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2ab674f37971-0 | Communications in a Cockpit Mean a Lot a Few Miles Up,”
The New York Times
(June 26,
1994).
2.
The survey of 250 executives: Michael Maccoby, “The Corporate Climber Has to Find His
Heart,”
Fortune
(Dec. 1976).
3.
Zuboff: in conversation, June 1994. For the impact of information technologies, see her
book
In the Age of the Smart Machine (New
York: Basic Books, 1991).
4.
The story of the sarcastic vice president was told to me by Hendrie Weisinger, a
psychologist at the UCLA Graduate School of Business. His book is
The Critical Edge: How
to Criticize Up and Down the Organization and Make It Pay Off
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1989).
5.
The survey of times managers blew up was done by Robert Baron, a psychologist at
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, whom I interviewed for
The New York Times
(Sept. 11,
1990).
6.
Criticism as a cause of conflict: Robert Baron, “Countering the Effects of Destructive
Criticism: The Relative Efficacy of Four Interventions,”
Journal of Applied Psychology | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
2ab674f37971-1 | Journal of Applied Psychology
75, 3
(1990).
7.
Specific and vague criticism: Harry Levinson, “Feedback to Subordinates”
Addendum to the
Levinson Letter
, Levinson Institute, Waltham, MA (1992).
8.
Changing face of workforce: A survey of 645 national companies by Towers Perrin
management consultants in Manhattan, reported in
The New York Times
(Aug. 26, 1990).
9.
The roots of hatred: Vamik Volkan,
The Need to Have Enemies and Allies
(Northvale, NJ:
Jason Aronson, 1988).
10.
Thomas Pettigrew: I interviewed Pettigrew in
The New York Times
(May 12, 1987).
11.
Stereotypes and subtle bias: Samuel Gaertner and John Davidio,
Prejudice, Discrimination,
and Racism
(New York: Academic Press, 1987).
12.
Subtle bias: Gaertner and Davidio,
Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism
.
13.
Relman: quoted in Howard Kohn, “Service With a Sneer,”
The New York Times Sunday
Magazine
(Nov. 11, 1994).
14. | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
2ab674f37971-2 | Magazine
(Nov. 11, 1994).
14.
IBM: “Responding to a Diverse Work Force,”
The New York Times
(Aug. 26, 1990).
15.
Power of speaking out: Fletcher Blanchard, “Reducing the Expression of Racial Prejudice,”
Psychological Science
(vol. 2, 1991).
16.
Stereotypes break down: Gaertner and Davidio,
Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism
.
17.
Teams: Peter Drucker, “The Age of Social Transformation,”
The Atlantic Monthly
(Nov.
1994).
18.
The concept of group intelligence is set forth in Wendy Williams and Robert Sternberg,
“Group Intelligence: Why Some Groups Are Better Than Others,”
Intelligence
(1988).
19.
The study of the stars at Bell Labs was reported in Robert Kelley and Janet Caplan, “How
Bell Labs Creates Star Performers,”
Harvard Business Review
(July-Aug. 1993). | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
eaa4448a9965-0 | 20.
The usefulness of informal networks is noted by David Krackhardt and Jeffrey R. Hanson,
“Informal Networks: The Company Behind the Chart,”
Harvard Business Review
(July-Aug.
1993), p. 104.
Chapter 11. Mind and Medicine
1.
Immune system as the body’s brain: Francisco Varela at the Third Mind and Life meeting,
Dharamsala, India (Dec. 1990).
2.
Chemical messengers between brain and immune system: see Robert Ader et al.,
Psychoneuroimmunology
, 2nd edition (San Diego: Academic Press, 1990).
3.
Contact between nerves and immune cells: David Felten et al., “Noradrenergic
Sympathetic Innervation of Lymphoid Tissue,”
Journal of Immunology
135 (1985).
4.
Hormones and immune function: B. S. Rabin et al., “Bidirectional Interaction Between the
Central Nervous System and the Immune System,”
Critical Reviews in Immunology
9 (4),
(1989), pp. 279–312.
5.
Connections between brain and immune system: see, for example, Steven B. Maier et al.,
“Psychoneuroimmunology,”
American Psychologist
(Dec. 1994). | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
eaa4448a9965-1 | American Psychologist
(Dec. 1994).
6.
Toxic emotions: Howard Friedman and S. Boothby-Kewley, “The Disease-Prone
Personality: A Meta-Analytic View,”
American Psychologist
42 (1987). This broad analysis
of studies used “meta-analysis,” in which results from many smaller studies can be
combined statistically into one immense study. This allows effects that might not show up
in any given study to be detected more easily because of the much larger total number of
people being studied.
7.
Skeptics argue that the emotional picture linked to higher rates of disease is the profile of
the quintessential neurotic—an anxious, depressed, and angry emotional wreck—and that
the higher rates of disease they report are due not so much to a medical fact as to a
propensity to whine and complain about health problems, exaggerating their seriousness.
But Friedman and others argue that the weight of evidence for the emotion-disease link is
borne by research in which it is physicians’ evaluations of observable signs of illness and
medical tests, not patients’ complaints, that determine the level of sickness—a more
objective basis. Of course, there is the possibility that increased distress is the result of a | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
eaa4448a9965-2 | medical condition, as well as precipitating it; for that reason the most convincing data
come from prospective studies in which emotional states are evaluated prior to the onset
of disease.
8.
Gail Ironson et al., “Effects of Anger on Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction in Coronary
Artery Disease,”
The American Journal of Cardiology
70 1992. Pumping efficiency,
sometimes referred to as the “ejection fraction,” quantifies the heart’s ability to pump
blood out of the left ventricle into the arteries; it measures the percentage of blood
pumped out of the ventricles with each beat of the heart. In heart disease the drop in | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
a8873b6220c2-0 | pumping efficiency means a weakening of the heart muscle.
9.
Of the dozen or so studies of hostility and death from heart disease, some have failed to
find a link. But that failure may be due to differences in method, such as using a poor
measure of hostility, and to the relative subtlety of the effect. For instance, the greatest
number of deaths from the hostility effect seem to occur in midlife. If a study fails to track
down the causes of death for people during this period, it misses the effect.
10.
Hostility and heart disease: Redford Williams,
The Trusting Heart
(New York: Times
Books/Random House, 1989).
11.
Peter Kaufman: I interviewed Dr. Kaufman in
The New York Times
(Sept. 1, 1992).
12.
Stanford study of anger and second heart attacks: Carl Thoreson, presented at the
International Congress of Behavioral Medicine, Uppsala, Sweden (July 1990).
13.
Lynda H. Powell, Emotional Arousal as a Predictor of Long-Term Mortality and Morbidity
in Post M.I. Men,”
Circulation
, vol. 82, no. 4, Supplement III, Oct. 1990.
14. | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
a8873b6220c2-1 | 14.
Murray A. Mittleman, “Triggering of Myocardial Infarction Onset by Episodes of Anger,”
Circulation
, vol. 89, no. 2 (1994).
15.
