern Tunisia coast\nSokna Berbers: Sokna Oasis (Isuknan), Fezzan, north central Libya, Sahara\nAwjila: Awjila oasis, Cyrenaica, eastern Libya, Sahara\nGhadamès: Ghadamès Oasis, Western Libya, Sahara\nNorthern Berbers\nKabyles (Iqvayliyen): Kabylie (Tamurt n Iqvayliyen), Mediterranean coast of northern Algeria\nZenati (Iznaten/Iznasen) speakers: regions in Algeria and Morocco\nMozabites (At Mzab): Mzab region, northern Sahara, north central Algeria\nShawiya (Išawiyen): Aurès Mountains (Idurar n Awras), northeastern Algeria\nShenwa (Ichenwiyen): west-central mountains of northwestern Algeria\nRiffians (Irifiyen): Rif, Rif Mountains (Arrif), northern Morocco\nSanhaja (Iẓnagen/Iẓnajen) peoples: regions in Middle West Atlas mountains and Eastern Morocco\nMasmuda peoples: regions in Northern and Western Morocco\nGhomara: Far West Rif Mountains (Arrif), Northern Morocco\nShilha (Shlḥi): West Atlas mountains, Western Morocco\nHaratin: Indigenous population of the Maghreb and Sahara of uncertain origin; members now speak either Berber languages or Arabic; inhabit Morocco, Mauritania, Western Sahara, Algeria.\nSerer - current habit Senega, Gambia, Mauritania\nToubou: Chad\n\nNile Valley\n\nEgypt\nCopts (Rem en Khēmi/Rem en Kēme): Egypt, the majority of Egypt's population descended from Ancient Egyptians\nBeja: Northeastern Sudan, between Red Sea coast and almost to the Nile River (White Nile and Blue Nile) eastern banks, Far Northwest Eritrea, Sahara Eastern Desert, Far Southeast Egypt \nSiwi Berbers: Siwa Oasis (Isiwan), western Egypt, Sahara\n\nSudan\nNuba peoples: Sudan, Nuba Hills\n\nNubians: Far Northern North Sudan and Far Southern Egypt, along middle Nile river valley banks \nDinka (Jieng): mainly in Lakes, Warrap and Unity States, Upper Nile river course, Central and North South Sudan.\nNuer (Naadh): mainly in Jonglei State, East of Upper Nile river course, East Central South Sudan.\nAnuak (Anywaa): mainly East Jonglei State, East South Sudan, and also mainly in Gambela Region, Lowlands of Far Southwest Ethiopia (border areas between South Sudan and Ethiopia).\nShilluk (Chollo/Cøllø): mainly in North South Sudan, west of the Upper Nile river course, Upper Nile State, South Sudan (Kodok or Kothok, formerly known as Fashoda is in their territory).\nFur (Fòòrà): Darfur, Western Sudan\nMasalit: Darfur, Western Sudan\nKadu peoples: Sudan, Nuba Hills\n\nSouthern Africa \n\nSouthern Khoikhoi languages speaking peoples: Angola, Namibia, Botswana, Kalahari desert, Zimbabwe, west and southwestern South Africa.\nKhoikhoi\nNama (Namaqua)\nDamara \n\nHaiǁom\nGǀu and Gǁana\nNaro\nTsoa/Tshwa/Kua\nSouthern San languages speaking peoples: Angola, Namibia, Botswana, Kalahari desert, west and southwestern South Africa.\nKx'a/Ju–ǂHoan\nǃKung/Juu\nǂʼAmkoe\nǂKxʼao-ǁʼae (Auen)\nTuu\nǃKwi (!Ui)\nǀXam\nǂKhomani (Nǀu)\nKhwe (Khoi, Kxoe)\nTaa\nǃXooŋake/Nǀumde\n\nEurasia\n\nAsia\n\nWest Asia (Middle East) \n\nAfroasiatic languages\nSemitic peoples\nEast Semitic peoples\nAssyrians (Āṯūrāyē/Sūrāyē/Sūryāyē): A Christian Neo-Aramaic speaking people indigenous to Assyria, which is located in what is now northern Iraq, southeastern Turkey, northeastern Syria and northwestern Iran in Upper Mesopotamia. There is a testified historical continuity between ancient Assyrians and modern Assyrians, for the majority of Assyrians in the same land that they have lived in since antiquity: (Assyria, Athura, Roman Assyria, & Asoristan), before the Arabization of Upper Mesopotamia, that corresponds with old Assyria (originally speakers of the Akkadian language but in antiquity, by the end of the 1st millennium BC, Assyrians adopted the Aramaic language from Aramaeans as an official language of the Assyrian Empire and in present times speak Assyrian Neo-Aramaic. However, not all Assyrians identify as Assyrian, and several are from peoples that adopted an Assyrian ethnic identity (see terms for Syriac Christians).\nWest Semitic peoples\nCentral Semitic peoples\nArabic peoples\nBedouin (Badawī) of the interior deserts of Arabia and Syria.\nDruze (Al-Muwaḥḥidūn/Al-Muwaḥḥidīn/Ahl al-Tawḥīd): of Jabal al-Druze, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Israel. The faith of the Druze is a blend of Islam's Ismailism, Judaism, Christianity, Neoplatonism, Pythagoreanism, Gnosticism and Greek philosophy. The foundational text of the faith is the Epistles of Wisdom. Even though they have been a minority for their entire history, they have played a significant role in shaping the history of the Levant. Although the faith originally developed out of Ismaili Islam, Druze are usually not considered Muslims. The oldest and most densely-populated Druze communities exist in Mount Lebanon and in the south of Syria around Jabal al-Druze (literally the \"Mountain of the Druze\").\nMandaeans\nMarsh Dwellers/Marsh Arabs (Ma'dan/ʻArab al-Ahwār): An Arabic-speaking people living in the marshes of southern Iraq or on the Iranian side of the Shatt al-Arab.\nNorthwest Semitic peoples\nArameans (Āramayē): Central and Western Syria, ancient land of the Aramaeans (Aram) in the Levant, an Aramaic-speaking people that descends from ancient Aramaeans. In recent years, there has been an attempt to revive Western Aramaic among Aramean Christians living in the Israeli village of Jish.\nCanaanite peoples\nJews: along with Samaritans, descend from the Israelite nation of the southern Levant, who are believed by archaeologists and historians to have branched out of the Canaanite peoples and culture through the development of a distinct monolatrous—and later monotheistic—religion centered on El/Yahweh, one of the Ancient Canaanite deities. A Jewish diaspora existed for several centuries before the fall of the Second Temple, and their dwelling in other countries for the most part was not a result of compulsory dislocation. Following the Roman Siege of Jerusalem, destruction of Herod's Temple, and failed Jewish revolts, some Jews were either expelled, taken as slaves to Rome, or massacred, while other Jews continued to live in the region over the centuries, despite the conversion of many Jews to Christianity and Islam as well as persecution by the various conquerors of the region, including the Romans, Arabs, Ottomans, and the British. Additionally, a substantial number of diaspora Jews immigrated to Palestine during the 19th and 20th centuries (mainly under the Zionist movement), as well as after the modern State of Israel was established in 1948. This was coupled with the revival of Hebrew, the only Canaanite language still spoken today. DNA studies show that many major diaspora Jewish communities derive a substantial portion of their ancestry from ancient Israelites.\n\nThere are competing claims that Palestinian Arabs and Jews are indigenous to historic Palestine/the Land of Israel. The argument entered the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in the 1990s, with Palestinians claiming Indigenous status as a pre-existing population displaced by Jewish settlement, and currently constituting a minority in the State of Israel. Israeli Jews have in turn claimed indigeneity based on historic ties to the region and disputed the authenticity of Palestinian claims. In 2007, the Negev Bedouin were officially recognised as Indigenous peoples of Israel by the United Nations. This has been criticised both by scholars associated with the Israeli state, who dispute the Bedouin's claim to indigeneity, and those who argue that recognising just one group of Palestinians as Indigenous risks undermining others' claims and \"fetishising\" nomadic cultures.\n\nSamaritans (Samerim): of Samaria. An ethno-religious group of the Levant, closely related genetically and culturally to the Jewish diaspora and are understood to have branched off from the latter around the time of the Assyrian exile. The Samaritans are adherents of Samaritanism, an Abrahamic religion closely related to Judaism. Their sole norm of religious observance is the Samaritan Pentateuch.\n\nBathari people: Dhofar, Southern Oman. Descendants from the original people of Dhofar before Arabization.\nHarasis: Jiddat al-Harasis, Central Oman. Descendants from the original people of South Arabia before Arabization.\nHobyót people: Dhofar, Southern Oman, Far Eastern Yemen. Descendants from the original people of Dhofar before Arabization.\nMehris: Al Mahrah, Eastern Yemen, Dhofar, Southern Oman. Descendants from the original people of Dhofar before Arabization.\nShehri people/Jibbali people: Dhofar, Southern Oman. Descendants from the original people of Dhofar before Arabization.\nSoqotri people: Soqotra island and group of islands, southeast of mainland Yemen, Indian Ocean. Descendants from the original natives of South Arabia before Arabization.\n\nArmenians (Hayer): The Christian Armenian people were the original inhabitants of what is now modern Eastern Turkey, specifically around Lake Van and the biblical mountain of Ararat and spoke the Western Armenian language. Since the Armenian genocide in which up to 1,500,000 people perished, the number of the original Armenian inhabitants is almost non-existent and they have since been replaced with ethnic Turks and Kurds.\nIranian peoples\nEast Iranian peoples\nNortheast Iranian peoples\nOssetians (Iræттæ): South Ossetia, Georgia, Southern Caucasus Mountains\nWest Iranian peoples\nCaspian/South Caspian peoples\nGilaks: Gilan, North Iran, South Caspian Sea coast and Elburz Mountains\nMazanderanis/Mazanis/Tabaris: Mazanderan, Tabaristan, Northern Iran, South Caspian Sea coast and Elburz Mountains\nNorthwest Iranian peoples\nNorthwestern I\nKurds (Kurd/Kurmandzh): Kurdistan, Northwestern and Western Iran, Northern Iraq, Northeast and Northern Syria, Southeast Turkey, Zagros and East Anatolian Plateau\nYazidis (Êzidî): Nineveh Governorate, Northern Iraq\nLak people (Iran): Southwestern Iran, Zagros Mountains\nZaza-Gorani peoples \nShabaks: Sinjar District of the Nineveh Governorate in northern Iraq.\nZazas: Southeastern Turkey, Upper Euphrates river, East Anatolian Plateau\nNorthwestern II\nBaluchis (Baloch/Baluch): Baluchistan, Southeastern Iran, Southwestern Pakistan, Extreme Southern Afghanistan\nTatic peoples\nTalysh (Talyshon): Northwestern Iran, Far South Azerbaijan, South Caspian Sea coast and Elburz Mountains\nTats (Iran)/South Tats (Irünə Tâtün): Northwest Iran\nSouthwest Iranian peoples\nPersian: Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan\nLarestani–Gulf peoples\nKumzaris: Northern Musandam, Oman\nLurs and Bakhtiaris\nLurs (Lur): Luristan, Western and Southwestern Iran, Zagros Mountains\nBakhtiaris (Bakhtiar): Southwestern Iran, Zagros\nTats (Caucasus): Republic of Azerbaijan, Dagestan (Russia)\n\nCaucasus \n\nIndo-European peoples\nArmenians (Hayer): \nIranian peoples\nEast Iranian peoples\nNortheast Iranian peoples\nOssetians (Iræттæ): Ossetia (Iryston), North Ossetia (Cægat Iryston), a Republic of Russia, and South Ossetia (Khussar Iryston), a De Jure autonomous region of Georgia (Sakartvelo), self-proclaimed sovereign country, North and South slopes of Central Caucasus Mountains.\nWest Iranian peoples\nSouthwest Iranian peoples\nPersian peoples\nTats (Caucasus) (Tati/Parsi/Lohijon/Daghli): East Caucasus Mountains, Azerbaijan\nKartvelian peoples\nZan\nLazs (Lazepe): Southwestern Georgia, Far Northeastern Turkey\nNortheast Caucasian peoples\nAvar-Andic peoples\nAvar people (Caucasus) (Magharulal/Avaral): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nAndic peoples\nAkhvakh (Ashvado/Atluatii)\nAndis (Qhvannal/Khivannal)\nBagvalal (Bagval)\nBotlikhs (Buykhal'ida/Buykhalyi)\nChamalals (Chamalaldu)\nGodoberis (Giybdiridi)\nKaratas (Khkhiridi)\nTindis (Idarab)\nDargins (Darganti): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nKhinalug (Kettiturdur/Kayttiodur/Ketid/Ketsh Khalkh)\nLak people (Dagestan): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nLezgic peoples\nAghul (Agular): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nArchins (Arshishttib)\nBudukh (Budad)\nJeks (Cekad/Dzhekad)\nKryts (Kh'rytsha'/Kyrtuar)\nLezgians (Lezgiyar/Leqer): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nRutul (Mykhabyr): Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nTabasarans: Dagestan, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nTsakhur (Yiqby): Azerbaijan, Southern Caucasus Mountains\nUdins (Udi/Uti): Northern Azerbaijan, Southern Caucasus Mountains\nNakh peoples\nBats (Batsbi)\nVainakh peoples\nChechens (Nokhchiy): Chechenia, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nIngush (Ghalghay): Ingushetia, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nTsezic (Didoic) peoples\nBezhtas\nHinukh (Hinuqes)\nHunzibs (Hunzib)\nKhwarshi (Khuani)\nTsez/Dido people\nNorthwest Caucasian peoples\nAbkhaz-Abaza peoples\nAbazins (Abaza)\nAbkhazians (Aphsua): Abkhazia (Aphsny) - a De Jure autonomous region of Georgia (Sakartvelo), self-proclaimed sovereign country.\nCircassian peoples\nWest Circassian peoples\nAdyghe (Adyge): Adyghe Republic, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nEast Circassian peoples\nCherkess (Cherkes): Karachay-Cherkessia, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nKabardians (Qeberdeykher): Kabardino-Balkaria, European Russia, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nKarachays (Karachai): Karachay-Cherkessia, North Caucasian peoples, Northern Caucasus Mountains\nUbykh (Tʷaχ): were indigenous to the mountains of West Caucasus, Sochi area, Krasnodar Krai, Russia, later migrated to Turkey.\n\nSiberia (North Asia) \n\n \n\nOver 40 distinct peoples, each with their own language and culture in the Asiatic part of Russia (Siberia/North Asia).\nChukchi-Kamchatkan peoples\nChukotkan peoples\nChukchi (Lyg'oravetl'et/Chukchi people|O'ravetl'et/Ankalyn-Chavchu): Northeast Siberia, Russia\nKoryaks (Nymylan-Chauchuven): Russian Far East\nAlyutors: Russian Far East\nKereks: Russian Far East\nKamchatkan peoples\nItelmens: Kamchatka Krai\nEskimo-Aleut peoples\nYupik: Alaska and the Russian Far East\nSiberian Yupik (Yupighyt): Siberia, Russia, Alaska, United States.\nSirenik Eskimos, Russian Far East.\nNaukan, Russian Far East.\nMongolic peoples\nBuryats (Buryaad): Buryatia, Russia, and Mongolia\nHamnigans: Zabaykalsky Krai, Russia, Mongolia, and China\nTungusic peoples\nNorthern Tungusic peoples\nEvenks (Evenkil): Siberia (They are also distributed in China and Mongolia in East Asia).\nUdege (Udihe/Udekhe/Udeghe): Russian Far East, Ukraine\nTurkic peoples\nSiberian Turks\nAltaians (Altay-kizhi): titular nation of Altai Republic, Russia\nChelkans\nTelengits\nTubalars\nChulyms: Tomsk Oblast, Russia\nDolgans: Northern Siberia \nKhakas (Tadarlar): titular nation of Khakassia, Russia\nKumandins: Altai Krai, Russia\nShors: Southern Siberia\nSoyots: Buryatia, Russia\nTeleuts: Kemerovo Oblast, Russia\nTofalars: Southern Siberia \nTuvans (Tyvalar): titular nation of Tuva Republic, Russia\nTozhu Tuvans: Tuva Republic, Russia\nYakuts (Sakha): titular nation of Yakutia, Russia\nKipchak Turks\nSiberian Tatars\nBaraba Tatars\nUgric peoples\nUgrians: Yugra, Western Siberia, Russia\nKhanty (Hantõ-Kantõk/Kantek/Khanti): Yugra, Western Siberia, Russia\nMansi (Maan's'i/Maan's'i Maahum/Mansi), formerly known as Voguls: Yugra, Western Siberia, Russia\nSamoyedic peoples\nNorthern Samoyedic peoples: West Siberia and Far Northern European Russia\nEnets (Entsi): Far Northern Western Siberia, Russia\nNenets (Neney Neneche): Far Northern Western Siberia and Far Northern European Russia\nNganasan (Ŋənəhsa(nəh)): Taymyr Peninsula, Siberia, Russia\nYukaghirs (Odul/Vadul/Detkil'): Far Northern East Siberia, Russia\nYeniseian peoples\nKet (Deng): Along middle Yenisei river banks\nNivkh (Gilyak): Sakhalin, Russia\nOroks (Uilta): Sakhalin, Russia\n\nEurasian Steppe \n\nIndo-European peoples\nIranian peoples\nEast Iranian peoples\nNortheast Iranian peoples\nPamiris (Pomir): Badakhshan (Afghanistan, Tajikistan), Pamir Mountains, Tashkurgan (in Xinjiang)\nTajiks: Tajikistan\nYaghnobi (Yaγnōbī́t): Tajikistan\nMongolic peoples\nCentral Mongolic peoples\nKhoid: Mongolia\nMangud: Historically Mongolia\nMongols: Mongolia, China\nNaimans (Nayman): Inner Mongolia, China\nOirats (Oirad/Oird) (Dzungars and Torghuts): Dzungaria (Northern Xinjiang), China\nSartuul: Zavkhan, Mongolia\nSino-Tibetan-speaking peoples\nTibetans: Tibet, China and neighbouring regions\nTurkic peoples\nCommon Turks\nKarluk Turks (Southeastern Common Turkic peoples)\nUyghurs (Uyghur): Tarim Basin (Southern Xinjiang), China\nIli Turks: Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, Northern Xinjiang, China\nYugur (Yogïr/Sarïg Yogïr): Sunan Yugur Autonomous County, Gansu province, China\nSalar (Salır): Xunhua Salar Autonomous County, Qinghai province, China\nDukha (Dukha/Dukhans/Duhalar/Tsaatan): Mongolia\nUriankhai (Wūliánghǎi/Uriankhan/урианхан/Uriankhat/урианхад): Mongolia\nKipchak Turks (Northwestern Common Turkic peoples)\nBashkirs (Başqorttar): Bashkir Republic, European Russia\nKazakhs: Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, Russia\nKyrgyzs: Kyrgyzstan, China\nKrymchaks (Qrymçaklar): Crimean Peninsula in Southern Ukraine\nCrimean Karaites (Qrymqaraylar): Crimean Peninsula in Southern Ukraine\nCrimean Tatars (Qırımtatarlar): Crimean Peninsula in Southern Ukraine\nVolga Tatars (Tatarlar): Tatarstan, European Russia\nOghuz Turks (Southwestern Common Turkic peoples)\nGagauz (Gagauzlar): Gagauzia, Moldova\nOghur (tribe)\nChuvash (Chăvаsh): Chuvash Republic, Russia\n\nSouth Asia \n\nAdivasis: collective term for many Indigenous peoples in India (see also Scheduled Tribes in India)\nDravidian peoples\nBadaga: Tamil Nadu, South India\nGond: Gondwana Land, Central India\nIrula: Tamil Nadu, South India\nKisan: Indigenous peoples of the Odisha, East India\nKodava: Kodagu, Karnataka, South India\nKota (Kothar/Kov): Tamil Nadu, South India\nKuruba: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, South India\nTamil: Tamil Nadu, South India and Sri Lanka\nToda: Tamil Nadu, South India\nSouth Dravidian peoples\nGiraavaru: Maldives\nIndo-European peoples\nIranian peoples\nPashtuns: southern Afghanistan and Northwest Pakistan\nBaloch: southeastern Iran and southwest Pakistan\nIndo-Aryan peoples\nDard: Dardistan, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Gilgit-Baltistan, Northern Pakistan\nKalasha of Chitral (Kaĺaśa): Ancient pre-Muslim polytheistic pagan ethnic minority in Chitral District, Northern Pakistan\nShina: Gilgit-Baltistan, Northern Pakistan\nKashmiri Hindus: India\nSindhi: Sindh, Pakistan, India\nBengali: Bangladesh, India\nGujarati: India \nBanjara: Rajasthan\nBhil people: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh\nJaunsari people: Uttarakhand\nDogras: Jammu\nTharu: Nepal, East India\nWarli\nSino-Tibetan-speaking peoples\nBodish peoples\nLadakhi: Ladakh, North India\nKonyak peoples\nIndigenous Assamese people\nTripuri (Borok): Tripura, North-East India\nKonyak peoples\nNocte: Tirap, Arunachal Pradesh, North-East India\nKukish peoples\nKarbi: Karbi Anglong, Assam, North-East-India\nMizo (Mizo hnam): Mizoram, North-East India\nNaga: Nagaland, North-East India\nRaji-Raute peoples\nRaute: Nepal, North India\nDigaro peoples\nMishmi: Arunachal Pradesh, North-East India\nJumma people (a collective term for several peoples)\nChakma: Bangladesh, Arunachal Pradesh - North-East India\nIndigenous peoples of Sikkim: India\nSino-Tibetan-speaking peoples\nBodish peoples\nBhutia (Denzongpa)\nLepcha (Róng ʔágít/Róngkup/Mútuncí Róngkup Rumkup)\nMeitei: Manipur, North-East India\nBurusho: Hunza and Chitral districts, Gilgit-Baltistan, Northern Pakistan\nSino-Tibetan-speaking peoples\nLolo-Burmese peoples\nBurmish peoples\nMarma: Bangladesh\nMeitei people: Manipur and neighboring states of India, Bangladesh, Myanmar\nVedda (Wanniyala-Aetto): Sri Lanka\nSinhalese: Sri Lanka\nDhivehi: Maldives\n\nSoutheast Asia\n\nMainland Southeast Asia (Indochinese Peninsula) \n\nAustroasiatic peoples\nAslian peoples\nSenoi (Sengoi/Sng'oi) (a people of the ethnic groups called by the generic word Orang Asli - Original People): in Peninsular Malaysia)\nKhmer Krom: of Vietnam\nKhmuic groups:\nKhmu (Kmm̥uʔ/Kmmúʔ): Thailand and Laos\nMlabri: Northern Thailand and Laos\nPray: Thailand and Laos\nPalaungic peoples\nWa (Vāx): One of the hill tribes of Myanmar (They are also distributed in Yunnan Province, China in East Asia).\nZomi (Zo Pau): One of the Indigenous peoples in Southeast Asia. The word Zomi is the collective name given to many tribes who traced their descent from a common ancestor. Through history they have been known under various appellation, such as Chin, Kuki and Mizo, but the expression was disliked by them, and they insist that the term was a misnomer given by others and by which they have been recorded in certain documents designate their ancient origins as a separate ethnicity.\nVietic peoples\nMuong\nTho\nTuom\nLiha\nPhong\nThavueng\nAhoe (Phon Sung)\nAhao\nAhlao\nChuet\nRục\nMày\nArem\nMã Liềng\nSách\nSalang\nMaleng–Pakatan\nBo\nArao\nAtel\nAtop\nKaleun\nMaleng\nPakatan\nThemarou\nKri–Phoóng\nKrii\nPhoóng\nMlengbrou\nAustronesian peoples\nMalayo-Polynesian peoples\nChamic peoples\nCham (Chams/Urang Campa): of Vietnam and Cambodia\nProto-Malay (a people of the ethnic groups called by the generic word Orang Asli - Original People): in Peninsular Malaysia\nMoken: in Myanmar, and Thailand\nHmong-Mien peoples\nHmong: subgroups of Thailand, Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam (They are also distributed in China in East Asia). \nMontagnards (Degar): an umbrella term for several Pre-Vietnamese peoples that dwell in the plateaus and mountains of the southern regions of Vietnam\nAustroasiatic peoples\nBahnaric peoples\nNorth Bahnaric peoples\nSedang, Halang and Kayong: Vietnam\nH're people: Quảng Ngãi Province, Central Vietnam\nCentral Bahnaric peoples\nBahnar: Central Highland provinces of Gia Lai and Kon Tum, as well as the coastal provinces of Bình Định and Phú Yên (Vietnam)\nJeh-Tariang people: Kon Tum, Vietnam\nSouthern Bahnaric peoples\nMạ people: Central Highlands, Vietnam\nMnong: Cambodia and Vietnam\nStieng: Cambodia and Vietnam\nKoho: Di Linh Highland of Vietnam \nEastern Bahnaric:\nCor people \nKatuic peoples\nKatu\nKatu: Vietnam and Laos\nWest\nBru (Bruu): Thailand, Laos, India and Vietnam\nTa Oi people: Laos, Vietnam\nAustronesian peoples\nMalayo-Polynesian peoples\nChamic peoples\nHighlands Chamic peoples\nRade-Jarai\nJarai: Central Highlands of Vietnam, as well as in the Northeast Province of Ratanakiri (Cambodia)\nRhade: Southern Vietnam\nChru–Northern\nNorthern Cham\nRaglai: in Khánh Hòa Province of South Central Coast, and Ninh Thuận Province in the Southeast region of Vietnam\nNegrito:\nMani (Maniq): Far Southern Thailand\nSemang (a group of several peoples of the ethnic groups called by the generic word Orang Asli - Original People): Peninsular Malaysia\nBatek: Peninsular Malaysia\nSino-Tibetan-speaking peoples\nKarenic peoples\nKaren (Per Ploan Poe/Ploan/Pwa Ka Nyaw/Kanyaw): an alliance of hill tribes of Myanmar and Thailand\nLolo-Burmese peoples\nAkha a.k.a. Aini or Aini-Akha: One of the hill tribes of Thailand, Laos and Burma (They are also distributed in Yunnan Province, China in East Asia).\nLahu (Ladhulsi/Kawzhawd): One of the hill tribes of Thailand, Myanmar and Laos (They are also distributed in Yunnan, China).\nLisu: One of the hill tribes of Myanmar and Thailand (They are also distributed in Arunachal Pradesh, India in South Asia and Yunnan and Sichuan, China).\nRakhine (Rəkhàin lùmjó), Kaman and Marma: Arakan in Myanmar\nYi (Nuosu/Nisu/Sani/Axi/Lolo): a group of several related peoples mainly in Yunnan, China.\nTibeto-Burman peoples\nIntha: Inle Lake of Myanmar\nTai peoples: Vietnam, Myanmar, Laos and Thailand (They are also distributed in Yunnan, China).\nSouthwestern Tai peoples\nKhün (Thai Khün)\nPhu Thai \nTai Dam: Northwest Vietnam, Laos and Thailand (They are also distributed in Yunnan)\nTai Lu: Laos, Northern Thailand, Myanmar, and Lai Châu Province in Vietnam (They are also distributed in Xishuangbanna in Yunnan, China).\nTai Nüa\n\nMaritime Southeast Asia (Malay Archipelago) \n\nAustroasiatic peoples\nNicobarese people (Holchu): Nicobar Islands, India\nShompen people (Kalay-Keyet): Nicobar Islands, India\nAustronesian peoples\nMalayo-Polynesian peoples\nBarito peoples\nBajau (Sama/Samah/Samal): Borneo and the Sulu Archipelago (Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines)\nDayak: Borneo, (Malaysia and Indonesia)\nNorthwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands peoples\nMentawai peoples\nMentawai: Mentawai Islands, Indonesia\nSakuddei: Siberut Island and Mentawai Islands, Indonesia\nMalayic peoples\nOrang Laut and Orang Seletar: Malaysia and Singapore\nProto-Malay (Melayu asli/Melayu purba): Malaysia\nNorth Bornean peoples\nPenan: Sarawak, Malaysia\nLun Bawang: Sarawak, Malaysia\nPhilippine peoples\nIgorot (Ifugao: Ipugao; Benguet: Ibaloi, Kankanaey; Mountain Province: Bontoc; Kalinga: Kiangan; Abra: Itneg; Apayao: Isneg): Cordillera mountains in Luzon in the Philippines\nLumad (Katawhang Lumad): Mindanao in the Philippines\nMangyan: Mindoro in the Philippines\nMoro: Mindanao and Sulu archipelago in the Philippines\nTausug (Tausūg/Suluk/Sulug)\nMaguindanao\nMaranao (Iranon/Iranun)\nTribes of Palawan: Palawan, Philippines\nOrang Rimba (Orang Batin Sembilan/Orang Rimba/Anak Dalam/Kubu): Sumatra, Indonesia\nLubu: Sumatra, Indonesia\nNegrito:\nAndamanese, in the Andaman Islands, which include:\nGreat Andamanese: formerly at least 10 distinct groups living throughout Great Andaman, now confined to a single community on Strait Island, Andaman Is.\nJangil (Rutland Jarawa): now extinct, formerly of Rutland Island, Andamans\nJarawa: South Andaman and Middle Andaman\nOnge (Önge): Little Andaman, Andaman Islands\nSentinelese (?): North Sentinel Island, Andaman Islands\nAeta: Luzon, Philippines\nAti: Panay, Philippines\nBatak: Palawan, Philippines\nPribumi (Native Indonesians): of Indonesia\n\nEast Asia\n\nWestern China \nTurkic peoples\nÄynu peoples\nIli Turk peoples: Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture\nUyghur peoples\nTibetan peoples\n\nNorth China \nFuyu Kyrgyz: Fuyu County, Heilongjiang\nHui peoples\nTungusic peoples\nNorthern Tungusic peoples\nNanai (Hezhen/Nanai/Hezhe/Golds/Samagir): Heilongjiang in China, Khabarovsk Krai and Primorsky Krai in Russia\nOroqen: Far Northern China\nSouthern Tungusic peoples\nManchu (Manju/Manchu people): Manchuria, northeast China\n\nSouth China \n\nHmong-Mien peoples\nMiao: Southern China (provinces of Guizhou, Yunnan, Sichuan, Hubei, Hunan, Guangxi, Guangdong and Hainan), Myanmar, northern Vietnam, Laos and Thailand\nHmong: Southern China, Vietnam and Laos\nYao (Mien): Southern China (provinces Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, and Yunnan)\n\nTaiwan \n\nIndigenous peoples of the island of Taiwan\nAmis (Pangcah)\nSakizaya\nBunun\nKavalan (Kebalan; Kbaran)\nAtayal (Tayal; Tayan)\nSaisiyat (Say-Siyat)\nSeediq\nTruku (Taroko)\nThao (Ngan)\nPaiwan (Payuan)\nPuyuma (Pinuyumayan)\nRukai (Drekay)\nTsou (Cou)\nYami (Tao)\nHla'alua (Saaroa)\nKanakanavu\n\nJapan \nAinu (Aynu): Hokkaido, Japan and (until the end of World War II) on Sakhalin Island, Russia\nJaponic peoples\nRyukyuans (Ruuchuu Minzuku): Old Ryūkyū Kingdom, now Japan\n\nAmericas \n\nAmericas is the supercontinent comprising North and South America, and associated islands.\n\nList of peoples by geographical and ethnolinguistic grouping:\n\nNorth America \n\nNorth America includes all of the continent and islands east of the Bering Strait and north of the Isthmus of Panama; it includes Greenland, Canada, United States, Mexico, Central American and Caribbean countries. However a distinction can be made between a broader North America and a narrower Northern America and Middle America due to ethnic and cultural characteristics.\n\nIndigenous peoples in North America by Country\nAboriginal peoples in Canada\nFirst Nations\nInuit\nMétis\nIndigenous peoples in the United States\nAlaska Natives\nIndigenous peoples of Mexico\nIndigenous peoples in North America by native cultural regions\n\nArctic \n\nAncient Beringian - Siberia and Alaska\nEskimo–Aleut\nAleut (Unangax): Aleutian Islands and Kamchatka Krai\nEskimo/Yupit-Inuit\nYupik: Alaska, United States\nAlutiiq (Sugpiat): Alaska, United States\nCentral Alaskan Yup'ik (Yupiat/Yupiit): Alaska, United States\nCup'ik (Cupiit): Alaska, United States\nCup'ig: Nunivak Island, Alaska, United States\nSiberian Yupik of St. Lawrence Island, Alaska, United States.\nInuit: Canadian Arctic - Northwest Territories, Nunavik, Nunatsiavut, Nunavut; Greenland; Alaska, United States\nGreenlandic Inuit: Greenland\nInughuit: North Greenland\nKalaallit: West Greenland\nTunumiit: East Greenland\nInupiat (Iñupiat): Arctic Alaska, North Slope and boroughs and the Bering Strait\nNunamiut: Interior Alaska.\nInuit: Canadian Arctic\nEastern Canadian Inuit: East Canadian Arctic, East Nunavut, Nunavik, Nunatsiavut\nWestern Canadian Inuit (Inuvialuit): West Canadian Arctic, Inuvialuit Settlement Region, Arctic coast of Northwest Territories, West Nunavut\nMétis: a mixed First Nations (from several peoples) and European (from several peoples) people of Canada.\n\nSubarctic \n\nNa-Dené peoples\nAthabaskan peoples\nNorthern Athabaskan peoples\nDene of Yukon, British Columbia, Manitoba, Northwest Territory, and Alberta, Canada.\nAlaskan Athabaskans\nSouthern Alaskan peoples\nAhtna\nIngalik\nKoyukon of Interior Alaska.\nKutchin of Interior Alaska and the Yukon.\nTanana Athabaskans.\nKolchan of Interior Alaska.\nDeg Hit'an of Interior Alaska.\nDena'ina of Interior Alaska.\nHolikachuk\nHän of Yukon, Canada, and Alaska, United States.\nMétis: a mixed Native American (from several peoples) and European (from several peoples) people of Canada.\nAlgonquians\nCree of Montana, United States, and Manitoba, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, Canada.\nInnu of Northeastern Quebec, and Western Labrador, Canada.\nAnnishinabe of Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba, Canada, as well as Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin, United States.\nAlgonquin of Quebec, and Ontario, Canada.\nBeothuk of Newfoundland, Canada.\n\nPacific Northwest Coast \n\nMakah of Washington, United States.\nQuinault of Washington, United States.\nNootka of British Columbia, Canada.\nKwakiutl of British Columbia, Canada.\nEyak of Alaska, United States.\nHaida of British Columbia, Canada, and Alaska, United States.\nTlingit of Alaska, United States.\nTshimshian of British Columbia, Canada, and Alaska, United States.\n\nNorthwest Plateau-Great Basin-California\n\nNorthwest Plateau\n\nGreat Basin \n\nUte of Utah, United States.\nShoshone of Colorado, Nevada, and Utah, United States.\nMono of California, United States.\nBannock of Idaho, United States.\nWestern Shoshone of Nevada, United States.\nTimbisha of Nevada, United States.\nWashoe of Nevada, United States.\nPaiute of Colorado, California, Nevada, and Utah, United States.\nNorthern Paiute.\nSouthern Paiute.\nPais of Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico, United States, as well as Baja California, Mexico.\nHualapai of Arizona, United States.\nWalapai of Arizona and Colorado, United States.\n\nCalifornia \n\nYuman-Cochimi peoples\nCochimí people: Baja California, Mexico\nCore Yuman peoples\nKiliwa (K'olew): Baja California, Mexico\nPaipai (Akwa'ala/Yakakwal): Baja California, Mexico\nDelta-Californian peoples\nCocopa (Cocopah/Xawiƚƚ Kwñchawaay): Baja California, Mexico, and Arizona, United States.\nKumeyaay (Ipai-Tipai/MuttTipi): Baja California, Mexico, and California, United States.\nMiwok of California, United States.\nMaidu of California, United States.\nWintu of California, United States.\nChumash of California, United States.\nTongva of California, United States.\nModoc of California, and Oregon, United States.\nAthabaskans\nAchumawi of California, and Oregon, United States.\nHupa of California and Oregon, United States.\nCahuilla of California, United States.\nMojave of California, and Nevada, United States.\nUto-Aztecans\nMono of California, and Nevada, United States.\nNorthern Paiute of California and Nevada, United States.\nOhlone of California, United States.\nKarok of California, United States.\n\nGreat Plains \n\nComanche of Texas and Oklahoma, United States.\nOsage of Kansas and Nebraska, United States.\nSioux of North Dakota, South Dakota, and Minnesota, United States, as well as Saskatchewan, and Alberta, Canada.\nLakota of South Dakota, United States.\nDakota people of Minnesota, United States, and Saskatchewan, Canada.\nKiowa of Texas, and Oklahoma.\nPlains Apache (see the Southwest section for another category this tribe belongs too) of Texas, and Oklahoma.\nCrow of Montana.\nOmaha of Nebraska.\nBlackfoot of Montana, United States, Alberta, Canada, and Saskatchewan, Canada.\n\nEastern Woodlands\n\nNortheastern Woodlands \n\nIroquoian peoples\nHaudenosaunee of New York, Wisconsin, and Oklahoma, United States, as well as Quebec and Ontario, Canada.\nMohawk of Quebec, Canada, and New York, United States.\nSeneca of New York, and Oklahoma, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nCayuga of Oklahoma, and New York, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nOneida of Wisconsin and New York, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nTuscarora of New York, United States, and Ontario, Canada.\nOnondaga of New York, United States, and Ontario, Canada.\nWyandot of Kansas, Michigan, and Oklahoma, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nNation du chat of Upstate New York, Ohio, and Northwest Pennsylvania, United States.\nConestoga (Susquehannock) of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, New York, and Maryland (United States).\nSt. Lawrence Iroquoians: St. Lawrence River, Quebec, Canada, and New York, United States.\nMonongahela: Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Ohio, United States.\nNottoway of Virginia, United States.\nWesto of Virginia and South Carolina, United States.\nAlgic peoples\nAlgonquian peoples\nChowanoke of North Carolina.\nCarolina Algonquian\nRoanoke of North Carolina.\nCroatan of North Carolina.\nPowhatan Confederacy of Virginia.\nPamunkey of Virginia, United States.\nPowhatan people of Virginia, United States.\nWampanoag of Massachusetts.\nWabanaki of Maine, United States, and New Brunswick and Newfoundland, Canada.\nAbenaki of New Hampshire, Maine and Vermont.\nPenobscot of Maine.\nMiqmac of Maine, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland.\nPassamaquoddy of Maine, United States, and New Brunswick, Canada.\nMaliseet of New Brunswick and Quebec.\nShawnee of the Ohio River Valley, now Oklahoma.\nCentral Algonquian peoples\nKikapú (Kiikaapoa/Kiikaapoi): Indigenous peoples from southeast Michigan, United States, also in Coahuila, Mexico.\nPeoria (Illiniwek)\nAnnishinabe\nOjibwe of Minnesota, North Dakota, and Michigan, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nPotawatomi of Michigan and Indiana, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nOdawa of Oklahoma and Michigan, United States, as well as Ontario, Canada.\nCree of Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, Saskatchewan, and the Northwest Territories, Canada, as well as Montana, United States.\n\nSoutheastern Woodlands \n\nCherokee of North Carolina, Georgia, and Oklahoma.\nNatchez of Louisiana and Arkansas.\nMuskogeans\nMuskogee of Georgia, now Oklahoma.\nChoctaw of Louisiana, Alabama, and Oklahoma.\nChickasaw of Tennessee, now Oklahoma.\nIndigenous peoples of Florida\nIndigenous people of the Everglades region\nCalusa of South Florida.\nTequesta of South Florida.\nTimucua of Northern Florida and Southern Georgia.\nApalachee of the Florida Panhandle and Alabama.\nSeminole of Oklahoma, and Florida.\nSiouans\nHo-Chunk of Wisconsin and Michigan.\nCatawba of North Carolina.\nPee Dee of South Carolina.\nCaddoans\nCaddo of Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana.\nPawnee of Oklahoma, Nebraska and Kansas, United States.\nSouthern Plains villagers of Western Oklahoma, Texas, Kansas, and Southeastern Colorado.\nArikara of North Dakota, United States.\nHidatsa of North Dakota, United States.\nWichita of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Texas, United States.\n\nSouthwest \n\nUto-Aztecan peoples\nAztecan (Nahuan) peoples\nMexicanero (Mēxihcah): Durango, Mexico\nCáhitan peoples\nYaqui (Hiaki/Yoeme): Sonora, Mexico, and Arizona, United States.\nMayo (Yoreme): Sonora, Mexico\nTarahumaran peoples\nGuarijío: Sonora, Mexico\nTarahumara (Rarámuri-Omugí): Chihuahua and Durango, Mexico\nTepiman peoples\nPima Bajo: Chihuahua, Mexico\nTepehuán (O'dam/Audam/Ódami): Chihuahua and Durango, Mexico\nSeri (Comcaac): Sonora, Mexico\nPuebloan peoples: Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and Texas, United States\nHopi of New Mexico, United States.\nZuni of Arizona, United States.\nAnasazi of New Mexico and Colorado, United States.\nTiwa of New Mexico, United States.\nMogollon of New Mexico, Arizona, United States, and Sonora, Mexico.\nHohokam of Southern Arizona, United States.\nSouthern Athabascans\nApache of Chihuahua, Coahuilla, and Sonora, Mexico, as well as Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas, United States.\nChiricahua of Southern New Mexico, Northern Mexico, and Southeast Arizona.\nLipan Apache of Northern Texas, and Western Oklahoma.\nPlains Apache of Oklahoma.\nMescalero of Arizona, New Mexico, and Northern Chihuahua.\nWestern Apache of Western Arizona.\nNavajo of the Four Corners region.\nO'odham of Sonora, Mexico, and Arizona, United States.\nPima of Arizona, United States.\nPapago of far Northern Sonora, Mexico, and Southern Arizona, United States.\n\nMesoamerica \n\nHuave (Ikoots/Kunajts): Oaxaca, Mexico\nLenca: Honduras and El Salvador\nMaya peoples\nCh'olan peoples\nCh'ol: Chiapas, Mexico\nCh'orti': El Salvador\nChontal Maya (Yokot'anob/Yokot'an): Tabasco, Mexico\nTzeltal (Winik Atel/Batzilʼop): Chiapas, Mexico\nTzotzil (Bats'ik'op/Sotz'leb): Chiapas, Mexico\nHuastec (Téenek/Te' Inik): San Luis Potosí, Mexico\nMamean peoples\nIxil: Guatemala\nMam: Guatemala\nQ'anjobalan peoples\nChuj: Guatemala\nJakaltek: Guatemala – also called Poptí\nQ'anjob'al: Guatemala\nTojolabal: Guatemala\nQichean peoples\nAchi': Guatemala\nKaqchikel: Guatemala\nK'iche': Guatemala\nPoqomchi': Guatemala\nPoqomam: Guatemala\nQ'eqchi': Guatemala\nTz'utujil: Guatemala\nYucatecan peoples\nItza: Guatemala\nLacandón (Hach Winik): Chiapas, Mexico\nMopan: Guatemala and Belize\nYucatec Maya (Maya proper) (Màaya): Yucatán, Quintana Roo and Campeche, Mexico\nMixe-Zoquean peoples\nMixe (Ayüükjä'äy): Oaxaca, Mexico\nZoque: Oaxaca and Chiapas Mexico\nOto-Manguean peoples\nAmuzgo (Tzjon Non/Tzo'tyio/Ñ'anncue): Oaxaca, Mexico\nChinantec: Oaxaca, Mexico\nManguean\nChorotega (Mangue/Mankeme): Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica\nMixtecan\nCuicatec:Oaxaca, Mexico\nMixtec (Ñuù Savi/Nayívi Savi/Ñuù Davi/Nayivi Davi): Oaxaca, Mexico\nTrique: Oaxaca, Mexico\nOto-Pamean peoples\nChichimeca Jonaz (Úza): San Luis Potosí, Mexico\nMatlatzinca: Mexico (state), Mexico\nMazahua (Tetjo Ñaa Jñatjo): Mexico (state), Mexico\nOtomi (Hñähñu/Hñähño/Ñuhu/Ñhato/Ñuhmu): Central Mexico, Mexico\nPame (Xi'úi): San Luis Potosí, Mexico\nPopolocan peoples\nChocho (Ngiwa): Oaxaca, Mexico\nIxcatec: Oaxaca, Mexico\nPopoloca: Oaxaca, and Puebla, Mexico\nMazatec (Ha Shuta Enima): Puebla and Oaxaca, Mexico\nTlapanec (Me'phaa): Guerrero, Mexico\nZapotecan peoples\nChatino (Kitse Cha'tño): Oaxaca, Mexico\nZapotec (Be'ena'a/Didxažon): Oaxaca, Mexico\nTarascan (P'urhépecha): Michoacán, Mexico\nTequistlatecan/Chontal de Oaxaca: Oaxaca, Mexico\nTotonacan peoples\nTotonac (Tutunacu): Veracruz and Puebla, Mexico\nUto-Aztecan peoples\nAztecan peoples\nNahua (Nāhuatlācah): Mexico\nCorachol peoples\nCora (Náayarite): Jalisco and Nayarit, Mexico\nHuichol (Wixáritari/Wixárita): Jalisco and Nayarit, Mexico\nXinca (Xinka): Guatemala\n\nCircum-Caribbean \n\nChibchan peoples\nBoruca: Costa Rica\nBribri: Costa Rica\nCabécar: Costa Rica\nNaso/Teribe/Tjër Di: Costa Rica, Panama\nGuaymi/Waimi peoples\nBokota: Panama\nNgäbe–Buglé: Panama, Costa Rica\nTalamanca peoplesl\nKuna (Dule/Tule): Panama\nPech: Honduras\nVotic peoples\nMaleku: Costa Rica\nRama: Nicaragua\nChocó/Embera-Wounaan peoples\nEmberá/Chocó proper (ɛ̃berá): Panama\nMisumalpan peoples\nMiskito (Miskitu): Honduras and Nicaragua\nTawira Miskito (Tawira Miskitu) \nSumalpan peoples\nSumo (Mayangna): Nicaragua\nTolupan/Jicaque: Honduras\nZambo/Cafuso peoples (mixed West African and Amerindian peoples)\nGarífuna: A mixed West African (from several peoples) and Amerindian people (mainly from the Island Caribs - Kalhíphona) that traditionally speaks an Arawakan language in Belize and Honduras.\nMiskito Sambu: A mixed West African (from several peoples) and Amerindian people (mainly from the original Miskito) that traditionally speaks Miskito, a Misumalpan language, and also Nicaragua Creole English in Nicaragua and Honduras.\nBlack Seminoles: Florida, The Bahamas, and Mexico. (Mixed Seminole and African).\n\nWest Indies \n\nThe West Indies, or the Caribbean, generally includes the island chains of the Caribbean Sea.\nArawakan peoples\nNorthern\nCircum-Caribbean/Ta-Arawakan peoples\nEyeri/Igneri: Lesser Antilles. An Arawak people, may have been the Kalinago/Island Caribs before caribbeanization. (The Island Caribs had the tradition that the Igneri were the older people of Lesser Antilles but they could have been ancestors of the majority of Island Caribs).\nIsland Caribs (Carib/Kalinago/Kalhíphona): Lesser Antilles. Often called \"Island Caribs\" (but may have been an older arawak people with a carib conquering warrior elite or influenced by Mainland Caribs. Apparently, the majority of the people spoke an arawakan language and not a carib one.)\nTaíno: Amerindians who originally inhabited the Greater Antilles of the Caribbean, they are of Arawakan descent.\nNeo-Taíno nations Some scholars distinguish between the Taíno and Neo-Taíno groups. Neo-Taíno groups were also native to the Antilles islands, but had distinctive languages and cultural practices that differed from the High Taíno. These groups include:\nCiboney: a term preferred in Cuban historical texts for the neo-Taino-Siboney nations of the island of Cuba.\nCiguayo: Eastern Hispaniola\nLucayans: Based in the Bahamas.\nMacorix: Hispaniola.\nGuanahatabey people: Western Cuba island, a Pre-Arawakan and Pre-Island Carib people of the Caribbean Islands.\n\nSouth America \n\nSouth America generally includes all of the continent and islands south of the Isthmus of Panama.\n\nIndigenous peoples in South America by Country:\nIndigenous peoples in Argentina\nList of indigenous peoples of Brazil\nIndigenous peoples in Chile\nIndigenous peoples in Colombia\nIndigenous peoples in Ecuador\nIndigenous peoples in Peru\nIndigenous peoples in South America by native cultural regions\n\nCircum-Caribbean (Chibcha) \n\nArawakan peoples\nNorthern\nTa-Arawakan\nWayuu: Venezuela/Colombia\nChibchan peoples\nChibcha–Motilon\nChibcha–Tunebo\nU'wa: Colombia\nKuna–Colombian\nKuna (Dule/Tule): Panama\nChocoan peoples\nEmbera (ɛ̃berá): Colombia/Panamá\nWarao: Venezuela's Orinoco River delta region.\n\nAmazon \n\nArawakan peoples\nSouthern\nCampa\nAsháninka: Peru\nBarbacoan peoples\nAwan\nAwá-Kwaiker: Northern Ecuador\nBora-Witoto peoples\nBora: Colombia/Peru\nCahuapanan peoples\nChayahuita: Loreto, Peru\nJivaroan (Shuar): Loreto and San Martín, Peru\nNukak: Colombia\nPanoan peoples\nMainline Panoan\nNawa\nChama\nShipibo-Conibo people: Ucayali, Peru\nShipibo: Ucayali, Peru\nHeadwaters\nYora: Amazon rainforest, southeast Peru\nMayoruna\nMayo\nKorubu (Dslala): Brazil\nMatis: Brazil/Peru\nMatsés: Brazil/Peru\nPirahã: Brazil\nTicuna-Yuri peoples\nTicuna (Tikuna): Brazil/Peru/Colombia\nTucanoan peoples\nEastern\nNorth\nTukano: Colombia\nWestern\nNapo\nSiona–Secoya\nSecoya: Loreto, Peru/Ecuador\nTupian peoples\nTupí-Guaraní\nTupi: Paraguay, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru and Argentina\nCocama-Omagua\nCocama-Cocamilla (Kokáma): Loreto, Peru\nTapirape: Brazil\nWayampí\nGuajá\nAwá-Guajá: eastern Amazonian rainforest, Brazil\nUrarina (Kachá): Chambira Basin, Loreto Peru\nYanomami (Yanõmami/Yanõmami Thëpë): Venezuela/Brazil\n\nGuianas \n\nCariban peoples\nGalibi/Kalina (Mainland Caribs): Guianas, Venezuela (northern coast of South America)\nYekuana\nEñapa (Panare)\nPemóng\nPemóng\nMakuxi: Brazil, Guyana\nYanomami (Yanõmami/Yanõmami Thëpë): Venezuela/Brazil\nPiaroa (Wothïha): Venezuela/Colombia\n\nEastern Highlands (Brazilian Highlands) \n\nCharruan peoples\nCharrúa: Uruguay, Brazil and Argentina\nMacro-Gê peoples\nBororoan\nBororo: Mato Grosso, Brazil\nOfaie\nKarajá/Iny: Brazil\nTupian peoples\nTupí-Guaraní\nGuaraní (I)\nAche: Paraguay\nPai Tavytera: Paraguay\nGuaraní\nGuaraní (Abá/Avá): Paraguay, Uruguay, Brazil, Bolivia and Argentina\nTupi: Paraguay, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru and Argentina\nCocama-Omagua\nCocama-Cocamilla (Kokáma): Loreto, Peru\nTapirape: Brazil\nWayampí\nGuajá\nAwá-Guajá: eastern Amazonian rainforest, Brazil\n\nChaco \n\nMascoian peoples\nEnxet: Paraguay\nMatacoan peoples\nWichí: the Chaco, Argentina/Bolivia\nZamucoan peoples\nAyoreo: the Chaco, Paraguay/Bolivia\n\nCentral Andes \n\nAymaran peoples\nAymara: Peru/Bolivia/Chile\nNasa: Colombia\nQuechuan peoples\nQuechua (Nunakuna/Runakuna/Kichwa/Inga)\n\nSouthern Cone\n\nAraucania \nAraucanian peoples\nMapuche (Araucanians): Chile/Argentina\nMapuche-Huilliche\nPehuenche\n\nPatagonia \nChono: Chiloé, Guaitecas and Chonos\nTehuelche: Southern Chile/Argentina\n\nTierra del Fuego \nAlacalufe (Kawésqar): Far Southern Chile\nSelk'nam: Southern Argentina and Chile\nYaghan (Yámana): Far Southern Chile\nHaush: Far Southern Argentina\n\nOceania \nOceania includes most islands of the Pacific Ocean, New Guinea, New Zealand and the continent of Australia.\n\nList of peoples by geographical and ethnolinguistic grouping:\n\nAustralia \n\nIndigenous Australians include Aboriginal Australians on the mainland and Tiwi Islands as well as Torres Strait Islander peoples from the Torres Strait Islands.\nAboriginal Australians include hundreds of groupings of people, defined by various overlapping characteristics such as language, culture and geography, which may include sub-groups. The Indigenous peoples of the island state of Tasmania and the Tiwi people (of the Tiwi Islands off the Northern Territory) are also Aboriginal peoples, who are genetically and culturally distinct from Torres Strait Islander peoples.\nTorres Strait Islander peoples are culturally and linguistically Papuo-Austronesian, and the various peoples of the islands are of predominantly Melanesian descent. The Torres Strait Islands are part of the state of Queensland.\n\nWestern Desert \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nKunapa: Northern Territory, Australia\nPini: Western Australia, Australia\nSpinifex: Western Australia, Australia\nWangkatha: Western Australia, Australia\nWarumungu: Northern Territory, Australia\nWati peoples\nAntakirinja: South Australia, Australia\nKokatha: South Australia, Australia\nLuritja: Northern Territory, Australia\nMadoidja: Western Australia, Australia\nMaduwongga: Western Australia, Australia\nMartu peoples\nKartudjara: Western Australia, Australia\nKeiadjara: Western Australia, Australia\nMandjildjara: Western Australia, Australia\nPutidjara: Western Australia, Australia\nWanman: Western Australia, Australia\nMarrngu peoples\nKarajarri: Great Sandy Desert, Western Australia, Australia\nMangarla: Great Sandy Desert, Western Australia, Australia\nNyangumarta: Great Sandy Desert, Western Australia, Australia\nNgaanyatjarra: Northern Territory, Australia\nNgaatjatjarra: Western Australia, Australia\nPintupi: Western Australia, Australia\nPitjantjatjara: Northern Territory, Australia\nWangkatjunga: Western Australia, Australia\nYankunytjatjara: South Australia, Australia\nYulparirra: Western Australia, Australia\nYumu: Northern Territory, Australia\nYankuntjatjarra: South Australia, Australia\nMirindi peoples\nNgurlun peoples\nNgarnka: Northern Territory, Australia\nWambaya: Northern Territory, Australia\n\nKimberley \n\nBunuban peoples\nBunuba: Fitzroy Crossing, Western Australia, Australia\nGooniyandi: Fitzroy Crossing, Western Australia, Australia\nJarrakan peoples\nGija: Halls Creek and Kununurra, Western Australia, Australia\nMiriwoongic peoples\nMiriwoong: Kunurra, Western Australia, Australia\nGajirrawoong: Eastern Kimberley and Northern Territory, Australia\nNyulnyulan peoples\nNyulnyulic peoples\nBardi: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nJabirr Jabirr: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nJawi: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nNimanburru: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nNyulnyul: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nDyukun peoples\nJugun: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nNgombal: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nNyigina: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nWarrwa: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nYawuru: Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia, Australia\nWorrorran peoples\nNgarinyin: Western Australia, Australia\nWorrorra: Western Australia, Australia\nWunambal: Western Australia, Australia\n\nNorthwest \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nNgayarda peoples\nBailgu: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nInawongga: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nJadira: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nKurrama: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nMardudunera: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nNgarla: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nNgarluma: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nNiabali: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nNhuwala: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nNyamal: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nPanyjima: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nTjuroro: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nKanyara-Mantharta peoples\nKanyara peoples\nBaiyungu: Gascoyne region, Western Australia, Australia\nBinigura: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nBuruna: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nThalanyji: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nYinikutira: Exmouth, Western Australia, Australia\nMantharta peoples\nDjiwali: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nTharrkari: Gascoyne region, Western Australia, Australia\nTenma: Pilbara region, Western Australia, Australia\nWarriyangga: Gascoyne region, Western Australia, Australia\nKartu peoples\nBadimaya: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nMaia: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nMalgana: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nNanda: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nNokaan: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nWajarri: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nWidi: Mid West region, Western Australia, Australia\nYingkarta: Gascoyne region, Western Australia, Australia\n\nSouthwest \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nNyungic peoples\nNoongar peoples\nAmangu: Geraldton Sandplains, Western Australia, Australia\nBallardong: Avon Wheatbelt, Western Australia, Australia\nYued: Swan Coastal Plain, Western Australia, Australia\nKaneang: Jarrah Forest, Western Australia, Australia\nKoreng: Mallee, Western Australia, Australia\nMineng: Warren, Western Australia, Australia\nNjakinjaki: Avon Wheatbelt, Western Australia, Australia\nNjunga: Esperance Plains, Western Australia, Australia\nBibulman: Warren, Western Australia, Australia\nPindjarup: Jarrah Forest, Western Australia, Australia\nWarandi: Swan Coastal Plain, Western Australia, Australia\nWhadjuk: Jarrah Forest, Western Australia, Australia\nWiilman: Western Australia, Australia\nWudjari: Mallee, Western Australia, Australia\nKalaako: Goldfields–Esperance region, Western Australia, Australia\nKalamaia: Western Australia, Australia\nMirning peoples\nMirning: Western Australia and South Australia, Australia\nNgadjumaya: Goldfields–Esperance region, Western Australia, Australia\nYingkarta: Gascoyne region, Western Australia, Australia\n\nFitzmaurice Basin \n\nYirram peoples\nNungali: Northern Territory, Australia\nJaminjung: Northern Territory, Australia\nMacro-Gunwinyguan peoples\nKungarakany: Northern Territory, Australia\nWarrayic peoples\nAwarai: Northern Territory, Australia\nAwinmul: Northern Territory, Australia\nWulwulam: Northern Territory, Australia\nDaly peoples\nWagaydic peoples\nWadjiginy: Anson Bay, Northern Territory, Australia\nMulluk-Mulluk: Northern Territory, Australia\nWestern Daly peoples\nEmmiyangal: Anson Bay, Northern Territory, Australia\nMarranunggu: Daly River, Northern Territory, Australia\nMenthe: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarrithiyal: Daly River, Northern Territory, Australia\nMaramanindji: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarridan: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarri Amu: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarri Tjevin: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarijedi: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarri Ngarr: Moyle River, Northern Territory, Australia\nMati Ke: Wadeye, Northern Territory, Australia\nEastern Daly peoples\nMadngela: Northern Territory, Australia\nYunggor: Northern Territory, Australia\nSouthern Daly peoples\nMurrinh-Patha: Wadeye, Northern Territory, Australia\nMuringura people: Fitzmaurice River, Northern Territory, Australia\nNgan'gimerri: Daly River, Northern Territory, Australia\n\nArnhem Land \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nYolngu: Northern Territory, Australia\nMacro-Gunwinyguan peoples\nManingrida peoples\nBurarra: Maningrida, Northern Territory, Australia\nGadjalivia: Blyth River, Northern Territory, Australia\nGunavidji: Maningrida, Northern Territory, Australia\nGurr-Goni: Maningrida, Northern Territory, Australia\nNagara: Blyth River, Northern Territory, Australia\nEast Arnhem peoples\nAnindilyakwa: Northern Territory, Australia\nNgandi: Northern Territory, Australia\nNunggubuyu: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarran peoples\nAlawa: Northern Territory, Australia\nMangarayi: Northern Territory, Australia\nMarra: Northern Territory, Australia\nWarndarrang: Northern Territory, Australia\nYukul: Northern Territory, Australia\nGaagudju: Northern Territory, Australia\nGunwinyguan peoples\nGunwinggic peoples\nBininj: Northern Territory, Australia\nGambalang: Northern Territory, Australia\nDalabon: Northern Territory, Australia\nJawoyn: Nitmiluk National Park, Northern Territory, Australia\nJala peoples\nNgalakgan: Northern Territory, Australia\nRembarrnga: Northern Territory, Australia\nIwaidjan peoples\nAmurdak: Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory, Australia\nIwaidjic peoples\nMaung: Goulburn Islands, Northern Territory, Australia\nWarrkbi\nGaari: Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory, Australia\nIwaidja: Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory, Australia\nMarrku-Wurrugu peoples\nWurango: Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory, Australia\nYaako: Croker Island, Northern Territory, Australia\n\nTop End \n\nTiwi: Tiwi Islands, Northern Territory, Australia\nDarwin Region peoples\nLarrakia: Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia\nLimilngan\nPuneitja: Northern Territory, Australia\nBeriguruk: Northern Territory, Australia\nDjerimanga: Northern Territory, Australia\nUmbugarlic peoples\nNgomburr: Alligator Rivers, Northern Territory, Australia\nGiimbiyu: Alligator Rivers, Northern Territory, Australia\n\nGulf Country \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nMayabic peoples\nMayi-Kutuna: Queensland, Australia\nMarrago: Queensland, Australia\nMaikulan: Queensland, Australia\nMaithakari: Queensland, Australia\nMaijabi: Queensland, Australia\nNgaun: Queensland, Australia\nWanamara: Queensland, Australia\nPaman peoples\nSouthwestern Paman peoples\nAgwamin: Queensland, Australia\nKok-Nar: Queensland, Australia\nMbara: Queensland, Australia\nYanga: Queensland, Australia\nTankgkic peoples\nLardil: Mornington Island, Wellesley Islands, Queensland, Australia\nKaiadilt: Wellesley Islands, Queensland, Australia\nYukulta: Queensland, Australia\nNguburinji: Queensland, Australia\nMingin: Queensland, Australia\nGarawan peoples\nGarrwa: Northern Territory and Queensland, Australia\nWaanyi: Queensland, Australia\n\nCape York\n\nWest Cape \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nPaman peoples\nNorth Cape York Paman peoples\nDjagaraga: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nTjungundji: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nInjinoo: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nLuthigh: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nMbewum: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nTjungundji: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nTotj: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nUnduyamo: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik peoples\nWik-Mungkan: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nKugu Nganhcara: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWiknatanja: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik Me'anh: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik Epa: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik Elken: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik Paach: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWik Ompom: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWimaranga: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWinduwinda: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nThaypan peoples\nTagalag: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\n\nEast Cape \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nPaman peoples\nNorth Cape York Paman peoples\nYadhaykenu: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nWuthathi: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nKaantju, Coen, Queensland, Australia\nPakadji: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nUutaalnganu: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nLamalamic peoples\nLama Lama: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\nNortheast Paman peoples\nUmpila: Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia\n\nDaintree Rainforest \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nPaman peoples\nDjabugay: Queensland, Australia\nYidiny: Queensland, Australia\nMbabaram: Atherton Tableland, Queensland, Australia\nDyirbalic peoples\nDyirbal: Atherton Tableland, Queensland, Australia\nWarrgamay: Queensland, Australia\nNyawigi: Halifax Bay, Queensland, Australia\n\nLake Eyre Basin \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nKalkatungic peoples\nKalkatungu: Queensland, Australia\nYalarnnga: Queensland, Australia\nKarnic peoples\nArabana: South Australia, Australia\nWangkangurru: Simpson Desert, South Australia, Australia\nPitapita: Queensland, Australia\nYandruwandha: South Australia, Australia\nYawarrawarrka: South Australia, Australia\nMitaka: Queensland, Australia\nWanggumara: Queensland, Australia\nYarli peoples\nKarenggapa: New South Wales, Australia\n\nSpencer Gulf \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nThura-Yura peoples\nWirangu: South Australia, Australia\nNauo: Eyre Peninsula, South Australia, Australia\nBarngarla: Eyre Peninsula, South Australia, Australia\nKuyani: South Australia, Australia\nAdnyamathanha: Flinders Ranges, South Australia, Australia\nMalyangapa: New South Wales, Australia\nNgadjuri: South Australia, Australia\nNukunu: South Australia, Australia\nNarungga: Yorke Peninsula, South Australia, Australia\nKaurna: Adelaide Plains, South Australia, Australia\nPeramangk: Adelaide Plains, South Australia, Australia\n\nMurray-Darling Basin \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nYotayotic peoples\nYorta Yorta: New South Wales and Victoria, Australia\nNgarrimouro: New South Wales and Victoria, Australia\nLower Murray peoples\nNgarrindjeri: South Australia, Australia\nNgaiawang: South Australia, Australia\nYuyu peoples\nNgawait: Murray River, South Australia, Australia\nErawirung: Riverland, South Australia, Australia\nNgintait: South Australia and Victoria, Australia\nNgarkat: South Australia, Australia\nKureinji: New South Wales, Australia\nJitajita: New South Wales, Australia\nTatitati: Murray River, Victoria, Australia\nWiradhuric peoples\nGamilaraay: New South Wales and Queensland, Australia\nWiradjuri: New South Wales, Australia\nNgiyampaa: New South Wales, Australia\nMuruwari: New South Wales and Queensland, Australia\n\nNortheast \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nLower Burdekin peoples\nJuru: Queensland, Australia\nBindal: Queensland, Australia\nMaric peoples\nBiri peoples\nGugu-Badhun: Burdekin River, Queensland, Australia\nYilba: Mackay, Queensland, Australia\nGia: Queensland, Australia\nBiria: Queensland, Australia\nYambina: Queensland, Australia\nGaraynbal: Queensland, Australia\nYangga: Queensland, Australia\nBaranha: Queensland, Australia\nMiyan: Queensland, Australia\nYuwibara: Queensland, Australia\nKingkel peoples\nDarumbal: Queensland, Australia\nGuwinmal: Queensland, Australia\nWaka-Kabic peoples\nGoreng Goreng: Queensland, Australia\nWulli Wulli: Queensland, Australia\nWakka Wakka: Queensland, Australia\nBaruŋgam: Queensland, Australia\nGubbi Gubbi: Queensland, Australia\nButchulla: Fraser Island, Queensland, Australia\nJagera: Queensland, Australia\n\nSoutheast \n\nPama-Nyungan peoples\nYugambeh-Bundjalung peoples\nBundjalung: New South Wales, Australia\nNgarbal: New South Wales, Australia\nGumbaynggiric peoples\nGumbaynggirr: Mid North Coast, New South Wales, Australia\nYaygirr: Coffs Harbour, New South Wales, Australia\nAnēwan: Northern Tablelands, New South Wales, Australia\nYuin-Kuric peoples\nDjangadi: Macleay Valley, New South Wales, Australia\nGeawegal: Hunter Valley, New South Wales, Australia\nWorimi: New South Wales, Australia\nWonnarua: New South Wales, Australia\nAwabakal: New South Wales, Australia\nEora: New South Wales, Australia\nDarug: New South Wales, Australia\nGandangara: New South Wales, Australia\nTharawal: Sydney, New South Wales, Australia\nNgarigo: New South Wales and Victoria, Australia\nKoori: New South Wales and Victoria, Australia\nGippsland peoples\nGunai: Gippsland, Victoria, Australia\nBidawal: Gippsland, Victoria, Australia\nDhudhuroa: Victoria, Australia\nKulinic peoples\nKulin peoples\nWurundjeri: Yarra River, Victoria, Australia\nBoonwurrung: Werribee River, Victoria, Australia\nWathaurong: Victoria, Australia\nTaungurung: Victoria, Australia\nDjadjawurrung: Victoria, Australia\nDrual peoples\nBungandidj: Mount Gambier, South Australia, Australia\nGunditjmara: Victoria, Australia\nGulidjan: Lake Colac, Victoria, Australia\n\nTasmania \n\nPalawa peoples\nWestern Tasmanian peoples\nPeerapper: Circular Head and Robbins Island, Tasmania, Australia\nToogee: Macquarie Harbour, Tasmania, Australia\nNorthern Tasmanian peoples\nTommeginne: Northern Tasmania, Australia\nNortheastern Tasmanian peoples\nPyemmairre: Northeastern Tasmania, Australia\nTyerrernotepanner: Northern Midlands and Ben Lomond, Tasmania, Australia\nEastern Tasmanian peoples\nParedarerme: Oyster Bay, Tasmania, Australia\nLairmairrener: Big River, Tasmania, Australia\nNuennone: Bruny Island, Tasmania, Australia\n\nTorres Strait Islands \n\nTorres Strait Islanders\nBadu: Badu Island, Torres Strait Islands, Queensland, Australia\nKaurareg: Central Torres Strait Islands, Queensland, Australia\nMabuiag: Torres Strait Islands, Queensland, Australia\nMeriam: Eastern Torres Strait Islands, Queensland, Australia\n\nMelanesia \n\nMelanesia generally includes New Guinea and other (far-)western Pacific islands from the Arafura Sea out to Fiji. The region is mostly inhabited by the Melanesian peoples.\nMelanesians\nAustronesian speaking Melanesians\nFijians (iTaukei): Fiji\nKanak: New-Caledonia\nMalaitan people: Malaita, Solomon Islands\nNi-Vanuatu: Vanuatu\nPapuan speaking Melanesians\nBaining\nPapuans: more than 250 distinct tribes or clans, each with their own language and culture. The main island of New Guinea and surrounding islands (territory forming independent state of Papua New Guinea (PNG) and the Indonesian provinces of West Papua and Papua). Considered \"Indigenous\" these people are a subject to many debates.\nSepik peoples\nKwoma: Peilungua Mountains, Papua New Guinea.\nIatmul: Sepik, Papua New Guinea.\nSepik Hill\nSanio\nHewa: Southern Highlands, PNG\nTrans New-Guinean peoples\nHuli of the Southern Highlands, Papua New Guinea.\nAngu: Southwestern Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea.\nBosavi\nKaluli-Kasua\nKaluli: Great Papuan Plateau, PNG\nOk\nMountain Ok\nWopkaimin: western PNG, Star Mountains.\nWest Trans New-Guinean peoples\nDani: Papua, Indonesia\nKorowai: West Papua, close to the Papua New Guinea border.\nAsmat: Asmat Regency, West Papua.\n\nMicronesia \nMicronesia generally includes the various small island chains of the western and central Pacific. The region is mostly inhabited by the Micronesian peoples.\nMicronesians\nChamorro people: Northern Marianas and Guam\nCarolinians: Northern Marianas\n Yapese, Kosraeans, Chuukese, Pohnpeians, Palauans, Kiribati's\n\nPolynesia \n\nPolynesia includes New Zealand and the islands of Oceania, and has various Indigenous populations.\n\nPolynesians\nNative Hawaiians\nTongans\nTuvaluan people\nMarquesas Islanders\nRapanui\nSamoans\nTokelau\nAustral Islanders\nCook Islanders\nMaohi, Tahiti\nMāori, New Zealand\nMoriori, Chatham Islands\nTahitians, French Polynesia\nTuamotus\nNiueans\n\nPolynesian outliers\nVanuatuans\nKapingamarangi and Nukuoro, The Federated States of Micronesia\nRennel, Tikopia and Vaeakau-Taumako, Solomon Islands\nNuguria, Papua New Guinea\nNukumanu, Papua New Guinea\nTakuu, Papua New Guinea\nOntong Java\nSikaiana\nAnuta, Solomon Islands\nFagauvea, Ouvéa, New Caledonia\nAniwa\nBellona\nRennel\n\nCircumpolar \nCircumpolar peoples is an umbrella term for the various Indigenous peoples of the Arctic.\nList of peoples by ethnolinguistic grouping: \n\"Paleosiberian\"\nChukotko-Kamchatkan\nChukchi (Lyg'oravetl'et/O'ravetl'et): Siberia, Russian Far East, Russia\nKoryaks (Nymylan-Chauchuven): Russian Far East\nTungusic\nEvenks (Evenkil): China, Mongolia, Russia\nEskimo–Aleut\nAleut (Unangax): Aleutian Islands and Kamchatka Krai\nEskimo/Yupik-Inuit\nYupik: Alaska, United States and the Russian Far East, Siberia\nAlutiiq (Sugpiat): Alaska, United States\nYup'ik (Yupiat/Yupiit/Cup'ik/Cupiit): Alaska, United States\nCup'ig (Nunivak Cup'ig people): Nunivak Island (Alaska), United States\nSiberian Yupik (Yupighyt): Siberia, Russia\nInuit: Greenland, Northern Canada (Nunavut, Nunavik and Northwest Territories), Alaska, United States\nInupiat (Iñupiat): Alaska's Arctic and North Slope boroughs and the Bering Straits\nKalaallit (Kalaallit): Greenland\nTurkic\nNortheast Turks\nDolgans (Dolgan/Tya Kikhi): Siberia (Krasnoyarsk Krai), Russia\nYakuts (Sakha): Siberia (Sakha Republic), Russia\nUgrians, Yugra, Siberia, Russia\nKhanty (Kantek/Khanti): Yugra, Siberia, Russia\nMansi, formerly known as Voguls: Yugra, Siberia, Russia\nSami (Sámi/Saami/Lapp), formerly known by the exonym Lapps: Northern Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Kola Peninsula in Russia\nSamoyedic peoples\nNorthern Samoyedic peoples: West Siberia and Far Northern European Russia\nEnets (Entsi): Far Northern Western Siberia, Russia\nNenets (Neney Neneche): Far Northern Western Siberia and Far Northern European Russia\nNganasan (Ŋənəhsa(nəh)): Taymyr Peninsula, Siberia, Russia\nYukaghirs (Odul/Vadul/Detkil'): Far Northern East Siberia, Russia\n\nSee also \n\nCenter for World Indigenous Studies\nDeclaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples\nIndigenous peoples\nIndigenous archaeology\nIndigenous Dialogues\nIndigenous (ecology)\nIndigenous intellectual property\nIndigenous knowledge\nIndigenous language\nIndigenous medicine\nIndigenous music\nInternational Work Group for Indigenous Affairs\nUnited Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues\nWorld Council of Indigenous Peoples\nWorking Group on Indigenous Populations\nList of contemporary ethnic groups\nLists of people by nationality\nList of indigenous rights organizations\nSee all pages that start with indigenous people or indigenous\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nCitations\n\nSources\n\n \n \n \n \n\nList\nIndigenous", "title": "List of Indigenous peoples" }, { "text": "Culture () is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups. Culture is often originated from or attributed to a specific region or location.\n\nHumans acquire culture through the learning processes of enculturation and socialization, which is shown by the diversity of cultures across societies.\n\nA cultural norm codifies acceptable conduct in society; it serves as a guideline for behavior, dress, language, and demeanor in a situation, which serves as a template for expectations in a social group.\nAccepting only a monoculture in a social group can bear risks, just as a single species can wither in the face of environmental change, for lack of functional responses to the change.\nThus in military culture, valor is counted a typical behavior for an individual and duty, honor, and loyalty to the social group are counted as virtues or functional responses in the continuum of conflict. In the practice of religion, analogous attributes can be identified in a social group.\n\nCultural change, or repositioning, is the reconstruction of a cultural concept of a society. Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies.\n\nOrganizations like UNESCO attempt to preserve culture and cultural heritage.\n\nDescription \n\nCulture is considered a central concept in anthropology, encompassing the range of phenomena that are transmitted through social learning in human societies. Cultural universals are found in all human societies. These include expressive forms like art, music, dance, ritual, religion, and technologies like tool usage, cooking, shelter, and clothing. The concept of material culture covers the physical expressions of culture, such as technology, architecture and art, whereas the immaterial aspects of culture such as principles of social organization (including practices of political organization and social institutions), mythology, philosophy, literature (both written and oral), and science comprise the intangible cultural heritage of a society.\n\nIn the humanities, one sense of culture as an attribute of the individual has been the degree to which they have cultivated a particular level of sophistication in the arts, sciences, education, or manners. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes been used to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies. Such hierarchical perspectives on culture are also found in class-based distinctions between a high culture of the social elite and a low culture, popular culture, or folk culture of the lower classes, distinguished by the stratified access to cultural capital. In common parlance, culture is often used to refer specifically to the symbolic markers used by ethnic groups to distinguish themselves visibly from each other such as body modification, clothing or jewelry. Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of consumer culture that emerged in the 20th century. Some schools of philosophy, such as Marxism and critical theory, have argued that culture is often used politically as a tool of the elites to manipulate the proletariat and create a false consciousness. Such perspectives are common in the discipline of cultural studies. In the wider social sciences, the theoretical perspective of cultural materialism holds that human symbolic culture arises from the material conditions of human life, as humans create the conditions for physical survival, and that the basis of culture is found in evolved biological dispositions.\n\nWhen used as a count noun, a \"culture\" is the set of customs, traditions, and values of a society or community, such as an ethnic group or nation. Culture is the set of knowledge acquired over time. In this sense, multiculturalism values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet. Sometimes \"culture\" is also used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society, a subculture (e.g. \"bro culture\"), or a counterculture. Within cultural anthropology, the ideology and analytical stance of cultural relativism hold that cultures cannot easily be objectively ranked or evaluated because any evaluation is necessarily situated within the value system of a given culture.\n\nEtymology\nThe modern term \"culture\" is based on a term used by the ancient Roman orator Cicero in his Tusculanae Disputationes, where he wrote of a cultivation of the soul or \"cultura animi,\" using an agricultural metaphor for the development of a philosophical soul, understood teleologically as the highest possible ideal for human development. Samuel Pufendorf took over this metaphor in a modern context, meaning something similar, but no longer assuming that philosophy was man's natural perfection. His use, and that of many writers after him, \"refers to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original barbarism, and through artifice, become fully human.\"\n\nIn 1986, philosopher Edward S. Casey wrote, \"The very word culture meant 'place tilled' in Middle English, and the same word goes back to Latin colere, 'to inhabit, care for, till, worship' and cultus, 'A cult, especially a religious one.' To be cultural, to have a culture, is to inhabit a place sufficiently intensely to cultivate it—to be responsible for it, to respond to it, to attend to it caringly.\"\n\nCulture described by Richard Velkley: ... originally meant the cultivation of the soul or mind, acquires most of its later modern meaning in the writings of the 18th-century German thinkers, who were on various levels developing Rousseau's criticism of \"modern liberalism and Enlightenment.\" Thus a contrast between \"culture\" and \"civilization\" is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such.\n\nIn the words of anthropologist E.B. Tylor, it is \"that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.\" Alternatively, in a contemporary variant, \"Culture is defined as a social domain that emphasizes the practices, discourses and material expressions, which, over time, express the continuities and discontinuities of social meaning of a life held in common.\n\nThe Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is \"the way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs, of a particular group of people at a particular time.\" Terror management theory posits that culture is a series of activities and worldviews that provide humans with the basis for perceiving themselves as \"person[s] of worth within the world of meaning\"—raising themselves above the merely physical aspects of existence, in order to deny the animal insignificance and death that Homo sapiens became aware of when they acquired a larger brain.\n\nThe word is used in a general sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with symbols and to act imaginatively and creatively. This ability arose with the evolution of behavioral modernity in humans around 50,000 years ago and is often thought to be unique to humans. However, some other species have demonstrated similar, though much less complicated, abilities for social learning. It is also used to denote the complex networks of practices and accumulated knowledge and ideas that are transmitted through social interaction and exist in specific human groups, or cultures, using the plural form.\n\nChange\n\nRaimon Panikkar identified 29 ways in which cultural change can be brought about, including growth, development, evolution, involution, renovation, reconception, reform, innovation, revivalism, revolution, mutation, progress, diffusion, osmosis, borrowing, eclecticism, syncretism, modernization, indigenization, and transformation. In this context, modernization could be viewed as adoption of Enlightenment era beliefs and practices, such as science, rationalism, industry, commerce, democracy, and the notion of progress. Rein Raud, building on the work of Umberto Eco, Pierre Bourdieu and Jeffrey C. Alexander, has proposed a model of cultural change based on claims and bids, which are judged by their cognitive adequacy and endorsed or not endorsed by the symbolic authority of the cultural community in question.\n\nCultural invention has come to mean any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior but which does not exist as a physical object. Humanity is in a global \"accelerating culture change period,\" driven by the expansion of international commerce, the mass media, and above all, the human population explosion, among other factors. Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the cultural concept of a society.\n\nCultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. These forces are related to both social structures and natural events, and are involved in the perpetuation of cultural ideas and practices within current structures, which themselves are subject to change.\n\nSocial conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action. These social shifts may accompany ideological shifts and other types of cultural change. For example, the U.S. feminist movement involved new practices that produced a shift in gender relations, altering both gender and economic structures. Environmental conditions may also enter as factors. For example, after tropical forests returned at the end of the last ice age, plants suitable for domestication were available, leading to the invention of agriculture, which in turn brought about many cultural innovations and shifts in social dynamics.\n\nCultures are externally affected via contact between societies, which may also produce—or inhibit—social shifts and changes in cultural practices. War or competition over resources may impact technological development or social dynamics. Additionally, cultural ideas may transfer from one society to another, through diffusion or acculturation. In diffusion, the form of something (though not necessarily its meaning) moves from one culture to another. For example, Western restaurant chains and culinary brands sparked curiosity and fascination to the Chinese as China opened its economy to international trade in the late 20th-century. \"Stimulus diffusion\" (the sharing of ideas) refers to an element of one culture leading to an invention or propagation in another. \"Direct borrowing,\" on the other hand, tends to refer to technological or tangible diffusion from one culture to another. Diffusion of innovations theory presents a research-based model of why and when individuals and cultures adopt new ideas, practices, and products.\n\nAcculturation has different meanings. Still, in this context, it refers to the replacement of traits of one culture with another, such as what happened to certain Native American tribes and many indigenous peoples across the globe during the process of colonization. Related processes on an individual level include assimilation (adoption of a different culture by an individual) and transculturation. The transnational flow of culture has played a major role in merging different cultures and sharing thoughts, ideas, and beliefs.\n\nEarly modern discourses\n\nGerman Romanticism\n\nImmanuel Kant (1724–1804) formulated an individualist definition of \"enlightenment\" similar to the concept of bildung: \"Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-incurred immaturity.\" He argued that this immaturity comes not from a lack of understanding, but from a lack of courage to think independently. Against this intellectual cowardice, Kant urged: \"\" (\"Dare to be wise!\"). In reaction to Kant, German scholars such as Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803) argued that human creativity, which necessarily takes unpredictable and highly diverse forms, is as important as human rationality. Moreover, Herder proposed a collective form of : \"For Herder, was the totality of experiences that provide a coherent identity, and sense of common destiny, to a people.\"\n\nIn 1795, the Prussian linguist and philosopher Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) called for an anthropology that would synthesize Kant's and Herder's interests. During the Romantic era, scholars in Germany, especially those concerned with nationalist movements—such as the nationalist struggle to create a \"Germany\" out of diverse principalities, and the nationalist struggles by ethnic minorities against the Austro-Hungarian Empire—developed a more inclusive notion of culture as \"worldview\" (). According to this school of thought, each ethnic group has a distinct worldview that is incommensurable with the worldviews of other groups. Although more inclusive than earlier views, this approach to culture still allowed for distinctions between \"civilized\" and \"primitive\" or \"tribal\" cultures.\n\nIn 1860, Adolf Bastian (1826–1905) argued for \"the psychic unity of mankind.\" He proposed that a scientific comparison of all human societies would reveal that distinct worldviews consisted of the same basic elements. According to Bastian, all human societies share a set of \"elementary ideas\" (); different cultures, or different \"folk ideas\" (), are local modifications of the elementary ideas. This view paved the way for the modern understanding of culture. Franz Boas (1858–1942) was trained in this tradition, and he brought it with him when he left Germany for the United States.\n\nEnglish Romanticism\n\nIn the 19th century, humanists such as English poet and essayist Matthew Arnold (1822–1888) used the word \"culture\" to refer to an ideal of individual human refinement, of \"the best that has been thought and said in the world.\" This concept of culture is also comparable to the German concept of : \"...culture being a pursuit of our total perfection by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world.\"\n\nIn practice, culture referred to an elite ideal and was associated with such activities as art, classical music, and haute cuisine. As these forms were associated with urban life, \"culture\" was identified with \"civilization\" (from ). Another facet of the Romantic movement was an interest in folklore, which led to identifying a \"culture\" among non-elites. This distinction is often characterized as that between high culture, namely that of the ruling social group, and low culture. In other words, the idea of \"culture\" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries reflected inequalities within European societies.\n\nMatthew Arnold contrasted \"culture\" with anarchy; other Europeans, following philosophers Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, contrasted \"culture\" with \"the state of nature.\" According to Hobbes and Rousseau, the Native Americans who were being conquered by Europeans from the 16th centuries on were living in a state of nature; this opposition was expressed through the contrast between \"civilized\" and \"uncivilized.\" According to this way of thinking, one could classify some countries and nations as more civilized than others and some people as more cultured than others. This contrast led to Herbert Spencer's theory of Social Darwinism and Lewis Henry Morgan's theory of cultural evolution. Just as some critics have argued that the distinction between high and low cultures is an expression of the conflict between European elites and non-elites, other critics have argued that the distinction between civilized and uncivilized people is an expression of the conflict between European colonial powers and their colonial subjects.\n\nOther 19th-century critics, following Rousseau, have accepted this differentiation between higher and lower culture, but have seen the refinement and sophistication of high culture as corrupting and unnatural developments that obscure and distort people's essential nature. These critics considered folk music (as produced by \"the folk,\" i.e., rural, illiterate, peasants) to honestly express a natural way of life, while classical music seemed superficial and decadent. Equally, this view often portrayed indigenous peoples as \"noble savages\" living authentic and unblemished lives, uncomplicated and uncorrupted by the highly stratified capitalist systems of the West.\n\nIn 1870 the anthropologist Edward Tylor (1832–1917) applied these ideas of higher versus lower culture to propose a theory of the evolution of religion. According to this theory, religion evolves from more polytheistic to more monotheistic forms. In the process, he redefined culture as a diverse set of activities characteristic of all human societies. This view paved the way for the modern understanding of religion.\n\nAnthropology\n\nAlthough anthropologists worldwide refer to Tylor's definition of culture, in the 20th century \"culture\" emerged as the central and unifying concept of American anthropology, where it most commonly refers to the universal human capacity to classify and encode human experiences symbolically, and to communicate symbolically encoded experiences socially. American anthropology is organized into four fields, each of which plays an important role in research on culture: biological anthropology, linguistic anthropology, cultural anthropology, and in the United States and Canada, archaeology. The term , or \"culture glasses,\" coined by German American anthropologist Franz Boas, refers to the \"lenses\" through which a person sees their own culture. Martin Lindstrom asserts that , which allow a person to make sense of the culture they inhabit, \"can blind us to things outsiders pick up immediately.\"\n\nSociology\n\nThe sociology of culture concerns culture as manifested in society. For sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918), culture referred to \"the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history.\" As such, culture in the sociological field can be defined as the ways of thinking, the ways of acting, and the material objects that together shape a people's way of life. Culture can be either of two types, non-material culture or material culture. Non-material culture refers to the non-physical ideas that individuals have about their culture, including values, belief systems, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions, while material culture is the physical evidence of a culture in the objects and architecture they make or have made. The term tends to be relevant only in archeological and anthropological studies, but it specifically means all material evidence which can be attributed to culture, past or present.\n\nCultural sociology first emerged in Weimar Germany (1918–1933), where sociologists such as Alfred Weber used the term ('cultural sociology'). Cultural sociology was then reinvented in the English-speaking world as a product of the cultural turn of the 1960s, which ushered in structuralist and postmodern approaches to social science. This type of cultural sociology may be loosely regarded as an approach incorporating cultural analysis and critical theory. Cultural sociologists tend to reject scientific methods, instead hermeneutically focusing on words, artifacts and symbols. Culture has since become an important concept across many branches of sociology, including resolutely scientific fields like social stratification and social network analysis. As a result, there has been a recent influx of quantitative sociologists to the field. Thus, there is now a growing group of sociologists of culture who are, confusingly, not cultural sociologists. These scholars reject the abstracted postmodern aspects of cultural sociology, and instead, look for a theoretical backing in the more scientific vein of social psychology and cognitive science.\n\nEarly researchers and development of cultural sociology\nThe sociology of culture grew from the intersection between sociology (as shaped by early theorists like Marx, Durkheim, and Weber) with the growing discipline of anthropology, wherein researchers pioneered ethnographic strategies for describing and analyzing a variety of cultures around the world. Part of the legacy of the early development of the field lingers in the methods (much of cultural, sociological research is qualitative), in the theories (a variety of critical approaches to sociology are central to current research communities), and in the substantive focus of the field. For instance, relationships between popular culture, political control, and social class were early and lasting concerns in the field.\n\nCultural studies\n\nIn the United Kingdom, sociologists and other scholars influenced by Marxism such as Stuart Hall (1932–2014) and Raymond Williams (1921–1988) developed cultural studies. Following nineteenth-century Romantics, they identified culture with consumption goods and leisure activities (such as art, music, film, food, sports, and clothing). They saw patterns of consumption and leisure as determined by relations of production, which led them to focus on class relations and the organization of production.\n\nIn the United Kingdom, cultural studies focuses largely on the study of popular culture; that is, on the social meanings of mass-produced consumer and leisure goods. Richard Hoggart coined the term in 1964 when he founded the Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies or CCCS. It has since become strongly associated with Stuart Hall, who succeeded Hoggart as Director. Cultural studies in this sense, then, can be viewed as a limited concentration scoped on the intricacies of consumerism, which belongs to a wider culture sometimes referred to as Western civilization or globalism.\n\nFrom the 1970s onward, Stuart Hall's pioneering work, along with that of his colleagues Paul Willis, Dick Hebdige, Tony Jefferson, and Angela McRobbie, created an international intellectual movement. As the field developed, it began to combine political economy, communication, sociology, social theory, literary theory, media theory, film/video studies, cultural anthropology, philosophy, museum studies, and art history to study cultural phenomena or cultural texts. In this field researchers often concentrate on how particular phenomena relate to matters of ideology, nationality, ethnicity, social class, and/or gender. Cultural studies is concerned with the meaning and practices of everyday life. These practices comprise the ways people do particular things (such as watching television or eating out) in a given culture. It also studies the meanings and uses people attribute to various objects and practices. Specifically, culture involves those meanings and practices held independently of reason. Watching television to view a public perspective on a historical event should not be thought of as culture unless referring to the medium of television itself, which may have been selected culturally; however, schoolchildren watching television after school with their friends to \"fit in\" certainly qualifies since there is no grounded reason for one's participation in this practice.\n\nIn the context of cultural studies, a text includes not only written language, but also films, photographs, fashion or hairstyles: the texts of cultural studies comprise all the meaningful artifacts of culture. Similarly, the discipline widens the concept of culture. Culture, for a cultural-studies researcher, not only includes traditional high culture (the culture of ruling social groups) and popular culture, but also everyday meanings and practices. The last two, in fact, have become the main focus of cultural studies. A further and recent approach is comparative cultural studies, based on the disciplines of comparative literature and cultural studies.\n\nScholars in the United Kingdom and the United States developed somewhat different versions of cultural studies after the late 1970s. The British version of cultural studies had originated in the 1950s and 1960s, mainly under the influence of Richard Hoggart, E.P. Thompson, and Raymond Williams, and later that of Stuart Hall and others at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies at the University of Birmingham. This included overtly political, left-wing views, and criticisms of popular culture as \"capitalist\" mass culture; it absorbed some of the ideas of the Frankfurt School critique of the \"culture industry\" (i.e. mass culture). This emerges in the writings of early British cultural-studies scholars and their influences: see the work of (for example) Raymond Williams, Stuart Hall, Paul Willis, and Paul Gilroy.\n\nIn the United States, Lindlof and Taylor write, \"cultural studies [were] grounded in a pragmatic, liberal-pluralist tradition.\" The American version of cultural studies initially concerned itself more with understanding the subjective and appropriative side of audience reactions to, and uses of, mass culture; for example, American cultural-studies advocates wrote about the liberatory aspects of fandom. The distinction between American and British strands, however, has faded. Some researchers, especially in early British cultural studies, apply a Marxist model to the field. This strain of thinking has some influence from the Frankfurt School, but especially from the structuralist Marxism of Louis Althusser and others. The main focus of an orthodox Marxist approach concentrates on the production of meaning. This model assumes a mass production of culture and identifies power as residing with those producing cultural artifacts. In a Marxist view, the mode and relations of production form the economic base of society, which constantly interacts and influences superstructures, such as culture. Other approaches to cultural studies, such as feminist cultural studies and later American developments of the field, distance themselves from this view. They criticize the Marxist assumption of a single, dominant meaning, shared by all, for any cultural product. The non-Marxist approaches suggest that different ways of consuming cultural artifacts affect the meaning of the product. This view comes through in the book Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman (by Paul du Gay et al.), which seeks to challenge the notion that those who produce commodities control the meanings that people attribute to them. Feminist cultural analyst, theorist, and art historian Griselda Pollock contributed to cultural studies from viewpoints of art history and psychoanalysis. The writer Julia Kristeva is among influential voices at the turn of the century, contributing to cultural studies from the field of art and psychoanalytical French feminism.\n\nPetrakis and Kostis (2013) divide cultural background variables into two main groups:\n\n The first group covers the variables that represent the \"efficiency orientation\" of the societies: performance orientation, future orientation, assertiveness, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance.\n The second covers the variables that represent the \"social orientation\" of societies, i.e., the attitudes and lifestyles of their members. These variables include gender egalitarianism, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism, and human orientation.\nIn 2016, a new approach to culture was suggested by Rein Raud, who defines culture as the sum of resources available to human beings for making sense of their world and proposes a two-tiered approach, combining the study of texts (all reified meanings in circulation) and cultural practices (all repeatable actions that involve the production, dissemination or transmission of purposes), thus making it possible to re-link anthropological and sociological study of culture with the tradition of textual theory.\n\nPsychology \n\nStarting in the 1990s, psychological research on culture influence began to grow and challenge the universality assumed in general psychology. Culture psychologists began to try to explore the relationship between emotions and culture, and answer whether the human mind is independent from culture. For example, people from collectivistic cultures, such as the Japanese, suppress their positive emotions more than their American counterparts. Culture may affect the way that people experience and express emotions. On the other hand, some researchers try to look for differences between people's personalities across cultures. As different cultures dictate distinctive norms, culture shock is also studied to understand how people react when they are confronted with other cultures. Cognitive tools may not be accessible or they may function differently cross culture. For example, people who are raised in a culture with an abacus are trained with distinctive reasoning style. Cultural lenses may also make people view the same outcome of events differently. Westerners are more motivated by their successes than their failures, while East Asians are better motivated by the avoidance of failure. Culture is important for psychologists to consider when understanding the human mental operation.\n\nProtection of culture \n\nThere are a number of international agreements and national laws relating to the protection of culture and cultural heritage. UNESCO and its partner organizations such as Blue Shield International coordinate international protection and local implementation. The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and the UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions deal with the protection of culture. Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights deals with cultural heritage in two ways: it gives people the right to participate in cultural life on the one hand and the right to the protection of their contributions to cultural life on the other.\n\nIn the 21st century, the protection of culture has been the focus of increasing activity by national and international organizations. The UN and UNESCO promote cultural preservation and cultural diversity through declarations and legally-binding conventions or treaties. The aim is not to protect a person's property, but rather to preserve the cultural heritage of humanity, especially in the event of war and armed conflict. According to Karl von Habsburg, President of Blue Shield International, the destruction of cultural assets is also part of psychological warfare. The target of the attack is the identity of the opponent, which is why symbolic cultural assets become a main target. It is also intended to affect the particularly sensitive cultural memory, the growing cultural diversity and the economic basis (such as tourism) of a state, region or municipality.\n\nTourism is having an increasing impact on the various forms of culture. On the one hand, this can be physical impact on individual objects or the destruction caused by increasing environmental pollution and, on the other hand, socio-cultural effects on society.\n\nSee also \n\n Animal culture\n Anthropology\n Cultural area\n Cultural studies\n Cultural tourism\n Culture 21 – United Nations plan of action\n \n Outline of culture\n Recombinant culture\n Semiotics of culture\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nBooks\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Bastian, Adolf (2009), Encyclopædia Britannica Online\n \n Arnold, Matthew. 1869. Culture and Anarchy. New York: Macmillan. Third edition, 1882, available online. Retrieved: 2006-06-28.\n Bakhtin, M.M. (1981) The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans. Caryl Press. .\n Barzilai, Gad (2003). Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities University of Michigan Press. \n \n Bourdieu, Pierre (1977). Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge University Press. \n Carhart. Michael C. (2007). The Science of Culture in Enlightenment Germany, Cambridge, Harvard University press.\n Cohen, Anthony P. (1985). The Symbolic Construction of Community. New York: Routledge \n Dawkins, R. (1999) [1982]. The Extended Phenotype: The Long Reach of the Gene. Oxford Paperbacks. \n Findley & Rothney (1986). Twentieth-Century World, Houghton Mifflin \n Geertz, Clifford (1973). The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. New York. .\n \n Goodall, J. (1986). The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. \n Hoult, T.F., ed. (1969). Dictionary of Modern Sociology. Totowa, New Jersey: Littlefield, Adams & Co. \n Jary, D. and J. Jary (1991). The HarperCollins Dictionary of Sociology. New York: HarperCollins. \n Keiser, R. Lincoln (1969). The Vice Lords: Warriors of the Streets. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. .\n Kroeber, A.L. and C. Kluckhohn (1952). Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Peabody Museum \n Kim, Uichol (2001). \"Culture, science and indigenous psychologies: An integrated analysis.\" In D. Matsumoto (Ed.), Handbook of culture and psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press \n McClenon, James. Tylor, Edward B(urnett) (1998) Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. Ed. William Swatos and Peter Kivisto. Walnut Creek: AltaMira, pp. 528–529. \n Middleton, R. (1990). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. .\n O'Neil, D. (2006). Cultural Anthropology Tutorials , Behavioral Sciences Department, Palomar College, San Marco, California. Retrieved: 2006-07-10.\n Reagan, Ronald. \"Final Radio Address to the Nation\" , January 14, 1989. Retrieved June 3, 2006.\n Reese, W.L. (1980). Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought. New Jersey US; Sussex, UK: Humanities Press. \n \n UNESCO (2002). Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, issued on International Mother Language Day, \n White, L. (1949). The Science of Culture: A study of man and civilization. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. \n Wilson, Edward O. (1998). Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge. New York: Vintage. .\n Wolfram, Stephen (2002). A New Kind of Science. Wolfram Media, Inc. .\n\nArticles\n The Meaning of \"Culture\" (2014-12-27), Joshua Rothman, The New Yorker\n\nExternal links\n\n Cultura: International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology\n What is Culture?\n\n \nCategory:Social concepts\nCategory:Social constructionism\nCategory:Main topic articles", "title": "Culture" }, { "text": "Latin America is a cultural concept denoting the Americas where Romance languages—languages derived from Vulgar Latin —are predominantly spoken. The term was coined in the nineteenth century to refer to regions in the Americas that were ruled by the Spanish, Portuguese and French empires. The term does not have a precise definition, but it is \"commonly used to describe South America, Central America, Mexico, and the islands of the Caribbean.\" In a narrow sense, it refers to Hispanic America, Brazil, French West Indies and Antillean Creole French speaking Caribbean countries.\n\nThe term \"Latin America\" is broader than categories such as Hispanic America, which specifically refers to Spanish-speaking countries; and Ibero-America, a term not generally used that specifically refers to Spanish, French and French Creole-speaking countries and Portuguese-speaking countries sometimes leaving French and British excolonies aside.\n\nThe term Latin America was first used in an 1856 conference called \"Initiative of America: Idea for a Federal Congress of the Republics\" (Iniciativa de la América. Idea de un Congreso Federal de las Repúblicas), by the Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao. The term was further popularized by French emperor Napoleon III's government in the 1860s as to justify France's military involvement in the Second Mexican Empire and to include French-speaking territories in the Americas such as French Canada, French Louisiana, French Guiana, Martinique, Guadeloupe, Haiti and the French Antillean Creole Caribbean islands Saint Lucia and Dominica, in the larger group of countries where Spanish and Portuguese languages prevailed.\n\nThe region covers an area that stretches from Mexico to Tierra del Fuego and includes much of the Caribbean. It has an area of approximately 19,197,000 km (7,412,000 sq mi), almost 13% of the Earth's land surface area. As of March 2, 2020, the population of Latin America and the Caribbean was estimated at more than 652 million, and in 2019, Latin America had a combined nominal GDP of US$5,188,250 trillion and a GDP PPP of US$10,284,588 trillion.\n\nEtymology and definitions\n\nOrigins\n \nThere is no universal agreement on the origin of the term Latin America. The concept and term came into being in the nineteenth century, following the political independence of countries from the Spanish and Portuguese empires. It was also popularized in 1860s France during the reign of Napoleon III. The term Latin America was a part of its attempt to create a French empire in the Americas. Research has shown that the idea that a part of the Americas has a linguistic and cultural affinity with the Romance cultures as a whole can be traced back to the 1830s, in the writing of the French Saint-Simonian Michel Chevalier, who postulated that a part of the Americas was inhabited by people of a \"Latin race\", and that it could, therefore, ally itself with \"Latin Europe\", ultimately overlapping the Latin Church, in a struggle with \"Teutonic Europe,\" \"Anglo-Saxon America,\" and \"Slavic Europe.\"\n\nHistorian John Leddy Phelan located the origins of the term Latin America to be from the French occupation of Mexico. His argument is that French imperialists used the concept of \"Latin\" America as a way to counter British imperialism, as well as to challenge the German threat to France. The idea of a \"Latin race\" was then taken up by Latin American intellectuals and political leaders of the mid- and late-nineteenth century, who no longer looked to Spain or Portugal as cultural models, but rather to France. French ruler Napoleon III had a strong interest in extending French commercial and political power in the region. He and his business promoter Felix Belly called it \"Latin America\" to emphasize the shared Latin background of France with the former viceroyalties of Spain and colonies of Portugal. This led to Napoleon III's failed attempt to take military control of Mexico in the 1860s.\n\nHowever, though Phelan's thesis is still frequently cited in US academy, further scholarship has shown earlier usage of the term. Two Latin American historians, Uruguayan Arturo Ardao and Chilean Miguel Rojas Mix, found evidence that the term \"Latin America\" was used earlier than Phelan claimed, and the first use of the term was in fact in opposition to imperialist projects in the Americas. Ardao wrote about this subject in his book Génesis de la idea y el nombre de América latina (Genesis of the Idea and the Name of Latin America, 1980), and Miguel Rojas Mix in his article \"Bilbao y el hallazgo de América latina: Unión continental, socialista y libertaria\" (Bilbao and the Finding of Latin America: a Continental, Socialist and Libertarian Union, 1986). As Michel Gobat points out in his article \"The Invention of Latin America: A Transnational History of Anti-Imperialism, Democracy, and Race\", \"Arturo Ardao, Miguel Rojas Mix, and Aims McGuinness have revealed [that] the term 'Latin America' had already been used in 1856 by Central Americans and South Americans protesting US expansion into the Southern Hemisphere\". Edward Shawcross summarizes Ardao's and Rojas Mix's findings in the following way: \"Ardao identified the term in a poem by a Colombian diplomat and intellectual resident in France, José María Torres Caicedo, published on 15 February 1857 in a French based Spanish-language newspaper, while Rojas Mix located it in a speech delivered in France by the radical liberal Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao in June 1856\".\n\nBy the late 1850s, the term was being used in California (which had become a part of the United States), in local newspapers such as El Clamor Público by Californios writing about and , and identifying as as the abbreviated term for their \"hemispheric membership in \".\n\nThe words \"Latin\" and \"America\" were first found to be combined in a printed work to produce the term \"Latin America\" in 1856 in a conference by the Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao in Paris. The conference had the title \"Initiative of the America. Idea for a Federal Congress of Republics.\" The following year, Colombian writer José María Torres Caicedo also used the term in his poem \"The Two Americas\". Two events related with the United States played a central role in both works. The first event happened less than a decade before the publication of Bilbao's and Torres Caicedo's works: the Invasion of Mexico or, in USA, the Mexican–American War, after which Mexico lost a third of its territory. The second event, the Walker affair, which happened the same year that both works were written: the decision by US president Franklin Pierce to recognize the regime recently established in Nicaragua by American William Walker and his band of filibusters who ruled Nicaragua for nearly a year (1856–57) and attempted to reinstate slavery there, where it had been already abolished for three decades\n\nIn both Bilbao's and Torres Caicedo's works, the Mexican–American War (1846–48) and William Walker's expedition to Nicaragua are explicitly mentioned as examples of dangers for the region. For Bilbao, \"Latin America\" was not a geographical concept, as he excluded Brazil, Paraguay, and Mexico. Both authors also asked for the union of all Latin American countries as the only way to defend their territories against further foreign US interventions. Both also rejected European imperialism, claiming that the return of European countries to non-democratic forms of government was another danger for Latin American countries, and used the same word to describe the state of European politics at the time: \"despotism.\" Several years later, during the French invasion of Mexico, Bilbao wrote another work, \"Emancipation of the Spirit in America,\" where he asked all Latin American countries to support the Mexican cause against France, and rejected French imperialism in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas. He asked Latin American intellectuals to search for their \"intellectual emancipation\" by abandoning all French ideas, claiming that France was: \"Hypocrite, because she [France] calls herself protector of the Latin race just to subject it to her exploitation regime; treacherous, because she speaks of freedom and nationality, when, unable to conquer freedom for herself, she enslaves others instead!\" Therefore, as Michel Gobat puts it, the term Latin America itself had an \"anti-imperial genesis,\" and their creators were far from supporting any form of imperialism in the region, or in any other place of the globe.\n\nIn France, the term Latin America was used with the opposite intention. It was employed by the French Empire of Napoleon III during the French invasion of Mexico as a way to include France among countries with influence in the Americas and to exclude Anglophone countries. It played a role in his campaign to imply cultural kinship of the region with France, transform France into a cultural and political leader of the area, and install Maximilian of Habsburg as emperor of the Second Mexican Empire. The term was also used in 1861 by French scholars in La revue des races Latines, a magazine dedicated to the Pan-Latinism movement.\n\nContemporary definitions \n\n Latin America is often used synonymously with Ibero-America (\"Iberian America\"), where the populations speak Spanish or Portuguese and the dominant religion is Roman Catholic. This definition excludes the predominantly Protestant English-speaking and Dutch-speaking regions, as well as French-speaking predominantly Catholic regions. This definition has come under scrutiny for its racist connotations intentionally excluding Haiti, a culturally parallel nation to the rest of Ibero-America which played a major role in Latin American liberation and falls under the semantic definition of the term, explained below. Belize, Guyana and Suriname, as well as several French overseas departments, are excluded from the definition. Puerto Rico, the Spanish-speaking Caribbean territory of the U.S., acquired from the Spanish Empire following its defeat in the 1898 Spanish American War, is then usually included. \n In another definition, which is close to the semantic origin, Latin America designates the set of countries in the Americas where a Romance language (a language derived from Latin) predominates: Spanish, Portuguese, French, or a creole language based upon the three. Thus, it includes Mexico; most of Central and South America; and in the Caribbean, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti. Latin America then comprises all of the countries in the Americas that were once part of the Spanish, Portuguese, and French Empires. Puerto Rico, although not a sovereign nation, is often included.\n The term is sometimes used more broadly to refer to all of the Americas south of the United States, thus including the Guianas (French Guiana, Guyana, and Suriname); the Anglophone Caribbean (and Belize); the Francophone Caribbean; and the Dutch Caribbean. This definition emphasizes a similar socioeconomic history of the region, which was characterized by formal or informal colonialism, rather than cultural aspects (see, for example, dependency theory). Some sources avoid this simplification by using the alternative phrase \"Latin America and the Caribbean\", as in the United Nations geoscheme for the Americas. A number of academic area-studies programs and centers of Latin American studies are titled \"Latin American and Caribbean\" studies, such as the Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies, University of Michigan, New York University Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies (CLACS), and University of Washington's Latin American and Caribbean Studies, The Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Although the U.S. acquired a large swath of territory from the Spanish Empire and called Spanish borderlands and nearly 20% of the U.S. population identifies as \"Hispanic\" (or \"Latinx\"), the U.S. is generally not classified as being part of Latin America. However, the significant demographic is sometimes brought under the umbrella of Latin American studies, such as at University of Albany.\n\nThe distinction between Latin America and Anglo-America is a convention based on the predominant languages in the Americas by which Romance language- and English-speaking cultures are distinguished. Neither area is culturally or linguistically homogeneous; in substantial portions of Latin America (e.g., highland Peru, Bolivia, Mexico, Guatemala), Native American cultures and, to a lesser extent, Amerindian languages, are predominant, and in other areas, the influence of African cultures is strong (e.g., the Caribbean basinincluding parts of Colombia and Venezuela).\n\nThe term's meaning is contested and not without controversy. Historian Mauricio Tenorio-Trillo explores at length the \"allure and power\" of the idea of Latin America. He remarks at the outset, \"The idea of 'Latin America' ought to have vanished with the obsolescence of racial theory... But it is not easy to declare something dead when it can hardly be said to have existed,\" going on to say, \"The term is here to stay, and it is important.\" Following in the tradition of Chilean writer Francisco Bilbao, who excluded Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay from his early conceptualization of Latin America, Chilean historian Jaime Eyzaguirre has criticized the term Latin America for \"disguising\" and \"diluting\" the Spanish character of a region (i.e. Hispanic America) with the inclusion of nations that, according to him, do not share the same pattern of conquest and colonization.\n\nThe Francophone part of North America which includes Quebec and Acadia is generally excluded from the definition of Latin America.\n\nSubregions and countries\n\nLatin America can be subdivided into several subregions based on geography, politics, demographics and culture. It is defined as all of the Americas south of the United States, the basic geographical subregions are North America, Central America, the Caribbean and South America; the latter contains further politico-geographical subdivisions such as the Southern Cone, The Guianas and the Andean states. It may be subdivided on linguistic grounds into Spanish America, Portuguese America, and French America.\n\n*: Not a sovereign state\n\nHistory\n\nBefore European contact in 1492\n\n \n\nThe earliest known human settlement in the area was identified at Monte Verde, near Puerto Montt in southern Chile. Its occupation dates to some 14,000 years ago and there is disputed evidence of even earlier occupation. Over the course of millennia, people spread to all parts of the North and South America and the Caribbean islands. Although the region now known as Latin America stretches from northern Mexico to Tierra del Fuego, the diversity of its geography, topography, climate, and cultivable land means that populations were not evenly distributed. Sedentary populations of fixed settlements supported by agriculture gave rise to complex civilizations in Mesoamerica (central and southern Mexico and Central America) and the highland Andes populations of Quechua and Aymara, as well as Chibcha.\n\nAgricultural surpluses from intensive cultivation of maize in Mesoamerica and potatoes and hardy grains in the Andes were able to support distant populations beyond farmers' households and communities. Surpluses allowed the creation of social, political, religious, and military hierarchies, urbanization with stable village settlements and major cities, specialization of craft work, and the transfer of products via tribute and trade. In the Andes, llamas were domesticated and used to transport goods; Mesoamerica had no large domesticated animals to aid human labor or provide meat. Mesoamerican civilizations developed systems of writing; in the Andes, knotted quipus emerged as a system of accounting.\n\nThe Caribbean region had sedentary populations settled by Arawak or Tainos and in what is now Brazil, many Tupian peoples lived in fixed settlements. Semi-sedentary populations had agriculture and settled villages, but soil exhaustion required relocation of settlements. Populations were less dense and social and political hierarchies less institutionalized. Non-sedentary peoples lived in small bands, with low population density and without agriculture. They lived in harsh environments. By the first millennium CE, the Western Hemisphere was the home of tens of millions of people; the exact numbers are a source of ongoing research and controversy.\n\nThe last two great civilizations, the Aztecs and Incas, emerged into prominence in the early fourteenth century and mid-fifteenth centuries. Although the Indigenous empires were conquered by Europeans, the sub-imperial organization of the densely populated regions remained in place. The presence or absence of Indigenous populations had an impact on how European imperialism played out in the Americas. The pre-Columbian civilizations of Mesoamerica and the highland Andes became sources of pride for American-born Spaniards in the late colonial era and for nationalists in the post-independence era. For some modern Latin American nation-states, the Indigenous roots of national identity are expressed in the ideology of indigenismo. These modern constructions of national identity usually critique their colonial past.\n\nColonial era, 1492-1825\n\nSpanish and Portuguese colonization of the Western Hemisphere laid the basis for societies now seen as characteristic of Latin America. In the fifteenth century, both Portugal and Spain embarked on voyages of overseas exploration, following the Christian Reconquista of Iberia from Muslims. Portugal sailed down the west coast of Africa and the Crown of Castile in central Spain authorized the voyage of Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus. Portugal's maritime expansion into the Indian Ocean was initially its main interest; but the off-course voyage of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 allowed Portugal to claim Brazil. The 1494 line of demarcation between Spain and Portugal gave Spain all areas to the west, and Portugal all areas to the east. For Portugal, the riches of Africa, India, and the Spice Islands were far more important initially than the unknown territory of Brazil. By contrast, having no better prospects, the Spanish crown directed its energies to its New World territories. Spanish colonists began founding permanent settlements in the circum-Caribbean region, starting in 1493. In these regions of early contact, Spaniards established patterns of interaction with Indigenous peoples that they transferred to the mainland. At the time of European contact, the area was densely populated by Indigenous peoples who had not organized as empires, nor created large physical complexes. With the expedition of Hernán Cortés from Cuba to Mexico in 1519, Spaniards encountered the Indigenous imperial civilization of the Aztecs. Using techniques of warfare honed in their early Caribbean settlements, Cortés sought Indigenous allies to topple the superstructure of the Aztec Empire after a two-year war of conquest. The Spanish recognized many Indigenous elites as nobles under Spanish rule with continued power and influence over commoners, and used them as intermediaries in the emerging Spanish imperial system.\n\nWith the example of the conquest of central Mexico, Spaniards sought similar great empires to conquer, and expanded into other regions of Mexico and Central America, and then the Inca empire, by Francisco Pizarro. By the end of the sixteenth century Spain and Portugal claimed territory extending from Alaska to the southern tip of Patagonia. They founded cities that remain important centers. In Spanish America, these include Panama City (1519), Mexico City (1521) Guadalajara (1531–42), Cartagena (1532), Cuzco (1534), Lima (1535), and Quito (1534). \nIn Brazil, coastal cities were founded: Olinda (1537), Salvador de Bahia (1549), São Paulo (1554), and Rio de Janeiro (1565). \n\nSpaniards explored extensively in the mainland territories they claimed, but they settled in great numbers in areas with dense and hierarchically organized Indigenous populations and exploitable resources, especially silver. Early Spanish conquerors saw the Indigenous themselves as an exploitable resource for tribute and labor, and individual Spaniards were awarded grants of encomienda forced labor as reward for participation in the conquest. Throughout most of Spanish America, Indigenous populations were the largest component, with some black slaves serving in auxiliary positions. The three main racial groups during the colonial era were European whites, black Africans, and Indigenous. Over time, these populations intermixed, resulting in castas. In most of Spanish America, the Indigenous were the majority population.\n\nBoth dense Indigenous populations and silver were found in New Spain (colonial Mexico) and Peru, and the now-countries became centers of the Spanish empire. The Viceroyalty of New Spain, centered in Mexico City, was established in 1535 and the Viceroyalty of Peru, centered in Lima, in 1542. The Viceroyalty of New Spain also had jurisdiction over the Spanish East Indies, once the Spanish established themselves there in the late sixteenth century. The viceroy was the direct representative of the king.\n\nThe Roman Catholic Church, as an institution, launched a \"spiritual conquest\" to convert Indigenous populations to Christianity, incorporating them into Christendom, with no other religion permitted. Pope Alexander VI in 1493 had bestowed on the Catholic Monarchs great power over ecclesiastical appointments and the functioning of the church in overseas possessions. The monarch was the patron of the institutional church. The state and the Catholic church were the institutional pillars of Spanish colonial rule. In the late eighteenth century, the crown also established a royal military to defend its possessions against foreign incursions, especially by the British. It also increased the number of viceroyalties in Spanish South America.\n\nPortugal did not establish firm institutional rule in Brazil until the 1530s, but it paralleled many patterns of colonization in Spanish America. The Brazilian Indigenous peoples were initially dense, but were semi-sedentary and lacked the organization that allowed Spaniards to more easily incorporate the Indigenous into the colonial order. The Portuguese used Indigenous laborers to extract the valuable commodity known as brazilwood, which gave its name to the colony. Portugal took greater control of the region to prevent other European powers, particularly France, from threatening its claims.\n\nEuropeans sought wealth in the form of high-value, low-bulk products exported to Europe. The Spanish Empire established institutions to secure wealth for itself and protect its empire in the Americas from rivals. In trade it followed principles of mercantilism, where its overseas possessions were to enrich the center of power in Iberia. Trade was regulated through the royal House of Trade in Seville, Spain, with the main export from Spanish America to Spain being silver, later followed by the red dye cochineal. Silver was found in the Andes, in particular the silver mountain of Potosí, (now in Bolivia) in the region where Indigenous men were forced to labor in the mines. In New Spain, rich deposits of silver were found in northern Mexico, in Zacatecas and Guanajuato, outside areas of dense Indigenous settlement. Labor was attracted from elsewhere for mining and landed estates were established to raise wheat, range cattle and sheep. Mules were bred for transportation and to replace of human labor in refining silver. \n\nIn Brazil and some Spanish Caribbean islands, plantations for sugar cultivation developed on a large scale for the export market. For Brazil, the development of the plantation complex transformed the colony from a backwater of the Portuguese empire to a major asset. The Portuguese transported enslaved laborers from their African territories and the seventeenth-century \"age of sugar\" was transformational, seeing Brazil becoming a major economic component of the Portuguese empire. The population increase exponentially, with the majority being enslaved Africans. Settlement and economic development was largely coastal, the goal of sugar export to European markets. With competition from other sugar producers, Brazil's fortunes based on sugar declined, but in the eighteenth century, diamonds and gold were found in the southern interior, fueling a new wave of economic activity. As the economic center of the colony shifted from the sugar-producing northeast to the southern region of gold and diamond mines, the capital was transferred from Salvador de Bahia to Rio de Janeiro in 1763. During the colonial era, Brazil was also the manufacturing center for Portugal's ships. As a global maritime empire, Portugal created a vital industry in Brazil. Once Brazil achieved its independence, this industry languished.\n\nIn Spanish America, manufactured and luxury goods were sent from Spain and entered Spanish America legally only through the Caribbean ports of Veracruz, Havana, and Cartagena, as well as the Pacific port of Callao, in Peru. Trans-Pacific trade was established in the late sixteenth century from Acapulco to the Philippines via the Manila Galleon, transporting silver from Mexico and Peru to Asia; Chinese silks and porcelains were sent first to Mexico and then re-exported to Spain. This system of commerce was in theory was tightly controlled, but was increasingly undermined by other European powers. The English, French, and Dutch seized Caribbean islands claimed by the Spanish and established their own sugar plantations. The islands also became hubs for contraband trade with Spanish America. Many regions of Spanish America that were not well supplied by Spanish merchants, such as Central America, participated in contraband trade with foreign merchants. The eighteenth-century Bourbon reforms sought to modernize the mercantile system to stimulate greater trade exchanges between Spain and Spanish America in a system known as comercio libre. It was not free trade in the modern sense, but rather free commerce within the Spanish empire. Liberalization of trade and limited deregulation sought to break the monopoly of merchants based in the Spanish port of Cádiz. Administrative reforms created the system of districts known as intendancies, modeled on those in France. Their creation was aimed at strengthening crown control over its possessions and sparking economic development.\n\nBoth Spain and Portugal restricted foreign powers from trading in their American colonies or entering coastal waters it had claimed. Other European powers challenged the exclusive rights claimed by the Iberian powers. The English, Dutch, and French permanently seized islands in the Caribbean and created sugar plantations on the model developed in Brazil. In Brazil, the Dutch seized the sugar-producing area of the northeast, but after 30 years they were expelled.\n\nColonial legacies\n\nMore than three centuries of direct Spanish and Portuguese colonial rule left lasting imprints on Latin America. Spanish and Portuguese are the dominant languages of the region, and Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion. Diseases to which Indigenous peoples had no immunity devastated their populations, although populations still exist in many places. The forced transportation of African slaves transformed major regions where they labored to produce the export products, especially sugar. In regions with dense Indigenous populations, they remained the largest percentage of the population; sugar-producing regions had the largest percentage of blacks. European whites in both Spanish America and Brazil were a small percentage of the population, but they were also the wealthiest and most socially elite; and the racial hierarchies they established in the colonial era have persisted. Cities founded by Europeans in the colonial era remain major centers of power. In the modern era, Latin American governments have worked to designate many colonial cities as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Exports of metals and agricultural products to Europe dominate Latin American economies, with the manufacturing sector deliberately suppressed; the development of modern, industrial economies of Europe depended on the underdevelopment of Latin America.\n\nDespite the many commonalities of colonial Spanish America and Brazil, they did not think of themselves as being part of a particular region; that was a development of the post-independence period beginning in the nineteenth century. The imprint of Christopher Columbus and Iberian colonialism in Latin America began shifting in the twentieth century. \"Discovery\" by Europeans was reframed as \"encounter\" between the Old World and the New. An example of the new consciousness was the dismantling of the Christopher Columbus monument in Buenos Aires, one of many in the hemisphere, mandated by leftist President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner. Its replacement was a statue to a mestiza fighter for independence, Juana Azurduy de Padilla, provoking a major controversy in Argentina over historical and national identity.\n\nIndependence era (1776–1825)\n\nIndependence in the Americas was not inevitable or uniform in the Americas. Events in Europe had a profound impact on the colonial empires of Spain, Portugal, and France in the Americas. France and Spain had supported the American Revolution that saw the independence of the Thirteen Colonies from Britain, which had defeated them in the Seven Years' War (1757–63). The outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, a political and social uprising toppling the Bourbon monarchy and overturning the established order, precipitated events in France's rich Caribbean sugar colony of Saint-Domingue, whose black population rose up, led by Toussaint L'ouverture. The Haitian Revolution had far-reaching consequences. Britain declared war on France and attacked ports in Saint-Domingue. Haiti gained independence in 1804, led by ex-slave Jean-Jacques Dessalines following many years of violent struggle, with huge atrocities on both sides. Haitian independence affected colonial empires in the Americas, as well as the United States. Many white, slave-owning sugar planters of Saint-Domingue fled to the Spanish island of Cuba, where they established sugar plantations that became the basis of Cuba's economy. Uniquely in the hemisphere, the black victors in Haiti abolished slavery at independence. Many thousands of remaining whites were executed on the orders of Dessalines. For other regions with large enslaved populations, the Haitian Revolution was a cautionary tale for the white slave-owning planters. Despite Spain and Britain's satisfaction with France's defeat, they \"were obsessed by the possible impact of the slave uprising on Cuba, Santo Domingo, and Jamaica\", by then a British sugar colony. US President Thomas Jefferson, a wealthy slave owner, refused to recognize Haiti's independence. Recognition only came in 1862 from President Abraham Lincoln. Given France's failure to defeat the slave insurgency and since needing money for the war with Britain, Napoleon Bonaparte sold France's remaining mainland holdings in North America to the United States in the 1803 Louisiana Purchase.\n\nNapoleon's invasion of the Iberian peninsula in 1807-1808 was a major change in the world order, with the stability of both the metropoles and their overseas possessions upended. It resulted in the movement, with British help, of the Portuguese royal court to Brazil, its richest colony. In Spain, France forced abdication of the Spanish Bourbon monarchs and their replacement with Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte as king. The period from 1808 to the restoration in 1814 of the Bourbon monarchy saw new political experiments. In Spanish America, the question of the legitimacy of the new foreign monarch's right to rule set off fierce debate and in many regions to wars of independence. The conflicts were regional and usually quite complex. Chronologically, the Spanish American independence wars were the conquest in reverse, with the areas most recently incorporated into the Spanish empire, such as Argentina and Chile, becoming the first to achieve independence, while the colonial strongholds of Mexico and Peru were the last to achieve independence in the early nineteenth century. Cuba and Puerto Rico, both old Caribbean sugar-producing areas, were not detached from Spain until the 1898 Spanish–American War, with US intervention. \n\nIn Spain, a bloody war against the French invaders broke out and regional juntas were established to rule in the name of the deposed Bourbon king, Ferdinand VII. In Spanish America, local juntas also rejected Napoleon's brother as their monarch. Spanish Liberals re-imagined the Spanish Empire as equally being Iberia and the overseas territories. Liberals sought a new model of government, a constitutional monarchy, with limits on the power of the king as well as on the Catholic Church. Ruling in the name of the deposed Bourbon monarch Ferdinand VII, representatives of the Spanish empire, both from the peninsula and Spanish America, convened a convention in the port of Cadiz. For Spanish American elites who had been shut out of official positions in the late eighteenth century in favor of peninsular-born appointees, this was a major recognition of their role in the empire. These empire-wide representatives drafted and ratified the Spanish Constitution of 1812, establishing a constitutional monarchy and set down other rules of governance, including citizenship and limitations on the Catholic Church. Constitutional rule was a break from absolutist monarchy and gave Spanish America a starting point for constitutional governance. So long as Napoleon controlled Spain, the liberal constitution was the governing document.\n\nWhen Napoleon was defeated and the Bourbon monarchy was restored in 1814, Ferdinand VII and his conservative supporters immediately reasserted absolutist monarchy, ending the liberal interregnum. In Spanish America, it set off a new wave of struggles for independence.\n \nIn South America, Simón Bolívar of Venezuela, José de San Martín of Argentina, and Bernardo O'Higgins in Chile led armies who fought for independence. In Mexico, which had seen the initial insurgency led by Hidalgo and José María Morelos, royalist forces maintained control. In 1820, when military officers in Spain restored the liberal Constitution of 1812, conservatives in Mexico saw independence as a better option. Royalist military officer Agustín de Iturbide changed sides and forged an alliance with insurgent leader Vicente Guerrero, and together they brought about Mexico's independence in 1821.\n\nFor Portugal and Brazil, Napoleon's defeat did not immediately result in the return of the Portuguese monarch to Portugal, as Brazil was the richest part of the Portuguese empire. As with Spain in 1820, Portuguese liberals threatened the power of the monarchy and compelled John VI to return in April 1821, leaving his son Pedro to rule Brazil as regent. In Brazil, Pedro contended with revolutionaries and insubordination by Portuguese troops, all of whom he subdued. The Portuguese government threatened to revoke the political autonomy that Brazil had enjoyed since 1808, provoking widespread opposition in Brazil. Pedro declared Brazil's independence from Portugal on 7 September 1822 and became emperor. By March 1824 he had defeated all armies loyal to Portugal. Brazil's independence was achieved relatively peaceably, territorial integrity was maintained, and its ruler was from the Royal House of Braganza, whose successors ruled Brazil until their overthrow in 1889.\n\nEarly Post-Independence, ca. 1825–1879\n\nAfter independence Spanish America and Brazil differed in their forms of state rule, with most of Spanish America becoming federated republics (with the exceptions of Cuba and Puerto Rico, which remained Spanish colonies), and Brazil becoming a monarchy ruled by the Brazilian branch of the Portuguese royal family. Spanish America's fragmentation into republics with weakened state structures meant that political turmoil and violence on many levels was a characteristic of the era throughout the region. Brazil's monarchy was a stabilizing political force and the territorial integrity of the Portuguese colony carried over into the post-independence era.\n\nAlthough much of Latin America gained its independence in the early nineteenth century, formal recognition by their former metropolitan powers in Spain and Portugal did not come immediately. Portugal officially recognized Brazil on August 29, 1825. The Spanish crown did not recognize new Spanish American nations' independence and sent expeditions to Mexico in failed attempts to regain control over its valuable former territory. Spain finally recognized Mexico's independence in 1836, 15 years after it was achieved. Its recognition of Ecuador's independence came in 1840 and Paraguay's as late as 1880. The new independent territories exerted their rights to establish a government, control their national territory, establish trade relations with other nations, and levy taxes. Brazil and Mexico both established independent monarchies in 1822. Mexico's was short-lived (1822–23) under leader of the independence movement General Iturbide, who was elected constitutional emperor 19 May 1822 and forced to abdicate 19 March 1823. Iturbide had no royal pedigree, so as a commoner he had no prestige or permanent legitimacy as ruler. Brazil's monarchy, a branch of the House of Braganza, lasted until 1889. Spanish America fragmented into various regions.\n\nAs a consequence of the violent struggles for independence in most of Spanish America, the military grew in importance. In the post-independence period, it often played a key role in politics. Military leaders often became the initial heads of state, but regional strongmen, or caudillos, also emerged. The first half of the nineteenth century is sometimes characterized as the \"age of caudillos.\" In Argentina, Juan Manuel Rosas and in Mexico Antonio López de Santa Anna are exemplars of caudillos. Although most countries created written constitutions and created separate branches of government, the state and the rule of law were weak, and the military emerged as the dominant institution in the civil sphere. Constitutions were written laying out division of powers, but the rule of personalist strongmen dominated. Dictatorial powers were granted to some strongmen, nominally ruling as presidents under a constitution, as \"constitutional dictators.\" \n \nIn the religious sphere, the Roman Catholic Church, one of the pillars of colonial rule, remained a powerful institution and generally continued as the only permissible religion. With the Spanish monarch no longer the patron of the church, many national governments asserted their right to appoint clerics as a logical transfer of power to a sovereign state. The Catholic Church denied that this right had transferred to the new governments, and for a time the Vatican refused to appoint new bishops. In Brazil, because the ruler after independence was a member of the House of Braganza, and Portugal recognized political independence quite speedily, the Vatican appointed a papal nuncio to Brazil in 1830. This official had jurisdiction over not just Brazil, but also the new states in Spanish America. However, in Brazil, there were also conflicts between church and state. During the reign of Pedro II, Protestant missionaries were tolerated, and when the monarchy was overthrown in 1889, the Catholic Church was disestablished.\n\nIn the new nation-states, conservatives favored the old order of a powerful, centralized state and continuation of the Catholic Church as a key institution. In Mexico, following the abdication of Emperor Iturbide in 1823, Mexican political leaders wrote a constitution for its newly declared federated republic, the Constitution of 1824. Central America opted out of joining the new federated republic of Mexico, with no real conflict. Hero of the insurgency Guadalupe Victoria became the first president of Mexico in 1824. Conservatives pushed to take control of the government, favoring central rule of the nation, as opposed to liberals, who generally favored the power of states expressed in federalism. General Santa Anna was elected president in 1833 and was in and out of office until 1854. In South America, Gran Colombia came into being, spanning what are now the separate countries of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, and Peru, with independence leader Simón Bolívar as head of state (1819–30). Gran Colombia dissolved in 1831 due to conflicts similar to those elsewhere in Spanish America between centralist conservatives and pro-federalist liberals. In Argentina, the conflict resulted in a prolonged civil war between unitarianas (i.e. centralists) and federalists, which were in some aspects respectively analogous to liberals and conservatives in other countries. Adding to this dispute was the almost inherited colonial-era conflict over its borders with Brazil. The Cisplatine War erupted in 1814 and ended in 1828, resulting in occupation and further secession of Provincia Oriental which in 1830 became the modern Republic of Uruguay with a central government in Montevideo. Between 1832 and 1852, Argentina existed as a confederation, without a head of state, although the federalist governor of Buenos Aires province, Juan Manuel de Rosas, was given the power to pay debt and manage international relations, and exerted a growing hegemony over the country. A national constitution was not enacted until 1853, and reformed in 1860, and the country reorganized as a federal republic led by a liberal-conservative elite. Centralist Uruguay enacted its constitution on its first day of existence in 1830, but wasn't immune to a similar polarization of the new state that involved blancos and colorados, where the agrarian conservative interests of blancos were pitted against the liberal commercial interests of colorados based in Montevideo, and which eventually resulted in the Guerra Grande civil war (1839–1851). Both the blancos and colorados evolved into political parties of the same names that still exist in Uruguay today and are considered among the first and most longstanding political parties in the world.\n\nIn Brazil, Emperor Dom Pedro I, worn down by years of administrative turmoil and political dissension with both the liberal and conservative sides of politics (including an attempt of republican secession), went to Portugal in 1831 to reclaim his daughter's crown, abdicating the Brazilian throne in favor of his five-year-old son and heir (who thus became the Empire's second monarch, with the title of Dom Pedro II). As a minor, the new Emperor could not exert his constitutional powers until he came of age, so a regency was set up by the National Assembly. In the absence of a charismatic figure who could represent a moderate face of power, during this period a series of localized rebellions took place, as the Cabanagem, the Malê Revolt, the Balaiada, the Sabinada, and the Ragamuffin War, which emerged from dissatisfaction of the provinces with the central power, coupled with old and latent social tensions peculiar to a vast, slave-holding and newly independent nation state. This period of internal political and social upheaval, which included the Praieira revolt, was overcome only at the end of the 1840s, years after the end of the regency, which occurred with the premature coronation of Pedro II in 1841. During the last phase of the monarchy, an internal political debate was centered on the issue of slavery. The Atlantic slave trade was abandoned in 1850, as a result of the British Aberdeen Act, but only in May 1888 after a long process of internal mobilization and debate for an ethical and legal dismantling of slavery in the country, was the institution formally abolished. On 15 November 1889, worn out by years of economic stagnation, attrition of the majority of Army officers, as well as with rural and financial elites (for different reasons), the monarchy was overthrown by a military coup.\n\nForeign powers, particularly the Great Britain and the U.S., were keenly interested in the possibilities resulting from political independence. They quickly recognized the governments of newly independent countries in Latin America and established commercial relationships with them. The former imperial limits on trade with foreign powers ended with independence and foreign investors sought newly opened opportunities. With the 1803 Louisiana Purchase from France, the U.S. now bordered New Spain. Both the U.S. and Spain sought clarity about their borders, signing the 1819 Adams-Onís Treaty ceding Florida to the U.S. and setting the northern border of Spain's claim in North America. When Mexico achieved independence in 1821 and briefly became a monarchy, the U.S. recognized the government under Agustín de Iturbide, sending diplomat Joel Poinsett as its representative 1822–23. Poinsett concluded an agreement with Mexico confirming the terms of the Adams-Onís Treaty. Previously Poinsett had traveled widely in Latin America and had concluded a trade agreement with independent Argentina. European and U.S. interests in the region fueled the demand for Latin American travelogues, an important source of information that described economic, political, and social conditions.\n\nThe U.S. saw itself as an important power in the Americas and had a foreign policy interest in the hemisphere to exclude former imperial powers from regaining their influence. The first major articulation of U.S. foreign policy toward Latin America as a region was the 1820 Monroe Doctrine. It warned foreign powers not to intervene in the Americas. The U.S. was relatively weak compared to the powerful British Empire, but it was a key policy that informed U.S. actions toward Latin America to the current day. The U.S. was concerned that foreign powers could support Spain in its attempts to reclaim its empire. The actions that the U.S. took against potential reclamation of foreign powers of their former colonies often included its own direct interventions in the region, justified by President Theodore Roosevelt in his 1904 Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine.\n\nFor Britain, their commercial interests were eager to seize the opportunity to trade with newly independent Latin America. Britain and Portugal had long been allies against the Spanish and French, so British recognition of Brazil's 1822 independence followed quickly after Portugal's. As with many other Latin American countries, Brazil exported raw materials and imported manufactured goods, which for both Britain and Brazil suited their economic strengths. For Britain, asserting economic dominance in Latin America (what is now called neocolonialism) meant that nation-states were sovereign countries, but were dependent on other powers economically. British dominance hindered the development of Latin American industries and strengthened their dependence on the world trade network. Britain now replaced Spain as the region's largest trading partner. Great Britain invested significant capital in Latin America to develop the area as a market for processed goods. \n\nFrom the early 1820s to 1850, the post-independence economies of Latin American countries were lagging and stagnant. Over the nineteenth century, enhanced trade between Britain and Latin America led to development such as infrastructure improvements, including roads and railroads, which grew the trade between the countries and outside nations such as Great Britain. By 1870, exports dramatically increased, attracting capital from abroad (including Europe and USA). Until 1914 and the outbreak of World War I, Britain was a major economic power in Latin America, especially in South America.\n\nFor the U.S., its initial sphere of influence was in Mexico, but the drive for territorial expansion, particularly for Southern slave-owners seeking new territory for their enterprises, saw immigration of white slave-owners with their slaves to Texas, which ultimately precipitated conflict between the Mexican government and the Anglo-American settlers. The Texas Revolution of 1836-37 defeated Mexican forces, and in 1845, U.S. annexation of the Texas territory that Mexico still claimed set the stage for the Mexican–American War (1846–48). The war resulted in the resounding defeat of Mexico. U.S. troops occupied Mexico City. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo added a huge swath of what had been north and northwest Mexico to the U.S., territory that Spain and then Mexico had claimed, but had not succeeded in occupying effectively. Southern slave owners were also interested in the possibility of the U.S. acquiring Cuba from Spain, with the aim of expanding both slavery and U.S. territory. The 1854 leak of the Ostend Manifesto, offering $130 million to Spain, caused a scandal among abolitionists in the U.S., who sought to end the expansion of slavery. It was repudiated by U.S. President Franklin Pierce. The American Civil War (1861–1965) decided the question of slavery. Another episode in US–Latin American relations involved the filibuster William Walker. In 1855, he traveled to Nicaragua hoping to overthrow the government and take territory for the United States. With Only 56 followers, he was able to take over the city of Granada, declaring himself commander of the army and installing Patricio Rivas as a puppet president. However, Rivas' presidency ended when he fled Nicaragua; Walker rigged the ensuing election to ensure that he became the next president. His presidency did not last long, however, as he was met with much opposition in Nicaragua and from neighboring countries. On 1 May 1857, Walker was forced by a coalition of Central American armies to surrender himself to a United States Navy officer who repatriated him and his followers. When Walker subsequently returned to Central America in 1860, he was apprehended by the Honduran authorities and executed.\n\nBritain's nineteenth-century policy was to end slavery and the slave trade, including in Latin America. In Brazil, Britain made the end of the slave trade a condition for diplomatic recognition. The Brazilian economy was entirely dependent on slaves. Abolitionists in Brazil pressed for the end of slavery, which finally ended in 1888, followed the next year by the fall of the Brazilian monarchy.\n\nThe French also sought commercial ties to Latin America, to export luxury goods and establish financial ties, including extending foreign loans to governments, often in dire need of revenue. As Mexican conservatives and liberals fought the War of the Reform over La Reforma, Mexican conservatives, to bolster their side, sought a European monarch to put on the throne of Mexico. Napoleon III of France invaded Mexico in 1862 and facilitated the appointment of Maximilian von Hapsburg. Since the U.S. was embroiled in its own civil war, it could not hinder the French occupation, which it saw as a violation of the Monroe Doctrine, but the government of Abraham Lincoln continued to recognize the Republic of Mexico as the nation's government under President Benito Juárez. The French were expelled in 1867 and Emperor Maximilian executed by the victorious Republican forces, setting the stage for an era of stability and foreign economic investment a few years later when Porfirio Díaz liberal hero of the war against the French, became president of Mexico for 30 years.\n\nExport boom and neocolonialism\n\nLatin American nations after about 1870 were stable enough politically and produced commodities in demand in Western Europe and the United States so that export economies tied producing countries to consuming countries. Rather than formally ruling countries in the region, investors and their government backers exercised power and influence over local elites seeking to maintain or enhance their own positions. Companies in Great Britain forged ties especially in Brazil and Argentina, with Brazilian coffee and Argentine beef and wheat becoming staples on European dining tables. Britain constructed infrastructure to enable the efficient movement of goods and people, building port facilities to accommodate transatlantic shipping, railroads to transport goods from interior regions of production to ports, and electricity enabling telegraphs, later telephones, and street lighting in urban areas. As technology became more sophisticated, bulky agricultural products like wheat could be shipped on large ships at relatively low cost. As refrigerated ships were developed, chilled beef and tropical bananas could be shipped efficiently enough that they would not spoil. The U.S. in particular imported bananas from Central and South America. The U.S. United Fruit Company and Cuyamel Fruit Company, both ancestors of Chiquita, and the Standard Fruit Company (now Dole), acquired large tracts of land in Central America, including Guatemala, Honduras, and Costa Rica, as well as Ecuador. The companies gained leverage over governments and ruling elites in these countries by dominating their economies and paying kickbacks, and exploited local workers. Such countries came to be called banana republics.\n \nDemand for commodities fueled armed conflicts for territory with economic potential. One such conflict was the Spanish–American War in 1898, where the U.S. intervened in the long-standing independence war in Cuba against the Spanish crown, which had held onto it after the almost complete loss of is overseas territories in the early nineteenth century. Cuba produced sugar and tobacco, both in high demand in the U.S. In the treaty with Spain ending the war, the U.S. gain Puerto Rico, Spain's other remaining Caribbean colony, as well as the Philippine Islands. There were also conflicts between Latin American nations in the late nineteenth century, as well as protracted civil wars in Mexico and Colombia. One notable international conflict was the War of the Pacific from 1879 to 1884, in which Chile seized territory and resources from Peru and Bolivia, gaining valuable nitrate deposits and leaving Bolivia landlocked with no access to the sea. Another notable conflict was the War of the Triple Alliance (1864–1870) in which Paraguay under Francisco Solano López tried to assist Uruguay against the Brazil-backed rebels, which angered Brazil and led to a war against Paraguay. With Brazil allied to Argentina and Uruguay, the war escalated to total war and decimated Paraguay in what became one of the most horrendous chapters in the history of the continent, with huge loss of life, land, and the destruction of the modernized sector.\n\nThe export boom created a demand for labor, which many countries could not meet domestically. Countries such as Argentina, Brazil, and Peru, sought laborers from abroad, some of whom immigrated permanently, while other workers developed a pattern of cyclical work, returning to their home countries at intervals. Workers came from poorer regions of Europe, such as Italy, but also China and Japan, with single men and few women making up the initial immigrant populations.\n\nWorld War I (1914–1918) \n\nIn general, Latin America stayed out of direct conflict in World War I, but the Great Powers were aware of the region's importance for the short and long term. Germany attempted to draw Mexico into supporting its side against the British, the French, and especially the U.S., by trying to leverage anti-Americanism to its advantage. The Great Powers had been actively working to affect the course of the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920). Great Britain and the U.S. had huge investments in Mexico, with Germany close behind, so the outcome of the conflict would have consequences there. The U.S. directly intervened militarily, but not on a huge scale. A German diplomatic proposal, now known as the January 1917 Zimmermann Telegram, sought to entice Mexico to join an alliance with Germany in the event of the United States entering World War I against Germany by promising the return of territory Mexico had lost to the U.S. The proposal was intercepted and decoded by British intelligence. The revelation of the contents outraged the American public and swayed public opinion. The news helped to generate support for the United States declaration of war on Germany in April 1917 as well as to calm U.S.-Mexico relations. Mexico, far weaker militarily, economically, and politically than the U.S., ignored the German proposal; after the U.S. entered the war, it officially rejected it.\n\nWhen the U.S. entered the conflict in 1917, it abandoned its hunt in Mexico for the revolutionary Pancho Villa who had attacked the U.S. in Columbus, New Mexico. The Mexican government was not pro-Villa, but was angered by U.S. violation of Mexico's sovereign territory with troops. The expeditionary force led by General John J. Pershing that had hopelessly chased him around northern Mexico was deployed to Europe. The U.S. then asked Latin American nations to join Britain, France, and the U.S. against Germany. They were not quick to join, as Germany was now a major financial lender to Latin America, and a number of nations were antipathetic to the traditional lenders in Britain and France. While Latin America did join the allies, it was not without cost. The U.S. sought hemispheric solidarity against Germany, and Brazil, Costa Rica, Cuba, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Haiti declared war. Others took the lesser step of breaking diplomatic relations. Argentina, Chile, Mexico and Uruguay remained neutral.\n \nMore important was the impact of the war on transatlantic shipping, the economic lifeline for their export economies. Export economies from the mining sector and especially nitrates for gunpowder did boom, but agricultural exports of sugar and coffee languished when European economies turned to war production. Britain was on the winning side of the war, but in the aftermath its economic power was fairly reduced. After 1914, the U.S. replaced Britain as the major foreign power in Latin America. Latin American nations gained standing internationally in the aftermath of the war, participating in the Versailles Conference, signing the Treaty of Versailles and joining the League of Nations. Latin America also played an important role in the International Court of Justice.\n\nInterwar and World War II, 1920s–1945\n\nThe Great Depression was a worldwide phenomenon and had an impact on Latin America. Exports largely fell and economies stagnated. For a number of Latin American countries, the Depression made them favor an internal economic development policy of import substitution industrialization.\n\nWorld War I and the League of Nations did not settle conflicts between European nations, but in the wake of World War I, Latin American nations gained success in pressing discussions of hemispheric importance. The Inter-American System was institutionally established with the First International Conference of American States of 1889–1890, where 17 Latin American nations sent delegates to Washington D.C. and formed the Pan American Union. Subsequent Pan-American Conferences saw the initial dominance of the U.S. in the hemisphere give way as Latin American nations asserted their priorities. The Havana Conference of 1928 was the high water mark of U.S. dominance and assertion of its right to intervene in Latin America, but with the election of Franklin Delano Roosevelt to the U.S. presidency in 1932, U.S. policy changed toward Latin America. He abandoned the routine U.S. interventions in Latin America that it had claimed as its right and initiated the Good Neighbor Policy in March 1933. He sought hemispheric cooperation rather than U.S. coercion in the region. At the Montevideo Convention in December 1933, the U.S. Secretary of State voted in favor of the Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, declaring \"no state has the right to intervene in the internal or external affairs of another.\" President Roosevelt himself attended the inaugural session of the hemispheric conference in Buenos Aires in 1936, where the U.S. reaffirmed the policy of non-intervention in Latin America and discussed the issue of neutrality for the hemisphere should war break out. With the Nazi invasion of Poland in September 1939 and the spread of war in Europe, foreign ministers of hemispheric nations met in Panama, at which the Declaration of Neutrality was signed, and the territorial waters bordering the hemisphere were expanded. The aim of these moves was to strengthen hemispheric solidarity and security. With the 7 December 1941 Japanese attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, hemispheric ministers met in January 1942 in Rio de Janeiro. Some nations had already declared war on the Axis powers, while others severed relations with the Axis. Chile did not do so until 1943, and Argentina, traditionally pro-German, not until 1945. The U.S. requested that Germans suspected of Nazi sympathies be deported from Latin America to the U.S.\n\nCold War era (1945–1992)\nMany Latin American economies continued to grow in the post-World War II era, but not as quickly as they had hoped. When the transatlantic trade re-opened following the peace, Europe looked as if it would need Latin American food exports and raw materials. The policies of import substitution industrialization adopted in Latin America when exports slowed due to the Great Depression and subsequent isolation in World War II were now subject to international competition. Those who supported a return to the export of commodities for which Latin America had a competitive advantage disagreed with advocates of an expanded industrial sector. The rebuilding of Europe, including Germany, with the aid of the U.S. after World War II did not bring stronger demand for Latin American exports. In Latin America, much of the hard currency earned by their participation in the war went to nationalize foreign-owned industries and pay down their debt. A number of governments set tariff and exchange rate policies that undermined the export sector and aided the urban working classes. Growth slowed in the post-war period and by the mid-1950s, the optimism of the postwar period was replaced by pessimism.\n\nFollowing World War II, the United States policy toward Latin America focused on what it perceived as the threat of communism and the Soviet Union to the interests of Western Europe and the United States. Although Latin American countries had been staunch allies in the war and reaped some benefits from it, in the post-war period the region did not prosper as it had expected. Latin America struggled in the post-war period without large-scale aid from the U.S., which devoted its resources to rebuilding Western Europe, including Germany. In Latin America there was increasing inequality, with political consequences in the individual countries. The U.S. returned to a policy of interventionism when it felt its political and economic interests were threatened. With the breakup of the Soviet bloc in the late 1980s and early 1990s, including the Soviet Union itself, Latin America sought to find new solutions to long-standing problems. With its Soviet alliance dissolved, Cuba entered a Special Period of severe economic disruption, high death rates, and food shortages.\n\nDeeply alarming for the U.S. were two revolutions that threaten, fed its dominance in the region. The Guatemalan Revolution (1944–54) saw the replacement of a U.S.-backed regime of Jorge Ubico in 1945 followed by elections. Reformist Juan José Arévalo (1945–51) was elected and began instituting populist reforms. Reforms included land laws that threatened the interests of large foreign-owned enterprises, a social security law, workmen's compensation, laws allowing labor to organize and strike, and universal suffrage except for illiterate women. His government established diplomatic ties with the Soviet Union in April 1945, when the Soviet Union and the U.S. were allied against the Axis powers. Communists entered leadership positions in the labor movement. At the end of his term, his hand-picked successor, the populist and nationalist Jacobo Arbenz, was elected. Arbenz proposed placing capital in the hands of Guatemalans, building new infrastructure, and significant land reform via Decree 900. With what the U.S. considered the prospect of even more radical changes in Guatemala, it backed a coup against Arbenz in 1954, overthrowing him. Argentine Che Guevara was in Guatemala during the Arbenz presidency; the coup ousting Arbenz was instructive for him and for Latin American nations seeking significant structural change. In 1954 the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency aided successful military coup against Arbenz.\n\n \nThe 1959 Cuban Revolution led by Cuban lawyer Fidel Castro overthrew the regime of Fulgencio Batista, with 1 January 1959 marking as the revolution's victory. The revolution was a huge event not only in Cuban history, but also the history of Latin America and the world. Almost the immediately, the U.S. reacted with hostility against the new regime. As the revolutionaries began consolidating power, many middle- and upper-class Cubans left for the U.S., likely not expecting the Castro regime to last long. Cuba became a poorer and blacker country, and the Cuba Revolution sought to transform the social and economic inequalities and political instability of the previous regimes into a more socially and economically equal one. The government put emphasis on literacy as a key to Cuba's overall betterment, essentially wiping out illiteracy after an early major literacy campaign. Schools became a means to instill in Cuban students messages of nationalism, solidarity with the Third World, and Marxism. Cuba also made a commitment to universal health care, so the education of doctors and construction of hospitals were top priorities. Cuba also sought to diversify its economy, until then based mainly on sugar, but also tobacco.\n\nThe U.S. attempted to overthrow Castro, using the template of the successful 1954 coup in Guatemala. In the April 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion, Cuba entered into a formal alliance with the Soviet Union. In February 1962, the U.S placed an embargo on trade with Cuba, which remains in force as of 2021. In February 1962, the U.S. pressured members of the Organization of American States to expel Cuba, attempting to isolate it. In response to the Bay of Pigs, Cuba called for revolution in the Americas. The efforts ultimately failed, most notably with Che Guevara in Bolivia, where he was isolated, captured, and executed.\n\nWhen the U.S. discovered that the Soviet Union had placed missiles in Cuba in 1962, they reacted swiftly with a showdown now called the Cuban Missile Crisis, which ended with an agreement between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, who did not consult Cuba about its terms. One term of the agreement was that the U.S. would cease efforts to invade Cuba, a guarantee of its sovereignty. However, the U.S. continued to attempt to remove Castro from power by assassination. The Soviet Union continued to materially support the Cuban regime, providing oil and other petrochemicals, technical support, and other aid, in exchange for Cuban sugar and tobacco.\n\nFrom 1959 to 1992, Fidel Castro ruled as a caudillo, or strong man, dominating politics and the international stage. His commitment to social and economic equality brought about positive changes in Cuba, including the improvement of the position of women, eliminating prostitution, reducing homelessness, and raising the standard of living for most Cubans. However, Cuba lacks freedom of expression; dissenters were monitored by the Committees for the Defense of the Revolution, and travel was restricted. In 1980, Castro told Cubans who wanted to leave to do so, promising that the government would not stop them. The Mariel boatlift saw some 125,000 Cubans sail from the Cuban port of Mariel, across the straits to the U.S., where U.S. President Carter initially welcomed them.\n\nThe Cuban Revolution had a tremendous impact not just on Cuba, but on Latin America as a whole, and the world. The Cuban Revolution was for many countries an inspiration and a model, but for the U.S. it was a challenge to its power and influence in Latin America. After leftists took power in Chile (1970) and Nicaragua (1979), Fidel Castro visited them both, extending Cuban solidarity. In Chile, Salvador Allende and a coalition of leftists, Unidad Popular, won an electoral victory in 1970 and lasted until the violent military coup of 11 September 1973. In the Nicaragua leftists held power from 1979 to 1990. The U.S. was concerned with the spread of communism in Latin America, and U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower responded to the threat he saw in the Dominican Republic's dictator Rafael Trujillo, who voiced a desire to seek an alliance with the Soviet Union. In 1961, Trujillo was murdered with weapons supplied by the CIA. U.S. President John F. Kennedy initiated the Alliance for Progress in 1961, to establish economic cooperation between the U.S. and Latin America and provide $20 billion for reform and counterinsurgency measures. The reform failed because of the simplistic theory that guided it and the lack of experienced American experts who understood Latin American customs.\n\nFrom 1966 to the late 1980s, the Soviet government upgraded Cuba's military capabilities, and Cuba was active in foreign interventions, assisting with movements in several countries in Latin America and elsewhere in the world. Most notable were the MPLA during the Angolan Civil War and the Derg during the Ogaden War. They also supported governments and rebel movements in Syria, Mozambique, Algeria, Venezuela, Bolivia, and Vietnam.\n\nIn Chile, the postwar period saw uneven economic development. The mining sector (copper, nitrates) continued to be important, but an industrial sector also emerged. The agricultural sector stagnated and Chile needed to import foodstuffs. After the 1958 election, Chile entered a period of reform. The secret ballot was introduced, the Communist Party was relegalized, and populism grew in the countryside. In 1970, democratic elections brought to power socialist Salvador Allende, who implemented many reforms begun in 1964 under Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei. The economy continued to depend on mineral exports and a large portion of the population reaped no benefits from the prosperity and modernity of some sectors. Chile had a long tradition of stable electoral democracy, In the 1970 election, a coalition of leftists, the Unidad Popular (\"popular unity\") candidate Allende was elected. Allende and his coalition held power for three years, with the increasing hostility of the U.S. The Chilean military staged a bloody coup with US support in 1973. The military under General Augusto Pinochet then held power until 1990.\n\nThe 1970s and 1980s saw a large and complex political conflict in Central America. The U.S. administration of Ronald Reagan funded right-wing governments and proxy fighters against left-wing challenges to the political order. Complicating matters were the liberation theology emerging in the Catholic Church and the rapid growth of evangelical Christianity, which were entwined with politics. The Nicaraguan Revolution revealed the country as a major proxy war battleground in the Cold War. Although the initial overthrow of the Somoza regime in 1978–79 was a bloody affair, the Contra War of the 1980s took the lives of tens of thousands of Nicaraguans and was the subject of fierce international debate. During the 1980s both the FSLN (a leftist collection of political parties) and the Contras (a rightist collection of counter-revolutionary groups) received considerable aid from the Cold War superpowers. The Sandinistas allowed free elections in 1990 and after years of war, lost the election. They became the opposition party, following a peaceful transfer of power. A civil war in El Salvador pitted leftist guerrillas against a repressive government. The bloody war there ended in a stalemate, and following the fall of the Soviet Union, a negotiated peace accord ended the conflict in 1992. In Guatemala, the civil war included genocide of Mayan peasants. A peace accord was reached in 1996 and the Catholic Church called for a truth and reconciliation commission.\n\nIn the religious sphere, the Roman Catholic Church continued to be a major institution in nineteenth-century Latin America. For a number of countries in the nineteenth century, especially Mexico, liberals viewed the Catholic Church as an intransigent obstacle to modernization, and when liberals gained power, anticlericalism was written into law, such as the Mexican liberal Constitution of 1857 and the Uruguayan Constitution of 1913 which secularized the state. Although secularism was an increasing trend in Europe and North America, most Latin Americans identified as Catholic, even if they did not attend church regularly. Many followed folk Catholicism, venerated saints, and celebrated religious festivals. Many communities did not have a resident priest or even visits by priests to keep contact between the institutional church and the people. In the 1950s, evangelical Protestants began proselytizing in Latin America. In Brazil, the Catholic bishops organized themselves into a national council, aimed at better meeting the competition not only of Protestants, but also of secular socialism and communism. Following Vatican II (1962–65) called by Pope John XXIII, the Catholic Church initiated a series of major reforms empowering the laity. Pope Paul VI actively implemented reforms and sought to align the Catholic Church on the side of the dispossessed, (\"preferential option for the poor\"), rather than remain a of conservative elites and right-wing repressive regimes. Colombian Catholic priest Camilo Torres took up arms with the Colombian guerrilla movement ELN, which modeled itself on Cuba but was killed in his first combat in 1966. In 1968, Pope Paul came to the meeting of Latin American bishops in Medellín, Colombia. Peruvian priest Gustavo Gutiérrez was one of the founders of liberation theology, a term he coined in 1968, sometimes described as linking Christianity and Marxism. Conservatives saw the church as politicized, and priests ask proselytizing leftist positions. Priests became targets as \"subversives,\" such as Salvadoran Jesuit Rutilio Grande. Archbishop of El Salvador Óscar Romero called for an end to persecution of the church, and took positions of social justice. He was assassinated on 24 March 1980 while saying mass. Liberation theology informed the struggle by Nicaraguan leftists against the Somoza dictatorship, and when they came to power in 1979, the ruling group included some priests.\n\nWhen a Polish cleric became Pope John Paul II following the death of Paul VI, and the brief papacy of John Paul I, he reversed the progressive position of the church, evident in the 1979 Puebla conference of Latin American bishops. On a papal visit to Nicaragua in 1983, he reprimanded Father Ernesto Cardenal, who was Minister of Culture, and called on priests to leave politics. Brazilian theologian Leonardo Boff was silenced by the Vatican. Despite the Vatican stance against liberation theology, articulated in 1984 by Cardinal Josef Ratzinger, later Pope Benedict XVI, many Catholic clergy and laity worked against repressive military regimes. After a military coup ousted the democratically elected Salvador Allende, the Chilean Catholic Church was a force in opposition to the regime of Augusto Pinochet and for human rights. The Argentine Church did not follow the Chilean pattern of opposition however. When Jesuit Jorge Bergoglio was elected Pope Francis, his actions during the Dirty War were an issue, as portrayed in the film The Two Popes.\n\nAlthough most countries did not have Catholicism as the established religion, Protestantism made few inroads in the region until the late twentieth century. Evangelical Protestants, particularly Pentecostals, proselytized and gained adherents in Brazil, Central America, and elsewhere. In Brazil, Pentecostals had a long history. But in a number of countries ruled by military dictatorships many Catholics followed the social and political teachings of liberation theology and were seen as subversives. Under these conditions, the influence of religious non-Catholics grew. Evangelical churches often grew quickly in poor communities where small churches and members could participate in ecstatic worship, often many times a week. Pastors in these churches did attend a seminary nor were there other institutional requirements. In some cases, the first evangelical pastors came from the U.S., but these churches quickly became \"Latin Americanized,\" with local pastors building religious communities. In some countries, they gained a significant hold and were not persecuted by military dictators, since they were largely apolitical. In Guatemala under General Efraín Ríos Montt, an evangelical Christian, Catholic Maya peasants were targeted as subversives and slaughtered. Perpetrators were later put on trial in Guatemala, including Ríos Montt.\n\nPost-Cold War era\n\nAfter the fall of the Soviet Union, the Cold War which saw U.S. intervention in Latin America as preventing Soviet influence dissipating. The Central American wars ended, with a free and fair election in Nicaragua that voted out the leftist Sandinistas, a peace treaty was concluded between factions in El Salvador, and the Guatemalan civil war ended. Cuba had lost its political and economic patron, the Soviet Union, which could no longer provide support. Cuba entered what is known there are the Special Period, when the economy contracted severely, but the revolutionary government nonetheless retained power and the U.S. remained hostile to its revolution. U.S. policy-makers developed the Washington Consensus, a set of specific economic policy prescriptions considered the standard reform package for crisis-wracked developing countries by Washington, D.C.-based institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, and the US Department of the Treasury during the 1980s and 1990s. The term has become associated with neoliberal policies in general and drawn into the broader debate over the expanding role of the free market, constraints upon the state, and US influence on other countries' national sovereignty. The politico-economical initiative was institutionalized in North America by the 1994 NAFTA, and elsewhere in the Americas through a series of similar agreements. The comprehensive Free Trade Area of the Americas project, however, was rejected by most South American countries at the 4th Summit of the Americas in 2005.\n\nA debt crisis ensured after 1982 when the price of oil crashed and Mexico announced that it could not meet its foreign debt payment obligations. Other Latin American economies followed suit, with hyperinflation and the inability of governments to meet their debt obligations and the era became known as the \"lost decade.\" The debt crisis would lead to neoliberal reforms that would instigate many social movements in the region. A \"reversal of development\" reigned over Latin America, seen through negative economic growth, declines in industrial production, and thus, falling living standards for the middle and lower classes. Governments made financial security their primary policy goal over social programs, enacting new neoliberal economic policies that implemented privatization of previously national industries and the informal sector of labor. In an effort to bring more investors to these industries, these governments also embraced globalization through more open interactions with the international economy.\n\nSignificantly, democratic governments began replacing military regimes across much of Latin America and the realm of the state became more inclusive (a trend that proved conducive to social movements), but economic ventures remained exclusive to a few elite groups within society. Neoliberal restructuring consistently redistributed income upward, while denying political responsibility to provide social welfare rights, and development projects throughout the region increased both inequality and poverty. Feeling excluded from the new projects, the lower classes took ownership of their own democracy through a revitalization of social movements in Latin America.\n\nBoth urban and rural populations had serious grievances as a result of economic and global trends and voiced them in mass demonstrations. Some of the largest and most violent have been protests against cuts in urban services to the poor, such as the Caracazo in Venezuela and the Argentinazo in Argentina. In 2000, the Cochabamba Water War in Bolivia saw major protests against a World Bank-funded project that would have brought potable water to the city, but at a price that no residents could afford. The title of the Oscar nominated film Even the Rain alludes to the fact that Cochabamba residents could no longer legally collect rainwater; the film depicts the protest movement.\n\nRural movements made demands related to unequal land distribution, displacement at the hands of development projects and dams, environmental and Indigenous concerns, neoliberal agricultural restructuring, and insufficient means of livelihood. In Bolivia, coca workers organized into a union, and Evo Morales, ethnically an Aymara, became its head. The cocaleros supported the struggles in the Cochabamba water war. The rural-urban coalition became a political party, Movement for Socialism (Bolivia) (MAS, \"more\"), which decisively won the 2005 presidential election, making Evo Morales the first Indigenous president of Bolivia. A documentary of the campaign, Cocalero, shows how they successfully organized.\n\nA number of movements have benefited considerably from transnational support from conservationists and INGOs. The Movement of Rural Landless Workers (MST) in Brazil for example is an important contemporary Latin American social movement.\n\nIndigenous movements account for a large portion of rural social movements, including, in Mexico, the Zapatista rebellion and the broad Indigenous movement in Guerrero, Also important are the Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador (CONAIE) and Indigenous organizations in the Amazon region of Ecuador and Bolivia, pan-Mayan communities in Guatemala, and mobilization by the Indigenous groups of Yanomami peoples in the Amazon, Kuna peoples in Panama, and Altiplano Aymara and Quechua peoples in Bolivia.\n\nAfter 2000\n\nIn many countries in the early 2000s, left-wing political parties rose to power, known as the Pink tide. The presidencies of Hugo Chávez (1999–2013) in Venezuela, Ricardo Lagos and Michelle Bachelet in Chile, Lula da Silva and Dilma Rousseff of the Workers Party (PT) in Brazil, Néstor Kirchner and his wife Cristina Fernández in Argentina, Tabaré Vázquez and José Mujica in Uruguay, Evo Morales in Bolivia, Daniel Ortega in Nicaragua, Rafael Correa in Ecuador, Fernando Lugo in Paraguay, Manuel Zelaya in Honduras (removed from power by a coup d'état), Mauricio Funes and Salvador Sánchez Cerén in El Salvador are all part of this wave of left-wing politicians who often declare themselves socialists, Latin Americanists, or anti-imperialists, often implying opposition to US policies towards the region. An aspect of this has been the creation of the eight-member ALBA alliance, or \"The Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America\" (Spanish: Alianza Bolivariana para los Pueblos de Nuestra América) by some of these countries.\n\nFollowing the pink tide, there was a Conservative wave across Latin America. In Mexico, the rightwing National Action Party (PAN) won the presidential election of 2000 with its candidate Vicente Fox, ending the 71-year rule of the Institutional Revolutionary Party. He was succeed six-years later by another conservative, Felipe Calderón (2006-2012), who attempted to crack down on the Mexican drug cartels and instigated the Mexican drug war . Several right-wing leaders rose to power, including Argentina's Mauricio Macri and Brazil's Michel Temer, following the impeachment of the country's first female president. In Chile, the conservative Sebastián Piñera succeeded the socialist Michelle Bachelet in 2017. In 2019, center-right Luis Lacalle Pou ended a 15-year leftist rule in Uruguay, after defeating the Broad Front candidate.\n\nEconomically, the 2000s commodities boom caused positive effects for many Latin American economies. Another trend was the rapidly increasing importance of their relations with China.\nHowever, with the Great Recession beginning in 2008, there was an end to the commodity boom, resulting in economic stagnation or recession resulted in some countries. A number of left-wing governments of the Pink tide lost support. The worst-hit was Venezuela, which is facing severe social and economic upheaval.\n\nCharges of against a major Brazilian conglomerate, Odebrecht, has raised allegations of corruption across the region's governments (see Operation Car Wash). This bribery ring has become the largest corruption scandal in Latin American history. As of July 2017, the highest ranking politicians charged were former Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, who was arrested, and former Peruvian presidents Ollanta Humala, also arrested, and Alejandro Toledo, who fled to the United States and is now a fugitive.\n\nThe COVID-19 pandemic proved a political challenge for many unstable Latin American democracies, with scholars identifying a decline in civil liberties as a result of opportunistic emergency powers. This was especially true for countries with strong presidential regimes, such as Brazil.\n\nInequality\n\nWealth inequality in Latin America and the Caribbean remains a serious issue despite strong economic growth and improved social indicators. A report released in 2013 by the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs entitled Inequality Matters: Report of the World Social Situation, observed that: 'Declines in the wage share have been attributed to the impact of labour-saving technological change and to a general weakening of labour market regulations and institutions.' Such declines are likely to disproportionately affect individuals in the middle and bottom of the income distribution, as they rely mostly on wages for income. In addition, the report noted that 'highly-unequal land distribution has created social and political tensions and is a source of economic inefficiency, as small landholders frequently lack access to credit and other resources to increase productivity, while big owners may not have had enough incentive to do so.\n\nAccording to the United Nations ECLAC, Latin America is the most unequal region in the world. Inequality in Latin America has deep historical roots in the Latin European racially based Casta system instituted in Latin America during colonial times that has been difficult to eradicate because of the differences between initial endowments and opportunities among social groups have constrained the poorest's social mobility, thus causing poverty to transmit from generation to generation, and become a vicious cycle. Inequality has been reproduced and transmitted through generations because Latin American political systems allow a differentiated access on the influence that social groups have in the decision-making process, and it responds in different ways to the least favored groups that have less political representation and capacity of pressure. Recent economic liberalisation also plays a role as not everyone is equally capable of taking advantage of its benefits. Differences in opportunities and endowments tend to be based on race, ethnicity, rurality, and gender. Because inequality in gender and location are near-universal, race and ethnicity play a larger, more integral role in discriminatory practices in Latin America. The differences have a strong impact on the distribution of income, capital and political standing.\n\nOne indicator of inequality is access to and quality of education. During the first phase of globalization in Latin America, educational inequality was on the rise, peaking around the end of the 19th century. In comparison with other developing regions, Latin America then had the highest level of educational inequality, which is certainly a contributing factor for its current general high inequality. During the 20th century, however, educational inequality started decreasing.\n\nStandard of living \nLatin America has the highest levels of income inequality in the world. The following table lists all the countries in Latin America indicating a valuation of the country's Human Development Index, GDP at purchasing power parity per capita, measurement of inequality through the Gini index, measurement of poverty through the Human Poverty Index, a measure of extreme poverty based on people living on less than 1.25 dollars a day, life expectancy, murder rates and a measurement of safety through the Global Peace Index. Green cells indicate the best performance in each category, and red the lowest.\n\nDemographics\n\nLargest cities\nUrbanization accelerated starting in the mid-twentieth century, especially in capital cities, or in the case of Brazil, traditional economic and political hubs founded in the colonial era. In Mexico, the rapid growth and modernization in country's north has seen the growth of Monterrey, in Nuevo León. The following is a list of the ten largest metropolitan areas in Latin America. Entries in \"bold\" indicate they are ranked the highest.\n\nRace and ethnicity\n\nLatin American populations are diverse, with descendants of the Indigenous peoples, European whites, Africans initially brought as slaves, and Asians, as well as new immigrants. Mixing of groups was a fact of life at contact of the Old World and the New, but colonial regimes established legal and social discrimination against non-white populations simply on the basis of perceived ethnicity and skin color. Social class was usually linked to a person's racial category, with whites on top. During the colonial era, with a dearth initially of European women, European men and Indigenous women and African women produced what were considered mixed-race children. In Spanish America, the so-called Sociedad de castas or Sistema de castas was constructed by white elites to try to rationalize the processes at work. In the sixteenth century the Spanish crown sought to protect Indigenous populations from exploitation by white elites for their labor and land. The crown created the to paternalistically govern and protect Indigenous peoples. It also created the República de Españoles, which included not only European whites, but all non-Indigenous peoples, such as blacks, mulattoes, and mixed-race castas who were not dwelling in Indigenous communities. In the religious sphere, the Indigenous were deemed perpetual neophytes in the Catholic faith, which meant Indigenous men were not eligible to be ordained as Catholic priests; however, Indigenous were also excluded from the jurisdiction of the Inquisition. Catholics saw military conquest and religious conquest as two parts of the assimilation of Indigenous populations, suppressing Indigenous religious practices and eliminating the Indigenous priesthood. Some worship continued underground. Jews and other non-Catholics, such as Protestants (all called \"Lutherans\") were banned from settling and were subject to the Inquisition. Considerable mixing of populations occurred in cities, while the countryside was largely Indigenous. At independence in the early nineteenth century, in many places in Spanish America formal racial and legal distinctions disappeared, although black slavery was not uniformly abolished.\n\nSignificant black populations exist in Brazil and Spanish Caribbean islands such as Cuba and Puerto Rico and the circum-Caribbean mainland (Venezuela, Colombia, Panama), as long as in the southern part of South America and Central America (Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua Ecuador, and Peru) a legacy of their use in plantations. All these areas had small white populations. In Brazil, coastal Indigenous peoples largely died out in the early sixteenth century, with Indigenous populations surviving far from cities, sugar plantations, and other European enterprises.\n\nDominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Brazil have dominate Mulatto/Triracial populations (\"Pardo\" in Brazil), in Brazil and Cuba, there is equally large white populations and smaller black populations, while Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico are more Mulatto/Triracial dominated, with significant black and white minorities. Parts of Central America and northern South America are more diverse in that they are dominated by Mestizos and whites but also have large numbers of Mulattos, blacks, and indigenous, especially Colombia, Venezuela, and Panama. The southern cone region, Argentina, Uruguay, and Chile are completely dominated by whites and mestizos. Haiti and other areas in the French Caribbean are dominated mostly by blacks. The rest of Latin America, including México, northern Central America (Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras), and central South America (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay), are dominated by mestizos but also have large white and indigenous minorities.\n\nIn the nineteenth century, a number of Latin American countries sought immigrants from Europe and Asia. With the abolition of black slavery in 1888, the Brazilian monarchy fell in 1889. By then, another source of cheap labor to work on coffee plantations was found in Japan. Chinese male immigrants arrived in Cuba, Mexico, Peru and elsewhere. With political turmoil in Europe during the mid-nineteenth century and widespread poverty, Germans, Spaniards, and Italians immigrated to Latin America in large numbers, welcomed by Latin American governments both as a source of labor as well as a way to increase the size of their white populations. In Argentina, many Afro-Argentines married Europeans, so that in modern Argentina there is no discernible black population.\n\nIn twentieth-century Brazil, sociologist Gilberto Freyre proposed that Brazil was a \"racial democracy,\" with less discrimination against blacks than in the U.S. Subsequent research has shown that Brazilians also discriminate against darker citizens, and that whites remain the elites in the country. In Mexico, the Afro-Mexican population was largely written out of the national narrative of indigenismo, and Indigenous and especially mestizo populations were considered the true embodiment of Mexicanness (mexicanidad), \"the cosmic race\", according to Mexican intellectual José Vasconcelos. In Mexico, there was considerable discrimination against Asians, with calls for the expulsion of Chinese in northern Mexico during the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) and racially motivated massacres.\nIn a number of Latin American countries, Indigenous groups have organized explicitly as Indigenous, to claim human rights and influence political power. With the passage of anti-colonial resolutions in the United Nations General Assembly and the signing of resolutions for Indigenous rights, the Indigenous are able to act to guarantee their existence within nation-states with legal standing.\n\nLanguage\n\nSpanish is the predominant language of Latin America. It is spoken as first language by about 60% of the population. Portuguese is spoken by about 30%, and about 10% speak other languages such as Quechua, Mayan languages, Guaraní, Aymara, Nahuatl, English, French, Dutch and Italian. Portuguese is spoken mostly in Brazil, the largest and most populous country in the region. Spanish is the official language of most of the other countries and territories on the Latin American mainland, as well as in Cuba and Puerto Rico (where it is co-official with English), and the Dominican Republic. French is spoken in Haiti and in the French overseas departments of Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Guiana. It is also spoken by some Panamanians of Afro-Antillean descent. Dutch is the official language in Suriname, Aruba, Curaçao, and the Netherlands Antilles. (As Dutch is a Germanic language, the territories are not necessarily considered part of Latin America.) However, the native language of Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, is Papiamento, a creole language largely based on Portuguese and Spanish that has had a considerable influence from Dutch and the Portuguese-based creole languages.\n\nAmerindian languages are widely spoken in Peru, Guatemala, Bolivia, Paraguay and Mexico, and to a lesser degree, in Panama, Ecuador, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina, and Chile. In other Latin American countries, the population of speakers of Indigenous languages tend to be very small or even non-existent, for example in Uruguay. Mexico is possibly contains more Indigenous languages than any other Latin American country, but the most-spoken Indigenous language there is Nahuatl.\n\nIn Peru, Quechua is an official language, alongside Spanish and other Indigenous languages in the areas where they predominate. In Ecuador, while Quichua holds no official status, it is a recognized language under the country's constitution; however, it is only spoken by a few groups in the country's highlands. In Bolivia, Aymara, Quechua and Guaraní hold official status alongside Spanish. Guaraní, like Spanish, is an official language of Paraguay, and is spoken by a majority of the population, which is, for the most part, bilingual, and it is co-official with Spanish in the Argentine province of Corrientes. In Nicaragua, Spanish is the official language, but on the country's Caribbean coast English and Indigenous languages such as Miskito, Sumo, and Rama also hold official status. Colombia recognizes all Indigenous languages spoken within its territory as official, though fewer than 1% of its population are native speakers of these languages. Nahuatl is one of the 62 Native languages spoken by Indigenous people in Mexico, which are officially recognized by the government as \"national languages\" along with Spanish.\n\nOther European languages spoken in Latin America include: English, by half of the current population in Puerto Rico, as well as in nearby countries that may or may not be considered Latin American, like Belize and Guyana, and spoken by descendants of British settlers in Argentina and Chile. German is spoken in southern Brazil, southern Chile, portions of Argentina, Venezuela and Paraguay; Italian in Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, and Uruguay; Ukrainian, Polish, and Russian in southern Brazil and Argentina; and Welsh, in southern Argentina. Yiddish and Hebrew are possible to be heard around Buenos Aires and São Paulo especially. Non-European or Asian languages include Japanese in Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, and Paraguay, Korean in Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Chile, Arabic in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, and Chile, and Chinese throughout South America. Countries like Venezuela, Argentina and Brazil have their own dialects or variations of German and Italian.\n\nIn several nations, especially in the Caribbean region, creole languages are spoken. The most widely-spoken creole language in Latin America and the Caribbean is Haitian Creole, the predominant language of Haiti, derived primarily from French and certain West African tongues, with Amerindian, English, Portuguese and Spanish influences as well. Creole languages of mainland Latin America, similarly, are derived from European languages and various African tongues.\n\nThe Garifuna language is spoken along the Caribbean coast in Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua and Belize, mostly by the Garifuna people, a mixed-race Zambo people who were the result of mixing between Indigenous Caribbeans and escaped Black slaves. Primarily an Arawakan language, it has influences from Caribbean and European languages.\n\nArchaeologists have deciphered over 15 pre-Columbian distinct writing systems from Mesoamerican societies. Ancient Maya had the most sophisticated textually written language, but since texts were largely confined to the religious and administrative elite, traditions were passed down orally. Oral traditions also prevailed in other major Indigenous groups including, but not limited to the Aztecs and other Nahuatl speakers, Quechua and Aymara of the Andean regions, the Quiché of Central America, the Tupi-Guaraní in today's Brazil, the Guaraní in Paraguay and the Mapuche in Chile.\n\nReligion\n\nThe vast majority of Latin Americans are Christians (90%), mostly Roman Catholics belonging to the Latin Church. About 70% of the Latin American population considers itself Catholic. In 2012 Latin America constitutes in absolute terms the second world's largest Christian population, after Europe.\n\nAccording to the detailed Pew multi-country survey in 2014, 69% of the Latin American population is Catholic and 19% is Protestant. Protestants are 26% in Brazil and over 40% in much of Central America. More than half of these are converts from Roman Catholicism.\n\nMigration\n\nThe entire hemisphere was settled by migrants from Asia, Europe, and Africa. Native American populations settled throughout the hemisphere before the arrival of Europeans in the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and the forced migration of slaves from Africa.\n\nIn the post-independence period, a number of Latin American countries sought to attract European immigrants as a source of labor as well as to deliberately change the proportions of racial and ethnic groups within their borders. Chile, Argentina, and Brazil actively recruited labor from Catholic southern Europe, where populations were poor and sought better economic opportunities. Many nineteenth-century immigrants went to the United States and Canada, but a significant number arrived in Latin America. Although Mexico tried to attract immigrants, it largely failed. As black slavery was abolished in Brazil in 1888, coffee growers recruited Japanese migrants to work in coffee plantations. There is a significant population of Japanese descent in Brazil. Cuba and Peru recruited Chinese labor in the late nineteenth century. Some Chinese immigrants who were excluded from immigrating to the U.S. settled in northern Mexico. When the U.S. acquired its southwest by conquest in the Mexican American War, Latin American populations did not cross the border to the U.S., the border crossed them.\n\nIn the twentieth century there have been several types of migration. One is the movement of rural populations within a given country to cities in search of work, causing many Latin American cities to grow significantly. Another is international movement of populations, often fleeing repression or war. Other international migration is for economic reasons, often unregulated or undocumented. Mexicans immigrated to the U.S. during the violence of the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) and the religious Cristero War (1926–29); during World War II, Mexican men worked in the U.S. in the bracero program. Economic migration from Mexico followed the crash of the Mexican economy in the 1980s.\nSpanish refugees fled to Mexico following the fascist victory in the Spanish Civil War (1936–38), with some 50,000 exiles finding refuge at the invitation of President Lázaro Cárdenas. Following World War II a larger wave of refugees to Latin America, many of them Jews, settled in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Cuba, and Venezuela. Some were only transiting through the region, but others stayed and created communities. A number of Nazis escaped to Latin America, living under assumed names, in an attempting to avoid attention and prosecution.\n\nIn the aftermath of the Cuban Revolution, middle class and elite Cubans moved to the U.S., particularly to Florida. Some fled Chile for the U.S. and Europe after the 1973 military coup. Colombians migrated to Spain and the United Kingdom during the region's political turmoil, compounded by the rise of narcotrafficking and guerrilla warfare. During the Central American wars of the 1970s to the 1990s, many Salvadorans, Guatemalans, and Hondurans migrated to the U.S. to escape narcotrafficking, gangs, and poverty. As living conditions deteriorated in Venezuela under Hugo Chávez and Nicolás Maduro, many left for neighboring Colombia and Ecuador. In the 1990s, economic stress in Ecuador during the La Década Perdida triggered considerable migration to Spain and to the U.S.\n\nSome Latin American countries seek to strengthen links between migrants and their states of origin, while promoting their integration in the receiving state. These emigrant policies focus on the rights, obligations and opportunities for participation of emigrated citizens who already live outside the borders of the country of origin. Research on Latin America shows that the extension of policies towards migrants is linked to a focus on civil rights and state benefits that can positively influence integration in recipient countries. In addition, the tolerance of dual citizenship has spread more in Latin America than in any other region of the world.\n\nEducation\n\nDespite significant progress, education access and school completion remains unequal in Latin America. The region has made great progress in educational coverage; almost all children attend primary school, and access to secondary education has increased considerably. Quality issues such as poor teaching methods, lack of appropriate equipment, and overcrowding exist throughout the region. These issues lead to adolescents dropping out of the educational system early. Most educational systems in the region have implemented various types of administrative and institutional reforms that have enabled reach for places and communities that had no access to education services in the early 1990s. School meal programs are also employed to expand access to education, and at least 23 countries in the Latin America and Caribbean region have large-scale school feeding activities, altogether reaching 88% of primary school-age children in the region. Compared to prior generations, Latin American youth have seen an increase in their levels of education. On average, they have completed two more years of school than their parents.