Suppressing anger raises blood pressure: Robert Levenson, “Can We Control Our Emotions,
and How Does Such Control Change an Emotional Episode?” in Richard Davidson and
Paul Ekman, eds.,
Fundamental Questions About Emotions
(New York: Oxford University
Press, 1995).
16.
The angry personal style: I wrote about Redford Williams’s research on anger and the
heart in
The New York Times Good Health Magazine
(Apr. 16, 1989).
17.
A 44 percent reduction in second heart attacks: Thoreson, op. cit.
18.
Dr. Williams’s program for anger control: Williams,
The Trusting Heart
.
19.
The worried woman: Timothy Brown et al., “Generalized Anxiety Disorder,” in David H.
Barlow, ed.,
Clinical Handbook of Psychological Disorders
(New York: Guilford Press, 1993).
20.
Stress and metastasis: Bruce McEwen and Eliot Stellar, “Stress and the Individual: | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
a8873b6220c2-2 | Mechanisms Leading to Disease,”
Archives of Internal Medicine
153 (Sept. 27, 1993). The
study they are describing is M. Robertson and J. Ritz, “Biology and Clinical Relevance of
Human Natural Killer Cells,”
Blood 76
(1990).
21.
There may be multiple reasons why people under stress are more vulnerable to sickness,
apart from biological pathways. One might be that the ways people try to soothe their
anxiety—for example, smoking, drinking, or bingeing on fatty foods—are in themselves
unhealthy. Still another is that constant worry and anxiety can make people lose sleep or
forget to comply with medical regimens—such as taking medications—and so prolong
illnesses they already have. Most likely, all of these work in tandem to link stress and
disease.
22.
Stress weakens the immune system: For instance, in the study of medical students facing | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
468f2ceddeb0-0 | exam stress, the students had not only a lowered immune control of the herpes virus, but
also a decline in the ability of their white blood cells to kill infected cells, as well as an
increase in levels of a chemical associated with suppression of immune
abilities in
lymphocytes, the white blood cells central to the immune response. See Ronald Glaser and
Janice Kiecolt-Glaser, “Stress-Associated Depression in Cellular Immunity,”
Brain,
Behavior, and Immunity
1 (1987). But in most such studies showing a weakening of
immune defenses with stress, it has not been clear that these levels were low enough to
lead to medical risk.
23.
Stress and colds: Sheldon Cohen et al., “Psychological Stress and Susceptibility to the
Common Cold,”
New England Journal of Medicine
325 (1991).
24.
Daily upsets and infection: Arthur Stone et al., “Secretory IgA as a Measure of
Immunocompetence,”
Journal of Human Stress
13 (1987). In another study, 246 husbands,
wives, and children kept daily logs of stresses in their family’s life over the course of the
flu season. Those who had the most family crises also had the highest rate of flu, as | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
468f2ceddeb0-1 | measured both by days with fever and flu antibody levels. See R. D. Clover et al., “Family
Functioning and Stress as Predictors of Influenza B Infection,”
Journal of Family Practice
28
(May 1989).
25.
Herpes virus flare-up and stress: a series of studies by Ronald Glaser and Janice Kiecolt-
Glaser—e.g., “Psychological Influences on Immunity,”
American Psychologist
43 (1988).
The relationship between stress and herpes activity is so strong that it has been
demonstrated in a study of only ten patients, using the actual breaking-out of herpes sores
as a measure; the more anxiety, hassles, and stress reported by the patients, the more
likely they were to have herpes outbreaks in the following weeks; placid periods in their
lives led to dormancy of the herpes. See H. E. Schmidt et al., “Stress as a Precipitating
Factor in Subjects With Recurrent Herpes Labialis,”
Journal of Family Practice
, 20 (1985).
26.
Anxiety in women and heart disease: Carl Thoreson, presented at the International
Congress of Behavioral Medicine, Uppsala, Sweden (July 1990). Anxiety may also play a | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
468f2ceddeb0-2 | role in making some men more vulnerable to heart disease. In a study at the University of
Alabama medical school, 1,123 men and women between the ages of forty-five and
seventy-seven were assessed on their emotional profiles. Those men most prone to anxiety
and worry in middle age were far more likely than others to have hypertension when
tracked down twenty years later. See Abraham Markowitz et al
., Journal of the American
Medical Association
(Nov. 14, 1993).
27.
Stress and colorectal cancer: Joseph C. Courtney et al., “Stressful Life Events and the Risk
of Colorectal Cancer,”
Epidemiology (Sept
. 1993), 4(5).
28.
Relaxation to counter stress-based symptoms: See, for example, Daniel Goleman and Joel
Gurin,
Mind Body Medicine
(New York: Consumer Reports Books/St. Martin’s Press, 1993).
29.
Depression and disease: see, e.g., Seymour Reichlin, “Neuroendocrine-Immune
Interactions,”
New England Journal of Medicine
(Oct. 21, 1993). | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
a3b2af189229-0 | 30.
Bone marrow transplant: cited in James Strain, “Cost Offset From a Psychiatric
Consultation-Liaison Intervention With Elderly Hip Fracture Patients,”
American Journal of
Psychiatry
148 (1991).
31.
Howard Burton et al., “The Relationship of Depression to Survival in Chronic Renal
Failure,”
Psychosomatic Medicine
(March 1986).
32.
Hopelessness and death from heart disease: Robert Anda et al., “Depressed Affect,
Hopelessness, and the Risk of Ischemic Heart Disease in a Cohort of U.S. Adults,”
Epidemiology
(July 1993).
33.
Depression and heart attack: Nancy Frasure-Smith et al., “Depression Following
Myocardial Infarction,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
(Oct. 20, 1993).
34.
Depression in multiple illness: Dr. Michael von Korff, the University of Washington
psychiatrist who did the study, pointed out to me that with such patients, who face
tremendous challenges just in living from day to day, “If you treat a patient’s depression,
you see improvements over and above any changes in their medical condition. If you’re | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
a3b2af189229-1 | depressed, your symptoms seem worse to you. Having a chronic physical disease is a
major adaptive challenge. If you’re depressed, you’re less able to learn to take care of your
illness. Even with physical impairment, if you’re motivated and have energy and feelings
of self-worth—all of which are at risk in depression—then people can adapt remarkably
even to severe impairments.”
35.
Optimism and bypass surgery: Chris Peterson et al.,
Learned Helplessness: A Theory for the
Age of Personal Control
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).
36.
Spinal injury and hope: Timothy Elliott et al., “Negotiating Reality After Physical Loss:
Hope, Depression, and Disability,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
61, 4
(1991).
37.
Medical risk of social isolation: James House et al., “Social Relationships and Health,”
Science (July
29, 1988). But also see a mixed finding: Carol Smith et al., “Meta-Analysis of
the Associations Between Social Support and Health Outcomes,”
Journal of Behavioral
Medicine
(1994).
38.