\n\nHowever, there are still 23 million children in the region between the ages of 4 and 17 outside of the formal education system. Estimates indicate that 30% of preschool age children (ages 4–5) do not attend school, and for the most vulnerable populations, the poor and rural, this proportion exceeds 40 percent. Among primary school age children (ages 6 to 12), attendance is almost universal; however there is still a need to enroll five million more children in the primary education system. These children mostly live in remote areas, are Indigenous or Afro-descendants and live in extreme poverty.\n\nAmong people between the ages of 13 and 17 years, only 80% are full-time students, and only 66% of these advance to secondary school. These percentages are lower among vulnerable population groups: only 75% of the poorest youth between the ages of 13 and 17 years attend school. Tertiary education has the lowest coverage, with only 70% of people between the ages of 18 and 25 years outside of the education system. Currently, more than half of low income or rural children fail to complete nine years of education.\n\nCrime and violence\n\nLatin America and the Caribbean have been cited by numerous sources to be the most dangerous regions in the world. Studies have shown that Latin America contains the majority of the world's most dangerous cities. Many analysts attribute this to social and income inequality in the region. Many agree that the prison crisis will not be resolved until the gap between the rich and the poor is addressed.\n\nCrime and violence prevention and public security are now important issues for governments and citizens in Latin America and the Caribbean region. Homicide rates in Latin America are the highest in the world. From the early 1980s through the mid-1990s, homicide rates increased by 50 percent. Latin America and the Caribbean experienced more than 2.5 million murders between 2000 and 2017. There were a total of 63,880 murders in Brazil in 2018.\n\nThe most frequent victims of such homicides are young men, 69 percent of them between the ages of 15 and 19. Countries with the highest homicide rate per year per 100,000 inhabitants in 2015 were: El Salvador 109, Honduras 64, Venezuela 57, Jamaica 43, Belize 34.4, St. Kitts and Nevis 34, Guatemala 34, Trinidad and Tobago 31, the Bahamas 30, Brazil 26.7, Colombia 26.5, the Dominican Republic 22, St. Lucia 22, Guyana 19, Mexico 16, Puerto Rico 16, Ecuador 13, Grenada 13, Costa Rica 12, Bolivia 12, Nicaragua 12, Panama 11, Antigua and Barbuda 11, and Haiti 10. Most of the countries with the highest homicide rates are in Africa and Latin America. Countries in Central America, like El Salvador and Honduras, top the list of homicides in the world.\n\nBrazil has more overall homicides than any country in the world, at 50,108, accounting for one in 10 globally. Crime-related violence is the biggest threat to public health in Latin America, striking more victims than HIV/AIDS or any other infectious disease. Countries with the lowest homicide rate per year per 100,000 inhabitants as of 2015 were: Chile 3, Peru 7, Argentina 7, Uruguay 8 and Paraguay 9.\n\nPublic health\n\nWater\n\nReproductive rights\n\nHIV/AIDS\n\nEconomy\n\nSize\n\nAccording to Goldman Sachs' BRICS review of emerging economies, by 2050 the largest economies in the world will be as follows: China, United States, India, Japan, Germany, United Kingdom, Mexico and Brazil.\n\nAgriculture\n\nThe four countries with the strongest agricultural sector in South America are Brazil, Argentina, Chile and Colombia. Currently:\n\n Brazil is the world's largest producer of sugarcane, soy, coffee, oranges, guaraná, açaí and Brazil nut; is one of the top five producers of maize, papaya, tobacco, pineapple, banana, cotton, beans, coconut, watermelon, lemon and yerba mate; is one of the top ten world producers of cocoa, cashew, avocado, tangerine, persimmon, mango, guava, rice, oat, sorghum and tomato; and is one of the top 15 world producers of grapes, apples, melons, peanuts, figs, peaches, onions, palm oil and natural rubber;\n Argentina is the world's largest producer of yerba mate; is one of the five largest producers in the world of soy, maize, sunflower seeds, lemons and pears, one of the 10 largest producers in the world of barley, grapes, artichokes, tobacco and cotton, and one of the 15 largest producers in the world of wheat, oats, chickpeas, sugarcane, sorghum and grapefruit;\n Chile is one of the five largest world producers of cherries and cranberries, and one of the ten largest world producers of grapes, apples, kiwi, peaches, plums and hazelnuts, focusing on exporting high-value fruits;\n Colombia is one of the five largest producers in the world of coffee, avocados and palm oil, and one of the ten largest producers in the world of sugarcane, bananas, pineapples and cocoa;\n Peru is the world's largest producer of quinoa; is one of the five largest producers of avocados, blueberry, artichokes and asparagus; one of the ten largest producers in the world of coffee and cocoa; one of the 15 largest producers in the world of potatoes and pineapples, and also has a large production of grapes, sugarcane, rice, bananas, maize and cassava; its agriculture is considerably diversified;\n Paraguay is currently the 6th largest producer of soy in the world and entering the list of the 20 largest producers of maize and sugarcane.\n\nIn Central America, the following stand out:\n Guatemala is one of the ten largest producers in the world of coffee, sugar cane, melons and natural rubber, and one of the world's 15 largest producers of bananas and palm oil;\n Honduras is one of the five largest producers of coffee in the world, and one of the ten largest producers of palm oil;\n Costa Rica is the world's largest producer of pineapples;\n Dominican Republic is one of the world's top five producers of papayas and avocados, and one of the ten largest producers of cocoa.\n Mexico is the world's largest producer of avocados, one of the world's top five producers of Chile, lemons, oranges, mangos, papayas, strawberries, grapefruit, pumpkins and asparagus, and one of the world's 10 largest producers of sugar cane, maize, sorghum, beans, tomatoes, coconuts, pineapple, melons and blueberries.\n\nBrazil is the world's largest exporter of chicken meat: 3.77 million tons in 2019. The country had the second largest herd of cattle in the world, 22.2% of the world herd. The country was the second largest producer of beef in 2019, responsible for 15.4% of global production. It was also the third largest world producer of milk in 2018. This year, the country produced 35.1 billion liters. In 2019, Brazil was the fourth largest pork producer in the world, with almost four million tons.\n\nIn 2018, Argentina was the fourth largest producer of beef in the world, with a production of 3 million tons (behind only United States, Brazil and China). Uruguay is also a major meat producer. In 2018, it produced 589 thousand tons of beef.\n\nIn the production of chicken meat, Mexico is among the ten largest producers in the world, Argentina among the 15 largest and Peru and Colombia among the 20 largest. In beef production, Mexico is one of the ten largest producers in the world and Colombia is one of the 20 largest producers. In the production of pork, Mexico is among the 15 largest producers in the world. In the production of honey, Argentina is among the five largest producers in the world, Mexico among the ten largest and Brazil among the 15 largest. In terms of cow's milk production, Mexico is among the 15 largest producers in the world and Argentina among the 20 largest.\n\nMining and petroleum\n\nMining is one of the most important economic sectors in Latin America, especially for Chile, Peru and Bolivia, whose economies are highly dependent on this sector. The continent has large productions of:\ngold (mainly in Peru, Mexico, Brazil and Argentina); \nsilver (mainly in Mexico, Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina); \ncopper (mainly in Chile, Peru, Mexico and Brazil); \niron ore (Brazil, Peru and Chile); \nzinc (Peru, Mexico, Bolivia and Brazil); \nmolybdenum (Chile, Peru and Mexico); \nlithium (Chile, Argentina and Brazil); \nlead (Peru, Mexico and Bolivia); \nbauxite (Brazil and Jamaica); \ntin (Peru, Bolivia and Brazil); \nmanganese (Brazil and Mexico); \nantimony (Bolivia, Mexico, Guatemala and Ecuador); \nnickel (Brazil, Dominican Republic and Cuba); \nniobium (Brazil); \nrhenium (Chile); \niodine (Chile),\n\nBrazil stands out in the extraction of \niron ore (where it is the 2nd largest producer and exporter in the world—iron ore is usually one of the three export products that generate the greatest value in the country's trade balance)\ncopper\ngold\nbauxite (one of the five largest producers in the world)\nmanganese (one of the five largest producers in the world)\ntin (one of the largest producers in the world)\nniobium (98% of known world reserves) and \nnickel\n\nIn terms of gemstones, Brazil is the world's largest producer of amethysts, topaz, and agates and one of the main producers of tourmaline, emeralds, aquamarines, garnets and opals.\n\nChile contributes about a third of the world's copper production. In addition, Chile was, in 2019, the world's largest producer of iodine and rhenium, the second largest producer of lithium and molybdenum, the sixth largest producer of silver, the seventh largest producer of salt, the eighth largest producer of potash, the thirteenth-largest producer of sulfur and the thirteenth largest producer of iron ore in the world.\n\nIn 2019, Peru was the second largest world producer of copper and silver, 8th largest world producer of gold, third largest world producer of lead, second largest world producer of zinc, fourth largest world producer of tin, fifth largest world producer of boron, and fourth largest world producer of molybdenum.\n\nIn 2019, Bolivia was the eighth largest world producer of silver; fourth largest world producer of boron; fifth largest world producer of antimony; fifth largest world producer of tin; sixth largest world producer of tungsten; seventh largest producer of zinc, and the eighth largest producer of lead.\n\nIn 2019, Mexico was the world's largest producer of silver (representing almost 23% of world production, producing more than 200 million ounces in 2019); ninth largest producer of gold, the eighth largest producer of copper, the world's fifth largest producer of lead, the world's sixth largest producer of zinc, the world's fifth largest producer of molybdenum, the world's third largest producer of mercury, the world's fifth largest producer of bismuth, the world's 13th largest producer of manganese and the 23rd largest world producer of phosphate. It is also the eighth largest world producer of salt.\n\nIn 2019, Argentina was the fourth largest world producer of lithium, the ninth largest world producer of silver, the 17th largest world producer of gold and the seventh largest world producer of boron.\n\nColombia is the world's largest producer of emeralds. In the production of gold, between 2006 and 2017, the country produced 15 tons per year until 2007, when its production increased significantly, breaking a record of 66.1 tons extracted in 2012. In 2017, it extracted 52.2 tons. The country is among the 25 largest gold producers in the world. In the production of silver, in 2017 the country extracted 15,5 tons.\n\nIn the production of oil, Brazil was the tenth largest oil producer in the world in 2019, with 2.8 million barrels a day. Mexico was the twelfth largest, with 2.1 million barrels a day, Colombia in 20th place with 886 thousand barrels a day, Venezuela was the twenty-first place, with 877 thousand barrels a day, Ecuador in 28th with 531 thousand barrels a day and Argentina. 29th with 507 thousand barrels a day. Since Venezuela and Ecuador consume little oil and export most of their production, they are part of OPEC. Venezuela had a big drop in production after 2015 (when it produced 2.5 million barrels a day), falling in 2016 to 2.2 million, in 2017 to 2 million, in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, due to lack of investment.\n\nIn the production of natural gas, in 2018, Argentina produced 1,524 bcf (billions of cubic feet), Mexico produced 999, Venezuela 946, Brazil 877, Bolivia 617, Peru 451, Colombia 379.\n\nIn the production of coal, the continent had three of the 30 largest world producers in 2018: Colombia (12th), Mexico (24th) and Brazil (27th).\n\nManufacturing\n\nThe World Bank annually lists the top manufacturing countries by total manufacturing value. According to the 2019 list:\nMexico had the twelfth most valuable industry in the world (US$217.8 billion)\nBrazil the thirteenth largest (US$173.6 billion)\nVenezuela the thirtieth largest (US$58.2 billion, however, it depends on oil to reach this value)\nArgentina the 31st largest (US$57.7 billion)\nColombia the 46th largest (US$35.4 billion)\nPeru the 50th largest (US$28.7 billion) \nChile the 51st largest (US$28.3 billion).\n\nIn Latin America, few countries stand out in industrial activity: Brazil, Argentina, Mexico and, less prominently, Chile. Begun late, the industrialization of these countries received a great boost from World War II: this prevented the countries at war from buying the products they were used to importing and exporting what they produced. At that time, benefiting from the abundant local raw material, the low wages paid to the labor force and a certain specialization brought by immigrants, countries such as Brazil, Mexico and Argentina, as well as Venezuela, Chile, Colombia and Peru, were able to implement important industrial parks. In general, in these countries there are industries that require little capital and simple technology for their installation, such as the food processing and textile industries. The basic industries (steel, etc.) also stand out, as well as the metallurgical and mechanical industries.\n\nThe industrial parks of Brazil, Mexico, Argentina and Chile, however, present much greater diversity and sophistication, producing advanced technology items. In the rest of Latin American countries, mainly in Central America, the processing industries of primary products for export predominate.\n\nIn the food industry, in 2019, Brazil was the second largest exporter of processed foods in the world. In 2016, the country was the second largest producer of pulp in the world and the eighth largest producer of paper. In the footwear industry, in 2019, Brazil ranked fourth among world producers. In 2019, the country was the eighth largest producer of vehicles and the ninth largest producer of steel in the world. In 2018, the chemical industry of Brazil was the eighth largest in the world. In the textile industry, Brazil, although it was among the five largest world producers in 2013, is very little integrated into world trade. In the aviation sector, Brazil has Embraer, the third largest aircraft manufacturer in the world, behind Boeing and Airbus.\n\nInfrastructure\n\nTransport in Latin America is basically carried out using the road mode, the most developed in the region. There is also a considerable infrastructure of ports and airports. The railway and fluvial sector, although it has potential, is usually treated in a secondary way.\n\nBrazil has more than 1.7 million km of roads, of which 215,000 km are paved, and about 14,000 km are divided highways. The two most important highways in the country are BR-101 and BR-116. Argentina has more than 600,000 km of roads, of which about 70,000 km are paved, and about 2,500 km are divided highways. The three most important highways in the country are Route 9, Route 7 and Route 14. Colombia has about 210,000 km of roads, and about 2,300 km are divided highways. Chile has about 82,000 km of roads, 20,000 km of which are paved, and about 2,000 km are divided highways. The most important highway in the country is the Route 5 (Pan-American Highway) These 4 countries are the ones with the best road infrastructure and with the largest number of double-lane highways, in South America.\n\nThe roadway network in Mexico has an extent of , of which are paved, Of these, are multi-lane expressways: are four-lane highways and the rest have 6 or more lanes.\n\nDue to the Andes Mountains, Amazon River and Amazon Forest, there have always been difficulties in implementing transcontinental or bioceanic highways. Practically the only route that existed was the one that connected Brazil to Buenos Aires, in Argentina and later to Santiago, in Chile. However, in recent years, with the combined effort of countries, new routes have started to emerge, such as Brazil-Peru (Interoceanic Highway), and a new highway between Brazil, Paraguay, northern Argentina and northern Chile (Bioceanic Corridor).\n\nThere are more than 2,000 airports in Brazil. The country has the second largest number of airports in the world, behind only the United States. São Paulo International Airport, located in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo, is the largest and busiest in the country – the airport connects São Paulo to practically all major cities around the world. Brazil has 44 international airports, such as those in Rio de Janeiro, Brasília, Belo Horizonte, Porto Alegre, Florianópolis, Cuiabá, Salvador, Recife, Fortaleza, Belém and Manaus, among others. Argentina has important international airports such as Buenos Aires, Cordoba, Bariloche, Mendoza, Salta, Puerto Iguazú, Neuquén and Usuhaia, among others. Chile has important international airports such as Santiago, Antofagasta, Puerto Montt, Punta Arenas and Iquique, among others. Colombia has important international airports such as Bogotá, Medellín, Cartagena, Cali and Barranquilla, among others. Peru has important international airports such as Lima, Cuzco and Arequipa. Other important airports are those in the capitals of Uruguay (Montevideo), Paraguay (Asunción), Bolivia (La Paz) and Ecuador (Quito). The 10 busiest airports in South America in 2017 were: São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago (Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasília (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Buenos Aires-Aeroparque (Argentina), Buenos Aires-Ezeiza (Argentina), and Minas Gerais (Brazil).\n\nThere are 1,834 airports in Mexico, the third-largest number of airports by country in the world. The seven largest airports—which absorb 90% of air travel—are (in order of air traffic): Mexico City, Cancún, Guadalajara, Monterrey, Tijuana, Acapulco, and Puerto Vallarta. Considering all of Latin America, the 10 busiest airports in 2017 were: Mexico City (Mexico), São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), Cancún (Mexico), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago ( Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasilia (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) and Tocumen (Panama).\n\nAbout ports, Brazil has some of the busiest ports in South America, such as Port of Santos, Port of Rio de Janeiro, Port of Paranaguá, Port of Itajaí, Port of Rio Grande, Port of São Francisco do Sul and Suape Port. Argentina has ports such as Port of Buenos Aires and Port of Rosario. Chile has important ports in Valparaíso, Caldera, Mejillones, Antofagasta, Iquique, Arica and Puerto Montt. Colombia has important ports such as Buenaventura, Cartagena Container Terminal and Puerto Bolivar. Peru has important ports in Callao, Ilo and Matarani. The 15 busiest ports in South America are: Port of Santos (Brazil), Port of Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil (Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile), Buenaventura (Colombia), Itajaí (Brazil), Valparaíso (Chile), Montevideo (Uruguay), Paranaguá (Brazil), Rio Grande (Brazil), São Francisco do Sul (Brazil), Manaus (Brazil) and Coronel (Chile).\n\nThe four major seaports concentrating around 60% of the merchandise traffic in Mexico are Altamira and Veracruz in the Gulf of Mexico, and Manzanillo and Lázaro Cárdenas in the Pacific Ocean. Considering all of Latin America, the 10 largest ports in terms of movement are: Colon (Panama), Santos (Brazil), Manzanillo (Mexico), Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Pacifico (Panama), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil ( Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile) and Buenaventura (Colombia).\n\nThe Brazilian railway network has an extension of about 30,000 kilometers. It is basically used for transporting ores. The Argentine rail network, with 47,000 km of tracks, was one of the largest in the world and continues to be the most extensive in Latin America. It came to have about 100,000 km of rails, but the lifting of tracks and the emphasis placed on motor transport gradually reduced it. It has four different trails and international connections with Paraguay, Bolivia, Chile, Brazil and Uruguay. Chile has almost 7,000 km of railways, with connections to Argentina, Bolivia and Peru. Colombia has only about 3,500 km of railways.\n\nAmong the main Brazilian waterways, two stand out: Hidrovia Tietê-Paraná (which has a length of 2,400 km, 1,600 on the Paraná River and 800 km on the Tietê River, draining agricultural production from the states of Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Goiás and part of Rondônia, Tocantins and Minas General) and Hidrovia do Solimões-Amazonas (it has two sections: Solimões, which extends from Tabatinga to Manaus, with approximately 1600 km, and Amazonas, which extends from Manaus to Belém, with 1650 km. Almost entirely passenger transport from the Amazon plain is done by this waterway, in addition to practically all cargo transportation that is directed to the major regional centers of Belém and Manaus). In Brazil, this transport is still underutilized: the most important waterway stretches, from an economic point of view, are found in the Southeast and South of the country. Its full use still depends on the construction of locks, major dredging works and, mainly, of ports that allow intermodal integration. In Argentina, the waterway network is made up of the La Plata, Paraná, Paraguay and Uruguay rivers. The main river ports are Zárate and Campana. The port of Buenos Aires is historically the first in individual importance, but the area known as Up-River, which stretches along 67 km of the Santa Fé portion of the Paraná River, brings together 17 ports that concentrate 50% of the total exports of the country.\n\nEnergy\n\nBrazil\n\nThe Brazilian government has undertaken an ambitious program to reduce dependence on imported petroleum. Imports previously accounted for more than 70% of the country's oil needs but Brazil became self-sufficient in oil in 2006–2007. Brazil was the 10th largest oil producer in the world in 2019, with 2.8 million barrels / day. Production manages to supply the country's demand. In the beginning of 2020, in the production of oil and natural gas, the country exceeded 4 million barrels of oil equivalent per day, for the first time. In January this year, 3.168 million barrels of oil per day and 138.753 million cubic meters of natural gas were extracted.\n\nBrazil is one of the main world producers of hydroelectric power. In 2019, Brazil had 217 hydroelectric plants in operation, with an installed capacity of 98,581 MW, 60.16% of the country's energy generation. In the total generation of electricity, in 2019 Brazil reached 170,000 megawatts of installed capacity, more than 75% from renewable sources (the majority, hydroelectric).\n\nIn 2013, the Southeast Region used about 50% of the load of the National Integrated System (SIN), being the main energy consuming region in the country. The region's installed electricity generation capacity totaled almost 42,500 MW, which represented about a third of Brazil's generation capacity. The hydroelectric generation represented 58% of the region's installed capacity, with the remaining 42% corresponding basically to the thermoelectric generation. São Paulo accounted for 40% of this capacity; Minas Gerais by about 25%; Rio de Janeiro by 13.3%; and Espírito Santo accounted for the rest. The South Region owns the Itaipu Dam, which was the largest hydroelectric plant in the world for several years, until the inauguration of Three Gorges Dam in China. It remains the second largest operating hydroelectric in the world. Brazil is the co-owner of the Itaipu Plant with Paraguay: the dam is located on the Paraná River, located on the border between countries. It has an installed generation capacity of 14 GW for 20 generating units of 700 MW each. North Region has large hydroelectric plants, such as Belo Monte Dam and Tucuruí Dam, which produce much of the national energy. Brazil's hydroelectric potential has not yet been fully exploited, so the country still has the capacity to build several renewable energy plants in its territory.\n\n according to ONS, total installed capacity of wind power was 22 GW, with average capacity factor of 58%. While the world average wind production capacity factors is 24.7%, there are areas in Northern Brazil, specially in Bahia State, where some wind farms record with average capacity factors over 60%; the average capacity factor in the Northeast Region is 45% in the coast and 49% in the interior. In 2019, wind energy represented 9% of the energy generated in the country. In 2019, it was estimated that the country had an estimated wind power generation potential of around 522 GW (this, only onshore), enough energy to meet three times the country's current demand. In 2021 Brazil was the 7th country in the world in terms of installed wind power (21 GW), and the 4th largest producer of wind energy in the world (72 TWh), behind only China, USA and Germany.\n\nNuclear energy accounts for about 4% of Brazil's electricity. The nuclear power generation monopoly is owned by Eletronuclear (Eletrobrás Eletronuclear S/A), a wholly owned subsidiary of Eletrobrás. Nuclear energy is produced by two reactors at Angra. It is located at the Central Nuclear Almirante Álvaro Alberto (CNAAA) on the Praia de Itaorna in Angra dos Reis, Rio de Janeiro. It consists of two pressurized water reactors, Angra I, with capacity of 657 MW, connected to the power grid in 1982, and Angra II, with capacity of 1,350 MW, connected in 2000. A third reactor, Angra III, with a projected output of 1,350 MW, is planned to be finished.\n\n according to ONS, total installed capacity of photovoltaic solar was 21 GW, with average capacity factor of 23%. Some of the most irradiated Brazilian States are MG (\"Minas Gerais\"), BA (\"Bahia\") and GO (Goiás), which have indeed world irradiation level records. In 2019, solar power represented 1.27% of the energy generated in the country. In 2021, Brazil was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed solar power (13 GW), and the 11th largest producer of solar energy in the world (16.8 TWh).\n\nIn 2020, Brazil was the 2nd largest country in the world in the production of energy through biomass (energy production from solid biofuels and renewable waste), with 15,2 GW installed.\n\nOther countries\nAfter Brazil, Mexico is the country in Latin America that most stands out in energy production. In 2020, the country was the 14th largest petroleum producer in the world, and in 2018 it was the 12th largest exporter. In natural gas, the country was, in 2015, the 21st largest producer in the world, and in 2007 it was the 29th largest exporter. Mexico was also the world's 24th largest producer of coal in 2018. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 14th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (8.1 GW), 20th in the world in terms of installed solar energy (5.6 GW) and 19th in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (12.6 GW). In third place, Colombia stands out: In 2020, the country was the 20th largest petroleum producer in the world, and in 2015 it was the 19th largest exporter. In natural gas, the country was, in 2015, the 40th largest producer in the world. Colombia's biggest highlight is in coal, where the country was, in 2018, the world's 12th largest producer and the 5th largest exporter. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 45th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (0.5 GW), 76th in the world in terms of installed solar energy (0.1 GW) and 20th in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (12.6 GW). Venezuela, which was one of the world's largest oil producers (about 2.5 million barrels/day in 2015) and one of the largest exporters, due to its political problems, has had its production drastically reduced in recent years: in 2016, it dropped to 2.2 million, in 2017 to 2 million, in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, reaching only 300,000 barrels/day at a given point. The country also stands out in hydroelectricity, where it was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed capacity in 2020 (16,5 GW). Argentina was, in 2017, the 18th largest producer in the world, and the largest producer in Latin America, of natural gas, in addition to being the 28th largest oil producer; although the country has the Vaca Muerta field, which holds close to 16 billion barrels of technically recoverable shale oil, and is the second largest shale natural gas deposit in the world, the country lacks the capacity to exploit the deposit: it is necessary capital, technology and knowledge that can only come from offshore energy companies, who view Argentina and its erratic economic policies with considerable suspicion, not wanting to invest in the country. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 27th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (2.6 GW), 42nd in the world in terms of installed solar energy (0.7 GW) and 21st in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (11.3 GW). The country has great future potential for the production of wind energy in the Patagonia region. Chile, although currently not a major energy producer, has great future potential for solar energy production in the Atacama Desert region. Paraguay stands out today in hydroelectric production thanks to the Itaipu Power Plant. Trinidad and Tobago and Bolivia stand out in the production of natural gas, where they were, respectively, the 20th and 31st largest in the world in 2015. Ecuador, because it consumes little energy, is part of OPEC and was the 27th largest oil producer in the world in 2020, being the 22nd largest exporter in 2014.\n\nTrade blocs\n\nThe major trade blocs (or agreements) in the region are the Pacific Alliance and Mercosur. Minor blocs or trade agreements are the G3 Free Trade Agreement, the Dominican Republic – Central America Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA), the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and the Andean Community of Nations (CAN). However, major reconfigurations are taking place along opposing approaches to integration and trade; Venezuela has officially withdrawn from both the CAN and G3 and it has been formally admitted into the Mercosur (pending ratification from the Paraguayan legislature). The president-elect of Ecuador has manifested his intentions of following the same path. This bloc nominally opposes any Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the United States, although Uruguay has manifested its intention otherwise. Chile, Peru, Colombia and Mexico are the only four Latin American nations that have an FTA with the United States and Canada, both members of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).\n\nChina \nChina's economic influence in Latin America increased substantially in the 21st century. Imports from China valued $8.3B in 2000, but by 2019, its value was $184.2B and had grown to be the region's largest trading partner. In particular, many of the investments are related to the Belt and Road Initiative or energy. China has also provided loans to several Latin American countries; this has raised concerns about the possibility of \"debt traps.\" Specifically, Venezuela, Brazil, Ecuador, and Argentina received the most loans from China during 2005-2016.\n\nTourism\n\nIncome from tourism is key to the economy of several Latin American countries. Mexico is the only Latin American country to be ranked in the top 10 worldwide in the number of tourist visits. It received by far the largest number of international tourists, with 39.3 million visitors in 2017, followed by Argentina, with 6.7 million; then Brazil, with 6.6 million; Chile, with 6.5 million; Dominican Republic, with 6.2 million; Cuba with 4.3 million; Peru and Colombia with 4.0 million. The World Tourism Organization reports the following destinations as the top six tourism earners for the year 2017: Mexico, with US$21,333 million; the Dominican Republic, with US$7,178 million; Brazil, with US$6,024 million; Colombia, with US$4,773 million; Argentina, with US$4,687 million; and Panama, with US$4,258 million.\n\nPlaces such as Cancún, Riviera Maya, Chichen Itza, Cabo San Lucas, Mexico City, Acapulco, Puerto Vallarta, Guanajuato City, San Miguel de Allende, Guadalajara in Mexico, Punta Cana, Santo Domingo in Dominican Republic, Punta del Este in Uruguay, Labadee in Haiti, San Juan, Ponce in Puerto Rico, Panama City in Panama, Poás Volcano National Park in Costa Rica, Viña del Mar in Chile, Rio de Janeiro, Florianópolis, Iguazu Falls, São Paulo, Armação dos Búzios, Salvador, Bombinhas, Angra dos Reis, Balneário Camboriú, Paraty, Ipojuca, Natal, Cairu, Fortaleza and Itapema in Brazil; Buenos Aires, Bariloche, Salta, Jujuy, Perito Moreno Glacier, Valdes Peninsula, Guarani Jesuit Missions in the cities of Misiones and Corrientes, Ischigualasto Provincial Park, Ushuaia and Patagonia in Argentina;\nIsla Margarita, Angel Falls, Los Roques archipelago, Gran Sabana in Venezuela; Machu Picchu, Lima, Nazca Lines, Cuzco in Peru; Lake Titicaca, Salar de Uyuni, La Paz, Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos in Bolivia; Tayrona National Natural Park, Santa Marta, Bogotá, Cali, Medellín, Cartagena, San Andrés in Colombia, and the Galápagos Islands in Ecuador. are popular among international visitors in the region.\n\n(*) Data for 2015 rather than 2017, as the newest data is currently unavailable.\n\nCulture\n\nLatin American culture is a mixture of many influences:\n\n Indigenous cultures of the people who inhabited the continent prior to European colonization. Ancient and advanced civilizations developed their own political, social and religious systems. The Maya, the Aztec and the Inca are examples of these. Indigenous legacies in music, dance, foods, arts and crafts, clothing, folk culture and traditions are strong in Latin America. Indigenous languages affected Spanish and Portuguese, giving rise to loanwords like pampa, taco, tamale, cacique.\n The culture of Europe was brought mainly by the colonial powersthe Spanish, Portuguese and Frenchbetween the 16th and 19th centuries. The most enduring European colonial influences are language and Catholicism. Additional cultural influences came from the United States and Europe during the 19th and 20th centuries, due to the growing influence of the former on the world stage and immigration from the latter. The influence of the United States is particularly strong in northern Latin America, especially Puerto Rico, which is an American territory. Prior to 1959, Cuba, which fought for its independence with American aid in the Spanish–American War, also had a close political and economic relationship with the United States. The United States also helped Panama become independent from Colombia and built the twenty-mile-long Panama Canal Zone in Panama, which it held from 1903 — the Panama Canal opened to transoceanic freight traffic in 1914 — to 1999, when the Torrijos-Carter Treaties restored Panamanian control of the Canal Zone. South America experienced waves of immigration of Europeans, especially Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese, Germans, Austrians, Poles, Ukrainians, French, Dutch, Russians, Croatians, Lithuanians, and Ashkenazi Jews. With the end of colonialism, French culture also exerted a direct influence in Latin America, especially in the realms of high culture, science and medicine. This can be seen in the region's artistic traditions, including painting, literature, and music, and in the realms of science and politics. \n Due to the impact of Enlightenment ideals after the French revolution, a certain number of Iberian American countries decriminalized homosexuality after France and French territories in the Americas did so in 1791. Some of the countries that abolished sodomy laws or banned state interference in consensual adult sexuality in the 19th century were Dominican Republic (1822), Brazil (1824), Peru (1836), Mexico (1871), Paraguay (1880), Argentina (1887), Honduras (1899), Guatemala, and El Salvador. Today same-sex marriage is legal in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, Uruguay, and French overseas departments. Civil unions can be held in Chile.\n African cultures, whose presence stems from a long history of the Atlantic slave trade. People of African descent have influenced the ethno-scapes of Latin America and the Caribbean. This is manifested for instance in music, dance and religion, especially in countries like Brazil, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, Haiti, Honduras, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, and Cuba.\n Asian cultures, whose part of the presence derives from the long history of the coolies who mostly arrived during the 19th and 20th centuries, most commonly Chinese workers in Peru and Venezuela, but also from Japanese and Korean immigration. especially headed to Brazil. This has greatly affected cuisine and other traditions including literature, art and lifestyles and politics. Asian influences have especially affected Brazil, Cuba, Panama and Peru.\n\nArt\n\nBeyond the tradition of Indigenous art, the development of Latin American visual art owed much to the influence of Spanish, Portuguese and French Baroque painting, which in turn often followed the trends of the Italians. In general, artistic Eurocentrism began to wane in the early twentieth century with the increased appreciation for indigenous forms of representation.\n\nFrom the early twentieth century, the art of Latin America was greatly inspired by the Constructivist Movement. The movement rapidly spread from Russia to Europe and then into Latin America. Joaquín Torres García and Manuel Rendón have been credited with bringing the Constructivist Movement into Latin America from Europe.\n\nAn important artistic movement generated in Latin America is muralism represented by Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, José Clemente Orozco and Rufino Tamayo in Mexico, Santiago Martinez Delgado and Pedro Nel Gómez in Colombia and Antonio Berni in Argentina. Some of the most impressive Muralista works can be found in Mexico, Colombia, New York City, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Philadelphia.\n\nPainter Frida Kahlo, one of the most famous Mexican artists, painted about her own life and the Mexican culture in a style combining Realism, Symbolism and Surrealism. Kahlo's work commands the highest selling price of all Latin American paintings.\n\nThe Venezuelan Armando Reverón, whose work begins to be recognized internationally, is one of the most important artists of the 20th century in South America; he is a precursor of Arte Povera and Happening. In the 60s kinetic art emerged in Venezuela. Its main representatives are Jesús Soto, Carlos Cruz-Diez, Alejandro Otero and Gego.\n\nColombian sculptor and painter Fernando Botero is also widely known for his works which, on first examination, are noted for their exaggerated proportions and the corpulence of the human and animal figures.\n\nThe Ecuadorian Oswaldo Guayasamín, considered one of the most important and seminal artists in Ecuador and South America. In his life, he made over 13,000 paintings and held more than 180 exhibitions all over the world, including Paris, Barcelona, New York, Buenos Aires, Moscow, Prague, and Rome. He brought his unique style of expressionism and cubism to the collection of Ecuador artwork during the Age of Anger which relates to the period of the Cold War when the United States opposed communist presence in South America. Social criticism of human and social inequality was central to his artwork.\n\nFilm\n\nLatin American film is both rich and diverse. Historically, the main centers of production have been Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, and Cuba. Latin American film flourished after sound was introduced in cinema, which added a linguistic barrier to the export of Hollywood film south of the border.\n\nMexican cinema began in the silent era from 1896 to 1929 and flourished in the Golden Era of the 1940s. It boasted a huge industry comparable to Hollywood at the time, with stars such as María Félix, Dolores del Río, and Pedro Infante. In the 1970s, Mexico was the location for many cult horror and action movies. More recently, films such as Amores Perros (2000) and Y tu mamá también (2001) enjoyed box office and critical acclaim and propelled Alfonso Cuarón and Alejandro González Iñárritu to the front rank of Hollywood directors. Iñárritu in 2010 directed Biutiful and Birdman (2014), Alfonso Cuarón directed Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban in 2004 and Gravity in 2013. A close friend of both, Guillermo del Toro, a top rank Hollywood director in Hollywood and Spain, directed Pan's Labyrinth (2006) and produced El Orfanato (2007). Carlos Carrera (The Crime of Father Amaro), and screenwriter Guillermo Arriaga are also some of the best known modern Mexican film makers. Rudo y Cursi released in December (2008) in Mexico, was directed by Carlos Cuarón.\n\nArgentine cinema has also been prominent since the first half of the 20th century and today averages over 60 full-length titles yearly. The industry suffered during the 1976–1983 military dictatorship; but re-emerged to produce the Academy Award winner The Official Story in 1985. A wave of imported US films again damaged the industry in the early 1990s, though it soon recovered, thriving even during the Argentine economic crisis around 2001. Many Argentine movies produced during recent years have been internationally acclaimed, including Nueve reinas (2000), Son of the Bride (2001), El abrazo partido (2004), El otro (2007), the 2010 Foreign Language Academy Award winner El secreto de sus ojos and Wild Tales (2014).\n\nIn Brazil, the Cinema Novo movement created a particular way of making movies with critical and intellectual screenplays, clearer photography related to the light of the outdoors in a tropical landscape, and a political message. The modern Brazilian film industry has become more profitable inside the country, and some of its productions have received prizes and recognition in Europe and the United States, with movies such as Central do Brasil (1999), Cidade de Deus (2002) and Tropa de Elite (2007).\n\nPuerto Rican cinema has produced some notable films, such as Una Aventura Llamada Menudo, Los Diaz de Doris and Casi Casi. An influx of Hollywood films affected the local film industry in Puerto Rico during the 1980s and 1990s, but several Puerto Rican films have been produced since and it has been recovering.\n\nCuban cinema has enjoyed much official support since the Cuban revolution and important film-makers include Tomás Gutiérrez Alea.\n\nVenezuelan television has also had a great impact in Latin America, is said that whilst \"Venezuelan cinema began sporadically in the 1950s[, it] only emerged as a national-cultural movement in the mid-1970s\" when it gained state support and auteurs could produce work. International co-productions with Latin America and Spain continued into this era and beyond, and Venezuelan films of this time were counted among the works of New Latin American Cinema. This period is known as Venezuela's Golden Age of cinema, having massive popularity even though it was a time of much social and political upheaval.\n\nOne of the most famous Venezuelan films, even to date, is the 1976 film Soy un delincuente by Clemente de la Cerda, which won the Special Jury Prize at the 1977 Locarno International Film Festival. Soy un delincuente was one of nine films for which the state gave substantial funding to produce, made in the year after the Venezuelan state began giving financial support to cinema in 1975. The support likely came from increased oil wealth in the early 1970s, and the subsequent 1973 credit incentive policy. At the time of its production the film was the most popular film in the country, and took a decade to be usurped from this position, even though it was only one in a string of films designed to tell social realist stories of struggle in the 1950s and '60s. Equally famous is the 1977 film El Pez que Fuma (Román Chalbaud). In 1981 FONCINE (the Venezuelan Film Fund) was founded, and this year it provided even more funding to produce seventeen feature films. A few years later in 1983 with Viernes Negro, oil prices dropped and Venezuela entered a depression which prevented such extravagant funding, but film production continued; more transnational productions occurred, many more with Spain due to Latin America's poor economic fortune in general, and there was some in new cinema, as well: Fina Torres' 1985 Oriana won the Caméra d'Or Prize at the 1985 Cannes Film Festival as the best first feature. Film production peaked in 1984–5,:37 with 1986 considered Venezuelan cinema's most successful year by the state, thanks to over 4 million admissions to national films, according to Venezuelanalysis. The Venezuelan capital of Caracas hosted the Ibero-American Forum on Cinematography Integration in 1989, from which the pan-continental IBERMEDIA was formed; a union which provides regional funding.\n\nLiterature\n\nPre-Columbian cultures were primarily oral, although the Aztecs and Maya, for instance, produced elaborate codices. Oral accounts of mythological and religious beliefs were also sometimes recorded after the arrival of European colonizers, as was the case with the Popol Vuh. Moreover, a tradition of oral narrative survives to this day, for instance among the Quechua-speaking population of Peru and the Quiché (K'iche') of Guatemala.\n\nFrom the very moment of Europe's discovery of the continents, early explorers and conquistadores produced written accounts and crónicas of their experiencesuch as Columbus's letters or Bernal Díaz del Castillo's description of the conquest of Mexico. During the colonial period, written culture was often in the hands of the church, within which context Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz wrote memorable poetry and philosophical essays. Towards the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th, a distinctive criollo literary tradition emerged, including the first novels such as Lizardi's El Periquillo Sarniento (1816).\n\nThe 19th century was a period of \"foundational fictions\" in critic Doris Sommer's words, novels in the Romantic or Naturalist traditions that attempted to establish a sense of national identity, and which often focussed on the Indigenous question or the dichotomy of \"civilization or barbarism\" (for which see, say, Domingo Sarmiento's Facundo (1845), Juan León Mera's Cumandá (1879), or Euclides da Cunha's Os Sertões (1902)). The 19th century also witnessed the realist work of Machado de Assis, who made use of surreal devices of metaphor and playful narrative construction, much admired by critic Harold Bloom.\n\nAt the turn of the 20th century, modernismo emerged, a poetic movement whose founding text was Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío's Azul (1888). This was the first Latin American literary movement to influence literary culture outside of the region, and was also the first truly Latin American literature, in that national differences were no longer so much at issue. José Martí, for instance, though a Cuban patriot, also lived in Mexico and the United States and wrote for journals in Argentina and elsewhere.\n\nHowever, what really put Latin American literature on the global map was no doubt the literary boom of the 1960s and 1970s, distinguished by daring and experimental novels (such as Julio Cortázar's Rayuela (1963)) that were frequently published in Spain and quickly translated into English. The Boom's defining novel was Gabriel García Márquez's Cien años de soledad (1967), which led to the association of Latin American literature with magic realism, though other important writers of the period such as the Peruvian Mario Vargas Llosa and Carlos Fuentes do not fit so easily within this framework. Arguably, the Boom's culmination was Augusto Roa Bastos's monumental Yo, el supremo (1974). In the wake of the Boom, influential precursors such as Juan Rulfo, Alejo Carpentier, and above all Jorge Luis Borges were also rediscovered.\n\nContemporary literature in the region is vibrant and varied, ranging from the best-selling Paulo Coelho and Isabel Allende to the more avant-garde and critically acclaimed work of writers such as Diamela Eltit, Giannina Braschi, Ricardo Piglia, or Roberto Bolaño. There has also been considerable attention paid to the genre of testimonio, texts produced in collaboration with subaltern subjects such as Rigoberta Menchú. Finally, a new breed of chroniclers is represented by the more journalistic Carlos Monsiváis and Pedro Lemebel.\n\nThe region boasts six Nobel Prize winners: in addition to the two Chilean poets Gabriela Mistral (1945) and Pablo Neruda (1971), there is also the Guatemalan novelist Miguel Ángel Asturias (1967), the Colombian writer Gabriel García Márquez (1982), the Mexican poet and essayist Octavio Paz (1990), and the Peruvian novelist Mario Vargas Llosa (2010).\n\nMusic and dance\n\nLatin America has produced many successful worldwide artists in terms of recorded global music sales. Among the most successful have been Juan Gabriel (Mexico) only Latin American musician to have sold over 200 million records worldwide, Gloria Estefan (Cuba), Carlos Santana, Luis Miguel (Mexico) of whom have sold over 90 million records, Shakira (Colombia) and Vicente Fernández (Mexico) with over 50 million records sold worldwide. Enrique Iglesias, although not a Latin American, has also contributed for the success of Latin music.\n\nOther notable successful mainstream acts through the years, include RBD, Celia Cruz, Soda Stereo, Thalía, Ricky Martin, Maná, Marc Anthony, Ricardo Arjona, Selena, and Menudo.\n\nLatin Caribbean music, such as merengue, bachata, salsa, and more recently reggaeton, from such countries as the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Panama, has been strongly influenced by African rhythms and melodies. Haiti's compas is a genre of music that is influenced by its Latin Caribbean counterparts, along with elements of jazz and modern sounds. The French Antillean zouk (derived from Haitian compas) is a musical style originating from the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique and popularized by the French Antillean Creole band Kassav' in the early 1980s then became popular mainly in the Caribbean islands of Saint Lucia, Dominica, and Haiti, all in the French Antilles (French West Indies). \n\nAnother well-known Latin American musical genre includes the Argentine and Uruguayan tango (with Carlos Gardel as the greatest exponent), as well as the distinct nuevo tango, a fusion of tango, acoustic and electronic music popularized by bandoneón virtuoso Ástor Piazzolla. Samba, North American jazz, European classical music and choro combined to form bossa nova in Brazil, popularized by guitarist João Gilberto with singer Astrud Gilberto and pianist Antonio Carlos Jobim.\n\nOther influential Latin American sounds include the Antillean soca and calypso, Dennery segment which is a style of Soca music developed in Saint Lucia in the early 2010s which came from Kuduro music, Zouk influence and Lucian drums alongside lyrics usually sung in French Antillean Creole Kwéyòl , Bouyon music is a mixture of Soca, Zouk, and traditional genres native to Dominica which is sung in French Antillean Creole and is one of the most popular musical genres in Dominica, the Honduran (Garifuna) punta, the Colombian cumbia and vallenato, the Chilean cueca, the Ecuadorian boleros, and rockoleras, the Mexican ranchera and the mariachi which is the epitome of Mexican soul, the Nicaraguan palo de Mayo, the Peruvian marinera and tondero, the Uruguayan candombe and the various styles of music from pre-Columbian traditions that are widespread in the Andean region.\n\nThe classical composer Heitor Villa-Lobos (1887–1959) worked on the recording of Native musical traditions within his homeland of Brazil. The traditions of his homeland heavily influenced his classical works. Also notable is the recent work of the Cuban Leo Brouwer, Uruguayan-American Miguel del Águila, guitar works of the Venezuelan Antonio Lauro and the Paraguayan Agustín Barrios. Latin America has also produced world-class classical performers such as the Chilean pianist Claudio Arrau, Brazilian pianist Nelson Freire and the Argentine pianist and conductor Daniel Barenboim. Brazilian opera soprano Bidu Sayão, one of Brazil's most famous musicians, was a leading artist of the Metropolitan Opera in New York City from 1937 to 1952.\n\nArguably, the main contribution to music entered through folklore, where the true soul of the Latin American and Caribbean countries is expressed. Musicians such as Yma Súmac, Chabuca Granda, Atahualpa Yupanqui, Violeta Parra, Víctor Jara, Jorge Cafrune, Facundo Cabral, Mercedes Sosa, Jorge Negrete, Luiz Gonzaga, Caetano Veloso, Susana Baca, Chavela Vargas, Simon Diaz, Julio Jaramillo, Toto la Momposina, Gilberto Gil, Maria Bethânia, Nana Caymmi, Nara Leão, Gal Costa, Ney Matogrosso as well as musical ensembles such as Inti Illimani and Los Kjarkas are magnificent examples of the heights that this soul can reach.\n\nLatin pop, including many forms of rock, is popular in Latin America today (see Spanish language rock and roll). A few examples are Café Tacuba, Soda Stereo, Maná, Los Fabulosos Cadillacs, Rita Lee, Mutantes, Secos e Molhados Legião Urbana, Titãs, Paralamas do Sucesso, Cazuza, Barão Vermelho, Skank, Miranda!, Cansei de Ser Sexy or CSS, and Bajo Fondo.\n\nMore recently, reggaeton, which blends Jamaican reggae and dancehall with Latin America genres such as bomba and plena, as well as hip hop, is becoming more popular, in spite of the controversy surrounding its lyrics, dance steps (Perreo) and music videos. It has become very popular among populations with a \"migrant culture\" influence – both Latino populations in the United States, such as southern Florida and New York City, and parts of Latin America where migration to the United States is common, such as Trinidad and Tobago, Dominican Republic, Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, and Mexico.\n\nWorld Heritage Sites\nThe following is a list of the ten countries with the most UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Latin America.\n\nSee also \n\nAmericas (terminology)\nAnglo-America\nEuro-Latin American Parliamentary Assembly\nFrench America\nHispanic America\nHispanic and Latino Americans\nIbero-America\nIndigenous peoples of the Americas (Amerindians)\nInter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance\nLatin America and the Caribbean\nLatin America and the League of Nations\nLatin America–United States relations\nLatin American diaspora\nLatin American integration\nLatin American studies\nLatin American Studies Association\nLatin Americans\nList of Latin Americans\nMesoamerica\nOrganization of American States\nPan-American Conferences\nPan-Americanism\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n\n Alonso, Paul. Digital Humor as Cultural Globalization in Latin America. Internet, Humor, and Nation in Latin/x America, 2022.\n Ardao, Arturo. Génesis de la idea y nombre de América Latina. Caracas: Centro de Estudios Latinoamericanos Rómulo Gallegos, 1980.\n Ayala Mora, Enrique. \"El origen del nombre América Latina y la tradición católica del siglo XIX.\" Anuario Colombiano de Historia Social y de la Cultura 40, no. 1 (2013), 213–41.\n Berryman, Phillip. Latin America at 200. Austin: University of Texas Press 2016.\n Bethell, Leslie, The Cambridge History of Latin America. 12 volumes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1985–2008.\n Bomfim, Manoel. A América latina: Males de origem. Rio de Janeiro: H. Garnier 1905.\n Braudel, Fernand. \"Y a-t-il une Amérique latine?\" Annales ESC 3 (1948), 467–71.\n Calderón, Fernando and Manuel Castells. The New Latin America. Cambridge: Polity Press 2020.\n Coatsworth, John H., and Alan M. Taylor, eds. Latin America and the World Economy Since 1800. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press 1998.\n Edwards, Sebastián. Left Behind: Latin America and the False Promise of Populism. University of Chicago Press, 2010.\n \n Galeano, Eduardo. Open Veins of Latin America: Five Centuries of the Pillage of a Continent. 1973\n Gobat, Michel, \"The Invention of Latin America: A Transnational History of Anti-Imperialism, Democracy, and Race,\" American Historical Review Vol. 118, no. 3 (December 2013), pp. 1345–1375.\n Halperin Donghi, Tulio. The Contemporary History of Latin America. Durham: Duke University Press 1993. \n Lockhart, James and Stuart B. Schwartz. Early Latin America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1982.\n Martínez Estrada, Ezequiel. Diferencias y semejanzas entre los países de América Latina. Mexico\" Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México 1962.\n Maurer Queipo, Isabel (ed.): \"Directory of World Cinema: Latin America\", intellectbooks, Bristol 2013, \n Mazzuca, Sebastián, Latecomer State Formation: Political Geography and Capacity Failure in Latin America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2021.\n McGinnes, Aims. \"Searching for 'Latin America': Race and Sovereignty in the Americas in the 1850s.\" In Race and Nation in Modern Latin America, edited by Nancy P. Appelbaum, Anne S. Macpherson, and Karin alejandra Rosemblatt. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 2003, pp, 87–107.\n Mignolo, Walter, The Idea of Latin America. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell 2005.\n Moraña, Mabel, Enrique Dussel, and Carlos A. Jáuregui, eds. Coloniality at Large: Latin America and the Postcolonial Debate. Durham: Duke University Press 2008.\n Phelan, John Leddy. (1968). Pan-latinisms, French Intervention in Mexico (1861–1867) and the Genesis of the Idea of Latin America. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autonónoma de México 1968.\n Tenenbaum, Barbara A. ed. Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture. 5 vols. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996\n Tenorio-Trillo, Mauricio. Latin America: The Allure and Power of an Idea. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 2017. \n Vasconcelos, José. Indología: Una interpretación de la cultura ibero-americana. Barcelona: Agencia Mundial de Librería 1927.\n Zea, Leopoldo, ed. Fuentes de la cultura latinoamericana. 2 vols. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica 1993.\n\nExternal links \n\n IDB Education Initiative\n Latin American, Caribbean, U.S. Latinx, and Iberian Online Free E-Resources (LACLI). \n Latin American Network Information Center \n Latin America Data Base \n Washington Office on Latin America\n Council on Hemispheric Affairs\n Codigos De Barra\n \n Map of Land Cover: Latin America and Caribbean (FAO) \n Lessons From Latin America by Benjamin Dangl, The Nation, March 4, 2009\n \n \n Latin America Cold War Resources, Yale University\n Latin America Cold War, Harvard University\n Latin American Research Centre, University of Calgary\n The war on Democracy, by John Pilger\n\n \nCategory:Country classifications", "title": "Latin America" }, { "text": "The Caribbean ( , ; ; ; ; ) is a subregion of the Americas that consists of the Caribbean Sea and its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean); the nearby coastal areas on the mainland may also be included. The region is southeast of the Gulf of Mexico and the North American mainland, east of Central America, and north of South America.\n\nSituated largely on the Caribbean Plate, the region has more than 700 islands, islets, reefs, and cays (see the list of Caribbean islands). Island arcs delineate the northern and eastern edges of the Caribbean Sea: the Greater Antilles in the north and the Lesser Antilles (which includes the Leeward Antilles) in the east and south. The nearby Lucayan Archipelago (comprising The Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands) is considered to be a part of the Caribbean despite not bordering the Caribbean Sea. All the islands in the Antilles plus the Lucayan Archipelago form the West Indies, which is often interchangeable with the term Caribbean. On the mainland, Belize, Guyana, and Suriname are often included as parts of the Caribbean due to their political and cultural ties with the region.\n\nGeopolitically, the islands of the Caribbean are often regarded as a subregion of North America, though sometimes they are included in Middle America or left as a subregion of their own and are organized into 33 political entities, including 13 sovereign states, 12 dependencies, 1 disputed territory, and 7 other overseas territories. From December 15, 1954, to October 10, 2010, there was a territory known as the Netherlands Antilles composed of five islands, all of which were Dutch dependencies. From January 3, 1958, to May 31, 1962, there was also a short-lived political union called the West Indies Federation composed of ten English-speaking Caribbean territories, all of which were then British dependencies. The West Indies cricket team continues to represent many of those nations.\n\nEtymology and pronunciation\nThe region takes its name from that of the Caribs, an ethnic group present in the Lesser Antilles and parts of adjacent South America at the time of the Spanish conquest of the Americas.\n\nThe two most prevalent pronunciations of \"Caribbean\" outside the Caribbean are (), with the primary stress on the third syllable, and (), with the stress on the second. Most authorities of the last century preferred the stress on the third syllable. This is the older of the two pronunciations, but the stressed-second-syllable variant has been established for over 75 years. It has been suggested that speakers of British English prefer () while North American speakers more typically use (), but major American dictionaries and other sources list the stress on the third syllable as more common in American English too. According to the American version of Oxford Online Dictionaries, the stress on the second syllable is becoming more common in UK English and is increasingly considered \"by some\" to be more up to date and more \"correct\".\n\nThe Oxford Online Dictionaries claim that the stress on the second syllable is the most common pronunciation in the Caribbean itself, but according to the Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage, the most common pronunciation in Caribbean English stresses the first syllable instead, ().\n\nDefinition\n\nThe word \"Caribbean\" has multiple uses. Its principal ones are geographical and political. The Caribbean can also be expanded to include territories with strong cultural and historical connections to Africa, slavery, European colonisation and the plantation system.\n The United Nations geoscheme for the Americas presents the Caribbean as a distinct region within the Americas.\n Physiographically, the Caribbean region is mainly a chain of islands surrounding the Caribbean Sea. To the north, the region is bordered by the Gulf of Mexico, the Straits of Florida and the Northern Atlantic Ocean, which lies to the east and northeast. To the south lies the coastline of the continent of South America.\n\nCountries and territories list\n\nHistory\n\nThe oldest evidence of humans in the Caribbean is in southern Trinidad at Banwari Trace, where remains have been found from seven thousand years ago. These pre-ceramic sites, which belong to the Archaic (pre-ceramic) age, have been termed Ortoiroid. The earliest archaeological evidence of human settlement in Hispaniola dates to about 3600 BC, but the reliability of these finds is questioned. Consistent dates of 3100 BC appear in Cuba. The earliest dates in the Lesser Antilles are from 2000 BC in Antigua. A lack of pre-ceramic sites in the Windward Islands and differences in technology suggest that these Archaic settlers may have Central American origins. Whether an Ortoiroid colonization of the islands took place is uncertain, but there is little evidence of one.\n\nDNA studies changed some of the traditional beliefs about pre-Columbian indigenous history. According to National Geographic, \"studies confirm that a wave of pottery-making farmers—known as Ceramic Age people—set out in canoes from the northeastern coast of South America starting some 2,500 years ago and island-hopped across the Caribbean. They were not, however, the first colonizers. On many islands they encountered a foraging people who arrived some 6,000 or 7,000 years ago...The ceramicists, who are related to today's Arawak-speaking peoples, supplanted the earlier foraging inhabitants—presumably through disease or violence—as they settled new islands.\"\n\nBetween 400 BC and 200 BC the first ceramic-using agriculturalists, the Saladoid culture, entered Trinidad from South America. They expanded up the Orinoco River to Trinidad, and then spread rapidly up the islands of the Caribbean. Some time after 250 AD another group, the Barancoid, entered Trinidad. The Barancoid society collapsed along the Orinoco around 650 AD and another group, the Arauquinoid, expanded into these areas and up the Caribbean chain. Around 1300 AD a new group, the Mayoid, entered Trinidad and remained the dominant culture until Spanish settlement.\n\nAt the time of the European discovery of most of the islands of the Caribbean, three major Amerindian indigenous peoples lived on the islands: the Taíno in the Greater Antilles, the Bahamas and the Leeward Islands, the Island Caribs and Galibi in the Windward Islands, and the Ciboney in western Cuba. The Taínos are subdivided into Classic Taínos, who occupied Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, Western Taínos, who occupied Cuba, Jamaica, and the Bahamian archipelago, and the Eastern Taínos, who occupied the Leeward Islands. Trinidad was inhabited by both Carib speaking and Arawak-speaking groups.\n\nEuropean Contact \n\nSoon after Christopher Columbus came to the Caribbean, both Portuguese and Spanish explorers began claiming territories in Central and South America. These early colonies brought gold to Europe; most specifically England, the Netherlands, and France. These nations hoped to establish profitable colonies in the Caribbean. Colonial rivalries made the Caribbean a cockpit for European wars for centuries.\n\nColumbus, and the early colonists of Hispaniola, treated the indigenous peoples brutally, even enslaving children. In 1512, after pressure from Dominican friars, the Laws of Burgos were introduced by the Spanish Crown to better protect the rights of the New World natives. The Spanish used a form of slavery called the Encomienda, where slaves would be awarded to the conquistadors, who were charged with protecting and converting their slaves. This had a devastating impact on the population, so starting in 1503, slaves from Africa were imported to the colony.\n\nWhile early slave traders were Portuguese and Spanish, known as the First Atlantic System, by the 17th century the trade became dominated by British, French, and Dutch merchants. This was known as the Second Atlantic System. 5 million African slaves would be taken to the Caribbean, and around half would be traded to the British Caribbean islands. Slavery was abolished first in the Dutch Empire in 1814. Spain abolished slavery in its empire in 1811, with the exceptions of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Santo Domingo. Slavery was not abolished in Cuba until 1886. Britain abolished the slave trade in 1807, and slavery proper in 1833. France abolished slavery in its colonies in 1848.\n\t\nThe Caribbean was known for pirates, especially between 1640 and 1680. The term \"buccaneer\" is often used to describe a pirate operating in this region. The Caribbean region was war-torn throughout much of its colonial history, but the wars were often based in Europe, with only minor battles fought in the Caribbean. Some wars, however, were born of political turmoil in the Caribbean itself.\n\nIn 1791, a slave rebellion in the French colony of Saint-Domingue led to the establishment in 1804 of Haiti, the first republic in the Caribbean. Cuba became independent in 1898 following American intervention in the War of Independence during the Spanish-American war. Following the war, Spain's last colony in the Americas, Puerto Rico, became an unincorporated territory of the United States.\n\nDecolonisation and Modern period \nBetween the 1960s and 80s, most of the British holdings in the Caribbean achieved political independence, starting with Jamaica in 1962, then Trinidad and Tobago (1962), British Guiana (1966), Barbados (1966), Bahamas (1973), Grenada (1974), Dominica (1978), St. Lucia (1979), St. Vincent (1979), Antigua and Barbuda (1981), St. Kitts and Nevis (1983). Presently, the United States, Britain, France and the Netherlands still have some Caribbean possessions.\n\nThe decline of the export industries meant a need to diversify the economies of the Caribbean territories. The tourism industry started developing in the early 20th century, rapidly developing in the 1960s when regular international flights made vacations affordable and is now a $50 billion industry. Another industry that developed in the early 20th century was offshore banking and financial services, particularly in The Bahamas and the Cayman Islands, as the proximity of the Caribbean islands to North America made them an attractive location for branches of foreign banks seeking to avail themselves of more complicated regulations and higher tax rates.\n\nUS interventions\n\nThe United States has conducted military operations in the Caribbean for at least 100 years.\n\nSince the Monroe Doctrine, the United States gained a major influence on most Caribbean nations. In the early part of the 20th century this influence was extended by participation in the Banana Wars. Victory in the Spanish–American War and the signing of the Platt Amendment in 1901 ensured that the United States would have the right to interfere in Cuban political and economic affairs, militarily if necessary. After the Cuban Revolution of 1959, relations deteriorated rapidly leading to the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Cuban Missile Crisis, and successive US attempts to destabilize the island, based upon Cold War fears of the Soviet threat. The US invaded and occupied Hispaniola for 19 years (1915–34), subsequently dominating the Haitian economy through aid and loan repayments. The US invaded Haiti again in 1994 and in 2004 were accused by CARICOM of arranging a coup d'état to remove elected Haitian leader Jean-Bertrand Aristide. In 1965, 23,000 US troops were sent to the Dominican Republic to quash a local uprising against military rule (see Dominican Civil War). President Lyndon Johnson had ordered the invasion to stem what he deemed to be a \"Communist threat.\" However, the mission appeared ambiguous and was roundly condemned throughout the hemisphere as a return to gunboat diplomacy. In 1983, the US invaded Grenada to remove populist left-wing leader Maurice Bishop. The US maintains a naval military base in Cuba at Guantanamo Bay. The base is one of five unified commands whose \"area of responsibility\" is Latin America and the Caribbean. The command is headquartered in Miami, Florida.\n\nGeography and geology\n\nThe geography and climate in the Caribbean region varies: Some islands in the region have relatively flat terrain of non-volcanic origin. These islands include Aruba (possessing only minor volcanic features), Curaçao, Barbados, Bonaire, the Cayman Islands, Saint Croix, the Bahamas, and Antigua. Others possess rugged towering mountain-ranges like the islands of Saint Martin, Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Dominica, Montserrat, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Saint Kitts, Saint Lucia, Saint Thomas, Saint John, Tortola, Grenada, Saint Vincent, Guadeloupe, Martinique and Trinidad and Tobago.\n\nDefinitions of the terms Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles often vary. The Virgin Islands as part of the Puerto Rican bank are sometimes included with the Greater Antilles. The term Lesser Antilles is often used to define an island arc that includes Grenada but excludes Trinidad and Tobago and the Leeward Antilles.\n\nThe waters of the Caribbean Sea host large, migratory schools of fish, turtles, and coral reef formations. The Puerto Rico Trench, located on the fringe of the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea just to the north of the island of Puerto Rico, is the deepest point in all of the Atlantic Ocean.\n\nThe region sits in the line of several major shipping routes with the Panama Canal connecting the western Caribbean Sea with the Pacific Ocean.\n\nClimate\n\nThe climate of the area is tropical, varying from tropical rainforest in some areas to tropical monsoon and tropical savanna in others. There are also some locations that are arid climates with considerable drought in some years, and the peaks of mountains tend to have cooler temperate climates.\n\nRainfall varies with elevation, size and water currents, such as the cool upwellings that keep the ABC islands arid. Warm, moist trade winds blow consistently from the east, creating both rain forest and semi arid climates across the region. The tropical rainforest climates include lowland areas near the Caribbean Sea from Costa Rica north to Belize, as well as the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico, while the more seasonal dry tropical savanna climates are found in Cuba, northern Colombia and Venezuela, and southern Yucatán, Mexico. Arid climates are found along the extreme northern coast of Venezuela out to the islands including Aruba and Curacao, as well as the northwestern tip of Yucatán.\n\nWhile the region generally is sunny much of the year, the wet season from May through November sees more frequent cloud cover (both broken and overcast), while the dry season from December through April is more often clear to mostly sunny. Seasonal rainfall is divided into 'dry' and 'wet' seasons, with the latter six months of the year being wetter than the first half. The air temperature is hot much of the year, varying from 25 to 33 C (77 F to 90 F) between the wet and dry seasons. Seasonally, monthly mean temperatures vary from only about 5 C (7 F) in the northern most regions, to less than 3 C in the southernmost areas of the Caribbean.\n\nHurricane season is from June to November, but they occur more frequently in August and September and more common in the northern islands of the Caribbean. Hurricanes that sometimes batter the region usually strike northwards of Grenada and to the west of Barbados. The principal hurricane belt arcs to northwest of the island of Barbados in the Eastern Caribbean. A great example being recent events of Hurricane Irma devastating the island of Saint Martin during the 2017 hurricane season.\n\nSea surface temperatures change little annually, normally running from 30 °C (87 °F) in the warmest months to 26 °C (76 °F) in the coolest months. The air temperature is warm year round, in the 70s, 80s and 90s, and only varies from winter to summer about 2–5 degrees on the southern islands and about a 10–20 degrees difference on the northern islands of the Caribbean. The northern islands, like the Bahamas, Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic, may be influenced by continental masses during winter months, such as cold fronts.\n\nAruba: Latitude 12°N\n\nPuerto Rico: Latitude 18°N\n\nCuba: at Latitude 22°N\n\nIsland groups\nLucayan Archipelago\n \n (United Kingdom)\nGreater Antilles\n (United Kingdom)\n \n Hispaniola\n \n \n \n (U.S. Commonwealth)\n Spanish Virgin Islands\n Navassa Island \nLesser Antilles\n Leeward Islands\n (U.S.)\n Saint Croix\n Saint Thomas\n Saint John\n Water Island\n (United Kingdom)\n Tortola\n Virgin Gorda\n Anegada\n Jost Van Dyke\n (United Kingdom)\n \n Antigua\n Barbuda\n Redonda\n Saint Martin, politically divided between\n (France)\n (Kingdom of the Netherlands)\n (Caribbean Netherlands, Netherlands)\n (Caribbean Netherlands, Netherlands)\n (French Antilles, France)\n \n Saint Kitts\n Nevis\n (United Kingdom)\n (French Antilles, France) including\n Les Saintes\n Marie-Galante\n La Désirade\n Windward Islands\n \n (French Antilles, France)\n \n \n Saint Vincent\n The Grenadines\n \n Grenada\n Carriacou and Petite Martinique\n \n\n Tobago\n Trinidad\n Leeward Antilles\n (Kingdom of the Netherlands)\n (Kingdom of the Netherlands)\n (Caribbean Netherlands, Netherlands)\n\nHistorical groupings\n\nAll islands at some point were, and a few still are, colonies of European nations; a few are overseas or dependent territories:\n British West Indies/Anglophone Caribbean – Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Bay Islands, Guyana, Belize, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, Saint Croix (briefly), Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago (from 1797) and the Turks and Caicos Islands\n Danish West Indies – Possession of Denmark-Norway before 1814, then Denmark, present-day United States Virgin Islands\n Dutch West Indies – Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Sint Maarten, Bay Islands (briefly), Saint Croix (briefly), Tobago, Surinam and Virgin Islands\n French West Indies – Anguilla (briefly), Antigua and Barbuda (briefly), Dominica, Dominican Republic (briefly), Grenada, Haiti (formerly Saint-Domingue), Montserrat (briefly), Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Sint Eustatius (briefly), Sint Maarten, St. Kitts (briefly), Tobago (briefly), Saint Croix, the current French overseas départements of French Guiana, Martinique and Guadeloupe (including Marie-Galante, La Désirade and Les Saintes), the current French overseas collectivities of Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin\n Portuguese West Indies – present-day Barbados, known as in the 16th century when the Portuguese claimed the island en route to Brazil. The Portuguese left Barbados abandoned years before the British arrived.\n Spanish West Indies – Cuba, Hispaniola (present-day Dominican Republic), Haiti (until 1659, lost to France), Puerto Rico, Jamaica (until 1655, lost to Great Britain), the Cayman Islands (until 1670 to Great Britain) Trinidad (until 1797, lost to Great Britain) and Bay Islands (until 1643, lost to Great Britain), coastal islands of Central America (except Belize), and some Caribbean coastal islands of Panama, Colombia, Mexico, and Venezuela.\n Swedish West Indies – present-day French Saint-Barthélemy, Guadeloupe (briefly) and Tobago (briefly).\n Courlander West Indies – Tobago (until 1691)\n\nThe British West Indies were united by the United Kingdom into a West Indies Federation between 1958 and 1962. The independent countries formerly part of the B.W.I. still have a joint cricket team that competes in Test matches, One Day Internationals and Twenty20 Internationals. The West Indian cricket team includes the South American nation of Guyana, the only former British colony on the mainland of that continent.\n\nIn addition, these countries share the University of the West Indies as a regional entity. The university consists of three main campuses in Jamaica, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago, a smaller campus in the Bahamas and Resident Tutors in other contributing territories such as Trinidad.\n\nContinental countries with Caribbean coastlines and islands\n\n \n Ambergris Caye\n Caye Caulker\n Glover's Reef\n Hick's Cayes\n Lighthouse Reef\n St. George's Caye\n Tobacco Caye\n Turneffe Atoll\n \n Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina\nBajo Nuevo Bank\nCrab Cay\nQuita Sueño Bank\nRoncador Bank\nRoncador Cay\nSan Andrés (island)\nSanta Catalina Island (Colombia)\nSerrana Bank\nSerranilla Bank\n Rosario Islands\n \nBrava Island, Costa Rica\nIsla Calero\nUvita Island\n \n \n \n \n Islas de la Bahía\n Cayos Cochinos\n Guanaja\n Roatán\n Swan Islands\n Útila\nCayos Cochinos\nCayo Gorda\nBobel Cay\n\n \n Corn Islands\n Miskito Cays\n Pearl Cays\nCalala Island\nRama Cay\n \n Archipelago off Guna Yala coast (including the San Blas Islands)\n Bocas del Toro Archipelago (approximately 300 islands)\n Galeta Island (Panama)\nIsla Grande\nSoledad Miria\nCayos Limones\n \n Quintana Roo\n Banco Chinchorro\n Cozumel\n Isla Blanca\n Isla Contoy\n Isla Holbox\n Isla Mujeres\n \n \n Blanquilla Island\n Coche Island\n Cubagua Island\n Isla Aves\n Islas Los Frailes\n Isla Margarita\n La Orchila\n La Sola Island\n La Tortuga Island\n Las Aves archipelago\n Los Hermanos Archipelago\n Los Monjes Archipelago\n Los Roques archipelago\n Los Testigos Islands\n Patos Island\n\nBiodiversity\nThe Caribbean islands have one of the most diverse eco systems in the world. The animals, fungi and plants, and have been classified as one of Conservation International's biodiversity hotspots because of their exceptionally diverse terrestrial and marine ecosystems, ranging from montane cloud forests, to tropical rainforest, to cactus scrublands. The region also contains about 8% (by surface area) of the world's coral reefs along with extensive seagrass meadows, both of which are frequently found in the shallow marine waters bordering the island and continental coasts of the region.\n\nFor the fungi, there is a modern checklist based on nearly 90,000 records derived from specimens in reference collections, published accounts and field observations. That checklist includes more than 11,250 species of fungi recorded from the region. As its authors note, the work is far from exhaustive, and it is likely that the true total number of fungal species already known from the Caribbean is higher. The true total number of fungal species occurring in the Caribbean, including species not yet recorded, is likely far higher given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have been discovered. Though the amount of available information is still small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to some Caribbean islands. For Cuba, 2200 species of fungi have been tentatively identified as possible endemics of the island; for Puerto Rico, the number is 789 species; for the Dominican Republic, the number is 699 species; for Trinidad and Tobago, the number is 407 species.\n\nMany of the ecosystems of the Caribbean islands have been devastated by deforestation, pollution, and human encroachment. The arrival of the first humans is correlated with extinction of giant owls and dwarf ground sloths. The hotspot contains dozens of highly threatened animals (ranging from birds, to mammals and reptiles), fungi and plants. Examples of threatened animals include the Puerto Rican amazon, two species of solenodon (giant shrews) in Cuba and the Hispaniola island, and the Cuban crocodile.\n\nThe region's coral reefs, which contain about 70 species of hard corals and from 500 to 700 species of reef-associated fishes have undergone rapid decline in ecosystem integrity in recent years, and are considered particularly vulnerable to global warming and ocean acidification. According to a UNEP report, the Caribbean coral reefs might get extinct in next 20 years due to population explosion along the coast lines, overfishing, the pollution of coastal areas and global warming.\n\nSome Caribbean islands have terrain that Europeans found suitable for cultivation for agriculture. Tobacco was an important early crop during the colonial era, but was eventually overtaken by sugarcane production as the region's staple crop. Sugar was produced from sugarcane for export to Europe. Cuba and Barbados were historically the largest producers of sugar. The tropical plantation system thus came to dominate Caribbean settlement. Other islands were found to have terrain unsuited for agriculture, for example Dominica, which remains heavily forested. The islands in the southern Lesser Antilles, Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao, are extremely arid, making them unsuitable for agriculture. However, they have salt pans that were exploited by the Dutch. Sea water was pumped into shallow ponds, producing coarse salt when the water evaporated.\n\nThe natural environmental diversity of the Caribbean islands has led to recent growth in eco-tourism. This type of tourism is growing on islands lacking sandy beaches and dense human populations.\n\nPlants and animals\n\nDemographics\n\nIndigenous groups\n\n Arawak peoples\n Igneri\n Taíno\n Caquetio people\n Ciboney\n Ciguayo\n Garifuna\n Kalina\n Kalinago\n Lucayan\n Macorix\n Raizal\n\nAt the time of European contact, the dominant ethnic groups in the Caribbean included the Taíno of the Greater Antilles and northern Lesser Antilles, the Island Caribs of the southern Lesser Antilles, and smaller distinct groups such as the Guanajatabey of western Cuba and the Ciguayo of eastern Hispaniola. The population of the Caribbean is estimated to have been around 750,000 immediately before European contact, although lower and higher figures are given. After contact, social disruption and epidemic diseases such as smallpox and measles (to which they had no natural immunity) led to a decline in the Amerindian population. such as the Kongo, Igbo, Akan, Fon and Yoruba as well as military prisoners from Ireland, who were deported during the Cromwellian reign in England. Immigrants from Britain, Italy, France, Spain, the Netherlands, Portugal and Denmark also arrived, although the mortality rate was high for both groups.\n\nThe population is estimated to have reached 2.2 million by 1800. Immigrants from India, China, Indonesia, and other countries arrived in the mid-19th century as indentured servants. After the ending of the Atlantic slave trade, the population increased naturally. The total regional population was estimated at 37.5 million by 2000.\n\nIn Haiti and most of the French, Anglophone and Dutch Caribbean, the population is predominantly of African origin; on many islands there are also significant populations of mixed racial origin (including Mulatto-Creole, Dougla, Mestizo, Quadroon, Cholo, Castizo, Criollo, Zambo, Pardo, Asian Latin Americans, Chindian, Cocoa panyols, and Eurasian), as well as populations of European ancestry: Dutch, English, French, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish ancestry. Asians, especially those of Chinese, Indian descent, and Javanese Indonesians, form a significant minority in parts of the region. Indians form a plurality of the population in Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, and Suriname. Most of their ancestors arrived in the 19th century as indentured laborers.\n\nThe Spanish-speaking Caribbean populations are primarily of European, African, or racially mixed origins. Puerto Rico has a European majority with a mixture of European-African-Native American (tri-racial), and a large Mulatto (European-West African) and West African minority. Cuba also has a European majority, along with a significant population of African ancestry. The Dominican Republic has the largest mixed-race population, primarily descended from Europeans, West Africans, and Amerindians.\n\nJamaica has a large African majority, in addition to a significant population of mixed racial background, and has minorities of Chinese, Europeans, Indians, Latinos, Jews, and Arabs. This is a result of years of importation of slaves and indentured laborers, and migration. Most multi-racial Jamaicans refer to themselves as either mixed race or brown. Similar populations can be found in the Caricom states of Belize, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago. Trinidad and Tobago has a multi-racial cosmopolitan society due to the arrivals of Africans, Indians, Chinese, Arabs, Jews, Latinos, and Europeans along with the native indigenous Amerindians population. This multi-racial mix of the Caribbean has created sub-ethnicities that often straddle the boundaries of major ethnicities and include Mulatto-Creole, Mestizo, Pardo, Zambo, Dougla, Chindian, Afro-Asians, Eurasian, Cocoa panyols, and Asian Latinos.\n\nLanguage\n\nSpanish (64%), French (25%), English (14%), Dutch, Haitian Creole, and Papiamento are the predominant official languages of various countries in the region, although a handful of unique creole languages or dialects can also be found in virtually every Caribbean country. Other languages such as Caribbean Hindustani, Chinese, Javanese, Arabic, Hmong, Amerindian languages, other African languages, other European languages, and other Indian languages can also be found.\n\nReligion\n\nChristianity is the predominant religion in the Caribbean (84.7%). Other religions in the region are Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Rastafari, Buddhism, Chinese folk religion (incl. Taoism and Confucianism), Bahá'í, Jainism, Sikhism, Kebatinan, Traditional African religions, Yoruba (incl. Trinidad Orisha), Afro-American religions, (incl. Santería, Palo, Umbanda, Brujería, Hoodoo, Candomblé, Quimbanda, Orisha, Xangô de Recife, Xangô do Nordeste, Comfa, Espiritismo, Santo Daime, Obeah, Candomblé, Abakuá, Kumina, Winti, Sanse, Cuban Vodú, Dominican Vudú, Louisiana Voodoo, Haitian Vodou, and Vodun).\n\nPolitics\n\nRegionalism\n\nCaribbean societies are very different from other Western societies in terms of size, culture, and degree of mobility of their citizens. The current economic and political problems the states face individually are common to all Caribbean states. Regional development has contributed to attempts to subdue current problems and avoid projected problems. From a political and economic perspective, regionalism serves to make Caribbean states active participants in current international affairs through collective coalitions. In 1973, the first political regionalism in the Caribbean Basin was created by advances of the English-speaking Caribbean nations through the institution known as the Caribbean Common Market and Community (CARICOM) which is located in Guyana.\n\nCertain scholars have argued both for and against generalizing the political structures of the Caribbean. On the one hand the Caribbean states are politically diverse, ranging from communist systems such as Cuba toward more capitalist Westminster-style parliamentary systems as in the Commonwealth Caribbean. Other scholars argue that these differences are superficial, and that they tend to undermine commonalities in the various Caribbean states. Contemporary Caribbean systems seem to reflect a \"blending of traditional and modern patterns, yielding hybrid systems that exhibit significant structural variations and divergent constitutional traditions yet ultimately appear to function in similar ways.\" The political systems of the Caribbean states share similar practices.\n\nThe influence of regionalism in the Caribbean is often marginalized. Some scholars believe that regionalism cannot exist in the Caribbean because each small state is unique. On the other hand, scholars also suggest that there are commonalities amongst the Caribbean nations that suggest regionalism exists. \"Proximity as well as historical ties among the Caribbean nations has led to cooperation as well as a desire for collective action.\" These attempts at regionalization reflect the nations' desires to compete in the international economic system.\n\nFurthermore, a lack of interest from other major states promoted regionalism in the region. In recent years the Caribbean has suffered from a lack of U.S. interest. \"With the end of the Cold War, U.S. security and economic interests have been focused on other areas. As a result there has been a significant reduction in U.S. aid and investment to the Caribbean.\" The lack of international support for these small, relatively poor states, helped regionalism prosper.\n\nFollowing the Cold War another issue of importance in the Caribbean has been the reduced economic growth of some Caribbean States due to the United States and European Union's allegations of special treatment toward the region by each other.\n\nUnited States–EU trade dispute\nThe United States under President Bill Clinton launched a challenge in the World Trade Organization against the EU over Europe's preferential program, known as the Lomé Convention, which allowed banana exports from the former colonies of the Group of African, Caribbean and Pacific states (ACP) to enter Europe cheaply. The World Trade Organization sided in the United States' favour and the beneficial elements of the convention to African, Caribbean and Pacific states has been partially dismantled and replaced by the Cotonou Agreement.\n\nDuring the US/EU dispute, the United States imposed large tariffs on European Union goods (up to 100%) to pressure Europe to change the agreement with the Caribbean nations in favour of the Cotonou Agreement.\n\nFarmers in the Caribbean have complained of falling profits and rising costs as the Lomé Convention weakens. Some farmers have faced increased pressure to turn towards the cultivation of illegal drugs, which has a higher profit margin and fills the sizable demand for these illegal drugs in North America and Europe.\n\nCaribbean Financial Action Task Force and Association of Caribbean States\nCaribbean nations have also started to more closely cooperate in the Caribbean Financial Action Task Force and other instruments to add oversight of the offshore industry. One of the most important associations that deal with regionalism amongst the nations of the Caribbean Basin has been the Association of Caribbean States (ACS). Proposed by CARICOM in 1992, the ACS soon won the support of the other countries of the region. It was founded in July 1994. The ACS maintains regionalism within the Caribbean on issues unique to the Caribbean Basin. Through coalition building, like the ACS and CARICOM, regionalism has become an undeniable part of the politics and economics of the Caribbean. The successes of region-building initiatives are still debated by scholars, yet regionalism remains prevalent throughout the Caribbean.\n\nBolivarian Alliance\nThe President of Venezuela, Hugo Chavez launched an economic group called the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas (ALBA), which several eastern Caribbean islands joined. In 2012, the nation of Haiti, with 9 million people, became the largest CARICOM nation that sought to join the union.\n\nRegional institutions\nHere are some of the bodies that several islands share in collaboration:\n\n African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States\n Association of Caribbean States (ACS), Trinidad and Tobago\n Caribbean Association of Industry and Commerce (CAIC), Trinidad and Tobago\n Caribbean Association of National Telecommunication Organizations (CANTO), Trinidad and Tobago\n Caribbean Community (CARICOM), Guyana\n Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), Barbados\n Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency (CDERA), Barbados\n Caribbean Educators Network\n Caribbean Electric Utility Services Corporation (CARILEC), Saint Lucia\n Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC), Barbados and Jamaica\n Caribbean Financial Action Task Force (CFATF), Trinidad and Tobago\n Caribbean Food Crops Society, Puerto Rico\n Caribbean Football Union (CFU), Jamaica\n Caribbean Hotel & Tourism Association (CHTA), Florida and Puerto Rico\n Caribbean Initiative (Initiative of the IUCN)\n Caribbean Programme for Economic Competitiveness (CPEC), Saint Lucia\n Caribbean Regional Environmental Programme (CREP), Barbados\n Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM), Belize\n Caribbean Regional Negotiating Machinery (CRNM), Barbados and Dominican Republic\n Caribbean Telecommunications Union (CTU), Trinidad and Tobago\n Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO), Barbados\n Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC)\n Foundation for the Development of Caribbean Children, Barbados\n Latin America and Caribbean Network Information Centre (LACNIC), Brazil and Uruguay\n Latin American and the Caribbean Economic System, Venezuela\n Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), Saint Lucia\n United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Chile and Trinidad and Tobago\n University of the West Indies, Jamaica, Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago. In addition, the fourth campus, the Open Campus was formed in June 2008 as a result of an amalgamation of the Board for Non-Campus Countries and Distance Education, Schools of Continuing Studies, the UWI Distance Education Centres and Tertiary Level Units. The Open Campus has 42 physical sites in 16 Anglophone caribbean countries.\n West Indies Cricket Board, Antigua and Barbuda\n\nCuisine\n\nFavourite or national dishes\n\n Anguilla – rice, peas and fish\n Antigua and Barbuda – fungee and pepperpot\n Bahamas – Guava duff, Conch Salad, Peas n' Rice, and Conch Fritters\n Barbados – cou-cou and flying fish\n Belize – rice and beans, stew chicken with potato salad; white rice, stew beans and fry fish with cole slaw\n British Virgin Islands – fish and fungee\n Cayman Islands – turtle stew, turtle steak, grouper\n Colombian Caribbean – rice with coconut milk, arroz con pollo, sancocho, Arab cuisine (due to the large Arab population)\n Cuba – platillo Moros y Cristianos, ropa vieja, lechon, maduros, ajiaco\n Dominica – mountain chicken, rice and peas, dumplings, saltfish, dashin, bakes (fried dumplings), coconut confiture, curry goat, cassava farine, oxtail\n Dominican Republic – arroz con pollo with stewed red kidney beans, pan fried or braised beef, salad/ ensalada de coditos, empanadas, mangú, sancocho\n Grenada – oil down, Roti and rice & chicken\n Guyana – roti and curry, pepperpot, cookup rice, methem, pholourie\n Haiti – griot (fried pork) served with du riz a pois or diri ak pwa (rice and beans)\n Jamaica – ackee and saltfish, callaloo, jerk chicken, curry chicken\n Montserrat – Goat water\n Puerto Rico – yellow rice with green pigeon peas, saltfish stew, roasted pork shoulder, chicken fricassée, mofongo, tripe soup, alcapurria, coconut custard, rice pudding, guava turnovers, Mallorca bread\n Saint Kitts and Nevis – goat water, coconut dumplings, spicy plantain, saltfish, breadfruit\n Saint Lucia – callaloo, dal roti, dried and salted cod, green bananas, rice and beans\n Saint Vincent and the Grenadines – roasted breadfruit and fried jackfish\n Suriname – brown beans and rice, roti and curry, peanut soup, battered fried plantain with peanut sauce, nasi goreng, moksie alesi, bara, pom\n Trinidad and Tobago – doubles, curry with roti or dal bhat, aloo pie, phulourie, callaloo, bake and shark, curry crab and dumpling\n United States Virgin Islands – stewed goat, oxtail or beef, seafood, callaloo, fungee\n Venezuela Caribbean – fried fish with salad and rise, tostones, sancocho, patacon, pabellon\n\nSee also \n\n African diaspora\n Anchor coinage\n British African-Caribbean people\n British Indo-Caribbean people\n Caribbean people\n Climate change in the Caribbean\n CONCACAF\n Council on Hemispheric Affairs\n Culture of the Caribbean\n Economy of the Caribbean\n Indian diaspora\n Indo-Caribbean\n Indo-Caribbean American\n List of Caribbean music genres\n List of sovereign states and dependent territories in the Caribbean\n NECOBELAC Project\n Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin\n Piracy in the Caribbean\n Politics of the Caribbean\n Tourism in the Caribbean\n\nGeography:\n Americas (terminology)\n List of archipelagos by number of islands\n List of Caribbean islands\n List of indigenous names of Eastern Caribbean islands\n List of mountain peaks of the Caribbean\n List of Ultras of the Caribbean\n Middle America (Americas)\n Latin America and the Caribbean (region)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography \n Engerman, Stanley L. \"A Population History of the Caribbean\", pp. 483–528 in A Population History of North America Michael R. Haines and Richard Hall Steckel (Eds.), Cambridge University Press, 2000, .\n Hillman, Richard S., and Thomas J. D'agostino, eds. Understanding the Contemporary Caribbean, London: Lynne Rienner, 2003 .\n\nFurther reading \n Develtere, Patrick R. 1994. \"Co-operation and development: With special reference to the experience of the Commonwealth Caribbean\" ACCO, \n Gowricharn, Ruben. Caribbean Transnationalism: Migration, Pluralization, and Social Cohesion. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2006.\n Henke, Holger, and Fred Reno, eds. Modern Political Culture in the Caribbean. Kingston: University of West Indies Press, 2003.\n Heuman, Gad. The Caribbean: Brief Histories. London: A Hodder Arnold Publication, 2006.\n de Kadt, Emanuel, (editor). Patterns of foreign influence in the Caribbean, Oxford University Press, 1972.\n Knight, Franklin W. The Modern Caribbean (University of North Carolina Press, 1989).\n Kurlansky, Mark. 1992. A Continent of Islands: Searching for the Caribbean Destiny. Addison-Wesley Publishing. \n Langley, Lester D. The United States and the Caribbean in the Twentieth Century. London: University of Georgia Press, 1989.\n Maingot, Anthony P. The United States and the Caribbean: Challenges of an Asymmetrical Relationship. Westview Press, 1994.\n Palmie, Stephan, and Francisco A. Scarano, eds. The Caribbean: A History of the Region and Its Peoples (University of Chicago Press; 2011); 660 pp.; writings on the region since the pre-Columbia era.\n Ramnarine, Tina K. Beautiful Cosmos: Performance and Belonging in the Caribbean Diaspora. London, Pluto Press, 2007.\n Rowntree, Lester/Martin Lewis/Marie Price/William Wyckoff. Diversity Amid Globalization: World Regions, Environment, Development, 4th edition, 2008.\n\nExternal links \n\n \n Digital Library of the Caribbean\n Latin American, Caribbean, U.S. Latinx, and Iberian Online Free E-Resources (LACLI). \n Manioc, open access digital Library, books, images, conferences, articles about the Caribbean \n Federal Research Division of the U.S. Library of Congress: Caribbean Islands (1987)\n LANIC Caribbean country pages", "title": "Caribbean" }, { "text": "At the time of first contact between Europe and the Americas, the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean included the Taíno of the northern Lesser Antilles, most of the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas, the Kalinago of the Lesser Antilles, the Ciguayo and Macorix of parts of Hispaniola, and the Guanahatabey of western Cuba. The Kalinago have maintained an identity as an indigenous people, with a reserved territory in Dominica.\n\nIntroduction\n\nSome scholars consider it important to distinguish the Taíno from the neo-Taíno nations of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Hispaniola, and the Lucayan of the Bahamas and Jamaica. Linguistically or culturally these differences extended from various cognates or types of canoe: canoa, piragua, cayuco to distinct languages. Languages diverged even over short distances. Previously these groups often had distinctly non-Taíno deities such as the goddess Jagua, strangely enough the god Teju Jagua is a major demon of indigenous Paraguayan mythology. Still these groups plus the high Taíno are considered Island Arawak, part of a widely diffused assimilating culture, a circumstance witnessed even today by names of places in the New World; for example localities or rivers called Guamá are found in Cuba, Venezuela and Brazil. Guamá was the name of famous Taíno who fought the Spanish.\n\nThus, since the neo-Taíno had far more diverse cultural input and a greater societal and ethnic heterogeneity than the true high Taíno (Rouse, 1992) of Boriquen (Puerto Rico) a separate section is presented here. A broader language group is Arawakan languages. The term Arawak (Aruaco) is said to be derived from an insulting term meaning \"eaters of meal\" given to them by mainland Caribs. In turn the Arawak legend explains the origin of the Caribs as offspring of a putrid serpent.\n\nThe social classes of the neo-Taíno, generalized from Bartolomé de las Casas, appeared to have been loosely feudal with the following Taíno classes: naboría (common people), nitaíno' (sub-chiefs, or nobles), bohique, (shamans priests/healers), and the cacique (chieftains, or princes). However, the neo-Taíno seem to have been more relaxed in this respect.