Isolation and mortality risk: Other studies suggest a biological mechanism at work. These | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
a3b2af189229-2 | findings, cited in House, “Social Relationships and Health,” have found that the simple
presence of another person can reduce anxiety and lessen physiological distress in people
in intensive-care units. The comforting effect of another person’s presence has been found
to lower not just heart rate and blood pressure, but also the secretion of fatty acids that
can block arteries. One theory put forward to explain the healing effects of social contact
suggests a brain mechanism at work. This theory points to animal data showing a calming
effect on the posterior hypothalamic zone, an area of the limbic system with rich
connections to the amygdala. The comforting presence of another person, this view holds,
inhibits limbic activity, lowering the rate of secretion of acetylcholine, cortisol, and | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
c6071c2f8933-0 | catecholamines, all neurochemicals that trigger more rapid breathing, a quickened
heartbeat, and other physiological signs of stress.
39.
Strain, “Cost Offset.”
40.
Heart attack survival and emotional support: Lisa Berkman et al., “Emotional Support and
Survival After Myocardial Infarction, A Prospective Population Based Study of the
Elderly,”
Annals of Internal Medicine
(Dec. 15, 1992).
41.
The Swedish study: Annika Rosengren et al., “Stressful Life Events, Social Support, and
Mortality in Men Born in 1933,”
British Medical Journal
(Oct. 19, 1993).
42.
Marital arguments and immune system: Janice Kiecolt-Glaser et al., “Marital Quality,
Marital Disruption, and Immune Function,”
Psychosomatic Medicine
49 (1987).
43.
I interviewed John Cacioppo for
The New York Times
(Dec. 15, 1992).
44.
Talking about troubling thoughts: James Pennebaker, “Putting Stress Into Words: Health,
Linguistic and Therapeutic Implications,” paper presented at the American Psychological
Association meeting, Washington, DC (1992).
45. | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
c6071c2f8933-1 | Association meeting, Washington, DC (1992).
45.
Psychotherapy and medical improvements: Lester Luborsky et al., “Is Psychotherapy
Good
for Your Health?” paper presented at the American Psychological Association meeting,
Washington, DC (1993).
46.
Cancer support groups: David Spiegel et al., “Effect of Psychosocial Treatment on Survival
of Patients with Metastatic Breast Cancer,”
Lancet
No. 8668, ii (1989).
47.
Patients’ questions: The finding was cited by Dr. Steven Cohen-Cole, a psychiatrist at
Emory University, when I interviewed him in
The New York Times
(Nov. 13, 1991).
48.
Full information: For example, the Planetree program at Pacific Presbyterian Hospital in
San Francisco will do searches of medical and lay research on any medical topic for
anyone who requests it.
49.
Making patients effective: One program has been developed by Dr. Mack Lipkin, Jr., at
New York University Medical School.
50.
Emotional preparation for surgery: I wrote about this in
The New York
Times (Dec. 10,
1987).
51. | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
c6071c2f8933-2 | Times (Dec. 10,
1987).
51.
Family care in the hospital: Again, Planetree is a model, as are the Ronald McDonald
houses that allow parents to stay next door to hospitals where their children are patients.
52.
Mindfulness and medicine: See Jon Kabat-Zinn,
Full Catastrophe Living
(New York:
Delacorte, 1991).
53.
Program for reversing heart disease: See Dean Ornish,
Dr. Dean Ornish’s Program for
Reversing Heart Disease
(New York: Ballantine, 1991).
54.
Relationship-centered medicine:
Health Professions Education and Relationship-Centered
Care
. Report of the Pew-Fetzer Task Force on Advancing Psychosocial Health Education,
Pew Health Professions Commission and Fetzer Institute at The Center of Health | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
057c9466ab94-0 | Professions, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco (Aug. 1994).
55.
Left the hospital early: Strain, “Cost Offset.”
56.
Unethical not to treat depression in heart disease patients: Redford Williams and Margaret
Chesney, “Psychosocial Factors and Prognosis in Established Coronary Heart Disease,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
(Oct. 20, 1993).
57.
An open letter to a surgeon: A. Stanley Kramer, “A Prescription for Healing,”
Newsweek
(June 7, 1993). | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
6af0ed99b8a7-0 | PART FOUR: WINDOWS OF OPPORTUNITY
Chapter 12. The Family Crucible
1.
Leslie and the video game: Beverly Wilson and John Gottman, “Marital Conflict and
Parenting: The Role of Negativity in Families,” in M. H. Bornstein, ed.,
Handbook of
Parenting
, vol. 4 (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1994).
2.
The research on emotions in the family was an extension of John Gottman’s marital
studies reviewed in Chapter 9. See Carole Hooven, Lynn Katz, and John Gottman, “The
Family as a Meta-emotion Culture,”
Cognition and Emotion
(Spring 1994).
3.
The benefits for children of having emotionally adept parents: Hooven, Katz, and
Gottman, “The Family as a Meta-emotion Culture.”
4.
Optimistic infants: T. Berry Brazelton, in the preface to
Heart Start: The Emotional
Foundations of School Readiness
(Arlington, VA: National Center for Clinical Infant
Programs, 1992).
5.
Emotional predictors of school success:
Heart Start
.
6.
Elements of school readiness:
Heart Start
, p. 7.
7.
Infants and mothers: | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
6af0ed99b8a7-1 | 7.
Infants and mothers:
Heart Start
, p. 9.
8.
Damage from neglect: M. Erickson et al., “The Relationship Between Quality of
Attachment and Behavior Problems in Preschool in a High-Risk Sample,” in I. Betherton
and E. Waters, eds.,
Monographs of the Society of Research in Child Development
50, series
no. 209.
9.
Lasting lessons of first four years:
Heart Start
, p. 13.
10.
The follow-up of aggressive children: L. R. Huesman, Leonard Eron, and Patty Warnicke-
Yarmel, “Intellectual Function and Aggression,”
The Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology
(Jan. 1987). Similar findings were reported by Alexander Thomas and Stella
Chess, in the September 1988 issue of
Child Development
, in their study of seventy-five
children who were assessed at regular intervals since 1956, when they were between
seven and twelve years old. Alexander Thomas et al., “Longitudinal Study of Negative
Emotional States and Adjustments From Early Childhood Through Adolescence,”
Child
Development
59 (1988). A decade later the children who parents and teachers had said | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
6af0ed99b8a7-2 | were the most aggressive in grade school were having the most emotional turmoil in late
adolescence. These were children (about twice as many boys as girls) who not only
continually picked fights, but who also were belittling or openly hostile toward other
children, and even toward their families and teachers. Their hostility was unchanged over
the years; as adolescents they were having trouble getting along with classmates and with
their families, and were in trouble at school. And, when contacted as adults, their | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
162aa2fc16ab-0 | difficulties ranged from tangles with the law to anxiety problems and depression.
11.
Lack of empathy in abused children: The day-care observations and findings are reported
in Mary Main and Carol George, “Responses of Abused and Disadvantaged Toddlers to
Distress in Agemates: A Study in the Day-Care Setting,”
Developmental Psychology
21, 3
(1985). The findings have been repeated with preschoolers as well: Bonnie Klimes-Dougan
and Janet Kistner, “Physically Abused Preschoolers’ Responses to Peers’ Distress,”
Developmental Psychology
26 (1990).