\n\nAdministrative and national units\nThe Spanish found that most Cuban peoples for the part living peacefully in tidy towns and villages grouped into numerous principalities called cacicazgos or principalities with an almost feudal social structure. They were ruled by leaders or princes, called Caciques. Cuba was then divided into Guanahatabey, Ciboney, and Classical Taíno. Then some of Western Cuba was Guanahatabey. and some Ciboney. Taíno-like cultures controlled most of Cuba dividing it into the cacicazgos. Granberry and Vescelius (2004) and other contemporary authors only consider the cazicazgo of Baracoa as classical or high Taíno. Cuban cacicazgos including Bayaquitiri, Macaca, Bayamo, Camagüey, Jagua, Habana y Haniguanica are treated here as \"neo-Taíno\". Hispaniolan principalities at about 1500 included Maguá (Cacique Guarionex); Xaraguá (Behecchio); Maguana (Caonabo); Higüey also called Iguayagua (Higüayo); Cigüayo (Mayobanex), and unnamed region under Cacique Guanacagarí (Wilson, 1990). These principalities are considered to have various affinities to the contemporary Taíno and neo-Taíno cultures from what is now known as Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic and Haiti, but are generally believed somewhat different.\n\nFarming and fishing\nThe adroit farming and fishing skills of the neo-Taíno nations should not be underestimated; the names of fauna and flora that survive today are testimony of their continued use. Neo-Taíno fishing technologies were most inventive, including harpoons and fishnets and traps. Neo-Taíno common names of fish are still used today (DeSola, 1932 ; Erdman, 1983; Florida Fish and Wild Life Commission (Division of Marine Fisheries) 2002; Puerto Rico, Commonwealth, 1998). Agriculture included a wide variety of germplasm, including maize, peanuts, tomato, squash, and beans plus a vast array of tree fruits. Tubers in most frequent use were yuca (Manihot esculenta) a crop with perhaps 10,000 years of development in the Americas; boniato (the \"sweet potato\" — Ipomoea batatas), and malanga (Xanthosoma sp.)\n\nTaíno pharmacopoeia\nAs with all Arawak (Schultes, Raffault. 1990) and similar cultures there was considerable use of natural pharmacopoeia (Robineau, 1991).\n\nTaíno studies\nTaíno studies are in a state of both vigorous revival and conflict (Haslip-Viera, 2001). In this conflict deeply embedded cultural mores, senses of nationality and ethnicity struggle with each other. The Syboneistas undertook studies and wrote of neo-Taínos as part and cover for independence struggles against Spain (Fajardo, 1829 - circa 1862; Gautier Benítez, 1873).\n\nNeo-Taíno and Taíno art\nTaíno and related art has been celebrated in several significant exhibitions (Alegria, and Arrom 1998; Bercht, et al. 1997; Bullen, Dacal et al.; Kerchache, 1994, most notably in Paris.\n\nNeo-Taíno music (areíto) survives as echoes in the rich traditions of the popular music of the Caribbean, but is believed to continue to exist in its purest form and associated spirituality among the Waroa of Venezuela.\n\nMetallurgy\nThe art of the neo-Taínos demonstrates that these nations had metallurgical skills, and it has been postulated by some e.g. Paul Sidney Martin, that the inhabitants of these islands mined and exported metals such as copper (Martin et al. 1947). The Cuban town of (San Ramón de) Guaninao means the place of copper and is surmised to have been a site of pre-Columbian mining.\n\nPeoples of the Caribbean\n\nArchaic Age people\n\nDNA studies changed some of the traditional beliefs about pre-Columbian indigenous history. According to National Geographic, \"studies confirm that a wave of pottery-making farmers—known as Ceramic Age people—set out in canoes from the northeastern coast of South America starting some 2,500 years ago and island-hopped across the Caribbean. They were not, however, the first colonizers. On many islands they encountered a foraging people who arrived some 6,000 or 7,000 years ago...The ceramicists, who are related to today’s Arawak-speaking peoples, supplanted the earlier foraging inhabitants—presumably through disease or violence—as they settled new islands.\"\n\nTaíno\n\nThe Taíno, an Arawak people, were the major population group throughout most of the Caribbean. Their culture was divided into three main groups, the Western Taíno, the Classic Taíno, and the Eastern Taíno, with other variations within the islands.\n\nClassic Taíno\nThe Classic Taíno lived in eastern Cuba, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico. They spoke a dialect called Classic Taíno. Compared to their neighbors, the Classic Taíno had substantially developed agricultural societies. Puerto Rico was divided into twenty chiefdoms which were organized into one united kingdom or confederation, Borinquen. Hispaniola was divided into roughly 45 chiefdoms, which were organized into five kingdoms under the leadership of the chief of each area's premier chiefdom. Beginning around 1450, Classic Taíno from Hispaniola began migrating to eastern Cuba; they are conventionally known as the Cuban Taíno. The Cuban Taíno gained power over some of Cuba's earlier Western Taíno inhabitants, the Ciboney, but no regional or island-wide political structure had developed on the island at the time of Spanish colonization of the Americas.\n\nEastern Taíno\nThe Eastern Taíno inhabited the Leeward Islands of the Lesser Antilles, from the Virgin Islands to Montserrat. They had less sophisticated societies than the Classic Taíno.\n\nWestern Taíno\n\nThe Western Taíno lived in the Bahamas, central Cuba, westernmost Hispaniola, and Jamaica. They spoke a dialect known as Ciboney Taíno or Western Taíno. The Western Taíno of the Bahamas were known as the Lucayans, they were wiped out by Spanish slave raids by 1520. Western Taíno living in Cuba were known as the Ciboney. They had no chiefdoms or organized political structure beyond individual villages, but by the time of Spanish conquest many were under the control of the Cuban Taíno in eastern Cuba.\n\nIgneri\n\nAccording to oral history, the Igneri were the original Arawak inhabitants of the Windward Islands in the Lesser Antilles before being conquered by the Caribs who are thought to have arrived from South America. Contemporary sources like to suggest that the Caribs took Igneri women as their wives while killing the men, resulting in the two sexes speaking different languages. This is not proven, and there appears to be a confusion of the reality: despite the name, the Island Carib language was Arawakan, not Cariban. Irving Rouse suggests that small numbers of Caribs may have conquered the Igneri without displacing them, and could have gradually adopted their language while retaining the Carib identity, but there is no evidence to prove this. Though they were Arawaks, the Igneri language appears to be as distinct from the Taíno language as it was from the mainland Arawak language of South America.\n\nKalinago\n\nBy the contact period, the Kalinago, also known as Island Caribs, inhabited the Windward Islands of the Lesser Antilles. \"Caribbean\" derives from the name \"Carib\", by which the Kalinago were formerly known. They self-identified with the Kalina or mainland Carib people of South America. Contemporary accounts asserted that the Island Caribs had conquered the Windward Islands from their previous inhabitants, the Igneri. However, the Kalinago language was Arawakan, not Cariban. Irving Rouse suggests that small numbers of South American Caribs invaded the Windwards and conquered the Igneri without displacing them; they gradually adopted the local language while maintaining the Carib identity. The Kalinago outlasted their Taíno neighbors, and continue to live in the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean. Noteworthy Kalinago descendants live on within the Garifuna people, known as the Black Caribs who descend from St. Vincent in the Lesser Antilles.\n\nGuanahatabey\n\nA separate ethnic identity from far western Cuba. They were an archaic hunter-gatherer people who spoke a language distinct from Taíno, and appear to have predated the agricultural, Taíno-speaking Ciboney.\n\nCiguayo\n\nA separate ethnic people that inhabited the Peninsula of Samaná and part of the northern coast toward Nagua in what today is the Dominican Republic, and, by most contemporary accounts, differed in language and customs from the classical or high Taíno who lived on the eastern part of the island of Hispaniola then known. According to Eustaquio Fernandez de Navarrete, they were “warriors and spirited people,” (“gente animosa y guerrera”). The Cronista de Indias, Pedro Martir accused them of cannibalism: “when they descend from the mountains to wage war on their neighbors, they kill and eat some of them” (“trae[n] origen de los caníbales, pues cuando de las montañas bajan a lo llano para hacer guerra á sus vecinos, si matan á algunos se los comen”). Fray Ramón Pané, often dubbed as the first anthropologist of the Caribbean, distinguished the Ciguayo language from the rest of those spoken on Hispaniola. Bartolomé de las Casas, who studied them and was one of the few who read Ramón Pané’s original work in Spanish, provided most of the documentation about this group. Linguists Granberry and Gary Vescelius believe that the Cigüayos emigrated from Central America. Wilson (1990) states that circa 1500 this was the kingdom Cacicazgo of Cacique Guacangarí.\n\nMacorix\n\nAnother separate ethnic group that lived on the eastern side of the island of Hispaniola. Their region today is in the Dominican Republic. According to las Casas, their language was unintelligible for the Taínos, but may have been similar to the Ciguayo language.(Wilson, 1990)\n\nRecent studies show that the Macorix people coexisted with the Tainos on Hispaniola. The names San Francisco de Macorix and San Pedro de Macorix in the Dominican Republic are indirect references to the political divisions of the cacicazgo. The Spaniards wrongly assumed that the names given to the different territories were a reference \"to what they called a Cacicazgo:\n\nFlorida tribes\n\nThe Tequesta of the southeast coast of the Florida peninsula were once considered to be related to the Taíno, but most anthropologists now doubt this. The Tequesta had been present in the area for at least 2,000 years at the time of first European contact, and are believed to have built the Miami Stone Circle. Carl O. Sauer called the Florida Straits \"one of the most strongly marked cultural boundaries in the New World\", noting that the Straits were also a boundary between agricultural systems, with Florida Indians growing seed crops that originated in Mexico, while the Lucayans of the Bahamas grew root crops that originated in South America.\n\nIt is possible that a few Lucayas reached Florida shortly before the first European contacts in the area, but the northwestern Bahamas had remained uninhabited until approximately 1200, and the long established presence of the existing tribes in Florida would have likely prevented any pioneering settlements by people who had only just reached the neighboring islands. Analysis of ocean currents and weather patterns indicates that people traveling by canoe from the Bahamas to Florida were likely to land in northern Florida rather than closer to the Bahamas. A single 'Antillean axe head' found near Gainesville, Florida may support some limited contacts. Due to the same ocean currents, direct travel in canoes from southern Florida to the Bahamas was unlikely.\n\nThe term and context of the Ciboney (Siboney)\nCiboney (also Siboney) is a term preferred in Cuban historic contexts for the neo-Taíno nations of Cuba.\n\nOur knowledge of the Cuban indigenous cultures which are often, but less precisely, lumped into a category called Taíno (Caribbean Island Arawak) comes from early Spanish sources, oral traditions and considerable archeological evidence. The Spanish found that most Cuban peoples were, for the most part, living peacefully in tidy towns and villages grouped into numerous principalities called Cacicazgos with an almost feudal social structure (see Bartolomé de las Casas). They were ruled by leaders called Caciques. Cuba was divided into Guanahatabey, Ciboney-Taíno (here neo-Taíno), and Classical (High) Taíno. Some of western Cuba was Guanahatabey and some Siboney (see below).\n\nTaíno-like cultures controlled most of Cuba, dividing it into cacicazgos or principalities. Granberry, Vescelius (2004), and other contemporary authors only consider the cacicazgo of Baracoa as Classical or High Taíno. Cuban cacicazgos including Bayaquitiri, Macaca, Bayamo, Camagüey, Jagua, Habana y Haniguanica are considered neo-Taíno. These principalities are considered to have various affinities to contemporary Taíno and neo-Taíno cultures from Puerto Rico and Hispaniola, but are generally believed to have been somewhat different.\n\nEthnic/cultural derivatives\n\nGuajiros and Jibaros\nThe common name given to the rural inhabitants of Cuba is guajiros. Del Campo implies that quajiros are \"native-born whites\" and states that in Puerto Rico \"the influence of the indigenous population is more marked than that of the native populations in Cuba\".\n\nIn Puerto Rico, the rural inhabitants are called Jibaros. The term jíbaro, according to the Catholic online encyclopedia, is also the name of a tribal group in South America, it meant \"mountain men.\" Jíbaro means \"People of the Forest\" in the Taíno language. So the term obviously came with them as they immigrated from South America. However \"jíbaro\" – as is used in Puerto Rico, is not used the same in Cuba or the Dominican Republic, which were populated with the very same Taíno people. In Cuba the word jibaro is used to denote something wild or untamed, such as \"perros jibaros\" or wild dogs.\n\nGuajiro nation\nThe term Guajira/Guajiro, also refers to indigenous Arawak nation of the Guajira Peninsula between Venezuela and Colombia. For a small compendium of myths of this Nation please see:\nde Cora, Maria Manuela 1972. Kuai-Mare. Mitos Aborígenes de Venezuela. Monte Avila Editores Caracas.\n\nLater nations in this general area\nThe Arawak, Carib, other Mesoamerican coast, and Amazonian cultures can be considered as part of a tenuous continuum of nations, linked by some shared vocabulary, ethnic links, agricultural practices, reinforced by bride abduction, and continuous exogamy. After the violence of the Spanish conquest, and subsequent events of African slavery and rebellion, nations and cultures with diverse amounts of Arawak ethnicity, culture, and/or traditions transmuted and arose. Some of these nations had mixed or even predominantly African roots, which include the Cimarrón of Cuba and the Maroons of Jamaica and Guyana.\n\nSee also\nIndigenous peoples of the Americas\nArawak\nArawakan languages\nCariban languages\nLanguages of the Caribbean\nPre-Arawakan languages of the Greater Antilles\nGarifuna\nGenetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas\nIgneri\nIndigenous peoples of Florida\nIndigenous peoples in Venezuela\nIsland Caribs\nList of Spanish words of Indigenous American Indian origin\nInflux of disease in the Caribbean\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nAlbury, Paul 1975 The Story of the Bahamas. MacMillan Education Limited, London and Basingstoke. p. 19 \"After the first screams of despair, terror took such sole possession of the Lucayan's mind and body that it robbed him of the ability to defend himself. He became a jellied mass of sweating, trembling, helpless flesh. Men, women, and children were bound with ropes, stacked in the cane and taken to Carib land. There the males were mutilated, tortured and finally eaten. The females were kept for breeding purposes. And, it is said, their male offspring, sired by Caribs, were also eaten.\"\nAlonso José Ramón 2004 (accessed 11/7/2005). Panorama histórico-crítico sobre el estudio del arte rupestre de Punta del Este, Cuba. http://rupestreweb.tripod.com/puntadeleste.html\nAlvarez Chanca, Diego. La Carta del Doctor Chanca, que escribió à la Ciudad de Sevilla. Collección de los viages y descubrimientos. Martin Fernández de Navarrete. Madrid, 1825 Atl atl? \"Los desta isla pelean con unas varas agudas, las cuales tiran con unas tiranderas como las que tiran los mochachos las varillas en Castilla, con las cuales tiran muy lejos asaz certero. \"\nÁlvarez Conde, José 1956. Arqueología Indocubana. Junta Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología Impresores Úcar, García, S. A. Havana.\nÁlvarez Nazario, Manuel 1996. Arqueología Lingüística. Estudios modernos dirigidos al rescate y reconstrucción del arahuaco taíno. Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico.\nArciniegas, Germán (editor) 1999. Historiadores de las Indias. Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes. Editorial Océano de México S.A.\nArrom, Jose Juan 2000 Estudios de Lexicologia Antillana. Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico. San Juan, Puerto Rico\nAzcárate Rosell, Rafael 1937. Historia de los Indios de Cuba. Editorial Tropical, Havana.\n\nBarreiro, José 1990 A Note on Taínos: Whither Progress? Northeast Indian Quarterly Fall, 1990, pp. 66–77. http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/41/013.html https://web.archive.org/web/20051125070332/http://www.uctp.org/ANoteonTainos.html\nBarreiro, José 2005 In Cuba the cry was for water. Indian Country Today part one October 13, part two October 20, 2005. (accessed October 25, 2005) https://web.archive.org/web/20071010125128/http://www.indiancountry.com/content.cfm?id=1096411742 https://web.archive.org/web/20060114074516/http://www.indiancountry.com/content.cfm?id=1096411782\nBeltran, Juan. 1924. \"Bojeo de Cuba por Sebastian de O’Campo\" El Universal, Havana p. 9 paragraph 3 \"Vista de los Azules y aun tal vez vagamente presentada al misterioso reflejo de los lambentes, que andando los días había de servir de base a la poética y sentimental Luz de Yara...\"\nBercht, Fatima Estrellita Brodsky, John Alan Farmer, Dicey Taylor, (eds) 1997. Taíno: Pre-Columbian Art and Culture from the Caribbean. Museo Del Barrio Monacelli Press, New York.\nBiarakú (a Taíno Cultural Interest Group) 1999. 2. Taíno Sun Symbols Taíno Forum #25 http://members.aol.com/STaino/forum_25.htm, rixturey@netscape.net rixturey@netscape.net\nBiarakú (a Taíno Cultural Interest Group) 2003 Taíno Short Dictionary\nBlack, Clinton V. 1965. History of Jamaica. 3rd edition Collins Clear Type Press, London and Glasgow.\nBreton, Raymond 1665. Dictionnaire caraïbe–français (El caribe insular del siglo XVII Tratado sobre la lengua y la cultura de los Callínago) Translated to Spanish by Duna Troiani CELIA-CNRS / París (Centro de estudios de las lenguas indígenas de América, Centre national de la recherche scientifique.) Link found at https://web.archive.org/web/20050414091620/http://www.centrelink.org/General.html\nBueno, Salvador (ed.) 2003. Cuban Leyends (SeigfriedKaden illustrator, Christine R. Ayorinde translator). Markus Weiner Publishers, Princeton, New Jersey, USA.\nCarrada, Alfred 2003 (Accessed 11/5/2005) Dictionary of the Taíno language\nDe las Casas, Bartolomé (circa 1474–1566, 1995 reprinting). Historia de las Indias, Cultura Economica, Mexico City (Casas vol. 2, p. 521-522).\nCastellanos Garcia, Gerardo 1927. Tierras y Glorias de Oriente (Calixto Garcia Iñiguez), Editorial Hermes Havana p. 155.\nCastellanos, Juan de. 1874 Elegia VI. Elegías de varones ilustres de Indias. Madrid: M. Rivadeneyra, pp. 14–17.\nCienfuegos page (sampled September 9, 2004) Leyendas de Cienfuegos, Las Mulatas. http://www.cienfuegoscuba.galeon.com/lasmulatas.htm\nCohen, J. M (editor and translator) 1969. The Four Voyages of Christopher Columbus. Being His Own Log-Book, Letters and Dispatches. Penguin Books, London, New York and Victoria Australia.\n \"He therefore went to the island of Guadalupe, anchored there and sent boats ashore well armed. But, before they arrived, a number of women came out of the woods carrying bows and arrows, and with feathers on their heads, apparently resolved to defend the island … to northern islands … When the ships came very close to shore, they saw many Indian men coming out on to the beach with bows and arrows, which they shot at our men with great daring and great shouts. But they shot in vain, for their arrows fell short … The houses were square not round like on the islands, and in one of them a human arm was found cooking in a stew pot.\" (pp. 195–196)\nColl y Toste, Cayetano 1972. \"Vocabulario indo-antillano.\" In: Clásicos de Puerto Rico second edition, Ediciones Latinoamericanas. Found at: http://www.angelfire.com/de2/bohemia/diccionario.html https://web.archive.org/web/20080430163856/http://members.dandy.net/~orocobix/terms1.htm\nDe Cora, Maria Manuela 1972. Kuai-Mare. Mitos Aborígenes de Venezuela. Monte Avila Editores Caracas.\nCrespo, George 1993. How the Sea Began. A Taíno Myth Retold and Illustrated. Clarion Books, New York.\n\nDacal Moure, Ramon, Manuel Rivero De La Calle, Daniel H. Sandweiss 1996 Art and Archaeology of Pre-Columbian Cuba (Pitt Latin American Series) University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburg.\n\nDrummond, Lee. 1981 \"The serpent's children: semiotics of cultural genesis in Arawak and Trobriand myth.\" – American ethnologist (Washington) 8 (3): 633-660. \"Drummond tells us in his study of Arawak myth (1981), the action of celebrating the myth of Arawak origins actually creates the distinction between the Arawak and the Carib. It renders the Arawak people real.\" https://web.archive.org/web/20051102230133/http://www.uwm.edu/~wash/mirror13.htm\nErdman, D.S. 1983. \"Nombres vulgares de peces de Puerto Rico. Common names of fishes in Puerto Rico CODREMAR\". Inf. Téc. 3(2): 1-44 (not yet obtained).\nEstefanía, Carlos Manuel 2005 Así nació Cuba In: Cuba Nuestra digital (accessed 11/5/2005) https://web.archive.org/web/20050507075517/http://www.cubanuestra.nu/web/article.asp?artID=2330\nD’ Estéfano Pisani, Miguel A. 1943. La Delincuencia de los Indios de Cuba. Jesus Montero (Editor), Havana. (Note: this book shows a strong biased against the Taínos, and yet it provides useful insights into Taíno word usage)\nFajardo, Juan Cristobal Nápoles (known as Cucalambé 1829–1862?). Cucalambé (Décimas Cubanas. Selección de Rumores del Hórmigo) Ediciones Universal Miami 2nd Edition 1999.\nFernández de Oviedo, Gonzalo (República Dominicana, Puerto Rico, Cuba, 1478–1557). Libro doceno. Primera Parte. Historia General y Natural de las Indias. Volume 2. Primera Parte. Historia General y Natural de las Indias.\nFergus, Claudius 2003. The 'Carib' Work Stones of Chateaubelair: curio or calendar system? St Vincent and the Grenadines Country Conference Pre-Prints University of the West Indies. St Vincent and the Grenadines. http://www.uwichill.edu.bb/bnccde/svg/conference/papers/fergus.html\nFigueroa, Ivonne 2004 Taínos El Boricua. Edited by Barbara Yañez, Assistant WebSite Editor http://www.elboricua.com/history.html accessed 2/15/04\nFlorida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (Division of Marine Fisheries) 2002 Land Crabs (Cardisoma guanhumi). September 2002 http://www.floridaconservation.org/commission/2002/sept/LANDCRABS.pdf\nGautier Benítez, José. \"Romance\". El Progreso (periodical), 24 August 1873. p. 3.\nGomez de la Maza y Jimenez, Manuel and Juan Tomas Roig y Mesa 1914. Flora de Cuba (Datos para su estudio) Rambla, Bouza y Cia, Havana.\nBobby Gonzalez. Taino Indian reading list\nGonzalez, Francisco J. 1996 Taíno-Maya Contacts. Taíno-L Taíno Forum The retrospective history of the Native Caribbean World History Archives Hartford Web Publishing http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/41/238.html\nGrondine, E.P. (accessed 11/5/2005) Going into the water: A survey of impact events and the coastal peoples of south-east North America, the Caribbean, and Central America http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/ccc/ce010702.html\nTorres, Pedro. circa 1999. Taíno Words. The Taíno Tribal Council http://www.hartford-hwp.com/Taino/jatibonuco.html\nGuitar, Lynne (2002). Documentando el mito de la extinción de la cultura Taína. KACIKE: Revista de la historia y antropología de los indígenas del Caribe [Revista electrónica], special edition, Lynne Guitar, editor. Disponible en: https://web.archive.org/web/20051026125615/http://www.kacike.org/GuitarEspanol.html [Accessed 05/11/2005]\nGranberry, Julian, and Gary Vescelius 2004 Languages of the Pre-Columbian Antilles, University Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, \nGulf States Maine Fisheries Commission 2003 Cairina moschata Linnaeus,\nHaslip-Viera, Gabriel (Editor) 2001 Taíno Revival: Critical Perspectives on Puerto Rican Identity and Cultural Politics. Markus Wiener Publishers, Princeton N.J. \nHerbold, Stacey. Jamaican Patois and the Power of Language in Reggae Music The only evidence of the Arawak dialect in Jamaica today is a few loan words, place names, food, natural objects, and events (hurricane) (Lalla and D’Costa, 1990). Xaymaca is actually an Arawak word meaning \"island of springs\", which is where the name Jamaica is derived from (Pryce, 1997). It is possible that the first contact of the Arawaks and the Spaniards may have led to an early pidgin or bilingualism among the first generation of mixed blood.\"\nHernández Aquino, Luis. 1993. Diccionario de voces indígenas de Puerto Rico. Tercera edición, Editorial Cultural, Esmaco, Hato Rey, Puerto Rico.\nHill, Jonathan D. and Fernando Santos-Granero (eds.). 2002. Comparative Arawakan Histories. Rethinking Language Family and Cultural Area in Amazonia. University of Illinois Press, Urbana and Chicago. \nJiménez, Mariano II and Mariano G. Jiménez 2003 El Güije. Cuentos de Antaño http://www.guije.com/index.htm\nJohnson, Kim (accessed 5/3/2005) The story of the 'Caribs and Arawaks' http://www.raceandhistory.com/Taino/Caribs.htm\nLópez de Gómara, Francisco. Primera Parte. La historia general de las Indias. Historiadores primitivos de Indias. Enrique de Vedia, ed. Madrid: Imprenta de M. Ribadeneyra, 1877.\nMaciques Sánchez, Esteban 2004. El arte rupestre del Caribe insular: estilo y cronología in Rupestreweb, http://rupestreweb.tripod.com/maciques.html\nMartinez Arango, Felipe, 1997. \"Los Aborigines de la Cuenca de Santiago de Cuba.\" Ediciones Universal, Miami.\n\nMendez, Eugenio Fernandez 1981. Cronicas de Puerto Rico, Desde la Conquista Hasta Nuestros Dias (1493–1955) Editorial Universitaria, Universidad de Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras.\nMiner Solá, Edwin 2002 Diccionario Taíno Ilustrado. Ediciones Servilibros (Serie Puerto Rico Prehistórico, 1). San Juan, Indigenous language dictionary arranged thematically with numerous illustrations, many in color.\nNápoles Fajardo, Juan Cristobal (known as Cucalambé 1829–1862?). Cucalambé (Décimas Cubanas. Selección de Rumores del Hórmigo) Ediciones Universal Miami 2nd Edition1999.\nNicholson, Desmond V. 1983. The Story of the Arawaks in Antigua and Bermuda. Antigua Archeological Society. Antigua West Indies.\nOlsen, Fred 1974. On the Trail of the Arawaks. Civilization of the American Indian, v 129. University of Oklahoma Press. Norman. Oklahoma.\nPané, Fray Ramón (circa 1475-circa 1498) An Account of the Antiquities of the Indians: Chronicles of the New World Encounter (Latin America in Translation/En Traduccion/En Traducao) Jose Juan Arom (Editor), Susan C. Griswold (translator). Duke University Press, Durham and London. (1999 edition).\nPané, Fray Ramón. Relación de Fray Ramon de las antigüedades de los indios. Cuba primitiva. Habana: Miguel de Villa, 1883.\nPapá Lino 2002 \"¡Qué Te Parece, Boricua\" Publicaciones Puertorriqueñas, 2nd ed. \"El dios taíno Yuquiyú es el mismo 'Loukuo' de la mitología escandinava.\" Cited from https://web.archive.org/web/20071112091459/http://groups.msn.com/CarlitosWay/triviadeborinquen.msnw\nPuerto Rico, Commonwealth. 1998 Reglamento de Pesca de Puerto Rico Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales. Salvador Salas Quintana (Secretario). https://web.archive.org/web/20060227201150/http://www.drna.gobierno.pr/reglamentospdf/DRNA/Reglamento%20de%20Pesca.pdf\nRivas, Anthony T. 2000 Enigmas of Cuban Spanish Proteus, Newsletter of the National Association of Judiciary Interpreters and Translators Vol. IX, No. 3 Summer 2000 https://web.archive.org/web/20051124160310/http://www.najit.org/proteus/v9n3/rivas_v9n3.htm \"While lacking conclusive proof, some linguists believe that the marked intonation pattern exhibited by some natives of the former Oriente province originates in Arawak, a language spoken by the indigenous Taíno people, who survived for a limited time just in this province.\"\nRobineau, Lionel (editor) 1991. Towards a Caribbean Pharmacopoeia. End-Caribe, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic.\nRobiou La Marche, Sebastián 2003. Taínos and Caribes. Las culturas aborígenes antillanas. Editorial Punto y Coma, San Juan Puerto Rico.\n\nRouse, Irving 1992. The Taínos. Rise and Decline of the People Who Greeted Columbus. Yale University Press. New Haven and London.\nSauer, Carl Otwin. 1966. (Fourth printing, 1992.) The Early Spanish Main. The University of California Press. \nde la Sagra, Ramón 1843. Historia física, política y natural de la Isla de Cuba, Libreria de Arthus Bertrand, Paris.\nSchwartz, Marion. 1997. A History of Dogs in the Early Americas. Yale University Press, New Haven pp. 76–78.\nSears, William H. 1977. Seaborne contacts between early cultures in the lower southeastern United States and Middle (-) through South America. In: The Sea in the pre-Columbian World. Elizabeth P. Benson, editor. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collections, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington, D.C. pp. 1–15.\nSuarez, Constantino 1921 Vocabulario Cubano, Libreria Cervantes, Havana and Perlado, Páez y Cía, Madrid.\nSued Badillo, Jalil. 1985. Las Cacicas Indoantillanas, Revista del Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña 87, 1-26.\nUCTP (United Confederation of Taíno People) 2002. Diccionario de Voces Taína’ (Taíno Dictionary) https://web.archive.org/web/20071016055722/http://www.uctp.org/VocesIndigena.html \nVazquez Doris M. 1993 (accessed 11/7/2005) Puerto Rican Folktales\nhttp://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1993/2/93.02.12.x.html#top\nVela, Enrique (editor). 1988. La navegación entre los Mayas. Arqueología Mexicana 6 (number 33, September October 1988) 4-5.\nVespucio, Américo (circa 1454–1512), Fragments and Letters found at https://web.archive.org/web/20051210061617/http://www.e-libro.net/E-libro-viejo/gratis/nvomundo.pdf https://web.archive.org/web/20051028185055/http://www.unsl.edu.ar/librosgratis/gratis/nvomundo.pdf \nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040818183442/http://www.banrep.gov.co/blaavirtual/credencial/hamerica.htm translated '.. the women go naked and are libidinous, lewd, and lustful but despite this their bodies are beautiful and clean....\"\nWilbert, Johannes1977. Navigators of the Winter Sun In: The Sea in the pre-Columbian World. Elizabeth P. Benson, editor. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collections, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington, D.C. pp. 16–44.\nWilson, Samuel M. 1990 Hispaniola Caribbean Chiefdoms in the Age of Columbus. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa and London. \nZayas y Alfonso, Alfredo 1914. \"Lexografía Antillana\" El Siglo XX Press, Havana.\nHill, Jonathan D. and Fernando Santos-Granero (eds.). 2002. Comparative Arawakan Histories. Rethinking Language Family and Cultural Area in Amazonia. University of Illinois Press, Urbana and Chicago. \nHulme. Peter 2000 Remnants of Conquest. The Island Caribs and their Visitors, 1877–1898. Oxford University Press \nLa Rosa Corzo, Gabino (translated by Mary Todd) [1988] 2003 Runaway Slave Settlements in Cuba: Resistance and Repression, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill \nDe la Riva Herrera, Martín 2003 La Conquista de los Motilones, Tabalosos, Maynas y Jíbaros. CETA Iquitos, Perú\n\nExternal links", "title": "Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean" }, { "text": "North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as a part of North America geographically.\n\nNorth America covers an area of about , about 16.5% of Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface area. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7.5% of the world's population. In human geography and in the English-speaking world outside the United States, particularly in Canada, \"North America\" and \"North American\" can refer to just Canada and the United States together.\n\nNorth America was reached by its first human populations during the Last Glacial Period, via crossing the Bering land bridge approximately 20,000 to 17,000 years ago. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago (the beginning of the Archaic or Meso-Indian period). The classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The first recorded Europeans to visit North America (other than Greenland) were the Norse around 1000 AD. Christopher Columbus's arrival in 1492 sparked a transatlantic exchange which included migrations of European settlers during the Age of Discovery and the early modern period. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves, immigrants from Europe, Asia, and the descendants of these groups.\n\nOwing to Europe's colonization of the Americas, most North Americans speak European languages such as English, Spanish or French, and their cultures commonly reflect Western traditions. However, in parts of Canada, the United States, Mexico, and Central America, there are indigenous populations continuing their cultural traditions and speaking native languages.\n\nName \n\nThe Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a world map, in which he placed the word \"America\" on the continent of South America. What was known about the continent was referred to as Parias above what is today Mexico. On a 1553 world map published by Petrus Apianus, North America was called Baccalearum, meaning \"realm of the Cod fish\", in reference to the abundance of Cod fish on the east coast.\n\nWaldseemüller used the Latinized version of Vespucci's name (Americus Vespucius), but in its feminine form \"America\", following the examples of \"Europa\", \"Asia\" and \"Africa\". Later mapmakers extended the name America to the northern continent. In 1538, Gerard Mercator used America on his map of the world for the entire Western Hemisphere.\n\nGerardus Mercator on his map called North America \"America or New India\" (America sive India Nova). The Spanish Empire called its territories in North and South America \"Las Indias\"; the state body overseeing them was the Council of the Indies.\n\nExtent \n\nThe United Nations formally recognizes \"North America\" as comprising three areas: Northern America, Central America, and the Caribbean. This has been formally defined by the UN Statistics Division.\n\n\"Northern America\", as a term distinct from \"North America\", excludes Central America, which itself may or may not include Mexico. In the limited context of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the term covers Canada, the United States, and Mexico, which are the three signatories of that treaty.\n\nFrance, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Romania, Greece, and the countries of Latin America use a six-continent model, with the Americas viewed as a single continent and North America designating a subcontinent comprising Canada, the U.S., Mexico, and Saint Pierre et Miquelon (politically part of France), and often Greenland, and Bermuda.\n\nNorth America has been historically referred to by other names. Spanish North America (New Spain) was often referred to as Northern America, and this was the first official name given to Mexico.\n\nRegions\n\nGeographically, the North American continent has many regions and subregions. These include cultural, economic, and geographic regions. Economic regions included those formed by trade blocs, such as those of the NAFTA and Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA). Linguistically and culturally, the continent could be divided into Anglo-America and Latin America. Anglo-America includes most of Northern America, Belize, and Caribbean islands with English-speaking populations (though sub-national entities, such as Louisiana and Quebec, have large Francophone populations; in Quebec, French is the sole official language).\n\nThe southern part of the North American continent is composed of two regions. These are Central America and the Caribbean. The north of the continent maintains recognized regions as well. In contrast to the common definition of \"North America\", which encompasses the whole continent, the term \"North America\" is sometimes used to refer only to Mexico, Canada, the U.S., and Greenland.\n\nThe term Northern America refers to the northernmost countries and territories of North America: the U.S., Bermuda, St. Pierre and Miquelon, Canada, and Greenland. Although the term does not refer to a unified region, Middle America—not to be confused with the Midwestern U.S.—groups the regions of Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean.\n\nNorth America's largest countries by land area, Canada and the U.S., also have well-defined and recognized regions. In the case of Canada, these are (from east to west) Atlantic Canada, Central Canada, Canadian Prairies, the British Columbia Coast, and Northern Canada. These regions also contain many subregions. In the case of the U.S.—and in accordance with the U.S. Census Bureau definitions—these regions are: New England, Mid-Atlantic, South Atlantic states, East North Central states, West North Central states, East South Central states, West South Central states, Mountain states, and Pacific states. Regions shared between both nations include the Great Lakes region. Megalopolises have formed between both nations in the case of the Pacific Northwest and the Great Lakes Megaregion.\n\nCountries, dependencies, and other territories\n\nNatural characteristics\n\nGeography \n\nNorth America occupies the northern portion of the landmass generally referred to as the New World, the Western Hemisphere, the Americas, or simply America (which, in many countries is considered as a single continent with North America a subcontinent). North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa. North America's only land connection to South America is at the Isthmus of Darian/Isthmus of Panama. The continent is delimited on the southeast by most geographers at the Darién watershed along the Colombia-Panama border, placing almost all of Panama within North America. Alternatively, some geologists physiographically locate its southern limit at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico, with Central America extending southeastward to South America from this point. The Caribbean islands, or West Indies, are considered part of North America. The continental coastline is long and irregular. The Gulf of Mexico is the largest body of water indenting the continent, followed by Hudson Bay. Others include the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the Gulf of California.\n\nBefore the Central American isthmus formed, the region had been underwater. The islands of the West Indies delineate a submerged former land bridge, which had connected North and South America via what are now Florida and Venezuela.\n\nThere are numerous islands off the continent's coasts; principally, the Arctic Archipelago, the Bahamas, Turks & Caicos, the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Aleutian Islands (some of which are in the Eastern Hemisphere proper), the Alexander Archipelago, the many thousand islands of the British Columbia Coast, and Newfoundland. Greenland, a self-governing Danish island, and the world's largest, is on the same tectonic plate (the North American Plate) and is part of North America geographically. In a geologic sense, Bermuda is not part of the Americas, but an oceanic island that was formed on the fissure of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge over 100 million years ago (mya). The nearest landmass to it is Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. However, Bermuda is often thought of as part of North America, especially given its historical, political and cultural ties to Virginia and other parts of the continent.\n\nThe vast majority of North America is on the North American Plate. Parts of western Mexico, including Baja California, and of California, including the cities of San Diego, Los Angeles, and Santa Cruz, lie on the eastern edge of the Pacific Plate, with the two plates meeting along the San Andreas fault. The southernmost portion of the continent and much of the West Indies lie on the Caribbean Plate, whereas the Juan de Fuca and Cocos plates border the North American Plate on its western frontier.\n\nThe continent can be divided into four great regions (each of which contains many subregions): the Great Plains stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to the Canadian Arctic; the geologically young, mountainous west, including the Rocky Mountains, the Great Basin, California and Alaska; the raised but relatively flat plateau of the Canadian Shield in the northeast; and the varied eastern region, which includes the Appalachian Mountains, the coastal plain along the Atlantic seaboard, and the Florida peninsula. Mexico, with its long plateaus and cordilleras, falls largely in the western region, although the eastern coastal plain does extend south along the Gulf.\n\nThe western mountains are split in the middle into the main range of the Rockies and the coast ranges in California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, with the Great Basin—a lower area containing smaller ranges and low-lying deserts—in between. The highest peak is Denali in Alaska.\n\nThe U.S. Geographical Survey (USGS) states that the geographic center of North America is \"6 miles [10 km] west of Balta, Pierce County, North Dakota\" at about , about from Rugby, North Dakota. The USGS further states that \"No marked or monumented point has been established by any government agency as the geographic center of either the 50 states, the conterminous United States, or the North American continent.\" Nonetheless, there is a field stone obelisk in Rugby claiming to mark the center. The North American continental pole of inaccessibility is located from the nearest coastline, between Allen and Kyle, South Dakota at .\n\nGeology\n\nGeologic history \n\nLaurentia is an ancient craton which forms the geologic core of North America; it formed between 1.5 and 1.0 billion years ago during the Proterozoic eon. The Canadian Shield is the largest exposure of this craton. From the Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic eras, North America was joined with the other modern-day continents as part of the supercontinent Pangaea, with Eurasia to its east. One of the results of the formation of Pangaea was the Appalachian Mountains, which formed some 480 mya, making it among the oldest mountain ranges in the world. When Pangaea began to rift around 200 mya, North America became part of Laurasia, before it separated from Eurasia as its own continent during the mid-Cretaceous period. The Rockies and other western mountain ranges began forming around this time from a period of mountain building called the Laramide orogeny, between 80 and 55 mya. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama that connected the continent to South America arguably occurred approximately 12 to 15 mya, and the Great Lakes (as well as many other northern freshwater lakes and rivers) were carved by receding glaciers about 10,000 years ago.\n\nNorth America is the source of much of what humanity knows about geologic time periods. The geographic area that would later become the United States has been the source of more varieties of dinosaurs than any other modern country. According to paleontologist Peter Dodson, this is primarily due to stratigraphy, climate and geography, human resources, and history. Much of the Mesozoic Era is represented by exposed outcrops in the many arid regions of the continent. The most significant Late Jurassic dinosaur-bearing fossil deposit in North America is the Morrison Formation of the western U.S.\n\nCanada \n\nGeologically, Canada is one of the oldest regions in the world, with more than half of the region consisting of Precambrian rocks that have been above sea level since the beginning of the Palaeozoic era. Canada's mineral resources are diverse and extensive. Across the Canadian Shield and in the north there are large iron, nickel, zinc, copper, gold, lead, molybdenum, and uranium reserves. Large diamond concentrations have been recently developed in the Arctic, making Canada one of the world's largest producers. Throughout the Shield, there are many mining towns extracting these minerals. The largest, and best known, is Sudbury, Ontario. Sudbury is an exception to the normal process of forming minerals in the Shield since there is significant evidence that the Sudbury Basin is an ancient meteorite impact crater. The nearby, but less known Temagami Magnetic Anomaly has striking similarities to the Sudbury Basin. Its magnetic anomalies are very similar to the Sudbury Basin, and so it could be a second metal-rich impact crater. The Shield is also covered by vast boreal forests that support an important logging industry.\n\nUnited States \nThe lower 48 U.S. states can be divided into roughly five physiographic provinces:\n The American cordillera\n The Canadian Shield Northern portion of the upper midwestern U.S.\n The stable platform\n The coastal plain\n The Appalachian orogenic belt\n\nThe geology of Alaska is typical of that of the cordillera, while the major islands of Hawaii consist of Neogene volcanics erupted over a hot spot.\n\nCentral America \n\nCentral America is geologically active with volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occurring from time to time. In 1976 Guatemala was hit by a major earthquake, killing 23,000 people; Managua, the capital of Nicaragua, was devastated by earthquakes in 1931 and 1972, the last one killing about 5,000 people; three earthquakes devastated El Salvador, one in 1986 and two in 2001; one earthquake devastated northern and central Costa Rica in 2009, killing at least 34 people; in Honduras a powerful earthquake killed seven people in 2009.\n\nVolcanic eruptions are common in the region. In 1968 the Arenal Volcano, in Costa Rica, erupted and killed 87 people. Fertile soils from weathered volcanic lavas have made it possible to sustain dense populations in agriculturally productive highland areas.\n\nCentral America has many mountain ranges; the longest are the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, the Cordillera Isabelia, and the Cordillera de Talamanca. Between the mountain ranges lie fertile valleys that are suitable for the people; in fact, most of the population of Honduras, Costa Rica, and Guatemala live in valleys. Valleys are also suitable for the production of coffee, beans, and other crops.\n\nClimate \n\nNorth America is a very large continent that extends from north of the Arctic Circle to south of the Tropic of Cancer. Greenland, along with the Canadian Shield, is tundra with average temperatures ranging from , but central Greenland is composed of a very large ice sheet. This tundra radiates throughout Canada, but its border ends near the Rocky Mountains (but still contains Alaska) and at the end of the Canadian Shield, near the Great Lakes.\nClimate west of the Cascade Range is described as being temperate weather with average precipitation .\nClimate in coastal California is described to be Mediterranean, with average temperatures in cities like San Francisco ranging from over the course of the year.\n\nStretching from the East Coast to eastern North Dakota, and stretching down to Kansas, is the humid continental climate featuring intense seasons, with a large amount of annual precipitation, with places like New York City averaging .\nStarting at the southern border of the humid continental climate and stretching to the Gulf of Mexico (whilst encompassing the eastern half of Texas) is the humid subtropical climate. This area has the wettest cities in the contiguous U.S., with annual precipitation reaching in Mobile, Alabama.\nStretching from the borders of the humid continental and subtropical climates, and going west to the Sierra Nevada, south to the southern tip of Durango, north to the border with tundra climate, the steppe/desert climates are the driest in the United States. Highland climates cut from north to south of the continent, where subtropical or temperate climates occur just below the tropics, as in central Mexico and Guatemala. Tropical climates appear in the island regions and in the subcontinent's bottleneck, found in countries and states bathed by the Caribbean Sea or to the south of the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. Precipitation patterns vary across the region, and as such rainforest, monsoon, and savanna types can be found, with rains and high temperatures throughout the year.\n\nEcology \n\nNotable North American fauna include the bison, black bear, jaguar, cougar, prairie dog, turkey, pronghorn, raccoon, coyote and monarch butterfly.\n\nNotable plants that were domesticated in North America include tobacco, maize, squash, tomato, sunflower, blueberry, avocado, cotton, chile pepper\nand vanilla.\n\nHistory\n\nPre-Columbian \n\nThe indigenous peoples of the Americas have many creation myths by which they assert that they have been present on the land since its creation, but there is no evidence that humans evolved there. The specifics of the initial settlement of the Americas by ancient Asians are subject to ongoing research and discussion. The traditional theory has been that hunters entered the Bering Land Bridge between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska from 27,000 to 14,000 years ago. A growing viewpoint is that the first American inhabitants sailed from Beringia some 13,000 years ago, with widespread habitation of the Americas during the end of the Last Glacial Period, in what is known as the Late Glacial Maximum, around 12,500 years ago. The oldest petroglyphs in North America date from 15,000 to 10,000 years before present. Genetic research and anthropology indicate additional waves of migration from Asia via the Bering Strait during the Early-Middle Holocene.\n\nBefore contact with Europeans, the natives of North America were divided into many different polities, from small bands of a few families to large empires. They lived in several \"culture areas\", which roughly correspond to geographic and biological zones and give a good indication of the main way of life of the people who lived there (e.g., the bison hunters of the Great Plains, or the farmers of Mesoamerica). Native groups can also be classified by their language family (e.g., Athapascan or ). Peoples with similar languages did not always share the same material culture, nor were they always allies. Anthropologists think that the Inuit of the high Arctic came to North America much later than other native groups, as evidenced by the disappearance of Dorset culture artifacts from the archaeological record, and their replacement by the Thule people.\n\nDuring the thousands of years of native habitation on the continent, cultures changed and shifted. One of the oldest yet discovered is the Clovis culture (c. 9550–9050 BCE) in modern New Mexico. Later groups include the Mississippian culture and related Mound building cultures, found in the Mississippi river valley and the Pueblo culture of what is now the Four Corners. The more southern cultural groups of North America were responsible for the domestication of many common crops now used around the world, such as tomatoes, squash, and maize. As a result of the development of agriculture in the south, many other cultural advances were made there. The Mayans developed a writing system, built huge pyramids and temples, had a complex calendar, and developed the concept of zero around 400 CE.\n\nThe first recorded European references to North America are in Norse sagas where it is referred to as Vinland. The earliest verifiable instance of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact by any European culture with the North America mainland has been dated to around 1000 CE. The site, situated at the northernmost extent of the island named Newfoundland, has provided unmistakable evidence of Norse settlement. Norse explorer Leif Erikson (c. 970–1020 CE) is thought to have visited the area. Erikson was the first European to make landfall on the continent (excluding Greenland).\n\nThe Mayan culture was still present in southern Mexico and Guatemala when the Spanish conquistadors arrived, but political dominance in the area had shifted to the Aztec Empire, whose capital city Tenochtitlan was located further north in the Valley of Mexico. The Aztecs were conquered in 1521 by Hernán Cortés.\n\nPost-contact, 1492–1910 \n\nDuring the so-called Age of Discovery, Europeans explored overseas and staked claims to various parts of North America, much of which was already settled by indigenous peoples. Upon Europeans' arrival in the \"New World\", indigenous peoples had a variety of reactions, including curiosity, trading, cooperation, resignation, and resistance. The indigenous population declined substantially following European arrival, primarily due to the introduction of Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox, to which the indigenous peoples lacked immunity, and because of violent conflicts with Europeans. Indigenous culture changed significantly and their affiliation with political and cultural groups also changed. Several linguistic groups died out, and others changed quite quickly.\n\nOn the southern east coast of North America, Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León, who had accompanied Columbus's second voyage, visited and named in 1513 La Florida. As the colonial period unfolded, Spain, England, and France appropriated and claimed extensive territories in North America eastern and southern coastlines. Spain established permanent settlements on the Caribbean islands of Hispaniola and Cuba in the 1490s, building cities, putting the resident indigenous populations to work, raising crops for Spanish settlers and panning gold to enrich the Spaniards. Much of the indigenous population died due to disease and overwork, spurring the Spaniards on to claim new lands and peoples. An expedition under the command of Spanish settler, Hernán Cortés, sailed westward in 1519 to what turned out to be the mainland in Mexico. With local indigenous allies, the Spanish conquered the Aztec empire in central Mexico in 1521. Spain then established permanent cities in Mexico, Central America, and Spanish South America in the sixteenth century. Once Spaniards conquered the high civilization of the Aztecs and Incas, the Caribbean was a backwater of the Spanish empire.\n\nOther European powers began to intrude on areas that Spain had claimed, including the Caribbean islands. France took the western half of Hispaniola and developed Saint-Domingue as a cane sugar producing colony worked by black slave labor. Britain took Barbados and Jamaica; the Dutch and Danes also took islands previously claimed by Spain. Britain did not begin settling on the North American mainland until a hundred years after the first Spanish settlements, since it sought first to control nearby Ireland. The first permanent English settlement was in Jamestown, Virginia in 1607, and then further settler colonial establishments on the east coast of the continent from what is now Georgia up to Massachusetts, forming the Thirteen Colonies. The English did not establish settlements north, east of the St. Lawrence Valley in what would become Canada until well after the war of independence. English early permanent settlements were St. John's, Newfoundland in 1630 and Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1749. The first permanent French settlement was in Quebec City, Quebec in 1608. In the British victory the Seven Years' War, France ceded to Britain its claims east of the Mississippi River in 1763. Spain gained rights to the territories west of Mississippi now acting as a border. French so-called \"colonists\" that had first settled the Illinois Country after several generations of experience on the new continent migrated over the Mississippi in the absence of Spanish occupants while leveraging earlier Louisiana French settlements around the Gulf of Mexico. These early French settlers partnering with midwest indigenous tribes and their mixed ancestry descendants would precede the westward push and guide through waves of followers all the way to the Pacific.\n\nThe Thirteen Colonies on the North Atlantic coast declared independence in 1776, fighting a protracted war of independence with the aid of Britain's enemies France and Spain, becoming the United States of America. The new nation steadily attempted to increase its territory. By that time, the Russians were already well established on the Pacific Northwest northern coastline with maritime fur trade activities supported by active settlements. As a result, the Spanish were showing more interest in controlling the trade on the Pacific coast and mapped most of its coastline. The first Spanish settlements were attempted in Alta California during that period. Numerous overland explorations associated with voyageurs, fur trade, and U.S. led expeditions (e.g., Lewis and Clark, Fremont and Wilkes) were reaching the Pacific at various latitudes around the turn of the century. In 1803 Napoleon Bonaparte sold France's remaining claims in North America, west of the Mississippi River, to the U.S., in a deal named the Louisiana Purchase. Spain and the U.S. settled their western boundary dispute in 1819 in the Adams–Onís Treaty. Mexico fought a lengthy war for independence from Spain, winning it for Mexico (which included Central America at the time) in 1821. The U.S. sought further westward expansion and fought the Mexican–American War, gaining a vast territory that first Spain and then Mexico claimed but which they did not effectively control. Much of the area was in fact dominated by indigenous peoples, which did not recognize the claims of Spain, France, or the U.S. Russia sold its North American claims, which included Alaska, to the U.S in 1867. Also in 1867, settler colonies in eastern North America were unified as the dominion of Canada. The U.S. sought to dig a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, a part of Colombia, and aided Panamanians in a war to separate it from Colombia. The U.S. carved out the Panama Canal Zone, over which it claimed sovereignty. After decades of work the Panama Canal was completed, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans in 1913.\n\nDemographics\n\nEconomically, Canada and the U.S. are the wealthiest and most developed nations in the continent, followed by Mexico, a newly industrialized country. The countries of Central America and the Caribbean are at various levels of economic and human development. For example, small Caribbean island-nations, such as Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, and Antigua and Barbuda, have a higher GDP (PPP) per capita than Mexico due to their smaller populations. Panama and Costa Rica have a significantly higher Human Development Index and GDP than the rest of the Central American nations. Additionally, despite Greenland's vast resources in oil and minerals, much of them remain untapped, and the island is economically dependent on fishing, tourism, and subsidies from Denmark. Nevertheless, the island is highly developed.\n\nDemographically, North America is ethnically diverse. Its three main groups are Whites, Mestizos and Blacks. There is a significant minority of Indigenous Americans and Asians among other less numerous groups.\n\nLanguages \n\nThe dominant languages in North America are English, Spanish, and French. Danish is prevalent in Greenland alongside Greenlandic, and Dutch is spoken side by side local languages in the Dutch Caribbean. The term Anglo-America is used to refer to the anglophone countries of the Americas: namely Canada (where English and French are co-official) and the U.S., but also sometimes Belize and parts of the tropics, especially the Commonwealth Caribbean. Latin America refers to the other areas of the Americas (generally south of the U.S.) where the Romance languages, derived from Latin, of Spanish and Portuguese, (but French-speaking countries are not usually included) predominate: the other republics of Central America (but not always Belize), part of the Caribbean (not the Dutch-, English-, or French-speaking areas), Mexico, and most of South America (except Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana [France], and the Falkland Islands [UK]).\n\nThe French language has historically played a significant role in North America and now retains a distinctive presence in some regions. Canada is officially bilingual. French is the official language of the Province of Quebec, where 95% of the people speak it as either their first or second language, and it is co-official with English in the Province of New Brunswick. Other French-speaking locales include the Province of Ontario (the official language is English, but there are an estimated 600,000 Franco-Ontarians), the Province of Manitoba (co-official as de jure with English), the French West Indies and Saint-Pierre et Miquelon, as well as the U.S. state of Louisiana, where French is also an official language. Haiti is included with this group based on historical association but Haitians speak both Creole and French. Similarly, French and French Antillean Creole is spoken in Saint Lucia and the Commonwealth of Dominica alongside English.\n\nA significant number of Indigenous languages are spoken in North America, with 372,000 people in the U.S. speaking an indigenous language at home, about 225,000 in Canada and roughly 6 million in Mexico. In the U.S. and Canada, there are approximately 150 surviving indigenous languages of the 300 spoken prior to European contact.\n\nReligions \n\nChristianity is the largest religion in the U.S., Canada and Mexico. According to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey, 77% of the population considered themselves Christians. Christianity also is the predominant religion in the 23 dependent territories in North America. The U.S. has the largest Christian population in the world, with nearly 247 million Christians (70%), although other countries have higher percentages of Christians among their populations. Mexico has the world's second largest number of Catholics, surpassed only by Brazil.\n\nAccording to the same study, the religiously unaffiliated (including agnostics and atheists) make up about 17% of the population of Canada and the U.S. Those with no religious affiliation make up about 24% of Canada's total population.\n\nCanada, the U.S. and Mexico host communities of Jews (6 million or about 1.8%), Buddhists (3.8 million or 1.1%) and Muslims (3.4 million or 1.0%). The largest number of Jews can be found in the U.S. (5.4 million), Canada (375,000) and Mexico (67,476). The U.S. hosts the largest Muslim population in North America with 2.7 million or 0.9%, while Canada hosts about one million Muslims or 3.2% of the population. In Mexico there were 3,700 Muslims in 2010. In 2012, U-T San Diego estimated U.S. practitioners of Buddhism at 1.2 million people, of whom 40% are living in Southern California.\n\nThe predominant religion in Mexico and Central America is Christianity (96%). Beginning with the Spanish colonization of Mexico in the 16th century, Roman Catholicism was the only religion permitted by Spanish crown and Catholic church. A vast campaign of religious conversion, the so-called \"spiritual conquest\", was launched to bring the indigenous peoples into the Christian fold. The Inquisition was established to assure orthodox belief and practice. The Catholic Church remained an important institution, so that even after political independence, Roman Catholicism remained the dominant religion. Since the 1960s, there has been an increase in other Christian groups, particularly Protestantism, as well as other religious organizations, and individuals identifying themselves as having no religion. Christianity is also the predominant religion in the Caribbean (85%). Other religious groups in the region are Hinduism, Islam, Rastafari (in Jamaica), and Afro-American religions such as Santería and Vodou.\n\nPopulace \n\nNorth America is the fourth most populous continent after Asia, Africa, and Europe. Its most populous country is the U.S. with 329.7 million persons. The second largest country is Mexico with a population of 112.3 million. Canada is the third most populous country with 37.0 million. The majority of Caribbean island-nations have national populations under a million, though Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico (a territory of the U.S.), Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago each have populations higher than a million. Greenland has a small population of 55,984 for its massive size (2,166,000 km2 or 836,300 mi2), and therefore, it has the world's lowest population density at 0.026 pop./km2 (0.067 pop./mi2).\n\nWhile the U.S., Canada, and Mexico maintain the largest populations, large city populations are not restricted to those nations. There are also large cities in the Caribbean. The largest cities in North America, by far, are Mexico City and New York City. These cities are the only cities on the continent to exceed eight million, and two of three in the Americas. Next in size are Los Angeles, Toronto, Chicago, Havana, Santo Domingo, and Montreal. Cities in the Sun Belt regions of the U.S., such as those in Southern California and Houston, Phoenix, Miami, Atlanta, and Las Vegas, are experiencing rapid growth. These causes included warm temperatures, retirement of Baby Boomers, large industry, and the influx of immigrants. Cities near the U.S. border, particularly in Mexico, are also experiencing large amounts of growth. Most notable is Tijuana, a city bordering San Diego that receives immigrants from all over Latin America and parts of Europe and Asia. Yet as cities grow in these warmer regions of North America, they are increasingly forced to deal with the major issue of water shortages.\n\nEight of the top ten metropolitan areas are located in the U.S. These metropolitan areas all have a population of above 5.5 million and include the New York City metropolitan area, Los Angeles metropolitan area, Chicago metropolitan area, and the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex. Whilst the majority of the largest metropolitan areas are within the U.S., Mexico is host to the largest metropolitan area by population in North America: Greater Mexico City. Canada also breaks into the top ten largest metropolitan areas with the Toronto metropolitan area having six million people. The proximity of cities to each other on the Canada–U.S. border and Mexico–U.S. border has led to the rise of international metropolitan areas. These urban agglomerations are observed at their largest and most productive in Detroit–Windsor and San Diego–Tijuana and experience large commercial, economic, and cultural activity. The metropolitan areas are responsible for millions of dollars of trade dependent on international freight. In Detroit-Windsor the Border Transportation Partnership study in 2004 concluded US$13 billion was dependent on the Detroit–Windsor international border crossing while in San Diego-Tijuana freight at the Otay Mesa Port of Entry was valued at US$20 billion.\n\nNorth America has also been witness to the growth of megapolitan areas. In the U.S. exists eleven megaregions that transcend international borders and comprise Canadian and Mexican metropolitan regions. These are the Arizona Sun Corridor, Cascadia, Florida, Front Range, Great Lakes Megalopolis, Gulf Coast, Northeast, Northern California, Piedmont Atlantic, Southern California, and the Texas Triangle. Canada and Mexico are also the home of megaregions. These include the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor, Golden Horseshoe—both of which are considered part of the Great Lakes Megalopolis—and the Central Mexico megalopolis. Traditionally the largest megaregion has been considered the Boston-Washington, DC Corridor, or the Northeast, as the region is one massive contiguous area. Yet megaregion criterion have allowed the Great Lakes Megalopolis to maintain status as the most populated region, being home to 53,768,125 people in 2000.\n\n†2011 Census figures\n\nEconomy \n\nNorth America's GDP per capita was evaluated in October 2016 by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to be $41,830, making it the richest continent in the world, followed by Oceania.\n\nCanada, Mexico, and the U.S. have significant and multifaceted economic systems. The U.S. has the largest economy of all three countries and in the world. In 2016, the U.S. had an estimated per capita gross domestic product (PPP) of $57,466 according to the World Bank, and is the most technologically developed economy of the three. The U.S.'s services sector comprises 77% of the country's GDP (estimated in 2010), industry comprises 22% and agriculture comprises 1.2%. The U.S. economy is also the fastest growing economy in North America and the Americas as a whole, with the highest GDP per capita in the Americas as well.\n\nCanada shows significant growth in the sectors of services, mining and manufacturing. Canada's per capita GDP (PPP) was estimated at $44,656 and it had the 11th largest GDP (nominal) in 2014. Canada's services sector comprises 78% of the country's GDP (estimated in 2010), industry comprises 20% and agriculture comprises 2%. Mexico has a per capita GDP (PPP) of $16,111 and as of 2014 is the 15th largest GDP (nominal) in the world. Being a newly industrialized country, Mexico maintains both modern and outdated industrial and agricultural facilities and operations. Its main sources of income are oil, industrial exports, manufactured goods, electronics, heavy industry, automobiles, construction, food, banking and financial services.\n\nThe North American economy is well defined and structured in three main economic areas. These areas are those under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM), and the Central American Common Market (CACM). Of these trade blocs, the U.S. takes part in two. In addition to the larger trade blocs there is the Canada-Costa Rica Free Trade Agreement among numerous other free-trade relations, often between the larger, more developed countries and Central American and Caribbean countries.\n\nThe NAFTA forms one of the four largest trade blocs in the world. Its implementation in 1994 was designed for economic homogenization with hopes of eliminating barriers of trade and foreign investment between Canada, the U.S. and Mexico. While Canada and the U.S. already conducted the largest bilateral trade relationship—and to present day still do—in the world and Canada–U.S. trade relations already allowed trade without national taxes and tariffs, NAFTA allowed Mexico to experience a similar duty-free trade. The free-trade agreement allowed for the elimination of tariffs that had previously been in place on U.S.–Mexico trade. Trade volume has steadily increased annually and in 2010, surface trade between the three NAFTA nations reached an all-time historical increase of 24.3% or US$791 billion. The NAFTA trade bloc GDP (PPP) is the world's largest with US$17.617 trillion. This is in part attributed to the fact that the economy of the U.S. is the world's largest national economy; the country had a nominal GDP of approximately $14.7 trillion in 2010. The countries of NAFTA are also some of each other's largest trade partners. The U.S. is the largest trade partner of Canada and Mexico, while Canada and Mexico are each other's third largest trade partners. In 2018, the NAFTA was replaced by the U.S.–Mexico–Canada Agreement.\n\nThe Caribbean trade bloc (CARICOM) came into agreement in 1973 when it was signed by 15 Caribbean nations. As of 2000, CARICOM trade volume was US$96 billion. CARICOM also allowed for the creation of a common passport for associated nations. In the past decade the trade bloc focused largely on free-trade agreements and under the CARICOM Office of Trade Negotiations free-trade agreements have been signed into effect.\n\nIntegration of Central American economies occurred under the signing of the Central American Common Market agreement in 1961; this was the first attempt to engage the nations of this area into stronger financial cooperation. The 2006 implementation of the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) left the future of the CACM unclear. The Central American Free Trade Agreement was signed by five Central American countries, the Dominican Republic, and the U.S. The focal point of CAFTA is to create a free trade area similar to that of NAFTA. In addition to the U.S., Canada also has relations in Central American trade blocs.\n\nThese nations also take part in inter-continental trade blocs. Mexico takes a part in the G3 Free Trade Agreement with Colombia and Venezuela and has a trade agreement with the EU. The U.S. has proposed and maintained trade agreements under the Transatlantic Free Trade Area between itself and the European Union; the U.S.–Middle East Free Trade Area between numerous Middle Eastern nations and itself; and the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership between Southeast Asian nations, Australia, and New Zealand.\n\nTransport \n\nThe Pan-American Highway route in the Americas is the portion of a network of roads nearly in length which travels through the mainland nations. No definitive length of the Pan-American Highway exists because the U.S. and Canadian governments have never officially defined any specific routes as being part of the Pan-American Highway, and Mexico officially has many branches connecting to the U.S. border. However, the total length of the portion from Mexico to the northern extremity of the highway is roughly .\n\nThe first transcontinental railroad in the U.S. was built in the 1860s, linking the railroad network of the eastern U.S. with California on the Pacific coast. Finished on 10 May 1869 at the famous golden spike event at Promontory Summit, Utah, it created a nationwide mechanized transportation network that revolutionized the population and economy of the American West, catalyzing the transition from the wagon trains of previous decades to a modern transportation system. Although an accomplishment, it achieved the status of first transcontinental railroad by connecting myriad eastern U.S. railroads to the Pacific and was not the largest single railroad system in the world. The Canadian Grand Trunk Railway had, by 1867, already accumulated more than of track by connecting Ontario with the Canadian Atlantic provinces west as far as Port Huron, Michigan, through Sarnia, Ontario.\n\nCommunications \nA shared telephone system known as the North American Numbering Plan (NANP) is an integrated telephone numbering plan of 24 countries and territories: the U.S. and its territories, Canada, Bermuda, and 17 Caribbean nations.\n\nCulture \n\nThe cultures of North America are diverse. The U.S. and English Canada have many cultural similarities, while French Canada has a distinct culture from Anglophone Canada, which is protected by law. Since the U.S. was formed from portions previously part of the Spanish Empire and then independent Mexico, and there has been considerable and continuing immigration of Spanish speakers from south of the U.S.–Mexico border. In the southwest of the U.S. there are many Hispanic cultural traditions and considerable bilingualism. Mexico and Central America are part of Latin America and are culturally distinct from anglophone and francophone North America. However, they share with the United States the establishment of post-independence governments that are federated representative republics with written constitutions dating from their founding as nations. Canada is a federated parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy.\n\nCanada's constitution dates to 1867, with confederation, in the British North America Act, but not until 1982 did Canada have the power to amend its own constitution. Canada's Francophone heritage has been enshrined in law since the British parliament passed the Quebec Act of 1774. In contrast to largely Protestant Anglo settlers in North America, French-speaking Canadians were Catholic and with the Quebec Act were guaranteed freedom to practice their religion, restored the right of the Catholic Church to impose tithes for its support, and established French civil law in most circumstances.\n\nThe distinctiveness of French language and culture has been codified in Canadian law, so that both English and French are designated official languages. The U.S. has no official language, but its national language is English.\n\nThe Canadian government took action to protect Canadian culture by limiting non-Canadian content in broadcasting, creating the Canadian Radio and Telecommunications Commission to monitor Canadian content. In Quebec, the provincial government established the Quebec Office of the French Language, often called the \"language police\" by Anglophones, which mandates the use of French terminology and signage in French. Since 1968 the unicameral legislature has been called the Quebec National Assembly. Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day, 24 June, is the national holiday of Quebec and celebrated by francophone Canadians throughout Canada. In Quebec, the school system was divided into Catholic and Protestant, so-called confessional schools. Anglophone education in Quebec has been increasingly undermined.\n\nLatino culture is strong in the southwest of the U.S., as well as Florida, which draws Latin Americans from many countries in the hemisphere. Northern Mexico, particularly in the cities of Monterrey, Tijuana, Ciudad Juárez, and Mexicali, is strongly influenced by the culture and way of life of the U.S. Monterrey, a modern city with a significant industrial group, has been regarded as the most Americanized city in Mexico. Northern Mexico, the Western U.S. and Alberta, Canada share a cowboy culture.\n\nThe Anglophone Caribbean states have witnessed and participated in the decline of the British Empire and its influence on the region, and its replacement by the economic influence of Northern America in the Anglophone Caribbean. This is partly due to the relatively small populations of the English-speaking Caribbean countries, and also because many of them now have more people living abroad than those remaining at home.\n\nGreenland has experienced many immigration waves from Northern Canada, e.g. the Thule people. Therefore, Greenland shares some cultural ties with the indigenous peoples of Canada. Greenland is also considered Nordic and has strong Danish ties due to centuries of colonization by Denmark.\n\nPopular culture – sports \nThe U.S. and Canada have major sports teams that compete against each other, including baseball, basketball, hockey, and soccer/football.\nCanada, Mexico and the U.S. submitted a joint bid to host the 2026 FIFA World Cup.\nThe following table shows the most prominent sports leagues in North America, in order of average revenue. Canada has a separate Canadian Football League from the U.S. teams.\n\nThe Native American game of lacrosse is considered a national sport in Canada. Curling is an important winter sport in Canada, and the Winter Olympics includes it in the roster. The English sport of cricket is popular in parts of anglophone Canada and very popular in parts of the former British empire, but in Canada is considered a minor sport. Boxing is also a major sport in some countries, such as Mexico, Panama and Puerto Rico, and it is considered one of the main individual sports in the U.S.\n\nSee also \n Flags of North America\n List of cities in North America\n North American Union\n Outline of North America\n Table manners in North America\n\nReferences\n\nFootnotes\n\nCitations\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links \n \n \n North America: Human Geography at the National Geographic Society \n European Colonization of North America at the National Geographic Society \n \n \n The Columbia Gazetteer of the World Online Columbia University Press \n \n \n\n \n\n \nCategory:Continents", "title": "North America" } ]
[ "The indigenous population in Guatemala consists primarily of Mayan groups and the Non-Mayan group, Xinca. The Mayan portion can be broken down into 23 groups namely K'iche, Kaqchikel, Mam, Q'eqchi' and some others. The Xinca are another set of Indigenous people in Guatemala.", "The article discusses the Indigenous populations and their languages in Guatemala. It talks about the official recognition of 23 Indigenous languages, including Xinca, by the government in 2003 under the Law of National Languages which orders public and government institutions to translate and provide services in these languages. The article also touches upon the ILO Convention 169, ratified by the Guatemalan Constitutional Court in 1996, that mandates the consultation with Indigenous groups prior to any projects occurring on tribal lands. This sheds light on the efforts being taken to grant and protect the rights of Indigenous people in Guatemala.", "Yes, the K'iche tribe is the largest among the Mayan groups in Guatemala, making up 11.3% of the Indigenous population.", "The text does not provide information on when the Indigenous populations, including the K'iche tribe, settled in Guatemala.", "The text does not provide additional information about the people of this region in Guatemala.", "The text does not provide specific details about what makes up the rest of the Indigenous population in Guatemala besides the Mayan and Xinca groups.", "The text does not provide information on how long the Indigenous tribes, including the Mayan and Xinca groups, have been in Guatemala." ]
[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes" ]
C_cfa498d1423349c2b86dd37cf1346c4d_1
Kim Jae-joong
Kim was born Han Jae-joon (hanjaejun; Han Zai Jun ) in Gongju, Chungcheongnam-do, South Korea. His real birthday, as revealed by his biological mother, was on 4 February, instead of 26 January. At a young age, he was given up for adoption by his biological mother to the Kim family, and his name was changed to Kim Jae-joong. When Kim was fifteen, he moved to Seoul by himself in order to take part in the auditions held by SM Entertainment.
Soundtracks and collaborations
Apart from TVXQ and JYJ, Kim has worked on solo activities as a singer. He sang "Insa" (insa lit. Greeting) for the soundtrack of A Millionaire's First Love. Kim collaborated with label-mates The Grace for the Japanese version of their song "Just for One Day", which was featured on their fifth Japanese single and their debut album, Graceful 4. Kim also sang the solo track "Maze" for the fifth and final single of the Trick Project, "Keyword/Maze". Jaejoong wrote and composed "Wasurenaide" (Wang renaide, lit. Don't Forget) which was included on Tohoshinki's twenty-fifth single "Bolero/Kiss the Baby Sky/Wasurenaide." The song was also on their fourth Japanese album The Secret Code, along with the songs "9095" and "9096" which were also composed by Kim. The song, "Wang renaide" was used in an television advertisement for cosmetics in Japan. On 30 September 2009, Kim and bandmate Yoochun released a self-composed single "Colors (Melody and Harmony)/Shelter." The A-side track, Colors (Melody and Harmony), was used as the image song for Hello Kitty's thirty-fifth anniversary. Jaejoong and Yoochun also participated in m-flo's album m-flo TRIBUTE -maison de m-flo, singing the track "Been So Long". Kim sang "Love" for the soundtrack of the film Heaven's Postman in which he starred as the male lead. He also sang "Found You" and "For you It's Separation, For me It's Waiting" for the soundtrack of the television drama Sungkyunkwan Scandal, "I'll Protect You" for Protect the Boss, and "Living Like A Dream" for Dr. Jin. "Living Like a Dream" was awarded the Best Hallyu Drama OST at the Seoul International Drama Awards. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "Who has he collaborated with?", "Has he had any other collaborations?", "Did he work a lot with Yoochun?", "What soundtracks did he work on?", "Was this a hit?", "What other soundtracks did he do?" ]
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Kim Jae-joong (; born January 26, 1986), also known mononymously as Jaejoong in South Korea and in Japan, is a South Korean singer, songwriter, actor and director. He is a member of the Korean pop group JYJ and was one of the original members of boy band TVXQ, where he was formerly known by the stage name Hero Jae-joong (). Since 2013, he has expanded his range of activities as a solo artist, and in 2023, he formed his own agency iNKODE where he serves as the Chief Strategy Officer. Born in Gongju, Chungcheongnam-do, he moved to Seoul as a teenager to audition for SM Entertainment. From 2003 to 2010, he was the lead vocalist of South Korean boy band TVXQ. Later, he sued SM Entertainment along with Park Yoo-chun and Kim Jun-su and together they separated from TVXQ to form JYJ. As a solo artist, he has released three Korean studio albums, WWW (2013), No.X (2016), and Born Gene (2022). The first two reached number one on the Gaon Music Chart. In Japan, his three studio albums Flawless Love (2019), Love Covers (2019), and Love Covers II (2020) all peaked at number one on the Oricon Albums Chart. He has a fourth Japanese album, Fallinbow, releasing in November 2022. He has toured extensively in South Korea and Japan. Kim has acted in TV dramas including Sunao ni Narenakute (2010), Protect the Boss (2011), Dr. Jin (2012), Triangle (2014), SPY (2015), Manhole (2017) and Bad Memory Eraser (2022); and in films such as Heaven's Postman (2009) and Jackal is Coming (2012). He has branched into hosting with season 1 and 2 of Lifetime Korea's Travel Buddies (2020, 2021), BS SKY PerfecTV's ジェジュンJ! (Jaejoong J!, 2021) and has a documentary about his life and career called Jaejoong: On the Road (2021), directed by John H. Lee. Early life Kim was born Han Jae-joon (한재준; 韩在俊) in Gongju, Chungcheongnam-do, South Korea. His real birthday, as revealed by his biological mother, was on February 4, instead of January 26. At a young age, he was given up for adoption by his biological mother to the Kim family, and his name was changed to Kim Jae-joong. On November 21, 2006, a man with the surname Han filed a lawsuit against Kim's guardians. Han claimed he was Kim's biological father, and thus wanted parental rights. Han cited the reason for the lawsuit against Kim's legal guardians as "for not going through the proper procedures before registering [Jaejoong] in [the legal guardians'] custody." The first hearing was to be held in Kim's hometown, Gongju, on November 29, 2006, but on November 22 Han dropped the charges against Kim's legal guardians. In reaction to the matter, Kim uploaded a journal entry on his official fan club website, and said that he was informed of the existence of separate biological parents by his mother two or three years ago, and it had been quite a shock to him. With his current mother's support, his biological mother has been able to keep in touch with him, and to meet occasionally, but whereabouts of his father had been unknown. He expressed his will to live by the name of Kim Jae-joong, not by his birth name Han Jae-jun (한재준). When Kim was fifteen, he moved to Seoul by himself in order to take part in the auditions held by SM Entertainment. Life in Seoul was financially difficult and he took various odd jobs to pay for rent, food, and training fees; and even appeared as an extra in movies. In an interview, he admitted he used to be tone-deaf in primary school and was frequently ridiculed for his dream of becoming a singer, but managed to overcome it through practicing alone. Kim attended Gongju Jungdong Elementary School (중동초등학교), Kongju National University Middle School (공주대학교 사범대학 부설중학교), Kongju Information High School (공주정보고등학교) and then dropped out in 2001. He enrolled Hanam High School (하남고등학교) in 2005 and Kyung Hee Cyber University (경희사이버대학교), majoring in Digital Media Engineering. Music career 2003–2010: Member of TVXQ In 2001, at fifteen years old, Kim auditioned for S.M. Entertainment and was accepted into the agency. From 2003 to 2010, he was the lead vocalist of South Korean boy band TVXQ. After TVXQ went on hiatus in early 2010, he and two other fellow band members Yoochun and Junsu formed a new trio boy group, initially known as JUNSU/JEJUNG/YUCHUN in Japan. Kim sang the solo track "Maze" for the fifth and final single of the TVXQ/Tohoshinki's Trick Project, "Keyword/Maze". Jaejoong wrote and composed which was included on TVXQ/Tohoshinki's twenty-fifth single "Bolero/Kiss the Baby Sky/Wasurenaide." The song was also on their fourth Japanese album The Secret Code, along with the songs "9095" and "9096" which were also composed by Kim. The song, "忘れないで" was used in a television advertisement for cosmetics in Japan. Apart from his activities as a member of TVXQ, he sang "Insa" (인사, Greeting) for the soundtrack of A Millionaire's First Love (2006). Kim collaborated with The Grace for the Japanese version of their song "Just for One Day", which was featured on their fifth Japanese single and their debut album, Graceful 4 (2007). Kim sang "Love" for the soundtrack of the film Heaven's Postman (2009) in which he starred as the male lead. 2009–2012: Formation of JYJ In 2009 Kim, Junsu and Yoochun, started a lawsuit against their agency, SM Entertainment, and separated from TVXQ, soon founding their own band, JYJ. On September 30, 2009, Kim and bandmate Yoochun released a self-composed single "Colors (Melody and Harmony)/Shelter." The A-side track, Colors (Melody and Harmony), was used as the image song for Hello Kitty's thirty-fifth anniversary. Jaejoong and Yoochun also participated in m-flo's album m-flo TRIBUTE -maison de m-flo, singing the track "Been So Long". Their debut Japanese language EP The... was released in September 2010, and their first concert DVD from Tokyo Dome Thanksgiving Live in Dome both reached No. 1 on the Japanese Oricon album and DVD charts. The group's English language debut album, The Beginning was released in October 2010, featuring Kanye West. In January 2011, they released a Korean EP, Their Rooms "Our Story", with three of Kim's own compositions, "Pierrot" (삐에로), "Nine" and "I.D.S.". In April he toured Asia and North America with JYJ, and later South America and Europe. He was also stage director of the Asian leg of the tour. In September the band released a studio album called In Heaven, which sold 350,000 copies and ranked first on the Gaon charts. He composed two new songs for the album, "In Heaven" and "Get Out". Kim composed "In Heaven" in memory of his good friend, Park Yong-ha, who committed suicide. Apart from his activities as a member of JYJ, he also sang "Found You" and "For you It's Separation, For me It's Waiting" for the soundtrack of the television drama Sungkyunkwan Scandal (2010), "I'll Protect You" for Protect the Boss (2011), and "Living Like A Dream" for Dr. Jin (2012). "Living Like a Dream" was awarded the Best Hallyu Drama OST at the Seoul International Drama Awards. 2013–2017: Solo Korean albums On January 17, 2013, Kim released his first solo Korean EP titled I/MINE, a rock-themed album which Kim penned all the lyrics. The album debuted at the top of both the Hanteo and Gaon weekly charts in Korea. It was also met with resounding success throughout Asia, topping Taiwan's Five Music's Korean and Japanese music chart, Japan's Shinseido weekly chart and Yin Yue Tai's V chart for K-pop. It also topped the iTunes rock charts in nine countries. Additionally, the pre-released single "One Kiss" and lead single "Mine" topped both domestic charts and foreign charts, including a German Asian music chart. On January 26 and 27, Kim held two days of special concerts at the KINTEX Ilsan to celebrate the launch of the album, as well as his birthday. Kim then released a repackaged version of his album, titled Y which consists of contains two additional tracks: “Only Love” and “Kiss B” . The album was met with success and sold 50,000 copies upon release. His first full-length Korean solo album, WWW was released on October 29, 2013. A single titled "Sunny Day" was released ahead of the album and topped the iTunes EP chart in Japan. A repackaged version of the album, WWW: Remove Makeup was subsequently released in January 2014 and included the title track "Heaven", a pop ballad with label-mate Gummy. To promote his first album, Kim embarked on his first Asia tour which traveled to regional countries like Japan, Taiwan and China. He sang "싫어도 (But I)" and "우연 (Coincidence)" for the drama Triangle (2014) in which he also starred. In July 2014, as a member of JYJ, they would release their first studio album in three years, Just Us. The band reached the music charts with the song, "Back Seat". Prior to his military enlistment in 2015, Kim recorded the songs for his second Korean solo album, No.X, which was released on February 12, 2016. It topped iTunes charts of 39 countries around the world upon its release, and was named the most popular K-pop album in China for 2016. He completed his military service in December 2016 and returned to the entertainment industry with his acting performance in Manhole (2017). 2018–present: Solo albums Kim released his first Japanese single "Sign / Your Love" on June 27, 2018. On October 24, 2018, he released his second Japanese single, "Defiance" / "Lavender". Both singles would be certified gold (selling over 100,000 copies) by the Recording Industry Association of Japan. Those two songs would be featured on his first Japanese album, Flawless Love which was released on April 10, 2019. The album would be the first time he topped the Oricon Weekly Album Rankings as a solo artist with its debut. He promoted the album in Japan during his tour entitled The Jaejoong Arena Tour 2019 – Flawless Love. His second Japanese album, Love Covers, was released on September 25, 2019, and debuted at number one on the Oricon Weekly Album Rankings. The album was awarded the Planning Award at the 61st Japan Record Awards and the "Best 3 Albums (Asia)" award at the 34th Japan Gold Disc Award. On January 14, 2020, Kim released his first Korean album in four years with the EP Love song (애요), along with its lead single "Tender Love". Following the EP's release, the cities and dates for his Asia Tour 2020 was announced. However, the tour dates were postponed due to COVID-19 concerns. He released his third Japanese single on March 10, 2020, "Brava!! Brava!! Brava!!" which debuted at number one on the Oricon weekly chart. It was the opening theme song for Smile Down the Runway. His third Japanese album, Love Covers II was released on July 29, 2020, and debuted at number one on the Oricon weekly chart. It was announced on August 30, 2020, that he would be singing the opening theme song for Noblesse, entitled "BREAKING DAWN" which was written and produced by Hyde. The song will have an English, Korean and Japanese version. His Japanese tour, J-JUN LIVE TOUR 2020~BREAKING DAWN~, originally planned for October 2020 was postponed until Spring of 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan. On September 18, 2020, Kim released "Even If I Call You" for the Mr. Heart (2020) web drama, marking his first Korean soundtrack performance in six years. He soon followed that Korean soundtrack performance with another as he released "Things We Should Love" for the soundtrack of the Korean drama Private Lives on October 28, 2020. In April 2022, Kim resumed activities in Japan with a live concert for his Japanese fanclub. He released a duet theme song with Kim Junsu, "六等星" for the television adaptation of the manga Waru - Who said it's not cool to work? on April 13, 2022. On September 13, 2022, Kim released his first Korean full-length album in six years titled Born Gene. His Asian Tour to promote the album includes stops in Seoul, Kuala Lumpur and Bangkok. He is also releasing a Japanese album, Fallinbow on November 9, 2022 which will then be followed up with a Japanese tour.On October 30, C-JeS Entertainment It was announced that Kim has urgently decided to cancel the Japan concert due to the aftermath of the Itaewon Halloween crowd crush. In April 2023, C-Jes Studio announced that Kim's contract would expire on April 22. on May 4, 2023, he announced the creation of his own agency iNKODE, which would produce new idols as well as his own activities including serving as the Chief Strategy Officer. Noh Hyun-tae, the former vice president of Cube Entertainment, will serve as the CEO. Acting career Prior to his debut as a singer, Kim worked as an extra, playing a soldier in film Taegeukgi. Along with the other members of TVXQ, he acted in television programmes, Banjun Theater and Vacation. In November 2009, Kim co-starred with Han Hyo-joo in the joint Korean-Japanese telecinema Heaven's Postman as a young man who delivers letters written by the living to the dead and helps lingering ghosts settle their earthly affairs. This was followed by a leading role in Fuji TV's Japanese television drama Sunao ni Narenakute in September 2010. In August 2011, he starred in his first South Korean television series, Protect the Boss with Choi Kang-hee and Ji Sung. He played the role of seemingly a perfect director known for his business acumen, who becomes frustrated and fight against the constraints in his life. In May 2012, he starred in historical fusion drama Dr. Jin with Song Seung-heon. He played the role of a high-ranking officer of the police force of Joseon Dynasty, who is an illegitimate son of the Joseon era's Prime Minister and his concubine. This was his first time acting in a sageuk, and he was praised for his performance. The same year, Kim made his big screen debut in the action comedy film Jackal is Coming playing a Hallyu star who is kidnapped by an assassin (played by labelmate Song Ji-hyo). His comical acting in the film drew positive reception from fans. In May 2014, Kim starred in MBC's drama Triangle as a man who grows up to become a lowlife gangster. His performance won the “Top Excellence Award, Actor” at the 7th Korea Drama Awards in October the same year. In January 2015, Kim starred in KBS2's thriller SPY as a genius analyst working for South Korea's National Intelligence Service. The drama is based on the Israeli drama The Gordin Cell, modified to depict North/South Korean relations. In 2017, Kim was cast in KBS2's time-slip drama Manhole, as a man who travels back and forth through time to stop a wedding from taking place. For the first time in 10 years, Kim returned to entertainment shows in South Korea with his appearance as a panelist for season 2 of Taste of Love in 2019. In 2020, Kim hosted a travel series where he ventured to Argentina alone to befriend strangers for Lifetime Korea's Travel Buddies which aired 10 episodes from February 8, 2020, to April 2, 2020. During a press conference, Kim stated, "We all shared similar worries. We mostly talked about the ways to unfold our life and attain goals. I believe many viewers would empathize with us. Through the conversations, I reflected upon my bygone days and deeply thought about my future. Thus, the trip was not merely about playing and entertaining to me". Kim is filming season 2 of Travel Buddies which will take place in South Korea. The airing is scheduled from the end of April to the beginning of May 2021. On March 29, 2021, Kim debuted his 6-episode variety show called ジェジュンJ! (Jaejoong J!) which was broadcast in Japan on channel BS SKY PerfecTV. In the summer of 2021, Kim will have a documentary released about his life and career called Jaejoong: On the Road, directed by John H. Lee. In 2022, Kim was cast as the lead male role in the Korean television drama Bad Memory Eraser co-starring Jin Se-yeon. He guest starred in the third episode of the television adaptation of the manga Waru - Who said it's not cool to work?, for which he also sang the theme song. Directing career Kim served as executive director for the Asian leg of JYJ's 2011 Worldwide Tour. He also participated in the directing team for the 2011 LG Whisen Rhythmic All Stars. Personal life Kim helped launch Moldir, a Korean fashion brand that opened in September 2013. C-JeS Entertainment, his management, noted that Kim "has his own distinctive fashion and artistic sense. He will take it to a more serious level with his new role as an art director". He owned the largest number of shares in the company and served as the art director until it "closed for restructuring" due to COVID-19 issues in March 2020. Kim is also known for his cooking ability and has released two cookbooks, Romantic Recipes volume 1 and volume 2. The first volume was released on July 25, 2018, and featured French cuisine and was written in Japanese. The second volume was released on August 7, 2019, featuring Korean dishes and was published in Korean and Japanese. He credits his mother, who owned a restaurant, with inspiring him to become skilled at cooking. Kim enlisted in the army on March 31, 2015, the first five weeks spent for his mandatory basic training at the 1st Infantry Division (Republic of Korea) recruit training center in Gwangtan-myeon, Paju, Gyeonggi province. He later ended up as the top recruit among the 244 in his batch, earning the Excellence Award during the graduation ceremony. He was under the 55th Infantry Division in Cheoin-gu, Yongin to serve as an active-duty soldier for 21 months and was also a member of the military band. He was discharged on December 30, 2016. On April 1, 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea, Kim posted on his Instagram account claiming that he has tested positive for COVID-19 due to him "[living] carelessly, disregarding all of the cautions provided by the government." An hour later, Kim posted an apology on his Instagram that the diagnosis was not true, which drew outrage from fans. He further explained his reasoning for the initial post was to raise awareness of the dangers of the virus, noting he personally knows individuals who have been infected and his father recently underwent lung cancer surgery. Discography Studio albums Extended plays Singles Music videos Soundtracks Composing and songwriting Filmography Film Television series Variety shows Tours Awards and nominations References External links Official Japanese site Category:JYJ members Category:1986 births Category:Japanese-language singers of South Korea Category:South Korean male idols Category:South Korean pop singers Category:South Korean male singers Category:South Korean male film actors Category:Living people Category:People from Gongju Category:South Korean male television actors Category:SM Entertainment artists Category:TVXQ members Category:Kyung Hee Cyber University alumni Category:Shorty Award winners
[]
[ "Kim has collaborated with The Grace and his bandmate Yoochun. He also participated in m-flo's album.", "Based on the information given in the context, no other collaborations of Kim are mentioned.", "The context mentions that Kim and Yoochun released a self-composed single together. However, no details are given to indicate the level or frequency of their collaborations.", "Kim sang for the soundtracks of \"A Millionaire's First Love\", the film \"Heaven's Postman\", and the television dramas \"Sungkyunkwan Scandal\", \"Protect the Boss\", and \"Dr. Jin\".", "The context does not provide information on whether Kim's work on these soundtracks was a hit.", "According to the context given, Kim also worked on the soundtracks of \"A Millionaire's First Love\", \"Heaven's Postman\", \"Sungkyunkwan Scandal\", \"Protect the Boss\", and \"Dr. Jin\". No other soundtracks are mentioned." ]
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C_cfa498d1423349c2b86dd37cf1346c4d_0
Kim Jae-joong
Kim was born Han Jae-joon (hanjaejun; Han Zai Jun ) in Gongju, Chungcheongnam-do, South Korea. His real birthday, as revealed by his biological mother, was on 4 February, instead of 26 January. At a young age, he was given up for adoption by his biological mother to the Kim family, and his name was changed to Kim Jae-joong. When Kim was fifteen, he moved to Seoul by himself in order to take part in the auditions held by SM Entertainment.