12.
Difficulties of abused children: Robert Emery, “Family Violence,”
American Psychologist
(Feb. 1989).
13.
Abuse over generations: Whether abused children grow up to be abusing parents is a point
of scientific debate. See, for example, Cathy Spatz Widom, “Child Abuse, Neglect and
Adult Behavior,”
American Journal of Orthopsychiatry
(July 1989).
Chapter 13. Trauma and Emotional Relearning
1.
I wrote about the lasting trauma of the killings at Cleveland Elementary School in
The
New York Times | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
162aa2fc16ab-1 | The
New York Times
“Education Life” section (Jan. 7, 1990).
2.
The examples of PTSD in crime victims were offered by Dr. Shelly Niederbach, a
psychologist at the Victims’ Counseling Service, Brooklyn.
3.
The Vietnam memory is from M. Davis, “Analysis of Aversive Memories Using the Fear-
Potentiated Startle Paradigm,” in N. Butters and L. R Squire, eds.,
The Neuropsychology of
Memory
(New York: Guilford Press, 1992).
4.
LeDoux makes the scientific case for these memories being especially enduring in
“Indelibility of Subcortical Emotional Memories,”
Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
(1989),
vol. 1, 238–43.
5.
I interviewed Dr. Charney in
The New York Times
(June 12, 1990).
6.
The experiments with paired laboratory animals were described to me by Dr. John
Krystal, and have been repeated at several scientific laboratories. The major studies were
done by Dr. Jay Weiss at Duke University.
7.
The best account of the brain changes underlying PTSD, and the role of the amygdala in | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
162aa2fc16ab-2 | them, is in Dennis Charney et al., “Psychobiologic Mechanisms of Posttraumatic Stress
Disorder,”
Archives of General Psychiatry
50 (April 1993), 294–305.
8.
Some of the evidence for trauma-induced changes in this brain network comes from
experiments in which Vietnam vets with PTSD were injected with yohimbine, a drug used
on the tips of arrows by South American Indians to render their prey helpless. In tiny
doses yohimbine blocks the action of a specific receptor (the point on a neuron that
receives a neurotransmitter) that ordinarily acts as a brake on the catecholamines.
Yohimbine takes the brakes off, keeping these receptors from sensing the secretion of | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
d8e9acc31885-0 | catecholamines; the result is increasing catecholamine levels. With the neural brakes on
anxiety disarmed by the drug injections, the yohimbine triggered panic in 9 of 15 PTSD
patients, and lifelike flashbacks in 6. One vet had a hallucination of a helicopter being
shot down in a trail of smoke and a bright flash; another saw the explosion by a land mine
of a Jeep with his buddies in it—the same scene that had haunted his nightmares and
appeared as flashbacks for more than 20 years. The yohimbine study was conducted by
Dr. John Krystal, director of the Laboratory of Clinical Psychopharmacology at the
National Center for PTSD at the West Haven, Conn., VA Hospital.
9.
Fewer alpha-2 receptors in men with PTSD: see Charney, “Psychobiologic Mechanisms.”
10.
The brain, trying to lower the rate of CRF secretion, compensates by decreasing the
number of receptors that release it. One telltale sign that this is what happens in people
with PTSD comes from a study in which eight patients being treated for the problem were
injected with CRF. Ordinarily, an injection of CRF triggers a flood of ACTH, the hormone | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
d8e9acc31885-1 | that streams through the body to trigger catecholamines. But in the PTSD patients, unlike
a comparison group of people without PTSD, there was no discernible change in levels of
ACTH—a sign that their brains had cut back on CRF receptors because they already were
overloaded with the stress hormone. The research was described to me by Charles
Nemeroff, a Duke University psychiatrist.
11.
I interviewed Dr. Nemeroff in
The New York Times
(June 12, 1990).
12.
Something similar seems to occur in PTSD: For instance, in one experiment Vietnam vets
with a PTSD diagnosis were shown a specially edited 15-minute film of graphic combat
scenes from the movie
Platoon
. In one group, the vets were injected with naloxone, a
substance that blocks endorphins; after watching the movie, these vets showed no change
in their sensitivity to pain. But in the group without the endorphin blocker, the men’s pain
sensitivity decreased 30 percent, indicating an increase in endorphin secretion. The same
scene had no such effect on veterans who did not have PTSD, suggesting that in the PTSD
victims the nerve pathways that regulate endorphins were overly sensitive or hyperactive | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
d8e9acc31885-2 | —an effect that became apparent
only when they were reexposed to something
reminiscent of the original trauma. In this sequence the amygdala first evaluates the
emotional importance of what we see. The study was done by Dr. Roger Pitman, a
Harvard psychiatrist. As with other symptoms of PTSD, this brain change is not only
learned under duress, but can be triggered once again if there is something reminiscent of
the original terrible event. For example, Pitman found that when laboratory rats were
shocked in a cage, they developed the same endorphin-based analgesia found in the
Vietnam vets shown
Platoon
. Weeks later, when the rats were put into the cages where
they had been shocked—but without any current being turned on—they once again
became insensitive to pain, as they originally had been when shocked. See Roger Pitman,
“Naloxone-Reversible Analgesic Response to Combat-Related Stimuli in Posttraumatic
Stress Disorder,”
Archives of General Medicine
(June 1990). See also Hillel Glover, | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
2566386b451f-0 | “Emotional Numbing: A Possible Endorphin-Mediated Phenomenon Associated with Post-
Traumatic Stress Disorders and Other Allied Psychopathologic States,”
Journal of
Traumatic Stress
5, 4 (1992).
13.
The brain evidence reviewed in this section is based on Dennis Charney’s excellent article,
“Psychobiologic Mechanisms.”
14.
Charney, “Psychobiologic Mechanisms,” 300.
15.
Role of prefrontal cortex in unlearning fear: In Richard Davidson’s study, volunteers had
their sweat response measured (a barometer of anxiety) while they heard a tone followed
by a loud, obnoxious noise. The loud noise triggered a rise in sweat. After a time, the tone
alone was enough to trigger the same rise, showing that the volunteers had learned an
aversion to the tone. As they continued to hear the tone without the obnoxious noise, the
learned aversion faded away—the tone sounded without any increase in sweat. The more
active the volunteers’ left prefrontal cortex, the more quickly they lost the learned fear.
In another experiment showing the prefrontal lobes’ role in getting over a fear, lab rats | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
2566386b451f-1 | —as is so often the case in these studies—learned to fear a tone paired with an electric
shock. The rats then had what amounts to a lobotomy, a surgical lesion in their brain that
cut off the prefrontal lobes from the amygdala. For the next several days the rats heard the
tone without getting an electric shock. Slowly, over a period of days, rats who have once
learned to fear a tone will gradually lose their fear. But for the rats with the disconnected
prefrontal lobes, it took nearly twice as long to unlearn the fear—suggesting a crucial role
for the prefrontal lobes in managing fear and, more generally, in mastering emotional
lessons. This experiment was done by Maria Morgan, a graduate student of Joseph
LeDoux’s at the Center for Neural Science, New York University.