Solo album releases
On 17 January 2013, Kim released his first solo EP titled I/MINE, a rock-themed album which Kim penned all the lyrics to. The album debuted at the top of both the Hanteo and Gaon weekly charts in Korea. It was also met with resounding success throughout Asia, topping Taiwan's Five Music's Korean and Japanese music chart, Japan's Shinseido weekly chart and Yin Yue Tai's V chart for K-pop. It also topped the iTunes rock charts in nine countries. Additionally, the pre-released single "One Kiss" and lead single "Mine" topped both domestic charts and foreign charts, including a German Asian music chart. On 26 and 27 January, Kim held two days of special concerts at the KINTEX Ilsan to celebrate the launch of the album, as well as his birthday. Kim then released a repackaged version of his album, titled Y which consists of contains two additional tracks: "Only Love" and "Kiss B" . The album was met with success and sold 50,000 copies upon release. His first full-length solo album, WWW was released on 29 October 2013. A single titled "Sunny Day" was released ahead of the album and topped the iTunes EP chart in Japan. A repackaged version of the album, WWW: Remove Makeup was subsequently released in January 2014 and included the title track "Heaven", a pop ballad with label-mate Gummy. To promote his first album, Kim embarked on his first Asia tour which traveled to regional countries like Japan, Taiwan and China. His second solo album, No.X was released on 12 February 2016. It topped iTunes charts of 39 countries around the world upon its release, and was named the most popular K-pop album in China for 2016. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "When was his first solo album released?", "Did the first album receive any rewards or recognition?", "How many solo albums has he released?", "how many songs are the in his second album?", "what recognition does the second album receive?", "what is the second album about?" ]
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Kim Jae-joong (; born January 26, 1986), also known mononymously as Jaejoong in South Korea and in Japan, is a South Korean singer, songwriter, actor and director. He is a member of the Korean pop group JYJ and was one of the original members of boy band TVXQ, where he was formerly known by the stage name Hero Jae-joong (). Since 2013, he has expanded his range of activities as a solo artist, and in 2023, he formed his own agency iNKODE where he serves as the Chief Strategy Officer. Born in Gongju, Chungcheongnam-do, he moved to Seoul as a teenager to audition for SM Entertainment. From 2003 to 2010, he was the lead vocalist of South Korean boy band TVXQ. Later, he sued SM Entertainment along with Park Yoo-chun and Kim Jun-su and together they separated from TVXQ to form JYJ. As a solo artist, he has released three Korean studio albums, WWW (2013), No.X (2016), and Born Gene (2022). The first two reached number one on the Gaon Music Chart. In Japan, his three studio albums Flawless Love (2019), Love Covers (2019), and Love Covers II (2020) all peaked at number one on the Oricon Albums Chart. He has a fourth Japanese album, Fallinbow, releasing in November 2022. He has toured extensively in South Korea and Japan. Kim has acted in TV dramas including Sunao ni Narenakute (2010), Protect the Boss (2011), Dr. Jin (2012), Triangle (2014), SPY (2015), Manhole (2017) and Bad Memory Eraser (2022); and in films such as Heaven's Postman (2009) and Jackal is Coming (2012). He has branched into hosting with season 1 and 2 of Lifetime Korea's Travel Buddies (2020, 2021), BS SKY PerfecTV's ジェジュンJ! (Jaejoong J!, 2021) and has a documentary about his life and career called Jaejoong: On the Road (2021), directed by John H. Lee. Early life Kim was born Han Jae-joon (한재준; 韩在俊) in Gongju, Chungcheongnam-do, South Korea. His real birthday, as revealed by his biological mother, was on February 4, instead of January 26. At a young age, he was given up for adoption by his biological mother to the Kim family, and his name was changed to Kim Jae-joong. On November 21, 2006, a man with the surname Han filed a lawsuit against Kim's guardians. Han claimed he was Kim's biological father, and thus wanted parental rights. Han cited the reason for the lawsuit against Kim's legal guardians as "for not going through the proper procedures before registering [Jaejoong] in [the legal guardians'] custody." The first hearing was to be held in Kim's hometown, Gongju, on November 29, 2006, but on November 22 Han dropped the charges against Kim's legal guardians. In reaction to the matter, Kim uploaded a journal entry on his official fan club website, and said that he was informed of the existence of separate biological parents by his mother two or three years ago, and it had been quite a shock to him. With his current mother's support, his biological mother has been able to keep in touch with him, and to meet occasionally, but whereabouts of his father had been unknown. He expressed his will to live by the name of Kim Jae-joong, not by his birth name Han Jae-jun (한재준). When Kim was fifteen, he moved to Seoul by himself in order to take part in the auditions held by SM Entertainment. Life in Seoul was financially difficult and he took various odd jobs to pay for rent, food, and training fees; and even appeared as an extra in movies. In an interview, he admitted he used to be tone-deaf in primary school and was frequently ridiculed for his dream of becoming a singer, but managed to overcome it through practicing alone. Kim attended Gongju Jungdong Elementary School (중동초등학교), Kongju National University Middle School (공주대학교 사범대학 부설중학교), Kongju Information High School (공주정보고등학교) and then dropped out in 2001. He enrolled Hanam High School (하남고등학교) in 2005 and Kyung Hee Cyber University (경희사이버대학교), majoring in Digital Media Engineering. Music career 2003–2010: Member of TVXQ In 2001, at fifteen years old, Kim auditioned for S.M. Entertainment and was accepted into the agency. From 2003 to 2010, he was the lead vocalist of South Korean boy band TVXQ. After TVXQ went on hiatus in early 2010, he and two other fellow band members Yoochun and Junsu formed a new trio boy group, initially known as JUNSU/JEJUNG/YUCHUN in Japan. Kim sang the solo track "Maze" for the fifth and final single of the TVXQ/Tohoshinki's Trick Project, "Keyword/Maze". Jaejoong wrote and composed which was included on TVXQ/Tohoshinki's twenty-fifth single "Bolero/Kiss the Baby Sky/Wasurenaide." The song was also on their fourth Japanese album The Secret Code, along with the songs "9095" and "9096" which were also composed by Kim. The song, "忘れないで" was used in a television advertisement for cosmetics in Japan. Apart from his activities as a member of TVXQ, he sang "Insa" (인사, Greeting) for the soundtrack of A Millionaire's First Love (2006). Kim collaborated with The Grace for the Japanese version of their song "Just for One Day", which was featured on their fifth Japanese single and their debut album, Graceful 4 (2007). Kim sang "Love" for the soundtrack of the film Heaven's Postman (2009) in which he starred as the male lead. 2009–2012: Formation of JYJ In 2009 Kim, Junsu and Yoochun, started a lawsuit against their agency, SM Entertainment, and separated from TVXQ, soon founding their own band, JYJ. On September 30, 2009, Kim and bandmate Yoochun released a self-composed single "Colors (Melody and Harmony)/Shelter." The A-side track, Colors (Melody and Harmony), was used as the image song for Hello Kitty's thirty-fifth anniversary. Jaejoong and Yoochun also participated in m-flo's album m-flo TRIBUTE -maison de m-flo, singing the track "Been So Long". Their debut Japanese language EP The... was released in September 2010, and their first concert DVD from Tokyo Dome Thanksgiving Live in Dome both reached No. 1 on the Japanese Oricon album and DVD charts. The group's English language debut album, The Beginning was released in October 2010, featuring Kanye West. In January 2011, they released a Korean EP, Their Rooms "Our Story", with three of Kim's own compositions, "Pierrot" (삐에로), "Nine" and "I.D.S.". In April he toured Asia and North America with JYJ, and later South America and Europe. He was also stage director of the Asian leg of the tour. In September the band released a studio album called In Heaven, which sold 350,000 copies and ranked first on the Gaon charts. He composed two new songs for the album, "In Heaven" and "Get Out". Kim composed "In Heaven" in memory of his good friend, Park Yong-ha, who committed suicide. Apart from his activities as a member of JYJ, he also sang "Found You" and "For you It's Separation, For me It's Waiting" for the soundtrack of the television drama Sungkyunkwan Scandal (2010), "I'll Protect You" for Protect the Boss (2011), and "Living Like A Dream" for Dr. Jin (2012). "Living Like a Dream" was awarded the Best Hallyu Drama OST at the Seoul International Drama Awards. 2013–2017: Solo Korean albums On January 17, 2013, Kim released his first solo Korean EP titled I/MINE, a rock-themed album which Kim penned all the lyrics. The album debuted at the top of both the Hanteo and Gaon weekly charts in Korea. It was also met with resounding success throughout Asia, topping Taiwan's Five Music's Korean and Japanese music chart, Japan's Shinseido weekly chart and Yin Yue Tai's V chart for K-pop. It also topped the iTunes rock charts in nine countries. Additionally, the pre-released single "One Kiss" and lead single "Mine" topped both domestic charts and foreign charts, including a German Asian music chart. On January 26 and 27, Kim held two days of special concerts at the KINTEX Ilsan to celebrate the launch of the album, as well as his birthday. Kim then released a repackaged version of his album, titled Y which consists of contains two additional tracks: “Only Love” and “Kiss B” . The album was met with success and sold 50,000 copies upon release. His first full-length Korean solo album, WWW was released on October 29, 2013. A single titled "Sunny Day" was released ahead of the album and topped the iTunes EP chart in Japan. A repackaged version of the album, WWW: Remove Makeup was subsequently released in January 2014 and included the title track "Heaven", a pop ballad with label-mate Gummy. To promote his first album, Kim embarked on his first Asia tour which traveled to regional countries like Japan, Taiwan and China. He sang "싫어도 (But I)" and "우연 (Coincidence)" for the drama Triangle (2014) in which he also starred. In July 2014, as a member of JYJ, they would release their first studio album in three years, Just Us. The band reached the music charts with the song, "Back Seat". Prior to his military enlistment in 2015, Kim recorded the songs for his second Korean solo album, No.X, which was released on February 12, 2016. It topped iTunes charts of 39 countries around the world upon its release, and was named the most popular K-pop album in China for 2016. He completed his military service in December 2016 and returned to the entertainment industry with his acting performance in Manhole (2017). 2018–present: Solo albums Kim released his first Japanese single "Sign / Your Love" on June 27, 2018. On October 24, 2018, he released his second Japanese single, "Defiance" / "Lavender". Both singles would be certified gold (selling over 100,000 copies) by the Recording Industry Association of Japan. Those two songs would be featured on his first Japanese album, Flawless Love which was released on April 10, 2019. The album would be the first time he topped the Oricon Weekly Album Rankings as a solo artist with its debut. He promoted the album in Japan during his tour entitled The Jaejoong Arena Tour 2019 – Flawless Love. His second Japanese album, Love Covers, was released on September 25, 2019, and debuted at number one on the Oricon Weekly Album Rankings. The album was awarded the Planning Award at the 61st Japan Record Awards and the "Best 3 Albums (Asia)" award at the 34th Japan Gold Disc Award. On January 14, 2020, Kim released his first Korean album in four years with the EP Love song (애요), along with its lead single "Tender Love". Following the EP's release, the cities and dates for his Asia Tour 2020 was announced. However, the tour dates were postponed due to COVID-19 concerns. He released his third Japanese single on March 10, 2020, "Brava!! Brava!! Brava!!" which debuted at number one on the Oricon weekly chart. It was the opening theme song for Smile Down the Runway. His third Japanese album, Love Covers II was released on July 29, 2020, and debuted at number one on the Oricon weekly chart. It was announced on August 30, 2020, that he would be singing the opening theme song for Noblesse, entitled "BREAKING DAWN" which was written and produced by Hyde. The song will have an English, Korean and Japanese version. His Japanese tour, J-JUN LIVE TOUR 2020~BREAKING DAWN~, originally planned for October 2020 was postponed until Spring of 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan. On September 18, 2020, Kim released "Even If I Call You" for the Mr. Heart (2020) web drama, marking his first Korean soundtrack performance in six years. He soon followed that Korean soundtrack performance with another as he released "Things We Should Love" for the soundtrack of the Korean drama Private Lives on October 28, 2020. In April 2022, Kim resumed activities in Japan with a live concert for his Japanese fanclub. He released a duet theme song with Kim Junsu, "六等星" for the television adaptation of the manga Waru - Who said it's not cool to work? on April 13, 2022. On September 13, 2022, Kim released his first Korean full-length album in six years titled Born Gene. His Asian Tour to promote the album includes stops in Seoul, Kuala Lumpur and Bangkok. He is also releasing a Japanese album, Fallinbow on November 9, 2022 which will then be followed up with a Japanese tour.On October 30, C-JeS Entertainment It was announced that Kim has urgently decided to cancel the Japan concert due to the aftermath of the Itaewon Halloween crowd crush. In April 2023, C-Jes Studio announced that Kim's contract would expire on April 22. on May 4, 2023, he announced the creation of his own agency iNKODE, which would produce new idols as well as his own activities including serving as the Chief Strategy Officer. Noh Hyun-tae, the former vice president of Cube Entertainment, will serve as the CEO. Acting career Prior to his debut as a singer, Kim worked as an extra, playing a soldier in film Taegeukgi. Along with the other members of TVXQ, he acted in television programmes, Banjun Theater and Vacation. In November 2009, Kim co-starred with Han Hyo-joo in the joint Korean-Japanese telecinema Heaven's Postman as a young man who delivers letters written by the living to the dead and helps lingering ghosts settle their earthly affairs. This was followed by a leading role in Fuji TV's Japanese television drama Sunao ni Narenakute in September 2010. In August 2011, he starred in his first South Korean television series, Protect the Boss with Choi Kang-hee and Ji Sung. He played the role of seemingly a perfect director known for his business acumen, who becomes frustrated and fight against the constraints in his life. In May 2012, he starred in historical fusion drama Dr. Jin with Song Seung-heon. He played the role of a high-ranking officer of the police force of Joseon Dynasty, who is an illegitimate son of the Joseon era's Prime Minister and his concubine. This was his first time acting in a sageuk, and he was praised for his performance. The same year, Kim made his big screen debut in the action comedy film Jackal is Coming playing a Hallyu star who is kidnapped by an assassin (played by labelmate Song Ji-hyo). His comical acting in the film drew positive reception from fans. In May 2014, Kim starred in MBC's drama Triangle as a man who grows up to become a lowlife gangster. His performance won the “Top Excellence Award, Actor” at the 7th Korea Drama Awards in October the same year. In January 2015, Kim starred in KBS2's thriller SPY as a genius analyst working for South Korea's National Intelligence Service. The drama is based on the Israeli drama The Gordin Cell, modified to depict North/South Korean relations. In 2017, Kim was cast in KBS2's time-slip drama Manhole, as a man who travels back and forth through time to stop a wedding from taking place. For the first time in 10 years, Kim returned to entertainment shows in South Korea with his appearance as a panelist for season 2 of Taste of Love in 2019. In 2020, Kim hosted a travel series where he ventured to Argentina alone to befriend strangers for Lifetime Korea's Travel Buddies which aired 10 episodes from February 8, 2020, to April 2, 2020. During a press conference, Kim stated, "We all shared similar worries. We mostly talked about the ways to unfold our life and attain goals. I believe many viewers would empathize with us. Through the conversations, I reflected upon my bygone days and deeply thought about my future. Thus, the trip was not merely about playing and entertaining to me". Kim is filming season 2 of Travel Buddies which will take place in South Korea. The airing is scheduled from the end of April to the beginning of May 2021. On March 29, 2021, Kim debuted his 6-episode variety show called ジェジュンJ! (Jaejoong J!) which was broadcast in Japan on channel BS SKY PerfecTV. In the summer of 2021, Kim will have a documentary released about his life and career called Jaejoong: On the Road, directed by John H. Lee. In 2022, Kim was cast as the lead male role in the Korean television drama Bad Memory Eraser co-starring Jin Se-yeon. He guest starred in the third episode of the television adaptation of the manga Waru - Who said it's not cool to work?, for which he also sang the theme song. Directing career Kim served as executive director for the Asian leg of JYJ's 2011 Worldwide Tour. He also participated in the directing team for the 2011 LG Whisen Rhythmic All Stars. Personal life Kim helped launch Moldir, a Korean fashion brand that opened in September 2013. C-JeS Entertainment, his management, noted that Kim "has his own distinctive fashion and artistic sense. He will take it to a more serious level with his new role as an art director". He owned the largest number of shares in the company and served as the art director until it "closed for restructuring" due to COVID-19 issues in March 2020. Kim is also known for his cooking ability and has released two cookbooks, Romantic Recipes volume 1 and volume 2. The first volume was released on July 25, 2018, and featured French cuisine and was written in Japanese. The second volume was released on August 7, 2019, featuring Korean dishes and was published in Korean and Japanese. He credits his mother, who owned a restaurant, with inspiring him to become skilled at cooking. Kim enlisted in the army on March 31, 2015, the first five weeks spent for his mandatory basic training at the 1st Infantry Division (Republic of Korea) recruit training center in Gwangtan-myeon, Paju, Gyeonggi province. He later ended up as the top recruit among the 244 in his batch, earning the Excellence Award during the graduation ceremony. He was under the 55th Infantry Division in Cheoin-gu, Yongin to serve as an active-duty soldier for 21 months and was also a member of the military band. He was discharged on December 30, 2016. On April 1, 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea, Kim posted on his Instagram account claiming that he has tested positive for COVID-19 due to him "[living] carelessly, disregarding all of the cautions provided by the government." An hour later, Kim posted an apology on his Instagram that the diagnosis was not true, which drew outrage from fans. He further explained his reasoning for the initial post was to raise awareness of the dangers of the virus, noting he personally knows individuals who have been infected and his father recently underwent lung cancer surgery. Discography Studio albums Extended plays Singles Music videos Soundtracks Composing and songwriting Filmography Film Television series Variety shows Tours Awards and nominations References External links Official Japanese site Category:JYJ members Category:1986 births Category:Japanese-language singers of South Korea Category:South Korean male idols Category:South Korean pop singers Category:South Korean male singers Category:South Korean male film actors Category:Living people Category:People from Gongju Category:South Korean male television actors Category:SM Entertainment artists Category:TVXQ members Category:Kyung Hee Cyber University alumni Category:Shorty Award winners
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C_88f03f8169c54916a0b815509a39fef1_0
J. R. Jayewardene
Junius Richard Jayewardene (Sinhalese: juniys ricdd jyvrdhn,Tamil: juunnniys ricctt jyvrtnnnaa; 17 September 1906 - 1 November 1996), commonly abbreviated in Sri Lanka as J. R., was the leader of Sri Lanka from 1977 to 1989, serving as Prime Minister from 1977 to 1978 and as the second President of Sri Lanka from 1978 till 1989. He was a leader of the nationalist movement in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) who served in a variety of cabinet positions in the decades following independence.
Legacy
On the economic front, Jayewardene's legacy was decisive. For thirty years after independence, Sri Lanka had struggled in vain with slow growth and high unemployment. Since Jayewardene's reforms, the island has maintained healthy growth despite the civil war. On the ethnic question, Jayewardene's legacy is bitterly divisive. When he took office, ethnic tensions were present but the country as a whole was at peace. By the end of his tenure, Sri Lanka was facing not one but two civil wars, both featuring unprecedented levels of violence and brutality. Though Jayewardene indeed did not take measures to stop the attack on Tamils, he was not opposed to them personally, only politically. One of his most esteemed friends was a supreme court judge of Tamil ethnicity, a member of an elite family and raised in Colombo, but who was strongly linked to his Jaffna Tamil heritage. This is but one close Tamil friend of the president's, and it is quite clear that he was not a racist but rather a man who knew how to exploit racism to win the majority. Highly respected in Japan for his call for peace and reconciliation with post-war Japan at the Peace Conference in San Francisco in 1951, a statue of Jayewardene was erected at the Kamakura Temple in the Kanagawa Prefecture in Japan in his honor. In 1988, the J.R Jayewardene Centre was established by the J.R Jayewardene Centre Act No. 77 of 1988 by Parliament at the childhood home of J. R. Jayewardene Dharmapala Mawatha, Colombo. It serves as archive for J.R Jayewardene's personal library and papers as well as papers, records from the Presidential Secretariat and gifts he received in his tenure as President. CANNOTANSWER
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Junius Richard Jayewardene (, ; 17 September 1906 – 1 November 1996), commonly abbreviated in Sri Lanka as J.R., was the leader of Sri Lanka from 1977 to 1989, serving as Prime Minister from 1977 to 1978 and as the second President of Sri Lanka from 1978 to 1989. He was a leader of the nationalist movement in Ceylon, the French spelling of (now Sri Lanka) who served in a variety of cabinet positions in the decades following independence. A longtime member of the United National Party, he led it to a landslide victory in 1977 and served as Prime Minister for half a year before becoming the country's first executive president under an amended constitution. A controversial figure in the history of Sri Lanka, while the open economic system he introduced in 1978 brought the country out of the economic turmoil Sri Lanka was facing as the result of the preceding closed economic policies, Jayawardene's actions, including his response to the Black July riots of 1983, have been accused of contributing to the beginnings of the Sri Lankan Civil War. Early life and marriage Childhood Born in Colombo to a prominent Ceylonese family with a strong association with the legal profession, Jayewardene was the eldest of twelve children, of Hon. Justice Eugene Wilfred Jayewardene KC, a prominent lawyer and Agnes Helen Don Philip Wijewardena daughter of Muhandiram Tudugalage Don Philip Wijewardena a wealthy timber merchant. He was known as Dickie within his family. His younger brothers included Hector Wilfred Jayewardene, QC and Rolly Jayewardene, FRCP. His uncles were the Colonel Theodore Jayewardene, Justice Valentine Jayewardene and the Press Baron D. R. Wijewardena. Raised by an English nanny, he received his primary education at Bishop's College, Colombo. Education and early career Jayewardene gained admission to Royal College, Colombo for his secondary education. There he excelled in sports, played for the college cricket team, debuting in the Royal-Thomian series in 1925; captained the rugby team in 1924 at the annual "Royal-Trinity Encounter" (which later became known as the Bradby Shield Encounter); he was the vice captain of the football team in 1924; and was a member of the boxing team winning sports colours. He was a Senior Cadet; Captain, Debating Team; Editor, College Magazine; first Secretary in Royal College Social Services League in 1921 and he became the head prefect in 1925. In later life, he served as president, Board of Control for Cricket in Sri Lanka; President, Sinhalese Sports Club; and Secretary, Royal College Union. Following the family tradition, Jayewardene entered the University College, Colombo in 1926 pursuing the Advocate's course, reading English, Latin, Logic and Economics for two years, after which he entered Ceylon Law College in 1928. He formed the College Union based on that of the Oxford Union with assistance of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike who had recently return to Ceylon. At the Ceylon Law College he won the Hector Jayewardene Gold Medal and the Walter Pereira Prize in 1929. During this time he worked as his father's Private Secretary, while latter served as a Puisne Justice of Supreme Court of Ceylon and in July 1929, he joined three others in forming a dining club they called The Honorable Society of Pushcannons, which was later renamed as the Priya Sangamaya. In 1931, he passed his advocates exams, starting his legal practice in the unofficial bar. Marriage On 28 February 1935, Jayewardene married the heiress Elina Bandara Rupasinghe, only daughter of Nancy Margaret Suriyabandara and Gilbert Leonard Rupasinghe, a notary public turned successful businessmen. Their only child Ravindra "Ravi" Vimal Jayewardene was born the year after. Having originally settled at Jayewardene's parents house Vaijantha, the Jayewardene's moved to their own house Braemar in 1938, where they remained the rest of their lives, when not holidaying at their holiday home in Mirissa. Early political career Jayewardene was attracted to national politics in his student years and developed strong nationalist views. He converted from Anglicanism to Buddhism and adopted the national dress as his formal attire. Jayewardene did not practice law for long. In 1943 he gave up his full time legal practice to become an activist in the Ceylon National Congress (CNC), which provided the organizational platform for Ceylon's nationalist movement (the island was officially renamed Sri Lanka in 1972). He became its Joint Secretary with Dudley Senanayake in 1939 and in 1940 he was elected to the Colombo Municipal Council from the New Bazaar Ward. State Council He was elected to the colonial legislature, the State Council in 1943 by winning the Kelaniya by-election following the resignation of incumbent D. B. Jayatilaka. His victory is credited to his use of an anti-Christian campaign against his opponent the nationalist E. W. Perera. During World War II, Jayewardene, along with other nationalists, contacted the Japanese and discussed a rebellion to drive the British from the island. In 1944, Jayewardene moved a motion in the State Council that Sinhala alone should replace English as the official language. First finance minister of Ceylon After joining the United National Party on its formation in 1946 as a founder member, he was reelected from the Kelaniya electorate in the 1st parliamentary election and was appointed by D. S. Senanayake as the Minister of Finance in the island's first Cabinet in 1947. Initiating post-independence reforms, he was instrumental in the establishment of the Central Bank of Ceylon under the guidance of the American economist John Exter. In 1951 Jayewardene was a member of the committee to select a National Anthem for Sri Lanka headed by Sir Edwin Wijeyeratne. The following year he was elected as the President of the Board of Control for Cricket in Ceylon. He played a major role in re-admitting Japan to the world community at the San Francisco Conference. Jayewardene struggled to balance the budget, faced with mounting government expenditures, particularly for rice subsidies. He was re-elected in 1952 parliamentary election and remained as finance minister. Minister of agriculture and food His 1953 proposal to cut the subsidies on which many poor people depended on for survival provoked fierce opposition and the 1953 Hartal campaign, and had to be called off. Following the resignation of Prime Minister Dudley Senanayake after the 1953 Hartal, the new Prime Minister Sir John Kotelawala appointed Jayewardene as minister of agriculture and food and leader of the house. Defeat and opposition Prime Minister Sir John Kotelawala called for early elections in 1956 with confidence that the United National Party would win the election. The 1956 parliamentary election saw the United National Party suffering a crushing defeat at the hands of the socialist and nationalist coalition led by the Sri Lanka Freedom Party headed by S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike. Jayewardene himself lost his parliamentary seat in Kelaniya to R. G. Senanayake, who had contested both his own constituency Dambadeniya and Jayewardene's constituency of Kelaniya with the objective of defeating the latter after he had forced Senanayake out of the party. Having lost his seat in parliament, Jayewardene pushed the party to accommodate nationalism and endorse the Sinhala Only Act, which was bitterly opposed by the island's minorities. When Bandaranaike came to an agreement with S.J.V. Chelvanayagam in 1957, to solve the outstanding problems of the minorities, Jayawardene led a "March on Kandy" against it, but was stopped at Imbulgoda S. D. Bandaranayake. The U.N.P.'s official organ the Siyarata subsequently ran several anti-Tamil articles, including a poem,containing an exhortation to kill Tamils in almost every line. Throughout the 1960s Jayewardene clashed over this issue with party leader Dudley Senanayake. Jayewardene felt the UNP should be willing to play the ethnic card, even if it meant losing the support of ethnic minorities. Minister of finance Jayewardene became the vice-president and chief organizer of the United National Party, which achieved a narrow win in the March 1960 parliamentary election, forming a government under Dudley Senanayake. Jayewardene having been elected to parliament once again from the Kelaniya electorate was appointed once again as minister of finance. The government lasted only three months and lost the July 1960 parliamentary election to the a new coalition lead by Bandaranayake's widow. Jayewardene remained in parliament in the opposition having been elected from the Colombo South electorate. Minister of state The United National Party won the next election in 1965 and formed a national government with the Sri Lanka Freedom Socialist Party led by C. P. de Silva. Jayewardene was reelected from the Colombo South electorate uncontested and was appointed Chief Government Whip. Senanayake appointed Jayewardene to his cabinet as Minister of State and Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Defence and External Affairs thereby becoming the de facto deputy prime minister. No government had given serious thought to the development of the tourism industry as an economically viable venture until the United National Party came to power in 1965 and the subject came under the purview of J. R. Jayewardene. Jayewardene saw tourism as a great industry capable of earning foreign exchange, providing avenues of mass employment, and creating a workforce which commanded high employment potential globally. He was determined to place this industry on a solid foundation, providing it a 'conceptional base and institutional support.' This was necessary to bring dynamism and cohesiveness into an industry, shunned by leaders in the past, ignored by investors who were inhibited by the lack of incentive to invest in projects which were uncertain of a satisfactory return. Jayewardene considered it essential for the government to give that assurance and with this objective in view he tabled the Ceylon Tourist Board Act No 10 of 1966 followed by Ceylon Hotels Corporation Act No 14 of 1966. At present the tourism industry in Sri Lanka is major foreign exchange earner with tourist resorts in almost all cities and an annual turnover of over 500,000 tourists are enjoying the tropical climes and beautiful beaches. Leader of the opposition In the general election of 1970 the UNP suffered a major defeat, when the SLFP and its newly formed coalition of leftist parties won almost 2/3 of the parliamentary seats. Once again elected to parliament J. R. Jayewardene took over as opposition leader and de facto leader of the UNP due to the ill health of Dudley Senanayake. After Senanayake's death in 1973, Jayewardene succeeded him as UNP leader. He gave the SLFP government his fullest support during the 1971 JVP Insurrection (even though his son was arrested by the police without charges) and in 1972 when the new constitution was enacted proclaiming Ceylon a republic. However he opposed the government in many moves, which he saw as short sighted and damaging for the country's economy in the long run. These included the adaptation of the closed economy and nationalization of many private business and lands. In 1976 he resigned from his seat in parliament in protest, when the government used its large majority in parliament to extend the duration of the government by two more years at the end of its six-year term without holding a general election or a referendum requesting public approval. Prime minister Tapping into growing anger with the SLFP government, Jayewardene led the UNP to a crushing victory in the 1977 election. The UNP won a staggering five-sixths of the seats in parliament—a total that was magnified by the first-past-the-post system, and one of the most lopsided victories ever recorded for a democratic election. Having been elected to parliament from the Colombo West Electoral District, Jayewardene became Prime Minister and formed a new government. Presidency Shortly thereafter, he amended the constitution of 1972 to make the presidency an executive post. The provisions of the amendment automatically made the incumbent prime minister—himself—president, and he was sworn in as president on 4 February 1978. He passed a new constitution on 31 August 1978 which came into operation on 7 September of the same year, which granted the president sweeping—and according to some critics, almost dictatorial—powers. He moved the legislative capital from Colombo to Sri Jayawardanapura Kotte. He had likely SLFP presidential nominee Sirimavo Bandaranaike stripped of her civic rights and barred from running for office for six years, based her decision in 1976 to extend the term of parliament. This ensured that the SLFP would be unable to field a strong candidate against him in the 1982 election, leaving his path to victory clear. This election was held under the 3rd amendment to the constitution which empowered the president to hold a Presidential Election anytime after the expiration of four years of his first term. He held a referendum to cancel the 1983 parliamentary elections, and allow the 1977 parliament to continue until 1989. He also passed a constitutional amendment barring from Parliament any MP who supported separatism; this effectively eliminated the main opposition party, the Tamil United Liberation Front. Economy There was a complete turnaround in economic policy under him as the previous policies had led to economic stagnation. He opened the heavily state-controlled economy to market forces, which many credit with subsequent economic growth. He opened up the economy and introduced more liberal economic policies emphasizing private sector led development. Policies were changed to create an environment conducive to foreign and local investment, with the objective of promoting export led growth shifting from previous policies of import substitution. To facilitate export oriented enterprises and to administer Export Processing Zones the Greater Colombo Economic Commission was established. Food subsidies were curtailed and targeted through a Food Stamps Scheme extended to the poor. The system of rice rationing was abolished. The Floor Price Scheme and the Fertilizer Subsidy Scheme were withdrawn. New welfare schemes, such as free school books and the Mahapola Scholarship Programme, were introduced. The rural credit programme expanded with the introduction of the New Comprehensive Rural Credit Scheme and several other medium and long-term credit schemes aimed at small farmers and the self-employed. He also launched large scale infrastructure development projects. He launched an extensive housing development program to meet housing shortages in urban and rural areas. The Accelerated Mahaweli Programme built new reservoirs and large hydropower projects such as the Kotmale, Victoria, Randenigala, Rantembe and Ulhitiya. Several Trans Basin Canals were also built to divert water to the Dry Zone. Conservation His administration launched several wildlife conservation initiatives. This included stopping commercial logging in rain forests such as Sinharaja Forest Reserve which was designated a World Biosphere Reserve in 1978 and a World Heritage Site in 1988. Tamil militancy and civil war Jayewardene moved to crack down on the growing activity of Tamil militant groups active since the mid-1970s. He passed the Prevention of Terrorism Act in 1979, giving police sweeping powers to arrest and detain. This only escalated the ethnic tensions. Jayewardene claimed he needed overwhelming power to deal with the militants. After the 1977 riots, the government made one concession to the Tamils; it lifted the policy of standardization for university admission that had driven many Tamil youths into militancy. The concession was regarded by the militants as too little and too late, and violent attacks continued, culminating in the ambush of Four Four Bravo which led to the Black July riots. Black July riots transformed the militancy into a civil war, with the swelling of ranks of the militant groups. By 1987, the LTTE had emerged as the dominant of the Tamil militant groups and had a free hand over the Jaffna Peninsula, limiting government activities in that region. Jayewardene's administration responded with a massive military operation codenamed Operation Liberation to eliminate the LTTE leadership. Jayewardene had to halt the offensive after pressure from India pushed for a negotiated solution to the conflict after executing Operation Poomalai. Jayewardene and Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi finally concluded the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord, which provided for devolution of powers to Tamil dominated regions, an Indian peacekeeping force in the north, and the demobilization of the LTTE. The LTTE rejected the accord, as it fell short of even an autonomous state. The provincial councils suggested by India did not have powers to control revenue, policing, or government-sponsored Sinhala settlements in Tamil provinces. Sinhala nationalists were outraged by both the devolution and the presence of foreign troops on Sri Lankan soil. An attempt was made on Jayewardene's life in 1987 as a result of his signing of the accord. Young, deprived Sinhalese soon rose in a revolt, organized by the Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (JVP) which was eventually put down by the government by 1989. Foreign policy In contrast with his predecessor, Sirimavo Bandaranaike, Jayewardena's foreign policy was aligned with American policies (earning him the nickname 'Yankie Dickie') much to the chagrin of India. Before Jayewardena's ascendency into the presidency, Sri Lanka had doors widely open to neighboring India. Jayewardena's tenure in the office restricted the doors to India a number of times; once an American company tender was granted over an Indian company tender. Post-presidency Jayewardene retired from politics in 1989 after his second term as president at the age of 82; his successor Ranasinghe Premadasa was formally inaugurated on 2 January 1989. He did not re-enter politics during his retirement even after the assassination of Premadasa in 1993. Death Jayewardene died of colon cancer, on 1 November 1996, aged 90, at a hospital in Colombo. He was survived by his wife, Elina, and his son, Ravi. Legacy On the economic front, Jayewardene's legacy is decisively a positive one. His economic policies are often credited with saving the Sri Lankan economy from ruin. For thirty years after independence, Sri Lanka had struggled in vain with slow growth and high unemployment. By opening up the country for extensive foreign investments, lifting price controls and promoting private enterprise (which had taken a heavy hit because of the policies of the preceding administration), Jayewardene ensured that the island maintained healthy growth despite the civil war. William K. Steven of The New York Times observes, ''President Jayawardene's economic policies were credited with transforming the economy from one of scarcity to one of abundance.'' On the ethnic question, Jayewardene's legacy is bitterly divisive. When he took office, ethnic tensions were present in the country but were not overtly volatile. But relations between the two ethnicities heavily deteriorated during his administration and his response to these tensions and the signs of conflict has been heavily criticized. President Jayewardene saw these differences between the Sinhalese and Tamils as being ''an unbridgeable gap''. Jayewardene said in an interview with the Daily Telegraph, 11 July 1983, "Really, if I starve the Tamils out, the Sinhala people will be happy" in reference to the widespread anti-Tamil sentiments among the Sinhalese at that time. Highly respected in Japan for his call for peace and reconciliation with post-war Japan at the Peace Conference in San Francisco in 1951, a statue of Jayewardene was erected at the Kamakura Temple in the Kanagawa Prefecture in Japan in his honor. J.R. Jayewardene Centre In 1988, the J.R. Jayewardene Centre was established by the J.R. Jayewardene Centre Act No. 77 of 1988 by Parliament at the childhood home of J. R. Jayewardene Dharmapala Mawatha, Colombo. It serves as archive for J.R. Jayewardene's personal library and papers as well as papers, records from the Presidential Secretariat and gifts he received in his tenure as president. Further reading De Silva, K. M., & Wriggins, W. H. (1988), J.R. Jayewardene of Sri Lanka: a political biography, University of Hawaii Press Jayewardene, J. R. (1988), My quest for peace: a collection of speeches on international affairs, Dissanayaka, T. D. S. A. (1977), J.R. Jayewardene of Sri Lanka: the inside story of how the Prime Minister led the UNP to victory in 1977, Swastika Press See also Jayewardene cabinet Braemar, Colombo Vaijantha List of political families in Sri Lanka 1987 grenade attack in the Sri Lankan Parliament References External links The JAYEWARDENE Ancestry The WIJEWARDENA Ancestry The Statesman Misunderstood Humble son of a humble President Website of the Parliament of Sri Lanka Official Website of United National Party (UNP) J.R. Jayewardene Centre 95th Birth Anniversary Remembering the most dominant Lankan political figure. by Padma Edirisinghe J.R. Jayewardene by Ananda Kannangara President JRJ and the Export Processing Zone By K. Godage Methek Kathawa Divaina Methek Kathawa Divaina Category:1906 births Category:1996 deaths Category:Presidents of Sri Lanka Category:Prime Ministers of Sri Lanka Category:Finance ministers of Sri Lanka Category:Leaders of the United National Party Category:Sri Lankan Buddhists Category:Leaders of the Opposition (Sri Lanka) Category:Sinhalese lawyers Category:Sri Lankan cricketers Category:Sri Lankan anti-communists Category:Sinhalese nationalists Category:Alumni of Bishop's College, Colombo Category:Alumni of Royal College, Colombo Category:Alumni of University of London Worldwide Category:Alumni of the University of London Category:Alumni of the Ceylon University College Category:Converts to Buddhism Category:Members of the 1st Parliament of Ceylon Category:Members of the 2nd Parliament of Ceylon Category:Members of the 4th Parliament of Ceylon Category:Members of the 5th Parliament of Ceylon Category:Members of the 6th Parliament of Ceylon Category:Members of the 7th Parliament of Ceylon Category:Members of the 8th Parliament of Sri Lanka Category:Sinhalese politicians Category:People from British Ceylon Category:People from Colombo Category:Alumni of Sri Lanka Law College Category:Defence ministers of Sri Lanka Category:Agriculture ministers of Sri Lanka Category:Housing ministers of Sri Lanka Category:Local government and provincial councils ministers of Sri Lanka JR Category:Secretaries-General of the Non-Aligned Movement Category:20th-century Sri Lankan lawyers Category:Parliamentary secretaries of Ceylon Category:Candidates in the 1982 Sri Lankan presidential election Category:Higher education ministers of Sri Lanka Category:Ceylonese people of World War II Category:Chief Government Whips (Sri Lanka) Category:Colombo municipal councillors Category:Deaths from cancer in Sri Lanka Category:Deaths from colorectal cancer Category:People of the Sri Lankan Civil War Category:Indian Peace Keeping Force
[ { "text": "JR, J. R. or Jr. may refer to:\n\n Jr. or Junior (suffix), a name suffix\n\nArts and entertainment\n J.R. (album), an album by Jim Bob\n J R, a 1975 novel written by William Gaddis\n \"Jr.\", a song by Codeine on the album Barely Real\n J. R. Ewing, a television character from Dallas\n JR Chandler, aka Adam Chandler Jr, a television character from All My Children\n Jornal da Record, a Brazilian news program on RecordTV\n\nBusinesses and organizations\n Aero California, Mexican airline (IATA code JR, 1960-2008)\n Japan Railways Group or the JR Group, the main operators of the Japanese railway network\n Jember railway station\n John Radcliffe Hospital\n Joy Air, Chinese airline (IATA code JR since 2008)\n\nPeople\n\nIn arts and entertainment\n JR (artist) (born 1983), French artist\n J.R. (musician) (born 1979), American Christian musician and producer\n JR (rapper) (born 1987), South African rapper and entrepreneur \n J. R. a pen-name of writer John Ruskin\n Jr., stage name of Park Jin-young, South Korean singer\n J.R. Martinez (born 1983), American actor, motivational speaker, and former U.S. Army soldier\n Jim Ross (born 1952), professional wrestling commentator\n JR (born 1995), stage name of Kim Jong-hyeon, South Korean singer and member of NU'EST\n\nIn politics\n Junius Richard Jayawardena (1906–1996), President of Sri Lanka from 1978–1989\n\nIn sport\n J. R. Bremer (born 1980), American-born naturalized Bosnian basketball player\n J. R. Redmond (born 1977), former NFL player for the New England Patriots\n J. R. Smith (born 1985), former NBA player\n Jeremy Roenick (born 1970), professional ice hockey player\n\nSee also\n\n \n Junior (disambiguation)\n JRJR (disambiguation)", "title": "JR" } ]
[ "J.R. Jayewardene left a significant economic legacy, with his reforms leading to healthy growth for Sri Lanka despite the civil war. However, his legacy on the ethnic front was bitterly divisive. While he was not against Tamils personally, he did not take measures to stop the attack on them, leading to escalated ethnic tensions and two civil wars by the end of his tenure. He was respected in Japan for his efforts towards peace and reconciliation post-war, and the J.R Jayewardene Centre was established in his honour, serving as an archive for his personal library, papers, records, and the gifts he received during his tenure as President.", "Jayewardene's economic legacy was decisive in that his reforms resulted in healthy growth for Sri Lanka after thirty years of the country struggling with slow growth and high unemployment.", "The context does not provide specific details about the reforms implemented by Jayewardene.", "Along with his legacy, J.R Jayewardene also left behind his personal library, papers, records from the Presidential Secretariat, and the gifts he received during his tenure as President. These were all preserved at the J.R Jayewardene Centre, which was established by the Parliament at his childhood home. There is also a statue of Jayewardene in Japan in his honor owing to his efforts for peace and reconciliation with post-war Japan.", "The text does not provide information on when J.R. Jayewardene died.", "Some interesting aspects of this article include the significant impact of Jayewardene's economic reforms on Sri Lanka's economic growth and the controversial nature of his approach to ethnicity and politics, which led to high levels of violence and civil war. His personal relationships, such as his friendship with a Tamil Supreme Court judge, provide an interesting contrast to his political actions. Another intriguing aspect is his international reputation, with him being highly respected in Japan to the point of having a statue erected in his honor. The establishment of the J.R Jayewardene centre which holds his personal archives also adds a personal element to his legacy.", "The J.R Jayewardene Centre was established by the Parliament of Sri Lanka. It was set up at the childhood home of J. R. Jayewardene in Colombo as per the J.R Jayewardene Centre Act No. 77 of 1988." ]
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C_88f03f8169c54916a0b815509a39fef1_1
J. R. Jayewardene
Junius Richard Jayewardene (Sinhalese: juniys ricdd jyvrdhn,Tamil: juunnniys ricctt jyvrtnnnaa; 17 September 1906 - 1 November 1996), commonly abbreviated in Sri Lanka as J. R., was the leader of Sri Lanka from 1977 to 1989, serving as Prime Minister from 1977 to 1978 and as the second President of Sri Lanka from 1978 till 1989. He was a leader of the nationalist movement in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) who served in a variety of cabinet positions in the decades following independence.
Early life and education
Born to a prominent Ceylonese family with a strong association with the legal profession, Jayewardene was the eldest of 11 children, of Hon. Justice Eugene Wilfred Jayewardene KC, a Chief Justice of Ceylon and Agnes Helen Don Philip Wijewardena daughter of Tudugalage Muhandiram Don Philip Wijewardena a wealthy merchant. His younger brothers included Dr Hector Wilfred Jayewardene, QC and Dr Rolly Jayewardene, FRCP. His uncles were the Colonel Theodore Jayewarden, Justice Valentine Jayewardene and the Press Baron D. R. Wijewardena. Raised by an English nanny, he received his primary education at Bishop's College, Colombo and attended Royal College, Colombo for his secondary education. At Royal College he played for the college cricket team, debuting in the Royal-Thomian series in 1925, and captained the rugby team at the annual "Royal-Trinity Encounter" (which later became known as the Bradby Shield Encounter). Excelling in both studies, sports and Club and Societies He was the first Chairman/Secretary in Royal College Social Services League in 1921 and he became the head prefect in 1925 and also represented the school in football and boxing; he was also a member of the cadet corps. He would later serve as the Secretary of the Royal College Union. Jayewardene entered the University College, Colombo (University of London), in 1926 to read English, Latin, Logic and Economics; he attained a distinguished academic record and showed a keen interest in sports. In 1928 he transferred law by entering Colombo Law College and passed out as an advocate, starting his practice in the unofficial bar, for a brief period. Jayewardene converted from Christianity to Buddhism in his youth. CANNOTANSWER
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Junius Richard Jayewardene (, ; 17 September 1906 – 1 November 1996), commonly abbreviated in Sri Lanka as J.R., was the leader of Sri Lanka from 1977 to 1989, serving as Prime Minister from 1977 to 1978 and as the second President of Sri Lanka from 1978 to 1989. He was a leader of the nationalist movement in Ceylon, the French spelling of (now Sri Lanka) who served in a variety of cabinet positions in the decades following independence. A longtime member of the United National Party, he led it to a landslide victory in 1977 and served as Prime Minister for half a year before becoming the country's first executive president under an amended constitution. A controversial figure in the history of Sri Lanka, while the open economic system he introduced in 1978 brought the country out of the economic turmoil Sri Lanka was facing as the result of the preceding closed economic policies, Jayawardene's actions, including his response to the Black July riots of 1983, have been accused of contributing to the beginnings of the Sri Lankan Civil War. Early life and marriage Childhood Born in Colombo to a prominent Ceylonese family with a strong association with the legal profession, Jayewardene was the eldest of twelve children, of Hon. Justice Eugene Wilfred Jayewardene KC, a prominent lawyer and Agnes Helen Don Philip Wijewardena daughter of Muhandiram Tudugalage Don Philip Wijewardena a wealthy timber merchant. He was known as Dickie within his family. His younger brothers included Hector Wilfred Jayewardene, QC and Rolly Jayewardene, FRCP. His uncles were the Colonel Theodore Jayewardene, Justice Valentine Jayewardene and the Press Baron D. R. Wijewardena. Raised by an English nanny, he received his primary education at Bishop's College, Colombo. Education and early career Jayewardene gained admission to Royal College, Colombo for his secondary education. There he excelled in sports, played for the college cricket team, debuting in the Royal-Thomian series in 1925; captained the rugby team in 1924 at the annual "Royal-Trinity Encounter" (which later became known as the Bradby Shield Encounter); he was the vice captain of the football team in 1924; and was a member of the boxing team winning sports colours. He was a Senior Cadet; Captain, Debating Team; Editor, College Magazine; first Secretary in Royal College Social Services League in 1921 and he became the head prefect in 1925. In later life, he served as president, Board of Control for Cricket in Sri Lanka; President, Sinhalese Sports Club; and Secretary, Royal College Union. Following the family tradition, Jayewardene entered the University College, Colombo in 1926 pursuing the Advocate's course, reading English, Latin, Logic and Economics for two years, after which he entered Ceylon Law College in 1928. He formed the College Union based on that of the Oxford Union with assistance of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike who had recently return to Ceylon. At the Ceylon Law College he won the Hector Jayewardene Gold Medal and the Walter Pereira Prize in 1929. During this time he worked as his father's Private Secretary, while latter served as a Puisne Justice of Supreme Court of Ceylon and in July 1929, he joined three others in forming a dining club they called The Honorable Society of Pushcannons, which was later renamed as the Priya Sangamaya. In 1931, he passed his advocates exams, starting his legal practice in the unofficial bar. Marriage On 28 February 1935, Jayewardene married the heiress Elina Bandara Rupasinghe, only daughter of Nancy Margaret Suriyabandara and Gilbert Leonard Rupasinghe, a notary public turned successful businessmen. Their only child Ravindra "Ravi" Vimal Jayewardene was born the year after. Having originally settled at Jayewardene's parents house Vaijantha, the Jayewardene's moved to their own house Braemar in 1938, where they remained the rest of their lives, when not holidaying at their holiday home in Mirissa. Early political career Jayewardene was attracted to national politics in his student years and developed strong nationalist views. He converted from Anglicanism to Buddhism and adopted the national dress as his formal attire. Jayewardene did not practice law for long. In 1943 he gave up his full time legal practice to become an activist in the Ceylon National Congress (CNC), which provided the organizational platform for Ceylon's nationalist movement (the island was officially renamed Sri Lanka in 1972). He became its Joint Secretary with Dudley Senanayake in 1939 and in 1940 he was elected to the Colombo Municipal Council from the New Bazaar Ward. State Council He was elected to the colonial legislature, the State Council in 1943 by winning the Kelaniya by-election following the resignation of incumbent D. B. Jayatilaka. His victory is credited to his use of an anti-Christian campaign against his opponent the nationalist E. W. Perera. During World War II, Jayewardene, along with other nationalists, contacted the Japanese and discussed a rebellion to drive the British from the island. In 1944, Jayewardene moved a motion in the State Council that Sinhala alone should replace English as the official language. First finance minister of Ceylon After joining the United National Party on its formation in 1946 as a founder member, he was reelected from the Kelaniya electorate in the 1st parliamentary election and was appointed by D. S. Senanayake as the Minister of Finance in the island's first Cabinet in 1947. Initiating post-independence reforms, he was instrumental in the establishment of the Central Bank of Ceylon under the guidance of the American economist John Exter. In 1951 Jayewardene was a member of the committee to select a National Anthem for Sri Lanka headed by Sir Edwin Wijeyeratne. The following year he was elected as the President of the Board of Control for Cricket in Ceylon. He played a major role in re-admitting Japan to the world community at the San Francisco Conference. Jayewardene struggled to balance the budget, faced with mounting government expenditures, particularly for rice subsidies. He was re-elected in 1952 parliamentary election and remained as finance minister. Minister of agriculture and food His 1953 proposal to cut the subsidies on which many poor people depended on for survival provoked fierce opposition and the 1953 Hartal campaign, and had to be called off. Following the resignation of Prime Minister Dudley Senanayake after the 1953 Hartal, the new Prime Minister Sir John Kotelawala appointed Jayewardene as minister of agriculture and food and leader of the house. Defeat and opposition Prime Minister Sir John Kotelawala called for early elections in 1956 with confidence that the United National Party would win the election. The 1956 parliamentary election saw the United National Party suffering a crushing defeat at the hands of the socialist and nationalist coalition led by the Sri Lanka Freedom Party headed by S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike. Jayewardene himself lost his parliamentary seat in Kelaniya to R. G. Senanayake, who had contested both his own constituency Dambadeniya and Jayewardene's constituency of Kelaniya with the objective of defeating the latter after he had forced Senanayake out of the party. Having lost his seat in parliament, Jayewardene pushed the party to accommodate nationalism and endorse the Sinhala Only Act, which was bitterly opposed by the island's minorities. When Bandaranaike came to an agreement with S.J.V. Chelvanayagam in 1957, to solve the outstanding problems of the minorities, Jayawardene led a "March on Kandy" against it, but was stopped at Imbulgoda S. D. Bandaranayake. The U.N.P.'s official organ the Siyarata subsequently ran several anti-Tamil articles, including a poem,containing an exhortation to kill Tamils in almost every line. Throughout the 1960s Jayewardene clashed over this issue with party leader Dudley Senanayake. Jayewardene felt the UNP should be willing to play the ethnic card, even if it meant losing the support of ethnic minorities. Minister of finance Jayewardene became the vice-president and chief organizer of the United National Party, which achieved a narrow win in the March 1960 parliamentary election, forming a government under Dudley Senanayake. Jayewardene having been elected to parliament once again from the Kelaniya electorate was appointed once again as minister of finance. The government lasted only three months and lost the July 1960 parliamentary election to the a new coalition lead by Bandaranayake's widow. Jayewardene remained in parliament in the opposition having been elected from the Colombo South electorate. Minister of state The United National Party won the next election in 1965 and formed a national government with the Sri Lanka Freedom Socialist Party led by C. P. de Silva. Jayewardene was reelected from the Colombo South electorate uncontested and was appointed Chief Government Whip. Senanayake appointed Jayewardene to his cabinet as Minister of State and Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Defence and External Affairs thereby becoming the de facto deputy prime minister. No government had given serious thought to the development of the tourism industry as an economically viable venture until the United National Party came to power in 1965 and the subject came under the purview of J. R. Jayewardene. Jayewardene saw tourism as a great industry capable of earning foreign exchange, providing avenues of mass employment, and creating a workforce which commanded high employment potential globally. He was determined to place this industry on a solid foundation, providing it a 'conceptional base and institutional support.' This was necessary to bring dynamism and cohesiveness into an industry, shunned by leaders in the past, ignored by investors who were inhibited by the lack of incentive to invest in projects which were uncertain of a satisfactory return. Jayewardene considered it essential for the government to give that assurance and with this objective in view he tabled the Ceylon Tourist Board Act No 10 of 1966 followed by Ceylon Hotels Corporation Act No 14 of 1966. At present the tourism industry in Sri Lanka is major foreign exchange earner with tourist resorts in almost all cities and an annual turnover of over 500,000 tourists are enjoying the tropical climes and beautiful beaches. Leader of the opposition In the general election of 1970 the UNP suffered a major defeat, when the SLFP and its newly formed coalition of leftist parties won almost 2/3 of the parliamentary seats. Once again elected to parliament J. R. Jayewardene took over as opposition leader and de facto leader of the UNP due to the ill health of Dudley Senanayake. After Senanayake's death in 1973, Jayewardene succeeded him as UNP leader. He gave the SLFP government his fullest support during the 1971 JVP Insurrection (even though his son was arrested by the police without charges) and in 1972 when the new constitution was enacted proclaiming Ceylon a republic. However he opposed the government in many moves, which he saw as short sighted and damaging for the country's economy in the long run. These included the adaptation of the closed economy and nationalization of many private business and lands. In 1976 he resigned from his seat in parliament in protest, when the government used its large majority in parliament to extend the duration of the government by two more years at the end of its six-year term without holding a general election or a referendum requesting public approval. Prime minister Tapping into growing anger with the SLFP government, Jayewardene led the UNP to a crushing victory in the 1977 election. The UNP won a staggering five-sixths of the seats in parliament—a total that was magnified by the first-past-the-post system, and one of the most lopsided victories ever recorded for a democratic election. Having been elected to parliament from the Colombo West Electoral District, Jayewardene became Prime Minister and formed a new government. Presidency Shortly thereafter, he amended the constitution of 1972 to make the presidency an executive post. The provisions of the amendment automatically made the incumbent prime minister—himself—president, and he was sworn in as president on 4 February 1978. He passed a new constitution on 31 August 1978 which came into operation on 7 September of the same year, which granted the president sweeping—and according to some critics, almost dictatorial—powers. He moved the legislative capital from Colombo to Sri Jayawardanapura Kotte. He had likely SLFP presidential nominee Sirimavo Bandaranaike stripped of her civic rights and barred from running for office for six years, based her decision in 1976 to extend the term of parliament. This ensured that the SLFP would be unable to field a strong candidate against him in the 1982 election, leaving his path to victory clear. This election was held under the 3rd amendment to the constitution which empowered the president to hold a Presidential Election anytime after the expiration of four years of his first term. He held a referendum to cancel the 1983 parliamentary elections, and allow the 1977 parliament to continue until 1989. He also passed a constitutional amendment barring from Parliament any MP who supported separatism; this effectively eliminated the main opposition party, the Tamil United Liberation Front. Economy There was a complete turnaround in economic policy under him as the previous policies had led to economic stagnation. He opened the heavily state-controlled economy to market forces, which many credit with subsequent economic growth. He opened up the economy and introduced more liberal economic policies emphasizing private sector led development. Policies were changed to create an environment conducive to foreign and local investment, with the objective of promoting export led growth shifting from previous policies of import substitution. To facilitate export oriented enterprises and to administer Export Processing Zones the Greater Colombo Economic Commission was established. Food subsidies were curtailed and targeted through a Food Stamps Scheme extended to the poor. The system of rice rationing was abolished. The Floor Price Scheme and the Fertilizer Subsidy Scheme were withdrawn. New welfare schemes, such as free school books and the Mahapola Scholarship Programme, were introduced. The rural credit programme expanded with the introduction of the New Comprehensive Rural Credit Scheme and several other medium and long-term credit schemes aimed at small farmers and the self-employed. He also launched large scale infrastructure development projects. He launched an extensive housing development program to meet housing shortages in urban and rural areas. The Accelerated Mahaweli Programme built new reservoirs and large hydropower projects such as the Kotmale, Victoria, Randenigala, Rantembe and Ulhitiya. Several Trans Basin Canals were also built to divert water to the Dry Zone. Conservation His administration launched several wildlife conservation initiatives. This included stopping commercial logging in rain forests such as Sinharaja Forest Reserve which was designated a World Biosphere Reserve in 1978 and a World Heritage Site in 1988. Tamil militancy and civil war Jayewardene moved to crack down on the growing activity of Tamil militant groups active since the mid-1970s. He passed the Prevention of Terrorism Act in 1979, giving police sweeping powers to arrest and detain. This only escalated the ethnic tensions. Jayewardene claimed he needed overwhelming power to deal with the militants. After the 1977 riots, the government made one concession to the Tamils; it lifted the policy of standardization for university admission that had driven many Tamil youths into militancy. The concession was regarded by the militants as too little and too late, and violent attacks continued, culminating in the ambush of Four Four Bravo which led to the Black July riots. Black July riots transformed the militancy into a civil war, with the swelling of ranks of the militant groups. By 1987, the LTTE had emerged as the dominant of the Tamil militant groups and had a free hand over the Jaffna Peninsula, limiting government activities in that region. Jayewardene's administration responded with a massive military operation codenamed Operation Liberation to eliminate the LTTE leadership. Jayewardene had to halt the offensive after pressure from India pushed for a negotiated solution to the conflict after executing Operation Poomalai. Jayewardene and Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi finally concluded the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord, which provided for devolution of powers to Tamil dominated regions, an Indian peacekeeping force in the north, and the demobilization of the LTTE. The LTTE rejected the accord, as it fell short of even an autonomous state. The provincial councils suggested by India did not have powers to control revenue, policing, or government-sponsored Sinhala settlements in Tamil provinces. Sinhala nationalists were outraged by both the devolution and the presence of foreign troops on Sri Lankan soil. An attempt was made on Jayewardene's life in 1987 as a result of his signing of the accord. Young, deprived Sinhalese soon rose in a revolt, organized by the Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (JVP) which was eventually put down by the government by 1989. Foreign policy In contrast with his predecessor, Sirimavo Bandaranaike, Jayewardena's foreign policy was aligned with American policies (earning him the nickname 'Yankie Dickie') much to the chagrin of India. Before Jayewardena's ascendency into the presidency, Sri Lanka had doors widely open to neighboring India. Jayewardena's tenure in the office restricted the doors to India a number of times; once an American company tender was granted over an Indian company tender. Post-presidency Jayewardene retired from politics in 1989 after his second term as president at the age of 82; his successor Ranasinghe Premadasa was formally inaugurated on 2 January 1989. He did not re-enter politics during his retirement even after the assassination of Premadasa in 1993. Death Jayewardene died of colon cancer, on 1 November 1996, aged 90, at a hospital in Colombo. He was survived by his wife, Elina, and his son, Ravi. Legacy On the economic front, Jayewardene's legacy is decisively a positive one. His economic policies are often credited with saving the Sri Lankan economy from ruin. For thirty years after independence, Sri Lanka had struggled in vain with slow growth and high unemployment. By opening up the country for extensive foreign investments, lifting price controls and promoting private enterprise (which had taken a heavy hit because of the policies of the preceding administration), Jayewardene ensured that the island maintained healthy growth despite the civil war. William K. Steven of The New York Times observes, ''President Jayawardene's economic policies were credited with transforming the economy from one of scarcity to one of abundance.'' On the ethnic question, Jayewardene's legacy is bitterly divisive. When he took office, ethnic tensions were present in the country but were not overtly volatile. But relations between the two ethnicities heavily deteriorated during his administration and his response to these tensions and the signs of conflict has been heavily criticized. President Jayewardene saw these differences between the Sinhalese and Tamils as being ''an unbridgeable gap''. Jayewardene said in an interview with the Daily Telegraph, 11 July 1983, "Really, if I starve the Tamils out, the Sinhala people will be happy" in reference to the widespread anti-Tamil sentiments among the Sinhalese at that time. Highly respected in Japan for his call for peace and reconciliation with post-war Japan at the Peace Conference in San Francisco in 1951, a statue of Jayewardene was erected at the Kamakura Temple in the Kanagawa Prefecture in Japan in his honor. J.R. Jayewardene Centre In 1988, the J.R. Jayewardene Centre was established by the J.R. Jayewardene Centre Act No. 77 of 1988 by Parliament at the childhood home of J. R. Jayewardene Dharmapala Mawatha, Colombo. It serves as archive for J.R. Jayewardene's personal library and papers as well as papers, records from the Presidential Secretariat and gifts he received in his tenure as president. Further reading De Silva, K. M., & Wriggins, W. H. (1988), J.R. Jayewardene of Sri Lanka: a political biography, University of Hawaii Press Jayewardene, J. R. (1988), My quest for peace: a collection of speeches on international affairs, Dissanayaka, T. D. S. A. (1977), J.R. Jayewardene of Sri Lanka: the inside story of how the Prime Minister led the UNP to victory in 1977, Swastika Press See also Jayewardene cabinet Braemar, Colombo Vaijantha List of political families in Sri Lanka 1987 grenade attack in the Sri Lankan Parliament References External links The JAYEWARDENE Ancestry The WIJEWARDENA Ancestry The Statesman Misunderstood Humble son of a humble President Website of the Parliament of Sri Lanka Official Website of United National Party (UNP) J.R. Jayewardene Centre 95th Birth Anniversary Remembering the most dominant Lankan political figure. by Padma Edirisinghe J.R. Jayewardene by Ananda Kannangara President JRJ and the Export Processing Zone By K. Godage Methek Kathawa Divaina Methek Kathawa Divaina Category:1906 births Category:1996 deaths Category:Presidents of Sri Lanka Category:Prime Ministers of Sri Lanka Category:Finance ministers of Sri Lanka Category:Leaders of the United National Party Category:Sri Lankan Buddhists Category:Leaders of the Opposition (Sri Lanka) Category:Sinhalese lawyers Category:Sri Lankan cricketers Category:Sri Lankan anti-communists Category:Sinhalese nationalists Category:Alumni of Bishop's College, Colombo Category:Alumni of Royal College, Colombo Category:Alumni of University of London Worldwide Category:Alumni of the University of London Category:Alumni of the Ceylon University College Category:Converts to Buddhism Category:Members of the 1st Parliament of Ceylon Category:Members of the 2nd Parliament of Ceylon Category:Members of the 4th Parliament of Ceylon Category:Members of the 5th Parliament of Ceylon Category:Members of the 6th Parliament of Ceylon Category:Members of the 7th Parliament of Ceylon Category:Members of the 8th Parliament of Sri Lanka Category:Sinhalese politicians Category:People from British Ceylon Category:People from Colombo Category:Alumni of Sri Lanka Law College Category:Defence ministers of Sri Lanka Category:Agriculture ministers of Sri Lanka Category:Housing ministers of Sri Lanka Category:Local government and provincial councils ministers of Sri Lanka JR Category:Secretaries-General of the Non-Aligned Movement Category:20th-century Sri Lankan lawyers Category:Parliamentary secretaries of Ceylon Category:Candidates in the 1982 Sri Lankan presidential election Category:Higher education ministers of Sri Lanka Category:Ceylonese people of World War II Category:Chief Government Whips (Sri Lanka) Category:Colombo municipal councillors Category:Deaths from cancer in Sri Lanka Category:Deaths from colorectal cancer Category:People of the Sri Lankan Civil War Category:Indian Peace Keeping Force
[ { "text": "JR, J. R. or Jr. may refer to:\n\n Jr. or Junior (suffix), a name suffix\n\nArts and entertainment\n J.R. (album), an album by Jim Bob\n J R, a 1975 novel written by William Gaddis\n \"Jr.\", a song by Codeine on the album Barely Real\n J. R. Ewing, a television character from Dallas\n JR Chandler, aka Adam Chandler Jr, a television character from All My Children\n Jornal da Record, a Brazilian news program on RecordTV\n\nBusinesses and organizations\n Aero California, Mexican airline (IATA code JR, 1960-2008)\n Japan Railways Group or the JR Group, the main operators of the Japanese railway network\n Jember railway station\n John Radcliffe Hospital\n Joy Air, Chinese airline (IATA code JR since 2008)\n\nPeople\n\nIn arts and entertainment\n JR (artist) (born 1983), French artist\n J.R. (musician) (born 1979), American Christian musician and producer\n JR (rapper) (born 1987), South African rapper and entrepreneur \n J. R. a pen-name of writer John Ruskin\n Jr., stage name of Park Jin-young, South Korean singer\n J.R. Martinez (born 1983), American actor, motivational speaker, and former U.S. Army soldier\n Jim Ross (born 1952), professional wrestling commentator\n JR (born 1995), stage name of Kim Jong-hyeon, South Korean singer and member of NU'EST\n\nIn politics\n Junius Richard Jayawardena (1906–1996), President of Sri Lanka from 1978–1989\n\nIn sport\n J. R. Bremer (born 1980), American-born naturalized Bosnian basketball player\n J. R. Redmond (born 1977), former NFL player for the New England Patriots\n J. R. Smith (born 1985), former NBA player\n Jeremy Roenick (born 1970), professional ice hockey player\n\nSee also\n\n \n Junior (disambiguation)\n JRJR (disambiguation)", "title": "JR" } ]
[ "The text does not provide information on when Jayewardene was born.", "The text does not provide specific information on where Jayewardene grew up.", "Jayewardene received his primary education at Bishop's College, Colombo and attended Royal College, Colombo for his secondary education. He later attended the University College, Colombo (University of London) and also studied at Colombo Law College.", "The text does not provide information on Jayewardene attending any other schools beyond Bishop's College, Royal College, University College, Colombo, and Colombo Law College.", "The text does not provide information on Jayewardene studying anywhere beyond Bishop's College, Royal College, University College, Colombo, and Colombo Law College.", "In his early life, Jayewardene received his primary education at Bishop's College, Colombo and attended Royal College, Colombo for his secondary education. At Royal College, he played for the college cricket team, debuted in the Royal-Thomian series in 1925, was the captain of the rugby team, excelled in studies and sports, and was involved in clubs and societies. Jayewardene was also the first Chairman/Secretary in Royal College Social Services League in 1921, became the head prefect in 1925, represented his school in football, boxing, and was a member of the cadet corps. He later served as the Secretary of the Royal College Union. He then entered the University College, Colombo, in 1926 to study English, Latin, Logic, and Economics. In 1928, he transferred to law by entering Colombo Law College and became an advocate, starting his practice in the unofficial bar, for a brief period. Jayewardene converted from Christianity to Buddhism during his youth.", "Jayewardene's parents were Hon. Justice Eugene Wilfred Jayewardene KC, a Chief Justice of Ceylon, and Agnes Helen Don Philip Wijewardena, the daughter of Tudugalage Muhandiram Don Philip Wijewardena, a wealthy merchant." ]
[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "No" ]
C_2136d6e92025474f8d7627b714c4784d_1
Cardiff RFC
Cardiff Rugby Football Club (Welsh: Clwb Rygbi Caerdydd) is a rugby union football club based in Cardiff, the capital city of Wales. The club was founded in 1876 and played their first few matches at Sophia Gardens, but soon relocated to Cardiff Arms Park where they have been based ever since. They built a reputation as one of the great clubs in world rugby largely through a series of wins against international touring sides.