16.
Recovery from PTSD: I was told about this study by Rachel Yehuda, a neurochemist and
director of the Traumatic Stress Studies Program at the Mt. Sinai School of Medicine in
Manhattan. I reported on the results in
The New York Times
(Oct. 6, 1992).
17.
Childhood trauma: Lenore Terr,
Too Scared to Cry | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
2566386b451f-2 | Too Scared to Cry
(New York: HarperCollins, 1990).
18.
Pathway to recovery from trauma: Judith Lewis Herman,
Trauma and Recovery
(New York:
Basic Books, 1992).
19.
“Dosing” of trauma: Mardi Horowitz,
Stress Response Syndromes
(Northvale, NJ: Jason
Aronson, 1986).
20.
Another level at which relearning goes on, at least for adults, is philosophical. The eternal
question of the victim—“Why me?”—needs to be addressed. Being the victim of trauma
shatters a person’s faith that the world is a place that can be trusted, and that what
happens to us in life is just—that is, that we can have control over our destiny by
living a
righteous life. The answers to the victim’s conundrum, of course, need not be
philosophical or religious; the task is to rebuild a system of belief or faith that allows
living once again as though the world and the people in it can be trusted. | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
e9be10760946-0 | 21.
That the original fear persists, even if subdued, has been shown in studies where lab rats
were conditioned to fear a sound, such as a bell, when it was paired with an electric
shock. Afterward, when they heard the bell they reacted with fear, even though no shock
accompanied it. Gradually, over the course of a year (a very long time for a rat—about a
third of its life), the rats lost their fearfulness of the bell. But the fear was restored in full
force when the sound of the bell was once again paired with a shock. The fear came back
in a single instant—but took months and months to subside. The parallel in humans, of
course, is when a traumatic fear from long ago, dormant for years, floods back in full force
with some reminder of the original trauma.
22.
Luborsky’s therapy research is detailed in Lester Luborsky and Paul Crits-Christoph,
Understanding Transference: The CCRT Method
(New York: Basic Books, 1990).
Chapter 14. Temperament Is Not Destiny
1.
See, for example, Jerome Kagan et al., “Initial Reactions to Unfamiliarity,”
Current
Directions in Psychological Science
(Dec. 1992). The fullest description of the biology of | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
e9be10760946-1 | (Dec. 1992). The fullest description of the biology of
temperament is in Kagan,
Galen’s Prophecy
.
2.
Tom and Ralph, archetypically timid and bold types, are described in Kagan,
Galen’s
Prophecy
, pp. 155–57.
3.
Lifelong problems of the shy child: Iris Bell, “Increased Prevalence of Stress-related
Symptoms in Middle-aged Women Who Report Childhood Shyness,”
Annals of Behavior
Medicine
16 (1994).
4.
The heightened heart rate: Iris R. Bell et al., “Failure of Heart Rate Habituation During
Cognitive and Olfactory Laboratory Stressors in Young Adults With Childhood Shyness,”
Annals of Behavior Medicine
16 (1994).
5.
Panic in teenagers: Chris Hayward et al., “Pubertal Stage and Panic Attack History in
Sixth- and Seventh-grade Girls,”
American Journal of Psychiatry
vol. 149(9) (Sept. 1992),
pp. 1239–43; Jerold Rosenbaum et al., “Behavioral Inhibition in Childhood: A Risk Factor
for Anxiety Disorders,”
Harvard Review of Psychiatry
(May 1993).
6. | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
e9be10760946-2 | (May 1993).
6.
The research on personality and hemispheric differences was done by Dr. Richard
Davidson at the University of Wisconsin, and by Dr. Andrew Tomarken, a psychologist at
Vanderbilt University: see Andrew Tomarken and Richard Davidson, “Frontal Brain
Activation in Repressors and Nonrepressors,” Journal
of Abnormal Psychology
103 (1994).
7.
The observations of how mothers can help timid infants become bolder were done with
Doreen Arcus. Details are in Kagan,
Galen’s Prophecy
.
8.
Kagan,
Galen’s Prophecy
, pp. 194–95.
9.
Growing less shy: Jens Asendorpf, “The Malleability of Behavioral Inhibition: A Study of
Individual Developmental Functions,”
Developmental Psychology
30, 6 (1994). | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
d45369fb7171-0 | 10.
Hubel and Wiesel: David H. Hubel, Thorsten Wiesel, and S. Levay, “Plasticity of Ocular
Columns in Monkey Striate Cortex,”
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London
278 (1977).
11.
Experience and the rat’s brain: The work of Marian Diamond and others is described in
Richard Thompson,
The Brain
(San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1985).
12.
Brain changes in treating obsessive-compulsive disorder: L. R. Baxter et al., “Caudate
Glucose Metabolism Rate Changes With Both Drug and Behavior Therapy for Obsessive-
Compulsive Disorder,”
Archives of General Psychiatry
49 (1992).
13.
Increased activity in prefrontal lobes: L. R. Baxter et al., “Local Cerebral Glucose Metabolic
Rates in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder,”
Archives of General Psychiatry
44 (1987).
14.
Prefrontal lobes maturity: Bryan Kolb, “Brain Development, Plasticity, and Behavior,”
American Psychologist 44
(1989).
15.
Childhood experience and prefrontal pruning: Richard Davidson, “Asymmetric Brain | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
d45369fb7171-1 | Function, Affective Style and Psychopathology: The Role of Early Experience and
Plasticity,”
Development and Psychopathology
vol. 6 (1994), pp. 741–58.
16.
Biological attunement and brain growth: Schore,
Affect Regulation
.
17.
M. E. Phelps et al., “PET: A Biochemical Image of the Brain at Work,” in N. A. Lassen et
al.,
Brain Work and Mental Activity: Quantitative Studies with Radioactive Tracers
(Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1991). | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
cd5416911e5a-0 | PART FIVE: EMOTIONAL LITERACY
Chapter 15. The Cost of Emotional Illiteracy
1.
Emotional literacy: I wrote about such courses in
The New York Times
(March 3, 1992).
2.
The statistics on teen crime rates are from the Uniform Crime Reports,
Crime in the U.S.,
1991
, published by the Department of Justice.
3.
Violent crimes in teenagers: In 1990 the juvenile arrest rate for violent crimes climbed to
430 per 100,000, a 27 percent jump over the 1980 rate. Teen arrest rates for forcible rape
rose from 10.9 per 100,000 in 1965 to 21.9 per 100,000 in 1990. Teen murder rates more
than quadrupled from 1965 to 1990, from 2.8 per 100,000 to 12.1; by 1990 three of four
teenage murders were with guns, a 79 percent increase over the decade. Aggravated
assault by teenagers jumped by 64 percent from 1980 to 1990.¡ See, e.g., Ruby Takanashi,
“The Opportunities of Adolescence,”
American Psychologist
(Feb. 1993).
4. | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
cd5416911e5a-1 | American Psychologist
(Feb. 1993).
4.
In 1950 the suicide rate for those 15 to 24 was 4.5 per 100,000. By 1989 it was three
times higher, 13.3. Suicide rates for children 10 to 14 almost tripled between 1968 and
1985. Figures on suicide, homicide victims, and pregnancies are from
Health, 1991
, U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, and Children’s Safety Network,
A Data Book of
Child and Adolescent Injury
(Washington, DC: National Center for Education in Maternal
and Child Health, 1991).
5.
Over the three decades since 1960, rates of gonorrhea jumped to a level four times higher
among children 10 to 14, and three times higher among those 15 to 19. By 1990, 20
percent of AIDS patients were in their twenties, many having become infected during their
teen years. Pressure to have sex early is getting stronger. A survey in the 1990s found that
more than a third of younger women say that pressure from peers made them decide to
have sex the first time; a generation earlier just 13
percent of women said so. See Ruby | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
cd5416911e5a-2 | percent of women said so. See Ruby
Takanashi, “The Opportunities of Adolescence,” and Children’s Safety Network,
A Data
Book of Child and Adolescent Injury
.
6.
Heroin and cocaine use for whites rose from 18 per 100,000 in 1970 to a rate of 68 in
1990—about three times higher. But over the same two decades among blacks, the rise
was from a 1970 rate of 53 per 100,000 to a staggering 766 in 1990—close to
13 times
the
rate 20 years before. Drug use rates are from
Crime in the U.S., 1991
, U.S. Department of
Justice.
7.
As many as one in five children have psychological difficulties that impair their lives in
some way, according to surveys done in the United States, New Zealand, Canada, and
Puerto Rico. Anxiety is the most common problem in children under 11, afflicting 10
percent with phobias severe enough to interfere with normal life, another 5 percent with
generalized anxiety and constant worry, and another 4 percent with intense anxiety about | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
6beac59ceee6-0 | being separated from their parents. Binge drinking climbs during the teenage years among
boys to a rate of about 20 percent by age 20. I reported much of this data on emotional
disorders in children in
The New York Times
(Jan. 10, 1989).
8.
The national study of children’s emotional problems, and comparison with other
countries: Thomas Achenbach and Catherine Howell, “Are America’s Children’s Problems
Getting Worse? A 13-Year Comparison,”
Journal of the American Academy of Child and
Adolescent Psychiatry
(Nov. 1989).
9.
The comparison across nations was by Urie Bronfenbrenner, in Michael Lamb and
Kathleen Sternberg,
Child Care in Context: Cross-Cultural Perspectives
(Englewood, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum, 1992).
10.
Urie Bronfenbrenner was speaking at a symposium at Cornell University (Sept. 24, 1993).
11.
Longitudinal studies of aggressive and delinquent children: see, for example, Alexander
Thomas et al., “Longitudinal Study of Negative Emotional States and Adjustments from
Early Childhood Through Adolescence,”
Child Development
, vol. 59 (Sept. 1988).
12. | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
6beac59ceee6-1 | , vol. 59 (Sept. 1988).
12.
The bully experiment: John Lochman, “Social-Cognitive Processes of Severely Violent,
Moderately Aggressive, and Nonaggressive Boys,”
Journal of Clinical and Consulting
Psychology
, 1994.
13.
The aggressive boys research: Kenneth A. Dodge, “Emotion and Social Information
Processing,” in J. Garber and K. Dodge,
The Development of Emotion Regulation and
Dysregulation
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
14.
Dislike for bullies within hours: J. D. Coie and J. B. Kupersmidt, “A Behavioral Analysis of
Emerging Social Status in Boys’ Groups,”
Child Development
54 (1983).
15.
Up to half of unruly children: See, for example, Dan Offord et al., “Outcome, Prognosis,
and Risk in a Longitudinal Follow-up Study,”
Journal of the American Academy of Child and
Adolescent Psychiatry
31 (1992).
16.
Aggressive children and crime: Richard Tremblay et al., “Predicting Early Onset of Male
Antisocial Behavior from Preschool Behavior,”
Archives of General Psychiatry
(Sept. 1994).
17. | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
6beac59ceee6-2 | (Sept. 1994).
17.
What happens in a child’s family before the child reaches school is, of course, crucial in
creating a predisposition to aggression. One study, for example, showed that children
whose mothers rejected them at age 1, and whose birth was more complicated, were four
times as likely as others to commit a violent crime by age 18. Adriane
Raines et al., “Birth
Complications Combined with Early Maternal Rejection at Age One Predispose to Violent
Crime at Age 18 Years,”
Archives of General Psychiatry
(Dec. 1994).
18.
While low verbal IQ has appeared to predict delinquency (one study found an eight-point
difference in these scores between delinquents and nondelinquents), there is evidence that
impulsivity is more directly and powerfully at cause for both the low IQ scores and
delinquency. As for the low scores, impulsive children don’t pay attention well enough to
learn the language and reasoning skills on which verbal IQ scores are based, and so | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
99f795690d2a-0 | impulsivity lowers those scores. In the Pittsburgh Youth Study, a well-designed
longitudinal project where both IQ and impulsivity were assessed in ten- to twelve-year-
olds, impulsivity was almost three times more powerful than verbal IQ in predicting
delinquency. See the discussion in: Jack Block, “On the Relation Between IQ, Impulsivity,
and Delinquency,”
Journal of Abnormal Psychology
104 (1995).
19.
“Bad” girls and pregnancy: Marion Underwood and Melinda Albert, “Fourth-Grade Peer
Status as a Predictor of Adolescent Pregnancy,” paper presented at the meeting of the
Society for Research on Child Development, Kansas City, Missouri (Apr. 1989).
20.
The trajectory to delinquency: Gerald R. Patterson, “Orderly Change in a Stable World:
The Antisocial Trait as Chimera,”
Journal of Clinical and Consulting Psychology
62 (1993).
21.
Mind-set of aggression: Ronald Slaby and Nancy Guerra, “Cognitive Mediators of
Aggression in Adolescent Offenders,”
Developmental Psychology
24 (1988).
22.
The case of Dana: from Laura Mufson et al.,
Interpersonal Psychotherapy for Depressed | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
99f795690d2a-1 | Interpersonal Psychotherapy for Depressed
Adolescents
(New York: Guilford Press, 1993).
23.
Rising rates of depression worldwide: Cross-National Collaborative Group, “The Changing
Rate of Major Depression: Cross-National Comparisons,”
Journal of the American Medical
Association
(Dec. 2, 1992).
24.
Ten times greater chance of depression: Peter Lewinsohn et al., “Age-Cohort Changes in
the Lifetime Occurrence of Depression and Other Mental Disorders,”
Journal of Abnormal
Psychology
102 (1993).
25.