Rebel season
In 1990, the unofficial Welsh championship was replaced by a league structure involving promotion and relegation. Cardiff competed in top flight but could only manage a fourth-place finish in 1990-91, and exited the Cup at the quarter-final stage. The season did involve some highlights however, such as beating league runners-up and Cup champions Llanelli 43-0 at the Arms Park and beating league champions Neath 18-4 away in the last game of the season. 1991-92 was possibly the club's worst-ever season, beset with disagreements between coach Alan Phillips and manager John Scott. Cardiff crashed out of the Cup before the quarter-final stage and lost at home to Maesteg and Newbridge in the league. Their final league finish was ninth, which would have led to their relegation but the WRU decided mid-season to switch to a 12-team Premiership, therefore saving Cardiff and Maesteg from relegation. Both Scott and Phillips resigned following the season. Australian Alex Evans took over at Cardiff as coach for the 1992-93 season, bringing in former Arms Park legend Terry Holmes and famous ex-Pontypool front-row member Charlie Faulkner as assistants, and helped a turnaround in the club's fortunes, winning their first seven matches of the season and 20 of their first 22 to top the league in the new year. This run came to an end on 23 January; they were knocked out of the Schweppes Cup by St Peter's, who were fourth from bottom of Division Four. The Blue and Blacks only lost four league games all season though, but were unlucky to be competing against Llanelli in the league, who won the double and were considered the best club team in the UK after beating Australia 13-9. In 1993-94 they slid back to fourth in the league but won the SWALEC Cup (renamed from Schweppes Cup for sponsorship reasons) by beating Llanelli, who'd won the tournament for the last three years running. The score in the final was 15-8, with tries from Mike Rayer and club captain centre Mike Hall and kicks from fly-half Adrian Davies. In 1994-95 Cardiff won the final league title of the amateur era in Wales, as well as reaching the semi-finals of the Cup before going down 16-9 to Swansea. With professionalism dawned a new era at Cardiff RFC. It allowed them to sign legendary outside-half Jonathan Davies back from rugby league, and another major change was that there would be a European Cup, sponsored by Heineken, containing teams from France, Ireland, Wales, Italy and Romania (England and Scotland did not join for another year). Cardiff progressed to the knock-out stages in November by drawing with Bordeaux-Begles and beating Ulster. December saw the end of the Alex Evans era, as he departed to return home to Australia. Terry Holmes took charge of the club, and in his first full match the Blue and Blacks beat Leinster away to progress to the first Heineken Cup final. The game was played at Cardiff Arms Park in front of a crowd of 21,800, where despite 18 points from the boot of Adrian Davies, Cardiff were beaten 21-18 by Toulouse after extra time. Cardiff, despite not losing a league game under Holmes, were runners-up on the domestic front as well, finishing level with Neath on points but coming second on try count. After the end of the 95-96 season Peter Thomas invested money into the club allowing them to sign Rob Howley, Dai Young back from rugby league, Leigh Davies, Gwyn Jones and Justin Thomas for the cost of around PS2million. Internationals Mark Ring, Steven Blackmore and the half-backs that had started the Heineken Cup final, Andy Moore and Adrian Davies all departed. Despite all the new signings, Cardiff lost their first three games of the season, and the 1996/97 season was in many respects worse than the year before - Cardiff were knocked out in the Heineken Cup semi-finals by eventual champions Brive, and in the Welsh Premier Division they fell to third, behind champions Pontypridd and Llanelli. However, after Alex Evans returned to head up the coaching team, that season did lead to some silverware, as Cardiff beat Llanelli 36-26 in the semi-final and Swansea 33-26 in the final of the SWALEC Cup. Grzegorz Kacala and Tony Rees, both forwards part of the Brive team that knocked Cardiff out of the Heineken Cup and went on to win it, were signed for 1997/98 along with Wales internationals Steve Williams and Spencer John (Gareth Thomas also arrived in December from Bridgend). Despite Cardiff's difficulties, compounded by those of the national team, Howley and Young were both chosen to go on 1997 Lions tour to South Africa. Howley had to return home early due to injury and neither of the two Cardiff players started a Test match. In the 1997/98 season, Cardiff were Wales's sole representative in the quarter finals of the Heineken Cup, and were beaten away in rematch of the previous year's quarter-final, by Bath, who would go on to win the tournament. However, their domestic cup campaign ended before the quarter final stage, losing 24-9 to Ebbw Vale, and they finished runners up to Swansea in the League. Following this season, Alex Evans left Cardiff for Australia for the second time and Terry Holmes was put back in charge. Cardiff and Swansea had proposed the formation of a British league, containing the top division English clubs, the two Scottish regional sides (Edinburgh and Glasgow) and four Welsh clubs (seeing as Cardiff had got further than any other Welsh club in every Heineken Cup so far, Swansea were the league champions and they represented the two largest urban areas in Wales, it was assumed two of these clubs would be Cardiff and Swansea). Both the RFU and the English clubs had agreed to this, but the WRU refused due to an ongoing legal battle with the English clubs over the negotiation of commercial rights (which would lead to the English clubs not participating in the 1998-99 Heineken Cup). Instead, the WRU demanded all top-flight clubs sign 10-year loyalty agreements, where they were guaranteed top-flight status and committed themselves to staying within the Welsh league structure. Cardiff and Swansea refused to sign these agreements and were expelled from the Welsh Premier Division. The Allied Dunbar Premiership (the English league) teams announced that two teams would have a rest weekend every week allowing them to play friendlies against Cardiff and Swansea. Cardiff's first home match of the season was against Saracens, who'd finished second in the Allied Dunbar Premiership the season before. Cardiff won 40-19 in front of a crowd of 10,021, larger than the entire combined attendance of the Welsh Premier Division that weekend. The club went on to win all their home games, but fell to defeat ten times on their travels. Although Cardiff and Swansea were both expelled from the Welsh League, they were allowed to continue to compete in the SWALEC Cup against Welsh opposition. Both teams reached the semi-finals, Swansea were to play Cross Keys and Cardiff Llanelli. In the week prior to the game, Cardiff chairman Peter Thomas spoke to the players following a training session, where he emphasised the importance of winning the game, describing it as "the biggest game in the club's history". Cardiff lost 39-10 in a match chief executive Gareth Davies described "The worst performance by a Cardiff side I have ever seen." Six days later, it was announced Terry Holmes would stand down as coach at the end of the season, and Pontypridd and Wales assistant coach Lyn Howells would take charge on a two-year contract. Swansea went on to beat Llanelli 37-10 in the cup final, but the rebels were still forced to sign loyalty agreements and return to Welsh domestic setup, now including Edinburgh and Glasgow. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "When was the rebel season?", "Why was the Welsh championship replaced?", "What was their record during the rebel season?", "Did they win the championship?" ]
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{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 114, 304, 1687 ], "texts": [ "In 1990, the unofficial Welsh championship was replaced by a league structure involving promotion and relegation.", "Cardiff competed in top flight but could only manage a fourth-place finish in 1990-91, and exited the Cup at the quarter-final stage.", "beating league runners-up and Cup champions Llanelli 43-0 at the Arms Park and beating league champions Neath 18-4 away in the last game of the season.", "In 1993-94 they slid back to fourth in the league but won the SWALEC Cup" ] }
Cardiff Rugby Football Club () is a rugby union club based in Cardiff, the capital city of Wales. The club was founded in 1876 and played their first few matches at Sophia Gardens, shortly after which relocating to Cardiff Arms Park where they have been based ever since. They built a reputation as one of the great clubs in world rugby, largely through a series of wins against international touring sides. Cardiff have beaten both South Africa and New Zealand, and Australia have failed to beat the club in six attempts. Through its history Cardiff RFC have provided more players to the Welsh national side and British and Irish Lions than any other Welsh club. Following the 2003 regionalisation of Welsh rugby, Cardiff Rugby became the professional arm of the organisation with the team branded Cardiff RFC playing in the semi pro Welsh Premier League. The Rugby section of the Cardiff Athletic Club, run and administer the team alongside Cardiff Rugby. History Amateur years The first recognised team to begin playing rugby in Cardiff was Glamorgan Football Club, formed as a club team while Cardiff was still a town. The team was formed by a group of young men during the 1873/74 season, after a circular letter was sent to interested parties by S. Campell Cory. Playing under the Cheltenham College rules, Glamorgan FC had increased its membership to sixty six by November 1874. 1874 saw Glamorgan's first away game, against Cowbridge Grammar School, and by 1875 the team played its first encounter with Newport. Around 1875, two further clubs came into existence in Cardiff, they were Tredegarville Football Club, whose ranks included Jas. Bush, father of future Cardiff rugby hero Percy Bush; and the Wanderers Football Club whose captain and founder was William David Phillips. Of the three teams, Glamorgan and Wanderers became the most notable, but both teams rarely travelled, and both had difficulty beating the now established clubs of Newport and Swansea. The supporters of both clubs started an agitation in the summer of 1876 for the two clubs to amalgamate, to give Cardiff town a better chance of beating the neighbouring teams. On Friday 22 September 1876 members of the Glamorgan and Wanderers clubs met at the Swiss Hall in Queen Street, Cardiff and decided to make a single club, to be called Cardiff Football Club. The first team captain was Donaldson Selby of Glamorgan and the vice-captain W.D. Phillips of Wanderers. Initially the club strip was black with a white skull and crossbones, but after pressure from the players parents to change what they saw as an inappropriate strip, the team adopted the black and blue of Cambridge University; after club player Thomas William Rees of Caius College brought his university strip to the club. Cardiff FC played their first fixture on 2 December 1876, versus Newport at Wentloog Marshes. In 1881, Cardiff beat Llanelli to win the South Wales Challenge Cup, though the tournament was scrapped soon after due to persistent crowd trouble. In 1881, Newport based sports administrator, Richard Mullock, formed the first Welsh international rugby team. Despite the team losing heavily to England, Mullock had chosen four players from Cardiff to represent the team; club captain William David Phillips, vice-captain B. B. Mann, Barry Girling and Leonard Watkins, a reflection on the clubs importance at the time. A month later, on 12 March 1881, Cardiff RFC was one of the eleven clubs present at the formation of the Welsh Rugby Union in Neath. A notable early player was Frank Hancock. A skilful centre, Hancock first played for Cardiff due to an injury to a first regular. At this time, rugby was played with six backs and nine forwards but Hancock's performance so impressed the selectors that for the next game they selected him as a seventh back and selected only eight forwards. The system was soon adopted by the Welsh national team and the seven backs and eight forwards system exists in rugby to this day. Cardiff RFC and Hancock were jointly recognised by the International Rugby Board in 2011 for this innovation with induction to the IRB Hall of Fame. In 1898, Cardiff were unofficial club champions of Wales for the first time. One year later, centre Gwyn Nicholls became the first Cardiff player to play for the British and Irish Lions (then only representing the British Isles), and scored a try in both the first and second Tests against Australia. Nicholls would also go on to captain Wales between 1902 and 1906. In 1904, Cardiff players fly-half Percy Bush, centre Rhys Gabe (who later captained Wales in 1907) and Arthur 'Boxer' Harding all went on the Lions tour to Australia and New Zealand (Nicholls was not selected). Bush scored in the first and second test against Australia, as Nicholls had, and thanks to his tries and goal-kicking during the first three Tests, finished as the top Test points scorer. Gabe scored a try in the third test against Australia, while Harding converted a try in the first Test and was the only Lions player to get on the score sheet against New Zealand, after scoring a penalty goal in the game against them at the end of the tour. In 1905, there were four Cardiff players in the Wales team that famously beat New Zealand: Harding, Nicholls, Bush, Gabe and Bert Winfield, who would go on to captain Wales three years later. After an eight-year wait, Cardiff also managed to win the unofficial Welsh club championship in 1906 (going unbeaten in every game they played apart from against New Zealand) and 1907. On New Year's Day 1907, Cardiff beat South Africa 17–0, a great achievement considering the national side had been beaten 11–0 by the Boks only a month earlier, and France were thrashed by them 55–6 two days later. The only other team to beat South Africa during their 29-match tour were Scotland. After this performance, and Wales winning the Five Nations Grand Slam for the first time in 1908, four Cardiff players were selected for the Lions in 1908. Harding was selected as the first Cardiff player to captain the tour and was the only one of the four to have played for the Lions before, the other three being uncapped half-back Willie Morgan, and three-quarters Johnnie Williams and Reggie Gibbs. Gibbs remains the only player to have been capped for Wales at least 10 times and averaged more than a try a game, with 17 tries in 16 caps, and Williams came very close to his record with 17 tries in 17 Tests. The tour was not a success, with the Lions managing to draw the second Test but losing the first and third by over twenty-five points each. However, Gibbs did manage to score in the first Test. The disappointed players made up for their failure the next year by winning the Grand Slam with Wales for the second time in a row and winning the unofficial championship with Cardiff. Cardiff also beat Australia 24–8 on 28 December 1908. However, following this, the glory years were largely over for Cardiff and Wales, although Wales did manage to win the Grand Slam in 1911, and Cardiff came within one point of beating South Africa in a 7–6 defeat in 1912. But no Cardiff players were selected for another Lions tour for the next sixteen years, and they would not become Welsh champions again for the best part of three decades. Between the wars The First World War certainly had some effect on the club – Johnnie Williams died in the first weeks of the Battle of the Somme, and many other players returned wounded or simply too old to play rugby. Cardiff were forced to turn to younger talent for their team. Jim Sullivan was a prime example of this, making his first appearance for Cardiff at the age of 16 in October 1920, and went on to make 38 appearances over the rest of the season. In December 1920, just after his 17th birthday, he became the youngest player to ever appear for the Barbarians. However, in June 1921 he signed for professional rugby league club Wigan, beginning a new trend of Welsh union players "going north" to play rugby league. Cardiff rugby finally managed a revival of some sort in the 1930s. Scrum-half Howard Poole, although never capped for Wales, was selected to play for the Lions in 1930, as was Ivor Williams in 1938. The club also won their first unofficial Welsh championship for 28 years in 1937, and managed to retain the title in 1938 and 1939, before the start of the Second World War. After the Second World War After the resumption of regular rugby, Cardiff beat Australia 11–3 on 21 November 1947, captained by scrum-half Haydn Tanner and were also unofficial Welsh champions in 1947/48, when Bleddyn Williams set a club record of 41 tries in one season, and 1948/49, when the Blue and Blacks went completely unbeaten against Welsh opposition, only Swansea and Newport succeeding in salvaging draws. The club had a fantastic record against Newport during these years, going 15 games unbeaten against them between 1946 and 1950. Cardiff players helped Wales win their first Grand Slam in nearly forty years in 1950, and later that year supplied five players to the Lions for the first time later that year. The five were fly-half Billy Cleaver, prop Cliff Davies, centre Jack Matthews, scrum-half Rex Willis and Bleddyn Williams, the "Prince of Centres". Williams captained the Lions in the third and fourth Tests against New Zealand. Wales won another Grand Slam in 1952, with much the same side. In 1952–53, Cardiff won the unofficial Welsh championship again, helped by the rise of prodigiously talented fly-half Cliff Morgan, but the best was still to come. On 21 November 1953, Cardiff faced New Zealand in front of a crowd of 56,000 at the Arms Park and, after a brilliant defensive effort following a 5–0 lead at half-time, hung on to win 8–3. Five Cardiff backs were selected in the Wales team captained by Bleddyn Williams that beat the All Blacks again less than a month later. These two results remain the last time either Cardiff or Wales have beaten New Zealand. Cardiff repeated their unofficial championship victory two years later in 1955, and had three Lions in the 1955 touring side, notable for not including any of the five that toured in 1950. The three this time were fly-half Morgan, centre Gareth Griffiths and wing Haydn Morris. Morgan, in front of a then-world record crowd of 100,000, helped defeat the South Africans 23–22 with a brilliant try despite an injury to Reg Higgins reducing the Lions to 14 men (no replacements were allowed at this time). After the South Africans squared the series in the second Test, Morgan was made captain for the third Test and inspired the team with a combination a stirring team talk and a great kicking game to a 9–6 victory, ensuring the series could not be lost, after which he was dubbed "Morgan the Magnificent" by the South African press. After his Lions heroics Morgan was made captain of Wales, and helped them win the title (although not the Grand Slam) in 1956. Australia played against and were defeated by Cardiff for the third time in 1957, 14–11 thanks to two great tries from Gordon Wells, after which a reporter from the Sydney Daily Telegraph wrote "we fell to the world's best rugby union club", and another unofficial championship title was secured in 1957–58, but only second row Bill "Roddy" Evans was selected for the Lions in 1959, although he started four of the six Tests. A downturn in Welsh and Cardiff fortunes occurred around this time, although prop Kingsley Jones and second row Keith Rowlands from the club were still selected for the 1962 Lions tour, and Cardiff managed to come within a point of beating the All Blacks again in 1963, scoring the only try of the game. However, the slump began to end in 1964, when Wales shared the Five Nations title with Scotland, after which Wales won the Triple Crown and the title in 1965, followed by another championship in 1966, although the Grand Slam still eluded them. However, these successes helped Cardiff players centre Ken Jones and prop Howard Norris win places on the Lions tour to New Zealand. Later that year Cardiff beat Australia 14–8, although Wales were not able to repeat the feat a month later, losing 14–11. The 1968 Lions tour was a historic one, containing a record six Cardiff players, wings Keri Jones and Maurice Richards, prop John O'Shea, (then) centre Gerald Davies, fly-half Barry John and scrum-half Gareth Edwards. While Jones and Richards would soon switch codes to play rugby league and O'Shea's tour would be marred somewhat by being the first Lion ever to be sent off for foul play, Davies, John and Edwards would go on to become legends, although their careers got off to inauspicious starts, the Lions losing three of the Tests again South Africa and only drawing the other one. On the domestic front, they were denied silverware, as despite being top of the unofficial table for almost the whole season, the loss of their six Lions at the end of the season allowed Llanelli to overtake them. Cardiff again finished second behind Newport the next year, with Richards the only Lion to make more than 20 appearances. However, Wales won the Five Nations title and Triple Crown in 1969, only denied the Grand Slam by a draw in France, only to be whitewashed in three games against New Zealand and Australia in the summer. 1970s 1971 however, was the year in which John, Edwards and Davies would write themselves into history. Davies by this time had left for London Welsh, although he would later return. In the spring, they were all ever-presents in Wales's first Grand Slam in 18 years, and in the summer, they were selected for the Lions tour to New Zealand, along with Cardiff teammate John Bevan. The tour remains the only occasion where the Lions have returned victorious from New Zealand. All four Cardiff players started the first Test, and all except Bevan played in the other three Tests. Despite only playing in the first Test, John Bevan became the Lions' record try scorer (including matches against club teams) with 17. Barry John was given the title "King Barry" by the New Zealanders after scoring 30 of the Lions' 48 points, and in him and Edwards, Cardiff could justifiably be said to have the best two half-backs in the world. 1971–72 was the first season where the WRU Challenge Cup was introduced. Cardiff reached the semi-final, before being beaten 16–9 at the Brewery Field by Neath, who went on to beat Llanelli in the final. Unfortunately in 1972 Barry John announced his decision to retire at the age of 27, not liking the celebrity status shoved on him and his family after the Lions tour. The next season was also disappointing for Cardiff, although fullback John Davies scored a club record of 209 points (in his first season for the club). They were soundly beaten by New Zealand 20–4, only a week after Llanelli had beaten them 9–3. In the Cup, they defeated South Wales Police, Mountain Ash, Ebbw Vale, Blaina and Swansea on their way to the final, but were again outclassed and lost 30–7 to Llanelli. In 1973–74 Cardiff reached the Cup semi-finals for the third year running, but were defeated 9–4 by Aberavon. Gareth Edwards however, led his country to a 24–0 win over Australia in November 1973. In 1974, Gerald Davies decided to return to Cardiff from London Welsh. Edwards and Davies were picked for the 1974 Lions tour to South Africa (although Davies refused to go in protest against apartheid) and Edwards started all four Tests, where the Lions went unbeaten through all 22 matches and would probably have won all their games, but in the final Test the South African referee blew the final whist four minutes early with the scores level and the Lions camped on the South African line. In 1974–75 Cardiff failed to reach the WRU Challenge Cup semi-finals for the first time, losing 13–12 to Bridgend in the third round, despite not conceding a try in the entire Cup. However, on 1 November 1975, Cardiff met Australia for the fifth time in their history and, for the fifth time defeated them, 14–9, despite the absence of Edwards due to influenza. Both Edwards and Davies represented Wales in the 1976 Five Nations Grand Slam. During 1976–77, Cardiff defeated Pontypool and Aberavon on their way to the Challenge Cup final, where they were beaten 16–15 by Newport. Edwards decided not to go on the 1977 Lions tour, to show loyalty to his company who had let him go on three Lions tours previously. However, another Cardiff scrum-half, uncapped Brynmor Williams was picked, and played in the first three Tests before being injured in the third. Both Davies and Edwards started for Wales in the 20–16 victory away to Ireland in the 1978 Five Nations that sealed a record three Triple Crowns in as many years, with Edwards also starting the next week and also dropping a goal in the 16–7 victory against France that sealed Wales their third Grand Slam in eight years. This was Gareth Edwards' final match for Wales – he had won 53 consecutive caps, never being dropped or injured, and scored 20 tries. Gerald Davies also retired from Wales after a 19–17 defeat in Sydney – tied with Edwards on 20 tries, scored in 46 caps. In the 1977–78 club season, Davies had a fantastic game against Pontypool where despite only touching the ball four times due to the dominance of the Pooler pack, he scored four tries, with those being Cardiff's only points in a 16–11 victory. Cardiff's cup run continued to the semi-finals, where they were beaten by Swansea 18–13. 1980s Flanker Stuart Lane, fly-half Gareth Davies, hooker Alan Phillips and scrum-half Terry Holmes from the club were chosen to tour with the Lions to South Africa in 1980, however Davies was the only one to start a Test match. The four went on to help Cardiff finally break their duck and win the WRU Challenge Cup (known as the Schweppes Cup for sponsorship reasons) with a 14–6 victory over Bridgend the following season, with Davies scoring two penalties and tries from centre Neil Hutchings and back-rower Robert Lakin. They repeated the feat in 1982, winning on try count thanks to a score from prop Ian Eidman after a 12–12 draw again against Bridgend, with the other points coming from fly-half David Barry, and also ended a 24-year wait by winning the Unofficial Welsh Championship, thereby completing the club's first (and so far only) league and cup double. In 1983, Terry Holmes was again picked for the Lions, this time alongside second row Bob Norster. Both players were picked for the first team but Holmes was injured in the first Test and Norster in the second, ending their tours. Cardiff had been knocked in the quarter-finals of the 1982–83 cup by eventual winners Pontypool, but made it up for it with a third triumph in four years, beating Neath 24–19 in the final with tries from flanker Owen Golding and wing Gerald Cordle and 16 points from Gareth Davies. Then, on 12 October 1984, they beat Australia 16–12, thanks to eight points from Gareth Davies along with a penalty try and a score from Adrian Hadley. The same Australian side went on to complete a "Grand Slam" (beating England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland). Australia haven't played Cardiff RFC since, leaving the club with a perfect record of six wins from six games against the Wallabies (although Cardiff Blues did lose to Australia 31–3 in 2009). 1985 was very nearly another successful year for the club, beating Neath and Pontypool on their way to the Schweppes Cup final where, despite tries from wing Gerald Cordle and captain Alan Phillips alongside two penalties from Gareth Davies, they fell to an agonising 15–14 defeat to Llanelli. After this, Terry Holmes left the club to play rugby league. The club bounced back immediately however, beating Newport in the final of 1985–86 cup final 28–21, with Adrian Hadley scoring a hat-trick, Holmes's replacement, scrum-half Neil O'Brien, bagging another try and 12 points coming from the boot of fly-half Gareth Davies in his last game for the club against Welsh opposition before retiring. One year later, Cardiff were part of the first Challenge Cup final to go to extra time, with the scores 9–9 after 80 minutes, all Cardiff's points coming from the boot of Davies's replacement, Geraint John. Gerald Cordle scored to break the deadlock but the conversion was missed and Swansea scored a converted try soon after, putting them in the lead. But a late drop goal from full-back Mike Rayer won it for the Arms Park side capping one of the most successful periods in the club's history, with five Schweppes Cup victories in seven years. In 1987, the first Rugby World Cup was held in New Zealand. Cardiff props Dai Young, Jeff Whitefoot and Steve Blackmore, wing Adrian Hadley, centre Mark Ring and hooker Alan Phillips all were selected in Wales's squad (Young was called up as an injury replacement) which finished third. Cardiff's success began to tail off towards the end of the 1980s, with Adrian Hadley leaving for rugby league in 1988 and Gerald Cordle following in 89, and they could only manage two Cup quarter-finals and one semi-final appearance in the last three years of the decade. However, both Dai Young and Bob Norster were selected for the Lions tour to Australia in 1989, the only Lions team to come from 1–0 down to win the series. Young followed Hadley and Cordle to rugby league shortly after this, while Whitefoot and Norster both retired in 1990. League rugby In 1990, the unofficial Welsh championship was replaced by a league structure involving promotion and relegation. Cardiff competed in top flight but could only manage a fourth-place finish in 1990–91, and exited the Cup at the quarter-final stage. The season did involve some highlights however, such as beating league runners-up and Cup champions Llanelli 43–0 at the Arms Park and beating league champions Neath 18–4 away in the last game of the season. 1991–92 was possibly the club's worst-ever season, beset with disagreements between coach Alan Phillips and manager John Scott. Cardiff crashed out of the Cup before the quarter-final stage and lost at home to Maesteg and Newbridge in the league. Their final league finish was ninth, which would have led to their relegation but the WRU decided mid-season to switch to a 12-team Premiership, therefore saving Cardiff and Maesteg from relegation. Both Scott and Phillips resigned following the season. Australian Alex Evans took over at Cardiff as coach for the 1992–93 season, bringing in former Arms Park legend Terry Holmes and famous ex-Pontypool front-row member Charlie Faulkner as assistants, and helped a turnaround in the club's fortunes, winning their first seven matches of the season and 20 of their first 22 to top the league in the new year. This run came to an end on 23 January; they were knocked out of the Schweppes Cup by St Peter's, who were fourth from bottom of Division Four. The Blue and Blacks only lost four league games all season though, but were unlucky to be competing against Llanelli in the league, who won the double and were considered the best club team in the UK after beating Australia 13–9. In 1993–94 they slid back to fourth in the league but won the SWALEC Cup (renamed from Schweppes Cup for sponsorship reasons) by beating Llanelli, who'd won the tournament for the last three years running. The score in the final was 15–8, with tries from Mike Rayer and club captain centre Mike Hall and kicks from fly-half Adrian Davies. In 1994–95 Cardiff won the final league title of the amateur era in Wales, as well as reaching the semi-finals of the Cup before going down 16–9 to Swansea. Professionalism With professionalism dawned a new era at Cardiff RFC. It allowed them to sign legendary outside-half Jonathan Davies back from rugby league, and another major change was that there would be a European Cup, sponsored by Heineken, containing teams from France, Ireland, Wales, Italy and Romania (England and Scotland did not join for another year). Cardiff progressed to the knock-out stages in November by drawing with Bordeaux-Begles and beating Ulster. December saw the end of the Alex Evans era, as he departed to return home to Australia. Terry Holmes took charge of the club, and in his first full match the Blue and Blacks beat Leinster away to progress to the first Heineken Cup final. The game was played at Cardiff Arms Park in front of a crowd of 21,800, where despite 18 points from the boot of Adrian Davies, Cardiff were beaten 21–18 by Toulouse after extra time. Cardiff, despite not losing a league game under Holmes, were runners-up on the domestic front as well, finishing level with Neath on points but coming second on try count. After the end of the 95–96 season Peter Thomas invested money into the club allowing them to sign Rob Howley, Dai Young back from rugby league, Leigh Davies, Gwyn Jones and Justin Thomas for the cost of around £2million. Internationals Mark Ring, Steven Blackmore and the half-backs that had started the Heineken Cup final, Andy Moore and Adrian Davies all departed. Despite all the new signings, Cardiff lost their first three games of the season, and the 1996/97 season was in many respects worse than the year before – Cardiff were knocked out in the Heineken Cup semi-finals by eventual champions Brive, and in the Welsh Premier Division they fell to third, behind champions Pontypridd and Llanelli. However, after Alex Evans returned to head up the coaching team, that season did lead to some silverware, as Cardiff beat Llanelli 36–26 in the semi-final and Swansea 33–26 in the final of the SWALEC Cup. Grzegorz Kacala and Tony Rees, both forwards part of the Brive team that knocked Cardiff out of the Heineken Cup and went on to win it, were signed for 1997/98 along with Wales internationals Steve Williams and Spencer John (Gareth Thomas also arrived in December from Bridgend). Despite Cardiff's difficulties, compounded by those of the national team, Howley and Young were both chosen to go on 1997 Lions tour to South Africa. Howley had to return home early due to injury and neither of the two Cardiff players started a Test match. In the 1997/98 season, Cardiff were Wales's sole representative in the quarter-finals of the Heineken Cup, and were beaten away in rematch of the previous year's quarter-final, by Bath, who would go on to win the tournament. However, their domestic cup campaign ended before the quarter-final stage, losing 24–9 to Ebbw Vale, and they finished runners up to Swansea in the League. Following this season, Alex Evans left Cardiff for Australia for the second time and Terry Holmes was put back in charge. Rebel season Cardiff and Swansea had proposed the formation of a British league, containing the top division English clubs, the two Scottish regional sides (Edinburgh and Glasgow) and four Welsh clubs (seeing as Cardiff had got further than any other Welsh club in every Heineken Cup so far, Swansea were the league champions and they represented the two largest urban areas in Wales, it was assumed two of these clubs would be Cardiff and Swansea). Both the RFU and the English clubs had agreed to this, but the WRU refused due to an ongoing legal battle with the English clubs over the negotiation of commercial rights (which would lead to the English clubs not participating in the 1998–99 Heineken Cup). Instead, the WRU demanded all top-flight clubs sign 10-year loyalty agreements, where they were guaranteed top-flight status and committed themselves to staying within the Welsh league structure. Cardiff and Swansea refused to sign these agreements and were expelled from the Welsh Premier Division. The Allied Dunbar Premiership (the English league) teams announced that two teams would have a rest weekend every week allowing them to play friendlies against Cardiff and Swansea. Cardiff's first home match of the season was against Saracens, who'd finished second in the Allied Dunbar Premiership the season before. Cardiff won 40–19 in front of a crowd of 10,021, larger than the entire combined attendance of the Welsh Premier Division that weekend. The club went on to win all their home games, but fell to defeat ten times on their travels. Although Cardiff and Swansea were both expelled from the Welsh League, they were allowed to continue to compete in the SWALEC Cup against Welsh opposition. Both teams reached the semi-finals, Swansea were to play Cross Keys and Cardiff Llanelli. In the week prior to the game, Cardiff chairman Peter Thomas spoke to the players following a training session, where he emphasised the importance of winning the game, describing it as "the biggest game in the club's history". Cardiff lost 39–10 in a match chief executive Gareth Davies described "The worst performance by a Cardiff side I have ever seen." Six days later, it was announced Terry Holmes would stand down as coach at the end of the season, and Pontypridd and Wales assistant coach Lyn Howells would take charge on a two-year contract. Swansea went on to beat Llanelli 37–10 in the cup final, but the rebels were still forced to sign loyalty agreements and return to Welsh domestic setup, now including Edinburgh and Glasgow. Lynn Howells After the unsuccessful rebel season, Cardiff signed British Lion outside-half Neil Jenkins, as well as Wales internationals second-row Craig Quinnell and flanker Martyn Williams. The start of the 1999–2000 season for Cardiff was hampered by them missing 13 first choice players due to the World Cup, and in late September they fell to a humiliating 60–18 defeat away to Llanelli at Stradey Park. However, despite this poor start and failing to win in the first rounds of the Heineken Cup, they progressed to the Heineken Cup quarter-finals, where they were beaten by Llanelli, and clinched the Welsh/Scottish League title with three games remaining, The season is also notable for a club record victory of 116–0 over Duvnant in the Welsh/Scottish League, and the club going unbeaten at home for almost the whole season, before losing 41–40 to Swansea in their very last game of the season (with the title already sewn up). This was Cardiff's first defeat at the Arms Park for over two years, since 13 December 1997, again against Swansea. During the close season Cardiff lost Leigh Davies to Llanelli but signed South African centre Pieter Muller to replace him. They won their first five Welsh/Scottish League matches, seemingly making certain they would retain their title, especially as Swansea lost three of their first five games. The highlight of the season was in late October, when the Blue and Blacks stunned English Premiership leaders Saracens by defeating them home and away in the Heineken Cup. The club's great form began to stutter as the millennium drew to a close, but it was in January the wheels really came off. After a magnificent 42–16 victory over Ulster, two yellow cards led Cardiff to defeat in Toulouse, meaning they would have to travel to Gloucester in the quarter-finals. A turgid forward battle resulted in a 21–15 defeat for the Blue and Blacks. Two weeks later they then lost to Bridgend, their first home defeat of the season, meaning Swansea pulled ahead in the title race. Another defeat at Ebbw Vale in March condemned them to a trophyless season. Following the unsuccessful season Lynn Howells's contract was not renewed and Rudy Joubert was appointed director of rugby. Gareth Thomas also left the club along with nine other players, but Rob Appleyard, Matt Allen and Craig Hudson all joined. For the 2001 Lions tour, four Cardiff players were picked, Rob Howley, Neil Jenkins, Dai Young and Martyn Williams. Young became the first player to tour for the Lions in three different decades. Howley started the first two Tests, with Williams on the bench in all three, and Jenkins coming on to replace Jonny Wilkinson in the second. Howley was dropped for the third, deciding Test. Rudy Joubert 2001–02 was the first year of the Celtic League, containing teams from Wales, Ireland and Scotland. The pool stage would begin in mid-August and continue on for a month. Cardiff were drawn into the smaller, seven-team pool (with four teams going through to the quarter-finals).and started their campaign in unconvincing fashion, winning three games but still being knocked out of the competition on points difference. In the Heineken Cup, rugby league convert Iestyn Harris, signed for £1million scored a hat-trick on his debut in a 46–7 against Glasgow. Overall the club's European form was mediocre however, as despite winning all their home games they failed to register an away win and were eliminated at the pool stage for the first time in their history On the domestic front, Cardiff again went unbeaten at home until the final game of the season, but again were unable to back it up on the road and finished fourth – their first season out of the top three in a decade. Dai Young The off season was all change for Cardiff. Rudy Joubert returned home to South Africa and Dai Young became player-coach of the club. Internationals Rob Howley, Neil Jenkins, Craig Quinnell and Jonathan Humphreys all left the club as well. The Welsh/Scottish League was abolished, returning to just nine Welsh teams in the top-flight, and Celtic League games no longer counted towards the domestic league. In the first two months of the season, Cardiff managed to improve on their Celtic League record from the previous year, winning four out of seven games and progressing to the knockout stage. The quarter final was away to Edinburgh on 30 November and, despite a dreadful first half performance that saw them 19–6 down at the break, a much improved second half performance saw them record a 26–22 win, and go through to the semi-finals. Their decent start to the season collapsed after that however, with Cardiff failing to score at home for the first-time in 30 years in a 31–0 defeat in the Heineken Cup against Northampton in December. January was a disastrous month for the club too, with a 32–10 thrashing away to Neath in the Celtic League semi-finals, despite the home team making 12 handling errors in Cardiff's 22. Two weeks later the club's first ever Heineken Cup whitewash was completed with a record 75–25 defeat away to Biarritz. Domestically, the Blue and Blacks' final season as a top-tier rugby team was less disappointing. They reached the semi-finals of the Cup, although they capitulated in a similar fashion to their Celtic League semi-final, this time 44–10 away to Llanelli. In the League they finished third, 3 points behind Neath and 11 behind Bridgend. Today Today, Cardiff RFC Ltd runs two sides. Cardiff Rugby now back at Cardiff Arms Park after three years playing at Cardiff City Stadium. The professional side, Cardiff Rugby take part in the United Rugby Championship and Heineken Cup. The semi professional Cardiff RFC side take part in the Welsh Premier Division and WRU Challenge Cup. In 2019, Steve Law's team won the WRU Challenge Cup, beating Merthyr in the final. The following season they led the league table and remained on course for a league and cup double when the Covid19 pandemic brought an abrupt end to the season. Ahead of the 2021/22 season, Cardiff Rugby academy manager Gruff Rees became Cardiff RFC Director of Rugby, alongside what was described as a new "alignment" with the Cardiff Rugby player pathway. The team were knocked out of the cup by Newport but finished top of the Welsh Premier Division to become champions. Current squad The Arms Park Club Rugby games were moved to what was the cricket ground and a new stadium was built in 1969 as a result of an agreement between the Cardiff Athletic Club and the Welsh Rugby Union. On the site of the old Arms Park stadium, a new stadium was built, Welsh National Rugby Ground (also known as The National Stadium). In 1999, a brand new stadium was built in place of the National Stadium, which was named the Millennium Stadium. Cardiff Blues moved from the Arms Park for the 2009/10 season to play at the Cardiff City Stadium in Leckwith, Cardiff – the home of Cardiff City FC. After three seasons Cardiff Blues returned to their 'spiritual home' and will play the majority of future games at their traditional Arms Park home. Club honours Heineken Cup runners-up: 1996 Western Mail Welsh Championship winners: 1899, 1907, 1909, 1910, 1938, 1939, 1947, 1949, 1951, 1955, 1956, 1959, 1983 Middlesex 7s winners: 1939 Gala Sevens winners: 1964 Selkirk Sevens winners: 2006 Snelling Sevens winners: 1955, 1966, 1969, 1972, 1976, 1977, 1981, 1983, 1984 Welsh Cup: 1981, 1982, 1984, 1986, 1987, 1994, 1997, 2019, 2023 South Wales Challenge Cup winners: 1881 Welsh League: 1995 Welsh/Scottish League: 2000 Welsh Premiership: 2009, 2020, 2022, 2023(league) British and Irish Lions The following former players were selected for the British and Irish Lions touring squads whilst playing for Cardiff RFC. Gareth Thomas was selected for the 2005 Lions tour whilst playing for Toulouse Wales international captains The following former players captained the Wales national rugby union team whilst playing for Cardiff RFC. Other notable former players The following players represented Cardiff and were capped at international level, but do not warrant inclusion in the above two lists. Regional rugby Since the advent of regional rugby in 2003, a number of Cardiff RFC players have gone on to represent Wales (some while still playing for the club rather than the regional side). The Cardiff club side have also had a number of players selected for Wales at U20 level and the Sevens side. Games played against international opposition See also Rugby in Cardiff References Footnotes External links Cardiff RFC Former Players Association Category:Sport in Cardiff Category:Rugby clubs established in 1876 Category:Rugby union teams in Wales Category:World Rugby Hall of Fame inductees Category:1876 establishments in Wales
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C_2136d6e92025474f8d7627b714c4784d_0
Cardiff RFC
Cardiff Rugby Football Club (Welsh: Clwb Rygbi Caerdydd) is a rugby union football club based in Cardiff, the capital city of Wales. The club was founded in 1876 and played their first few matches at Sophia Gardens, but soon relocated to Cardiff Arms Park where they have been based ever since. They built a reputation as one of the great clubs in world rugby largely through a series of wins against international touring sides.
Lynn Howells
After the unsuccessful rebel season, Cardiff sign British Lion outside-half Neil Jenkins as well as Wales internationals second-row Craig Quinnell and flanker Martyn Williams. The start of the 1999-2000 season for Cardiff was hampered by them missing 13 first choice players due to the World Cup, and in late September they fell to a humiliating 60-18 defeat away to Llanelli at Stradey Park. However, despite this poor start and failing to win in the first rounds of the Heineken Cup, they progressed to the Heineken Cup quarter-finals, where they were beaten by Llanelli, and clinched the Welsh/Scottish League title with three games remaining, The season is also notable for a club record victory of 116-0 over Duvnant in the Welsh/Scottish League, and the club going unbeaten at home for almost the whole season, before losing 41-40 to Swansea in their very last game of the season (with the title already sewn up). This was Cardiff's first defeat at the Arms Park for over two years, since 13 December 1997, again against Swansea. During the close season Cardiff lost Leigh Davies to Llanelli but signed South African centre Pieter Muller to replace him. They won their first five Welsh/Scottish League matches, seemingly making certain they would retain their title, especially as Swansea lost three of their first five games. The highlight of the season was in late October, when the Blue and Blacks stunned English Premiership leaders Saracens by defeating them home and away in the Heineken Cup. The club's great form began to stutter as the millennium drew to a close, but it was in January the wheels really came off. After a magnificent 42-16 victory over Ulster, two yellow cards led Cardiff to defeat in Toulouse, meaning they would have to travel to Gloucester in the quarter-finals. A turgid forward battle resulted in a 21-15 defeat for the Blue and Blacks. Two weeks later they then lost to Bridgend, their first home defeat of the season, meaning Swansea pulled ahead in the title race. Another defeat at Ebbw Vale in March condemned them to a trophyless season. Following the unsuccessful season Lynn Howells's contract was not renewed and Rudy Joubert was appointed director of rugby. Gareth Thomas also left the club along with nine other players, but Rob Appleyard, Matt Allen and Craig Hudson all joined. For the 2001 Lions tour, four Cardiff players were picked, Rob Howley, Neil Jenkins, Dai Young and Martyn Williams. Young became the first player to tour for the Lions in three different decades. Howley started the first two Tests, with Williams on the bench in all three, and Jenkins coming on to replace Jonny Wilkinson in the second. Howley was dropped for the third, deciding Test. CANNOTANSWER
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Cardiff Rugby Football Club () is a rugby union club based in Cardiff, the capital city of Wales. The club was founded in 1876 and played their first few matches at Sophia Gardens, shortly after which relocating to Cardiff Arms Park where they have been based ever since. They built a reputation as one of the great clubs in world rugby, largely through a series of wins against international touring sides. Cardiff have beaten both South Africa and New Zealand, and Australia have failed to beat the club in six attempts. Through its history Cardiff RFC have provided more players to the Welsh national side and British and Irish Lions than any other Welsh club. Following the 2003 regionalisation of Welsh rugby, Cardiff Rugby became the professional arm of the organisation with the team branded Cardiff RFC playing in the semi pro Welsh Premier League. The Rugby section of the Cardiff Athletic Club, run and administer the team alongside Cardiff Rugby. History Amateur years The first recognised team to begin playing rugby in Cardiff was Glamorgan Football Club, formed as a club team while Cardiff was still a town. The team was formed by a group of young men during the 1873/74 season, after a circular letter was sent to interested parties by S. Campell Cory. Playing under the Cheltenham College rules, Glamorgan FC had increased its membership to sixty six by November 1874. 1874 saw Glamorgan's first away game, against Cowbridge Grammar School, and by 1875 the team played its first encounter with Newport. Around 1875, two further clubs came into existence in Cardiff, they were Tredegarville Football Club, whose ranks included Jas. Bush, father of future Cardiff rugby hero Percy Bush; and the Wanderers Football Club whose captain and founder was William David Phillips. Of the three teams, Glamorgan and Wanderers became the most notable, but both teams rarely travelled, and both had difficulty beating the now established clubs of Newport and Swansea. The supporters of both clubs started an agitation in the summer of 1876 for the two clubs to amalgamate, to give Cardiff town a better chance of beating the neighbouring teams. On Friday 22 September 1876 members of the Glamorgan and Wanderers clubs met at the Swiss Hall in Queen Street, Cardiff and decided to make a single club, to be called Cardiff Football Club. The first team captain was Donaldson Selby of Glamorgan and the vice-captain W.D. Phillips of Wanderers. Initially the club strip was black with a white skull and crossbones, but after pressure from the players parents to change what they saw as an inappropriate strip, the team adopted the black and blue of Cambridge University; after club player Thomas William Rees of Caius College brought his university strip to the club. Cardiff FC played their first fixture on 2 December 1876, versus Newport at Wentloog Marshes. In 1881, Cardiff beat Llanelli to win the South Wales Challenge Cup, though the tournament was scrapped soon after due to persistent crowd trouble. In 1881, Newport based sports administrator, Richard Mullock, formed the first Welsh international rugby team. Despite the team losing heavily to England, Mullock had chosen four players from Cardiff to represent the team; club captain William David Phillips, vice-captain B. B. Mann, Barry Girling and Leonard Watkins, a reflection on the clubs importance at the time. A month later, on 12 March 1881, Cardiff RFC was one of the eleven clubs present at the formation of the Welsh Rugby Union in Neath. A notable early player was Frank Hancock. A skilful centre, Hancock first played for Cardiff due to an injury to a first regular. At this time, rugby was played with six backs and nine forwards but Hancock's performance so impressed the selectors that for the next game they selected him as a seventh back and selected only eight forwards. The system was soon adopted by the Welsh national team and the seven backs and eight forwards system exists in rugby to this day. Cardiff RFC and Hancock were jointly recognised by the International Rugby Board in 2011 for this innovation with induction to the IRB Hall of Fame. In 1898, Cardiff were unofficial club champions of Wales for the first time. One year later, centre Gwyn Nicholls became the first Cardiff player to play for the British and Irish Lions (then only representing the British Isles), and scored a try in both the first and second Tests against Australia. Nicholls would also go on to captain Wales between 1902 and 1906. In 1904, Cardiff players fly-half Percy Bush, centre Rhys Gabe (who later captained Wales in 1907) and Arthur 'Boxer' Harding all went on the Lions tour to Australia and New Zealand (Nicholls was not selected). Bush scored in the first and second test against Australia, as Nicholls had, and thanks to his tries and goal-kicking during the first three Tests, finished as the top Test points scorer. Gabe scored a try in the third test against Australia, while Harding converted a try in the first Test and was the only Lions player to get on the score sheet against New Zealand, after scoring a penalty goal in the game against them at the end of the tour. In 1905, there were four Cardiff players in the Wales team that famously beat New Zealand: Harding, Nicholls, Bush, Gabe and Bert Winfield, who would go on to captain Wales three years later. After an eight-year wait, Cardiff also managed to win the unofficial Welsh club championship in 1906 (going unbeaten in every game they played apart from against New Zealand) and 1907. On New Year's Day 1907, Cardiff beat South Africa 17–0, a great achievement considering the national side had been beaten 11–0 by the Boks only a month earlier, and France were thrashed by them 55–6 two days later. The only other team to beat South Africa during their 29-match tour were Scotland. After this performance, and Wales winning the Five Nations Grand Slam for the first time in 1908, four Cardiff players were selected for the Lions in 1908. Harding was selected as the first Cardiff player to captain the tour and was the only one of the four to have played for the Lions before, the other three being uncapped half-back Willie Morgan, and three-quarters Johnnie Williams and Reggie Gibbs. Gibbs remains the only player to have been capped for Wales at least 10 times and averaged more than a try a game, with 17 tries in 16 caps, and Williams came very close to his record with 17 tries in 17 Tests. The tour was not a success, with the Lions managing to draw the second Test but losing the first and third by over twenty-five points each. However, Gibbs did manage to score in the first Test. The disappointed players made up for their failure the next year by winning the Grand Slam with Wales for the second time in a row and winning the unofficial championship with Cardiff. Cardiff also beat Australia 24–8 on 28 December 1908. However, following this, the glory years were largely over for Cardiff and Wales, although Wales did manage to win the Grand Slam in 1911, and Cardiff came within one point of beating South Africa in a 7–6 defeat in 1912. But no Cardiff players were selected for another Lions tour for the next sixteen years, and they would not become Welsh champions again for the best part of three decades. Between the wars The First World War certainly had some effect on the club – Johnnie Williams died in the first weeks of the Battle of the Somme, and many other players returned wounded or simply too old to play rugby. Cardiff were forced to turn to younger talent for their team. Jim Sullivan was a prime example of this, making his first appearance for Cardiff at the age of 16 in October 1920, and went on to make 38 appearances over the rest of the season. In December 1920, just after his 17th birthday, he became the youngest player to ever appear for the Barbarians. However, in June 1921 he signed for professional rugby league club Wigan, beginning a new trend of Welsh union players "going north" to play rugby league. Cardiff rugby finally managed a revival of some sort in the 1930s. Scrum-half Howard Poole, although never capped for Wales, was selected to play for the Lions in 1930, as was Ivor Williams in 1938. The club also won their first unofficial Welsh championship for 28 years in 1937, and managed to retain the title in 1938 and 1939, before the start of the Second World War. After the Second World War After the resumption of regular rugby, Cardiff beat Australia 11–3 on 21 November 1947, captained by scrum-half Haydn Tanner and were also unofficial Welsh champions in 1947/48, when Bleddyn Williams set a club record of 41 tries in one season, and 1948/49, when the Blue and Blacks went completely unbeaten against Welsh opposition, only Swansea and Newport succeeding in salvaging draws. The club had a fantastic record against Newport during these years, going 15 games unbeaten against them between 1946 and 1950. Cardiff players helped Wales win their first Grand Slam in nearly forty years in 1950, and later that year supplied five players to the Lions for the first time later that year. The five were fly-half Billy Cleaver, prop Cliff Davies, centre Jack Matthews, scrum-half Rex Willis and Bleddyn Williams, the "Prince of Centres". Williams captained the Lions in the third and fourth Tests against New Zealand. Wales won another Grand Slam in 1952, with much the same side. In 1952–53, Cardiff won the unofficial Welsh championship again, helped by the rise of prodigiously talented fly-half Cliff Morgan, but the best was still to come. On 21 November 1953, Cardiff faced New Zealand in front of a crowd of 56,000 at the Arms Park and, after a brilliant defensive effort following a 5–0 lead at half-time, hung on to win 8–3. Five Cardiff backs were selected in the Wales team captained by Bleddyn Williams that beat the All Blacks again less than a month later. These two results remain the last time either Cardiff or Wales have beaten New Zealand. Cardiff repeated their unofficial championship victory two years later in 1955, and had three Lions in the 1955 touring side, notable for not including any of the five that toured in 1950. The three this time were fly-half Morgan, centre Gareth Griffiths and wing Haydn Morris. Morgan, in front of a then-world record crowd of 100,000, helped defeat the South Africans 23–22 with a brilliant try despite an injury to Reg Higgins reducing the Lions to 14 men (no replacements were allowed at this time). After the South Africans squared the series in the second Test, Morgan was made captain for the third Test and inspired the team with a combination a stirring team talk and a great kicking game to a 9–6 victory, ensuring the series could not be lost, after which he was dubbed "Morgan the Magnificent" by the South African press. After his Lions heroics Morgan was made captain of Wales, and helped them win the title (although not the Grand Slam) in 1956. Australia played against and were defeated by Cardiff for the third time in 1957, 14–11 thanks to two great tries from Gordon Wells, after which a reporter from the Sydney Daily Telegraph wrote "we fell to the world's best rugby union club", and another unofficial championship title was secured in 1957–58, but only second row Bill "Roddy" Evans was selected for the Lions in 1959, although he started four of the six Tests. A downturn in Welsh and Cardiff fortunes occurred around this time, although prop Kingsley Jones and second row Keith Rowlands from the club were still selected for the 1962 Lions tour, and Cardiff managed to come within a point of beating the All Blacks again in 1963, scoring the only try of the game. However, the slump began to end in 1964, when Wales shared the Five Nations title with Scotland, after which Wales won the Triple Crown and the title in 1965, followed by another championship in 1966, although the Grand Slam still eluded them. However, these successes helped Cardiff players centre Ken Jones and prop Howard Norris win places on the Lions tour to New Zealand. Later that year Cardiff beat Australia 14–8, although Wales were not able to repeat the feat a month later, losing 14–11. The 1968 Lions tour was a historic one, containing a record six Cardiff players, wings Keri Jones and Maurice Richards, prop John O'Shea, (then) centre Gerald Davies, fly-half Barry John and scrum-half Gareth Edwards. While Jones and Richards would soon switch codes to play rugby league and O'Shea's tour would be marred somewhat by being the first Lion ever to be sent off for foul play, Davies, John and Edwards would go on to become legends, although their careers got off to inauspicious starts, the Lions losing three of the Tests again South Africa and only drawing the other one. On the domestic front, they were denied silverware, as despite being top of the unofficial table for almost the whole season, the loss of their six Lions at the end of the season allowed Llanelli to overtake them. Cardiff again finished second behind Newport the next year, with Richards the only Lion to make more than 20 appearances. However, Wales won the Five Nations title and Triple Crown in 1969, only denied the Grand Slam by a draw in France, only to be whitewashed in three games against New Zealand and Australia in the summer. 1970s 1971 however, was the year in which John, Edwards and Davies would write themselves into history. Davies by this time had left for London Welsh, although he would later return. In the spring, they were all ever-presents in Wales's first Grand Slam in 18 years, and in the summer, they were selected for the Lions tour to New Zealand, along with Cardiff teammate John Bevan. The tour remains the only occasion where the Lions have returned victorious from New Zealand. All four Cardiff players started the first Test, and all except Bevan played in the other three Tests. Despite only playing in the first Test, John Bevan became the Lions' record try scorer (including matches against club teams) with 17. Barry John was given the title "King Barry" by the New Zealanders after scoring 30 of the Lions' 48 points, and in him and Edwards, Cardiff could justifiably be said to have the best two half-backs in the world. 1971–72 was the first season where the WRU Challenge Cup was introduced. Cardiff reached the semi-final, before being beaten 16–9 at the Brewery Field by Neath, who went on to beat Llanelli in the final. Unfortunately in 1972 Barry John announced his decision to retire at the age of 27, not liking the celebrity status shoved on him and his family after the Lions tour. The next season was also disappointing for Cardiff, although fullback John Davies scored a club record of 209 points (in his first season for the club). They were soundly beaten by New Zealand 20–4, only a week after Llanelli had beaten them 9–3. In the Cup, they defeated South Wales Police, Mountain Ash, Ebbw Vale, Blaina and Swansea on their way to the final, but were again outclassed and lost 30–7 to Llanelli. In 1973–74 Cardiff reached the Cup semi-finals for the third year running, but were defeated 9–4 by Aberavon. Gareth Edwards however, led his country to a 24–0 win over Australia in November 1973. In 1974, Gerald Davies decided to return to Cardiff from London Welsh. Edwards and Davies were picked for the 1974 Lions tour to South Africa (although Davies refused to go in protest against apartheid) and Edwards started all four Tests, where the Lions went unbeaten through all 22 matches and would probably have won all their games, but in the final Test the South African referee blew the final whist four minutes early with the scores level and the Lions camped on the South African line. In 1974–75 Cardiff failed to reach the WRU Challenge Cup semi-finals for the first time, losing 13–12 to Bridgend in the third round, despite not conceding a try in the entire Cup. However, on 1 November 1975, Cardiff met Australia for the fifth time in their history and, for the fifth time defeated them, 14–9, despite the absence of Edwards due to influenza. Both Edwards and Davies represented Wales in the 1976 Five Nations Grand Slam. During 1976–77, Cardiff defeated Pontypool and Aberavon on their way to the Challenge Cup final, where they were beaten 16–15 by Newport. Edwards decided not to go on the 1977 Lions tour, to show loyalty to his company who had let him go on three Lions tours previously. However, another Cardiff scrum-half, uncapped Brynmor Williams was picked, and played in the first three Tests before being injured in the third. Both Davies and Edwards started for Wales in the 20–16 victory away to Ireland in the 1978 Five Nations that sealed a record three Triple Crowns in as many years, with Edwards also starting the next week and also dropping a goal in the 16–7 victory against France that sealed Wales their third Grand Slam in eight years. This was Gareth Edwards' final match for Wales – he had won 53 consecutive caps, never being dropped or injured, and scored 20 tries. Gerald Davies also retired from Wales after a 19–17 defeat in Sydney – tied with Edwards on 20 tries, scored in 46 caps. In the 1977–78 club season, Davies had a fantastic game against Pontypool where despite only touching the ball four times due to the dominance of the Pooler pack, he scored four tries, with those being Cardiff's only points in a 16–11 victory. Cardiff's cup run continued to the semi-finals, where they were beaten by Swansea 18–13. 1980s Flanker Stuart Lane, fly-half Gareth Davies, hooker Alan Phillips and scrum-half Terry Holmes from the club were chosen to tour with the Lions to South Africa in 1980, however Davies was the only one to start a Test match. The four went on to help Cardiff finally break their duck and win the WRU Challenge Cup (known as the Schweppes Cup for sponsorship reasons) with a 14–6 victory over Bridgend the following season, with Davies scoring two penalties and tries from centre Neil Hutchings and back-rower Robert Lakin. They repeated the feat in 1982, winning on try count thanks to a score from prop Ian Eidman after a 12–12 draw again against Bridgend, with the other points coming from fly-half David Barry, and also ended a 24-year wait by winning the Unofficial Welsh Championship, thereby completing the club's first (and so far only) league and cup double. In 1983, Terry Holmes was again picked for the Lions, this time alongside second row Bob Norster. Both players were picked for the first team but Holmes was injured in the first Test and Norster in the second, ending their tours. Cardiff had been knocked in the quarter-finals of the 1982–83 cup by eventual winners Pontypool, but made it up for it with a third triumph in four years, beating Neath 24–19 in the final with tries from flanker Owen Golding and wing Gerald Cordle and 16 points from Gareth Davies. Then, on 12 October 1984, they beat Australia 16–12, thanks to eight points from Gareth Davies along with a penalty try and a score from Adrian Hadley. The same Australian side went on to complete a "Grand Slam" (beating England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland). Australia haven't played Cardiff RFC since, leaving the club with a perfect record of six wins from six games against the Wallabies (although Cardiff Blues did lose to Australia 31–3 in 2009). 1985 was very nearly another successful year for the club, beating Neath and Pontypool on their way to the Schweppes Cup final where, despite tries from wing Gerald Cordle and captain Alan Phillips alongside two penalties from Gareth Davies, they fell to an agonising 15–14 defeat to Llanelli. After this, Terry Holmes left the club to play rugby league. The club bounced back immediately however, beating Newport in the final of 1985–86 cup final 28–21, with Adrian Hadley scoring a hat-trick, Holmes's replacement, scrum-half Neil O'Brien, bagging another try and 12 points coming from the boot of fly-half Gareth Davies in his last game for the club against Welsh opposition before retiring. One year later, Cardiff were part of the first Challenge Cup final to go to extra time, with the scores 9–9 after 80 minutes, all Cardiff's points coming from the boot of Davies's replacement, Geraint John. Gerald Cordle scored to break the deadlock but the conversion was missed and Swansea scored a converted try soon after, putting them in the lead. But a late drop goal from full-back Mike Rayer won it for the Arms Park side capping one of the most successful periods in the club's history, with five Schweppes Cup victories in seven years. In 1987, the first Rugby World Cup was held in New Zealand. Cardiff props Dai Young, Jeff Whitefoot and Steve Blackmore, wing Adrian Hadley, centre Mark Ring and hooker Alan Phillips all were selected in Wales's squad (Young was called up as an injury replacement) which finished third. Cardiff's success began to tail off towards the end of the 1980s, with Adrian Hadley leaving for rugby league in 1988 and Gerald Cordle following in 89, and they could only manage two Cup quarter-finals and one semi-final appearance in the last three years of the decade. However, both Dai Young and Bob Norster were selected for the Lions tour to Australia in 1989, the only Lions team to come from 1–0 down to win the series. Young followed Hadley and Cordle to rugby league shortly after this, while Whitefoot and Norster both retired in 1990. League rugby In 1990, the unofficial Welsh championship was replaced by a league structure involving promotion and relegation. Cardiff competed in top flight but could only manage a fourth-place finish in 1990–91, and exited the Cup at the quarter-final stage. The season did involve some highlights however, such as beating league runners-up and Cup champions Llanelli 43–0 at the Arms Park and beating league champions Neath 18–4 away in the last game of the season. 1991–92 was possibly the club's worst-ever season, beset with disagreements between coach Alan Phillips and manager John Scott. Cardiff crashed out of the Cup before the quarter-final stage and lost at home to Maesteg and Newbridge in the league. Their final league finish was ninth, which would have led to their relegation but the WRU decided mid-season to switch to a 12-team Premiership, therefore saving Cardiff and Maesteg from relegation. Both Scott and Phillips resigned following the season. Australian Alex Evans took over at Cardiff as coach for the 1992–93 season, bringing in former Arms Park legend Terry Holmes and famous ex-Pontypool front-row member Charlie Faulkner as assistants, and helped a turnaround in the club's fortunes, winning their first seven matches of the season and 20 of their first 22 to top the league in the new year. This run came to an end on 23 January; they were knocked out of the Schweppes Cup by St Peter's, who were fourth from bottom of Division Four. The Blue and Blacks only lost four league games all season though, but were unlucky to be competing against Llanelli in the league, who won the double and were considered the best club team in the UK after beating Australia 13–9. In 1993–94 they slid back to fourth in the league but won the SWALEC Cup (renamed from Schweppes Cup for sponsorship reasons) by beating Llanelli, who'd won the tournament for the last three years running. The score in the final was 15–8, with tries from Mike Rayer and club captain centre Mike Hall and kicks from fly-half Adrian Davies. In 1994–95 Cardiff won the final league title of the amateur era in Wales, as well as reaching the semi-finals of the Cup before going down 16–9 to Swansea. Professionalism With professionalism dawned a new era at Cardiff RFC. It allowed them to sign legendary outside-half Jonathan Davies back from rugby league, and another major change was that there would be a European Cup, sponsored by Heineken, containing teams from France, Ireland, Wales, Italy and Romania (England and Scotland did not join for another year). Cardiff progressed to the knock-out stages in November by drawing with Bordeaux-Begles and beating Ulster. December saw the end of the Alex Evans era, as he departed to return home to Australia. Terry Holmes took charge of the club, and in his first full match the Blue and Blacks beat Leinster away to progress to the first Heineken Cup final. The game was played at Cardiff Arms Park in front of a crowd of 21,800, where despite 18 points from the boot of Adrian Davies, Cardiff were beaten 21–18 by Toulouse after extra time. Cardiff, despite not losing a league game under Holmes, were runners-up on the domestic front as well, finishing level with Neath on points but coming second on try count. After the end of the 95–96 season Peter Thomas invested money into the club allowing them to sign Rob Howley, Dai Young back from rugby league, Leigh Davies, Gwyn Jones and Justin Thomas for the cost of around £2million. Internationals Mark Ring, Steven Blackmore and the half-backs that had started the Heineken Cup final, Andy Moore and Adrian Davies all departed. Despite all the new signings, Cardiff lost their first three games of the season, and the 1996/97 season was in many respects worse than the year before – Cardiff were knocked out in the Heineken Cup semi-finals by eventual champions Brive, and in the Welsh Premier Division they fell to third, behind champions Pontypridd and Llanelli. However, after Alex Evans returned to head up the coaching team, that season did lead to some silverware, as Cardiff beat Llanelli 36–26 in the semi-final and Swansea 33–26 in the final of the SWALEC Cup. Grzegorz Kacala and Tony Rees, both forwards part of the Brive team that knocked Cardiff out of the Heineken Cup and went on to win it, were signed for 1997/98 along with Wales internationals Steve Williams and Spencer John (Gareth Thomas also arrived in December from Bridgend). Despite Cardiff's difficulties, compounded by those of the national team, Howley and Young were both chosen to go on 1997 Lions tour to South Africa. Howley had to return home early due to injury and neither of the two Cardiff players started a Test match. In the 1997/98 season, Cardiff were Wales's sole representative in the quarter-finals of the Heineken Cup, and were beaten away in rematch of the previous year's quarter-final, by Bath, who would go on to win the tournament. However, their domestic cup campaign ended before the quarter-final stage, losing 24–9 to Ebbw Vale, and they finished runners up to Swansea in the League. Following this season, Alex Evans left Cardiff for Australia for the second time and Terry Holmes was put back in charge. Rebel season Cardiff and Swansea had proposed the formation of a British league, containing the top division English clubs, the two Scottish regional sides (Edinburgh and Glasgow) and four Welsh clubs (seeing as Cardiff had got further than any other Welsh club in every Heineken Cup so far, Swansea were the league champions and they represented the two largest urban areas in Wales, it was assumed two of these clubs would be Cardiff and Swansea). Both the RFU and the English clubs had agreed to this, but the WRU refused due to an ongoing legal battle with the English clubs over the negotiation of commercial rights (which would lead to the English clubs not participating in the 1998–99 Heineken Cup). Instead, the WRU demanded all top-flight clubs sign 10-year loyalty agreements, where they were guaranteed top-flight status and committed themselves to staying within the Welsh league structure. Cardiff and Swansea refused to sign these agreements and were expelled from the Welsh Premier Division. The Allied Dunbar Premiership (the English league) teams announced that two teams would have a rest weekend every week allowing them to play friendlies against Cardiff and Swansea. Cardiff's first home match of the season was against Saracens, who'd finished second in the Allied Dunbar Premiership the season before. Cardiff won 40–19 in front of a crowd of 10,021, larger than the entire combined attendance of the Welsh Premier Division that weekend. The club went on to win all their home games, but fell to defeat ten times on their travels. Although Cardiff and Swansea were both expelled from the Welsh League, they were allowed to continue to compete in the SWALEC Cup against Welsh opposition. Both teams reached the semi-finals, Swansea were to play Cross Keys and Cardiff Llanelli. In the week prior to the game, Cardiff chairman Peter Thomas spoke to the players following a training session, where he emphasised the importance of winning the game, describing it as "the biggest game in the club's history". Cardiff lost 39–10 in a match chief executive Gareth Davies described "The worst performance by a Cardiff side I have ever seen." Six days later, it was announced Terry Holmes would stand down as coach at the end of the season, and Pontypridd and Wales assistant coach Lyn Howells would take charge on a two-year contract. Swansea went on to beat Llanelli 37–10 in the cup final, but the rebels were still forced to sign loyalty agreements and return to Welsh domestic setup, now including Edinburgh and Glasgow. Lynn Howells After the unsuccessful rebel season, Cardiff signed British Lion outside-half Neil Jenkins, as well as Wales internationals second-row Craig Quinnell and flanker Martyn Williams. The start of the 1999–2000 season for Cardiff was hampered by them missing 13 first choice players due to the World Cup, and in late September they fell to a humiliating 60–18 defeat away to Llanelli at Stradey Park. However, despite this poor start and failing to win in the first rounds of the Heineken Cup, they progressed to the Heineken Cup quarter-finals, where they were beaten by Llanelli, and clinched the Welsh/Scottish League title with three games remaining, The season is also notable for a club record victory of 116–0 over Duvnant in the Welsh/Scottish League, and the club going unbeaten at home for almost the whole season, before losing 41–40 to Swansea in their very last game of the season (with the title already sewn up). This was Cardiff's first defeat at the Arms Park for over two years, since 13 December 1997, again against Swansea. During the close season Cardiff lost Leigh Davies to Llanelli but signed South African centre Pieter Muller to replace him. They won their first five Welsh/Scottish League matches, seemingly making certain they would retain their title, especially as Swansea lost three of their first five games. The highlight of the season was in late October, when the Blue and Blacks stunned English Premiership leaders Saracens by defeating them home and away in the Heineken Cup. The club's great form began to stutter as the millennium drew to a close, but it was in January the wheels really came off. After a magnificent 42–16 victory over Ulster, two yellow cards led Cardiff to defeat in Toulouse, meaning they would have to travel to Gloucester in the quarter-finals. A turgid forward battle resulted in a 21–15 defeat for the Blue and Blacks. Two weeks later they then lost to Bridgend, their first home defeat of the season, meaning Swansea pulled ahead in the title race. Another defeat at Ebbw Vale in March condemned them to a trophyless season. Following the unsuccessful season Lynn Howells's contract was not renewed and Rudy Joubert was appointed director of rugby. Gareth Thomas also left the club along with nine other players, but Rob Appleyard, Matt Allen and Craig Hudson all joined. For the 2001 Lions tour, four Cardiff players were picked, Rob Howley, Neil Jenkins, Dai Young and Martyn Williams. Young became the first player to tour for the Lions in three different decades. Howley started the first two Tests, with Williams on the bench in all three, and Jenkins coming on to replace Jonny Wilkinson in the second. Howley was dropped for the third, deciding Test. Rudy Joubert 2001–02 was the first year of the Celtic League, containing teams from Wales, Ireland and Scotland. The pool stage would begin in mid-August and continue on for a month. Cardiff were drawn into the smaller, seven-team pool (with four teams going through to the quarter-finals).and started their campaign in unconvincing fashion, winning three games but still being knocked out of the competition on points difference. In the Heineken Cup, rugby league convert Iestyn Harris, signed for £1million scored a hat-trick on his debut in a 46–7 against Glasgow. Overall the club's European form was mediocre however, as despite winning all their home games they failed to register an away win and were eliminated at the pool stage for the first time in their history On the domestic front, Cardiff again went unbeaten at home until the final game of the season, but again were unable to back it up on the road and finished fourth – their first season out of the top three in a decade. Dai Young The off season was all change for Cardiff. Rudy Joubert returned home to South Africa and Dai Young became player-coach of the club. Internationals Rob Howley, Neil Jenkins, Craig Quinnell and Jonathan Humphreys all left the club as well. The Welsh/Scottish League was abolished, returning to just nine Welsh teams in the top-flight, and Celtic League games no longer counted towards the domestic league. In the first two months of the season, Cardiff managed to improve on their Celtic League record from the previous year, winning four out of seven games and progressing to the knockout stage. The quarter final was away to Edinburgh on 30 November and, despite a dreadful first half performance that saw them 19–6 down at the break, a much improved second half performance saw them record a 26–22 win, and go through to the semi-finals. Their decent start to the season collapsed after that however, with Cardiff failing to score at home for the first-time in 30 years in a 31–0 defeat in the Heineken Cup against Northampton in December. January was a disastrous month for the club too, with a 32–10 thrashing away to Neath in the Celtic League semi-finals, despite the home team making 12 handling errors in Cardiff's 22. Two weeks later the club's first ever Heineken Cup whitewash was completed with a record 75–25 defeat away to Biarritz. Domestically, the Blue and Blacks' final season as a top-tier rugby team was less disappointing. They reached the semi-finals of the Cup, although they capitulated in a similar fashion to their Celtic League semi-final, this time 44–10 away to Llanelli. In the League they finished third, 3 points behind Neath and 11 behind Bridgend. Today Today, Cardiff RFC Ltd runs two sides. Cardiff Rugby now back at Cardiff Arms Park after three years playing at Cardiff City Stadium. The professional side, Cardiff Rugby take part in the United Rugby Championship and Heineken Cup. The semi professional Cardiff RFC side take part in the Welsh Premier Division and WRU Challenge Cup. In 2019, Steve Law's team won the WRU Challenge Cup, beating Merthyr in the final. The following season they led the league table and remained on course for a league and cup double when the Covid19 pandemic brought an abrupt end to the season. Ahead of the 2021/22 season, Cardiff Rugby academy manager Gruff Rees became Cardiff RFC Director of Rugby, alongside what was described as a new "alignment" with the Cardiff Rugby player pathway. The team were knocked out of the cup by Newport but finished top of the Welsh Premier Division to become champions. Current squad The Arms Park Club Rugby games were moved to what was the cricket ground and a new stadium was built in 1969 as a result of an agreement between the Cardiff Athletic Club and the Welsh Rugby Union. On the site of the old Arms Park stadium, a new stadium was built, Welsh National Rugby Ground (also known as The National Stadium). In 1999, a brand new stadium was built in place of the National Stadium, which was named the Millennium Stadium. Cardiff Blues moved from the Arms Park for the 2009/10 season to play at the Cardiff City Stadium in Leckwith, Cardiff – the home of Cardiff City FC. After three seasons Cardiff Blues returned to their 'spiritual home' and will play the majority of future games at their traditional Arms Park home. Club honours Heineken Cup runners-up: 1996 Western Mail Welsh Championship winners: 1899, 1907, 1909, 1910, 1938, 1939, 1947, 1949, 1951, 1955, 1956, 1959, 1983 Middlesex 7s winners: 1939 Gala Sevens winners: 1964 Selkirk Sevens winners: 2006 Snelling Sevens winners: 1955, 1966, 1969, 1972, 1976, 1977, 1981, 1983, 1984 Welsh Cup: 1981, 1982, 1984, 1986, 1987, 1994, 1997, 2019, 2023 South Wales Challenge Cup winners: 1881 Welsh League: 1995 Welsh/Scottish League: 2000 Welsh Premiership: 2009, 2020, 2022, 2023(league) British and Irish Lions The following former players were selected for the British and Irish Lions touring squads whilst playing for Cardiff RFC. Gareth Thomas was selected for the 2005 Lions tour whilst playing for Toulouse Wales international captains The following former players captained the Wales national rugby union team whilst playing for Cardiff RFC. Other notable former players The following players represented Cardiff and were capped at international level, but do not warrant inclusion in the above two lists. Regional rugby Since the advent of regional rugby in 2003, a number of Cardiff RFC players have gone on to represent Wales (some while still playing for the club rather than the regional side). The Cardiff club side have also had a number of players selected for Wales at U20 level and the Sevens side. Games played against international opposition See also Rugby in Cardiff References Footnotes External links Cardiff RFC Former Players Association Category:Sport in Cardiff Category:Rugby clubs established in 1876 Category:Rugby union teams in Wales Category:World Rugby Hall of Fame inductees Category:1876 establishments in Wales
[]
[ "Lynn Howells was a rugby director whose contract was not renewed after an unsuccessful season with Cardiff.", "During this period, Cardiff had a mixed record. At the start of the 1999-2000 season, they faced challenges due to missing 13 first choice players due to the World Cup, and were dealt a heavy defeat by Llanelli. However, they did progress to the Heineken Cup quarter-finals and also clinched the Welsh/Scottish League title with three games remaining. In one season they had a club record victory of 116-0 over Duvnant, and went almost unbeaten at home, with their only defeat of that season being a very close 41-40 loss to Swansea. The following season they initially won their first five games, but then began to stumble and ended the season without a trophy.", "During this time, Cardiff signed British Lion outside-half Neil Jenkins, Wales internationals second-row Craig Quinnell and flanker Martyn Williams. They also signed South African centre Pieter Muller. The players who joined the club later on were Rob Appleyard, Matt Allen and Craig Hudson.", "During this time, the Cardiff team had a mixed performance record. They had a poor start to the 1999-2000 season, missing 13 first-choice players due to the World Cup and suffering a heavy 60-18 defeat to Llanelli. However, they managed to progress to the Heineken Cup quarter-finals, clinched the Welsh/Scottish League title with three games left, and even recorded a club record victory of 116-0 over Duvnant. They also went nearly unbeaten at home save for a narrow 41-40 loss to Swansea in their final game. \n\nIn the following season, they started strong, winning their first five Welsh/Scottish League matches and defeating the Saracens in the Heineken Cup. However, the team's form began to decline towards the end of the year, and they suffered a few key losses, including a 21-15 defeat to Gloucester in the Heineken Cup quarter-finals. This led to them failing to win any trophies that season." ]
[ "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes" ]
C_716b12024b594fe99a6bfeb63a501d7a_1
Terry Gilliam
Gilliam was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the son of Beatrice (nee Vance) and James Hall Gilliam. His father was a travelling salesman for Folgers before becoming a carpenter. Soon after, they moved to nearby Medicine Lake, Minnesota. The family moved to the Los Angeles neighbourhood of Panorama City in 1952.
Look and style
Gilliam's films have a distinctive look, not only in mise-en-scene but even more so in photography, often recognisable from just a short clip; to create a surreal atmosphere of psychological unrest and a world out of balance, he frequently uses unusual camera angles, particularly low-angle shots, high-angle shots, and Dutch angles. Roger Ebert said that "his world is always hallucinatory in its richness of detail." Most of his movies are shot almost entirely with rectilinear ultra-wide-angle lenses with focal lengths of 28mm or less to achieve a distinctive style defined by extreme perspective distortion and extremely deep focus. Gilliam's long-time director of photography Nicola Pecorini has said, "with Terry and me, a long lens means something between a 40mm and a 65mm." This attitude markedly differs from the common definition in photography, by which 40 to 65 mm is the focal length of a normal lens, resembling the natural human field of view, unlike Gilliam's signature style, defined by extreme perspective distortion due to his usual choice of focal length. The 14-mm lens has become informally known as "The Gilliam" among filmmakers because of his frequent use of it at least since Brazil. Gilliam has explained his preference for using wide-angle lenses in his films: The wide-angle lenses, I think I choose them because it makes me feel like I'm in the space of the film, I'm surrounded. My prevalent vision is full of detail, and that's what I like about it. It's actually harder to do, it's harder to light. The other thing I like about wide-angle lenses is that I'm not forcing the audience to look at just the one thing that is important. It's there, but there's other things to occupy, and some people don't like that because I'm not pointing things out as precisely as I could if I was to use a long lens where I'd focus just on the one thing and everything else would be out of focus. ... [M]y films, I think, are better the second and third time, frankly, because you can now relax and go with the flow that may not have been as apparent as the first time you saw it and wallow in the details of the worlds we're creating. ... I try to clutter [my visuals] up, they're worthy of many viewings. In another interview, Gilliam mentioned, in relation to the 9.8-mm Kinoptic lens he had first used on Brazil, that wide-angle lenses make small film sets "look big". The widest lens he has used so far is an 8-mm Zeiss lens employed in filming The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus. CANNOTANSWER
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Terence Vance Gilliam (; born 22 November 1940) is an American-born British filmmaker, comedian, animator, actor. He gained stardom as a member of the Monty Python comedy troupe alongside John Cleese, Eric Idle, Michael Palin, Terry Jones, and Graham Chapman. Together they collaborated on the sketch series Monty Python's Flying Circus (1969-1974) and the films Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975), Life of Brian (1979) and The Meaning of Life (1983). In 1988 they received the BAFTA Award for Outstanding British Contribution to Cinema. Gilliam transitioned to directing serious films with themes which explores imagination, oppositions to bureaucracy and authoritarianism. His films are sometimes set in dystopian worlds and involve black comedy and tragicomedic elements. He has helmed 14 feature films, including Time Bandits (1981), Brazil (1985), The Adventures of Baron Munchausen (1988), The Fisher King (1991), 12 Monkeys (1995), Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (1998), The Brothers Grimm (2005), Tideland (2005), The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus (2009), The Zero Theorem (2013), and The Man Who Killed Don Quixote (2018). In 2009, Gilliam received the BAFTA Fellowship for lifetime achievement. Gilliam was born in Minnesota, but spent his high school and college years in Los Angeles. He started his career as an animator and strip cartoonist. He joined Monty Python as the animator of their works, but eventually became a full member and was given acting roles. He is the only Monty Python member not born in Britain, he became a naturalised British subject in 1968 and formally renounced his American citizenship in 2006. Early life Terry Gilliam was born on 22 November 1940 in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the son of Beatrice (née Vance) and James Hall Gilliam. His father was a travelling salesman for Folgers before becoming a carpenter. Soon after, they moved to nearby Medicine Lake, Minnesota. In 1952, the family moved to the Los Angeles neighbourhood of Panorama City. Gilliam attended Birmingham High School, where he was the president of his class and senior prom king, and was voted "Most Likely to Succeed" having achieved straight A grades. During high school, he began to avidly read Mad magazine, then edited by Harvey Kurtzman, which would later influence Gilliam's work. Gilliam graduated from Occidental College in 1962 with a Bachelor of Arts in political science. In 2003, he told Salman Rushdie about defining experiences in the 1960s that set the foundations for his views on the world: Career 1965–1969: Animation and move to England Gilliam began his career as an animator and strip cartoonist. One of his early photographic strips for the US magazine Help! featured future Python cast member John Cleese. When Help! folded, Gilliam went to Europe, jokingly announcing in the final issue that he was "being transferred to the European branch" of the magazine, which did not exist. Moving to England, he animated sequences for the children's series Do Not Adjust Your Set which he worked on from 1968 to 1969, and which also featured Eric Idle, Terry Jones, and Michael Palin. 1969–1974: Monty Python's Flying Circus Gilliam was a member of Monty Python's Flying Circus from its outset, credited at first as an animator (his name was listed separately after the other five in the closing credits) and later as a full member. His cartoons linked the show's sketches together and defined the group's visual language in other media, such as LP and book covers and the title sequences of their films. His animations mix his own art, characterised by soft gradients and odd, bulbous shapes, with backgrounds and moving cutouts from antique photographs, mostly from the Victorian era. He also appeared in several sketches, though he rarely had main roles and did considerably less acting in the sketches. Gilliam did, however, have some notable sketch roles, such as Cardinal Fang of the Spanish Inquisition; the bespectacled commenter who said, "I can't add anything to that!" in the sketch "Election Night Special"; Kevin Garibaldi, the brat on the couch shouting "I want more beans!" in the sketch "Most Awful Family in Britain 1974" (episode 45); the Screaming Queen in a cape and mask in "The Visitors"; and Percy Bysshe Shelley in "Ant Poetry Reading". More frequently, he played parts that no one else wanted to play, generally because they required a lot of makeup or uncomfortable costumes, such as a recurring knight in armour who ended sketches by walking on and hitting one of the other characters over the head with a plucked chicken. He also designed the covers of most of the Monty Python albums, including Another Monty Python Record, The Monty Python Matching Tie and Handkerchief, Monty Python Live at Drury Lane, and all of their later film soundtrack albums. Katy Hepburn, a freelance designer and graduate of the Royal College of Art in London, also worked with Gilliam. 1975–1983: Transitional years In 1975, Gilliam began his career as a director by co-directing Monty Python and the Holy Grail with Terry Jones. Gilliam was responsible for photography and also appeared as both Patsy and the Old Man from Scene 24, while Jones guided the actors' performances. It was the only Python film directed by Gilliam, though he continued to act in their subsequent projects. As Python started to take longer breaks between projects following Monty Python and the Holy Grail, Gilliam became a solo filmmaker, building upon the experience he had acquired. In 1977, he directed his first film outside the group, Jabberwocky, also a comedy set in the Middle Ages. It featured Python member Michael Palin in the lead role, and was based on the poem of the same name. In 1978, he published Animations of Mortality, an illustrated, tongue-in-cheek, semi-autobiographical how-to guide to his animation techniques and the visual language in them. Gilliam served as art director on Monty Python's Life of Brian, Terry Jones having taken on sole directing duties. Gilliam made Time Bandits in 1981. Following directing the short film The Crimson Permanent Assurance, which opened showings of Monty Python's The Meaning of Life, Python effectively ceased working together, and Gilliam pursued his career as a filmmaker. 1984–1998: Trilogies and critical success Gilliam says he used to think of his films in terms of trilogies, starting with Time Bandits. The "Trilogy of Imagination", written by Gilliam, about "the ages of man", consisted of Time Bandits (1981), Brazil (1985), and The Adventures of Baron Munchausen (1988). All are about the "craziness of our awkwardly ordered society and the desire to escape it through whatever means possible." All three films focus on these struggles and attempts to escape them through imagination: Time Bandits through the eyes of a child, Brazil through the eyes of a man in his thirties, and Munchausen through the eyes of an elderly man. In the summer of 1986, he cut ties with Arnon Milchan and 20th Century Fox and started directing the latter through his own new Prominent Films banner independently. In the 1990s, Gilliam directed a trilogy of Americana: The Fisher King (1991), 12 Monkeys (1995), and Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (1998), which took place on North American soil and, while still surreal, had fewer fantastical plots than his previous trilogy. 1999–2009 In 1999, Gilliam attempted to film The Man Who Killed Don Quixote, which was budgeted at US$32.1 million, making it among the highest-budgeted films to use only European financing; but in the first week of shooting, the actor playing Don Quixote (Jean Rochefort) suffered a herniated disc, and a flood severely damaged the set. The film was cancelled, resulting in an insurance claim of US$15 million. Despite the cancellation, the aborted project did yield the 2002 documentary Lost in La Mancha, produced from film from a second crew that had been hired by Gilliam to document the making of Quixote. After the cancellation, both Gilliam and the film's co-lead, Johnny Depp, wanted to revive the project. The insurance company involved in the failed first attempt withheld the rights to the screenplay for several years with the production on hold until 2008. Following the failure of The Man Who Killed Don Quixote, J. K. Rowling, the author of the Harry Potter series and a fan of Gilliam's work, advocated for him to direct Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone in 2000, but Warner Bros. ultimately chose Chris Columbus for the job. In response to this decision, Gilliam said that "I was the perfect guy to do Harry Potter. I remember leaving the meeting, getting in my car, and driving for about two hours along Mulholland Drive just so angry. I mean, Chris Columbus' versions are terrible. Just dull. Pedestrian." In 2002, Gilliam directed a series of television advertisements called "Secret Tournament". Part of Nike's 2002 FIFA World Cup campaign, the advertisements feature a secret three-on-three tournament between the world's best football players, including Ronaldo, Ronaldinho and Thierry Henry, who are inside a huge tanker ship. The advertisements are accompanied with a remixed version of the Elvis Presley song "A Little Less Conversation". In 2005, Gilliam released The Brothers Grimm, followed later in the year by Tideland. In 2006, Gilliam made his debut as theatre director by directing the stage show Slava's Diabolo, created and staged by the Russian clown artist Slava Polunin. The show combined Polunin's clown style, characterised by deep nonverbal expression and interaction with the audience, with Gilliam's rich visuals and surrealistic imagery. The show premiered at the Noga Hall of the Gesher Theatre in Jaffa, Tel Aviv, Israel. In January 2007, Gilliam announced that he had been working on a new project with his writing partner Charles McKeown. One day later, the fansite Dreams reported that the new project was titled The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus; the following October, Dreams confirmed that this would be Gilliam's next project and was slated to star Christopher Plummer and Tom Waits. Production began in December 2007 in London. On 22 January 2008, production of the film was disrupted following the death of Heath Ledger in New York City. Variety reported that Ledger's involvement had been a "key factor" in the film's financing. Production was suspended indefinitely by 24 January, but in February the actors Johnny Depp, Jude Law, and Colin Farrell signed on to continue Ledger's role, transforming into multiple incarnations of his character in the "magical" world of the film. Thanks to this arrangement the principal photography was completed on 15 April 2008, on schedule. During the filming, Gilliam was accidentally hit by a bus and suffered a broken back. The film had successful screenings including a premiere at the 62nd Cannes Film Festival. The UK release for the film was scheduled for 6 June 2009, but was pushed back to 16 October 2009. The USA release was on 25 December 2009. Eventually, this $30 million-budgeted film had grossed more than $60 million in worldwide theatrical release and received two Academy Award nominations. The film's end credit states that the film is dedicated to the memories of Ledger and William Vince. Depp, Farrell, and Law donated their proceeds from the film to Ledger's daughter. 2010–present Gilliam made his opera debut at London's English National Opera (ENO) in May 2011, directing The Damnation of Faust, by Hector Berlioz. The production received positive reviews in the British press On 16 September 2012, the production opened at the Vlaamse Opera in Ghent, Belgium, in the opera's original French-language version and received praise from critics and audiences alike. After a number of performances in Ghent, the production moved to the opera house in Antwerp for a sold-out run of performances. In July 2012, Gilliam revealed plans for a film which would be shot in Bucharest, Romania. He denied that it would be Don Quixote but refused to give any further details. The actor David Walliams reportedly entered into talks with Gilliam to play a part in it and was told that he'd have to "be willing to work with Johnny Depp and fly to Bucharest where the movie is to be filmed." Depp, to that point, had made no mention of his involvement but was seen in Bucharest around the same time in mid-July as Romanian news outlets reported Gilliam was staying in the city for negotiations on studio work with the Romanian film production company MediaPro Studios. On 13 August 2012, this project was announced to be The Zero Theorem, set to start shooting in Bucharest on 22 October, produced by Dean Zanuck (son of the late Richard D. Zanuck, who was originally to produce the film in 2009), with worldwide sales handled by Voltage Pictures, Toronto, and starring the Academy Award–winner Christoph Waltz in the lead (replacing Billy Bob Thornton, who had been attached to the project in 2009). The Zero Theorem premiered at the 70th Venice International Film Festival on 2 September 2013. In June 2014, Gilliam followed up on his success with Faust with a new ENO production of another opera by Berlioz, the rarely performed Benvenuto Cellini. After regaining the rights to the screenplay of The Man Who Killed Don Quixote, Gilliam restarted preproduction in 2008, with Johnny Depp still attached to the project. The film was to be reshot completely, with Rochefort's role recast. Michael Palin reportedly entered into talks with Gilliam about stepping in for Rochefort and playing Don Quixote. However, Gilliam revealed on the Canadian talk show The Hour on 17 December 2009, that Robert Duvall had been cast to play Quixote, before the film was postponed once again. In January 2014, Gilliam wrote on Facebook that "Dreams of Don Quixote have begun again". At the Cannes Film Festival in 2016, it was confirmed that The Man Who Killed Don Quixote was going to be made, with Michael Palin and Adam Driver in starring roles. In March 2017, filming finally began, with Driver and Jonathan Pryce starring. On 4 June 2017, Gilliam announced that the shooting of the film was complete. The film premiered on 19 May 2018, as the closing film of the 2018 Cannes Film Festival (where it received a standing ovation), and was released in French theatres the same day. His production of Into The Woods, which he co-directed with Leah Hausman, premiered at the Theatre Royal, Bath in August 2022 to positive reviews. Future projects As of 2014 Gilliam was in talks to make his first animated feature film with Laika, the studio behind Coraline and ParaNorman. He has been involved off-and-on for years with an adaptation of The Defective Detective, which Gilliam wrote with Richard LaGravenese (who wrote The Fisher King). While promoting the US theatrical release of The Zero Theorem, Gilliam revealed he and LaGravenese were meeting to see if The Defective Detective script could be made into a miniseries. If this comes together, it would be the first time Gilliam has ever directed for television. During the second half of 2011, Gilliam and Paul Auster wrote a screenplay for a film adaptation of Auster's novel Mr. Vertigo. In June 2018, Gilliam announced at the Brussels International Film Festival that he was working again on Mr. Vertigo, and that it might be his next film, and that he had Ralph Fiennes attached to star in it. In addition to film projects as director, Gilliam has been involved with developing projects for other artists and mediums. On 16 December 2010, Variety reported that Gilliam was to "godfather" a film called 1884, described as an animated steampunk parody of George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four, with several former Pythons lending their voices to the project; Gilliam was to be credited as "creative advisor". In October 2015, in a webchat hosted by The Guardian, Gilliam announced that he was working on "a TV series based on Time Bandits" and "another based on a script by Richard LaGravanese and I wrote after Fisher King, called The Defective Detective". Abandoned clip art project Fifteen years after the publication of Gilliam's Animations of Mortality, between the release of the CD-ROM game Monty Python's Complete Waste of Time in 1994, which used many of Gilliam's animation templates, and the making of Gilliam's film Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (1998), Gilliam was in negotiations with Enteractive, a software company, to tentatively release in the autumn of 1996 a CD-ROM under the same title as his 1978 book, containing all of his thousands of 1970s animation templates as licence-free clip arts for people to create their own flash animations, but the project hovered in limbo for years, probably because Enteractive was about to downsize greatly in mid-1996 and changed its focus from CD-ROM multimedia presentations to internet business solutions and web hosting in 1997 (in the introduction to their 2004 book Terry Gilliam: Interviews, David Sterrit and Lucille Rhodes claimed that the internet had overwhelmed the "computer-communications market" and gave this as the reason that the Animations of Mortality CD-ROM never materialised). Around the time of Gilliam's film The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus (2009), the project had changed into the idea of releasing his 1970s animation templates as a licence-free download of Adobe After Effects or similar files. Analysis Themes and philosophy As for his philosophical background in screenwriting and directing, Gilliam said on the TV show First Hand on RoundhouseTV, "There's so many film schools, so many media courses which I actually am opposed to. Because I think it's more important to be educated, to read, to learn things, because if you're gonna be in the media and if you'll have to say things, you have to know things. If you only know about cameras and 'the media', what're you gonna be talking about except cameras and the media? So it's better learning about philosophy and art and architecture [and] literature, these are the things to be concentrating on it seems to me. Then, you can fly...!" Gilliam's films are usually imaginative fantasies. His long-time co-writer Charles McKeown commented, "the theme of imagination, and the importance of imagination, to how you live and how you think and so on ... that's very much a Terry theme." Most of Gilliam's films include plotlines that seem to occur partly or completely in the characters' imaginations, raising questions about the definition of identity and sanity. He often shows his opposition to bureaucracy and authoritarian regimes. He also distinguishes "higher" and "lower" layers of society, with a disturbing and ironic style. His films usually feature a fight or struggle against a great power which may be an emotional situation, a human-made idol, or even the person himself, and the situations do not always end happily. There is often a dark, paranoid atmosphere and unusual characters who used to be normal members of society. His scripts feature black comedy and often end with a dark tragicomic twist. Gilliam is fascinated with the Baroque period because of the pronounced struggle between spirituality and rationality in that era. There is often a rich baroqueness and dichotomous eclecticism about his films, with, for instance, high-tech computer monitors equipped with low-tech magnifying lenses in Brazil and a red knight covered with flapping bits of cloth in The Fisher King. He also is given to incongruous juxtapositions of beauty and ugliness or antique and modern. Regarding Gilliam's theme of modernity's struggle between spirituality and rationality whereas the individual may become dominated by a tyrannical, soulless machinery of disenchanted society, the film critic Keith James Hamel observed a specific affinity of Gilliam's films with the writings of the historian Arnold Toynbee and the sociologist Max Weber, specifically the latter's concept of the "iron cage" of rationality. Look and style Gilliam's films have a distinctive look, not only in mise-en-scène but even more so in photography, often recognisable from just a short clip; to create a surreal atmosphere of psychological unrest and a world out of balance, he frequently uses unusual camera angles, particularly low-angle shots, high-angle shots, and Dutch angles. Roger Ebert said that "his world is always hallucinatory in its richness of detail". Most of his movies are shot almost entirely with rectilinear ultra-wide-angle lenses with focal lengths of 28 mm or less to achieve a distinctive style defined by extreme perspective distortion and extremely deep focus. Gilliam's long-time director of photography Nicola Pecorini has said, "with Terry and me, a long lens means something between a 40 mm and a 65 mm." This attitude markedly differs from the common definition in photography, by which 40 to 65 mm is the focal length of a normal lens, resembling the natural human field of view, unlike Gilliam's signature style, defined by extreme perspective distortion due to his usual choice of focal length. The 14 mm lens has become informally known as "The Gilliam" among filmmakers because of his frequent use of it at least since Brazil. Gilliam has explained his preference for using wide-angle lenses in his films: In another interview, Gilliam mentioned, in relation to the 9.8 mm Kinoptic lens he had first used on Brazil, that wide-angle lenses make small film sets "look big". The widest lens he has used so far is an 8 mm Zeiss lens employed in filming The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus. Commercial success Gilliam's first successful feature, Time Bandits (1981), earned more than eight times its original budget in the United States alone. The Adventures of Baron Munchausen (1988), although commercially unsuccessful, was nominated for four Oscars and won three BAFTA Awards, among several other Prizes in Europe. The Fisher King (1991), his first film not to feature a member of the Monty Python troupe, had a budget of $24 million and grossed more than $41 million at United States box office. 12 Monkeys grossed more than US$168 million worldwide. The Brothers Grimm, despite a mixed critical reception, grossed over US$105 million worldwide. The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus, with a budget of $30 million, has been an international commercial success, grossing over $60 million in worldwide theatrical release. According to Box Office Mojo, his films have grossed an average of $21,602,510. Personal life Gilliam has been married to British makeup artist Maggie Weston since 1973. She worked on Monty Python's Flying Circus, many of the Python films, and Gilliam's films up to The Adventures of Baron Munchausen. They have three children: Amy Rainbow (born 1978), Holly Dubois (born October 1980) and Harry Thunder (born 3 April 1988), who have also appeared in or worked on several of his films. In 1968, Gilliam obtained British citizenship. He held dual American and British citizenship for the next 38 years, until he renounced his American citizenship in January 2006. In an interview with Der Tagesspiegel, he described the action as a protest against then-President George W. Bush, and in an earlier interview with The A.V. Club, he also indicated that it was related to concerns about future tax liability for his wife and children. As a result of renouncing his citizenship, Gilliam was permitted to spend 30 days each year in the United States over the next ten years, "less than any European". Holly followed suit, renouncing her American citizenship in 2017. He maintains a residence in Italy near the Umbria–Tuscany border. He has been instrumental in establishing the annual Umbria Film Festival, held in the nearby town of Montone. Gilliam also resides in Highgate, London. On 8 September 2015, Variety mistakenly published a false obituary claiming that Gilliam had died. In May 2018, Gilliam suffered a perforated medullary artery that was characterized in the media as a stroke. Charitable activities Gilliam has been involved with a number of charitable and humanitarian causes. In 2009, he became a board member of Videre Est Credere (Latin for "to see is to believe"), a UK human rights charity. Videre describes itself as giving "local activists the equipment, training and support needed to safely capture compelling video evidence of human rights violations. This captured footage is verified, analysed and then distributed to those who can create change." He participates alongside movie producer Uri Fruchtmann, music producer Brian Eno and executive director of Greenpeace UK John Sauven. Filmography Honours and accolades Gilliam has received two BAFTA Awards, a special award for Monty Python's Flying Circus (1969), and the BAFTA Fellowship in 2009. He has also been nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay for Brazil (1985), and for a Golden Globe Award for Best Director for The Fisher King (1991). His film Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (1998) premiered at the Cannes Film Festival where it competed for the Palme d'Or. He received the Berlin International Film Festival's Silver Bear for The Fisher King. He w was awarded the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres in 2013. References Further reading External links Dreams: The Terry Gilliam Fanzine Category:1940 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century American comedians Category:20th-century British comedians Category:21st-century American comedians Category:21st-century British comedians Category:Animators from Minnesota Category:British animators Category:British film directors Category:American animated film directors Category:British male actors Category:American male comedians Category:British male comedians Category:American comics artists Category:British comics artists Category:British male comedy actors Category:American male comedy actors Category:American comedy writers Category:British comedy writers Category:American emigrants to England Category:American expatriates in England Category:BAFTA fellows Category:British opera directors Category:Chevaliers of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres Category:British copywriters Category:British people of American descent Category:English male film actors Category:Inkpot Award winners Category:Album-cover and concert-poster artists Category:Comedy film directors Category:Fantasy film directors Category:Science fiction film directors Category:Film directors from Minnesota Category:Male actors from Minneapolis Category:Monty Python members Category:Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom Category:Occidental College alumni Category:People from Hennepin County, Minnesota Category:People from Panorama City, Los Angeles Category:Former United States citizens Category:People who renounced United States citizenship Category:Stop motion animators Category:Film directors from Los Angeles Category:American surrealist artists Category:British surrealist artists Category:Surrealist filmmakers Category:Birmingham High School alumni Category:Postmodernist filmmakers Category:Sigma Alpha Epsilon members
[]
[ "Terry Gillium's films have a distinctive and unusual look, largely due to his use of specific camera angles and lenses. To create a surreal atmosphere and a world that seems out of balance, Gillium often uses low-angle shots, high-angle shots, and Dutch angles. He frequently shoots his films almost entirely with rectilinear ultra-wide-angle lenses, specifically with focal lengths of 28mm or less. This results in a style defined by extreme perspective distortion and extremely deep focus. He also favors wide-angle lenses because they make the film's space feel more immersive, they're full of detail, and they don't limit the audience's focus to just one thing.", "The context does not provide information on what a Dutch angle is.", "Yes, the context suggests that Terry Gillium's style is considered unique. His use of specific camera angles, along with his almost exclusive use of rectilinear ultra-wide-angle lenses that create extreme perspective distortion and deep focus, results in a distinctive look that is often recognized from just a short clip of his films. His style is so distinct that the 14-mm lens has even become informally known as \"The Gilliam\" among filmmakers.", "The context suggests that Terry Gillium frequently uses this style of filmmaking, characterized by unique camera angles and the prominent usage of ultra-wide-angle lenses. However, it does not definitively indicate that he always uses this style in all of his films.", "The context does not provide information on whether Terry Gillium has made a film without extreme perspective distortion.", "The context does not provide information on what or who influenced Terry Gillium's distinctive style." ]
[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]
C_716b12024b594fe99a6bfeb63a501d7a_0
Terry Gilliam
Gilliam was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the son of Beatrice (nee Vance) and James Hall Gilliam. His father was a travelling salesman for Folgers before becoming a carpenter. Soon after, they moved to nearby Medicine Lake, Minnesota. The family moved to the Los Angeles neighbourhood of Panorama City in 1952.