Epidemiology of depression: Patricia Cohen et al., New York Psychiatric Institute, 1988;
Peter Lewinsohn et al., “Adolescent Psychopathology: I. Prevalence and Incidence of
Depression in High School Students,”
Journal of Abnormal Psychology
102 (1993). See also
Mufson et al.,
Interpersonal Psychotherapy
. For a review of lower estimates: E. Costello,
“Developments in Child Psychiatric Epidemiology,”
Journal of the Academy of Child and
Adolescent Psychiatry
28 (1989).
26.
Patterns of depression in youth: Maria Kovacs and Leo Bastiaens, “The Psychotherapeutic | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
99f795690d2a-2 | Management of Major Depressive and Dysthymic Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence:
Issues and Prospects,” in I. M. Goodyer, ed.,
Mood Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence
(New
York: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
27.
Depression in children: Kovacs, op. cit.
28.
I interviewed Maria Kovacs in
The New York Times
(Jan. 11, 1994).
29.
Social and emotional lag in depressed children: Maria Kovacs and David Goldston,
“Cognitive and Social Development of Depressed Children and Adolescents,”
Journal of the
American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
(May 1991).
30.
Helplessness and depression: John Weiss et al., “Control-related Beliefs and Self-reported
Depressive Symptoms in Late Childhood”,
Journal of Abnormal Psychology
102 (1993). | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
183f981b70f6-0 | 31.
Pessimism and depression in children: Judy Garber, Vanderbilt University. See, e.g., Ruth
Hilsman and Judy Garber, “A Test of the Cognitive Diathesis Model of Depression in
Children: Academic Stressors, Attributional Style, Perceived Competence and Control,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
67 (1994); Judith Garber, “Cognitions,
Depressive Symptoms, and Development in Adolescents,”
Journal of Abnormal Psychology
102 (1993).
32.
Garber, “Cognitions.”
33.
Garber, “Cognitions.”
34.
Susan Nolen-Hoeksema et al., “Predictors and Consequences of Childhood Depressive
Symptoms: A Five-Year Longitudinal Study,”
Journal of Abnormal Psychology
101 (1992).
35.
Depression rate halved: Gregory Clarke, University of Oregon Health Sciences Center,
“Prevention of Depression in At-Risk High School Adolescents,” paper delivered at the
American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (Oct. 1993).
36.
Garber, “Cognitions.”
37.
Hilda Bruch, “Hunger and Instinct,”
Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease
149 (1969). Her
seminal book, | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
183f981b70f6-1 | 149 (1969). Her
seminal book,
The Golden Cage: The Enigma of Anorexia Nervosa
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press) was not published until 1978.
38.
The study of eating disorders: Gloria R. Leon et al., “Personality and Behavioral
Vulnerabilities Associated with Risk Status for Eating Disorders in Adolescent Girls,”
Journal of Abnormal Psychology
102 (1993).
39.
The six-year-old who felt fat was a patient of Dr. William Feldman, a pediatrician at the
University of Ottawa.
40.
Noted by Sifneos, “Affect, Emotional Conflict, and Deficit.”
41.
The vignette of Ben’s rebuff is from Steven Asher and Sonda Gabriel, “The Social World of
Peer-Rejected Children,” paper presented at the annual meeting of the American
Educational Research Association, San Francisco (Mar. 1989).
42.
The dropout rate among socially rejected children: Asher and Gabriel, “The Social World
of Peer-Rejected Children.”
43.
The findings on the poor emotional competence of unpopular children are from Kenneth
Dodge and Esther Feldman, “Social Cognition and Sociometric Status,” in Steven Asher
and John Coie, eds., | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
183f981b70f6-2 | and John Coie, eds.,
Peer Rejection in Childhood (New
York: Cambridge University Press,
1990).
44.
Emory Cowen et al., “Longterm Follow-up of Early Detected Vulnerable Children,”
Journal
of Clinical and Consulting Psychology
41 (1973).
45.
Best friends and the rejected: Jeffrey Parker and Steven Asher, “Friendship Adjustment,
Group Acceptance and Social Dissatisfaction in Childhood,” paper presented at the annual
meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston (1990). | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
8b6bcafacfcc-0 | 46.
The coaching for socially rejected children: Steven Asher and Gladys Williams, “Helping
Children Without Friends in Home and School Contexts,” in
Children’s Social Development:
Information for Parents and Teachers
(Urbana and Champaign: University of Illinois Press,
1987).
47.
Similar results: Stephen Nowicki, “A Remediation Procedure for Nonverbal Processing
Deficits,” unpublished manuscript, Duke University (1989).
48.
Two fifths are heavy drinkers: a survey at the University of Massachusetts by Project Pulse,
reported in
The Daily Hampshire Gazette (Nov
. 13, 1993).
49.
Binge drinking: Figures are from Harvey Wechsler, director of College Alcohol Studies at
the Harvard School of Public Health (Aug. 1994).
50.
More women drink to get drunk, and risk of rape: report by the Columbia University
Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (May 1993).
51.
Leading cause of death: Alan Marlatt, report at the annual meeting of the American
Psychological Association (Aug. 1994).
52.
Data on alcoholism and cocaine addiction are from Meyer Glantz, acting chief of the
Etiology Research Section of the National Institute for Drug and Alcohol Abuse. | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
8b6bcafacfcc-1 | 53.
Distress and abuse: Jeanne Tschann, “Initiation of Substance Abuse in Early Adolescence,”
Health Psychology
4 (1994).
54.
I interviewed Ralph Tarter in
The New York Times (Apr
. 26, 1990).
55.
Tension levels in sons of alcoholics: Howard Moss et al., “Plasma GABA-like Activity in
Response to Ethanol Challenge in Men at High Risk for Alcoholism”
Biological Psychiatry
27(6) (Mar. 1990).
56.
Frontal lobe deficit in sons of alcoholics: Philip Harden and Robert Pihl, “Cognitive
Function, Cardiovascular Reactivity, and Behavior in Boys at High Risk for Alcoholism,”
Journal of Abnormal Psychology
104 (1995).
57.
Kathleen Merikangas et al., “Familial Transmission of Depression and Alcoholism,”
Archives of General Psychiatry (Apr
. 1985).
58.
The restless and impulsive alcoholic: Moss et al.
59.
Cocaine and depression: Edward Khantzian, “Psychiatric and Psychodynamic Factors in
Cocaine Addiction,” in Arnold Washton and Mark Gold, eds.,
Cocaine: A Clinician’s
Handbook | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
8b6bcafacfcc-2 | Cocaine: A Clinician’s
Handbook
(New York: Guilford Press, 1987).
60.
Heroin addiction and anger: Edward Khantzian, Harvard Medical School, in conversation,
based on over 200 patients he has treated who were addicted to heroin.
61.
No more wars: The phrase was suggested to me by Tim Shriver of the Collaborative for the
Advancement of Social and Emotional Learning at the Yale Child Studies Center.
62.
Emotional impact of poverty: “Economic Deprivation and Early Childhood Development”
and “Poverty Experiences of Young Children and the Quality of Their Home | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
6845623ad0ec-0 | Environments.” Greg Duncan and Patricia Garrett each described their research findings in
separate articles in
Child Development
(Apr. 1994).