The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus
The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus, directed and co-written by Gilliam, was released in 2009. In January 2007, Gilliam announced that he had been working on a new project with his writing partner Charles McKeown. One day later, the fansite Dreams reported that the new project was titled The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus. In October 2007, Dreams confirmed that this would be Gilliam's next project and was slated to star Christopher Plummer and Tom Waits. Production began in December 2007 in London. On 22 January 2008, production of the film was disrupted following the death of Heath Ledger in New York City. Variety reported that Ledger's involvement had been a "key factor" in the film's financing. Production was suspended indefinitely by 24 January, but in February the actors Johnny Depp, Jude Law, and Colin Farrell signed on to continue Ledger's role, transforming into multiple incarnations of his character in the "magical" world of the film. Thanks to this arrangement the principal photography was completed on 15 April 2008, on schedule. Editing was completed in November 2008. According to the official ParnassusFilm Twitter channel launched on 30 March 2009, the film's post-production FX work finished on 31 March. During the filming, Gilliam was accidentally hit by a bus and suffered a broken back. The film had successful screenings including a premiere at the 62nd Cannes Film Festival. The UK release for the film was scheduled for 6 June 2009 but was pushed back to 16 October 2009. The USA release was on 25 December 2009. Eventually, this $30 million-budgeted film had grossed more than $60 million in worldwide theatrical release and received two Academy Award nominations. The film's end credit states that the film is dedicated to the memories of Ledger and William Vince. Depp, Farrell, and Law donated their proceeds from the film to Ledger's daughter. CANNOTANSWER
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Terence Vance Gilliam (; born 22 November 1940) is an American-born British filmmaker, comedian, animator, actor. He gained stardom as a member of the Monty Python comedy troupe alongside John Cleese, Eric Idle, Michael Palin, Terry Jones, and Graham Chapman. Together they collaborated on the sketch series Monty Python's Flying Circus (1969-1974) and the films Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975), Life of Brian (1979) and The Meaning of Life (1983). In 1988 they received the BAFTA Award for Outstanding British Contribution to Cinema. Gilliam transitioned to directing serious films with themes which explores imagination, oppositions to bureaucracy and authoritarianism. His films are sometimes set in dystopian worlds and involve black comedy and tragicomedic elements. He has helmed 14 feature films, including Time Bandits (1981), Brazil (1985), The Adventures of Baron Munchausen (1988), The Fisher King (1991), 12 Monkeys (1995), Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (1998), The Brothers Grimm (2005), Tideland (2005), The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus (2009), The Zero Theorem (2013), and The Man Who Killed Don Quixote (2018). In 2009, Gilliam received the BAFTA Fellowship for lifetime achievement. Gilliam was born in Minnesota, but spent his high school and college years in Los Angeles. He started his career as an animator and strip cartoonist. He joined Monty Python as the animator of their works, but eventually became a full member and was given acting roles. He is the only Monty Python member not born in Britain, he became a naturalised British subject in 1968 and formally renounced his American citizenship in 2006. Early life Terry Gilliam was born on 22 November 1940 in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the son of Beatrice (née Vance) and James Hall Gilliam. His father was a travelling salesman for Folgers before becoming a carpenter. Soon after, they moved to nearby Medicine Lake, Minnesota. In 1952, the family moved to the Los Angeles neighbourhood of Panorama City. Gilliam attended Birmingham High School, where he was the president of his class and senior prom king, and was voted "Most Likely to Succeed" having achieved straight A grades. During high school, he began to avidly read Mad magazine, then edited by Harvey Kurtzman, which would later influence Gilliam's work. Gilliam graduated from Occidental College in 1962 with a Bachelor of Arts in political science. In 2003, he told Salman Rushdie about defining experiences in the 1960s that set the foundations for his views on the world: Career 1965–1969: Animation and move to England Gilliam began his career as an animator and strip cartoonist. One of his early photographic strips for the US magazine Help! featured future Python cast member John Cleese. When Help! folded, Gilliam went to Europe, jokingly announcing in the final issue that he was "being transferred to the European branch" of the magazine, which did not exist. Moving to England, he animated sequences for the children's series Do Not Adjust Your Set which he worked on from 1968 to 1969, and which also featured Eric Idle, Terry Jones, and Michael Palin. 1969–1974: Monty Python's Flying Circus Gilliam was a member of Monty Python's Flying Circus from its outset, credited at first as an animator (his name was listed separately after the other five in the closing credits) and later as a full member. His cartoons linked the show's sketches together and defined the group's visual language in other media, such as LP and book covers and the title sequences of their films. His animations mix his own art, characterised by soft gradients and odd, bulbous shapes, with backgrounds and moving cutouts from antique photographs, mostly from the Victorian era. He also appeared in several sketches, though he rarely had main roles and did considerably less acting in the sketches. Gilliam did, however, have some notable sketch roles, such as Cardinal Fang of the Spanish Inquisition; the bespectacled commenter who said, "I can't add anything to that!" in the sketch "Election Night Special"; Kevin Garibaldi, the brat on the couch shouting "I want more beans!" in the sketch "Most Awful Family in Britain 1974" (episode 45); the Screaming Queen in a cape and mask in "The Visitors"; and Percy Bysshe Shelley in "Ant Poetry Reading". More frequently, he played parts that no one else wanted to play, generally because they required a lot of makeup or uncomfortable costumes, such as a recurring knight in armour who ended sketches by walking on and hitting one of the other characters over the head with a plucked chicken. He also designed the covers of most of the Monty Python albums, including Another Monty Python Record, The Monty Python Matching Tie and Handkerchief, Monty Python Live at Drury Lane, and all of their later film soundtrack albums. Katy Hepburn, a freelance designer and graduate of the Royal College of Art in London, also worked with Gilliam. 1975–1983: Transitional years In 1975, Gilliam began his career as a director by co-directing Monty Python and the Holy Grail with Terry Jones. Gilliam was responsible for photography and also appeared as both Patsy and the Old Man from Scene 24, while Jones guided the actors' performances. It was the only Python film directed by Gilliam, though he continued to act in their subsequent projects. As Python started to take longer breaks between projects following Monty Python and the Holy Grail, Gilliam became a solo filmmaker, building upon the experience he had acquired. In 1977, he directed his first film outside the group, Jabberwocky, also a comedy set in the Middle Ages. It featured Python member Michael Palin in the lead role, and was based on the poem of the same name. In 1978, he published Animations of Mortality, an illustrated, tongue-in-cheek, semi-autobiographical how-to guide to his animation techniques and the visual language in them. Gilliam served as art director on Monty Python's Life of Brian, Terry Jones having taken on sole directing duties. Gilliam made Time Bandits in 1981. Following directing the short film The Crimson Permanent Assurance, which opened showings of Monty Python's The Meaning of Life, Python effectively ceased working together, and Gilliam pursued his career as a filmmaker. 1984–1998: Trilogies and critical success Gilliam says he used to think of his films in terms of trilogies, starting with Time Bandits. The "Trilogy of Imagination", written by Gilliam, about "the ages of man", consisted of Time Bandits (1981), Brazil (1985), and The Adventures of Baron Munchausen (1988). All are about the "craziness of our awkwardly ordered society and the desire to escape it through whatever means possible." All three films focus on these struggles and attempts to escape them through imagination: Time Bandits through the eyes of a child, Brazil through the eyes of a man in his thirties, and Munchausen through the eyes of an elderly man. In the summer of 1986, he cut ties with Arnon Milchan and 20th Century Fox and started directing the latter through his own new Prominent Films banner independently. In the 1990s, Gilliam directed a trilogy of Americana: The Fisher King (1991), 12 Monkeys (1995), and Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (1998), which took place on North American soil and, while still surreal, had fewer fantastical plots than his previous trilogy. 1999–2009 In 1999, Gilliam attempted to film The Man Who Killed Don Quixote, which was budgeted at US$32.1 million, making it among the highest-budgeted films to use only European financing; but in the first week of shooting, the actor playing Don Quixote (Jean Rochefort) suffered a herniated disc, and a flood severely damaged the set. The film was cancelled, resulting in an insurance claim of US$15 million. Despite the cancellation, the aborted project did yield the 2002 documentary Lost in La Mancha, produced from film from a second crew that had been hired by Gilliam to document the making of Quixote. After the cancellation, both Gilliam and the film's co-lead, Johnny Depp, wanted to revive the project. The insurance company involved in the failed first attempt withheld the rights to the screenplay for several years with the production on hold until 2008. Following the failure of The Man Who Killed Don Quixote, J. K. Rowling, the author of the Harry Potter series and a fan of Gilliam's work, advocated for him to direct Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone in 2000, but Warner Bros. ultimately chose Chris Columbus for the job. In response to this decision, Gilliam said that "I was the perfect guy to do Harry Potter. I remember leaving the meeting, getting in my car, and driving for about two hours along Mulholland Drive just so angry. I mean, Chris Columbus' versions are terrible. Just dull. Pedestrian." In 2002, Gilliam directed a series of television advertisements called "Secret Tournament". Part of Nike's 2002 FIFA World Cup campaign, the advertisements feature a secret three-on-three tournament between the world's best football players, including Ronaldo, Ronaldinho and Thierry Henry, who are inside a huge tanker ship. The advertisements are accompanied with a remixed version of the Elvis Presley song "A Little Less Conversation". In 2005, Gilliam released The Brothers Grimm, followed later in the year by Tideland. In 2006, Gilliam made his debut as theatre director by directing the stage show Slava's Diabolo, created and staged by the Russian clown artist Slava Polunin. The show combined Polunin's clown style, characterised by deep nonverbal expression and interaction with the audience, with Gilliam's rich visuals and surrealistic imagery. The show premiered at the Noga Hall of the Gesher Theatre in Jaffa, Tel Aviv, Israel. In January 2007, Gilliam announced that he had been working on a new project with his writing partner Charles McKeown. One day later, the fansite Dreams reported that the new project was titled The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus; the following October, Dreams confirmed that this would be Gilliam's next project and was slated to star Christopher Plummer and Tom Waits. Production began in December 2007 in London. On 22 January 2008, production of the film was disrupted following the death of Heath Ledger in New York City. Variety reported that Ledger's involvement had been a "key factor" in the film's financing. Production was suspended indefinitely by 24 January, but in February the actors Johnny Depp, Jude Law, and Colin Farrell signed on to continue Ledger's role, transforming into multiple incarnations of his character in the "magical" world of the film. Thanks to this arrangement the principal photography was completed on 15 April 2008, on schedule. During the filming, Gilliam was accidentally hit by a bus and suffered a broken back. The film had successful screenings including a premiere at the 62nd Cannes Film Festival. The UK release for the film was scheduled for 6 June 2009, but was pushed back to 16 October 2009. The USA release was on 25 December 2009. Eventually, this $30 million-budgeted film had grossed more than $60 million in worldwide theatrical release and received two Academy Award nominations. The film's end credit states that the film is dedicated to the memories of Ledger and William Vince. Depp, Farrell, and Law donated their proceeds from the film to Ledger's daughter. 2010–present Gilliam made his opera debut at London's English National Opera (ENO) in May 2011, directing The Damnation of Faust, by Hector Berlioz. The production received positive reviews in the British press On 16 September 2012, the production opened at the Vlaamse Opera in Ghent, Belgium, in the opera's original French-language version and received praise from critics and audiences alike. After a number of performances in Ghent, the production moved to the opera house in Antwerp for a sold-out run of performances. In July 2012, Gilliam revealed plans for a film which would be shot in Bucharest, Romania. He denied that it would be Don Quixote but refused to give any further details. The actor David Walliams reportedly entered into talks with Gilliam to play a part in it and was told that he'd have to "be willing to work with Johnny Depp and fly to Bucharest where the movie is to be filmed." Depp, to that point, had made no mention of his involvement but was seen in Bucharest around the same time in mid-July as Romanian news outlets reported Gilliam was staying in the city for negotiations on studio work with the Romanian film production company MediaPro Studios. On 13 August 2012, this project was announced to be The Zero Theorem, set to start shooting in Bucharest on 22 October, produced by Dean Zanuck (son of the late Richard D. Zanuck, who was originally to produce the film in 2009), with worldwide sales handled by Voltage Pictures, Toronto, and starring the Academy Award–winner Christoph Waltz in the lead (replacing Billy Bob Thornton, who had been attached to the project in 2009). The Zero Theorem premiered at the 70th Venice International Film Festival on 2 September 2013. In June 2014, Gilliam followed up on his success with Faust with a new ENO production of another opera by Berlioz, the rarely performed Benvenuto Cellini. After regaining the rights to the screenplay of The Man Who Killed Don Quixote, Gilliam restarted preproduction in 2008, with Johnny Depp still attached to the project. The film was to be reshot completely, with Rochefort's role recast. Michael Palin reportedly entered into talks with Gilliam about stepping in for Rochefort and playing Don Quixote. However, Gilliam revealed on the Canadian talk show The Hour on 17 December 2009, that Robert Duvall had been cast to play Quixote, before the film was postponed once again. In January 2014, Gilliam wrote on Facebook that "Dreams of Don Quixote have begun again". At the Cannes Film Festival in 2016, it was confirmed that The Man Who Killed Don Quixote was going to be made, with Michael Palin and Adam Driver in starring roles. In March 2017, filming finally began, with Driver and Jonathan Pryce starring. On 4 June 2017, Gilliam announced that the shooting of the film was complete. The film premiered on 19 May 2018, as the closing film of the 2018 Cannes Film Festival (where it received a standing ovation), and was released in French theatres the same day. His production of Into The Woods, which he co-directed with Leah Hausman, premiered at the Theatre Royal, Bath in August 2022 to positive reviews. Future projects As of 2014 Gilliam was in talks to make his first animated feature film with Laika, the studio behind Coraline and ParaNorman. He has been involved off-and-on for years with an adaptation of The Defective Detective, which Gilliam wrote with Richard LaGravenese (who wrote The Fisher King). While promoting the US theatrical release of The Zero Theorem, Gilliam revealed he and LaGravenese were meeting to see if The Defective Detective script could be made into a miniseries. If this comes together, it would be the first time Gilliam has ever directed for television. During the second half of 2011, Gilliam and Paul Auster wrote a screenplay for a film adaptation of Auster's novel Mr. Vertigo. In June 2018, Gilliam announced at the Brussels International Film Festival that he was working again on Mr. Vertigo, and that it might be his next film, and that he had Ralph Fiennes attached to star in it. In addition to film projects as director, Gilliam has been involved with developing projects for other artists and mediums. On 16 December 2010, Variety reported that Gilliam was to "godfather" a film called 1884, described as an animated steampunk parody of George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four, with several former Pythons lending their voices to the project; Gilliam was to be credited as "creative advisor". In October 2015, in a webchat hosted by The Guardian, Gilliam announced that he was working on "a TV series based on Time Bandits" and "another based on a script by Richard LaGravanese and I wrote after Fisher King, called The Defective Detective". Abandoned clip art project Fifteen years after the publication of Gilliam's Animations of Mortality, between the release of the CD-ROM game Monty Python's Complete Waste of Time in 1994, which used many of Gilliam's animation templates, and the making of Gilliam's film Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (1998), Gilliam was in negotiations with Enteractive, a software company, to tentatively release in the autumn of 1996 a CD-ROM under the same title as his 1978 book, containing all of his thousands of 1970s animation templates as licence-free clip arts for people to create their own flash animations, but the project hovered in limbo for years, probably because Enteractive was about to downsize greatly in mid-1996 and changed its focus from CD-ROM multimedia presentations to internet business solutions and web hosting in 1997 (in the introduction to their 2004 book Terry Gilliam: Interviews, David Sterrit and Lucille Rhodes claimed that the internet had overwhelmed the "computer-communications market" and gave this as the reason that the Animations of Mortality CD-ROM never materialised). Around the time of Gilliam's film The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus (2009), the project had changed into the idea of releasing his 1970s animation templates as a licence-free download of Adobe After Effects or similar files. Analysis Themes and philosophy As for his philosophical background in screenwriting and directing, Gilliam said on the TV show First Hand on RoundhouseTV, "There's so many film schools, so many media courses which I actually am opposed to. Because I think it's more important to be educated, to read, to learn things, because if you're gonna be in the media and if you'll have to say things, you have to know things. If you only know about cameras and 'the media', what're you gonna be talking about except cameras and the media? So it's better learning about philosophy and art and architecture [and] literature, these are the things to be concentrating on it seems to me. Then, you can fly...!" Gilliam's films are usually imaginative fantasies. His long-time co-writer Charles McKeown commented, "the theme of imagination, and the importance of imagination, to how you live and how you think and so on ... that's very much a Terry theme." Most of Gilliam's films include plotlines that seem to occur partly or completely in the characters' imaginations, raising questions about the definition of identity and sanity. He often shows his opposition to bureaucracy and authoritarian regimes. He also distinguishes "higher" and "lower" layers of society, with a disturbing and ironic style. His films usually feature a fight or struggle against a great power which may be an emotional situation, a human-made idol, or even the person himself, and the situations do not always end happily. There is often a dark, paranoid atmosphere and unusual characters who used to be normal members of society. His scripts feature black comedy and often end with a dark tragicomic twist. Gilliam is fascinated with the Baroque period because of the pronounced struggle between spirituality and rationality in that era. There is often a rich baroqueness and dichotomous eclecticism about his films, with, for instance, high-tech computer monitors equipped with low-tech magnifying lenses in Brazil and a red knight covered with flapping bits of cloth in The Fisher King. He also is given to incongruous juxtapositions of beauty and ugliness or antique and modern. Regarding Gilliam's theme of modernity's struggle between spirituality and rationality whereas the individual may become dominated by a tyrannical, soulless machinery of disenchanted society, the film critic Keith James Hamel observed a specific affinity of Gilliam's films with the writings of the historian Arnold Toynbee and the sociologist Max Weber, specifically the latter's concept of the "iron cage" of rationality. Look and style Gilliam's films have a distinctive look, not only in mise-en-scène but even more so in photography, often recognisable from just a short clip; to create a surreal atmosphere of psychological unrest and a world out of balance, he frequently uses unusual camera angles, particularly low-angle shots, high-angle shots, and Dutch angles. Roger Ebert said that "his world is always hallucinatory in its richness of detail". Most of his movies are shot almost entirely with rectilinear ultra-wide-angle lenses with focal lengths of 28 mm or less to achieve a distinctive style defined by extreme perspective distortion and extremely deep focus. Gilliam's long-time director of photography Nicola Pecorini has said, "with Terry and me, a long lens means something between a 40 mm and a 65 mm." This attitude markedly differs from the common definition in photography, by which 40 to 65 mm is the focal length of a normal lens, resembling the natural human field of view, unlike Gilliam's signature style, defined by extreme perspective distortion due to his usual choice of focal length. The 14 mm lens has become informally known as "The Gilliam" among filmmakers because of his frequent use of it at least since Brazil. Gilliam has explained his preference for using wide-angle lenses in his films: In another interview, Gilliam mentioned, in relation to the 9.8 mm Kinoptic lens he had first used on Brazil, that wide-angle lenses make small film sets "look big". The widest lens he has used so far is an 8 mm Zeiss lens employed in filming The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus. Commercial success Gilliam's first successful feature, Time Bandits (1981), earned more than eight times its original budget in the United States alone. The Adventures of Baron Munchausen (1988), although commercially unsuccessful, was nominated for four Oscars and won three BAFTA Awards, among several other Prizes in Europe. The Fisher King (1991), his first film not to feature a member of the Monty Python troupe, had a budget of $24 million and grossed more than $41 million at United States box office. 12 Monkeys grossed more than US$168 million worldwide. The Brothers Grimm, despite a mixed critical reception, grossed over US$105 million worldwide. The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus, with a budget of $30 million, has been an international commercial success, grossing over $60 million in worldwide theatrical release. According to Box Office Mojo, his films have grossed an average of $21,602,510. Personal life Gilliam has been married to British makeup artist Maggie Weston since 1973. She worked on Monty Python's Flying Circus, many of the Python films, and Gilliam's films up to The Adventures of Baron Munchausen. They have three children: Amy Rainbow (born 1978), Holly Dubois (born October 1980) and Harry Thunder (born 3 April 1988), who have also appeared in or worked on several of his films. In 1968, Gilliam obtained British citizenship. He held dual American and British citizenship for the next 38 years, until he renounced his American citizenship in January 2006. In an interview with Der Tagesspiegel, he described the action as a protest against then-President George W. Bush, and in an earlier interview with The A.V. Club, he also indicated that it was related to concerns about future tax liability for his wife and children. As a result of renouncing his citizenship, Gilliam was permitted to spend 30 days each year in the United States over the next ten years, "less than any European". Holly followed suit, renouncing her American citizenship in 2017. He maintains a residence in Italy near the Umbria–Tuscany border. He has been instrumental in establishing the annual Umbria Film Festival, held in the nearby town of Montone. Gilliam also resides in Highgate, London. On 8 September 2015, Variety mistakenly published a false obituary claiming that Gilliam had died. In May 2018, Gilliam suffered a perforated medullary artery that was characterized in the media as a stroke. Charitable activities Gilliam has been involved with a number of charitable and humanitarian causes. In 2009, he became a board member of Videre Est Credere (Latin for "to see is to believe"), a UK human rights charity. Videre describes itself as giving "local activists the equipment, training and support needed to safely capture compelling video evidence of human rights violations. This captured footage is verified, analysed and then distributed to those who can create change." He participates alongside movie producer Uri Fruchtmann, music producer Brian Eno and executive director of Greenpeace UK John Sauven. Filmography Honours and accolades Gilliam has received two BAFTA Awards, a special award for Monty Python's Flying Circus (1969), and the BAFTA Fellowship in 2009. He has also been nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay for Brazil (1985), and for a Golden Globe Award for Best Director for The Fisher King (1991). His film Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (1998) premiered at the Cannes Film Festival where it competed for the Palme d'Or. He received the Berlin International Film Festival's Silver Bear for The Fisher King. He w was awarded the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres in 2013. References Further reading External links Dreams: The Terry Gilliam Fanzine Category:1940 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century American comedians Category:20th-century British comedians Category:21st-century American comedians Category:21st-century British comedians Category:Animators from Minnesota Category:British animators Category:British film directors Category:American animated film directors Category:British male actors Category:American male comedians Category:British male comedians Category:American comics artists Category:British comics artists Category:British male comedy actors Category:American male comedy actors Category:American comedy writers Category:British comedy writers Category:American emigrants to England Category:American expatriates in England Category:BAFTA fellows Category:British opera directors Category:Chevaliers of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres Category:British copywriters Category:British people of American descent Category:English male film actors Category:Inkpot Award winners Category:Album-cover and concert-poster artists Category:Comedy film directors Category:Fantasy film directors Category:Science fiction film directors Category:Film directors from Minnesota Category:Male actors from Minneapolis Category:Monty Python members Category:Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom Category:Occidental College alumni Category:People from Hennepin County, Minnesota Category:People from Panorama City, Los Angeles Category:Former United States citizens Category:People who renounced United States citizenship Category:Stop motion animators Category:Film directors from Los Angeles Category:American surrealist artists Category:British surrealist artists Category:Surrealist filmmakers Category:Birmingham High School alumni Category:Postmodernist filmmakers Category:Sigma Alpha Epsilon members
[]
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John Butler (musician)
John Charles Wiltshire-Butler (born 1 April 1975), known professionally as John Butler, is an Australian singer, songwriter, and music producer. He is the front man for the John Butler Trio, a roots and jam band, which formed in Fremantle, Western Australia in 1998. The John Butler Trio has recorded five studio albums including three that have reached number one on the Australian charts: Sunrise Over Sea, Grand National and April Uprising. His recordings and live performances have met with critical praise and have garnered awards from the Australian Performing Right Association and Australian Recording Industry Association.
Flesh and Blood
The early sessions for the John Butler Trio's sixth studio album commenced in mid-2013, following the band's largest tour of the US. For the first time in the band's lifetime, the members began with a blank songwriting slate, rather than using the initial ideas of Butler that had been introduced. Butler gathered with Luiters and Bomba at The Compound in Fremantle, Western Australia, which serves as the band's headquarters and the frontman's artistic space, and co-wrote material for the first time, deviating from the Butler-centric process of the past: "I had always brought the material." After contributing a large portion of work towards the album, Bomba eventually left the Compound space to work on his Melbourne Ska Orchestra project and was replaced by Grant Gerathy. Butler explained in an interview during the band's US tour: But a lot of these songs on this album I kind of magpied. Magpies are this bird in Australia that takes shiny things from anywhere and builds its nest, and so that's kind of what I do. I'll take a little of my own experience of having some heavy party time with certain friends, and then I'll hear some other stories about addicts or other intense relationships. I'll put them into the mixing pot and make up these characters to explore different possibilities and emotional landscapes. One of the songs on the album, "Wings Are Wide", was written as a dedication to his grandmother, who gave Butler his grandfather's Dobro guitar that became the foundation for his songwriting. Butler admitted that "I wasn't at all into roots music or playing the slide or anything when I got it, and it sat under my bed for a long, long time." Released in Australia on 8 February 2014, Flesh and Blood was produced by Jan Skubiszewski and features a vocal duet with Ainslie Wills. CANNOTANSWER
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John Charles Wiltshire-Butler (born 1 April 1975), professionally known as John Butler, is an American-Australian singer, songwriter, and music producer. He is the front man for the John Butler Trio, a roots and jam band that formed in Fremantle, Western Australia, in 1998. The John Butler Trio has recorded five studio albums including three that have reached number one on the Australian charts: Sunrise Over Sea, Grand National and April Uprising. His recordings and live performances have met with critical praise and have garnered awards from the Australian Performing Right Association and Australian Recording Industry Association. Butler was born in the United States and moved to Australia at an early age. He began playing the guitar at the age of sixteen. In 2002, Butler, along with several partners, formed their own record label. He is also the co-founder of a grant program that seeks to improve artistic diversity in his home country, Australia, where he resides with his wife and children. Early life and education John Charles Wiltshire-Butler was born on 1 April 1975 to an Australian father, Darryl Wiltshire-Butler, and an American mother, Barbara (née Butler).[A] He was named after his paternal grandfather, John Wiltshire-Butler, a forestry worker who died fighting a bushfire in Nannup. Butler has British, Bulgarian, and Greek ancestry through his father. His genealogy was investigated on an episode of the SBS Television series Who Do You Think You Are?, which aired on 1 November 2009. The show traced his family history from his deceased grandfather's war diaries through to ancestors in Bulgaria and the events of the 1876 April Uprising. In January 1986, after his parents divorced, Butler's father moved the family to Western Australia. They eventually settled in Pinjarra, a small country town, and Butler attended Pinjarra Primary School and Pinjarra Senior High School. He began playing guitar at the age of sixteen after his grandmother gave him a 1930s dobro belonging to his deceased grandfather. In 1996, he attended Curtin University in Perth and enrolled in an art teaching course, but eventually abandoned his studies to pursue a career in music. Some of his first musical performances were as a busker at the Fremantle Markets. Butler was also participant in the Western Australian skateboarding scene, and is recognised for his involvement with the internationally renowned "Woolstores" street spot in Fremantle. Career John travelled to Encinitas, California, after high school, where he spent two years with his brother Jim and began his music career in a band called Vitamin. John Butler's first gig was 9 September 1994 at the Metaphor Cafe in Escondido, California. There Vitamin was written up and reviewed in Go magazine they performed all around the San Diego area and played one show in Houston, Texas opening for Dive, who later became Osmant between in 1995. Vitamin recorded two tracks, "Deadhorse" and "Mary Jane" in the Belly Up Studios in Solana Beach, California in 1994. Vitamin bandmate Ozzie Rea fronted Perth funk band, Proton. The two can be found on The Live at Mojo's CD and performed together on New Years Ever Y2K. John Butler was a busker on the streets of Fremantle playing his own compositions. In mid-1996, he released a self-recorded cassette of his instrumentals, Searching for Heritage, which sold 3,000 copies. He played different styles of music including "Indian, Celtic, bluegrass and folk". Butler had his first paid performance in 1997 at the Seaview Hotel in Fremantle. In 1998, North Fremantle Mojo's club owner Phil Stevens hired Butler as a regular performer. Stevens became his manager and later his business partner. Vitamin John Butler began his music career in a band called Vitamin. His first paying gig was at the Metaphor Cafe in Escondido, California. Vitamin was written up twice in the Escondido Times-Advocate. Vitamin gigged all over San Diego and played one show in Houston, Texas in 1995. Vitamin recorded two tracks, "deadhorse" and "Mary Jane", in the Belly Up Studios, Solana Beach, California in 1994. Vitamin bandmate Ozzie Rea moved to Australia in 1998 and fronted a Perth funk band called Proton who shared John Butler Trio's drummer. The trio can be found on The Live at Mojo's CD and gigged together on New Years Eve Y2K. The members of Vitamin were John Butler (12-string guitar, vocals); Ozzie Rea (vocals); Justin Bancroft (electric guitar); Taria Flower Star (bass); Duck Grossberg (bass); Desiree (congas); Gabe (Djembe); Jim (Harmonica); and Hailey Odom (harmonica). John Butler Trio John Butler Butler was joined by drummer Jason McGann (Mojos sound engineer) and bass player Gavin Shoesmith to form the John Butler Trio and recorded the John Butler album which was released on Waterfront Records in December 1998. At various times the members of the John Butler Trio included drummers Michael Barker (2003–2009) and Nicky Bomba, bass players Rory Quirk (2001–2002), Andrew Fry (April 2002 – November 2002), Shannon Birchall (2002–2009) and Byron Luiters. The band's musical style was influenced by Black Sabbath, Fleetwood Mac and Jeff Lang. The band toured throughout Western Australia in 1999. Three The band's second album, Three, was produced by Butler and Shaun O'Callaghan. It was released and distributed on Waterfront Records in April 2001. It featured the tracks "Take" and "Betterman", which both received radio airplay on the Australian alternative youth radio station Triple J and rated in its annual Hottest 100. The band appeared at the Big Day Out concert series and the Woodford Folk Festival. Sunrise Over Sea The song "Zebra" was released as a single in December 2003 and received mainstream radio airplay and reached the top 30 on the ARIA Charts. It was selected as 'Song of the Year' at the APRA Music Awards of 2004. The album, Sunrise Over Sea, was released in March 2004 and peaked at No. 1 on the ARIA Albums Chart. It was the first independently released and distributed album to debut at No. 1 and Butler received the ARIA 'Best Male Artist' award that same year. Grand National In September 2006, John Butler Trio released a promotional studio diary of the recording progress of their next album, Grand National, which was released in March 2007 and peaked at No. 1. In December 2006, Funky Tonight (EP) was released and included tracks from their live shows, such as "Daniella", "Fire in the Sky", and "Funky Tonight". The band performed at the Melbourne entertainment hub, Federation Square at Easter 2007. The one off performance featured musicians who had collaborated on Grand National, including Vika and Linda Bull, Jex Saarhelart and Nicky Bomba. The performance was telecast on JTV and was released on DVD in November. April Uprising On 21 October, Butler featured on SBS Television's documentary called Destination Australia – Bridge Between Two Worlds performing to refugee children in a class at Perth's Highgate Primary School. Butler's discovery of his Bulgarian ancestor's involvement in the April Uprising provided the title for the trio's next No. 1 album, April Uprising, issued in March 2010. Butler performed "How to Make Gravy" and the Kev Carmody/Paul Kelly song "From Little Things Big Things Grow" (with Carmody, Kelly, Missy Higgins and Dan Sultan) at the Kelly tribute concerts staged by Triple J in mid-November 2009, which was released as the 2010 live album Before Too Long. On 19 February 2011, Butler performed for the first time with his wife Danielle, also known as Mama Kin, under the moniker Brave and the Bird, at the Gimme Shelter event (an annual fundraiser for the homeless) held at the Fremantle Arts Centre. Flesh and Blood The early sessions for the John Butler Trio's sixth studio album commenced in mid-2013, following the band's largest tour of the US. For the first time in the band's lifetime, the members began with a blank songwriting slate, rather than using the initial ideas of Butler that had been introduced. Butler gathered with Luiters and Bomba at The Compound in Fremantle, Western Australia, which serves as the band's headquarters and the frontman's artistic space, and co-wrote material for the first time, deviating from the Butler-centric process of the past: "I had always brought the material." After contributing a large portion of work towards the album, Bomba eventually left the Compound space to work on his Melbourne Ska Orchestra project and was replaced by Grant Gerathy. Butler explained in an interview during the band's US tour: But a lot of these songs on this album I kind of magpied. Magpies are this bird in Australia that takes shiny things from anywhere and builds its nest, and so that's kind of what I do. I'll take a little of my own experience of having some heavy party time with certain friends, and then I'll hear some other stories about addicts or other intense relationships. I'll put them into the mixing pot and make up these characters to explore different possibilities and emotional landscapes. One of the songs on the album, "Wings Are Wide", was written as a dedication to his grandmother, who gave Butler his grandfather's Dobro guitar that became the foundation for his songwriting. Butler admitted that "I wasn't at all into roots music or playing the slide or anything when I got it, and it sat under my bed for a long, long time." Released in Australia on 8 February 2014, Flesh and Blood was produced by Jan Skubiszewski and features a vocal duet with Ainslie Wills. Solo On 29 June 2007, Butler gave a live solo performance at Twist and Shout Records in Denver, Colorado, which was released in January 2008 as an eight-track EP, One Small Step, with A$1 from each record sold being donated to Oxfam's "Close the Gap" campaign. One Small Step was Butler's first official solo release. At the ARIA Music Awards of 2007, Butler performed "Funky Tonight" in a collaboration with fellow Australian musician Keith Urban. Radio station, Triple J's listeners voted Grand National their favourite album for 2007. "Ocean" garnered John Butler newfound success when recordings of live performances of the song went viral on the internet. Butler made a cameo appearance in 2009 Australian film, In Her Skin, as a busker. The film's soundtrack featured three songs by the John Butler Trio, "Ocean", "Caroline" and "What You Want". "Ocean" by John Butler featured on the benefit album 'Surfing Medicine: Volume I' released in 2009 with Slightly Stoopid, The Pharcyde, and others raised enough funds for charity to conduct an international peer reviewed herbal cancer research and treatment publication in Journal of Ethnobiology and project by Indigenous leaders from Hawai'i, Jamaica and Africa in Kormantse territory of Ghana which led to a cover story about the 'Ocean' funded charity music project in a surf magazine that won 2 Silver Medals at the American Advertising Awards for best collateral material for any magazine issue and series in America in 2015. Kelly Slater also featured the track 'Ocean' for the charity album project with John Butler in a PSA he released to help promote the project. In July 2009, Butler undertook a solo overseas tour commencing in North America, where he played at the Montreal Jazz Festival, the Rothbury Music Festival in Michigan and The Mile High Music Festival in Denver. In North America he sold out headline shows in Toronto and Los Angeles. In Europe, Butler played at the Folies Bergère in Paris and London's Union Chapel. He also performed at Cannes, Amsterdam and Antwerp. Upon his return in August, he took part in the Cannot Buy My Soul concert at the Queensland Music Festival. Butler performed alongside other local musicians (including Paul Kelly, Missy Higgins, Troy Cassar-Daley, Clare Bowditch, Tex Perkins and Bernard Fanning) reinterpreting the catalogue of indigenous Australian musician Kev Carmody. Butler's interpretation of the song, "Thou Shalt Not Steal", was included on the compilation album, and later was featured on the iTunes Deluxe album of Grand National. Butler participated at the Garma Festival of Traditional Cultures located in Northeast Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory. Jarrah In July 2002, Jarrah Records was created by Butler, members of fellow Western Australian act The Waifs and their common manager, Stevens. Being a partner in a record label allowed Butler to maximise artistic control of his recordings. Equipment and technique Butler plays harmonica, didgeridoo, drums, lap-steel, banjo and amplified acoustic guitars and his custom-made, 11-string Maton guitar. Butler prefers the Maton custom 11-string guitar and often uses a Seymour Duncan SA-6 Mag Mic pick-up with a Marshall Amplification JMP Super Lead Head and a Marshall 4×12 cabinet. He uses a variety of electronic effects including distortion, reverb / delay and wah-wah pedal to achieve his unique sound. Butler uses long, pointed fiberglass fingernails for finger picking. Political activism Butler is an advocate of peace, environmental protection, and global harmony. He has supported The Wilderness Society and the Save Ningaloo Reef campaign. In 2005, Butler and Caruana co-founded the JB Seed grant program – renamed as The Seed in 2010 – to support artistic expression and encourage the "social, cultural and artistic diversity in Australian society". The couple contributed $80,000 to establish the project. Other supporters include Paul Kelly, Correne Wilkie (Manager, The Cat Empire), Paul and Michelle Gilding (Ecoscorp), Maureen Ritchie, Missy Higgins, John Watson (Eleven Music), John Woodruff (JWM Productions), Sebastian Chase (MGM Distribution), Philip Stevens (Jarrah Records), The Waifs and Blue King Brown. Butler is one of the largest supporters of the "Save The Kimberley" campaign in Australia and performed at the Save the Kimberley concert in Melbourne, Australia's Federation Square in October 2012. On 4 October 2012, Butler was joined by 150 people during a protest outside the BHP Billiton headquarters in Melbourne; the protest was in response to the corporation's involvement with a proposed James Price Point gas industrial complex in Western Australia's Kimberley region. Butler performed at another concert in support of the Kimberley cause on 24 February 2013, with Missy Higgins also appearing again, with the event held at The Esplanade in Fremantle, Western Australia. Jarrah Records, the record label that Butler co-founded with The Waifs and Phil Stevens, worked in partnership with The Wilderness Society to stage the free event that also featured the band Ball Park Music and Bob Brown, former leader of the Australian Greens. A march to protest the proposed gas refinery construction at James Price Point accompanied the free concert and campaign supporters were photographed with banners and placards. In response to the proposed dumping of around of dredged seabed onto the Great Barrier Reef, a legal fighting team was formed by World Wide Fund for Nature-Australia and the Australian Marine Conservation Society (AMCS) in late 2013/early 2014. The legal team received further support in April 2014, following the release of the "Sounds for the Reef" musical fundraising project. Produced by Straightup, the digital album features Butler, in addition to artists such as The Herd, Sietta, Missy Higgins, The Cat Empire, Fat Freddys Drop, The Bamboos (featuring Kylie Auldist) and Resin Dogs. Released on 7 April, the album's 21 songs were sold on the Bandcamp website. Butler is against Coal Seam Gas (CSG) and gave a free supporting concert at the Bentley protesting the Northern Rivers of New South Wales, Australia, on 20 April 2014. Butler supports freedom of West Papua on Republic of Indonesia. Personal life Butler is married to Danielle Caruana, an Australian musician and vocalist who performs under the name of Mama Kin. They have two children, a daughter and a son. They also have an adopted son, Alex, who is also a musician. After wearing dreadlocks for 13 years, Butler cut them off in early 2008. In an interview with the Herald Sun newspaper in 2008, Butler acknowledged that he had been referred to as the "million dollar hippie" in various articles and around his hometown in Australia. The nickname refers to his inclusion on the Business Review Weekly list of the 50 richest entertainers in 2004, with reported earnings of A$2.4 million. Prior to the release of the John Butler Trio's sixth album, Flesh and Blood, Butler explained: I still care about everything I care about. But I don't know how to write another song about a greedy arsehole ruining the planet. I have done it. I started writing about the damage of war and the environment, but as you drill down deeper, move closer to the core of the heart, there are so many great stories to be had which aren't literally talking about a problem. Butler also admitted to substance use: "I've never had any big addictions. I feel like I might smoke pot a bit too much, and I've done cigarettes." He affirmed to his audience that he is "normal" and is "going through all the same things" they are, and he asked that he not be placed on a "pedestal". Discography Solo Albums With John Butler Trio Awards and nominations AIR Awards The Australian Independent Record Awards (commonly known informally as AIR Awards) is an annual awards night to recognise, promote and celebrate the success of Australia's Independent Music sector. |- | AIR Awards of 2012 |Tin Shed Tales | Best Independent Blues and Roots Album | |- APRA Awards The APRA Awards are presented annually from 1982 by the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA). |- | 2004 || "Zebra" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Song of the Year || |- |rowspan="2"| 2006 || "Something's Gotta Give" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Most Performed Blues & Roots Work || |- | "What You Want" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Most Performed Blues & Roots Work || |- |rowspan="3"| 2008 || "Better Than" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Song of the Year || |- | "Funky Tonight" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Blues & Roots Work of the Year || |- | "Good Excuse" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Blues & Roots Work of the Year || |- | 2010 | "One Way Road" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio | Song of the Year | |- |rowspan="5"| 2011 || "Revolution" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Song of the Year || |- |rowspan="2"| "Close to You" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Blues & Roots Work of the Year || |- | Most Played Australian Work || |- |rowspan="2"| "One Way Road" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Blues & Roots Work of the Year || |- | Most Played Australian Work || |- | 2014 || "Only One" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Blues & Roots Work of the Year || |- | 2015 || "Livin' in the City" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Blues & Roots Work of the Year || |- | 2020 || "Just Call" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Most Performed Blues & Roots Work of the Year || |- ARIA Awards The ARIA Music Awards are presented annually from 1987 by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). The John Butler Trio have won five awards from 21 nominations (see John Butler Trio awards). Butler has won a further ARIA award for 'Best Male Artist' in 2004 from six nominations in that category. |- || 2001 || Three || Best Male Artist || |- | |2003 || Living 2001-2002 || Best Male Artist || |- || 2004 || Sunrise Over Sea || Best Male Artist || |- || 2005 || "Somethings Gotta Give" || Best Male Artist || |- || 2007 || Grand National || Best Male Artist|| |- || 2010 || April Uprising || Best Male Artist || |- See also Danielle Caruana Notes <li id="noteFoot01a" >^ For full name as John Charles Wiltshire-Butler see Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA) search result for songwriter and performer of "Something's Gotta Give". For full name as John Charles Butler see APRA search result for songwriter and performer of "All My Honey". For date and place of birth see Matera. References General Specific External links Official website JB Seed grants project Category:1975 births Category:Living people Category:21st-century American male musicians Category:21st-century Australian male musicians Category:American banjoists Category:American street performers Category:American expatriates in Australia Category:American indie pop musicians Category:American indie rock musicians Category:American male guitarists Category:American multi-instrumentalists Category:American people of Australian descent Category:American people of Bulgarian descent Category:American rock guitarists Category:APRA Award winners Category:ARIA Award winners Category:Australian buskers Category:Australian indie pop musicians Category:Australian indie rock musicians Category:Australian male guitarists Category:Australian multi-instrumentalists Category:Australian people of American descent Category:Australian people of Bulgarian descent Category:Australian rock guitarists Category:Curtin University alumni Category:Guitarists from California Category:Musicians from Torrance, California Category:Musicians from Western Australia Category:People from Fremantle Category:Australian banjoists Category:Didgeridoo players
[ { "text": "Specific may refer to:\n\n Specificity (disambiguation)\n Specific, a cure or therapy for a specific illness\n\nLaw \n Specific deterrence, focussed on an individual\n Specific finding, intermediate verdict used by a jury in determining the final verdict\n Specific jurisdiction over an out-of-state party, specific to cases that have a substantial connection to the party's in-state activity\n Order of specific performance, court order to perform a specific act\n\nEconomics, finance, and accounting\n Asset specificity, the extent to which the investments made to support a particular transaction have a higher value to that transaction than they would have if they were redeployed for any other purpose\n Specific identification (inventories), summing purchase costs of all inventory items\n Specific rate duty, duty paid at a specific amount per unit\n Specific risk, risk that affects a very small number of assets\n\nPsychology \n Domain specificity, theory that many aspects of cognition are supported by specialized, presumably evolutionarily specified, learning devices\n Specific developmental disorder, disorders in which development is delayed in one specific area or areas, and in which basically all other areas of development are not affected\n Specific learning disability\n Specific phobia, phobia of a specific thing or situation\n Specific social phobia, triggered only by specific social situations\n\nBiology \n pertaining to a species\n Specific name (botany), species name of a plant\n Specific name (zoology), species name of an animal\n Specific appetite, drive to eat foods with specific flavors or other characteristics\n Specific granule, secretory vesicle in granulocytes\n Specific immunity, to a particular pathogen\n Specific Pathogen Free, of a laboratory animal guaranteed free of particular (i.e., specific and named) pathogens\n\nOther fields \n A specific quantity generally means a physical quantity normalized \"per unit\" of something (often mass).\n SPECIFIC, The Sustainable Product Engineering Centre for Innovative Functional Industrial Coatings\n Specific creation, creationism as opposed to evolution\n Specific interval, shortest possible clockwise distance between pitch classes on the chromatic circle\n Specific integral, in calculus, eliminates the constant of integration\n Specific Physical Preparedness, being prepared for the movements in a specific physical activity (usually a sport)\n\nSee also \n Species (disambiguation)\n Specification (disambiguation)\n Specialty (disambiguation)\n Site-specific (disambiguation)\n Language for specific purposes, has been primarily used to refer to two areas within applied linguistics", "title": "Specific" } ]
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C_f0a854805b4c4787a02329b8d50b3ce3_0
John Butler (musician)
John Charles Wiltshire-Butler (born 1 April 1975), known professionally as John Butler, is an Australian singer, songwriter, and music producer. He is the front man for the John Butler Trio, a roots and jam band, which formed in Fremantle, Western Australia in 1998. The John Butler Trio has recorded five studio albums including three that have reached number one on the Australian charts: Sunrise Over Sea, Grand National and April Uprising. His recordings and live performances have met with critical praise and have garnered awards from the Australian Performing Right Association and Australian Recording Industry Association.
Solo
On 29 June, Butler gave a live solo performance at Twist and Shout Records in Denver, Colorado, which was released in January 2008 as an eight-track EP, One Small Step, with A$1 from each record sold being donated to Oxfam's "Close the Gap" campaign. One Small Step was Butler's first official solo release. At the ARIA Music Awards of 2007, Butler performed "Funky Tonight" in a collaboration with fellow Australian musician Keith Urban. Radio station, Triple J's listeners voted Grand National their favourite album for 2007. "Ocean" garnered John Butler newfound success when recordings of live performances of the song went viral on the internet. Butler made a cameo appearance in 2009 Australian film, In Her Skin, as a busker. The film's soundtrack featured three songs by the John Butler Trio, "Ocean", "Caroline" and "What You Want". In July 2009, Butler undertook a solo overseas tour commencing in North America, where he played at the Montreal Jazz Festival, the Rothbury Music Festival in Michigan and The Mile High Music Festival in Denver. In North America he sold out headline shows in Toronto and Los Angeles. In Europe, Butler played at the Folies Bergere in Paris and London's Union Chapel. He also performed at Cannes, Amsterdam and Antwerp. Upon his return in August, he took part in the Cannot Buy My Soul concert at the Queensland Music Festival. Butler performed alongside other local musicians (including Paul Kelly, Missy Higgins, Troy Cassar-Daley, Clare Bowditch, Tex Perkins and Bernard Fanning) reinterpreting the catalogue of indigenous Australian musician Kev Carmody. Butler's interpretation of the song, "Thou Shalt Not Steal", was included on the compilation album, and later was featured on the iTunes Deluxe album of Grand National. Butler participated at the Garma Festival of Traditional Cultures located in Northeast Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory. CANNOTANSWER
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John Charles Wiltshire-Butler (born 1 April 1975), professionally known as John Butler, is an American-Australian singer, songwriter, and music producer. He is the front man for the John Butler Trio, a roots and jam band that formed in Fremantle, Western Australia, in 1998. The John Butler Trio has recorded five studio albums including three that have reached number one on the Australian charts: Sunrise Over Sea, Grand National and April Uprising. His recordings and live performances have met with critical praise and have garnered awards from the Australian Performing Right Association and Australian Recording Industry Association. Butler was born in the United States and moved to Australia at an early age. He began playing the guitar at the age of sixteen. In 2002, Butler, along with several partners, formed their own record label. He is also the co-founder of a grant program that seeks to improve artistic diversity in his home country, Australia, where he resides with his wife and children. Early life and education John Charles Wiltshire-Butler was born on 1 April 1975 to an Australian father, Darryl Wiltshire-Butler, and an American mother, Barbara (née Butler).[A] He was named after his paternal grandfather, John Wiltshire-Butler, a forestry worker who died fighting a bushfire in Nannup. Butler has British, Bulgarian, and Greek ancestry through his father. His genealogy was investigated on an episode of the SBS Television series Who Do You Think You Are?, which aired on 1 November 2009. The show traced his family history from his deceased grandfather's war diaries through to ancestors in Bulgaria and the events of the 1876 April Uprising. In January 1986, after his parents divorced, Butler's father moved the family to Western Australia. They eventually settled in Pinjarra, a small country town, and Butler attended Pinjarra Primary School and Pinjarra Senior High School. He began playing guitar at the age of sixteen after his grandmother gave him a 1930s dobro belonging to his deceased grandfather. In 1996, he attended Curtin University in Perth and enrolled in an art teaching course, but eventually abandoned his studies to pursue a career in music. Some of his first musical performances were as a busker at the Fremantle Markets. Butler was also participant in the Western Australian skateboarding scene, and is recognised for his involvement with the internationally renowned "Woolstores" street spot in Fremantle. Career John travelled to Encinitas, California, after high school, where he spent two years with his brother Jim and began his music career in a band called Vitamin. John Butler's first gig was 9 September 1994 at the Metaphor Cafe in Escondido, California. There Vitamin was written up and reviewed in Go magazine they performed all around the San Diego area and played one show in Houston, Texas opening for Dive, who later became Osmant between in 1995. Vitamin recorded two tracks, "Deadhorse" and "Mary Jane" in the Belly Up Studios in Solana Beach, California in 1994. Vitamin bandmate Ozzie Rea fronted Perth funk band, Proton. The two can be found on The Live at Mojo's CD and performed together on New Years Ever Y2K. John Butler was a busker on the streets of Fremantle playing his own compositions. In mid-1996, he released a self-recorded cassette of his instrumentals, Searching for Heritage, which sold 3,000 copies. He played different styles of music including "Indian, Celtic, bluegrass and folk". Butler had his first paid performance in 1997 at the Seaview Hotel in Fremantle. In 1998, North Fremantle Mojo's club owner Phil Stevens hired Butler as a regular performer. Stevens became his manager and later his business partner. Vitamin John Butler began his music career in a band called Vitamin. His first paying gig was at the Metaphor Cafe in Escondido, California. Vitamin was written up twice in the Escondido Times-Advocate. Vitamin gigged all over San Diego and played one show in Houston, Texas in 1995. Vitamin recorded two tracks, "deadhorse" and "Mary Jane", in the Belly Up Studios, Solana Beach, California in 1994. Vitamin bandmate Ozzie Rea moved to Australia in 1998 and fronted a Perth funk band called Proton who shared John Butler Trio's drummer. The trio can be found on The Live at Mojo's CD and gigged together on New Years Eve Y2K. The members of Vitamin were John Butler (12-string guitar, vocals); Ozzie Rea (vocals); Justin Bancroft (electric guitar); Taria Flower Star (bass); Duck Grossberg (bass); Desiree (congas); Gabe (Djembe); Jim (Harmonica); and Hailey Odom (harmonica). John Butler Trio John Butler Butler was joined by drummer Jason McGann (Mojos sound engineer) and bass player Gavin Shoesmith to form the John Butler Trio and recorded the John Butler album which was released on Waterfront Records in December 1998. At various times the members of the John Butler Trio included drummers Michael Barker (2003–2009) and Nicky Bomba, bass players Rory Quirk (2001–2002), Andrew Fry (April 2002 – November 2002), Shannon Birchall (2002–2009) and Byron Luiters. The band's musical style was influenced by Black Sabbath, Fleetwood Mac and Jeff Lang. The band toured throughout Western Australia in 1999. Three The band's second album, Three, was produced by Butler and Shaun O'Callaghan. It was released and distributed on Waterfront Records in April 2001. It featured the tracks "Take" and "Betterman", which both received radio airplay on the Australian alternative youth radio station Triple J and rated in its annual Hottest 100. The band appeared at the Big Day Out concert series and the Woodford Folk Festival. Sunrise Over Sea The song "Zebra" was released as a single in December 2003 and received mainstream radio airplay and reached the top 30 on the ARIA Charts. It was selected as 'Song of the Year' at the APRA Music Awards of 2004. The album, Sunrise Over Sea, was released in March 2004 and peaked at No. 1 on the ARIA Albums Chart. It was the first independently released and distributed album to debut at No. 1 and Butler received the ARIA 'Best Male Artist' award that same year. Grand National In September 2006, John Butler Trio released a promotional studio diary of the recording progress of their next album, Grand National, which was released in March 2007 and peaked at No. 1. In December 2006, Funky Tonight (EP) was released and included tracks from their live shows, such as "Daniella", "Fire in the Sky", and "Funky Tonight". The band performed at the Melbourne entertainment hub, Federation Square at Easter 2007. The one off performance featured musicians who had collaborated on Grand National, including Vika and Linda Bull, Jex Saarhelart and Nicky Bomba. The performance was telecast on JTV and was released on DVD in November. April Uprising On 21 October, Butler featured on SBS Television's documentary called Destination Australia – Bridge Between Two Worlds performing to refugee children in a class at Perth's Highgate Primary School. Butler's discovery of his Bulgarian ancestor's involvement in the April Uprising provided the title for the trio's next No. 1 album, April Uprising, issued in March 2010. Butler performed "How to Make Gravy" and the Kev Carmody/Paul Kelly song "From Little Things Big Things Grow" (with Carmody, Kelly, Missy Higgins and Dan Sultan) at the Kelly tribute concerts staged by Triple J in mid-November 2009, which was released as the 2010 live album Before Too Long. On 19 February 2011, Butler performed for the first time with his wife Danielle, also known as Mama Kin, under the moniker Brave and the Bird, at the Gimme Shelter event (an annual fundraiser for the homeless) held at the Fremantle Arts Centre. Flesh and Blood The early sessions for the John Butler Trio's sixth studio album commenced in mid-2013, following the band's largest tour of the US. For the first time in the band's lifetime, the members began with a blank songwriting slate, rather than using the initial ideas of Butler that had been introduced. Butler gathered with Luiters and Bomba at The Compound in Fremantle, Western Australia, which serves as the band's headquarters and the frontman's artistic space, and co-wrote material for the first time, deviating from the Butler-centric process of the past: "I had always brought the material." After contributing a large portion of work towards the album, Bomba eventually left the Compound space to work on his Melbourne Ska Orchestra project and was replaced by Grant Gerathy. Butler explained in an interview during the band's US tour: But a lot of these songs on this album I kind of magpied. Magpies are this bird in Australia that takes shiny things from anywhere and builds its nest, and so that's kind of what I do. I'll take a little of my own experience of having some heavy party time with certain friends, and then I'll hear some other stories about addicts or other intense relationships. I'll put them into the mixing pot and make up these characters to explore different possibilities and emotional landscapes. One of the songs on the album, "Wings Are Wide", was written as a dedication to his grandmother, who gave Butler his grandfather's Dobro guitar that became the foundation for his songwriting. Butler admitted that "I wasn't at all into roots music or playing the slide or anything when I got it, and it sat under my bed for a long, long time." Released in Australia on 8 February 2014, Flesh and Blood was produced by Jan Skubiszewski and features a vocal duet with Ainslie Wills. Solo On 29 June 2007, Butler gave a live solo performance at Twist and Shout Records in Denver, Colorado, which was released in January 2008 as an eight-track EP, One Small Step, with A$1 from each record sold being donated to Oxfam's "Close the Gap" campaign. One Small Step was Butler's first official solo release. At the ARIA Music Awards of 2007, Butler performed "Funky Tonight" in a collaboration with fellow Australian musician Keith Urban. Radio station, Triple J's listeners voted Grand National their favourite album for 2007. "Ocean" garnered John Butler newfound success when recordings of live performances of the song went viral on the internet. Butler made a cameo appearance in 2009 Australian film, In Her Skin, as a busker. The film's soundtrack featured three songs by the John Butler Trio, "Ocean", "Caroline" and "What You Want". "Ocean" by John Butler featured on the benefit album 'Surfing Medicine: Volume I' released in 2009 with Slightly Stoopid, The Pharcyde, and others raised enough funds for charity to conduct an international peer reviewed herbal cancer research and treatment publication in Journal of Ethnobiology and project by Indigenous leaders from Hawai'i, Jamaica and Africa in Kormantse territory of Ghana which led to a cover story about the 'Ocean' funded charity music project in a surf magazine that won 2 Silver Medals at the American Advertising Awards for best collateral material for any magazine issue and series in America in 2015. Kelly Slater also featured the track 'Ocean' for the charity album project with John Butler in a PSA he released to help promote the project. In July 2009, Butler undertook a solo overseas tour commencing in North America, where he played at the Montreal Jazz Festival, the Rothbury Music Festival in Michigan and The Mile High Music Festival in Denver. In North America he sold out headline shows in Toronto and Los Angeles. In Europe, Butler played at the Folies Bergère in Paris and London's Union Chapel. He also performed at Cannes, Amsterdam and Antwerp. Upon his return in August, he took part in the Cannot Buy My Soul concert at the Queensland Music Festival. Butler performed alongside other local musicians (including Paul Kelly, Missy Higgins, Troy Cassar-Daley, Clare Bowditch, Tex Perkins and Bernard Fanning) reinterpreting the catalogue of indigenous Australian musician Kev Carmody. Butler's interpretation of the song, "Thou Shalt Not Steal", was included on the compilation album, and later was featured on the iTunes Deluxe album of Grand National. Butler participated at the Garma Festival of Traditional Cultures located in Northeast Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory. Jarrah In July 2002, Jarrah Records was created by Butler, members of fellow Western Australian act The Waifs and their common manager, Stevens. Being a partner in a record label allowed Butler to maximise artistic control of his recordings. Equipment and technique Butler plays harmonica, didgeridoo, drums, lap-steel, banjo and amplified acoustic guitars and his custom-made, 11-string Maton guitar. Butler prefers the Maton custom 11-string guitar and often uses a Seymour Duncan SA-6 Mag Mic pick-up with a Marshall Amplification JMP Super Lead Head and a Marshall 4×12 cabinet. He uses a variety of electronic effects including distortion, reverb / delay and wah-wah pedal to achieve his unique sound. Butler uses long, pointed fiberglass fingernails for finger picking. Political activism Butler is an advocate of peace, environmental protection, and global harmony. He has supported The Wilderness Society and the Save Ningaloo Reef campaign. In 2005, Butler and Caruana co-founded the JB Seed grant program – renamed as The Seed in 2010 – to support artistic expression and encourage the "social, cultural and artistic diversity in Australian society". The couple contributed $80,000 to establish the project. Other supporters include Paul Kelly, Correne Wilkie (Manager, The Cat Empire), Paul and Michelle Gilding (Ecoscorp), Maureen Ritchie, Missy Higgins, John Watson (Eleven Music), John Woodruff (JWM Productions), Sebastian Chase (MGM Distribution), Philip Stevens (Jarrah Records), The Waifs and Blue King Brown. Butler is one of the largest supporters of the "Save The Kimberley" campaign in Australia and performed at the Save the Kimberley concert in Melbourne, Australia's Federation Square in October 2012. On 4 October 2012, Butler was joined by 150 people during a protest outside the BHP Billiton headquarters in Melbourne; the protest was in response to the corporation's involvement with a proposed James Price Point gas industrial complex in Western Australia's Kimberley region. Butler performed at another concert in support of the Kimberley cause on 24 February 2013, with Missy Higgins also appearing again, with the event held at The Esplanade in Fremantle, Western Australia. Jarrah Records, the record label that Butler co-founded with The Waifs and Phil Stevens, worked in partnership with The Wilderness Society to stage the free event that also featured the band Ball Park Music and Bob Brown, former leader of the Australian Greens. A march to protest the proposed gas refinery construction at James Price Point accompanied the free concert and campaign supporters were photographed with banners and placards. In response to the proposed dumping of around of dredged seabed onto the Great Barrier Reef, a legal fighting team was formed by World Wide Fund for Nature-Australia and the Australian Marine Conservation Society (AMCS) in late 2013/early 2014. The legal team received further support in April 2014, following the release of the "Sounds for the Reef" musical fundraising project. Produced by Straightup, the digital album features Butler, in addition to artists such as The Herd, Sietta, Missy Higgins, The Cat Empire, Fat Freddys Drop, The Bamboos (featuring Kylie Auldist) and Resin Dogs. Released on 7 April, the album's 21 songs were sold on the Bandcamp website. Butler is against Coal Seam Gas (CSG) and gave a free supporting concert at the Bentley protesting the Northern Rivers of New South Wales, Australia, on 20 April 2014. Butler supports freedom of West Papua on Republic of Indonesia. Personal life Butler is married to Danielle Caruana, an Australian musician and vocalist who performs under the name of Mama Kin. They have two children, a daughter and a son. They also have an adopted son, Alex, who is also a musician. After wearing dreadlocks for 13 years, Butler cut them off in early 2008. In an interview with the Herald Sun newspaper in 2008, Butler acknowledged that he had been referred to as the "million dollar hippie" in various articles and around his hometown in Australia. The nickname refers to his inclusion on the Business Review Weekly list of the 50 richest entertainers in 2004, with reported earnings of A$2.4 million. Prior to the release of the John Butler Trio's sixth album, Flesh and Blood, Butler explained: I still care about everything I care about. But I don't know how to write another song about a greedy arsehole ruining the planet. I have done it. I started writing about the damage of war and the environment, but as you drill down deeper, move closer to the core of the heart, there are so many great stories to be had which aren't literally talking about a problem. Butler also admitted to substance use: "I've never had any big addictions. I feel like I might smoke pot a bit too much, and I've done cigarettes." He affirmed to his audience that he is "normal" and is "going through all the same things" they are, and he asked that he not be placed on a "pedestal". Discography Solo Albums With John Butler Trio Awards and nominations AIR Awards The Australian Independent Record Awards (commonly known informally as AIR Awards) is an annual awards night to recognise, promote and celebrate the success of Australia's Independent Music sector. |- | AIR Awards of 2012 |Tin Shed Tales | Best Independent Blues and Roots Album | |- APRA Awards The APRA Awards are presented annually from 1982 by the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA). |- | 2004 || "Zebra" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Song of the Year || |- |rowspan="2"| 2006 || "Something's Gotta Give" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Most Performed Blues & Roots Work || |- | "What You Want" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Most Performed Blues & Roots Work || |- |rowspan="3"| 2008 || "Better Than" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Song of the Year || |- | "Funky Tonight" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Blues & Roots Work of the Year || |- | "Good Excuse" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Blues & Roots Work of the Year || |- | 2010 | "One Way Road" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio | Song of the Year | |- |rowspan="5"| 2011 || "Revolution" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Song of the Year || |- |rowspan="2"| "Close to You" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Blues & Roots Work of the Year || |- | Most Played Australian Work || |- |rowspan="2"| "One Way Road" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Blues & Roots Work of the Year || |- | Most Played Australian Work || |- | 2014 || "Only One" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Blues & Roots Work of the Year || |- | 2015 || "Livin' in the City" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Blues & Roots Work of the Year || |- | 2020 || "Just Call" (John Butler) – The John Butler Trio || Most Performed Blues & Roots Work of the Year || |- ARIA Awards The ARIA Music Awards are presented annually from 1987 by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). The John Butler Trio have won five awards from 21 nominations (see John Butler Trio awards). Butler has won a further ARIA award for 'Best Male Artist' in 2004 from six nominations in that category. |- || 2001 || Three || Best Male Artist || |- | |2003 || Living 2001-2002 || Best Male Artist || |- || 2004 || Sunrise Over Sea || Best Male Artist || |- || 2005 || "Somethings Gotta Give" || Best Male Artist || |- || 2007 || Grand National || Best Male Artist|| |- || 2010 || April Uprising || Best Male Artist || |- See also Danielle Caruana Notes <li id="noteFoot01a" >^ For full name as John Charles Wiltshire-Butler see Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA) search result for songwriter and performer of "Something's Gotta Give". For full name as John Charles Butler see APRA search result for songwriter and performer of "All My Honey". For date and place of birth see Matera. References General Specific External links Official website JB Seed grants project Category:1975 births Category:Living people Category:21st-century American male musicians Category:21st-century Australian male musicians Category:American banjoists Category:American street performers Category:American expatriates in Australia Category:American indie pop musicians Category:American indie rock musicians Category:American male guitarists Category:American multi-instrumentalists Category:American people of Australian descent Category:American people of Bulgarian descent Category:American rock guitarists Category:APRA Award winners Category:ARIA Award winners Category:Australian buskers Category:Australian indie pop musicians Category:Australian indie rock musicians Category:Australian male guitarists Category:Australian multi-instrumentalists Category:Australian people of American descent Category:Australian people of Bulgarian descent Category:Australian rock guitarists Category:Curtin University alumni Category:Guitarists from California Category:Musicians from Torrance, California Category:Musicians from Western Australia Category:People from Fremantle Category:Australian banjoists Category:Didgeridoo players
[ { "text": "Specific may refer to:\n\n Specificity (disambiguation)\n Specific, a cure or therapy for a specific illness\n\nLaw \n Specific deterrence, focussed on an individual\n Specific finding, intermediate verdict used by a jury in determining the final verdict\n Specific jurisdiction over an out-of-state party, specific to cases that have a substantial connection to the party's in-state activity\n Order of specific performance, court order to perform a specific act\n\nEconomics, finance, and accounting\n Asset specificity, the extent to which the investments made to support a particular transaction have a higher value to that transaction than they would have if they were redeployed for any other purpose\n Specific identification (inventories), summing purchase costs of all inventory items\n Specific rate duty, duty paid at a specific amount per unit\n Specific risk, risk that affects a very small number of assets\n\nPsychology \n Domain specificity, theory that many aspects of cognition are supported by specialized, presumably evolutionarily specified, learning devices\n Specific developmental disorder, disorders in which development is delayed in one specific area or areas, and in which basically all other areas of development are not affected\n Specific learning disability\n Specific phobia, phobia of a specific thing or situation\n Specific social phobia, triggered only by specific social situations\n\nBiology \n pertaining to a species\n Specific name (botany), species name of a plant\n Specific name (zoology), species name of an animal\n Specific appetite, drive to eat foods with specific flavors or other characteristics\n Specific granule, secretory vesicle in granulocytes\n Specific immunity, to a particular pathogen\n Specific Pathogen Free, of a laboratory animal guaranteed free of particular (i.e., specific and named) pathogens\n\nOther fields \n A specific quantity generally means a physical quantity normalized \"per unit\" of something (often mass).\n SPECIFIC, The Sustainable Product Engineering Centre for Innovative Functional Industrial Coatings\n Specific creation, creationism as opposed to evolution\n Specific interval, shortest possible clockwise distance between pitch classes on the chromatic circle\n Specific integral, in calculus, eliminates the constant of integration\n Specific Physical Preparedness, being prepared for the movements in a specific physical activity (usually a sport)\n\nSee also \n Species (disambiguation)\n Specification (disambiguation)\n Specialty (disambiguation)\n Site-specific (disambiguation)\n Language for specific purposes, has been primarily used to refer to two areas within applied linguistics", "title": "Specific" } ]
[ "John Butler's solo career started with his live solo performance at Twist and Shout Records in Denver, Colorado, in June, which was then released in January 2008 as an eight-track EP, One Small Step. This was Butler's first official solo release.", "The text does not provide information on how well John Butler's first solo release, One Small Step, was received.", "Yes, John Butler undertook a solo overseas tour in July 2009, starting in North America where he played at various music festivals and sold out headline shows in Toronto and Los Angeles. He then moved on to perform in Europe, playing at venues in Paris, London, Cannes, Amsterdam, and Antwerp.", "The text indicates that during his overseas solo tour, John Butler's performances were quite successful. In North America, he sold out headline shows in Toronto and Los Angeles. However, there's no specific information provided about the reception or success of his performances in Europe.", "The text does not specify the exact number of shows John Butler performed during his overseas solo tour. However, it mentions particular performances at the Montreal Jazz Festival, the Rothbury Music Festival in Michigan, The Mile High Music Festival in Denver, and sold out headline shows in Toronto and Los Angeles in North America. In Europe, performances were specified in Paris, London, Cannes, Amsterdam, and Antwerp.", "Yes, John Butler has collaborated with notable musicians. At the ARIA Music Awards of 2007, Butler performed \"Funky Tonight\" in a collaboration with fellow Australian musician Keith Urban. He also performed alongside other local musicians including Paul Kelly, Missy Higgins, Troy Cassar-Daley, Clare Bowditch, Tex Perkins and Bernard Fanning reinterpreting the catalogue of indigenous Australian musician Kev Carmody.", "The text does not provide any information about any controversy during John Butler's solo career.", "The text does not provide information on who influenced John Butler's solo career." ]
[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]
C_8fabeb6b8e844c77b2497d6a8c9ca1e1_1
Ken Kavanaugh
Kenneth William Kavanaugh (November 23, 1916 - January 25, 2007) was an American football player, coach, and scout. He played professionally in the National Football League (NFL) for the Chicago Bears as an end from 1940 to 1950, except for three seasons during which he served in World War II. He led the league in receiving touchdowns twice, and is a member of the NFL 1940s All-Decade Team. He is the Bears' all-time leader in receiving touchdowns, with 50.
Early life and college
Kavanaugh was born in Little Rock, Arkansas. He graduated from Little Rock Central High School in 1936. Kavanaugh arrived at Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge, Louisiana in 1936 and joined the LSU football varsity team in 1937. As an end, he was quickly able to fill the void in the offense left by the departure of two-time All-American Gaynell Tinsley. At 6 feet 3 inches (1.91 m), Kavanaugh was a large receiver for his time, and used his size to outreach defenders. Bernie Moore, Kavanaugh's head coach at LSU, said Kavanaugh "was a pass completer rather than a receiver, simply because he'd catch passes no one else could get to." He was named to the Associated Press (AP) All-Southeastern Conference (SEC) second alternate team after the 1937 season. In 1938, the AP named him a first-team All-SEC selection, and he was a second-team selection by the United Press. In 1939, in a game against Holy Cross, Kavanaugh caught four touchdown passes in the 26-7 win. According to Kavanaugh and teammate Young Bussey, Kavanaugh found four rusty nails on the sideline during the game. The next week against Rice, he found another nail and scored another touchdown to give LSU a 7-0 win. The pattern continued against Loyola and Vanderbilt, as Kavanaugh found two nails before each game and in each scored two touchdowns. A sportswriter for the Baton Rouge Advocate claimed he saw coach Bernie Moore at a local store stocking up on nails before LSU's game against No. 1 Tennessee. Kavanaugh failed to score in the game, however, as the Tigers lost 20-0. The Nashville Banner named Kavanaugh co-MVP of the Southeastern Conference for 1939 along with Bob Foxx of Tennessee. Kavanaugh was a consensus All-America selection for the 1939 All-America Team, being named to the team by five of the nine official selectors. He was also awarded the Knute Rockne Memorial Trophy by the Washington D.C. Touchdown Club as the nation's lineman of the year, and finished seventh in Heisman Trophy balloting. CANNOTANSWER
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Kenneth William Kavanaugh (November 23, 1916 – January 25, 2007) was an American football player, coach, and scout. He played professionally in the National Football League (NFL) for the Chicago Bears as an end from 1940 to 1950, except for three seasons during which he served in World War II. He led the league in receiving touchdowns twice, and is a member of the NFL 1940s All-Decade Team. He is the Bears' all-time leader in receiving touchdowns, with 50. He retired with the second most receiving touchdowns in NFL history and was the second to reach 50 touchdowns in NFL history. Kavanaugh played college football at Louisiana State University for the LSU Tigers, where he was named most valuable player of the Southeastern Conference and a consensus All-American in 1939 after leading the nation in receptions and receiving yards. He was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame in 1963. Early life and college Kavanaugh was born in Little Rock, Arkansas. He graduated from Little Rock Central High School in 1936. Kavanaugh arrived at Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge, Louisiana in 1936 and joined the LSU football varsity team in 1937. As an end, he was quickly able to fill the void in the offense left by the departure of two-time All-American Gaynell Tinsley. At , Kavanaugh was a large receiver for his time, and used his size to outreach defenders. Bernie Moore, Kavanaugh's head coach at LSU, said Kavanaugh "was a pass completer rather than a receiver, simply because he'd catch passes no one else could get to." He was named to the Associated Press (AP) All-Southeastern Conference (SEC) second alternate team after the 1937 season. In 1938, the AP named him a first-team All-SEC selection, and he was a second-team selection by the United Press. In 1939, in a game against Holy Cross, Kavanaugh caught four touchdown passes in the 26–7 win. According to Kavanaugh and teammate Young Bussey, Kavanaugh found four rusty nails on the sideline during the game. The next week against Rice, he found another nail and scored another touchdown to give LSU a 7–0 win. The pattern continued against Loyola and Vanderbilt, as Kavanaugh found two nails before each game and in each scored two touchdowns. A sportswriter for the Baton Rouge Advocate claimed he saw coach Bernie Moore at a local store stocking up on nails before LSU's game against No. 1 Tennessee. Kavanaugh failed to score in the game, however, as the Tigers lost 20–0. The Nashville Banner named Kavanaugh co-MVP of the Southeastern Conference for 1939 along with Bob Foxx of Tennessee. Kavanaugh was a consensus All-America selection for the 1939 All-America Team, being named to the team by five of the nine official selectors. He was also awarded the Knute Rockne Memorial Trophy by the Washington D.C. Touchdown Club as the nation's lineman of the year, and finished seventh in Heisman Trophy balloting. Professional Pre-war After college, Kavanaugh signed a minor league baseball contract with the St. Louis Cardinals organization for $300 a month. He later signed with the NFL's Chicago Bears after striking a deal with Bears owner George Halas for $300 a game. He played for the Bears during a period in which they were nicknamed the Monsters of the Midway. In the 1940 NFL Championship Game, the Bears defeated the Washington Redskins 73–0, the most lopsided victory in NFL history. Kavanaugh caught the game's only touchdown pass, a 30-yard reception from quarterback Sid Luckman shortly before halftime. The next season, the Bears won the 1941 NFL Championship Game, as they defeated the New York Giants 39–7 and repeated as NFL champions. The final score in the game was a fumble recovery by Kavanaugh on defense, returning the ball 42 yards for a touchdown. In his first two seasons with the Bears, Kavanaugh compiled 23 receptions for 590 yards and nine touchdowns. World War II Kavanaugh's career was interrupted by World War II, in which he was a pilot in the European theater. He was a member of the Eighth Air Force's 490th Bombardment Group and 851st Bombardment Squadron, and attained the rank of captain. He flew 30 missions and was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and the Air Medal with four oak leaf clusters. Former LSU and Bears teammate Young Bussey was the Bears' only casualty in the war. Post-war After the war, he continued his career with the Bears. In 1945 he had 543 yards and six touchdowns, and in 1946 had 337 yards and five touchdowns. Three of his touchdowns in 1946 came in a 27–21 win over the Los Angeles Rams in week seven. The Bears defeated the New York Giants 24–14 in the 1946 NFL Championship Game, which gave Kavanaugh his third league championship with the team. The first touchdown of the game was a 21-yard pass from Luckman to Kavanaugh. After the season, he was named to the United Press All-NFL first-team. Kavanaugh had his most productive season statistically in 1947. He had career highs with 32 receptions, 881 yards, and 13 touchdowns. He set a Bears record by recording a receiving touchdown in seven straight games, a streak that began with a three-touchdown game against the Boston Yanks in week six. His 13 receiving touchdowns led the league, and he earned his second straight first-team All-NFL selection from the United Press. Kavanaugh was named to his third straight All-NFL first-team in 1948, and he again led the league in receiving touchdowns in 1949, with nine. His most productive single-game yardage performance came in his final season, in 1950 against the Yanks, as he caught eight passes for 177 yards and a touchdown. Kavanaugh spent a total of eight seasons in Chicago. He spent the majority of his career catching passes from quarterbacks Sid Luckman and Johnny Lujack. He remains the Bears' career leader in touchdown receptions, with 50. He also holds franchise records for highest career and single season yards-per-reception. His 13 touchdown receptions in 1947 is a single season Bears record he shares with Dick Gordon, who tied it in 1970. In 1969, Kavanaugh was voted by sportswriters to the NFL 1940s All-Decade Team. The Professional Football Researchers Association named Kavanaugh to the PRFA Hall of Very Good Class of 2009 Coaching career and later life After he retired from playing, he remained with the Bears for the 1951 season as an ends coach. He was hired by Boston College in 1952 to serve in the same position, until his resignation in 1954. After serving as an assistant at Villanova in 1954, Kavanaugh was hired by the New York Giants in 1955 as ends coach and continued in that position until 1970. He became a scout for the Giants in 1971, serving until his retirement from football in 1999. His son, Ken Kavanaugh Jr. played at LSU as a tight end. He was drafted by the Giants in the 1972 NFL Draft but did not play professionally. Kavanaugh died of complications from pneumonia on January 25, 2007, in Sarasota, Florida. See also List of National Football League annual receiving touchdowns leaders List of NCAA major college football yearly receiving leaders References Bibliography External links Category:1916 births Category:2007 deaths Category:American football ends Category:Chicago Bears players Category:LSU Tigers football players Category:Boston College Eagles football coaches Category:Villanova Wildcats football coaches Category:New York Giants coaches Category:New York Giants scouts Category:All-American college football players Category:College Football Hall of Fame inductees Category:United States Army Air Forces pilots of World War II Category:United States Army Air Forces officers Category:Recipients of the Air Medal Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States) Category:Sportspeople from Little Rock, Arkansas Category:Players of American football from Arkansas Category:Deaths from pneumonia in Florida
[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]
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C_8fabeb6b8e844c77b2497d6a8c9ca1e1_0
Ken Kavanaugh
Kenneth William Kavanaugh (November 23, 1916 - January 25, 2007) was an American football player, coach, and scout. He played professionally in the National Football League (NFL) for the Chicago Bears as an end from 1940 to 1950, except for three seasons during which he served in World War II. He led the league in receiving touchdowns twice, and is a member of the NFL 1940s All-Decade Team. He is the Bears' all-time leader in receiving touchdowns, with 50.
Post-war
After the war, he continued his career with the Bears. In 1945 he had 543 yards and six touchdowns, and in 1946 had 337 yards and five touchdowns. Three of his touchdowns in 1946 came in a 27-21 win over the Los Angeles Rams in week seven. The Bears defeated the New York Giants 24-14 in the 1946 NFL Championship Game, which gave Kavanaugh his third league championship with the team. The first touchdown of the game was a 21-yard pass from Luckman to Kavanaugh. After the season, he was named to the United Press All-NFL first team. Kavanaugh had his most productive season statistically in 1947. He had career highs with 32 receptions, 881 yards, and 13 touchdowns. He set a Bears record by recording a receiving touchdown in seven straight games, a streak that began with a three-touchdown game against the Boston Yanks in week six. His 13 receiving touchdowns led the league, and he earned his second straight first-team All-NFL selection from the United Press. Kavanaugh was named to his third straight All-NFL first team in 1948, and he again led the league in receiving touchdowns in 1949, with nine. His most productive single-game yardage performance came in his final season, in 1950 against the Yanks, as he caught eight passes for 177 yards and a touchdown. Kavanaugh spent a total of eight seasons in Chicago. He spent the majority of his career catching passes from quarterbacks Sid Luckman and Johnny Lujack. He remains the Bears' career leader in touchdown receptions, with 50. He also holds franchise records for highest career and single season yards-per-reception. His 13 touchdown receptions in 1947 is a single season Bears record he shares with Dick Gordon, who tied it in 1970. In 1969, Kavanaugh was voted by sportswriters to the NFL 1940s All-Decade Team. The Professional Football Researchers Association named Kavanaugh to the PRFA Hall of Very Good Class of 2009 CANNOTANSWER
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Kenneth William Kavanaugh (November 23, 1916 – January 25, 2007) was an American football player, coach, and scout. He played professionally in the National Football League (NFL) for the Chicago Bears as an end from 1940 to 1950, except for three seasons during which he served in World War II. He led the league in receiving touchdowns twice, and is a member of the NFL 1940s All-Decade Team. He is the Bears' all-time leader in receiving touchdowns, with 50. He retired with the second most receiving touchdowns in NFL history and was the second to reach 50 touchdowns in NFL history. Kavanaugh played college football at Louisiana State University for the LSU Tigers, where he was named most valuable player of the Southeastern Conference and a consensus All-American in 1939 after leading the nation in receptions and receiving yards. He was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame in 1963. Early life and college Kavanaugh was born in Little Rock, Arkansas. He graduated from Little Rock Central High School in 1936. Kavanaugh arrived at Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge, Louisiana in 1936 and joined the LSU football varsity team in 1937. As an end, he was quickly able to fill the void in the offense left by the departure of two-time All-American Gaynell Tinsley. At , Kavanaugh was a large receiver for his time, and used his size to outreach defenders. Bernie Moore, Kavanaugh's head coach at LSU, said Kavanaugh "was a pass completer rather than a receiver, simply because he'd catch passes no one else could get to." He was named to the Associated Press (AP) All-Southeastern Conference (SEC) second alternate team after the 1937 season. In 1938, the AP named him a first-team All-SEC selection, and he was a second-team selection by the United Press. In 1939, in a game against Holy Cross, Kavanaugh caught four touchdown passes in the 26–7 win. According to Kavanaugh and teammate Young Bussey, Kavanaugh found four rusty nails on the sideline during the game. The next week against Rice, he found another nail and scored another touchdown to give LSU a 7–0 win. The pattern continued against Loyola and Vanderbilt, as Kavanaugh found two nails before each game and in each scored two touchdowns. A sportswriter for the Baton Rouge Advocate claimed he saw coach Bernie Moore at a local store stocking up on nails before LSU's game against No. 1 Tennessee. Kavanaugh failed to score in the game, however, as the Tigers lost 20–0. The Nashville Banner named Kavanaugh co-MVP of the Southeastern Conference for 1939 along with Bob Foxx of Tennessee. Kavanaugh was a consensus All-America selection for the 1939 All-America Team, being named to the team by five of the nine official selectors. He was also awarded the Knute Rockne Memorial Trophy by the Washington D.C. Touchdown Club as the nation's lineman of the year, and finished seventh in Heisman Trophy balloting. Professional Pre-war After college, Kavanaugh signed a minor league baseball contract with the St. Louis Cardinals organization for $300 a month. He later signed with the NFL's Chicago Bears after striking a deal with Bears owner George Halas for $300 a game. He played for the Bears during a period in which they were nicknamed the Monsters of the Midway. In the 1940 NFL Championship Game, the Bears defeated the Washington Redskins 73–0, the most lopsided victory in NFL history. Kavanaugh caught the game's only touchdown pass, a 30-yard reception from quarterback Sid Luckman shortly before halftime. The next season, the Bears won the 1941 NFL Championship Game, as they defeated the New York Giants 39–7 and repeated as NFL champions. The final score in the game was a fumble recovery by Kavanaugh on defense, returning the ball 42 yards for a touchdown. In his first two seasons with the Bears, Kavanaugh compiled 23 receptions for 590 yards and nine touchdowns. World War II Kavanaugh's career was interrupted by World War II, in which he was a pilot in the European theater. He was a member of the Eighth Air Force's 490th Bombardment Group and 851st Bombardment Squadron, and attained the rank of captain. He flew 30 missions and was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and the Air Medal with four oak leaf clusters. Former LSU and Bears teammate Young Bussey was the Bears' only casualty in the war. Post-war After the war, he continued his career with the Bears. In 1945 he had 543 yards and six touchdowns, and in 1946 had 337 yards and five touchdowns. Three of his touchdowns in 1946 came in a 27–21 win over the Los Angeles Rams in week seven. The Bears defeated the New York Giants 24–14 in the 1946 NFL Championship Game, which gave Kavanaugh his third league championship with the team. The first touchdown of the game was a 21-yard pass from Luckman to Kavanaugh. After the season, he was named to the United Press All-NFL first-team. Kavanaugh had his most productive season statistically in 1947. He had career highs with 32 receptions, 881 yards, and 13 touchdowns. He set a Bears record by recording a receiving touchdown in seven straight games, a streak that began with a three-touchdown game against the Boston Yanks in week six. His 13 receiving touchdowns led the league, and he earned his second straight first-team All-NFL selection from the United Press. Kavanaugh was named to his third straight All-NFL first-team in 1948, and he again led the league in receiving touchdowns in 1949, with nine. His most productive single-game yardage performance came in his final season, in 1950 against the Yanks, as he caught eight passes for 177 yards and a touchdown. Kavanaugh spent a total of eight seasons in Chicago. He spent the majority of his career catching passes from quarterbacks Sid Luckman and Johnny Lujack. He remains the Bears' career leader in touchdown receptions, with 50. He also holds franchise records for highest career and single season yards-per-reception. His 13 touchdown receptions in 1947 is a single season Bears record he shares with Dick Gordon, who tied it in 1970. In 1969, Kavanaugh was voted by sportswriters to the NFL 1940s All-Decade Team. The Professional Football Researchers Association named Kavanaugh to the PRFA Hall of Very Good Class of 2009 Coaching career and later life After he retired from playing, he remained with the Bears for the 1951 season as an ends coach. He was hired by Boston College in 1952 to serve in the same position, until his resignation in 1954. After serving as an assistant at Villanova in 1954, Kavanaugh was hired by the New York Giants in 1955 as ends coach and continued in that position until 1970. He became a scout for the Giants in 1971, serving until his retirement from football in 1999. His son, Ken Kavanaugh Jr. played at LSU as a tight end. He was drafted by the Giants in the 1972 NFL Draft but did not play professionally. Kavanaugh died of complications from pneumonia on January 25, 2007, in Sarasota, Florida. See also List of National Football League annual receiving touchdowns leaders List of NCAA major college football yearly receiving leaders References Bibliography External links Category:1916 births Category:2007 deaths Category:American football ends Category:Chicago Bears players Category:LSU Tigers football players Category:Boston College Eagles football coaches Category:Villanova Wildcats football coaches Category:New York Giants coaches Category:New York Giants scouts Category:All-American college football players Category:College Football Hall of Fame inductees Category:United States Army Air Forces pilots of World War II Category:United States Army Air Forces officers Category:Recipients of the Air Medal Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States) Category:Sportspeople from Little Rock, Arkansas Category:Players of American football from Arkansas Category:Deaths from pneumonia in Florida
[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]
[ "Post-war, Ken Kavanaugh continued his career with the Bears. He played several seasons, during which he achieved career highs and set numerous records. For example, he had career highs with 32 receptions, 881 yards, and 13 touchdowns in 1947, and he set a Bears record by recording a receiving touchdown in seven straight games. He remains the Bears' career leader in touchdown receptions, with 50. He also holds franchise records for highest career and single season yards-per-reception. Kavanaugh was named to All-NFL first teams multiple times and was voted by sportswriters to the NFL 1940s All-Decade Team in 1969.", "Yes, Kavanaugh played well with the Bears. He accomplished several records, including career highs with 32 receptions, 881 yards, and 13 touchdowns in 1947. He also set a Bears record by recording a receiving touchdown in seven straight games. Kavanaugh remains the Bears' career leader in touchdown receptions, with 50, and holds franchise records for highest career and single season yards-per-reception. His performances earned him multiple All-NFL first team selections and a place on the NFL 1940s All-Decade Team, according to sportswriters.", "The context does not provide specific information on the number of games Kavanaugh won, but it does mention that he helped the Bears claim a league championship in 1946.", "Aside from leading the Bears to a league championship in 1946, Kavanaugh had numerous personal career highlights. In 1947, he recorded career highs with 32 receptions, 881 yards, and 13 touchdowns. He set a Bears record by recording a receiving touchdown in seven consecutive games. He also led the league in receiving touchdowns twice, once in 1947 and again in 1949. He was named to the All-NFL first team three years in a row from 1946 to 1948, and he was named to the NFL 1940s All-Decade Team in 1969. Kavanaugh is still the Bears' career leader in touchdown receptions, with 50, and holds franchise records for the highest career and single-season yards-per-reception. His 13 touchdown receptions in 1947 is a single-season Bears record that he shares with Dick Gordon. The Professional Football Researchers Association named Kavanaugh to the PRFA Hall of Very Good Class of 2009.", "Yes, Kavanaugh received several awards and accolades. He was named to the All-NFL first team three years in a row from 1946 to 1948. In 1969, he was voted by sportswriters to the NFL 1940s All-Decade Team. Furthermore, The Professional Football Researchers Association named Kavanaugh to the PRFA Hall of Very Good Class of 2009.", "Yes, aside from the awards and accolades, Kavanaugh was recognized for his contributions to the game as he holds several franchise records for the Bears. This includes being the Bears' career leader in touchdown receptions, with 50, and holding records for the highest career and single-season yards-per-reception. His 13 touchdown receptions in 1947 is a single-season Bears record he shares with Dick Gordon.", "Aside from his impressive football career, one interesting fact about Kavanaugh is that he managed to achieve his success despite the interruption of World War II. The text doesn't mention it directly, but his career continued after \"the war\", implying he might have served in the military. After this interruption, he returned to professional football and achieved great success, suggesting an impressive level of resilience and dedication.", "Ken Kavanaugh played for the majority of his career with the Chicago Bears.\n", "Yes, apart from being the Bears' career leader in touchdown receptions, Ken Kavanaugh holds franchise records for the highest career and single season yards-per-reception. His 13 touchdown receptions in 1947 are a single season Bears record he shares with Dick Gordon." ]
[ "Yes", "Yes", "no", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "No" ]
C_12eaa237d7284ad5a790afe23fefafe6_1
Ancient Hawaii
Ancient Hawai`i is the period of Hawaiian human history preceding the unification in 1810 of the Kingdom of Hawai`i by Kamehameha the Great. Researchers had based their estimates of first settlement by Polynesian long-distance navigators from French Polynesia, Tahiti, the Tuamotus and the Samoan Islands sporadically between 300 and 800. In 2010, a study was published based on radiocarbon dating of more reliable samples and it suggests that the islands were settled much later, within a short timeframe, in c. 1219 - 1266. The islands in Eastern Polynesia have been characterized by the continuities among their cultures, and the short migration period would be an explanation of this result.