63.
Traits of resilient children: Norman Garmezy,
The Invulnerable Child
(New York: Guilford
Press, 1987). I wrote about children who thrive despite hardship in
The New York Times
(Oct. 13, 1987).
64.
Prevalence of mental disorders: Ronald C. Kessler et al., “Lifetime and 12-month
Prevalence of DSM-III-R Psychiatric Disorders in the U.S.,”
Archives of General Psychiatry
(Jan. 1994).
65.
The figure for boys and girls reporting sexual abuse in the United States are from Malcolm
Brown of the Violence and Traumatic Stress Branch of the National Institute of Mental
Health; the number of substantiated cases is from the National Committee for the
Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect. A national survey of children found the
rates to be
3.2 percent for girls and 0.6 percent for boys in a given year: David Finkelhor and Jennifer
Dziuba-Leatherman, “Children as Victims of Violence: A National Survey,”
Pediatrics
(Oct.
1984).
66. | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
6845623ad0ec-1 | Pediatrics
(Oct.
1984).
66.
The national survey of children about sexual abuse prevention programs was done by
David Finkelhor, a sociologist at the University of New Hampshire.
67.
The figures on how many victims child molesters have are from an interview with
Malcolm Gordon, a psychologist at the Violence and Traumatic Stress Branch of the
National Institute of Mental Health.
68.
W. T. Grant Consortium on the School-Based Promotion of Social Competence, “Drug and
Alcohol Prevention Curricula,” in J. David Hawkins et al.,
Communities That Care
(San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992).
69.
W. T. Grant Consortium, “Drug and Alcohol Prevention Curricula,” p. 136.
Chapter 16. Schooling the Emotions
1.
I interviewed Karen Stone McCown in
The New York Times
(Nov. 7, 1993).
2.
Karen F. Stone and Harold Q. Dillehunt,
Self Science: The Subject Is Me
(Santa Monica:
Goodyear Publishing Co., 1978).
3.
Committee for Children, “Guide to Feelings,”
Second Step
4–5(1992), p. 84.
4. | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
6845623ad0ec-2 | 4–5(1992), p. 84.
4.
The Child Development Project: See, e.g., Daniel Solomon et al., “Enhancing Children’s
Prosocial Behavior in the Classroom,”
American Educational Research Journal
(Winter
1988).
5.
Benefits from Head Start: Report by High/Scope Educational Research Foundation,
Ypsilanti, Michigan (Apr. 1993).
6.
The emotional timetable: Carolyn Saarni, “Emotional Competence: How Emotions and
Relationships Become Integrated,” in R. A. Thompson, ed.,
Socioemotional | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
76324aaba752-0 | Development/Nebraska Symposium on Motivation
36 (1990).
7.
The transition to grade school and middle school: David Hamburg,
Today’s Children:
Creating a Future for a Generation in Crisis
(New York: Times Books, 1992).
8.
Hamburg,
Today’s Children
, pp. 171–72.
9.
Hamburg,
Today’s Children
, p. 182.
10.
I interviewed Linda Lantieri in
The New York Times
(Mar. 3, 1992).
11.
Emotional-literacy programs as primary prevention: Hawkins et al.,
Communities That Care
.
12.
Schools as caring communities: Hawkins et al.,
Communities That Care
.
13.
The story of the girl who was not pregnant: Roger P. Weisberg et al., “Promoting Positive
Social Development and Health Practice in Young Urban Adolescents,” in M. J. Elias, ed.,
Social Decision-making in the Middle School
(Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers, 1992).
14.
Character-building and moral conduct: Amitai Etzioni,
The Spirit of Community (New
York:
Crown, 1993).
15.
Moral lessons: Steven C. Rockefeller, | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
76324aaba752-1 | 15.
Moral lessons: Steven C. Rockefeller,
John Dewey: Religious Faith and Democratic Humanism
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1991).
16.
Doing right by others: Thomas Lickona,
Educating for Character
(New York: Bantam, 1991).
17.
The arts of democracy: Francis Moore Lappe and Paul Martin DuBois,
The Quickening of
America
(San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1994).
18.
Cultivating character: Amitai Etzioni et al.,
Character Building for a Democratic, Civil Society
(Washington, DC: The Communitarian Network, 1994).
19.
Three percent rise in murder rates: “Murders Across Nation Rise by 3 Percent, but Overall
Violent Crime Is Down,”
The New York Times
(May 2, 1994).
20.
Jump in juvenile crime: “Serious Crimes by Juveniles Soar,” Associated Press (July 25,
1994).
Appendix B. Hallmarks of the Emotional Mind
1.
I have written about Seymour Epstein’s model of the “experiential unconscious” on
several occasions in
The New York Times
, and much of this summary of it is based on | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
76324aaba752-2 | , and much of this summary of it is based on
conversations with him, letters to me, his article, “Integration of the Cognitive and
Psychodynamic Unconscious”
(American Psychologist
44 (1994), and his book with Archie
Brodsky,
You’re Smarter Than You Think
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993). While his
model of the experiential mind informs my own about the “emotional mind,” I have made
my own interpretation.
2.
Paul Ekman, “An Argument for the Basic Emotions,”
Cognition and Emotion
, 6, 1992, p.
175. The list of traits that distinguish emotions is a bit longer, but these are the traits that
will concern us here. | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
01de08722ac3-0 | 3.
Ekman, op cit., p. 187.
4.
Ekman, op cit., p. 189.
5.
Epstein, 1993, p. 55.
6.
J. Toobey and L. Cosmides, “The Past Explains the Present: Emotional Adaptations and
the Structure of Ancestral Environments,”
Ethology and Sociobiology
, 11, pp. 418–19.
7.
While it may seem self-evident that each emotion has its own biological pattern, it has not
been so for those studying the psychophysiology of emotion. A highly technical debate
continues over whether emotional arousal is basically the same for all emotions, or
whether unique patterns can be teased out. Without going into the details of the debate, I
have presented the case for those who hold to unique biological profiles for each major
emotion. | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
2d54ad376492-0 | Also by Daniel Goleman
THE MEDITATIVE MIND
VITAL LIES, SIMPLE TRUTHS
WORKING WITH EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
PRIMAL LEADERSHIP (COAUTHOR)
DESTRUCTIVE EMOTIONS (NARRATOR)
SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
da5d8d16e193-0 | About the Author
DANIEL GOLEMAN, Ph.D., is also the author of
Social Intelligence
and
the bestseller
Working with Emotional Intelligence
and a coauthor of
Primal Leadership
. He received his Ph.D. from Harvard and reported on
the brain and behavioral sciences for the
New York Times
for twelve
years. He was awarded the American Psychological Association’s
Lifetime Achievement Award and is a Fellow of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science. | emotional_intelligence.pdf |
9bbabb7f7bf4-0 | What’s next on
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Sign up now. | emotional_intelligence.pdf |