Settlement
The colonists brought along with them clothing, plants (called "canoe plants") and livestock and established settlements along the coasts and larger valleys. Upon their arrival, the settlers grew kalo (taro), mai`a (banana), niu (coconut), ulu (breadfruit), and raised pua`a (pork), moa (chicken), and `ilio (poi dog), although these meats were eaten less often than fruits, vegetables, and seafood. Popular condiments included pa'akai (salt), ground kukui nut, limu (seaweed), and ko (sugarcane) which was used as both a sweet and a medicine. In addition to the foods they brought, the settlers also acquired `uala (sweet potato), which has yet to be adequately explained, as the plant originates in South America. A few researchers have argued that the presence of the sweet potato in the ancient Hawaiian diet is evidence of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact with the Americas. The Pacific rat accompanied humans on their journey to Hawai`i. David Burney argues that humans, along with the vertebrate animals they brought with them (pigs, dogs, chickens and rats), caused many native species of birds, plants and large land snails to become extinct in the process of colonization. Estuaries and streams were adapted into fishponds by early Polynesian settlers, as early as 1500 or more years ago. Packed earth and cut stone were used to create habitat, making ancient Hawaiian aquaculture among the most advanced of the original peoples of the Pacific. A notable example is the Menehune Fishpond dating from at least 1,000 years ago, at Alekoko. At the time of Captain James Cook's arrival, there were at least 360 fishponds producing 2,000,000 pounds (900,000 kg) of fish per year. Over the course of the last millennium, Hawaiians undertook "large-scale canal-fed pond field irrigation" projects for kalo (taro) cultivation. As soon as they arrived, the new settlers built hale (homes) and heiau (temples). Archaeologists currently believe that the first settlements were on the southern end of the Big Island of Hawai`i and that they quickly extended northwards, along the seacoasts and the easily accessible river valleys. As the population increased, settlements were made further inland. At this time, with the islands being so small, the population was very dense. Before European contact, the population had reached somewhere in the range of 200,000 to 1,000,000 people. After contact with the Europeans, however, the population steeply dropped due to various diseases including smallpox. CANNOTANSWER
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Ancient Hawaii is the period of Hawaiian history preceding the unification in 1810 of the Kingdom of Hawaii by Kamehameha the Great. Traditionally, researchers estimated the first settlement of the Hawaiian islands as having occurred sporadically between 400 and 1100 CE by Polynesian long-distance navigators from the Samoan, Marquesas, and Tahiti islands within what is now French Polynesia. In 2010, a study was published based on radiocarbon dating of more reliable samples which suggests that the islands were settled much later, within a short timeframe, in about 1219 to 1266. The islands in Eastern Polynesia have been characterized by the continuities among their cultures, and the short migration period would be an explanation of this result. Diversified agroforestry and aquaculture provided sustenance for Native Hawaiian cuisine. Tropical materials were adopted for housing. Elaborate temples (called heiau) were constructed from the lava rocks available. The rich natural resources supported a relatively dense population, organized by a ruling class and social system with religious leaders. Captain James Cook made the first known European contact with ancient Hawaiians in 1778. He was followed by many other Europeans and Americans. Voyage to the Hawaiian islands There have been changing views about initial Polynesian discovery and settlement of Hawai'i. Radiocarbon dating in Hawai'i initially indicated a possible settlement as early as 124 CE. Patrick Vinton Kirch's early books on Hawaiian archeology date the first Polynesian settlements to about 300 CE with more recent suggestions by Kirch of 600 CE. Other theories suggest dating as late as 700–800 CE. In 2010, researchers announced new findings using revised, high-precision radiocarbon dating based on more reliable samples than were previously used in many dating studies. This new data indicates that the period of eastern and northern Polynesian colonization took place much later, in a shorter time frame of two waves: the "earliest in the Society Islands c. 1025–1120, four centuries later than previously assumed; then after 70–265 years, dispersal continued in one major pulse to all remaining islands c. 1190–1290." According to this research, settlement of the Hawaiian Islands took place c. 1219–1266. This rapid colonization is believed to account for the "remarkable uniformity of East Polynesia culture, biology and language". According to Hawaiian mythology, there were other settlers in Hawaii: peoples who were forced back into remote valleys by newer arrivals. They claim that stories about menehune, little people who built heiau and fishponds, prove the existence of ancient peoples who settled the islands before the Hawaiians. Early Hawaiian sites Waiʻahukini Rockshelter (Site H8) The Wai'ahukini Rockshelter, site H8, lies within a lava tube about 600 feet inland from the shore on the southern part of the island of Hawai'i. Based on the lack of light and space necessary for normal living conditions, it was unlikely that site H8 was used as a dwelling. Excavations of site H8 began in 1954 by William J. Bonk and students from the University of Hawaii, Hilo, and concluded in 1958. Excavation of the site revealed eight fireplaces at varying depths, as well as 1671 artifacts which included faunal remains, fishhooks, and lithic materials made of basalt and volcanic glass. The distribution of artifacts in site H8 indicated that it was continuously used as a fishing shelter until the eruption of Mauna Loa in 1868. An early estimation of the site's initial occupation was A.D. 750 by Emory and Sinoto in 1969, but a more recent study using updated radiocarbon dating methods suggested a much later date, somewhere within the mid-14th century. Hālawa Dune Site Located on the island of Moloka'i, the Hālawa Dune Site was first discovered in 1964 and consists of two mounds. In the summer of 1970, Patrick Vinton Kirch performed excavations on the larger of the two mounds, Mound B, revealing six major layers. Within the fourth layer were artifacts, faunal remains, and house foundations. Of the 496 artifacts unearthed in this layer, the most significant included fishhooks and adzes. The adzes recovered from Mound B were similar to those found in Nihoa and the Necker Islands and, according to Kirch and McCoy, served as "evidence that the Hālawa Dune Site represented an early phase in the development of Hawaiian material culture." Initial radiocarbon dating for the site by Kirch suggested a range of 600 to 1200 CE, however a re-dating of samples in 2007 showed the site dated no earlier than 1300 CE, and was occupied primarily between 1400 and 1650 CE. Settlement Early settlers brought along with them clothing, plants (called "canoe plants") and livestock and established settlements along the coasts and larger valleys. Upon their arrival, the settlers grew (taro), (banana), (coconut), (breadfruit), and raised (pork), (chicken), and (poi dog), although these meats were eaten less often than fruits, vegetables, and seafood. Popular condiments included (salt), ground kukui nut, (seaweed), and (sugarcane) which was used as both a sweet and a medicine. In addition to the foods they brought, the settlers also acquired (sweet potato), which began to be cultivated across Polynesia around the year 1000 or earlier, with the earliest evidence of cultivation in Hawaii around 1300. The sweet potato is native to South America. Recently, an analysis of the DNA of 1,245 sweet potato varieties from Asia and the Americas was done, and researchers found a genetic link that proves the root made it to Polynesia from the Andes around 1100. The findings, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, offer more evidence that ancient Polynesians may have interacted with people in South America long before the Europeans set foot on the continent. The Pacific rat accompanied humans on their journey to Hawaiʻi. David Burney argues that humans, along with the vertebrate animals they brought with them (pigs, dogs, chickens and rats), caused many native species of birds, plants and large land snails to become extinct in the process of colonization. Estuaries and streams were adapted into fishponds by early Polynesian settlers, as long ago as 500 CE or earlier. Packed earth and cut stone were used to create habitat, making ancient Hawaiian aquaculture among the most advanced of the original peoples of the Pacific. A notable example is the Menehune Fishpond dating from at least 1,000 years ago, at Alekoko. At the time of Captain James Cook's arrival, there were at least 360 fishponds producing of fish per year. Over the course of the last millennium, Hawaiians undertook "large-scale canal-fed pond field irrigation" projects for (taro) cultivation. The new settlers built (homes) and (temples). Archaeologists currently believe that the first settlements were on the southern end of the Big Island of Hawaiʻi and that they quickly extended northwards, along the seacoasts and the easily accessible river valleys. As the population increased, settlements were made further inland. With the islands being so small, the population was very dense. Before European contact, the population had reached somewhere in the range of 200,000 to 1,000,000 people. After contact with the Europeans, however, the population steeply dropped due to various diseases including smallpox. Village A traditional town of ancient Hawaii included several structures. Listed in order of importance: Heiau, temple to the gods. There were two major types. The agricultural mapele type was dedicated to Lono, and could be built by the nobility, priests, and land division chiefs, and whose ceremonies were open to all. The second type, luakini, were large war temples, where animal and human sacrifices were made. They were built on high-rising stone terraces and adorned with wood and stone carved idols. A source of great mana or divine power, the luakini could only be entered by alii, the king, important chiefs and nobility, and kahuna who were members of the Kū priesthood. Hale alii, the house of the chief. It was used as a residence for the high chief and meeting house of the lesser chiefs. It was always built on a raised stone foundation to represent high social standing. Kāhili, or feather standards, were placed outside to signify royalty. Women and children were banned from entering. Hale pahu, the house of the sacred hula instruments. It held the pahu drums. It was treated as a religious space as hula was a religious activity in honor of the goddess Laka. Hale papaa, the house of royal storage. It was built to store royal implements including fabrics, prized nets and lines, clubs, spears and other weapons. Hale ulana, the house of the weaver. It was the house where craftswomen would gather each day to manufacture the village baskets, fans, mats and other implements from dried pandanus leaves called lauhala. Hale mua, the men's eating house. It was considered a sacred place because it was used to carve stone idols of aumakua or ancestral gods. The design was meant for the men to be able to enter and exit quickly. Hale aina, the women's eating house. Women ate at their own separate eating house. Men and women could not eat with each other for fear that men were vulnerable while eating to have their mana, or divine spirit, stolen by women. Hale waa, the house of the canoe. It was built along the beaches as a shelter for their fishing vessels. Hawaiians also stored koa logs used to craft the canoes. Hale lawaia, the house of fishing. It was built along the beaches as a shelter for their fishing nets and lines. Nets and lines were made by a tough rope fashioned from woven coconut husks. Fish hooks were made of human, pig or dog bone. Implements found in the hale lawaia were some of the most prized possessions of the entire village. Hale noho, the living house. It was built as sleeping and living quarters for the Hawaiian family unit. Imu, the communal earth oven. Dug in the ground, it was used to cook the entire village's food including puaa or pork. Only men cooked using the imu. Caste system Ancient Hawaii was a caste society developed from Polynesians. In The overthrow of the kapu system in Hawaii, Stephenie Seto Levin describes the main classes: Alii. This class consisted of the high and lesser chiefs of the realms. They governed with divine power called mana. Kahuna. Priests who conducted religious ceremonies, at the heiau and elsewhere. Professionals included master carpenters and boatbuilders, chanters, dancers, genealogists, physicians and healers. Makaāinana. Commoners that farmed, fished, and exercised the simpler crafts. They labored not only for themselves and their families, but to support the chiefs and kahuna. Kauwā. A broad and degrading term referring to servants, slaves, and outcasts. Marriage between higher castes and the kauwā was strictly forbidden. The kauwā worked for the chiefs and males were often used as human sacrifices via drowning at the luakini heiau. (Lawbreakers of other castes and defeated political opponents were also sometimes used as human sacrifices.) Education Hawaiian youth learned life skills and religion at home, often with grandparents. For "bright" children a system of apprenticeship existed in which very young students would begin learning a craft or profession by assisting an expert, or kahuna. As spiritual powers were perceived by Hawaiians to imbue all of nature, experts in many fields of work were known as kahuna, a term commonly understood to mean priest. The various types of kahuna passed on knowledge of their profession, be it in "genealogies, or mele, or herb medicine, or canoe building, or land boundaries", etc. by involving and instructing apprentices in their work. More formal schools existed for the study of hula, and likely for the study of higher levels of sacred knowledge. The kahuna took the apprentice into his household as a member of the family, although often "the tutor was a relative". During a religious "graduation" ceremony, "the teacher consecrated the pupil, who thereafter was one with the teacher in psychic relationship as definite and obligatory as blood relationship". Like the children learning from their grandparents, children who were apprentices learned by watching and participating in daily life. Children were discouraged from asking questions in traditional Hawaiian culture. Land tenure In Hawaiian ideology, one does not "own" the land, but merely dwells on it. The belief was that both the land and the gods were immortal. This then informed the belief that land was also godly, and therefore above mortal and ungodly humans, and humans therefore could not own land. The Hawaiians thought that all land belonged to the gods (akua). The alii were believed to be "managers" of land. That is, they controlled those who worked on the land, the makaāinana. On the death of one chief and the accession of another, lands were re-apportioned—some of the previous "managers" would lose their lands, and others would gain them. Lands were also re-apportioned when one chief defeated another and re-distributed the conquered lands as rewards to his warriors. In practice, commoners had some security against capricious re-possession of their houses and farms. They were usually left in place, to pay tribute and supply labor to a new chief, under the supervision of a new konohiki, or overseer. This system of land tenure is similar to the feudal system prevalent in Europe during the Middle Ages. The ancient Hawaiians had the ahupuaa as their source of water management. Each ahupuaa had a sub-division of land from the mountain to the sea. The Hawaiians used the water from the rain that ran through the mountains as a form of irrigation. Hawaiians also settled around these parts of the land because of the farming that was done. Religion and the kapu system Religion held ancient Hawaiian society together, affecting habits, lifestyles, work methods, social policy and law. The legal system was based on religious kapu, or taboos. There was a correct way to live, to worship, and even to eat. Examples of kapu included the provision that men and women could not eat together (Aikapu religion). Fishing was limited to specified seasons of the year. The shadow of the alii must not be touched as it was stealing his mana. The rigidity of the kapu system might have come from a second wave of migrations in 1000–1300 from which different religions and systems were shared between Hawaii and the Society Islands. Hawaii would have been influenced by the Tahitian chiefs, the kapu system would have become stricter, and the social structure would have changed. Human sacrifice would have become a part of their new religious observance, and the alii would have gained more power over the counsel of experts on the islands. Kapu was derived from traditions and beliefs from Hawaiian worship of gods, demigods and ancestral mana. The forces of nature were personified as the main gods of Kū (God of war), Kāne (god of light and life), Kanaloa (god of death), and Lono (god of peace and growth). Well-known lesser gods include Pele (goddess of fire) and her sister Hiiaka (goddess of dance). In a famous creation story, the demigod Māui fished the islands of Hawaii from the sea after a little mistake he made on a fishing trip. From Haleakalā, Māui ensnared the sun in another story, forcing him to slow down so there were equal periods of darkness and light each day. The Hawaiian mystical worldview allows for different gods and spirits to imbue any aspect of the natural world. From this mystical perspective, in addition to his presence in lightning and rainbows, the god of light and life, Kāne, can be present in rain and clouds and a peaceful breeze (typically the "home" of Lono). Although all food and drink had religious significance to the ancient Hawaiians, special cultural emphasis was placed on awa (kava) due to its narcotic properties. This root-based beverage, a psychoactive and a relaxant, was used to consecrate meals and commemorate ceremonies. It is often referred to in Hawaiian chant. Different varieties of the root were used by different castes, and the brew served as an "introduction to mysticism". Chiefs The four biggest islands, the island of Hawaiʻi, Maui, Kauaʻi and Oʻahu were generally ruled by their own aliʻi nui (supreme ruler) with lower ranking subordinate chiefs called aliʻi ʻaimoku, ruling individual districts with land agents called konohiki. All these dynasties were interrelated and regarded all the Hawaiian people (and possibly all humans) as descendants of legendary parents, Wākea (symbolizing the air) and his wife Papa (symbolizing the earth). Up to the late eighteenth century, the island of Hawaiʻi had been ruled by one line descended from Umi-a-Liloa. At the death of Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku, a lower ranking chief, Alapainui, overthrew the two sons of the former ruler who were next in line as the island's aliʻi nui. Assuming five to ten generations per century, the Alii ʻAimoku dynasties were around three to six centuries old at 1800 CE. The Tahitian settlement of the Hawaiian islands is believed to have taken place in the thirteenth century. The alii and other social castes were presumably established during this period. Complex economy The ancient Hawaiian economy became complex over time. People began to specialize in specific skills. Generations of families became committed to certain careers: roof thatchers, house builders, stone grinders, bird catchers who would make the feather cloaks of the alii, canoe builders. Soon, entire islands began to specialize in certain skilled trades. Oahu became the chief kapa (tapa bark cloth) manufacturer. Maui became the chief canoe manufacturer. The island of Hawaii exchanged bales of dried fish. First recorded European contact European contact with the Hawaiian islands marked the beginning of the end of the ancient Hawaii period. In 1778, British Captain James Cook landed first on Kauai, then sailed southwards to observe and explore the other islands in the chain. When he first arrived at Kealakekua Bay in 1779, some of the natives believed Cook was their god Lono. Cook's mast and sails coincidentally resembled the emblem (a mast and sheet of white kapa) that symbolized Lono in their religious rituals; the ships arrived during the Makahiki season dedicated to Lono. Captain Cook was eventually killed during a violent confrontation and left behind on the beach by his retreating sailors. The British demanded that his body be returned, but the Hawaiians had already performed funerary rituals of their tradition. Within a few decades Kamehameha I used European warfare tactics and some firearms and cannons to unite the islands into the Kingdom of Hawaii. See also Māori culture Mary Kawena Pukui, scholar of ancient Hawaiian culture Polynesian culture List of monarchs (Aliʻi ʻAimoku) of Hawaii List of monarchs (Aliʻi ʻAimoku) of Kauai List of monarchs (Aliʻi ʻAimoku) of Oahu List of monarchs (Aliʻi ʻAimoku) of Maui List of monarchs (Aliʻi ʻAimoku) of Molokaʻi Notes References Primary sources Secondary sources External links Category:Ancient peoples Category:Polynesian culture ja:ハワイの歴史#先史時代
[]
[ "The settlers established their settlements along the coasts and larger valleys. They grew various plants and raised livestock, although fruits, vegetables, and seafood were consumed more often than meats. They also adapted estuaries and streams into fishponds for aquaculture. They built homes (hale) and temples (heiau) upon arrival. The first settlements were believed to be on the southern end of the Big Island of Hawai`i which then quickly extended northwards along the seacoasts and river valleys. As the population grew, settlements were made further inland. Before European contact, the population was very dense, ranging from 200,000 to 1,000,000 people.", "The settlers arrived in Hawai`i. The first settlements were believed to be on the southern end of the Big Island of Hawai`i.", "The text does not provide specific information about any struggles the settlers may have faced.", "The settlers lived in homes called hale.", "The text does not provide information on whether the settlers had any laws." ]
[ "Answer: Yes", "No", "No", "No", "Yes" ]
C_12eaa237d7284ad5a790afe23fefafe6_0
Ancient Hawaii
Ancient Hawai`i is the period of Hawaiian human history preceding the unification in 1810 of the Kingdom of Hawai`i by Kamehameha the Great. Researchers had based their estimates of first settlement by Polynesian long-distance navigators from French Polynesia, Tahiti, the Tuamotus and the Samoan Islands sporadically between 300 and 800. In 2010, a study was published based on radiocarbon dating of more reliable samples and it suggests that the islands were settled much later, within a short timeframe, in c. 1219 - 1266. The islands in Eastern Polynesia have been characterized by the continuities among their cultures, and the short migration period would be an explanation of this result.
Religion and the Kapu system
Religion held ancient Hawaiian society together, affecting habits, lifestyles, work methods, social policy and law. The legal system was based on religious kapu, or taboos. There was a correct way to live, to worship, and even to eat. Examples of kapu included the provision that men and women could not eat together (`Aikapu religion). Fishing was limited to specified seasons of the year. The shadow of the ali`i must not be touched as it was stealing his mana. The rigidity of the kapu system might have come from a second wave of migrations in 1000-1300 from which different religions and systems were shared between Hawai`i and the Society Islands. Hawai`i would have been influenced by the Tahitian chiefs, the kapu system would have become stricter, and the social structure would have changed. Human sacrifice would have become a part of their new religious observance, and the ali`i would have gained more power over the counsel of experts on the islands. Kapu was derived from traditions and beliefs from Hawaiian worship of gods, demigods and ancestral mana. The forces of nature were personified as the main gods of Ku (God of War), Kane (God of Light and Life), Kanaloa (God of Death), and Lono (God of peace and growth). Well-known lesser gods include Pele (Goddess of Fire) and her sister Hi`iaka (Goddess of Dance). In a famous creation story, the demigod Maui fished the islands of Hawai`i from the sea after a little mistake he made on a fishing trip. From Haleakala, Maui ensnared the sun in another story, forcing him to slow down so there were equal periods of darkness and light each day. The Hawaiian mystical worldview allows for different gods and spirits to imbue any aspect of the natural world. From this mystical perspective, in addition to his presence in lightning and rainbows, the God of Light and Life, Kane, can be present in rain and clouds and a peaceful breeze (typically the "home" of Lono). Although all food and drink had religious significance to the ancient Hawaiians, special cultural emphasis was placed on `awa (kava) due to its narcotic properties. This root-based beverage, a psychoactive and a relaxant, was used to consecrate meals and commemorate ceremonies. It is often referred to in Hawaiian chant. Different varieties of the root were used by different castes, and the brew served as an "introduction to mysticism". CANNOTANSWER
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[ "How did religion effect their society?", "What is Kapu?", "What are some examples of kapu in their society?", "What are the beginnings of the kapu system like?", "How did this wave effect society or the system?" ]
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{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 116, 173, 465, 655 ], "texts": [ "Religion held ancient Hawaiian society together, affecting habits, lifestyles, work methods, social policy and law.", "The legal system was based on religious kapu, or taboos.", "There was a correct way to live, to worship, and even to eat.", "The rigidity of the kapu system might have come from a second wave of migrations in 1000-1300 from which different religions and systems", "Hawai`i would have been influenced by the Tahitian chiefs, the kapu system would have become stricter, and the social structure would have changed." ] }
Ancient Hawaii is the period of Hawaiian history preceding the unification in 1810 of the Kingdom of Hawaii by Kamehameha the Great. Traditionally, researchers estimated the first settlement of the Hawaiian islands as having occurred sporadically between 400 and 1100 CE by Polynesian long-distance navigators from the Samoan, Marquesas, and Tahiti islands within what is now French Polynesia. In 2010, a study was published based on radiocarbon dating of more reliable samples which suggests that the islands were settled much later, within a short timeframe, in about 1219 to 1266. The islands in Eastern Polynesia have been characterized by the continuities among their cultures, and the short migration period would be an explanation of this result. Diversified agroforestry and aquaculture provided sustenance for Native Hawaiian cuisine. Tropical materials were adopted for housing. Elaborate temples (called heiau) were constructed from the lava rocks available. The rich natural resources supported a relatively dense population, organized by a ruling class and social system with religious leaders. Captain James Cook made the first known European contact with ancient Hawaiians in 1778. He was followed by many other Europeans and Americans. Voyage to the Hawaiian islands There have been changing views about initial Polynesian discovery and settlement of Hawai'i. Radiocarbon dating in Hawai'i initially indicated a possible settlement as early as 124 CE. Patrick Vinton Kirch's early books on Hawaiian archeology date the first Polynesian settlements to about 300 CE with more recent suggestions by Kirch of 600 CE. Other theories suggest dating as late as 700–800 CE. In 2010, researchers announced new findings using revised, high-precision radiocarbon dating based on more reliable samples than were previously used in many dating studies. This new data indicates that the period of eastern and northern Polynesian colonization took place much later, in a shorter time frame of two waves: the "earliest in the Society Islands c. 1025–1120, four centuries later than previously assumed; then after 70–265 years, dispersal continued in one major pulse to all remaining islands c. 1190–1290." According to this research, settlement of the Hawaiian Islands took place c. 1219–1266. This rapid colonization is believed to account for the "remarkable uniformity of East Polynesia culture, biology and language". According to Hawaiian mythology, there were other settlers in Hawaii: peoples who were forced back into remote valleys by newer arrivals. They claim that stories about menehune, little people who built heiau and fishponds, prove the existence of ancient peoples who settled the islands before the Hawaiians. Early Hawaiian sites Waiʻahukini Rockshelter (Site H8) The Wai'ahukini Rockshelter, site H8, lies within a lava tube about 600 feet inland from the shore on the southern part of the island of Hawai'i. Based on the lack of light and space necessary for normal living conditions, it was unlikely that site H8 was used as a dwelling. Excavations of site H8 began in 1954 by William J. Bonk and students from the University of Hawaii, Hilo, and concluded in 1958. Excavation of the site revealed eight fireplaces at varying depths, as well as 1671 artifacts which included faunal remains, fishhooks, and lithic materials made of basalt and volcanic glass. The distribution of artifacts in site H8 indicated that it was continuously used as a fishing shelter until the eruption of Mauna Loa in 1868. An early estimation of the site's initial occupation was A.D. 750 by Emory and Sinoto in 1969, but a more recent study using updated radiocarbon dating methods suggested a much later date, somewhere within the mid-14th century. Hālawa Dune Site Located on the island of Moloka'i, the Hālawa Dune Site was first discovered in 1964 and consists of two mounds. In the summer of 1970, Patrick Vinton Kirch performed excavations on the larger of the two mounds, Mound B, revealing six major layers. Within the fourth layer were artifacts, faunal remains, and house foundations. Of the 496 artifacts unearthed in this layer, the most significant included fishhooks and adzes. The adzes recovered from Mound B were similar to those found in Nihoa and the Necker Islands and, according to Kirch and McCoy, served as "evidence that the Hālawa Dune Site represented an early phase in the development of Hawaiian material culture." Initial radiocarbon dating for the site by Kirch suggested a range of 600 to 1200 CE, however a re-dating of samples in 2007 showed the site dated no earlier than 1300 CE, and was occupied primarily between 1400 and 1650 CE. Settlement Early settlers brought along with them clothing, plants (called "canoe plants") and livestock and established settlements along the coasts and larger valleys. Upon their arrival, the settlers grew (taro), (banana), (coconut), (breadfruit), and raised (pork), (chicken), and (poi dog), although these meats were eaten less often than fruits, vegetables, and seafood. Popular condiments included (salt), ground kukui nut, (seaweed), and (sugarcane) which was used as both a sweet and a medicine. In addition to the foods they brought, the settlers also acquired (sweet potato), which began to be cultivated across Polynesia around the year 1000 or earlier, with the earliest evidence of cultivation in Hawaii around 1300. The sweet potato is native to South America. Recently, an analysis of the DNA of 1,245 sweet potato varieties from Asia and the Americas was done, and researchers found a genetic link that proves the root made it to Polynesia from the Andes around 1100. The findings, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, offer more evidence that ancient Polynesians may have interacted with people in South America long before the Europeans set foot on the continent. The Pacific rat accompanied humans on their journey to Hawaiʻi. David Burney argues that humans, along with the vertebrate animals they brought with them (pigs, dogs, chickens and rats), caused many native species of birds, plants and large land snails to become extinct in the process of colonization. Estuaries and streams were adapted into fishponds by early Polynesian settlers, as long ago as 500 CE or earlier. Packed earth and cut stone were used to create habitat, making ancient Hawaiian aquaculture among the most advanced of the original peoples of the Pacific. A notable example is the Menehune Fishpond dating from at least 1,000 years ago, at Alekoko. At the time of Captain James Cook's arrival, there were at least 360 fishponds producing of fish per year. Over the course of the last millennium, Hawaiians undertook "large-scale canal-fed pond field irrigation" projects for (taro) cultivation. The new settlers built (homes) and (temples). Archaeologists currently believe that the first settlements were on the southern end of the Big Island of Hawaiʻi and that they quickly extended northwards, along the seacoasts and the easily accessible river valleys. As the population increased, settlements were made further inland. With the islands being so small, the population was very dense. Before European contact, the population had reached somewhere in the range of 200,000 to 1,000,000 people. After contact with the Europeans, however, the population steeply dropped due to various diseases including smallpox. Village A traditional town of ancient Hawaii included several structures. Listed in order of importance: Heiau, temple to the gods. There were two major types. The agricultural mapele type was dedicated to Lono, and could be built by the nobility, priests, and land division chiefs, and whose ceremonies were open to all. The second type, luakini, were large war temples, where animal and human sacrifices were made. They were built on high-rising stone terraces and adorned with wood and stone carved idols. A source of great mana or divine power, the luakini could only be entered by alii, the king, important chiefs and nobility, and kahuna who were members of the Kū priesthood. Hale alii, the house of the chief. It was used as a residence for the high chief and meeting house of the lesser chiefs. It was always built on a raised stone foundation to represent high social standing. Kāhili, or feather standards, were placed outside to signify royalty. Women and children were banned from entering. Hale pahu, the house of the sacred hula instruments. It held the pahu drums. It was treated as a religious space as hula was a religious activity in honor of the goddess Laka. Hale papaa, the house of royal storage. It was built to store royal implements including fabrics, prized nets and lines, clubs, spears and other weapons. Hale ulana, the house of the weaver. It was the house where craftswomen would gather each day to manufacture the village baskets, fans, mats and other implements from dried pandanus leaves called lauhala. Hale mua, the men's eating house. It was considered a sacred place because it was used to carve stone idols of aumakua or ancestral gods. The design was meant for the men to be able to enter and exit quickly. Hale aina, the women's eating house. Women ate at their own separate eating house. Men and women could not eat with each other for fear that men were vulnerable while eating to have their mana, or divine spirit, stolen by women. Hale waa, the house of the canoe. It was built along the beaches as a shelter for their fishing vessels. Hawaiians also stored koa logs used to craft the canoes. Hale lawaia, the house of fishing. It was built along the beaches as a shelter for their fishing nets and lines. Nets and lines were made by a tough rope fashioned from woven coconut husks. Fish hooks were made of human, pig or dog bone. Implements found in the hale lawaia were some of the most prized possessions of the entire village. Hale noho, the living house. It was built as sleeping and living quarters for the Hawaiian family unit. Imu, the communal earth oven. Dug in the ground, it was used to cook the entire village's food including puaa or pork. Only men cooked using the imu. Caste system Ancient Hawaii was a caste society developed from Polynesians. In The overthrow of the kapu system in Hawaii, Stephenie Seto Levin describes the main classes: Alii. This class consisted of the high and lesser chiefs of the realms. They governed with divine power called mana. Kahuna. Priests who conducted religious ceremonies, at the heiau and elsewhere. Professionals included master carpenters and boatbuilders, chanters, dancers, genealogists, physicians and healers. Makaāinana. Commoners that farmed, fished, and exercised the simpler crafts. They labored not only for themselves and their families, but to support the chiefs and kahuna. Kauwā. A broad and degrading term referring to servants, slaves, and outcasts. Marriage between higher castes and the kauwā was strictly forbidden. The kauwā worked for the chiefs and males were often used as human sacrifices via drowning at the luakini heiau. (Lawbreakers of other castes and defeated political opponents were also sometimes used as human sacrifices.) Education Hawaiian youth learned life skills and religion at home, often with grandparents. For "bright" children a system of apprenticeship existed in which very young students would begin learning a craft or profession by assisting an expert, or kahuna. As spiritual powers were perceived by Hawaiians to imbue all of nature, experts in many fields of work were known as kahuna, a term commonly understood to mean priest. The various types of kahuna passed on knowledge of their profession, be it in "genealogies, or mele, or herb medicine, or canoe building, or land boundaries", etc. by involving and instructing apprentices in their work. More formal schools existed for the study of hula, and likely for the study of higher levels of sacred knowledge. The kahuna took the apprentice into his household as a member of the family, although often "the tutor was a relative". During a religious "graduation" ceremony, "the teacher consecrated the pupil, who thereafter was one with the teacher in psychic relationship as definite and obligatory as blood relationship". Like the children learning from their grandparents, children who were apprentices learned by watching and participating in daily life. Children were discouraged from asking questions in traditional Hawaiian culture. Land tenure In Hawaiian ideology, one does not "own" the land, but merely dwells on it. The belief was that both the land and the gods were immortal. This then informed the belief that land was also godly, and therefore above mortal and ungodly humans, and humans therefore could not own land. The Hawaiians thought that all land belonged to the gods (akua). The alii were believed to be "managers" of land. That is, they controlled those who worked on the land, the makaāinana. On the death of one chief and the accession of another, lands were re-apportioned—some of the previous "managers" would lose their lands, and others would gain them. Lands were also re-apportioned when one chief defeated another and re-distributed the conquered lands as rewards to his warriors. In practice, commoners had some security against capricious re-possession of their houses and farms. They were usually left in place, to pay tribute and supply labor to a new chief, under the supervision of a new konohiki, or overseer. This system of land tenure is similar to the feudal system prevalent in Europe during the Middle Ages. The ancient Hawaiians had the ahupuaa as their source of water management. Each ahupuaa had a sub-division of land from the mountain to the sea. The Hawaiians used the water from the rain that ran through the mountains as a form of irrigation. Hawaiians also settled around these parts of the land because of the farming that was done. Religion and the kapu system Religion held ancient Hawaiian society together, affecting habits, lifestyles, work methods, social policy and law. The legal system was based on religious kapu, or taboos. There was a correct way to live, to worship, and even to eat. Examples of kapu included the provision that men and women could not eat together (Aikapu religion). Fishing was limited to specified seasons of the year. The shadow of the alii must not be touched as it was stealing his mana. The rigidity of the kapu system might have come from a second wave of migrations in 1000–1300 from which different religions and systems were shared between Hawaii and the Society Islands. Hawaii would have been influenced by the Tahitian chiefs, the kapu system would have become stricter, and the social structure would have changed. Human sacrifice would have become a part of their new religious observance, and the alii would have gained more power over the counsel of experts on the islands. Kapu was derived from traditions and beliefs from Hawaiian worship of gods, demigods and ancestral mana. The forces of nature were personified as the main gods of Kū (God of war), Kāne (god of light and life), Kanaloa (god of death), and Lono (god of peace and growth). Well-known lesser gods include Pele (goddess of fire) and her sister Hiiaka (goddess of dance). In a famous creation story, the demigod Māui fished the islands of Hawaii from the sea after a little mistake he made on a fishing trip. From Haleakalā, Māui ensnared the sun in another story, forcing him to slow down so there were equal periods of darkness and light each day. The Hawaiian mystical worldview allows for different gods and spirits to imbue any aspect of the natural world. From this mystical perspective, in addition to his presence in lightning and rainbows, the god of light and life, Kāne, can be present in rain and clouds and a peaceful breeze (typically the "home" of Lono). Although all food and drink had religious significance to the ancient Hawaiians, special cultural emphasis was placed on awa (kava) due to its narcotic properties. This root-based beverage, a psychoactive and a relaxant, was used to consecrate meals and commemorate ceremonies. It is often referred to in Hawaiian chant. Different varieties of the root were used by different castes, and the brew served as an "introduction to mysticism". Chiefs The four biggest islands, the island of Hawaiʻi, Maui, Kauaʻi and Oʻahu were generally ruled by their own aliʻi nui (supreme ruler) with lower ranking subordinate chiefs called aliʻi ʻaimoku, ruling individual districts with land agents called konohiki. All these dynasties were interrelated and regarded all the Hawaiian people (and possibly all humans) as descendants of legendary parents, Wākea (symbolizing the air) and his wife Papa (symbolizing the earth). Up to the late eighteenth century, the island of Hawaiʻi had been ruled by one line descended from Umi-a-Liloa. At the death of Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku, a lower ranking chief, Alapainui, overthrew the two sons of the former ruler who were next in line as the island's aliʻi nui. Assuming five to ten generations per century, the Alii ʻAimoku dynasties were around three to six centuries old at 1800 CE. The Tahitian settlement of the Hawaiian islands is believed to have taken place in the thirteenth century. The alii and other social castes were presumably established during this period. Complex economy The ancient Hawaiian economy became complex over time. People began to specialize in specific skills. Generations of families became committed to certain careers: roof thatchers, house builders, stone grinders, bird catchers who would make the feather cloaks of the alii, canoe builders. Soon, entire islands began to specialize in certain skilled trades. Oahu became the chief kapa (tapa bark cloth) manufacturer. Maui became the chief canoe manufacturer. The island of Hawaii exchanged bales of dried fish. First recorded European contact European contact with the Hawaiian islands marked the beginning of the end of the ancient Hawaii period. In 1778, British Captain James Cook landed first on Kauai, then sailed southwards to observe and explore the other islands in the chain. When he first arrived at Kealakekua Bay in 1779, some of the natives believed Cook was their god Lono. Cook's mast and sails coincidentally resembled the emblem (a mast and sheet of white kapa) that symbolized Lono in their religious rituals; the ships arrived during the Makahiki season dedicated to Lono. Captain Cook was eventually killed during a violent confrontation and left behind on the beach by his retreating sailors. The British demanded that his body be returned, but the Hawaiians had already performed funerary rituals of their tradition. Within a few decades Kamehameha I used European warfare tactics and some firearms and cannons to unite the islands into the Kingdom of Hawaii. See also Māori culture Mary Kawena Pukui, scholar of ancient Hawaiian culture Polynesian culture List of monarchs (Aliʻi ʻAimoku) of Hawaii List of monarchs (Aliʻi ʻAimoku) of Kauai List of monarchs (Aliʻi ʻAimoku) of Oahu List of monarchs (Aliʻi ʻAimoku) of Maui List of monarchs (Aliʻi ʻAimoku) of Molokaʻi Notes References Primary sources Secondary sources External links Category:Ancient peoples Category:Polynesian culture ja:ハワイの歴史#先史時代
[]
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C_63935b9eb93b47faa3cc2354f230b7fb_1
Billie Jean King
King was born in Long Beach, California, into a conservative Methodist family, the daughter of Betty (nee Jerman), a housewife, and Bill Moffitt, a firefighter. Billie Jean's family was athletic. Her mother excelled at swimming, her father played basketball, baseball and ran track. Her younger brother, Randy Moffitt, became a Major League Baseball pitcher, pitching for 12 years in the major leagues for the San Francisco Giants, Houston Astros, and Toronto Blue Jays.
Career
King's triumph at the French Open in 1972 made her only the fifth woman in tennis history to win the singles titles at all four Grand Slam events, a "career Grand Slam." King also won a career Grand Slam in mixed doubles. In women's doubles, only the Australian Open eluded her. King won a record 20 career titles at Wimbledon - six in singles, 10 in women's doubles, and four in mixed doubles. King played 51 Grand Slam singles events from 1959 through 1983, reaching at least the semifinals in 27 and at least the quarterfinals in 40 of her attempts. King was the runner-up in six Grand Slam singles events. An indicator of King's mental toughness in Grand Slam singles tournaments was her 11-2 career record in deuce third sets, i.e., third sets that were tied 5-5 before being resolved. King won 129 singles titles, 78 of which were WTA titles, and her career prize money totaled US$1,966,487. In Federation Cup finals, King was on the winning United States team seven times, in 1963, 1966, 1967, and 1976 through 1979. Her career win-loss record was 52-4. She won the last 30 matches she played, including 15 straight wins in both singles and doubles. In Wightman Cup competition, King's career win-loss record was 22-4, winning her last nine matches. The United States won the cup ten of the 11 years that King participated. In singles, King was 6-1 against Ann Haydon-Jones, 4-0 against Virginia Wade, and 1-1 against Christine Truman Janes. CANNOTANSWER
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[ "How did Billie Jean get started?", "Where did she go from that record?", "Did she have any endorsements?", "Did she win any Grand slams?", "Did she receive any formal awards for her talents?", "When did she stop competing?", "Does she still compete currently?", "Any information on how her career ended?" ]
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Billie Jean King (née Moffitt; born November 22, 1943) is an American former world No. 1 tennis player. King won 39 major titles: 12 in singles, 16 in women's doubles, and 11 in mixed doubles. King was a member of the victorious United States team in seven Federation Cups and nine Wightman Cups. For three years, she was the U.S. captain in the Federation Cup. King is an advocate of gender equality and has long been a pioneer for equality and social justice. In 1973, at age 29, she won the "Battle of the Sexes" tennis match against the 55-year-old Bobby Riggs. King was also the founder of the Women's Tennis Association and the Women's Sports Foundation. She was instrumental in persuading cigarette brand Virginia Slims to sponsor women's tennis in the 1970s and went on to serve on the board of their parent company Philip Morris in the 2000s. Regarded by many as one of the greatest tennis players of all time, King was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1987. The Fed Cup Award of Excellence was bestowed on her in 2010. In 1972, she was the joint winner, with John Wooden, of the Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year award and was one of the Time Persons of the Year in 1975. She has also received the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Sunday Times Sportswoman of the Year lifetime achievement award. She was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in 1990, and in 2006, the USTA National Tennis Center in New York City was renamed the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center. In 2018, she won the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Lifetime Achievement Award. In 2020, the Federation Cup was renamed the Billie Jean King Cup in her honor. In 2022, she was awarded the French Legion of Honour. Early life Billie Jean Moffitt was born in Long Beach, California, into a conservative Methodist family, the daughter of Betty (née Jerman), a housewife, and Bill Moffitt, a firefighter. Her family was athletic; her mother excelled at swimming, and her father played basketball and baseball, and ran track. Her younger brother, Randy Moffitt, became a Major League Baseball pitcher, pitching for 12 years in the major leagues for the San Francisco Giants, Houston Astros, and Toronto Blue Jays. She also excelled at baseball and softball as a child, playing shortstop at 10 years old on a team with girls 4–5 years older than she. The team went on to win the Long Beach softball championship. She switched from softball to tennis at age 11, because her parents suggested she should find a more 'ladylike' sport. She saved her own money, $8 ($88.54 in 2022 terms), to buy her first racket. She went with a school friend to take her first tennis lesson on the many free public courts in Long Beach, taking advantage of the free lessons offered by professional Clyde Walker, who worked for the City of Long Beach. One of the city's tennis facilities has subsequently been named the Billie Jean Moffitt King Tennis Center. As a kid playing in her first tennis tournaments, she was often hindered by her aggressive playing style. Bob Martin, sportswriter for the Long Beach, Press-Telegram wrote about her success in a weekly tennis column. One of King's first conflicts with the tennis establishments and status-quo came in her youth, when she was forbidden from being in a group picture at a tournament because she was wearing tennis shorts (sewn by her mother) instead of the usual white tennis dress. King's family in Long Beach attended the Church of the Brethren, where the minister was former athlete and two-time Olympic pole-vaulting champion Bob Richards. One day, when King was 13 or 14, Richards asked her, "What are you going to do with your life?" She said: "Reverend, I'm going to be the best tennis player in the world." King attended Long Beach Polytechnic High School. After graduating in 1961, she attended Los Angeles State College now California State University, Los Angeles (Cal State LA). She did not graduate, leaving school in 1964 to focus on tennis. While attending Cal State, she met Larry King in a library in 1963. The pair became engaged while still in school when Billie Jean was 20 and Larry 19 years old and married on September 17, 1965, in Long Beach. Career King's French Open win in 1972 made her only the fifth woman in tennis history to win the singles titles at all four Grand Slam events, a "career Grand Slam". She also won a career Grand Slam in mixed doubles. In women's doubles, only the Australian Open eluded her. King won a record 20 career titles at Wimbledon – six in singles, 10 in women's doubles, and four in mixed doubles. King played 51 Grand Slam singles events from 1959 through 1983, reaching at least the semi-finals in 27 and at least the quarterfinals in 40 of her attempts. King was the runner-up in six Grand Slam singles events. An indicator of her mental toughness in Grand Slam singles tournaments was her 11–2 career record in deuce third sets, i.e., third sets that were tied 5–5 before being resolved. King won 129 singles titles, 78 of which were WTA titles, and her career prize money totaled US$1,966,487. In Federation Cup finals, she was on the winning United States team seven times, in 1963, 1966, 1967, and 1976 through 1979. Her career win–loss record was 52–4. She won the last 30 matches she played, including 15 straight wins in both singles and doubles. In Wightman Cup competition, her career win–loss record was 22–4, winning her last nine matches. The United States won the cup ten of the 11 years that she participated. In singles, King was 6–1 against Ann Haydon-Jones, 4–0 against Virginia Wade, and 1–1 against Christine Truman Janes. The early years: 1959–1963 As Billie Jean King began competing in 1959, she began working with new coaches including Frank Brennan and Alice Marble, who had won 18 Grand Slam titles as a player herself. She made her Grand Slam debut at the 1959 U.S. Championships at age 15. She lost in the first round. She began playing at local, regional, and international tennis championships. Sports Illustrated already claimed her as "one of the most promising youngsters on the West Coast." She won her first tournament the next year in Philadelphia at the 1960 Philadelphia and District Grass Court Championships. At her second attempt at the U.S. Championships, King made it to the third round, losing to Bernice Carr Vukovich of South Africa. Also in 1960, she reached the final of the National Girls' 18 and Under Championships, losing to Karen Hantze Susmen. Her national tennis ranking improved from number 19 in 1959 to number 4 in 1960. Despite the success, Marble terminated her professional relationship with King, for reasons stemming from King's ambition. King first gained international recognition in 1961 when the Long Beach Tennis Patrons, the Century Club, and Harold Guiver raised $2,000 to send her to Wimbledon. There, she won the women's doubles title in her first attempt while partnering Karen Hantze. King was 17 and Hantze was 18, making them the youngest team to win the Wimbledon Doubles Title. King had less luck that year in the 1961 Wimbledon Women's Singles, losing to fifth-seeded Yola Ramírez Ochoa in a two-day match on Centre Court. Despite these performances. she could not get a sports scholarship when later that year she attended Los Angeles State (now California State).{"Billie Jean King", The Wall Street Journal, August 14, 2021}. For the 1962 singles tournament at Wimbledon, King upset Margaret Court, the World No. 1 and top seed, in a second round match by attacking Court's forehand This was the first time in Wimbledon history that the women's top seed had lost her first match. That same year, King and Hantze repeated their doubles victory at Wimbledon. In 1963, King again faced Margaret Court at Wimbledon. This time they met in the finals with Court prevailing. 1964 In 1964, King won four relatively minor titles but lost to Margaret Court in the Wimbledon semi-finals. She defeated Ann Haydon-Jones at both the Wightman Cup and Fed Cup but lost to Court in the final of the Federation Cup. At the U.S. Championships, fifth-seeded Nancy Richey Gunter upset third-seeded King in the quarterfinals. Late in the year, King decided to make a full-time commitment to tennis. While a history major at Los Angeles State College King made the decision to play full-time when businessman Robert Mitchell offered to pay her way to Australia so that she could train under the great Australian coach Mervyn Rose. While in Australia, King played three tournaments that year and lost in the quarterfinals of the Queensland Grass Court Championships, the final of the New South Wales Championships (to Court), and the third round of the Victorian Championships. 1965 In early 1965, King continued her three-month tour of Australia. She lost in the final of the South Australian Championships and the first round of the Western Australia Championships. At the Fed Cup in Melbourne, she defeated Ann Haydon-Jones to help the United States defeat the United Kingdom in the second round. However, Margaret Court again defeated her in the final. At the Australian Championships two weeks later, she lost to Court in the semi-finals in two sets. At Wimbledon, she again lost in the semi-finals, this time in three sets to Maria Bueno. Her last tournament of the year was the U.S. Championships, where she defeated Jones in the quarterfinals and Bueno in the semi-finals. In the final, King led 5–3 in both sets, was two points from winning the first set, and had two set points in the second set before losing to Court in straight sets. She said that losing while being so close to winning was devastating, but the match proved to her that she was "good enough to be the best in the world. I'm going to win Wimbledon next year." She won six tournaments during the year. For the first time in 81 years, the annual convention of the United States Lawn Tennis Association overruled its ranking committee's recommendation to award her the sole U.S. No. 1 position and voted 59,810 to 40,966 to rank Nancy Richey Gunter and King as co-U.S. No. 1. Prime competitive years: 1966–1975 Overview of these years Six of King's Grand Slam singles titles were at Wimbledon, four were at the U.S. Championships/Open, one was at the French Open, and one was at the Australian Championships. King reached the final of a Grand Slam singles tournament in 16 out of 25 attempts and had a 12–4 win–loss record in those finals. In the nine tournaments that she failed to reach the final, she was a losing semi-finalist twice and a losing quarter finalist five times. From 1971 through 1975, she won seven of the ten Grand Slam singles tournaments she played. She won the last seven Grand Slam singles finals she contested, six of them in straight sets and four of them against Evonne Goolagong. All but one of her Grand Slam singles titles were on grass. King's Grand Slam record from 1966 through 1975 was comparable to that of Margaret Court, her primary rival during these years. One or both of these women played 35 of the 40 Grand Slam singles tournaments held during this period, and together they won 24 of them. During this period, Court won 31 of her career 64 Grand Slam titles, including 12 of her 24 Grand Slam singles titles, 11 of her 19 Grand Slam women's doubles titles, and eight of her 21 Grand Slam mixed doubles titles. Court reached the final of a Grand Slam singles tournament in 14 out of 25 attempts and had a 12–2 win–loss record in those finals. Court won seven of the 12 Grand Slam finals she played against King during these years, including 2–1 in singles finals, 4–1 in women's doubles finals, and 1–3 in mixed doubles finals. King was the year-ending World No. 1 in six of the ten years from 1966 through 1975. She was the year-ending World No. 2 in three of those years and the World No. 3 in the other year. King won 97 of her career 129 singles titles during this period and was the runner-up in 36 other tournaments. 1966 In 1966, King defeated Dorothy "Dodo" Cheney (then 49 years old) for the first time in five career matches, winning their semi-final at the Southern California Championships 6–0, 6–3. King also ended her nine-match losing streak to Margaret Court by defeating her in the final of the South African Tennis Championships. She also won the women's singles in the Ojai Tennis Tournament. At the Wightman Cup just before Wimbledon, King defeated Virginia Wade and Ann Haydon-Jones. After thirteen unsuccessful attempts to win a Grand Slam singles title from 1959 through 1965, King at the age of 22 finally won the first of her six singles titles at Wimbledon and the first of twelve Grand Slam singles titles overall, defeating Court in the semi-finals 6–3, 6–3 and Maria Bueno in the final. King credited her semi-final victory to her forehand down the line, a new shot in her repertoire. She also said that the strategy for playing Court is, "Simple. Just chip the ball back at her feet." At the U.S. Championships, an ill King was upset by Kerry Melville Reid in the second round. 1967 King successfully defended her title at the South African Tennis Championships in 1967, defeating Maria Bueno in the final. She played the French Championships for the first time in her career, falling in the quarterfinals to Annette Van Zyl DuPlooy of South Africa. At the Federation Cup one week later in West Germany on clay, King won all four of her matches, including victories over DuPlooy, Ann Haydon-Jones, and Helga Niessen Masthoff. King then successfully switched surfaces and won her second consecutive Wimbledon singles title, defeating Virginia Wade in the quarterfinals 7–5, 6–2 and Jones. At the Wightman Cup, King again defeated Wade and Jones. King won her second Grand Slam singles title of the year when she won the U.S. Championships for the first time and without losing a set, defeating Wade, DuPlooy, Françoise Dürr, and Jones in consecutive matches. Jones pulled her left hamstring muscle early in the final and saved four match points in the second set before King prevailed. King won the singles, women's doubles, and mixed doubles titles at both Wimbledon and the U.S. Championships, the first woman to do that since Alice Marble in 1939. King then returned to the Australian summer tour in December for the first time since 1965, playing seven events there and Judy Tegart-Dalton in six of those events (winning four of their matches). King lost in the quarterfinals of the New South Wales Championships in Sydney to Dalton after King injured her left knee in the second game of the third set of that match. However, King won the Victorian Championships in Melbourne the following week, defeating Dalton, Reid, and Lesley Turner Bowrey in the last three rounds. At a team event in Adelaide, King won all three of her singles and doubles matches to help the U.S. defeat Australia 5–1. To finish the year, King lost to Dalton in the final of the South Australian Championships in Adelaide. 1968 In early 1968, King won three consecutive tournaments to end her Australian tour. In Perth, King won the Western Australia Championships, defeating Margaret Court in the final. In Hobart, King won the Tasmanian Championships by defeating Judy Tegart-Dalton in the final. King then won the Australian Championships for the first time, defeating Dalton in the semi-finals and Court in the final. King continued to win tournaments upon her return to the United States, winning three indoor tournaments before Nancy Richey Gunter defeated King in the semi-finals of the Madison Square Garden Challenge Trophy amateur tournament in New York City before 10,233 spectators. The match started with Gunter taking a 4–2 lead in the first set, before King won 9 of the next 10 games. King served for the match at 5–1 and had a match point at 5–3 in the second set; however, she lost the final 12 games and the match 4–6, 7–5, 6–0. King then won three consecutive tournaments in Europe before losing to Ann Haydon-Jones in the final of a professional tournament at Madison Square Garden. Playing the French Open for only the second time in her career and attempting to win four consecutive Grand Slam singles titles (a "non-calendar year Grand Slam"), King defeated Maria Bueno in a quarterfinal before losing to Gunter in a semi-final 2–6, 6–3, 6–4. King rebounded to win her third consecutive Wimbledon singles title, defeating Jones in the semi-finals and Dalton in the final. At the US Open, King defeated Bueno in a semi-final before being upset in the final by Virginia Wade. On September 24, she had surgery to repair cartilage in her left knee and did not play in tournaments the remainder of the year. King said that it took eight months (May 1969) for her knee to recover completely from the surgery. In 1977, King said that her doctors predicted in 1968 that her left knee would allow her to play competitive tennis for only two more years. 1969 King participated in the 1969 Australian summer tour for the second consecutive year. Unlike the previous year, King did not win a tournament. She lost in the quarterfinals of the Tasmanian Championships and the semi-finals of the New South Wales Championships. At the Australian Open, King defeated 17-year-old Evonne Goolagong in the second round 6–3, 6–1 and Ann Haydon-Jones in a three-set semi-final before losing to Margaret Court in a straight-sets final. The following week, King lost in the semi-finals of the New Zealand Championships. Upon her return to the United States, King won the Pacific Coast Pro and the Los Angeles Pro. King then won two tournaments in South Africa, including the South African Open. During the European summer clay court season, King lost in the quarterfinals of both the Italian Open and the French Open. On grass at the Wills Open in Bristol, United Kingdom, King defeated Virginia Wade in the semi-finals (6–8, 11–9, 6–2) before losing to Court. At Wimbledon, King lost only 13 points while defeating Rosemary Casals in the semi-finals 6–1, 6–0; however, Jones upset King in the final and prevented King from winning her fourth consecutive singles title there. The week after, King again defeated Wade to win the Irish Open for the second time in her career. In the final Grand Slam tournament of the year, King lost in the quarterfinals of the US Open to Nancy Richey Gunter 6–4, 8–6. This was the first year since 1965 that King did not win at least one Grand Slam singles title. King finished the year with titles at the Pacific Southwest Open in Los Angeles, the Stockholm Indoors, and the Midland (Texas) Pro. She said during the Pacific Southwest Open, "It has been a bad year for me. My left knee has been OK, but I have been bothered by a severe tennis elbow for seven months. I expect to have a real big year in 1970, though, because I really have the motivation now. I feel like a kid again." 1970 In 1970, Margaret Court won all four Grand Slam singles tournaments and was clearly the World No. 1. King lost to Court three times in the first four months of the year, in Philadelphia, Dallas, and Johannesburg (at the South African Open). Court, however, was not totally dominant during this period as King defeated her in Sydney and Durban, South Africa. Where Court dominated was at the Grand Slam tournaments. King did not play the Australian Open. King had leg cramps and lost to Helga Niessen Masthoff of West Germany in the quarterfinals of the French Open 2–6, 8–6, 6–1. At Wimbledon, Court needed seven match points to defeat King in the final 14–12, 11–9 in one of the greatest women's finals in the history of the tournament. On July 22, King had right knee surgery, which forced her to miss the US Open. King returned to the tour in September, where she had a first round loss at the Virginia Slims Invitational in Houston and a semi-final loss at the Pacific Coast Championships in Berkeley, California. To close out the year, King in November won the Virginia Slims Invitational in Richmond, Virginia and the Embassy Indoor Tennis Championships in London. During the European clay court season, King warmed-up for the French Open by playing in Monte Carlo (losing in the semi-finals), winning the Italian Open (saving three match points against Virginia Wade in the semi-finals), playing in Bournemouth (losing to Wade in the quarterfinals), and playing in Berlin (losing to Masthoff in the semi-finals). The Italian Open victory was the first important clay court title of King's career. Along the way, she defeated Masthoff in a three-set quarterfinal and Wade in a three-set semi-final, saving two match points at 4–5 in the second set. The twelfth game of that set (with King leading 6–5) had 21 deuces and lasted 22 minutes, with Wade saving seven set points and holding sixteen game points before King won. In Wightman Cup competition two weeks before Wimbledon but played at the All England Club, King defeated both Wade and Ann Haydon-Jones in straight sets. 1971 Although King won only one Grand Slam singles title in 1971, this was the best year of her career in terms of tournaments won (17). According to the International Tennis Hall of Fame, she played in 31 singles tournaments and compiled a 112–13 win–loss record. She started the year by winning eight of the first thirteen tournaments she played, defeating Rosemary Casals in seven finals. King's five losses during this period were to Françoise Dürr (twice), Casals (once), Ann Haydon-Jones (once), and Chris Evert (in St. Petersburg). At the time, King said that retiring from the match with Evert after splitting the first two sets was necessary because of leg cramps. But in early 1972, King admitted that cramps associated with an abortion caused the retirement. At the tournament in Hurlingham, United Kingdom in early May, King lost a second round match to an old rival, Christine Truman Janes (now 30 years old), 6–4, 6–2. But King recovered the next week to win the German Open in Hamburg on clay. Four weeks later at the Queen's Club tournament in London, King played Margaret Court for the first time in 1971, losing their final. At Wimbledon, King defeated Janes in the fourth round (6–2, 7–5) and Durr in the quarterfinals before losing unexpectedly to Evonne Goolagong in the semi-finals 6–4, 6–4. Two weeks after Wimbledon, King won the Rothmans North of England Championships on grass in Hoylake, United Kingdom, beating Virginia Wade, Court, and Casals in the last three rounds. She then played two clay court tournaments in Europe, winning neither, before resuming play in the United States. In August, King won the indoor Houston tournament and the U.S. Women's Clay Court Championships in Indianapolis. King then switched back to grass and won the US Open without losing a set, defeating Evert in the semi-finals (6–3, 6–2) and Casals in the final. King then won the tournaments in Louisville, Phoenix, and London (Wembley Pro). King and Casals both defaulted at 6–6 in the final of the Pepsi Pacific Southwest Open in Los Angeles in September when their request to remove a lineswoman was denied, eventually resulting in the United States Lawn Tennis Association fining both players US$2,500. To end the year, King played two tournaments in New Zealand but did not win either. She lost in Christchurch to Durr and in Auckland to Kerry Melville Reid. 1972 King won three Grand Slam singles titles in 1972, electing not to play the Australian Open despite being nearby when she played in New Zealand in late 1971. King said, "I was twenty-eight years old, and I was at the height of my powers. I'm quite sure I could have won the Grand Slam [in] ... 1972, but the Australian was such a minor-league tournament at that time.... More important, I did not want to miss any Virginia Slims winter tournaments. I was playing enough as it was." Her dominance was aided by rival Margaret Court's absence from the tour due to childbirth during most of the 1972 season. At the beginning of the year, King failed to win eight of the first ten tournaments she played. She won the title in San Francisco in mid-January. But then King lost in Long Beach to Françoise Dürr (although King claimed in her 1982 autobiography that she intentionally lost the match because of an argument with her husband) and in Fort Lauderdale on clay to Chris Evert 6–1, 6–0. The inconsistent results continued through mid-April, in Oklahoma City (losing in the quarterfinals); Washington, D.C. (losing in the second round); and Dallas (losing to Nancy Richey Gunter after defeating Evert in the quarterfinals 6–7(4–5), 6–3, 7–5 and Evonne Goolagong in the semi-finals 1–6, 6–4, 6–1). King won the title in Richmond; however, one week later, King lost in the semi-finals of the tournament in San Juan. This was followed in successive weeks by a loss in the Jacksonville final to Marie Neumannova Pinterova and in a St. Petersburg semi-final to Evert (6–2, 6–3). King did not lose again until mid-August, winning six consecutive tournaments. She won the tournaments in Tucson and Indianapolis. King then won the French Open without losing a set and completed a career Grand Slam. She defeated Virginia Wade in the quarterfinals, Helga Niessen Masthoff in the semi-finals, and Goolagong in the final. On grass, King then won the Wimbledon warm-up tournaments in Nottingham and Bristol and won Wimbledon itself for the fourth time. She lost only one set during the tournament, to Wade in the quarterfinals. That was followed by straight set wins over Rosemary Casals and Goolagong. When the tour returned to the United States, King did not win any of the three tournaments she played before the US Open, including a straight sets loss to Margaret Court in Newport. At the US Open, however, King won the tournament without losing a set, including a quarterfinal win over Wade, a semi-final defeat of Court, and a final win over Kerry Melville Reid. King finished the year by winning the tournaments in Charlotte and Phoenix (defeating Court in the final of both), a runner-up finish in Oakland (losing to Court), and a semifinal finish at the year-end championships in Boca Raton (losing to Evert). 1973 1973 was Margaret Court's turn to win three Grand Slam singles titles, failing to win only Wimbledon, and was the clear world No. 1 for the year; this was her first full season since winning the Grand Slam in 1970, as she had missed significant portions of 1971 and 1972 due to childbirth. As during the previous year, King started 1973 inconsistently. She missed the first three Virginia Slims tournaments in January because of a wrist injury. She then lost in the third round at the Virginia Slims of Miami tournament but won the Virginia Slims of Indianapolis tournament, defeating Court in the semi-finals 6–7, 7–6, 6–3 and Rosemary Casals in the final. The semi-final victory ended Court's 12-tournament and 59-match winning streaks, with King saving at least three match points when down 5–4 (40–0) in the second set. Indianapolis was followed by five tournaments that King failed to win (Detroit, Boston, Chicago, Jacksonville, and the inaugural Family Circle Cup in Hilton Head, South Carolina). King lost to Court in two of those tournaments. After deciding not to defend her French Open singles title, King won four consecutive tournaments, including her fifth Wimbledon singles title when she defeated Kerry Melville Reid in the quarterfinals, Evonne Goolagong in the semi-finals on her eighth match point, and Chris Evert in the final. King lost only nine points in the 6–0 bageling of Evert in the first set of their final. King also completed the Triple Crown at Wimbledon (winning the singles, women's doubles, and mixed doubles titles in the same year), thus becoming the first, and only, player to do so at Wimbledon in the Open Era. In none of the preceding tournaments, however, did King play Court. Their rivalry resumed in the final of the Virginia Slims of Nashville tournament, where Court won for the third time in four matches against King in 1973. (This was the last ever singles match between those players, with Court winning 21 and King 13 of their 34 matches.) Three weeks later at the US Open, King retired from her fourth-round match with Julie Heldman while ill and suffering from the oppressive heat and humidity. When Heldman complained to the match umpire that King was taking too long between games, King reportedly told Heldman, "If you want the match that badly, you can have it!" The Battle of the Sexes match against Bobby Riggs was held in the middle of the Virginia Slims of Houston tournament. King won her first and second round matches three days before playing Riggs, defeated Riggs, won her quarterfinal match the day after the Riggs match, and then lost the following day to Casals in the semifinals 7–6, 6–1. According to King, "I had nothing left to give." To end the year, King won tournaments in Phoenix, Hawaii, and Tokyo and was the runner-up in Baltimore. Battle of the Sexes In 1973, King defeated Bobby Riggs in an exhibition match, winning $100,000 ($670,520 in 2022 terms). Riggs had been a top men's player in the 1930s and 1940s in both the amateur and professional ranks. He won the Wimbledon men's singles title in 1939, and was considered the World No. 1 male tennis player for 1941, 1946, and 1947. He then became a self-described tennis "hustler" who played in promotional challenge matches. Claiming that the women's game was so inferior to the men's game that even a 55-year-old like himself could beat the current top female players, he challenged and defeated Margaret Court 6–2, 6–1. King, who previously had rejected challenges from Riggs, then accepted a lucrative financial offer to play him for $100,000 in a winner-takes-all match. Dubbed "the Battle of the Sexes", the Riggs–King match took place at the Houston Astrodome in Texas on September 20, 1973. The match garnered huge publicity. In front of 30,492 spectators and a television audience estimated at 50 million people (U.S.), and 90 million in 37 countries, 29-year-old King beat the 55-year-old Riggs 6–4, 6–3, 6–3. The match is considered a significant event in developing greater recognition and respect for women's tennis. King said, "I thought it would set us back 50 years if I didn't win that match. It would ruin the women's tour and affect all women's self-esteem," and that "to beat a 55-year-old guy was no thrill for me. The thrill was exposing a lot of new people to tennis." 1974 King won five of the first seven tournaments she contested in 1974. She won the Virginia Slims of San Francisco, defeating Nancy Richey Gunter in the semi-finals and Chris Evert in the final. The following week in Indian Wells, California, King again defeated Gunter in the semi-finals but lost to Evert in the final. King then won tournaments in Fairfax, Virginia and Detroit before losing a semi-final match to Virginia Wade in Chicago. King won both tournaments she played in March, defeating Gunter in the Akron, Ohio final and Evert at the U.S. Indoor Championships final. Olga Morozova then upset King in her next two tournaments, at Philadelphia in the final and at Wimbledon in a quarterfinal 7–5, 6–2. Afterward, King did not play a tour match until the US Open, where she won her fourth singles title and third in the last four years. She defeated Rosemary Casals in a straight sets quarterfinal, avenged in the semi-finals her previous year's loss to Julie Heldman, and narrowly defeated Evonne Goolagong in the final. King did not reach a tournament final during the remainder of the year, losing to Heldman in an Orlando semi-final, Wade in a Phoenix semi-final, and Goolagong in a semi-final of the tour-ending Virginia Slims Championships in Los Angeles. 1975 In 1975, King played singles only half the year, as she retired (temporarily, as it turned out) from tournament singles competition immediately after winning her sixth Wimbledon singles title. She began the year in San Francisco, defeating Françoise Dürr and Virginia Wade before losing to Chris Evert in the final. The following week, King won the Sarasota, Florida tournament, defeating Evert in the final 6–3, 6–2. Evert said immediately after the final, which was her thirteenth career match with King, "I think that's the best that Billie Jean has ever played. I hit some great shots but they just kept coming back at me." Looking back at that match, King said, "I probably played so well because I had to, for the money. Out of frustration comes creativity. Right?" Two months later, Wade defeated King in the semi-finals of the Philadelphia tournament. At the Austin, Texas, tournament in April, King defeated Evonne Goolagong 6–1, 6–3 before losing to Evert in the final. As King was serving for the match at 6–5 in the third set, a disputed line call went in Evert's favor. King said after the match that she was cheated out of the match and that she had never been angrier about a match. King played only one of the Wimbledon warm-up tournaments, defeating Olga Morozova in the Eastbourne semi-finals before losing to Wade in the final. Seeded third at Wimbledon, King defeated seventh seeded Morozova in the quarterfinals (6–3, 6–3) and then top seeded Evert in the semi-finals (2–6, 6–2, 6–3) after being down 3–0 (40–15) in the final set. Evert blamed her semifinal defeat on a loss of concentration when she saw Jimmy Connors, her former fiancé, escorting Susan George into Centre Court. King, however, believes that the match turned around because King planned for and totally prepared for Wimbledon that year and told herself when she was on the verge of defeat, "Hey, Billie Jean, this is ridiculous. You paid the price. For once, you looked ahead. You're supposed to win. Get your bahoola in gear." King then defeated fourth seeded Goolagong Cawley in the second most lopsided women's final ever at Wimbledon (6–0, 6–1). King called her performance a "near perfect match" and said to the news media, "I'm never coming back." The later years: 1976–1990 1976 Except for five Federation Cup singles matches that she won in straight sets in August, King played only in doubles and mixed doubles events from January through September. She partnered Phil Dent to the mixed doubles title at the US Open. She lost to Dianne Fromholtz Balestrat in both of the singles tournaments she played the remainder of the year. Looking back, King said, "I wasted 1976. After watching Chris Evert and Evonne [Goolagong] Cawley play the final at Wimbledon I asked myself what I was doing. So, despite my age and the operations, the Old Lady came back...." King had knee surgery for the third time on November 9, this time on her right knee, and did not play the remainder of the year. 1977 King spent the first three months of the year rehabilitating her right knee after surgery in November 1976. In March 1977, King requested that the Women's Tennis Association (WTA) exercise its right to grant a wild card entry to King for the eight-player Virginia Slims Championships at Madison Square Garden in New York City. Margaret Court, who finished in sixth place on the Virginia Slims points list, failed to qualify for the tournament because she did not play enough Virginia Slims tournaments leading up to the championships. This left a spot open in the draw, which the WTA filled with Mima Jaušovec. King then decided to play the Lionel Cup tournament in San Antonio, Texas, which the WTA harshly criticized because tournament officials there had allowed Renée Richards, a transgender athlete, to enter. Chris Evert, Martina Navratilova, and Betty Stöve (president of the WTA) criticized King's decision because of Richards's unresolved and highly controversial status on the women's tennis tour. Evert said she was disappointed with King and that until Richards's status was resolved, "all of the women should stick together." Navratilova said, "Billie Jean is a bad girl pouting. She made a bad decision. She's mad because she could not get what she wanted." Stöve said that if King had wanted the competition, "[T]here are plenty of men around here she could've played with. She didn't have to choose a 'disputed' tournament." The draw in San Antonio called for King to play Richards in the semi-finals had form held; however, Richards lost in the quarterfinals. King eventually won the tournament. At the clay court Family Circle Cup in late March, King played for the last time her long-time rival Nancy Richey Gunter in the first round. King won 0–6, 7–6, 6–2. She defeated another clay court specialist, Virginia Ruzici, in the second round before winning only one game from Evert in the final. At Wimbledon in the third round, King played Maria Bueno for the last time, with King winning 6–2, 7–5. In the quarterfinals, Evert defeated King for the first time at a Grand Slam singles tournament and for the first time on grass 6–1, 6–2 in just 46 minutes. Evert said it was the best match she had ever played on grass up to that point in her career, and King said, "No excuses. Let's forget knees, ankles, toes, everything else. She just played beautiful tennis. I don't think many players would've beaten her today." King also said after the match, "Maybe I can be happy being number eight instead of number one. At this stage, just playing, that's winning enough for me." But when asked about retirement, King said, "Retire? Quit tournament tennis? You gotta be kidding. It just means I've got a lot more work. I've got to make myself match tough ... mentally as well as physically. I gotta go out and kill myself for the next six months. It's a long, arduous process. I will suffer. But I will be back." There was a small historic note at Wimbledon 1977 in that it was the first time ever that King competed at the championships that she did not reach a final. From her debut in 1961 until 1976, she had played in the final of one of the three championship events for women every year. Perhaps there was irony in this in that as the Wimbledon champion with the most titles in its history, the event was celebrating its centenary in the year King failed to make a final for the first time. The only other years she competed at the championship and did not feature in a final were 1980 and 1982. In her entire Wimbledon career of 22 competitions, King never failed to be a semi-finalist in at least one event every year. Evert repeated her Wimbledon quarterfinal victory over King at the clay court US Open, winning 6–2, 6–0. This loss prompted King to say, "I better get it together by October or November or that's it. I'll have to make some big decisions. I'm not 20-years-old and I can't just go out and change my game. It's only the last four weeks I haven't been in [knee] pain. [But if] I keep using that as a copout, I shouldn't play." The remainder of the year, King's win–loss record was 31–3, losing only to Evert, Dianne Fromholtz Balestrat, and Michelle Tyler. King won five of the eight tournaments she entered plus both of her Wightman Cup matches. She defeated Navratilova all four times they played, including three times in three consecutive weeks, and beat Wimbledon champion Virginia Wade twice. Beginning September 26, King played seven consecutive weeks. She lost to Tyler in the second round in Palm Harbor, Florida and Fromholtz Balestrat in the semi-finals in Atlanta. She then won three hard court tournaments in three consecutive weeks. She defeated Navratilova and Wendy Turnbull to win in Phoenix, losing only four points to Turnbull in the third set of the final. The next week, she defeated Navratilova, Fromholtz Balestrat, and Wimbledon runner-up Stöve to win in São Paulo. The third week, she defeated Ruzici, Stöve, and Janet Newberry Wright to win in San Juan. In November, Evert snapped King's 18-match winning streak in the final of the Colgate Series Championships in Mission Hills, California. King then won her Wightman Cup matches, defeated Navratilova to win the tournament in Japan, and beat Wade to win the Bremar Cup in London. King said, "I have never had a run like this, even in the years when I was Wimbledon champion. At 34, I feel fitter than when I was 24." 1978 King played ten singles tournaments during the first half of 1978, limiting herself to doubles after Wimbledon. To start the year, King was the runner-up in Houston and Kansas City (losing to Martina Navratilova in both) and in Philadelphia (losing to Chris Evert). At the Virginia Slims Championships, King lost her first round robin match to Virginia Wade and defaulted her two remaining round robin matches because of a leg injury sustained during the first match. At Wimbledon, King played with a painful heel spur in her left foot and lost to Evert in the quarterfinals for the second consecutive year 6–3, 3–6, 6–2. The match was on-serve in the third set with King serving at 2–3 (40–0) before Evert won five consecutive points to break serve. King won a total of only two points during the last two games. King said after the match, "I don't think my mobility is very good and that's what I need to beat her. Physically, she [Evert] tears your guts apart unless you can stay with her. I'm really disappointed. I really wanted to play well. I just couldn't cut it because of my heel." King and her partner Ray Ruffels lost in the final of mixed doubles in straight sets. King teamed with Navratilova to win the women's doubles title at the US Open, King's fourth women's doubles title at that tournament and fourteenth Grand Slam women's doubles title overall. To end the year, King was undefeated in five doubles matches (four with Evert and one with Rosemary Casals) as the U.S. won the Federation Cup in Melbourne, Australia. She also teamed with Tracy Austin in the 1978 Wightman Cup against Great Britain, beating Anne Hobbs & Sue Mappin in the best of seven rubbers, despite the US losing the Cup 3–4. During the Federation Cup competition, King hinted at retirement from future major singles competitions and said that she was "sick and tired of continued surgery" in trying to get fit enough for those events. Nevertheless, King had foot surgery on December 22 in an attempt to regain mobility for a return to the tennis tour. 1979 During the first half of 1979, King played only one event – doubles in the Federation Cup tie against Spain – because of major surgery to her left foot during December 1978. King returned to singles competition at the Wimbledon warm-up tournament in Chichester. She defeated the reigning Wimbledon champion, Martina Navratilova, in a 48-minute quarterfinal 6–1, 6–2 before losing to Evonne Goolagong Cawley in the semi-finals 1–6, 6–4, 10–8. Seeded seventh at Wimbledon, King defeated Hana Mandlíková in the fourth round before losing the last six games of the quarterfinal match with fourth-seeded Tracy Austin 6–4, 6–7(5), 6–2. King partnered with Navratilova at Wimbledon to win King's 20th and final Wimbledon title, breaking Elizabeth Ryan's longstanding record of 19 Wimbledon titles just one day after Ryan collapsed and died at Wimbledon. At the US Open, the ninth-seeded King reached the quarterfinals without dropping a set, where she upset the fourth-seeded Virginia Wade 6–3, 7–6(4). Next up was a semi-final match with the four-time defending champion and top-seeded Chris Evert; however, with King hampered by a neck injury sustained during a bear hug with a friend the day before the match, Evert won 6–1, 6–0, including the last eleven games and 48 of the last 63 points. This was Evert's eighth consecutive win over King, with Evert during those matches losing only one set and 31 games and winning four 6–0 sets. Evert said after the match, "Psychologically, I feel very confident when I ... play her." The following week in Tokyo, King won her first singles title in almost two years, defeating Goolagong Cawley in the final. In November in Stockholm, King defeated Betty Stöve in the final after Stöve lost her concentration while serving for the match at 5–4 in the third set. Three weeks later in Brighton, King lost a semi-final match with Navratilova 7–5, 0–6, 7–6(3) after King led 6–5 in the third set. She ended the year with a quarterfinal loss in Melbourne (not the Australian Open), a second round loss in Sydney, and a three-set semi-final loss to Austin in Tokyo. 1980–1981 King won the tournament in Houston that began in February, snapping Martina Navratilova's 28-match winning streak in the straight-sets final. At the winter series-ending Avon Championships in March, King defeated Virginia Wade in her first round robin match 6–1, 6–3. After Wade held serve at love to open the match, King won nine consecutive games and lost only nine points during those games. King then lost her second round robin match to Navratilova and defeated Wendy Turnbull in an elimination round match, before losing to Tracy Austin in the semi-finals King played the 1980 French Open, her first time since she won the event in 1972 and completed a career singles Grand Slam. She was seeded second but lost in the quarterfinals to fifth-seeded Dianne Fromholtz Balestrat of Australia. At Wimbledon, King defeated Pam Shriver in a two-hour, forty minute fourth round match after King saved a match point in the second set and recovered from a 4–2 (40–0) deficit in the third set with Shriver serving. In a quarterfinal that took two days to complete, King lost to two-time defending champion and top-seeded Navratilova 7–6, 1–6, 10–8. The beginning of the match was delayed until late afternoon because of rain. Because she wore glasses, King agreed to start the match then on condition that tournament officials immediately suspend the match if the rain resumed. During the first set, drizzle began to fall; however, the chair umpire refused to suspend the match. King led in the tiebreaker 5–1 before Navratilova came back to win the set, whereupon the umpire then agreed to the suspension. When the match resumed the next day, King won 20 of the first 23 points to take a 5–0 lead in the second set and lost a total of seven points while winning the set in just 17 minutes. In the third set, Navratilova broke serve to take a 2–0 lead before King broke back twice and eventually served for the match at 6–5. King then hit four volley errors, enabling Navratilova to break serve at love and even the match. King saved three match points while serving at 6–7 and three more match points while serving at 7–8. During the change-over between games at 8–9, King's glasses broke for the first time in her career. She had a spare pair, but they did not feel the same. King saved two match points before Navratilova broke serve to win the match. King said, "I think that may be the single match in my career that I could have won if I hadn't had bad eyes." King teamed with Navratilova to win King's 39th and final Grand Slam title at the US Open. Navratilova then decided she wanted a new doubles partner and started playing with Shriver but refused to discuss the change directly with King. She finally confronted Navratilova during the spring of 1981, reportedly saying to her, "Tell me I'm too old ... but tell me something." Navratilova refused to talk about it. King had minor knee surgery on November 14 in San Francisco to remove adhesions and cartilage. 1982–1983 In 1982, King began a comeback, winning the Wimbledon warm-up tournament the 1982 Edgbaston Cup in Birmingham, her first singles title in more than two years. King was 38 years old and the twelfth-seed at Wimbledon. In her third round match with Tanya Harford of South Africa, King was down 7–5, 5–4 (40–0) before Harford's apparent winner was deemed 'not up' by the umpire, something the South African protested vehemently. King then saved the next two match points to win the second set 7–6(2) and then the third set 6–3. King said in her post-match press conference, "I can't recall the previous time I have been so close to defeat and won. When I was down 4–5 and love–40, I told myself, 'You have been here 21 years, so use that experience and hang on. In the fourth round, King upset sixth-seeded Australian Wendy Turnbull in straight sets. King then upset third-seeded Tracy Austin in the quarterfinals 3–6, 6–4, 6–2 to become the oldest female semi-finalist at Wimbledon since Dorothea Douglass Lambert Chambers in 1920. This was King's first career victory over Austin after five defeats and reversed the result of their 1979 Wimbledon quarterfinal. King said in her post-match press conference, "Today, I looked at the scoreboard when I was 2–0 in the third set and the '2' seemed to be getting bigger and bigger. In 1979, when I was up 2–0 at the same stage, I was tired and didn't have anything left. But today I felt so much better and was great mentally." Two days later in the semi-finals, which was King's 250th career match at Wimbledon in singles, women's doubles, and mixed doubles, the second-seeded Chris Evert defeated King on her fifth match point 7–6(4), 2–6, 6–3. King was down a set and 2–1 in the second set before winning five consecutive games to even the match. King explained that she actually lost the match in the first set by failing to convert break points at 15–40 in the second and fourth games. Having started the year in retirement, King finished 1982 ranked 14 in the world. In 1983, she reached the semi-finals in her final appearance at Wimbledon, losing to Andrea Jaeger 6–1, 6–1 after beating Kathy Jordan in the quarterfinals, seventh-seeded Wendy Turnbull in the fourth round, and Rosemary Casals, her longtime doubles partner, in the third round. Jaeger claims that she was highly motivated to defeat King because King had defeated Turnbull, a favorite of Jaeger's, and because King refused a towel from an attendant just before her match with Jaeger, explaining, "I'm not going to sweat in this match." King became the oldest WTA player to win a singles tournament when she won the Edgbaston Cup grass court tournament in Birmingham at 39 years, 7 months and 23 days after a straight-sets victory in the final against Alycia Moulton. Her tally of 20 Wimbledon titles remained when partnered with Steve Denton and the no.1 seeds in the mixed doubles, they lost 6–7(5–7), 7–6(7–5), 7–5 to John Lloyd & Wendy Turnbull in the final, King being the only player to drop her service in the final game. At her final appearance at the US Open later in 1983, King didn't play singles, but partnered Sharon Walsh in the women's doubles, reaching the semi-finals and Trey Waltke in the mixed doubles, losing in the second round. The final official singles match of King's career was a second round loss to Catherine Tanvier at the 1983 Australian Open. 1984 to present King played doubles sporadically from 1984 through 1990. She and Vijay Amritraj were seeded sixth for the Wimbledon Mixed Doubles 1984, but they withdrew before the tournament began. She retired from competitive play in doubles in March 1990. In her last competitive doubles match, King and her partner, Jennifer Capriati, lost a second round match to Brenda Schultz-McCarthy and Andrea Temesvári 6–3, 6–2 at the Virginia Slims of Florida tournament. King became the captain of the United States Fed Cup team and coach of its women's Olympic tennis squad. She guided the U.S. to the Fed Cup championship in 1996 and helped Lindsay Davenport, Gigi Fernández, and Mary Joe Fernández capture Olympic gold medals. In 2002, King dismissed Capriati from the Fed Cup team, saying Capriati had violated rules that forbade bringing along and practicing with personal coaches. Opinion was sharply divided, with many supporting King's decision but many feeling the punishment was too harsh, especially in hindsight when Monica Seles and Lisa Raymond were defeated by lower-ranked Austrians Barbara Schett and Barbara Schwartz. The following year, Zina Garrison succeeded King as Fed Cup captain. Activism within the tennis profession Player compensation Before the start of the open era in 1968, King earned US$100 a week as a playground instructor and student at California State University, Los Angeles when not playing in major tennis tournaments. In 1967, King criticized the United States Lawn Tennis Association (USLTA) in a series of press conferences, denouncing what she called the USLTA's practice of "shamateurism", where top players were paid under the table to guarantee their entry into tournaments. King argued that this was corrupt and kept the game highly elitist. King quickly became a significant force in the opening of tennis to professionalism. King said this about the amateur game: Push for gender equality When the open era began, King campaigned for equal prize money in the men's and women's games. In 1971, her husband, Larry King created the idea to form a nine player women's group with the financial backing of World Tennis magazine founder Gladys Heldman and the sponsorship of Virginia Slims chairman Joe Cullman. King became the first woman athlete to earn over US$100,000 in prize money; however, inequalities continued. King won the US Open in 1972 but received US$15,000 less than the men's champion Ilie Năstase. She stated that she would not play the next year if the prize money was not equal. In 1973, the US Open became the first major tournament to offer equal prize money for men and women. King led player efforts to support the first professional women's tennis tour in the 1970s called the Virginia Slims, founded by Gladys Heldman and funded by Joseph Cullman of Philip Morris. Once the tour took flight, King worked tirelessly to promote it even though many of the other top players were not supportive. "For three years we had two tours and because of their governments [Martina] Navratilova and Olga Morozova had to play the other tour. Chris [Evert], Margaret [Court], Virginia [Wade], they let us do the pioneering work and they weren't very nice to us. If you go back and look at the old quotes; they played for the love of the game, we played for the money. When we got backing and money, we were all playing together – I wonder why? I tried not to get upset with them. Forgiveness is important. Our job was to have one voice and win them over." In 1973, King became the first President of the women's players union – the Women's Tennis Association. In 1974, she, with husband Larry King and Jim Jorgensen, founded womenSports magazine and started the Women's Sports Foundation. Also in 1974, World TeamTennis began, founded by Larry King, Dennis Murphy, Frank Barman and Jordan Kaiser. She became league commissioner in 1982 and major owner in 1984. King is a member of the Board of Honorary Trustees for the Sports Museum of America, which opened in 2008. The museum is the home of the Billie Jean King International Women's Sports Center, a comprehensive women's sports hall of fame and exhibit. Other activities King's husband Larry co-founded World Team Tennis in 1973 with Dennis Murphy, Jordan Kaiser, and Fred Barman and WTT began in 1974. The couple used their savings to put on a team tennis event at the Oakland Coliseum. King remained involved with World Team Tennis for decades, eventually sharing ownership with her ex-husband, her life partner Ilana Kloss and USTA. In 2017, King sold her majority ownership stake of the league to Mark Ein and Fred Luddy. WTT was based on her philosophy for gender equality and it had been running continuously for over 40 years. In 1999, King was elected to serve on the board of directors of Philip Morris Incorporated, garnering some criticism from anti-tobacco groups. She no longer serves in that capacity. King was involved in the Women's Sports Foundation and the Elton John AIDS Foundation. She also served on the President's Council for Fitness, Sports and Nutrition as a way to encourage young people to stay active In 2008, King published the book Pressure is a Privilege: Lessons I've Learned from Life and the Battle of the Sexes. In December 2013, US President Barack Obama appointed King and openly gay ice hockey player Caitlin Cahow to represent the United States at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia. This has been interpreted as a signal on gay rights, in the context of concerns and controversies at the 2014 Winter Olympics regarding LGBT rights in Russia. King was forced to drop out of the delegation due to her mother's ill health. Betty Moffitt, King's mother, died on February 7, 2014, the day of the 2014 Winter Olympics opening ceremony. Billie Jean was selected to deliver the Northwestern University commencement address on June 16, 2017, in Evanston, Illinois. She attended the 75th Golden Globe Awards in 2018 as a guest of Emma Stone. King and Kloss became minority owners of the Los Angeles Dodgers baseball team in September 2018, and the WNBA's Los Angeles Sparks basketball team. In October 2020, they became part of the ownership group of Angel City FC, a Los Angeles–based team set to start play in the National Women's Soccer League in 2022. Awards, honors, and tributes Tributes from other players Margaret Court, who won more Grand Slam titles than anyone, has said that King was "the greatest competitor I've ever known". Chris Evert, winner of 18 Grand Slam singles titles, has said, "She's the wisest human being that I've ever met and has vision people can only dream about. Billie Jean King is my mentor and has given me advice about my tennis and my boyfriends. On dealing with my parents and even how to raise children. And she doesn't have any." In 1979, several top players were asked who they would pick to help them recover from a hypothetical deficit of 1–5 (15–40) in the third set of a match on Wimbledon's Centre Court. Martina Navratilova, Rosemary Casals, and Françoise Dürr all picked King. Navratilova said, "I would have to pick Billie Jean at her best. Consistently, Chris [Evert] is hardest to beat but for one big occasion, one big match, one crucial point, yes, it would have to be Billie Jean." Casals said, "No matter how far down you got her, you never could be sure of beating her." Awards and honors King was the Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year in 1967. In 1972, King became the first tennis player to be named Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year. She was also the first female athlete ever to receive that honor. In 1975, Seventeen magazine found that King was the most admired woman in the world from a poll of its readers. Golda Meir, who had been Israel's prime minister until the previous year, finished second. In a May 19, 1975, Sports Illustrated article about King, Frank Deford noted that she had become something of a sex symbol. King was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1987. Life magazine in 1990 named her one of the "100 Most Important Americans of the 20th Century". King was the recipient of the 1999 Arthur Ashe Courage Award. In 1999 King was inducted into the Chicago Gay and Lesbian Hall of Fame. In 2000, King received an award from GLAAD, an organization devoted to reducing discrimination against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and transgender people, for "furthering the visibility and inclusion of the community in her work". In 2003, the International Tennis Federation (ITF) presented her with its highest accolade, the Philippe Chatrier Award, for her contributions to tennis both on and off the court. In 2006, the Women's Sports Foundation began to sponsor the Billie Awards, which are named after and hosted by King. On August 28, 2006, the USTA National Tennis Center in Flushing Meadows-Corona Park was rededicated as the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center. John McEnroe, Venus Williams, Jimmy Connors, and Chris Evert were among the speakers during the rededication ceremony. In 2006, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and his wife Maria Shriver inducted King into the California Hall of Fame located at The California Museum for History, Women, and the Arts. On November 20, 2007, King was presented with the 2007 Sunday Times Sports Women of the Year Lifetime Achievement award for her contribution to sport both on and off the court. She was honored by the Office of the Manhattan Borough President in March 2008 and was included in a map of historical sites related or dedicated to important women. On August 12, 2009, President Barack Obama awarded King the Presidential Medal of Freedom for her work advocating for the rights of women and the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender community. She was inducted into the Southern California Tennis Hall of Fame on August 5, 2011. On August 2, 2013, King was among the first class of inductees into the National Gay and Lesbian Sports Hall of Fame. In 2014, she was named one of ESPNW's Impact 25. King was shown in Marie Claire magazine's "The 8 Greatest Moments for Women in Sports". King received the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Lifetime Achievement Award on December 16, 2018. It was presented to by long-time friend and fellow tennis player and broadcaster Sue Barker, making King only the second American (after Michael Phelps) and the first American woman to win the award. Cal State LA's more than athletic facility is named the Billie Jean King Sports Complex. The sports complex—which was approved by the California State University Board of Trustees on September 21—features the Eagle's Nest Arena, the University Stadium, Jesse Owens Track and Field, Reeder Field (baseball), the swimming pool, and tennis and basketball courts. The Fed Cup, the premier international team competition in women's tennis, was renamed the Billie Jean King Cup in September 2020 in her honor. 2020 World Series champion as part owner of the Los Angeles Dodgers In June 2022, King was awarded the French Legion of Honour by President Emmanuel Macron, on the 50th anniversary of her French Open victory. Playing style and personality King learned to play tennis on the public courts of Long Beach, California, and was coached by tennis teacher Clyde Walker. She furthered her tennis career at the Los Angeles Tennis Club. She was an aggressive, hard-hitting net-rusher with excellent speed, Chris Evert, however, said about King, "Her weakness is her impatience." Concerning her motivations in life and tennis, King said, In a 1984 interview, just after she had turned 40, King said, Julie Heldman, who frequently played King but never felt close to her, said about King's personality, Kristien Shaw, another frequent opponent of King, said, Concerning the qualities of a champion tennis player, King said, In popular culture King's friend Elton John wrote the song "Philadelphia Freedom", a nod to her World TeamTennis team, for King. The song was released New Year's Day 1975 and became a number one hit. Charles M. Schulz, creator of the Peanuts comic strip, was an admirer and close friend; Schulz referred to King several times in Peanuts and used the comic strip to support the women's sports movement after becoming friends with King. Actress Holly Hunter portrayed King in the 2001 ABC television film When Billie Beat Bobby. King played a judge on Law & Order in 2007, and appeared as herself on The Odd Couple in 1973, The L Word in 2006, Ugly Betty in May 2009, Fresh Off The Boat in 2016, and The Bold Type in 2020. King's name appears in the lyrics of the Le Tigre song "Hot Topic." Actress Emma Stone portrayed King in the 2017 biographical film Battle of the Sexes. The Ted Tinling-designed dress King wore for the real Battle of the Sexes match is part of a Smithsonian Museum collection. Personal life Billie Jean and Larry King were engaged in fall of 1964 and married in Long Beach, California, on September 17, 1965. Billie Jean credited Larry with introducing her to feminism and for pushing her to pursue tennis as a career. Billie Jean later said she "was totally in love with Larry" when they married. By 1968, King realized that she was attracted to women. In 1971, she began an affair with her secretary, Marilyn Barnett (born Marilyn Kathryn McRae on January 28, 1948). Barnett had been living rent-free in the Kings' Malibu house. In 1979, the Kings asked Barnett to leave their house, but she did not want to. Refusing to leave the house, Barnett threatened to leak records and receipts that she had kept over the years. These receipts included letters from Billie Jean to Marilyn, credit card receipts, and paid bills. After a suicide attempt where she jumped off the balcony of the house leaving her a paraplegic, Barnett sued the Kings in a May 1981 palimony lawsuit for half their income and the Malibu house where she had been staying. Billie Jean acknowledged the relationship between her and Marilyn shortly afterward, making Billie Jean the first prominent female professional athlete to come out. Feeling she could not admit to the extent of the relationship, Billie Jean publicly called it a fling and a mistake. The lawsuit caused Billie Jean to lose an estimated $2 million in endorsements and forced her to prolong her tennis career to pay attorneys. In December 1981, a court order stipulated that Barnett leave the house and that her threats to publish private correspondence between her and King in exchange for money came close to extortion. Barnett's palimony suit was thrown out of court in November 1982. But in a bizarre twist of fate, a few months later in March 1983, the house that had been contested was destroyed during a series of freak storms that lashed the southern California coastline. Also in 1971, King had an abortion that was made public in a Ms. magazine article. Larry had revealed Billie Jean's abortion without consulting her. Concerning the personal cost of concealing her sexuality for so many years, Billie Jean said: Billie Jean and Larry remained married through the palimony suit fallout. Their marriage ended in 1987 after Billie Jean fell in love with her doubles partner, Ilana Kloss. Billie Jean and Larry nevertheless remained close, and she is the godmother of Larry's son from his subsequent marriage. On October 18, 2018, King and Kloss were married by former New York City Mayor David Dinkins in a secret ceremony. Billie Jean and her wife Ilana have residences in New York City and Chicago. Billie Jean is a vegetarian. It was announced in March 2021 that Billie Jean will be an advisor to First Women's Bank in Chicago. Grand Slam statistics Grand Slam single finals 18 finals (12 titles, 6 runners-up) Grand Slam tournament timeline Note: The Australian Open was held twice in 1977, in January and December. Records Most singles matches played in a season (1971): 125. Most singles matches won in a season (1971): 112. Most doubles titles won in a season (1971): 21. Most singles and doubles titles won in a season (1971): 38. Most singles and doubles matches won in a season (1971): 192. Most doubles matches won in a season (1971): 80. Oldest singles title winner on the WTA Tour (Birmingham 1983): 39 years, 7 months. Books See also All-time tennis records – women's singles Billie Jean King Leadership Initiative Homosexuality in sports in the United States List of French Open mixed doubles champions List of French Open women's doubles champions List of French Open women's singles champions List of Grand Slam women's singles champions List of Open Era tennis records List of US Open mixed doubles champions List of US Open women's doubles champions List of US Open women's singles champions List of Wimbledon ladies' doubles champions List of Wimbledon ladies' singles champions List of Wimbledon mixed doubles champions Open Era tennis records – women's singles WTA Tour records Notes References Further reading Jones, Ann, A Game of Love, 1971 Overman, Steven J. and K. B. Sagert, Icons of Women's Sport. Greenwood Press, 2012, Vol. 1. Ware, Susan (2011). Game, Set, Match: Billie Jean King and the Revolution in Women's Sports. University of North Carolina Press. Combines biography and history in a study of the tennis player, liberal feminism, and Title IX. External links Billie Jean King Collection at the New-York Historical Society Category:1943 births Category:American female tennis players Category:American feminists Category:Methodists from California Category:Angel City FC owners Category:Australian Championships (tennis) champions Category:BBC Sports Personality Lifetime Achievement Award recipients Category:French Championships (tennis) champions Category:French Open champions Category:Grand Slam (tennis) champions in mixed doubles Category:Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's doubles Category:Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's singles Category:International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees Category:Laureus World Sports Awards winners Category:Lesbian feminists Category:Lesbian sportswomen Category:LGBT people from California Category:American LGBT sportspeople Category:LGBT tennis players Category:Living people Category:Los Angeles Dodgers executives Category:Los Angeles Dodgers owners Category:Los Angeles State College alumni Category:Major League Baseball executives Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients Category:Shorty Award winners Category:Tennis players from Long Beach, California Category:Tennis commentators Category:Tennis people from California Category:United States National champions (tennis) Category:US Open (tennis) champions Category:Wimbledon champions Category:Women sports announcers Category:Women's Sports Foundation Category:World number 1 ranked female tennis players Category:Recipients of the Legion of Honour Category:Long Beach Polytechnic High School alumni
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[ "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "Yes, King won many Grand Slam titles in her career. She won the singles titles at all four Grand Slam events, a feat known as a \"career Grand Slam.\" Additionally, she won a career Grand Slam in mixed doubles. In total, King won 20 career titles at Wimbledon - six in singles, 10 in women's doubles, and four in mixed doubles.", "CANNOTANSWER", "The context does not provide specific information on when King stopped competing.", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER" ]
[ "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]